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{ "paragraph": [ "A\n", "A (named , plural \"As\", \"A's\", \"a\"s, \"a's\" or \"aes\") is the first letter and the first vowel of the modern English alphabet and the ISO basic Latin alphabet. It is similar to the Ancient Greek letter alpha, from which it derives. The uppercase version consists of the two slanting sides of a triangle, crossed in the middle by a horizontal bar. The lowercase version can be written in two forms: the double-storey a and single-storey ɑ. The latter is commonly used in handwriting and fonts based on it, especially fonts intended to be read by children, and is also found in italic type.\n", "In the English grammar, \"a\", and its variant \"an\", is an indefinite article.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "The earliest certain ancestor of \"A\" is aleph (also written 'aleph), the first letter of the Phoenician alphabet, which consisted entirely of consonants (for that reason, it is also called an abjad to distinguish it from a true alphabet). In turn, the ancestor of aleph may have been a pictogram of an ox head in proto-Sinaitic script influenced by Egyptian hieroglyphs, styled as a triangular head with two horns extended.\n", "By 1600 BC, the Phoenician alphabet letter had a linear form that served as the base for some later forms. Its name is thought to have corresponded closely to the Paleo-Hebrew or Arabic aleph.\n", "When the ancient Greeks adopted the alphabet, they had no use for a letter to represent the glottal stop—the consonant sound that the letter denoted in Phoenician and other Semitic languages, and that was the first phoneme of the Phoenician pronunciation of the letter—so they used their version of the sign to represent the vowel , and called it by the similar name of alpha. In the earliest Greek inscriptions after the Greek Dark Ages, dating to the 8th century BC, the letter rests upon its side, but in the Greek alphabet of later times it generally resembles the modern capital letter, although many local varieties can be distinguished by the shortening of one leg, or by the angle at which the cross line is set.\n", "The Etruscans brought the Greek alphabet to their civilization in the Italian Peninsula and left the letter unchanged. The Romans later adopted the Etruscan alphabet to write the Latin language, and the resulting letter was preserved in the Latin alphabet that would come to be used to write many languages, including English.\n", "Section::::History.:Typographic variants.\n", "During Roman times, there were many variant forms of the letter \"A\". First was the monumental or lapidary style, which was used when inscribing on stone or other \"permanent\" media. There was also a cursive style used for everyday or utilitarian writing, which was done on more perishable surfaces. Due to the \"perishable\" nature of these surfaces, there are not as many examples of this style as there are of the monumental, but there are still many surviving examples of different types of cursive, such as majuscule cursive, minuscule cursive, and semicursive minuscule. Variants also existed that were intermediate between the monumental and cursive styles. The known variants include the early semi-uncial, the uncial, and the later semi-uncial.\n", "At the end of the Roman Empire (5th century AD), several variants of the cursive minuscule developed through Western Europe. Among these were the semicursive minuscule of Italy, the Merovingian script in France, the Visigothic script in Spain, and the Insular or Anglo-Irish semi-uncial or Anglo-Saxon majuscule of Great Britain. By the 9th century, the Caroline script, which was very similar to the present-day form, was the principal form used in book-making, before the advent of the printing press. This form was derived through a combining of prior forms.\n", "15th-century Italy saw the formation of the two main variants that are known today. These variants, the \"Italic\" and \"Roman\" forms, were derived from the Caroline Script version. The Italic form, also called \"script a,\" is used in most current handwriting and consists of a circle and vertical stroke. This slowly developed from the fifth-century form resembling the Greek letter tau in the hands of medieval Irish and English writers. The Roman form is used in most printed material; it consists of a small loop with an arc over it (\"a\"). Both derive from the majuscule (capital) form. In Greek handwriting, it was common to join the left leg and horizontal stroke into a single loop, as demonstrated by the uncial version shown. Many fonts then made the right leg vertical. In some of these, the serif that began the right leg stroke developed into an arc, resulting in the printed form, while in others it was dropped, resulting in the modern handwritten form.\n", "Italic type is commonly used to mark emphasis or more generally to distinguish one part of a text from the rest (set in Roman type). There are some other cases aside from italic type where \"script a\" (\"ɑ\"), also called Latin alpha, is used in contrast with Latin \"a\" (such as in the International Phonetic Alphabet).\n", "Section::::Use in writing systems.\n", "Section::::Use in writing systems.:English.\n", "In modern English orthography, the letter represents at least seven different vowel sounds:\n", "BULLET::::- the near-open front unrounded vowel as in \"pad\";\n", "BULLET::::- the open back unrounded vowel as in \"father\", which is closer to its original Latin and Greek sound;\n", "BULLET::::- the diphthong as in \"ace\" and \"major\" (usually when is followed by one, or occasionally two, consonants and then another vowel letter) – this results from Middle English lengthening followed by the Great Vowel Shift;\n", "BULLET::::- the modified form of the above sound that occurs before, as in \"square\" and \"Mary\";\n", "BULLET::::- the rounded vowel of \"water\";\n", "BULLET::::- the shorter rounded vowel (not present in General American) in \"was\" and \"what\";\n", "BULLET::::- a schwa, in many unstressed syllables, as in \"about\", \"comma\", \"solar\".\n", "The double sequence does not occur in native English words, but is found in some words derived from foreign languages such as \"Aaron\" and \"aardvark\". However, occurs in many common digraphs, all with their own sound or sounds, particularly , , , , and .\n", "Section::::Use in writing systems.:Other languages.\n", "In most languages that use the Latin alphabet, denotes an open unrounded vowel, such as , , or . An exception is Saanich, in which (and the glyph Á) stands for a close-mid front unrounded vowel .\n", "Section::::Use in writing systems.:Other systems.\n", "In phonetic and phonemic notation:\n", "BULLET::::- in the International Phonetic Alphabet, is used for the open front unrounded vowel, is used for the open central unrounded vowel, and is used for the open back unrounded vowel.\n", "BULLET::::- in X-SAMPA, is used for the open front unrounded vowel and is used for the open back unrounded vowel.\n", "Section::::Other uses.\n", "In algebra, the letter \"a\" along with other letters at the beginning of the alphabet is used to represent known quantities, whereas the letters at the end of the alphabet (\"x\", \"y\", \"z\") are used to denote unknown quantities.\n", "In geometry, capital A, B, C etc. are used to denote segments, lines, rays, etc. A capital A is also typically used as one of the letters to represent an angle in a triangle, the lowercase a representing the side opposite angle A.\n", "\"A\" is often used to denote something or someone of a better or more prestigious quality or status: A-, A or A+, the best grade that can be assigned by teachers for students' schoolwork; \"A grade\" for clean restaurants; A-list celebrities, etc. Such associations can have a motivating effect, as exposure to the letter A has been found to improve performance, when compared with other letters.\n", "\"A\" is used as a prefix on some words, such as asymmetry, to mean \"not\" or \"without\" (from Greek).\n", "In English grammar, \"a\", and its variant \"an\", is an indefinite article.\n", "Finally, the letter A is used to denote size, as in a narrow size shoe, or a small cup size in a brassiere.\n", "Section::::Related characters.\n", "Section::::Related characters.:Descendants and related characters in the Latin alphabet.\n", "BULLET::::- Æ æ : Latin \"AE\" ligature\n", "BULLET::::- A with diacritics: Å å Ǻ ǻ Ḁ ḁ ẚ Ă ă Ặ ặ Ắ ắ Ằ ằ Ẳ ẳ Ẵ ẵ Ȃ ȃ Â â Ậ ậ Ấ ấ Ầ ầ Ẫ ẫ Ẩ ẩ Ả ả Ǎ ǎ Ⱥ ⱥ Ȧ ȧ Ǡ ǡ Ạ ạ Ä ä Ǟ ǟ À à Ȁ ȁ Á á Ā ā Ā̀ ā̀ Ã ã Ą ą Ą́ ą́ Ą̃ ą̃ A̲ a̲ ᶏ\n", "BULLET::::- Phonetic alphabet symbols related to A (the International Phonetic Alphabet only uses lowercase, but uppercase forms are used in some other writing systems):\n", "BULLET::::- Ɑ ɑ : Latin letter alpha / script A, which represents an open back unrounded vowel in the IPA\n", "BULLET::::- ᶐ : Latin small letter alpha with retroflex hook\n", "BULLET::::- Ɐ ɐ : Turned A, which represents a near-open central vowel in the IPA\n", "BULLET::::- Λ ʌ : Turned V (also called a wedge, a caret, or a hat), which represents an open-mid back unrounded vowel in the IPA\n", "BULLET::::- Ɒ ɒ : Turned alpha / script A, which represents an open back rounded vowel in the IPA\n", "BULLET::::- ᶛ : Modifier letter small turned alpha\n", "BULLET::::- ᴀ : Small capital A, an obsolete or non-standard symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet used to represent various sounds (mainly open vowels)\n", "BULLET::::- ᴬ ᵃ ᵄ : Modifier letters are used in the Uralic Phonetic Alphabet (UPA)\n", "BULLET::::- ₐ : Subscript small a is used in Indo-European studies\n", "BULLET::::- ꬱ : Small letter a reversed-schwa is used in the Teuthonista phonetic transcription system\n", "BULLET::::- Ꞻ ꞻ : Glottal A, used in the transliteration of Ugaritic\n", "Section::::Related characters.:Derived signs, symbols and abbreviations.\n", "BULLET::::- ª : an ordinal indicator\n", "BULLET::::- Å : Ångström sign\n", "BULLET::::- ∀ : a turned capital letter A, used in predicate logic to specify universal quantification (\"for all\")\n", "BULLET::::- @ : At sign\n", "BULLET::::- ₳ : Argentine austral\n", "Section::::Related characters.:Ancestors and siblings in other alphabets.\n", "BULLET::::- 𐤀 : Semitic letter Aleph, from which the following symbols originally derive\n", "BULLET::::- Α α : Greek letter Alpha, from which the following letters derive\n", "BULLET::::- А а : Cyrillic letter A\n", "BULLET::::- : Coptic letter Alpha\n", "BULLET::::- 𐌀 : Old Italic A, which is the ancestor of modern Latin A\n", "BULLET::::- : Runic letter ansuz, which probably derives from old Italic A\n", "BULLET::::- : Gothic letter aza/asks\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- History of the Alphabet\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Albedo\n", "Albedo () (, meaning 'whiteness') is the measure of the diffuse reflection of solar radiation out of the total solar radiation received by an astronomical body (e.g. a planet like Earth). It is dimensionless and measured on a scale from 0 (corresponding to a black body that absorbs all incident radiation) to 1 (corresponding to a body that reflects all incident radiation).\n", "Surface albedo is defined as the ratio of radiosity to the irradiance (flux per unit area) received by a surface. The proportion reflected is not only determined by properties of the surface itself, but also by the spectral and angular distribution of solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface. These factors vary with atmospheric composition, geographic location and time (see position of the Sun). While bi-hemispherical reflectance is calculated for a single angle of incidence (i.e., for a given position of the Sun), albedo is the directional integration of reflectance over all solar angles in a given period. The temporal resolution may range from seconds (as obtained from flux measurements) to daily, monthly, or annual averages.\n", "Unless given for a specific wavelength (spectral albedo), albedo refers to the entire spectrum of solar radiation. Due to measurement constraints, it is often given for the spectrum in which most solar energy reaches the surface (between 0.3 and 3 μm). This spectrum includes visible light (0.39–0.7 μm), which explains why surfaces with a low albedo appear dark (e.g., trees absorb most radiation), whereas surfaces with a high albedo appear bright (e.g., snow reflects most radiation).\n", "Albedo is an important concept in climatology, astronomy, and environmental management (e.g., as part of the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) program for sustainable rating of buildings). The average albedo of the Earth from the upper atmosphere, its \"planetary albedo\", is 30–35% because of cloud cover, but widely varies locally across the surface because of different geological and environmental features.\n", "The term albedo was introduced into optics by Johann Heinrich Lambert in his 1760 work \"Photometria\".\n", "Section::::Terrestrial albedo.\n", "Any albedo in visible light falls within a range of about 0.9 for fresh snow to about 0.04 for charcoal, one of the darkest substances. Deeply shadowed cavities can achieve an effective albedo approaching the zero of a black body. When seen from a distance, the ocean surface has a low albedo, as do most forests, whereas desert areas have some of the highest albedos among landforms. Most land areas are in an albedo range of 0.1 to 0.4. The average albedo of Earth is about 0.3. This is far higher than for the ocean primarily because of the contribution of clouds.\n", "Earth's surface albedo is regularly estimated via Earth observation satellite sensors such as NASA's MODIS instruments on board the Terra and Aqua satellites, and the CERES instrument on the Suomi NPP and JPSS. As the amount of reflected radiation is only measured for a single direction by satellite, not all directions, a mathematical model is used to translate a sample set of satellite reflectance measurements into estimates of directional-hemispherical reflectance and bi-hemispherical reflectance (e.g.,). These calculations are based on the bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF), which describes how the reflectance of a given surface depends on the view angle of the observer and the solar angle. BDRF can facilitate translations of observations of reflectance into albedo.\n", "Earth's average surface temperature due to its albedo and the greenhouse effect is currently about 15 °C. If Earth were frozen entirely (and hence be more reflective), the average temperature of the planet would drop below −40 °C. If only the continental land masses became covered by glaciers, the mean temperature of the planet would drop to about 0 °C. In contrast, if the entire Earth was covered by water — a so-called ocean planet — the average temperature on the planet would rise to almost 27 °C.\n", "Section::::Terrestrial albedo.:White-sky, black-sky, and blue-sky albedo.\n", "For land surfaces, it has been shown that the albedo at a particular solar zenith angle \"θ\" can be approximated by the proportionate sum of two terms: \n", "BULLET::::- the directional-hemispherical reflectance at that solar zenith angle, formula_1, sometimes referred to as black-sky albedo, and\n", "BULLET::::- the bi-hemispherical reflectance, formula_2, sometimes referred to as white-sky albedo.\n", "with formula_3 being the proportion of direct radiation from a given solar angle, and formula_4 being the proportion of diffuse illumination, the actual albedo formula_5 (also called blue-sky albedo) can then be given as:\n", "This formula is important because it allows the albedo to be calculated for any given illumination conditions from a knowledge of the intrinsic properties of the surface.\n", "Section::::Astronomical albedo.\n", "The albedos of planets, satellites and minor planets such as asteroids can be used to infer much about their properties. The study of albedos, their dependence on wavelength, lighting angle (\"phase angle\"), and variation in time comprises a major part of the astronomical field of photometry. For small and far objects that cannot be resolved by telescopes, much of what we know comes from the study of their albedos. For example, the absolute albedo can indicate the surface ice content of outer Solar System objects, the variation of albedo with phase angle gives information about regolith properties, whereas unusually high radar albedo is indicative of high metal content in asteroids.\n", "Enceladus, a moon of Saturn, has one of the highest known albedos of any body in the Solar System, with 99% of EM radiation reflected. Another notable high-albedo body is Eris, with an albedo of 0.96. Many small objects in the outer Solar System and asteroid belt have low albedos down to about 0.05. A typical comet nucleus has an albedo of 0.04. Such a dark surface is thought to be indicative of a primitive and heavily space weathered surface containing some organic compounds.\n", "The overall albedo of the Moon is measured to be around 0.136, but it is strongly directional and non-Lambertian, displaying also a strong opposition effect. Although such reflectance properties are different from those of any terrestrial terrains, they are typical of the regolith surfaces of airless Solar System bodies.\n", "Two common albedos that are used in astronomy are the (V-band) geometric albedo (measuring brightness when illumination comes from directly behind the observer) and the Bond albedo (measuring total proportion of electromagnetic energy reflected). Their values can differ significantly, which is a common source of confusion.\n", "In detailed studies, the directional reflectance properties of astronomical bodies are often expressed in terms of the five Hapke parameters which semi-empirically describe the variation of albedo with phase angle, including a characterization of the opposition effect of regolith surfaces.\n", "The correlation between astronomical (geometric) albedo, absolute magnitude and diameter is:\n", "formula_7,\n", "where formula_8 is the astronomical albedo, formula_9 is the diameter in kilometers, and formula_10 is the absolute magnitude.\n", "Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.\n", "Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Illumination.\n", "Albedo is not directly dependent on illumination because changing the amount of incoming light proportionally changes the amount of reflected light, except in circumstances where a change in illumination induces a change in the Earth's surface at that location (e.g. through albedo-temperature feedback). That said, albedo and illumination both vary by latitude. Albedo is highest near the poles and lowest in the subtropics, with a local maximum in the tropics.\n", "Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Insolation effects.\n", "The intensity of albedo temperature effects depends on the amount of albedo and the level of local insolation (solar irradiance); high albedo areas in the arctic and antarctic regions are cold due to low insolation, where areas such as the Sahara Desert, which also have a relatively high albedo, will be hotter due to high insolation. Tropical and sub-tropical rainforest areas have low albedo, and are much hotter than their temperate forest counterparts, which have lower insolation. Because insolation plays such a big role in the heating and cooling effects of albedo, high insolation areas like the tropics will tend to show a more pronounced fluctuation in local temperature when local albedo changes.\n", "Arctic regions notably release more heat back into space than what they absorb, effectively cooling the Earth. This has been a concern since arctic ice and snow has been melting at higher rates due to higher temperatures, creating regions in the arctic that are notably darker (being water or ground which is darker color) and reflects less heat back into space. This feedback loop results in a reduced albedo effect.\n", "Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Climate and weather.\n", "Albedo affects climate by determining how much radiation a planet absorbs. The uneven heating of Earth from albedo variations between land, ice, or ocean surfaces can drive weather.\n", "Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Albedo–temperature feedback.\n", "When an area's albedo changes due to snowfall, a snow–temperature feedback results. A layer of snowfall increases local albedo, reflecting away sunlight, leading to local cooling. In principle, if no outside temperature change affects this area (e.g., a warm air mass), the raised albedo and lower temperature would maintain the current snow and invite further snowfall, deepening the snow–temperature feedback. However, because local weather is dynamic due to the change of seasons, eventually warm air masses and a more direct angle of sunlight (higher insolation) cause melting. When the melted area reveals surfaces with lower albedo, such as grass or soil, the effect is reversed: the darkening surface lowers albedo, increasing local temperatures, which induces more melting and thus reducing the albedo further, resulting in still more heating.\n", "Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Snow.\n", "Snow albedo is highly variable, ranging from as high as 0.9 for freshly fallen snow, to about 0.4 for melting snow, and as low as 0.2 for dirty snow. Over Antarctica snow albedo averages a little more than 0.8. If a marginally snow-covered area warms, snow tends to melt, lowering the albedo, and hence leading to more snowmelt because more radiation is being absorbed by the snowpack (the ice–albedo positive feedback).\n", "Just as fresh snow has a higher albedo than does dirty snow, the albedo of snow-covered sea ice is far higher than that of sea water. Sea water absorbs more solar radiation than would the same surface covered with reflective snow. When sea ice melts, either due to a rise in sea temperature or in response to increased solar radiation from above, the snow-covered surface is reduced, and more surface of sea water is exposed, so the rate of energy absorption increases. The extra absorbed energy heats the sea water, which in turn increases the rate at which sea ice melts. As with the preceding example of snowmelt, the process of melting of sea ice is thus another example of a positive feedback. Both positive feedback loops have long been recognized as important to the modern theory of Global warming.\n", "Cryoconite, powdery windblown dust containing soot, sometimes reduces albedo on glaciers and ice sheets.\n", "The dynamical nature of albedo in response to positive feedback, together with the effects of small errors in the measurement of albedo, can lead to large errors in energy estimates. Because of this, in order to reduce the error of energy estimates, it is important to measure the albedo of snow-covered areas through remote sensing techniques rather than applying a single value for albedo over broad regions.\n", "Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Small-scale effects.\n", "Albedo works on a smaller scale, too. In sunlight, dark clothes absorb more heat and light-coloured clothes reflect it better, thus allowing some control over body temperature by exploiting the albedo effect of the colour of external clothing.\n", "Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Solar photovoltaic effects.\n", "Albedo can affect the electrical energy output of solar photovoltaic devices. For example, the effects of a spectrally responsive albedo are illustrated by the differences between the spectrally weighted albedo of solar photovoltaic technology based on hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) and crystalline silicon (c-Si)-based compared to traditional spectral-integrated albedo predictions. Research showed impacts of over 10%. More recently, the analysis was extended to the effects of spectral bias due to the specular reflectivity of 22 commonly occurring surface materials (both human-made and natural) and analyzes the albedo effects on the performance of seven photovoltaic materials covering three common photovoltaic system topologies: industrial (solar farms), commercial flat rooftops and residential pitched-roof applications.\n", "Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Trees.\n", "Because forests generally have a low albedo, (the majority of the ultraviolet and visible spectrum is absorbed through photosynthesis), some scientists have suggested that greater heat absorption by trees could offset some of the carbon benefits of afforestation (or offset the negative climate impacts of deforestation). In the case of evergreen forests with seasonal snow cover albedo reduction may be great enough for deforestation to cause a net cooling effect. Trees also impact climate in extremely complicated ways through evapotranspiration. The water vapor causes cooling on the land surface, causes heating where it condenses, acts a strong greenhouse gas, and can increase albedo when it condenses into clouds. Scientists generally treat evapotranspiration as a net cooling impact, and the net climate impact of albedo and evapotranspiration changes from deforestation depends greatly on local climate.\n", "In seasonally snow-covered zones, winter albedos of treeless areas are 10% to 50% higher than nearby forested areas because snow does not cover the trees as readily. Deciduous trees have an albedo value of about 0.15 to 0.18 whereas coniferous trees have a value of about 0.09 to 0.15. Variation in summer albedo across both forest types is correlated with maximum rates of photosynthesis because plants with high growth capacity display a greater fraction of their foliage for direct interception of incoming radiation in the upper canopy. The result is that wavelengths of light not used in photosynthesis are more likely to be reflected back to space rather than being absorbed by other surfaces lower in the canopy.\n", "Studies by the Hadley Centre have investigated the relative (generally warming) effect of albedo change and (cooling) effect of carbon sequestration on planting forests. They found that new forests in tropical and midlatitude areas tended to cool; new forests in high latitudes (e.g., Siberia) were neutral or perhaps warming.\n", "Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Water.\n", "Water reflects light very differently from typical terrestrial materials. The reflectivity of a water surface is calculated using the Fresnel equations (see graph).\n", "At the scale of the wavelength of light even wavy water is always smooth so the light is reflected in a locally specular manner (not diffusely). The glint of light off water is a commonplace effect of this. At small angles of incident light, waviness results in reduced reflectivity because of the steepness of the reflectivity-vs.-incident-angle curve and a locally increased average incident angle.\n", "Although the reflectivity of water is very low at low and medium angles of incident light, it becomes very high at high angles of incident light such as those that occur on the illuminated side of Earth near the terminator (early morning, late afternoon, and near the poles). However, as mentioned above, waviness causes an appreciable reduction. Because light specularly reflected from water does not usually reach the viewer, water is usually considered to have a very low albedo in spite of its high reflectivity at high angles of incident light.\n", "Note that white caps on waves look white (and have high albedo) because the water is foamed up, so there are many superimposed bubble surfaces which reflect, adding up their reflectivities. Fresh 'black' ice exhibits Fresnel reflection.\n", "Snow on top of this sea ice increases the albedo to 0.9.\n", "Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Clouds.\n", "Cloud albedo has substantial influence over atmospheric temperatures. Different types of clouds exhibit different reflectivity, theoretically ranging in albedo from a minimum of near 0 to a maximum approaching 0.8. \"On any given day, about half of Earth is covered by clouds, which reflect more sunlight than land and water. Clouds keep Earth cool by reflecting sunlight, but they can also serve as blankets to trap warmth.\"\n", "Albedo and climate in some areas are affected by artificial clouds, such as those created by the contrails of heavy commercial airliner traffic. A study following the burning of the Kuwaiti oil fields during Iraqi occupation showed that temperatures under the burning oil fires were as much as 10 °C colder than temperatures several miles away under clear skies.\n", "Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Aerosol effects.\n", "Aerosols (very fine particles/droplets in the atmosphere) have both direct and indirect effects on Earth's radiative balance. The direct (albedo) effect is generally to cool the planet; the indirect effect (the particles act as cloud condensation nuclei and thereby change cloud properties) is less certain. As per Spracklen et al. the effects are:\n", "BULLET::::- \"Aerosol direct effect.\" Aerosols directly scatter and absorb radiation. The scattering of radiation causes atmospheric cooling, whereas absorption can cause atmospheric warming.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Aerosol indirect effect.\" Aerosols modify the properties of clouds through a subset of the aerosol population called cloud condensation nuclei. Increased nuclei concentrations lead to increased cloud droplet number concentrations, which in turn leads to increased cloud albedo, increased light scattering and radiative cooling (\"first indirect effect\"), but also leads to reduced precipitation efficiency and increased lifetime of the cloud (\"second indirect effect\").\n", "Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Black carbon.\n", "Another albedo-related effect on the climate is from black carbon particles. The size of this effect is difficult to quantify: the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change estimates that the global mean radiative forcing for black carbon aerosols from fossil fuels is +0.2 W m, with a range +0.1 to +0.4 W m. Black carbon is a bigger cause of the melting of the polar ice cap in the Arctic than carbon dioxide due to its effect on the albedo.\n", "Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Human activities.\n", "Human activities (e.g., deforestation, farming, and urbanization) change the albedo of various areas around the globe. However, quantification of this effect on the global scale is difficult.\n", "Section::::Other types of albedo.\n", "Single-scattering albedo is used to define scattering of electromagnetic waves on small particles. It depends on properties of the material (refractive index); the size of the particle or particles; and the wavelength of the incoming radiation.\n", "Section::::Acquisition.\n", "Albedo can be measured by an Albedometer.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Cool roof\n", "BULLET::::- Daisyworld\n", "BULLET::::- Emissivity\n", "BULLET::::- Exitance\n", "BULLET::::- Global dimming\n", "BULLET::::- Irradiance\n", "BULLET::::- Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation\n", "BULLET::::- Opposition surge\n", "BULLET::::- Polar see-saw\n", "BULLET::::- Solar radiation management\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Albedo Project\n", "BULLET::::- Albedo – Encyclopedia of Earth\n", "BULLET::::- NASA MODIS BRDF/albedo product site\n", "BULLET::::- Surface albedo derived from Meteosat observations\n", "BULLET::::- A discussion of Lunar albedos\n", "BULLET::::- reflectivity of metals (chart)\n" ] }

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{ "description": "ratio of reflected radiation to incident radiation", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q101038", "wikidata_label": "albedo", "wikipedia_title": "Albedo", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Academy Award for Best Production Design\n", "The Academy Award for Best Production Design recognizes achievement for art direction in film. The category's original name was Best Art Direction, but was changed to its current name in 2012 for the 85th Academy Awards. This change resulted from the Art Director's branch of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS) being renamed the Designer's branch. Since 1947, the award is shared with the set decorator(s). It is awarded to the best interior design in a film.\n", "The films below are listed with their production year (for example, the 2000 Academy Award for Best Art Direction is given to a film from 1999). In the lists below, the winner of the award for each year is shown first, followed by the other nominees in alphabetical order.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- BAFTA Award for Best Production Design\n", "BULLET::::- Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Art Direction\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Actrius\n", "Actresses (Catalan: Actrius) is a 1997 Catalan language Spanish drama film produced and directed by Ventura Pons and based on the award-winning stage play \"E.R.\" by Josep Maria Benet i Jornet. The film has no male actors, with all roles played by females. The film was produced in 1996.\n", "Section::::Synopsis.\n", "In order to prepare herself to play a role commemorating the life of legendary actress Empar Ribera, young actress (Mercè Pons) interviews three established actresses who had been the Ribera's pupils: the international diva Glòria Marc (Núria Espert), the television star Assumpta Roca (Rosa Maria Sardà), and dubbing director Maria Caminal (Anna Lizaran).\n", "Section::::Cast.\n", "BULLET::::- Núria Espert as Glòria Marc\n", "BULLET::::- Rosa Maria Sardà as Assumpta Roca\n", "BULLET::::- Anna Lizaran as Maria Caminal\n", "BULLET::::- Mercè Pons as Estudiant\n", "Section::::Recognition.\n", "Section::::Recognition.:Screenings.\n", "\"Actrius\" screened in 2001 at the Grauman's Egyptian Theatre in an American Cinematheque retrospective of the works of its director. The film had first screened at the same location in 1998. It was also shown at the 1997 Stockholm International Film Festival.\n", "Section::::Recognition.:Reception.\n", "In \"Movie - Film - Review\", \"Daily Mail\" staffer Christopher Tookey wrote that though the actresses were \"competent in roles that may have some reference to their own careers\", the film \"is visually unimaginative, never escapes its stage origins, and is almost totally lacking in revelation or surprising incident\". Noting that there were \"occasional, refreshing moments of intergenerational bitchiness\", they did not \"justify comparisons to \"All About Eve\"\", and were \"insufficiently different to deserve critical parallels with \"Rashomon\"\". He also wrote that \"The Guardian\" called the film a \"slow, stuffy chamber-piece\", and that \"The Evening Standard\" stated the film's \"best moments exhibit the bitchy tantrums seething beneath the threesome's composed veneers\". MRQE wrote \"This cinematic adaptation of a theatrical work is true to the original, but does not stray far from a theatrical rendering of the story.\"\n", "Section::::Recognition.:Awards and nominations.\n", "BULLET::::- 1997, won 'Best Catalan Film' at Butaca Awards for Ventura Pons\n", "BULLET::::- 1997, won 'Best Catalan Film Actress' at Butaca Awards, shared by Núria Espert, Rosa Maria Sardà, Anna Lizaran, and Mercè Pons\n", "BULLET::::- 1998, nominated for 'Best Screenplay' at Goya Awards, shared by Josep Maria Benet i Jornet and Ventura Pons\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- as archived February 17, 2009 (Spanish)\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Animalia (book)\n", "Animalia is an illustrated children's book by Graeme Base. It was originally published in 1986, followed by a tenth anniversary edition in 1996, and a 25th anniversary edition in 2012. Over four million copies have been sold worldwide. A special numbered and signed anniversary edition was also published in 1996, with an embossed gold jacket.\n", "Section::::Synopsis.\n", "\"Animalia\" is an alliterative alphabet book and contains twenty-six illustrations, one for each letter of the alphabet. Each illustration features an animal from the animal kingdom (A is for alligator, B is for butterfly, etc.) along with a short poem utilizing the letter of the page for many of the words. The illustrations contain many other objects beginning with that letter that the reader can try to identify. As an additional challenge, the author has hidden a picture of himself as a child in every picture.\n", "Section::::Related products.\n", "Julia MacRae Books published an \"Animalia\" colouring book in 2008. H. N. Abrams also published a wall calendar colouring book version for children the same year.\n", "H. N. Abrams published \"The Animalia Wall Frieze\", a fold-out over 26 feet in length, in which the author created new riddles for each letter.\n", "The Great American Puzzle Factory created a 300-piece jigsaw puzzle based on the book's cover.\n", "Section::::Adaptations.\n", "A television series was also created, based on the book, which airs in the United States, Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, Norway and Venezuela. It also airs on Minimax for the Czech Republic and Slovakia. And recently in Greece on the channel ET1. The Australian Children's Television Foundation released a teaching resource DVD-ROM in 2011 to accompany the TV series with teaching aids for classroom use.\n", "In 2010, The Base Factory and AppBooks released Animalia as an application for iPad and iPhone/iPod Touch.\n", "Section::::Awards.\n", "\"Animalia\" won the Young Australian's Best Book Award in 1987 for Best Picture Story Book.\n", "The Children's Book Council of Australia designated \"Animalia\" a 1987 : Honour Book.\n", "Kid's Own Australian Literature Awards named \"Animalia\" the 1988 Picture Book Winner.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Graeme Base's official website\n", "BULLET::::- A Learning Time activity guide for \"Animalia\" created by The Little Big Book Club\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "An American in Paris\n", "An American in Paris is a jazz-influenced orchestral piece by American composer George Gershwin first performed in 1928. It was inspired by the time that Gershwin had spent in Paris and evokes the sights and energy of the French capital in the 1920s.\n", "Walter Damrosch had asked Gershwin to write a full concerto following the success of \"Rhapsody in Blue\" (1924). Gershwin scored the piece for the standard instruments of the symphony orchestra plus celesta, saxophones, and automobile horns. He brought back four Parisian taxi horns for the New York premiere of the composition, which took place on December 13, 1928, in Carnegie Hall, with Damrosch conducting the New York Philharmonic. He completed the orchestration on November 18, less than four weeks before the work's premiere. He collaborated on the original program notes with critic and composer Deems Taylor.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "Although the story is likely apocryphal, Gershwin is said to have been attracted by Maurice Ravel's unusual chords, and Gershwin went on his first trip to Paris in 1926 ready to study with Ravel. After his initial student audition with Ravel turned into a sharing of musical theories, Ravel said he could not teach him, saying, \"Why be a second-rate Ravel when you can be a first-rate Gershwin?\" That 1926 trip, however, resulted in a snippet of melody entitled \"Very Parisienne\", that the initial musical motive of \"An American in Paris\", written as a 'thank you note' to Gershwin's hosts, Robert and Mabel Schirmer. Gershwin called it \"a rhapsodic ballet\"; it is written freely and in a much more modern idiom than his prior works.\n", "Gershwin strongly encouraged Ravel to come to the United States for a tour. To this end, upon his return to New York, Gershwin joined the efforts of Ravel's friend Robert Schmitz, a pianist Ravel had met during the war, to urge Ravel to tour the U.S. Schmitz was the head of Pro Musica, promoting Franco-American musical relations, and was able to offer Ravel a $10,000 fee for the tour, an enticement Gershwin knew would be important to Ravel.\n", "Gershwin greeted Ravel in New York in March 1928 during a party held for Ravel's birthday by Éva Gauthier. Ravel's tour reignited Gershwin's desire to return to Paris which he and his brother Ira did after meeting Ravel. Ravel's high praise of Gershwin in an introductory letter to Nadia Boulanger caused Gershwin to seriously consider taking much more time to study abroad in Paris. Yet after playing for her, she told him she could not teach him. Nadia Boulanger gave Gershwin basically the same advice she gave all of her accomplished master students: \"What could I give you that you haven't already got?\" This did not set Gershwin back, as his real intent abroad was to complete a new work based on Paris and perhaps a second rhapsody for piano and orchestra to follow his \"Rhapsody in Blue\". Paris at this time hosted many expatriate writers, among them Ezra Pound, W. B. Yeats, Ernest Hemingway; and artist Pablo Picasso.\n", "Section::::Composition.\n", "Gershwin based \"An American in Paris\" on a melodic fragment called \"Very Parisienne\", written in 1926 on his first visit to Paris as a gift to his hosts, Robert and Mabel Schirmer. He described the piece as a \"rhapsodic ballet\" because it was written freely and is more modern than his previous works. Gershwin explained in \"Musical America\", \"My purpose here is to portray the impressions of an American visitor in Paris as he strolls about the city, listens to the various street noises, and absorbs the French atmosphere.\"\n", "The piece is structured into five sections, which culminate in a loose ABA format. Gershwin's first A episode introduces the two main \"walking\" themes in the \"Allegretto grazioso\" and develops a third theme in the \"Subito con brio\". The style of this A section is written in the typical French style of composers Claude Debussy and Les Six. This A section featured duple meter, singsong rhythms, and diatonic melodies with the sounds of oboe, English horn, and taxi horns. The B section's \"Andante ma con ritmo deciso\" introduces the American Blues and spasms of homesickness. The \"Allegro\" that follows continues to express homesickness in a faster twelve-bar blues. In the B section, Gershwin uses common time, syncopated rhythms, and bluesy melodies with the sounds of trumpet, saxophone, and snare drum. \"Moderato con grazia\" is the last A section that returns to the themes set in A. After recapitulating the \"walking\" themes, Gershwin overlays the slow blues theme from section B in the final \"Grandioso\".\n", "Section::::Instrumentation.\n", "\"An American in Paris\" is scored for 3 flutes (3rd doubling on piccolo), 2 oboes, English horn, 2 clarinets in B-flat, bass clarinet in B-flat, 2 bassoons, 4 horns in F, 3 trumpets in B-flat, 3 trombones, tuba, timpani, snare drum, bass drum, triangle, wood block, ratchet, cymbals, low and high tom-toms, xylophone, glockenspiel, celesta, 4 taxi horns labeled as A, B, C and D with circles around them, alto saxophone/soprano saxophone, tenor saxophone/soprano saxophone/alto saxophone, baritone saxophone/soprano saxophone/alto saxophone, and strings. Although most modern audiences have heard the taxi horns using the notes A, B, C and D, it has recently come to light that Gershwin's intention was to have used the notes A, B, D, and A. It is likely that in labeling the taxi horns as A, B, C and D with circles, he may have been referring to the use of the four different horns and not the notes that they played.\n", "The revised edition by F. Campbell-Watson calls for three saxophones, alto, tenor and baritone. In this arrangement the soprano and alto doublings have been rewritten to avoid changing instruments. In 2000, Gershwin specialist Jack Gibbons made his own restoration of the original orchestration of An American in Paris, working directly from Gershwin's original manuscript, including the restoration of Gershwin's soprano saxophone parts removed in F. Campbell-Watson's revision; Gibbons' restored orchestration of An American in Paris was performed at London's Queen Elizabeth Hall on July 9, 2000 by the City of Oxford Orchestra conducted by Levon Parikian\n", "William Daly arranged the score for piano solo which was published by New World Music in 1929.\n", "Section::::Response.\n", "Gershwin did not particularly like Walter Damrosch's interpretation at the world premiere of \"An American in Paris\". He stated that Damrosch's sluggish, dragging tempo caused him to walk out of the hall during a matinee performance of this work. The audience, according to Edward Cushing, responded with \"a demonstration of enthusiasm impressively genuine in contrast to the conventional applause which new music, good and bad, ordinarily arouses.\" Critics believed that \"An American in Paris\" was better crafted than his lukewarm Concerto in F. Some did not think it belonged in a program with classical composers César Franck, Richard Wagner, or Guillaume Lekeu on its premiere. Gershwin responded to the critics, \"It's not a Beethoven Symphony, you know... It's a humorous piece, nothing solemn about it. It's not intended to draw tears. If it pleases symphony audiences as a light, jolly piece, a series of impressions musically expressed, it succeeds.\"\n", "Section::::Preservation status.\n", "On September 22, 2013, it was announced that a musicological critical edition of the full orchestral score will be eventually released. The Gershwin family, working in conjunction with the Library of Congress and the University of Michigan, are working to make scores available to the public that represent Gershwin's true intent. It is unknown if the critical score will include the four minutes of material Gershwin later deleted from the work (such as the restatement of the blues theme after the faster 12 bar blues section), or if the score will document changes in the orchestration during Gershwin's composition process.\n", "The score to \"An American in Paris\" is currently scheduled to be issued first in a series of scores to be released. The entire project may take 30 to 40 years to complete, but \"An American in Paris\" will be an early volume in the series.\n", "Two urtext editions of the work were published by the German publisher B-Note Music in 2015. The changes made by Campbell-Watson have been withdrawn in both editions. In the extended urtext, 120 bars of music have been re-integrated. Conductor Walter Damrosch had cut them shortly before the first performance.\n", "Section::::Recordings.\n", "\"An American in Paris\" has been frequently recorded. The first recording was made for RCA Victor in 1929 with Nathaniel Shilkret conducting the RCA Victor Symphony Orchestra, drawn from members of the Philadelphia Orchestra. Gershwin was on hand to \"supervise\" the recording; however, Shilkret was reported to be in charge and eventually asked the composer to leave the recording studio. Then, a little later, Shilkret discovered there was no one to play the brief celesta solo during the slow section, so he hastily asked Gershwin if he might play the solo; Gershwin said he could and so he briefly participated in the actual recording. This recording is believed to use the taxi horns in the way that Gershwin had intended using the notes A-flat, B-flat, a higher D and a lower A. The radio broadcast of the September 8, 1937 Hollywood Bowl George Gershwin Memorial Concert, in which \"An American in Paris,\" also conducted by Shilkret, was second on the program, was recorded and was released in 1998 in a two-CD set. Arthur Fiedler and the Boston Pops Orchestra recorded the work for RCA Victor, including one of the first stereo recordings of the music. In 1945, Arturo Toscanini conducting the NBC Symphony Orchestra recorded the piece for RCA Victor, one of the few commercial recordings Toscanini made of music by an American composer. The Seattle Symphony also recorded a version in 1990 of Gershwin's original score, before he made numerous edits resulting in the score as we hear it today. Harry James released a version of the blues section on his 1953 album \"One Night Stand,\" recorded live at the Aragon Ballroom in Chicago (Columbia GL 522 and CL 522).\n", "Section::::Use in film.\n", "In 1951, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer released the musical film \"An American in Paris\", featuring Gene Kelly and Leslie Caron. Winning the 1951 Best Picture Oscar and numerous other awards, the film was directed by Vincente Minnelli, featured many tunes of Gershwin, and concluded with an extensive, elaborate dance sequence built around the \"An American in Paris\" symphonic poem (arranged for the film by Johnny Green), costing $500,000.\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- Rimler, Walter. \"George Gershwin – An Intimate Portrait\". Urbana, University of Illinois Press, 2009. 29–33.\n", "BULLET::::- Pollack, Howard. \"George Gershwin – His Life and Work\". Berkeley, University of California Press, 2006. 431–42.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- 1944 recording by the New York Philharmonic conducted by Artur Rodziński\n", "BULLET::::- , New York Philharmonic, Leonard Bernstein, 1959.\n" ] }

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{ "description": "symphonic tone poem by George Gershwin", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q853997", "wikidata_label": "An American in Paris", "wikipedia_title": "An American in Paris", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "International Atomic Time\n", "International Atomic Time (TAI, from the French name ) is a high-precision atomic coordinate time standard based on the notional passage of proper time on Earth's geoid. It is the principal realisation of Terrestrial Time (with a fixed offset of epoch). It is also the basis for Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), which is used for civil timekeeping all over the Earth's surface. , when another leap second was added, TAI is exactly 37 seconds ahead of UTC. The 37 seconds results from the initial difference of 10 seconds at the start of 1972, plus 27 leap seconds in UTC since 1972.\n", "TAI may be reported using traditional means of specifying days, carried over from non-uniform time standards based on the rotation of the Earth. Specifically, both Julian Dates and the Gregorian calendar are used. TAI in this form was synchronised with Universal Time at the beginning of 1958, and the two have drifted apart ever since, due to the changing motion of the Earth.\n", "Section::::Operation.\n", "TAI is a weighted average of the time kept by over 400 atomic clocks in over 50 national laboratories worldwide. The majority of the clocks involved are caesium clocks; the International System of Units (SI) definition of the second is based on caesium. The clocks are compared using GPS signals and two-way satellite time and frequency transfer. Due to the signal averaging TAI is an order of magnitude more stable than its best constituent clock.\n", "The participating institutions each broadcast, in real time, a frequency signal with timecodes, which is their estimate of TAI. Time codes are usually published in the form of UTC, which differs from TAI by a well-known integer number of seconds. These time scales are denoted in the form \"UTC(NPL)\" in the UTC form, where \"NPL\" in this case identifies the National Physical Laboratory, UK. The TAI form may be denoted \"TAI(NPL)\". The latter is not to be confused with \"TA(NPL)\", which denotes an independent atomic time scale, not synchronised to TAI or to anything else.\n", "The clocks at different institutions are regularly compared against each other. The International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM, France), combines these measurements to retrospectively calculate the weighted average that forms the most stable time scale possible. This combined time scale is published monthly in \"Circular T\", and is the canonical TAI. This time scale is expressed in the form of tables of differences UTC − UTC(\"k\") (equivalent to TAI − TAI(\"k\")) for each participating institution \"k\". The same circular also gives tables of TAI − TA(\"k\"), for the various unsynchronised atomic time scales.\n", "Errors in publication may be corrected by issuing a revision of the faulty Circular T or by errata in a subsequent Circular T. Aside from this, once published in Circular T, the TAI scale is not revised. In hindsight it is possible to discover errors in TAI, and to make better estimates of the true proper time scale. Since the published circulars are definitive, better estimates do not create another version of TAI; it is instead considered to be creating a better realisation of Terrestrial Time (TT).\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Early atomic time scales consisted of quartz clocks with frequencies calibrated by a single atomic clock; the atomic clocks were not operated continuously. Atomic timekeeping services started experimentally in 1955, using the first caesium atomic clock at the National Physical Laboratory, UK (NPL). It was used as a basis for calibrating the quartz clocks at the Royal Greenwich Observatory and to establish a time scale, called Greenwich Atomic (GA). The United States Naval Observatory began the A.1 scale on 13 September 1956, using an Atomichron commercial atomic clock, followed by the NBS-A scale at the National Bureau of Standards, Boulder, Colorado on 9 October 1957.\n", "The International Time Bureau (BIH) began a time scale, T or AM, in July 1955, using both local caesium clocks and comparisons to distant clocks using the phase of VLF radio signals. The BIH scale, A.1, and NBS-A were defined by an epoch at the beginning of 1958 The procedures used by the BIH evolved, and the name for the time scale changed: \"A3\" in 1964 and \"TA(BIH)\" in 1969.\n", "The SI second was defined in terms of the caesium atom in 1967. From 1971 to 1975 the General Conference on Weights and Measures and the International Committee for Weights and Measures made a series of decisions which designated the BIPM time scale International Atomic Time (TAI). \n", "In the 1970s, it became clear that the clocks participating in TAI were ticking at different rates due to gravitational time dilation, and the combined TAI scale therefore corresponded to an average of the altitudes of the various clocks. Starting from Julian Date 2443144.5 (1 January 1977 00:00:00), corrections were applied to the output of all participating clocks, so that TAI would correspond to proper time at mean sea level (the geoid). Because the clocks were, on average, well above sea level, this meant that TAI slowed down, by about one part in a trillion. The former uncorrected time scale continues to be published, under the name \"EAL\" (\"Echelle Atomique Libre\", meaning \"Free Atomic Scale\").\n", "The instant that the gravitational correction started to be applied serves as the epoch for Barycentric Coordinate Time (TCB), Geocentric Coordinate Time (TCG), and Terrestrial Time (TT), which represent three fundamental time scales in the solar system. All three of these time scales were defined to read JD 2443144.5003725 (1 January 1977 00:00:32.184) exactly at that instant. TAI was henceforth a realisation of TT, with the equation TT(TAI) = TAI + 32.184 s.\n", "The continued existence of TAI was questioned in a 2007 letter from the BIPM to the ITU-R which stated, \"In the case of a redefinition of UTC without leap seconds, the CCTF would consider discussing the possibility of suppressing TAI, as it would remain parallel to the continuous UTC.\"\n", "Section::::Relation to UTC.\n", "UTC is a discontinuous time scale. It is regularly adjusted by leap seconds. Between these adjustments it is composed from segments that are linear transformations of atomic time. From its beginning in 1961 through December 1971 the adjustments were made regularly in fractional leap seconds so that UTC approximated UT2. Afterwards these adjustments were made only in whole seconds to approximate UT1. This was a compromise arrangement in order to enable a publicly broadcast time scale; the post-1971 more linear transformation of the BIH's atomic time meant that the time scale would be more stable and easier to synchronize internationally. The fact that it continues to approximate UT1 means that tasks such as navigation which require a source of Universal Time continue to be well served by the public broadcast of UTC.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Clock synchronization\n", "BULLET::::- Network Time Protocol\n", "BULLET::::- Precision Time Protocol\n", "BULLET::::- Time and frequency transfer\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Bureau International des Poids et Mesures: TAI\n", "BULLET::::- Time and Frequency Section - National Physical Laboratory, UK\n", "BULLET::::- IERS website\n", "BULLET::::- NIST Web Clock FAQs\n", "BULLET::::- History of time scales\n", "BULLET::::- NIST-F1 Cesium Fountain Atomic Clock\n", "BULLET::::- Japan Standard Time Project, NICT, Japan\n", "BULLET::::- Standard of time definition: UTC, GPS, LORAN and TAI\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Alain Connes\n", "Alain Connes (; born 1 April 1947) is a French mathematician, currently Professor at the Collège de France, IHÉS, Ohio State University and Vanderbilt University. He was an Invited Professor at the Conservatoire national des arts et métiers (2000).\n", "Section::::Work.\n", "Alain Connes studies operator algebras. In his early work on von Neumann algebras in the 1970s, he succeeded in obtaining the almost complete classification of injective factors. He also formulated the Connes embedding problem. Following this, he made contributions in operator K-theory and index theory, which culminated in the Baum–Connes conjecture. He also introduced cyclic cohomology in the early 1980s as a first step in the study of noncommutative differential geometry. He was a member of Bourbaki.\n", "Connes has applied his work in areas of mathematics and theoretical physics, including number theory, differential geometry and particle physics.\n", "Section::::Awards and honours.\n", "Connes was awarded the Fields Medal in 1982, the Crafoord Prize in 2001\n", "Section::::Books.\n", "BULLET::::- Alain Connes and Matilde Marcolli, \"Noncommutative Geometry, Quantum Fields and Motives\", Colloquium Publications, American Mathematical Society, 2007, \n", "BULLET::::- Alain Connes, Andre Lichnerowicz, and Marcel Paul Schutzenberger, \"Triangle of Thought\", translated by Jennifer Gage, American Mathematical Society, 2001,\n", "BULLET::::- Jean-Pierre Changeux, and Alain Connes, \"Conversations on Mind, Matter, and Mathematics\", translated by M. B. DeBevoise, Princeton University Press, 1998,\n", "BULLET::::- Alain Connes, \"Noncommutative Geometry\", Academic Press, 1994,\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Bost–Connes system\n", "BULLET::::- Cyclic homology\n", "BULLET::::- Factor (functional analysis)\n", "BULLET::::- Higgs boson\n", "BULLET::::- C*-algebra\n", "BULLET::::- M-theory\n", "BULLET::::- Groupoid\n", "BULLET::::- Criticism of non-standard analysis\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Alain Connes Official Web Site containing downloadable papers, and his book \"Non-commutative geometry\", .\n", "BULLET::::- Alain Connes' Standard Model\n", "BULLET::::- An interview with Alain Connes and a discussion about it\n" ] }

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{ "description": "French mathematician", "enwikiquote_title": "Alain Connes", "wikidata_id": "Q313590", "wikidata_label": "Alain Connes", "wikipedia_title": "Alain Connes", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Allan Dwan\n", "Allan Dwan (3 April 1885 – 28 December 1981) was a pioneering Canadian-born American motion picture director, producer, and screenwriter.\n", "Section::::Early life.\n", "Born Joseph Aloysius Dwan in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, Dwan, was the younger son of commercial traveler of woolen clothing Joseph Michael Dwan (1857–1917) and his wife Mary Jane Dwan, née Hunt. The family moved to the United States when he was seven years old on 4 December 1892 by ferry from Windsor to Detroit, according to his naturalization petition of August 1939. His elder brother, Leo Garnet Dwan (1883–1964), became a physician.\n", "Allan Dwan studied engineering at the University of Notre Dame and then worked for a lighting company in Chicago. He had a strong interest in the fledgling motion picture industry, and when Essanay Studios offered him the opportunity to become a scriptwriter, he took the job. At that time, some of the East Coast movie makers began to spend winters in California where the climate allowed them to continue productions requiring warm weather. Soon, a number of movie companies worked there year-round, and in 1911, Dwan began working part-time in Hollywood. While still in New York, in 1917 he was the founding president of the East Coast chapter of the Motion Picture Directors Association.\n", "Section::::Career.\n", "Dwan operated Flying A Studios in La Mesa, California from August 1911 to July 1912. Flying A was one of the first motion pictures studios in California history. On 12 August 2011, a plaque was unveiled on the Wolff building at Third Avenue and La Mesa Boulevard commemorating Dwan and the Flying A Studios origins in La Mesa, California.\n", "After making a series of westerns and comedies, Dwan directed fellow Canadian-American Mary Pickford in several very successful movies as well as her husband, Douglas Fairbanks, notably in the acclaimed 1922 \"Robin Hood\". Dwan directed Gloria Swanson in eight feature films, and one short film made in the short-lived sound-on-film process Phonofilm. This short, also featuring Thomas Meighan and Henri de la Falaise, was produced as a joke, for the 26 April 1925 \"Lambs' Gambol\" for The Lambs, with the film showing Swanson crashing the all-male club.\n", "Following the introduction of the talkies, Dwan directed child-star Shirley Temple in \"Heidi\" (1937) and \"Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm\" (1938).\n", "Dwan helped launch the career of two other successful Hollywood directors, Victor Fleming, who went on to direct \"The Wizard of Oz\" and \"Gone With the Wind\", and Marshall Neilan, who became an actor, director, writer and producer. Over a long career spanning almost 50 years, Dwan directed 125 motion pictures, some of which were highly acclaimed, such as the 1949 box office hit, \"Sands of Iwo Jima\". He directed his last movie in 1961.\n", "He died in Los Angeles at the age of ninety-six, and is interred in the San Fernando Mission Cemetery, Mission Hills, California.\n", "Dwan has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6263 Hollywood Boulevard.\n", "Daniel Eagan of \"Film Journal International\" described Dwan as one of the early pioneers of cinema, stating that his style \"is so basic as to seem invisible, but he treats his characters with uncommon sympathy and compassion.\"\n", "Section::::Partial filmography as director.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Gold Lust\" (1911)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Picket Guard\" (1913)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Restless Spirit\" (1913)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Back to Life\" (1913)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Bloodhounds of the North\" (1913)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Lie\" (1914)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Honor of the Mounted\" (1914)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Unwelcome Mrs. Hatch\" (1914)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Remember Mary Magdalen\" (1914)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Discord and Harmony\" (1914)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Embezzler\" (1914)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Lamb, the Woman, the Wolf\" (1914)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The End of the Feud\" (1914)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Tragedy of Whispering Creek\" (1914)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Unlawful Trade\" (1914)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Forbidden Room\" (1914)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Hopes of Blind Alley\" (1914)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Richelieu\" (1914)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Wildflower\" (1914)\n", "BULLET::::- \"A Small Town Girl\" (1915)\n", "BULLET::::- \"David Harum\" (1915)\n", "BULLET::::- \"A Girl of Yesterday\" (1915)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Pretty Sister of Jose\" (1915)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Jordan Is a Hard Road\" (1915)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Betty of Graystone\" (1916)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Habit of Happiness\" (1916)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Good Bad Man\" (1916)\n", "BULLET::::- \"An Innocent Magdalene\" (1916)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Half-Breed\" (1916)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Manhattan Madness\" (1916)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Accusing Evidence\" (1916)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Panthea\" (1917)\n", "BULLET::::- \"A Modern Musketeer\" (1917)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Bound in Morocco\" (1918)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Headin' South\" (1918)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mr. Fix-It\" (1918)\n", "BULLET::::- \"He Comes Up Smiling\" (1918)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Cheating Cheaters\" (1919)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Dark Star\" (1919)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Getting Mary Married\" (1919)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Soldiers of Fortune\" (1919)\n", "BULLET::::- \"In The Heart of a Fool\" (1920) also producer\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Forbidden Thing\" (1920) also producer\n", "BULLET::::- \"A Splendid Hazard\" (1920)\n", "BULLET::::- \"A Perfect Crime\" (1921)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Sin of Martha Queed\" (1921)\n", "BULLET::::- \"A Broken Doll\" (1921)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Robin Hood\" (1922)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Zaza\" (1923)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Big Brother\" (1923)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Manhandled\" (1924)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Argentine Love\" (1924)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Coast of Folly\" (1925)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Night Life of New York\" (1925)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Stage Struck\" (1925)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Gloria Swanson Dialogue\" (1925) short film made in Phonofilm for The Lambs annual \"Gambol\" held at Metropolitan Opera House\n", "BULLET::::- \"Padlocked\" (1926)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Sea Horses\" (1926)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Summer Bachelors\" (1926)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Tin Gods\" (1926)\n", "BULLET::::- \"French Dressing\" (1927)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Joy Girl\" (1927)\n", "BULLET::::- \"East Side, West Side\" (1927)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Big Noise\" (1928)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Frozen Justice\" (1929)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Iron Mask\" (1929)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Tide of Empire\" (1929)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Far Call\" (1929)\n", "BULLET::::- \"What a Widow!\" (1930)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Man to Man\" (1930)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Chances\" (1931)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Wicked\" (1931)\n", "BULLET::::- \"While Paris Sleeps\" (1932)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Counsel's Opinion\" (1933)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Black Sheep\" (1935)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Navy Wife\" (1935)\n", "BULLET::::- \"High Tension\" (1936)\n", "BULLET::::- \"15 Maiden Lane\" (1936)\n", "BULLET::::- \"One Mile from Heaven\" (1937)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Heidi\" (1937)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm\" (1938)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Suez\" (1938)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Josette\" (1938)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Three Musketeers\" (1939)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Gorilla\" (1939)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Frontier Marshal\" (1939)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Sailor's Lady\" (1940)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Young People\" (1940)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Trail of the Vigilantes\" (1940)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Look Who's Laughing\" (1941) also producer\n", "BULLET::::- \"Rise and Shine\" (1941)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Friendly Enemies\" (1942)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Around the World\" (1943) also producer\n", "BULLET::::- \"Up in Mabel's Room\" (1944)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Abroad with Two Yanks\" (1944)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Getting Gertie's Garter\" (1945) also screenwriter\n", "BULLET::::- \"Brewster's Millions\" (1945)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Rendezvous with Annie\" (1946)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Driftwood\" (1947)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Calendar Girl\" (1947)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Northwest Outpost\" (1947) also associate producer\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Inside Story\" (1948)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Angel in Exile\" (1948) (with Philip Ford)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Sands of Iwo Jima\" (1949)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Surrender\" (1950)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Belle Le Grand\" (1951)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Wild Blue Yonder\" (1951)\n", "BULLET::::- \"I Dream of Jeanie\" (1952)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Montana Belle\" (1952)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Woman They Almost Lynched\" (1953)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Sweethearts on Parade\" (1953)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Silver Lode\" (1954)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Passion\" (1954)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Cattle Queen of Montana\" (1954)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Tennessee's Partner\" (1955)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Pearl of the South Pacific\" (1955)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Escape to Burma\" (1955)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Slightly Scarlet\" (1956)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Hold Back the Night\" (1956)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Restless Breed\" (1957)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The River's Edge\" (1957)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Enchanted Island\" (1958)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Most Dangerous Man Alive\" (1961)\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- Brownlow, Kevin, \"The Parade's Gone By...\" (1968)\n", "BULLET::::- Bogdanovich, Peter, \"Allan Dwan: The Last Pioneer\" (1971)\n", "BULLET::::- Foster, Charles, \"Stardust and Shadows: Canadians in Early Hollywood\" (2000)\n", "BULLET::::- Lombardi, Frederic, \"Allan Dwan and the Rise and Decline of the Hollywood Studios\" (2013)\n", "Print E-book \n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Allan Dwan profile, virtual-history.com; accessed 16 June 2014\n" ] }

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{ "description": "film director, film producer, screenwriter", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q959677", "wikidata_label": "Allan Dwan", "wikipedia_title": "Allan Dwan", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Autism\n", "Autism is a developmental disorder characterized by difficulties with social interaction and communication, and by restricted and repetitive behavior. Parents usually notice signs during the first three years of their child's life. These signs often develop gradually, though some children with autism reach their developmental milestones at a normal pace before worsening.\n", "Autism is associated with a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Risk factors during pregnancy include certain infections, such as rubella, toxins including valproic acid, alcohol, cocaine, pesticides and air pollution, fetal growth restriction, and autoimmune diseases. Controversies surround other proposed environmental causes; for example, the vaccine hypothesis, which has been disproven. Autism affects information processing in the brain by altering connections and organization of nerve cells and their synapses. How this occurs is not well understood. In the DSM-5, autism and less severe forms of the condition, including Asperger syndrome and pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS), have been combined into the diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD).\n", "Early behavioral interventions or speech therapy can help children with autism gain self-care, social, and communication skills. Although there is no known cure, there have been cases of children who recovered. Not many children with autism live independently after reaching adulthood, though some are successful. An autistic culture has developed, with some individuals seeking a cure and others believing autism should be accepted as a difference and not treated as a disorder.\n", "Globally, autism is estimated to affect 24.8 million people . In the 2000s, the number of people affected was estimated at 1–2 per 1,000 people worldwide. In the developed countries, about 1.5% of children are diagnosed with ASD , from 0.7% in 2000 in the United States. It occurs four-to-five times more often in males than females. The number of people diagnosed has increased dramatically since the 1960s, which may be partly due to changes in diagnostic practice. The question of whether actual rates have increased is unresolved.\n", "Section::::Characteristics.\n", "Autism is a highly variable, neurodevelopmental disorder whose symptoms first appears during infancy or childhood, and generally follows a steady course without remission. People with autism may be severely impaired in some respects but normal, or even superior, in others. Overt symptoms gradually begin after the age of six months, become established by age two or three years and tend to continue through adulthood, although often in more muted form. It is distinguished not by a single symptom but by a characteristic triad of symptoms: impairments in social interaction; impairments in communication; and restricted interests and repetitive behavior. Other aspects, such as atypical eating, are also common but are not essential for diagnosis. Individual symptoms of autism occur in the general population and appear not to associate highly, without a sharp line separating pathologically severe from common traits.\n", "Section::::Characteristics.:Social development.\n", "Social deficits distinguish autism and the related autism spectrum disorders (ASD; see Classification) from other developmental disorders. People with autism have social impairments and often lack the intuition about others that many people take for granted. Noted autistic Temple Grandin described her inability to understand the social communication of neurotypicals, or people with normal neural development, as leaving her feeling \"like an anthropologist on Mars\".\n", "Unusual social development becomes apparent early in childhood. Autistic infants show less attention to social stimuli, smile and look at others less often, and respond less to their own name. Autistic toddlers differ more strikingly from social norms; for example, they have less eye contact and turn-taking, and do not have the ability to use simple movements to express themselves, such as pointing at things. Three- to five-year-old children with autism are less likely to exhibit social understanding, approach others spontaneously, imitate and respond to emotions, communicate nonverbally, and take turns with others. However, they do form attachments to their primary caregivers. Most children with autism display moderately less attachment security than neurotypical children, although this difference disappears in children with higher mental development or less severe ASD. Older children and adults with ASD perform worse on tests of face and emotion recognition although this may be partly due to a lower ability to define a person's own emotions.\n", "Children with high-functioning autism suffer from more intense and frequent loneliness compared to non-autistic peers, despite the common belief that children with autism prefer to be alone. Making and maintaining friendships often proves to be difficult for those with autism. For them, the quality of friendships, not the number of friends, predicts how lonely they feel. Functional friendships, such as those resulting in invitations to parties, may affect the quality of life more deeply.\n", "There are many anecdotal reports, but few systematic studies, of aggression and violence in individuals with ASD. The limited data suggest that, in children with intellectual disability, autism is associated with aggression, destruction of property, and meltdowns.\n", "Section::::Characteristics.:Communication.\n", "About a third to a half of individuals with autism do not develop enough natural speech to meet their daily communication needs. Differences in communication may be present from the first year of life, and may include delayed onset of babbling, unusual gestures, diminished responsiveness, and vocal patterns that are not synchronized with the caregiver. In the second and third years, children with autism have less frequent and less diverse babbling, consonants, words, and word combinations; their gestures are less often integrated with words. Children with autism are less likely to make requests or share experiences, and are more likely to simply repeat others' words (echolalia) or reverse pronouns. Joint attention seems to be necessary for functional speech, and deficits in joint attention seem to distinguish infants with ASD. For example, they may look at a pointing hand instead of the pointed-at object, and they consistently fail to point at objects in order to comment on or share an experience. Children with autism may have difficulty with imaginative play and with developing symbols into language.\n", "In a pair of studies, high-functioning children with autism aged 8–15 performed equally well as, and as adults better than, individually matched controls at basic language tasks involving vocabulary and spelling. Both autistic groups performed worse than controls at complex language tasks such as figurative language, comprehension and inference. As people are often sized up initially from their basic language skills, these studies suggest that people speaking to autistic individuals are more likely to overestimate what their audience comprehends.\n", "Section::::Characteristics.:Repetitive behavior.\n", "Autistic individuals can display many forms of repetitive or restricted behavior, which the Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised (RBS-R) categorizes as follows.\n", "BULLET::::- Stereotyped behaviors: Repetitive movements, such as hand flapping, head rolling, or body rocking.\n", "BULLET::::- Compulsive behaviors: Time-consuming behaviors intended to reduce anxiety that an individual feels compelled to perform repeatedly or according to rigid rules, such as placing objects in a specific order, checking things, or hand washing.\n", "BULLET::::- Sameness: Resistance to change; for example, insisting that the furniture not be moved or refusing to be interrupted.\n", "BULLET::::- Ritualistic behavior: Unvarying pattern of daily activities, such as an unchanging menu or a dressing ritual. This is closely associated with sameness and an independent validation has suggested combining the two factors.\n", "BULLET::::- Restricted interests: Interests or fixations that are abnormal in theme or intensity of focus, such as preoccupation with a single television program, toy, or game.\n", "BULLET::::- Self-injury: Behaviors such as eye-poking, skin-picking, hand-biting and head-banging.\n", "No single repetitive or self-injurious behavior seems to be specific to autism, but autism appears to have an elevated pattern of occurrence and severity of these behaviors.\n", "Section::::Characteristics.:Other symptoms.\n", "Autistic individuals may have symptoms that are independent of the diagnosis, but that can affect the individual or the family.\n", "An estimated 0.5% to 10% of individuals with ASD show unusual abilities, ranging from splinter skills such as the memorization of trivia to the extraordinarily rare talents of prodigious autistic savants. Many individuals with ASD show superior skills in perception and attention, relative to the general population. Sensory abnormalities are found in over 90% of those with autism, and are considered core features by some, although there is no good evidence that sensory symptoms differentiate autism from other developmental disorders. Differences are greater for under-responsivity (for example, walking into things) than for over-responsivity (for example, distress from loud noises) or for sensation seeking (for example, rhythmic movements). An estimated 60–80% of autistic people have motor signs that include poor muscle tone, poor motor planning, and toe walking; deficits in motor coordination are pervasive across ASD and are greater in autism proper. Unusual eating behavior occurs in about three-quarters of children with ASD, to the extent that it was formerly a diagnostic indicator. Selectivity is the most common problem, although eating rituals and food refusal also occur.\n", "Parents of children with ASD have higher levels of stress. Siblings of children with ASD report greater admiration of and less conflict with the affected sibling than siblings of unaffected children and were similar to siblings of children with Down syndrome in these aspects of the sibling relationship. However, they reported lower levels of closeness and intimacy than siblings of children with Down syndrome; siblings of individuals with ASD have greater risk of negative well-being and poorer sibling relationships as adults. There is tentative evidence that autism occurs more frequently in people with gender dysphoria.\n", "Gastrointestinal problems are one of the most commonly associated medical disorders in people with autism. These are linked to greater social impairment, irritability, behavior and sleep problems, language impairments and mood changes.\n", "Section::::Causes.\n", "It has long been presumed that there is a common cause at the genetic, cognitive, and neural levels for autism's characteristic triad of symptoms. However, there is increasing suspicion that autism is instead a complex disorder whose core aspects have distinct causes that often co-occur.\n", "Autism has a strong genetic basis, although the genetics of autism are complex and it is unclear whether ASD is explained more by rare mutations with major effects, or by rare multigene interactions of common genetic variants. Complexity arises due to interactions among multiple genes, the environment, and epigenetic factors which do not change DNA sequencing but are heritable and influence gene expression. Many genes have been associated with autism through sequencing the genomes of affected individuals and their parents. Studies of twins suggest that heritability is 0.7 for autism and as high as 0.9 for ASD, and siblings of those with autism are about 25 times more likely to be autistic than the general population. However, most of the mutations that increase autism risk have not been identified. Typically, autism cannot be traced to a Mendelian (single-gene) mutation or to a single chromosome abnormality, and none of the genetic syndromes associated with ASDs have been shown to selectively cause ASD. Numerous candidate genes have been located, with only small effects attributable to any particular gene. Most loci individually explain less than 1% of cases of autism. The large number of autistic individuals with unaffected family members may result from spontaneous structural variation — such as deletions, duplications or inversions in genetic material during meiosis. Hence, a substantial fraction of autism cases may be traceable to genetic causes that are highly heritable but not inherited: that is, the mutation that causes the autism is not present in the parental genome. Autism may be underdiagnosed in women and girls due to an assumption that it is primarily a male condition.\n", "Maternal nutrition and inflammation during preconception and pregnancy influences fetal neurodevelopment. Intrauterine growth restriction is associated with ASD, in both term and preterm infants. Maternal inflammatory and autoimmune diseases may damage fetal tissues, aggravating a genetic problem or damaging the nervous system.\n", "Exposure to air pollution during pregnancy, especially heavy metals and particulates, may increase the risk of autism. Environmental factors that have been claimed without evidence to contribute to or exacerbate autism include certain foods, infectious diseases, solvents, PCBs, phthalates and phenols used in plastic products, pesticides, brominated flame retardants, alcohol, smoking, illicit drugs, vaccines, and prenatal stress. Some, such as the MMR vaccine, have been completely disproven.\n", "Parents may first become aware of autistic symptoms in their child around the time of a routine vaccination. This has led to unsupported theories blaming vaccine \"overload\", a vaccine preservative, or the MMR vaccine for causing autism. The latter theory was supported by a litigation-funded study that has since been shown to have been \"an elaborate fraud\". Although these theories lack convincing scientific evidence and are biologically implausible, parental concern about a potential vaccine link with autism has led to lower rates of childhood immunizations, outbreaks of previously controlled childhood diseases in some countries, and the preventable deaths of several children.\n", "Section::::Mechanism.\n", "Autism's symptoms result from maturation-related changes in various systems of the brain. How autism occurs is not well understood. Its mechanism can be divided into two areas: the pathophysiology of brain structures and processes associated with autism, and the neuropsychological linkages between brain structures and behaviors. The behaviors appear to have multiple pathophysiologies.\n", "There is evidence that gut–brain axis abnormalities may be involved. A 2015 review proposed that immune dysregulation, gastrointestinal inflammation, malfunction of the autonomic nervous system, gut flora alterations, and food metabolites may cause brain neuroinflammation and dysfunction. A 2016 review concludes that enteric nervous system abnormalities might play a role in neurological disorders such as autism. Neural connections and the immune system are a pathway that may allow diseases originated in the intestine to spread to the brain.\n", "Several lines of evidence point to synaptic dysfunction as a cause of autism. Some rare mutations may lead to autism by disrupting some synaptic pathways, such as those involved with cell adhesion. Gene replacement studies in mice suggest that autistic symptoms are closely related to later developmental steps that depend on activity in synapses and on activity-dependent changes. All known teratogens (agents that cause birth defects) related to the risk of autism appear to act during the first eight weeks from conception, and though this does not exclude the possibility that autism can be initiated or affected later, there is strong evidence that autism arises very early in development.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.\n", "Diagnosis is based on behavior, not cause or mechanism. Under the DSM-5, autism is characterized by persistent deficits in social communication and interaction across multiple contexts, as well as restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities. These deficits are present in early childhood, typically before age three, and lead to clinically significant functional impairment. Sample symptoms include lack of social or emotional reciprocity, stereotyped and repetitive use of language or idiosyncratic language, and persistent preoccupation with unusual objects. The disturbance must not be better accounted for by Rett syndrome, intellectual disability or global developmental delay. ICD-10 uses essentially the same definition.\n", "Several diagnostic instruments are available. Two are commonly used in autism research: the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R) is a semistructured parent interview, and the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) uses observation and interaction with the child. The Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS) is used widely in clinical environments to assess severity of autism based on observation of children. The Diagnostic interview for social and communication disorders (DISCO) may also be used.\n", "A pediatrician commonly performs a preliminary investigation by taking developmental history and physically examining the child. If warranted, diagnosis and evaluations are conducted with help from ASD specialists, observing and assessing cognitive, communication, family, and other factors using standardized tools, and taking into account any associated medical conditions. A pediatric neuropsychologist is often asked to assess behavior and cognitive skills, both to aid diagnosis and to help recommend educational interventions. A differential diagnosis for ASD at this stage might also consider intellectual disability, hearing impairment, and a specific language impairment such as Landau–Kleffner syndrome. The presence of autism can make it harder to diagnose coexisting psychiatric disorders such as depression.\n", "Clinical genetics evaluations are often done once ASD is diagnosed, particularly when other symptoms already suggest a genetic cause. Although genetic technology allows clinical geneticists to link an estimated 40% of cases to genetic causes, consensus guidelines in the US and UK are limited to high-resolution chromosome and fragile X testing. A genotype-first model of diagnosis has been proposed, which would routinely assess the genome's copy number variations. As new genetic tests are developed several ethical, legal, and social issues will emerge. Commercial availability of tests may precede adequate understanding of how to use test results, given the complexity of autism's genetics. Metabolic and neuroimaging tests are sometimes helpful, but are not routine.\n", "ASD can sometimes be diagnosed by age 14 months, although diagnosis becomes increasingly stable over the first three years of life: for example, a one-year-old who meets diagnostic criteria for ASD is less likely than a three-year-old to continue to do so a few years later. In the UK the National Autism Plan for Children recommends at most 30 weeks from first concern to completed diagnosis and assessment, though few cases are handled that quickly in practice. Although the symptoms of autism and ASD begin early in childhood, they are sometimes missed; years later, adults may seek diagnoses to help them or their friends and family understand themselves, to help their employers make adjustments, or in some locations to claim disability living allowances or other benefits. Girls are often diagnosed later than boys.\n", "Underdiagnosis and overdiagnosis are problems in marginal cases, and much of the recent increase in the number of reported ASD cases is likely due to changes in diagnostic practices. The increasing popularity of drug treatment options and the expansion of benefits has given providers incentives to diagnose ASD, resulting in some overdiagnosis of children with uncertain symptoms. Conversely, the cost of screening and diagnosis and the challenge of obtaining payment can inhibit or delay diagnosis. It is particularly hard to diagnose autism among the visually impaired, partly because some of its diagnostic criteria depend on vision, and partly because autistic symptoms overlap with those of common blindness syndromes or blindisms.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.:Classification.\n", "Autism is one of the five pervasive developmental disorders (PDD), which are characterized by widespread abnormalities of social interactions and communication, and severely restricted interests and highly repetitive behavior. These symptoms do not imply sickness, fragility, or emotional disturbance.\n", "Of the five PDD forms, Asperger syndrome is closest to autism in signs and likely causes; Rett syndrome and childhood disintegrative disorder share several signs with autism, but may have unrelated causes; PDD not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS; also called \"atypical autism\") is diagnosed when the criteria are not met for a more specific disorder. Unlike with autism, people with Asperger syndrome have no substantial delay in language development. The terminology of autism can be bewildering, with autism, Asperger syndrome and PDD-NOS often called the \"autism spectrum disorders\" (ASD) or sometimes the \"autistic disorders\", whereas autism itself is often called \"autistic disorder\", \"childhood autism\", or \"infantile autism\". In this article, \"autism\" refers to the classic autistic disorder; in clinical practice, though, \"autism\", \"ASD\", and \"PDD\" are often used interchangeably. ASD, in turn, is a subset of the broader autism phenotype, which describes individuals who may not have ASD but do have autistic-like traits, such as avoiding eye contact.\n", "The manifestations of autism cover a wide spectrum, ranging from individuals with severe impairments—who may be silent, developmentally disabled, and locked into hand flapping and rocking—to high functioning individuals who may have active but distinctly odd social approaches, narrowly focused interests, and verbose, pedantic communication. Because the behavior spectrum is continuous, boundaries between diagnostic categories are necessarily somewhat arbitrary. Sometimes the syndrome is divided into low-, medium- or high-functioning autism (LFA, MFA, and HFA), based on IQ thresholds, or on how much support the individual requires in daily life; these subdivisions are not standardized and are controversial. Autism can also be divided into syndromal and non-syndromal autism; the syndromal autism is associated with severe or profound intellectual disability or a congenital syndrome with physical symptoms, such as tuberous sclerosis. Although individuals with Asperger syndrome tend to perform better cognitively than those with autism, the extent of the overlap between Asperger syndrome, HFA, and non-syndromal autism is unclear.\n", "Some studies have reported diagnoses of autism in children due to a loss of language or social skills, as opposed to a failure to make progress, typically from 15 to 30 months of age. The validity of this distinction remains controversial; it is possible that regressive autism is a specific subtype, or that there is a continuum of behaviors between autism with and without regression.\n", "Research into causes has been hampered by the inability to identify biologically meaningful subgroups within the autistic population and by the traditional boundaries between the disciplines of psychiatry, psychology, neurology and pediatrics. Newer technologies such as fMRI and diffusion tensor imaging can help identify biologically relevant phenotypes (observable traits) that can be viewed on brain scans, to help further neurogenetic studies of autism; one example is lowered activity in the fusiform face area of the brain, which is associated with impaired perception of people versus objects. It has been proposed to classify autism using genetics as well as behavior.\n", "Section::::Screening.\n", "About half of parents of children with ASD notice their child's unusual behaviors by age 18 months, and about four-fifths notice by age 24 months. According to an article, failure to meet any of the following milestones \"is an absolute indication to proceed with further evaluations. Delay in referral for such testing may delay early diagnosis and treatment and affect the long-term outcome\".\n", "BULLET::::- No babbling by 12 months.\n", "BULLET::::- No gesturing (pointing, waving, etc.) by 12 months.\n", "BULLET::::- No single words by 16 months.\n", "BULLET::::- No two-word (spontaneous, not just echolalic) phrases by 24 months.\n", "BULLET::::- Loss of any language or social skills, at any age.\n", "The United States Preventive Services Task Force in 2016 found it was unclear if screening was beneficial or harmful among children in whom there is no concerns. The Japanese practice is to screen all children for ASD at 18 and 24 months, using autism-specific formal screening tests. In contrast, in the UK, children whose families or doctors recognize possible signs of autism are screened. It is not known which approach is more effective. Screening tools include the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (M-CHAT), the Early Screening of Autistic Traits Questionnaire, and the First Year Inventory; initial data on M-CHAT and its predecessor, the Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (CHAT), on children aged 18–30 months suggests that it is best used in a clinical setting and that it has low sensitivity (many false-negatives) but good specificity (few false-positives). It may be more accurate to precede these tests with a broadband screener that does not distinguish ASD from other developmental disorders. Screening tools designed for one culture's norms for behaviors like eye contact may be inappropriate for a different culture. Although genetic screening for autism is generally still impractical, it can be considered in some cases, such as children with neurological symptoms and dysmorphic features.\n", "Section::::Prevention.\n", "While infection with rubella during pregnancy causes fewer than 1% of cases of autism, vaccination against rubella can prevent many of those cases.\n", "Section::::Management.\n", "The main goals when treating children with autism are to lessen associated deficits and family distress, and to increase quality of life and functional independence. In general, higher IQs are correlated with greater responsiveness to treatment and improved treatment outcomes. No single treatment is best and treatment is typically tailored to the child's needs. Families and the educational system are the main resources for treatment. Services should be carried out by behavior analysts, special education teachers, speech pathologists, and licensed psychologists. Studies of interventions have methodological problems that prevent definitive conclusions about efficacy. However, the development of evidence-based interventions has advanced in recent years. Although many psychosocial interventions have some positive evidence, suggesting that some form of treatment is preferable to no treatment, the methodological quality of systematic reviews of these studies has generally been poor, their clinical results are mostly tentative, and there is little evidence for the relative effectiveness of treatment options. Intensive, sustained special education programs and behavior therapy early in life can help children acquire self-care, communication, and job skills, and often improve functioning and decrease symptom severity and maladaptive behaviors; claims that intervention by around age three years is crucial are not substantiated. While medications have not been found to help with core symptoms, they may be used for associated symptoms, such as irritability, inattention, or repetitive behavior patterns.\n", "Section::::Management.:Education.\n", "Educational interventions often used include applied behavior analysis (ABA), developmental models, structured teaching, speech and language therapy, social skills therapy, and occupational therapy. Among these approaches, interventions either treat autistic features comprehensively, or focalize treatment on a specific area of deficit. The quality of research for early intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI)—a treatment procedure carried out with very young children that incorporates over thirty hours per week of the structured type of ABA—is currently low, and more vigorous research designs with larger sample sizes are needed. Two theoretical frameworks outlined for early childhood intervention include structured and naturalistic ABA interventions, and developmental social pragmatic models (DSP). One interventional strategy utilizes a parent training model, which teaches parents how to implement various ABA and DSP techniques, allowing for parents to disseminate interventions themselves. Various DSP programs have been developed to explicitly deliver intervention systems through at-home parent implementation. Despite the recent development of parent training models, these interventions have demonstrated effectiveness in numerous studies, being evaluated as a probable efficacious mode of treatment.\n", "Early, intensive ABA therapy has demonstrated effectiveness in enhancing communication, as well as adaptive and global functioning in preschool children; it is well-established for improving the intellectual performance of that age group. Similarly, a teacher-implemented intervention that utilizes a more naturalistic form of ABA combined with a developmental social pragmatic approach has been found to be beneficial in improving social-communication skills in young children, although there is less evidence in its treatment of global symptoms. Neuropsychological reports are often poorly communicated to educators, resulting in a gap between what a report recommends and what education is provided. It is not known whether treatment programs for children lead to significant improvements after the children grow up, and the limited research on the effectiveness of adult residential programs shows mixed results. The appropriateness of including children with varying severity of autism spectrum disorders in the general education population is a subject of current debate among educators and researchers.\n", "Section::::Management.:Medication.\n", "Medications may be used to treat ASD symptoms that interfere with integrating a child into home or school when behavioral treatment fails. They may also be used for associated health problems, such as ADHD or anxiety. More than half of US children diagnosed with ASD are prescribed psychoactive drugs or anticonvulsants, with the most common drug classes being antidepressants, stimulants, and antipsychotics. The atypical antipsychotic drugs risperidone and aripiprazole are FDA-approved for treating associated aggressive and self-injurious behaviors. However, their side effects must be weighed against their potential benefits, and people with autism may respond atypically. Side effects, for example, may include weight gain, tiredness, drooling, and aggression. SSRI antidepressants, such as fluoxetine and fluvoxamine, have been shown to be effective in reducing repetitive and ritualistic behaviors, while the stimulant medication methylphenidate is beneficial for some children with co-morbid inattentiveness or hyperactivity. There is scant reliable research about the effectiveness or safety of drug treatments for adolescents and adults with ASD. No known medication relieves autism's core symptoms of social and communication impairments. Experiments in mice have reversed or reduced some symptoms related to autism by replacing or modulating gene function, suggesting the possibility of targeting therapies to specific rare mutations known to cause autism.\n", "Section::::Management.:Alternative medicine.\n", "Although many alternative therapies and interventions are available, few are supported by scientific studies. Treatment approaches have little empirical support in quality-of-life contexts, and many programs focus on success measures that lack predictive validity and real-world relevance. Some alternative treatments may place the child at risk. The preference that children with autism have for unconventional foods can lead to reduction in bone cortical thickness with this being greater in those on casein-free diets, as a consequence of the low intake of calcium and vitamin D; however, suboptimal bone development in ASD has also been associated with lack of exercise and gastrointestinal disorders. In 2005, botched chelation therapy killed a five-year-old child with autism. Chelation is not recommended for people with ASD since the associated risks outweigh any potential benefits. Another alternative medicine practice with no evidence is CEASE therapy, a mixture of homeopathy, supplements, and 'vaccine detoxing'.\n", "Although popularly used as an alternative treatment for people with autism, as of 2018 there is no good evidence to recommend a gluten- and casein-free diet as a standard treatment. A 2018 review concluded that it may be a therapeutic option for specific groups of children with autism, such as those with known food intolerances or allergies, or with food intolerance markers. The authors analyzed the prospective trials conducted to date that studied the efficacy of the gluten- and casein-free diet in children with ASD (4 in total). All of them compared gluten- and casein-free diet versus normal diet with a control group (2 double blind randomized controlled trials, 1 double blind crossover trial, 1 single blind trial). In two of the studies, whose duration was 12 and 24 months, a significant improvement in ASD symptoms (efficacy rate 50%) was identified. In the other two studies, whose duration was 3 months, no significant effect was observed. The authors concluded that a longer duration of the diet may be necessary to achieve the improvement of the ASD symptoms. Other problems documented in the trials carried out include transgressions of the diet, small sample size, the heterogeneity of the participants and the possibility of a placebo effect.\n", "In the subset of people who have gluten sensitivity there is limited evidence that suggests that a gluten-free diet may improve some autistic behaviors.\n", "There is tentative evidence that music therapy may improve social interactions, verbal communication, and non-verbal communication skills. There has been early research looking at hyperbaric treatments in children with autism.\n", "Section::::Prognosis.\n", "There is no known cure. Children recover occasionally, so that they lose their diagnosis of ASD; this occurs sometimes after intensive treatment and sometimes not. It is not known how often recovery happens; reported rates in unselected samples have ranged from 3% to 25%. Most children with autism acquire language by age five or younger, though a few have developed communication skills in later years. Most children with autism lack social support, meaningful relationships, future employment opportunities or self-determination. Although core difficulties tend to persist, symptoms often become less severe with age.\n", "Few high-quality studies address long-term prognosis. Some adults show modest improvement in communication skills, but a few decline; no study has focused on autism after midlife. Acquiring language before age six, having an IQ above 50, and having a marketable skill all predict better outcomes; independent living is unlikely with severe autism.\n", "Many individuals with autism face significant obstacles in transitioning to adulthood. Compared to the general population individuals with autism are more likely to be unemployed and to have never had a job. People in their 20s with autism have an employment rate of 58%.\n", "Section::::Epidemiology.\n", "Most recent reviews tend to estimate a prevalence of 1–2 per 1,000 for autism and close to 6 per 1,000 for ASD, and 11 per 1,000 children in the United States for ASD as of 2008; because of inadequate data, these numbers may underestimate ASD's true rate. Globally, autism affects an estimated 24.8 million people , while Asperger syndrome affects a further 37.2 million. In 2012, the NHS estimated that the overall prevalence of autism among adults aged 18 years and over in the UK was 1.1%. Rates of PDD-NOS's has been estimated at 3.7 per 1,000, Asperger syndrome at roughly 0.6 per 1,000, and childhood disintegrative disorder at 0.02 per 1,000. CDC estimates about 1 out of 59 (1.7%) for 2014, an increase from 1 out of every 68 children (1.5%) for 2010.\n", "The number of reported cases of autism increased dramatically in the 1990s and early 2000s. This increase is largely attributable to changes in diagnostic practices, referral patterns, availability of services, age at diagnosis, and public awareness, though unidentified environmental risk factors cannot be ruled out. The available evidence does not rule out the possibility that autism's true prevalence has increased; a real increase would suggest directing more attention and funding toward changing environmental factors instead of continuing to focus on genetics.\n", "Boys are at higher risk for ASD than girls. The sex ratio averages 4.3:1 and is greatly modified by cognitive impairment: it may be close to 2:1 with intellectual disability and more than 5.5:1 without. Several theories about the higher prevalence in males have been investigated, but the cause of the difference is unconfirmed; one theory is that females are underdiagnosed.\n", "Although the evidence does not implicate any single pregnancy-related risk factor as a cause of autism, the risk of autism is associated with advanced age in either parent, and with diabetes, bleeding, and use of psychiatric drugs in the mother during pregnancy. The risk is greater with older fathers than with older mothers; two potential explanations are the known increase in mutation burden in older sperm, and the hypothesis that men marry later if they carry genetic liability and show some signs of autism. Most professionals believe that race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic background do not affect the occurrence of autism.\n", "Several other conditions are common in children with autism. They include:\n", "BULLET::::- Genetic disorders. About 10–15% of autism cases have an identifiable Mendelian (single-gene) condition, chromosome abnormality, or other genetic syndrome, and ASD is associated with several genetic disorders.\n", "BULLET::::- Intellectual disability. The percentage of autistic individuals who also meet criteria for intellectual disability has been reported as anywhere from 25% to 70%, a wide variation illustrating the difficulty of assessing intelligence of individuals on the autism spectrum. In comparison, for PDD-NOS the association with intellectual disability is much weaker, and by definition, the diagnosis of Asperger's excludes intellectual disability.\n", "BULLET::::- Anxiety disorders are common among children with ASD; there are no firm data, but studies have reported prevalences ranging from 11% to 84%. Many anxiety disorders have symptoms that are better explained by ASD itself, or are hard to distinguish from ASD's symptoms.\n", "BULLET::::- Epilepsy, with variations in risk of epilepsy due to age, cognitive level, and type of language disorder.\n", "BULLET::::- Several metabolic defects, such as phenylketonuria, are associated with autistic symptoms.\n", "BULLET::::- Minor physical anomalies are significantly increased in the autistic population.\n", "BULLET::::- Preempted diagnoses. Although the DSM-IV rules out concurrent diagnosis of many other conditions along with autism, the full criteria for Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), Tourette syndrome, and other of these conditions are often present and these comorbid diagnoses are increasingly accepted.\n", "BULLET::::- Sleep problems affect about two-thirds of individuals with ASD at some point in childhood. These most commonly include symptoms of insomnia such as difficulty in falling asleep, frequent nocturnal awakenings, and early morning awakenings. Sleep problems are associated with difficult behaviors and family stress, and are often a focus of clinical attention over and above the primary ASD diagnosis.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "A few examples of autistic symptoms and treatments were described long before autism was named. The \"Table Talk\" of Martin Luther, compiled by his notetaker, Mathesius, contains the story of a 12-year-old boy who may have been severely autistic. Luther reportedly thought the boy was a soulless mass of flesh possessed by the devil, and suggested that he be suffocated, although a later critic has cast doubt on the veracity of this report. The earliest well-documented case of autism is that of Hugh Blair of Borgue, as detailed in a 1747 court case in which his brother successfully petitioned to annul Blair's marriage to gain Blair's inheritance. The Wild Boy of Aveyron, a feral child caught in 1798, showed several signs of autism; the medical student Jean Itard treated him with a behavioral program designed to help him form social attachments and to induce speech via imitation.\n", "The New Latin word \"autismus\" (English translation \"autism\") was coined by the Swiss psychiatrist Eugen Bleuler in 1910 as he was defining symptoms of schizophrenia. He derived it from the Greek word \"autós\" (αὐτός, meaning \"self\"), and used it to mean morbid self-admiration, referring to \"autistic withdrawal of the patient to his fantasies, against which any influence from outside becomes an intolerable disturbance\". A Soviet child psychiatrist, Grunya Sukhareva, described a similar syndrome that was published in Russian in 1925, and in German in 1926.\n", "Section::::History.:Clinical development and diagnoses.\n", "The word \"autism\" first took its modern sense in 1938 when Hans Asperger of the Vienna University Hospital adopted Bleuler's terminology \"autistic psychopaths\" in a lecture in German about child psychology. Asperger was investigating an ASD now known as Asperger syndrome, though for various reasons it was not widely recognized as a separate diagnosis until 1981. Leo Kanner of the Johns Hopkins Hospital first used \"autism\" in its modern sense in English when he introduced the label \"early infantile autism\" in a 1943 report of 11 children with striking behavioral similarities. Almost all the characteristics described in Kanner's first paper on the subject, notably \"autistic aloneness\" and \"insistence on sameness\", are still regarded as typical of the autistic spectrum of disorders. It is not known whether Kanner derived the term independently of Asperger.\n", "Donald Triplett was the first person diagnosed with autism. He was diagnosed by Kanner after being first examined in 1938, and was labeled as \"case 1\". Triplett was noted for his savant abilities, particularly being able to name musical notes played on a piano and to mentally multiply numbers. His father, Oliver, described him as socially withdrawn but interested in number patterns, music notes, letters of the alphabet, and U.S. president pictures. By the age of 2, he had the ability to recite the 23rd Psalm and memorized 25 questions and answers from the Presbyterian catechism. He was also interested in creating musical chords.\n", "Kanner's reuse of \"autism\" led to decades of confused terminology like \"infantile schizophrenia\", and child psychiatry's focus on maternal deprivation led to misconceptions of autism as an infant's response to \"refrigerator mothers\". Starting in the late 1960s autism was established as a separate syndrome.\n", "Section::::History.:Terminology and distinction from schizophrenia.\n", "As late as the mid-1970s there was little evidence of a genetic role in autism; while in 2007 it was believed to be one of the most heritable psychiatric conditions. Although the rise of parent organizations and the destigmatization of childhood ASD have affected how ASD is viewed, parents continue to feel social stigma in situations where their child's autistic behavior is perceived negatively, and many primary care physicians and medical specialists express some beliefs consistent with outdated autism research.\n", "It took until 1980 for the DSM-III to differentiate autism from childhood schizophrenia. In 1987, the DSM-III-R provided a checklist for diagnosing autism. In May 2013, the DSM-5 was released, updating the classification for pervasive developmental disorders. The grouping of disorders, including PDD-NOS, autism, Asperger syndrome, Rett syndrome, and CDD, has been removed and replaced with the general term of Autism Spectrum Disorders. The two categories that exist are impaired social communication and/or interaction, and restricted and/or repetitive behaviors.\n", "The Internet has helped autistic individuals bypass nonverbal cues and emotional sharing that they find difficult to deal with, and has given them a way to form online communities and work remotely. Societal and cultural aspects of autism have developed: some in the community seek a cure, while others believe that autism is simply another way of being.\n", "Section::::Society and culture.\n", "An autistic culture has emerged, accompanied by the autistic rights and neurodiversity movements. Events include World Autism Awareness Day, Autism Sunday, Autistic Pride Day, Autreat, and others. Organizations dedicated to promoting awareness of autism include Autism Speaks, Autism National Committee, and Autism Society of America. Social-science scholars study those with autism in hopes to learn more about \"autism as a culture, transcultural comparisons... and research on social movements.\" While most autistic individuals do not have savant skills, many have been successful in their fields.\n", "Section::::Society and culture.:Autism rights movement.\n", "The autism rights movement is a social movement within the context of disability rights that emphasizes the concept of neurodiversity, viewing the autism spectrum as a result of natural variations in the human brain rather than a disorder to be cured. The autism rights movement advocates for including greater acceptance of autistic behaviors; therapies that focus on coping skills rather than imitating the behaviors those without autism; and the recognition of the autistic community as a minority group. Autism rights or neurodiversity advocates believe that the autism spectrum is genetic and should be accepted as a natural expression of the human genome. This perspective is distinct from two other likewise distinct views: the medical perspective, that autism is caused by a genetic defect and should be addressed by targeting the autism gene(s), and fringe theories that autism is caused by environmental factors such as vaccines. A common criticism against autistic activists is that the majority of them are \"high-functioning\" or have Asperger syndrome and do not represent the views of \"low-functioning\" autistic people.\n", "Section::::Society and culture.:Employment.\n", "About half of autistics are unemployed, and one third of those with graduate degrees may be unemployed. Among autistics who find work, most are employed in sheltered settings working for wages below the national minimum. While employers state hiring concerns about productivity and supervision, experienced employers of autistics give positive reports of above average memory and detail orientation as well as a high regard for rules and procedure in autistic employees. A majority of the economic burden of autism if caused by decreased earnings in the job market. Some studies also find decreased earning among parents who care for autistic children.\n" ] }

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{ "description": "neurodevelopmental condition", "enwikiquote_title": "Autism", "wikidata_id": "Q38404", "wikidata_label": "autism", "wikipedia_title": "Autism", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Kanner's syndrome", "autistic disorder of childhood onset", "childhood autism", "infantile autism", "early infantile autism", "early childhood autism", "autistic disorder", "classic autism", "adult autism" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "List of Atlas Shrugged characters\n", "This is a list of characters in Ayn Rand's novel \"Atlas Shrugged.\"\n", "Section::::Major characters.\n", "The following are major characters from the novel.\n", "Section::::Major characters.:Protagonists.\n", "Section::::Major characters.:Protagonists.:Dagny Taggart.\n", "Dagny Taggart is the protagonist of the novel. She is Vice-President in Charge of Operations for Taggart Transcontinental, under her brother, James Taggart. Given James' incompetence, Dagny is responsible for all the workings of the railroad.\n", "Section::::Major characters.:Protagonists.:Francisco d'Anconia.\n", "Francisco d'Anconia is one of the central characters in \"Atlas Shrugged\", an owner by inheritance of the world's largest copper mining operation. He is a childhood friend, and the first love, of Dagny Taggart. A child prodigy of exceptional talents, Francisco was dubbed the \"climax\" of the d'Anconia line, an already prestigious family of skilled industrialists. He was a classmate of John Galt and Ragnar Danneskjöld and student of both Hugh Akston and Robert Stadler. He began working while still in school, proving that he could have made a fortune without the aid of his family's wealth and power. Later, Francisco bankrupts the d'Anconia business to put it out of others' reach. His full name is given as \"Francisco Domingo Carlos Andres Sebastián d'Anconia\".\n", "Section::::Major characters.:Protagonists.:John Galt.\n", "John Galt is the primary male hero of \"Atlas Shrugged\". He initially appears as an unnamed menial worker for Taggart Transcontinental, who often dines with Eddie Willers in the employees' cafeteria, and leads Eddie to reveal important information about Dagny Taggart and Taggart Transcontinental. Only Eddie's side of their conversations is given in the novel. Later in the novel, the reader discovers this worker's true identity.\n", "Before working for Taggart Transcontinental, Galt worked as an engineer for the Twentieth Century Motor Company, where he secretly invented a generator of usable electric energy from ambient static electricity, but abandoned his prototype, and his employment, when dissatisfied by an easily corrupted novel system of payment. This prototype was found by Dagny Taggart and Hank Rearden. Galt himself remains concealed throughout much of the novel, working a job and living by himself, where he unites the most skillful inventors and business leaders under his leadership. Much of the book's third division is given to his broadcast speech, which presents the author's philosophy of Objectivism.\n", "Section::::Major characters.:Protagonists.:Henry \"Hank\" Rearden.\n", "Henry (known as \"Hank\") Rearden is one of the central characters in \"Atlas Shrugged\". He owns the most important steel company in the United States, and invents Rearden Metal, an alloy stronger than steel (with similar properties to stainless steel). He lives in Philadelphia with his wife Lillian, his brother Philip, and his elderly mother. Rearden represents a type of self-made man or prototypical hero, and illustrates Rand's theory of sex in so far as he accepts the traditional view of sexual congress as a subhuman instinct, but responds sexually to Dagny Taggart. Rearden eventually divorces Lillian, abandons his steel mills following a bloody assault by government-planted workers, and joins John Galt's strike.\n", "Section::::Major characters.:Protagonists.:Eddie Willers.\n", "Edwin \"Eddie\" Willers is the Special Assistant to the Vice-President in Charge of Operations at Taggart Transcontinental. His father and grandfather worked for the Taggarts, and himself likewise. He is completely loyal to Dagny and to Taggart Transcontinental. Willers does not possess the creative ability of Galt's associates, but matches them in moral courage and is capable of appreciating and making use of their creations. After Dagny shifts her attention and loyalty to saving the captive Galt, Willers maintains the railroad until its collapse.\n", "Section::::Major characters.:Protagonists.:Ragnar Danneskjöld.\n", "One of Galt's first followers, and world-famous as a pirate, who seizes relief ships sent from the United States to the People's States of Europe. He works to ensure that once those espousing Galt's philosophy are restored to their rightful place in society, they have enough capital to rebuild the world. Kept in the background for much of the book, Danneskjöld makes a personal appearance to encourage Rearden to persevere in his increasingly difficult situation, and gives him a bar of gold as compensation for the income taxes he has paid over the last several years. Danneskjöld is married to the actress Kay Ludlow; their relationship is kept hidden from the outside world, which only knows of Ludlow as a retired film star. Considered a misfit by Galt's other adherents, he views his actions as a means to speed the world along in understanding Galt's perspective.\n", "According to Barbara Branden, who was closely associated with Rand at the time the book was written, there were sections written describing Danneskjöld's adventures at sea, cut from the final published text. In a 1974 comment at a lecture, Ayn Rand admitted that Danneskjöld's name was a tribute to Victor Hugo's novel, , wherein the hero becomes the first of the Counts of Danneskjöld. In the published book, Danneskjöld is always seen through the eyes of others (Dagny Taggart or Hank Rearden), except for a brief paragraph in the very last chapter.\n", "Section::::Major characters.:Antagonists.\n", "Section::::Major characters.:Antagonists.:James Taggart.\n", "The President of Taggart Transcontinental and the book's most important antagonist. Taggart is an expert influence peddler but incapable of making operational decisions on his own. He relies on his sister, Dagny Taggart, to actually run the railroad, but nonetheless opposes her in almost every endeavor because of his various anti-capitalist moral and political beliefs. In a sense, he is the antithesis of Dagny. This contradiction leads to the recurring absurdity of his life: the desire to overcome those on whom his life depends, and the horror that he will succeed at this. In the final chapters of the novel, he suffers a complete mental breakdown upon realizing that he can no longer deceive himself in this respect.\n", "Section::::Major characters.:Antagonists.:Lillian Rearden.\n", "The unsupportive wife of Hank Rearden, who dislikes his habits and (secretly at first) seeks to ruin Rearden to prove her own value. Lillian achieves this, when she passes information to James Taggart about her husband's affair with his sister. This information is used to persuade Rearden to sign a Gift Certificate which delivers all the property rights of Rearden Metal to others. Lillian thereafter uses James Taggart for sexual satisfaction, until Hank abandons her.\n", "Section::::Major characters.:Antagonists.:Dr. Floyd Ferris.\n", "Ferris is a biologist who works as \"co-ordinator\" at the State Science Institute. He uses his position there to deride reason and productive achievement, and publishes a book entitled \"Why Do You Think You Think?\" He clashes on several occasions with Hank Rearden, and twice attempts to blackmail Rearden into giving up Rearden Metal. He is also one of the group of looters who tries to get Rearden to agree to the Steel Unification Plan. Ferris hosts the demonstration of the Project X weapon, and is the creator of the Ferris Persuader, a torture machine. When John Galt is captured by the looters, Ferris uses the device on Galt, but it breaks down before extracting the information Ferris wants from Galt. Ferris represents the group which uses brute force on the heroes to achieve the ends of the looters.\n", "Section::::Major characters.:Antagonists.:Dr. Robert Stadler.\n", "A former professor at Patrick Henry University, and along with colleague Hugh Akston, mentor to Francisco d'Anconia, John Galt and Ragnar Danneskjöld. He has since become a sell-out, one who had great promise but squandered it for social approval, to the detriment of the free. He works at the State Science Institute where all his inventions are perverted for use by the military, including a sound-based weapon known as Project X (Xylophone). He is killed when Cuffy Meigs (see below) drunkenly overloads the circuits of Project X, causing it to destroy itself and every structure and living thing in a 100-mile radius. The character was, in part, modeled on J. Robert Oppenheimer, whom Rand had interviewed for an earlier project, and his part in the creation of nuclear weapons. To his former student Galt, Stadler represents the epitome of human evil, as the \"man who knew better\" but chose not to act for the good.\n", "Section::::Major characters.:Antagonists.:Wesley Mouch.\n", "The incompetent and treacherous lobbyist whom Hank Rearden reluctantly employs in Washington, who rises to prominence and authority throughout the novel through trading favours and disloyalty. In return for betraying Hank by helping broker the Equalization of Opportunity Bill (which, by restricting the number of businesses each person may own to one, forces Hank to divest most of his companies), he is given a senior position at the Bureau of Economic Planning and National Resources. Later in the novel he becomes its Top Co-ordinator, a position that eventually becomes Economic Dictator of the country.\n", "Section::::Secondary characters.\n", "The following secondary characters also appear in the novel.\n", "BULLET::::- Hugh Akston is identified as \"One of the last great advocates of reason.\" He was a renowned philosopher and the head of the Department of Philosophy at Patrick Henry University, where he taught Francisco d'Anconia, John Galt, and Ragnar Danneskjöld. He was, along with Robert Stadler, a father figure to these three. Akston's name is so hallowed that a young lady, on hearing that Francisco had studied under him, is shocked. She thought he must have been one of those great names from an earlier century. He now works as a cook in a roadside diner, and proves extremely skillful at the job. When Dagny tracks him down, and before she discovers his true identity, he rejects her enthusiastic offer to manage the dining car services for Taggart Transcontinental. He is based on Aristotle.\n", "BULLET::::- Jeff Allen is a tramp who stows away on a Taggart train during one of Dagny's cross-country trips. Instead of throwing him out, she allows him to ride as her guest. It is from Allen that she learns the full story behind the collapse of the Twentieth Century Motor Company (Rand's extensive metaphor for the inherent flaws of communism), as well as a hint of John Galt's true background.\n", "BULLET::::- Calvin Atwood is owner of Atwood Light and Power Company and joins Galt's strike.\n", "BULLET::::- Mayor Bascom is the mayor of Rome, Wisconsin, who reveals part of the history of the Twentieth Century Motor Company.\n", "BULLET::::- Dr. Blodgett is the scientist who pulls the lever to demonstrate Project X.\n", "BULLET::::- Orren Boyle is the head of Associated Steel, antithesis of Hank Rearden and a friend of James Taggart. He is an investor in the San Sebastián Mines. He disappears from the story after having a nervous breakdown following the failed 'unification' of the steel industry.\n", "BULLET::::- Laura Bradford is an actress and Kip Chalmers' mistress. She is one of the passengers on his train, and dies in the Taggart Tunnel disaster.\n", "BULLET::::- Bill Brent is the chief dispatcher for the Colorado Division of Taggart Transcontinental, who tries to prevent the Taggart Tunnel disaster.\n", "BULLET::::- Cherryl Brooks is a dime store shopgirl who marries James Taggart after a chance encounter in her store the night the John Galt Line was falsely deemed his greatest success. She marries him thinking he is the heroic person behind Taggart Transcontinental. Cherryl is at first harsh towards Dagny, having believed Jim Taggart's descriptions of his sister, until she questions employees of the railroad. Upon learning that her scorn had been misdirected, Cherryl puts off apologizing to Dagny out of shame, but eventually admits to Dagny that when she married Jim, she thought he had the heroic qualities that she had looked up to - she thought she was marrying someone like Dagny. Shortly after making this admission, she commits suicide by jumping over a street guardrail to her death, unable to live with her worthless husband and seeing no way to escape him.\n", "BULLET::::- Millie Bush was \"a mean, ugly little eight-year-old\" girl voted to receive gold braces to straighten her teeth by the Marxist \"family\" committee who determined how pay was allocated at The Twentieth Century Motor Company. Her teeth are later knocked out by a man denied an allowance by the committee to purchase the things he valued.\n", "BULLET::::- Emma Chalmers, Kip Chalmers' mother, gains some influence after his death. Known as \"Kip's Ma,\" she starts a soybean-growing project in Louisiana and commandeers thousands of railroad freight cars to move the harvest. As a result, the year's wheat crop from Minnesota never reaches the rest of the country, but instead rots in storage; also, the soybean crop is lost, having been reaped too early.\n", "BULLET::::- Kip Chalmers is a Washington man who has decided to run for election as Legislator from California. On the way to a campaign rally, the Taggart Transcontinental train that is carrying him encounters a split rail, resulting in the destruction of its diesel engine. His demands lead to a coal-burning steam engine being attached to his train in its stead and used to pull it through an eight-mile tunnel. The result is the suffocation of all passengers and the destruction of the Taggart Tunnel.\n", "BULLET::::- Dan Conway is the middle-aged president of the Phoenix-Durango railroad. Running a railroad is just about the only thing he knows. When the Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule is used to drive his business out of Colorado, he loses the will to fight, and resigns himself to a quiet life of books and fishing.\n", "BULLET::::- Ken Danagger owns Danagger Coal in Pennsylvania. He helps Hank Rearden illegally make Rearden Metal, then later decides to quit and join Galt's strike moments before Dagny arrives to try to persuade him otherwise.\n", "BULLET::::- Quentin Daniels is an enterprising engineer hired by Dagny Taggart to reconstruct John Galt's motor. Partway through this process, Quentin withdraws his effort for the same reasons John Galt himself had. Dagny's pursuit of Quentin leads her to Galt's Gulch.\n", "BULLET::::- Sebastian d'Anconia was the 16th (or 17th) Century founder of the d'Anconia dynasty. Escaped from Spain because of expressing his opinions too freely and coming in conflict with the Inquisition, leaving behind a palace and his beloved. Started a small mine in South America, which became the beginning of a mining empire and a new fortune (and a new palace). Eventually sent for his beloved who had waited for him many years. He is the role model which Francisco d'Anconia looks to, as Dagny Taggart looks to Nathaniel Taggart. Francisco remarks that their respective ancestors would have liked each other.\n", "BULLET::::- Balph Eubank is called \"the literary leader of the age\", despite the fact that no book he has written has sold more than 3,000 copies. He complains that it is disgraceful that artists are treated as peddlers, and that there should be a law limiting the sales of books to 10,000 copies. He is a misogynist who thinks it disgusting that Dagny Taggart is a railroad vice-president.\n", "BULLET::::- The Fishwife is one of the strikers, who earns her living by providing the fish for Hammond's grocery market; she is described as having \"dark, disheveled hair and large eyes\", and is a writer. Galt says she \"wouldn't be published outside. She believes that when one deals with words, one deals with the mind.\" According to Barbara Branden in her book \"The Passion of Ayn Rand\", \"The Fishwife is Ayn's Hitchcock-like appearance in \"Atlas Shrugged\".\" So says too Leonard Peikoff.\n", "BULLET::::- Lawrence Hammond runs Hammond Cars in Colorado, one of the few companies in existence that still produces top-quality vehicles. He eventually quits and joins the strike.\n", "BULLET::::- Richard Halley is Dagny Taggart's favorite composer, who mysteriously disappeared after the evening of his greatest triumph. Halley spent years as a struggling and unappreciated composer. At age 24, his opera \"Phaethon\" was performed for the first time, to an audience who booed and heckled it. After 19 years, \"Phaethon\" was performed again, but this time it was received to the greatest ovation the opera house had ever heard. The following day, Halley retired, sold the rights to his music, and disappeared. It is later revealed that he has joined the strike and settled in Galt's Gulch.\n", "BULLET::::- Mrs. William Hastings is the widow of the chief engineer at the Twentieth Century Motor Company. Her husband quit shortly after Galt did and joined the strike some years later. Her lead allows Dagny to find Hugh Akston.\n", "BULLET::::- Dr. Thomas Hendricks is a famous brain surgeon who developed a new method of preventing strokes. He joined Galt's strike when the American medical system was put under government control.\n", "BULLET::::- Tinky Holloway is one of the \"looters\" and is frequently referred to and quoted by other characters in the story, but he has only one major appearance: during the Washington meeting with Hank Rearden.\n", "BULLET::::- Lee Hunsacker is in charge of a company called Amalgamated Service when takes over the Twentieth Century Motor Company. He files a lawsuit that eventually leads to Midas Mulligan and Judge Narragansett joining the strike. A failed businessman, he laments constantly that no-one ever gave him a chance.\n", "BULLET::::- Gwen Ives is Hank Rearden's secretary, described as being in her late twenties and remaining calm and professional despite the chaos that threatens his business. When Rearden abandons his mills and joins Galt's strike, she and many other employees do the same.\n", "BULLET::::- Gilbert Keith-Worthing is a British novelist of erstwhile fame, now neglected but still considered a \"walking classic,\" and a proponent of the idea that freedom is an illusion. Kip Chalmers brings him along on the train to California, \"for no reason that either of them could discover\"; he dies in the Taggart Tunnel disaster.\n", "BULLET::::- Owen Kellogg is Assistant to the Manager of the Taggart Terminal in New York. He catches Dagny Taggart's eye as one of the few competent men on staff. After seeing the sorry state of the Ohio Division, she decides to make him its new Superintendent. However, as soon as she returns to New York, Kellogg informs her that he is quitting his job. Owen Kellogg eventually reaches, and settles in, Galt's Gulch.\n", "BULLET::::- Fred Kinnan is a labor leader and member of the looter cabal. Unlike the others, however, Kinnan is straightforward and honest about his purpose. Kinnan is the only one to openly state the true motivations of himself and his fellow conspirators. At the end of Galt's three-hour speech, he expresses admiration for the man, as he says what he means. Despite this, Kinnan admits that he is one of the people Galt is out to destroy.\n", "BULLET::::- Paul Larkin is an unsuccessful, middle-aged businessman, a friend of the Rearden family. He meets with the other Looters to work out a plan to bring Rearden down. James Taggart knows he is friends with Hank Rearden and challenges his loyalty, and Larkin assures Taggart that he will go along with them.\n", "BULLET::::- Eugene Lawson heads the Community Bank of Madison, then gets a job with the government when it his bank goes bankrupt. One of the looter's cabal, he is a collectivist who abhors production and money-making.\n", "BULLET::::- Mort Liddy is a hack composer who writes trite scores for movies and modern symphonies to which no one listens. He believes melody is a primitive vulgarity. He is one of Lillian Rearden's friends and a member of the cultural elite.\n", "BULLET::::- Clifton Locey is a friend of Jim Taggart who takes the position of vice-president of operation when Dagny Taggart quits.\n", "BULLET::::- Pat Logan is the engineer on the first run of the John Galt Line. He later strikes.\n", "BULLET::::- Kay Ludlow is a beautiful actress and the wife of Ragnar Danneskjöld.\n", "BULLET::::- Dick McNamara is a contractor who finished the San Sebastian Line. Dagny Taggart plans to hire him to lay the new Rearden Metal track for the Rio Norte Line, but before she does so, he mysteriously disappears. She later discovers that he has joined the strike and settled in Galt's Gulch.\n", "BULLET::::- Cuffy Meigs is the Director of Unification for the railroad business. He carries a pistol and a lucky rabbit's foot, and he dresses in a military uniform, and has been described as \"impervious to thought\". Meigs seizes control of Project X and accidentally destroys it, demolishing the country's last railroad bridge across the Mississippi River and killing himself, his men, and Dr. Stadler.\n", "BULLET::::- Dave Mitchum is a state-hired superintendent of the Colorado Division of Taggart Transcontinental. He is partially responsible for the Taggart Tunnel disaster.\n", "BULLET::::- Chick Morrison holds the position of \"Morale Conditioner\" in the government. He quits when society begins to collapse and flees to a stronghold in Tennessee. His fellow looters consider it unlikely that he will survive.\n", "BULLET::::- Horace Bussby Mowen is the president of the Amalgamated Switch and Signal Company, Inc. of Connecticut. He is a businessman who sees nothing wrong with the moral code that is destroying society and would never dream of saying he is in business for any reason other than the good of society. Dagny Taggart hires Mowen to produce switches made of Rearden Metal. He is reluctant to build anything with this unproven technology, and has to be cajoled into accepting the contract. When pressured by public opinion, he discontinues production of the switches, forcing Dagny to find an alternative source.\n", "BULLET::::- Midas Mulligan is a wealthy banker who mysteriously disappeared in protest after he was given a court order to lend money to an incompetent applicant. When the order came down, he liquidated his entire business, paid off his depositors, and joined Galt's strike. He is the legal owner of the land where Galt's Gulch is located. Mulligan's birth name was Michael, but he had it legally changed after a news article called him \"Midas\" in a derogatory fashion, which Mulligan took as a compliment.\n", "BULLET::::- Judge Narragansett is an American jurist who ruled in favor of Midas Mulligan during the case brought against him by the incompetent loan applicant. When Narragansett's ruling was reversed on appeal, he retired and joined the strike. At the end of the novel, he is seen editing the United States Constitution, crossing out the contradicting amendments of it and adding an amendment to prohibit Congress from passing laws that restrain freedom of trade.\n", "BULLET::::- Ben Nealy is a railroad contractor whom Dagny Taggart hires to replace the track on the Rio Norte Line with Rearden Metal. Nealy is incompetent, but Dagny can find no one better in all the country. Nealy believes that anything can get done with enough muscle power. He sees no role for intelligence in human achievement. He relies on Dagny and Ellis Wyatt to run things, and resents them for doing it, because it appears to him like they are just bossing people around.\n", "BULLET::::- Ted Nielsen is the head of Nielsen Motors. He eventually goes on strike, along with most of the other industrialist \"producer\" types, by closing his motor factory. Dagny later finds him when she visits Galt's Gulch for the first time.\n", "BULLET::::- Betty Pope is a wealthy socialite who is having a meaningless sexual affair with James Taggart. She is deliberately crude in a way that casts ridicule on her high social position.\n", "BULLET::::- Dr. Potter holds some undefined position with the State Science Institute. He is sent to try to obtain the rights to Rearden Metal.\n", "BULLET::::- Dr. Simon Pritchett is the prestigious head of the Department of Philosophy at Patrick Henry University and is considered the leading philosopher of the age. He believes that man is nothing but a collection of chemicals, reason is a superstition, it is futile to seek meaning in life, and the duty of a philosopher is to show that nothing can be understood.\n", "BULLET::::- Rearden's mother, whose name is not mentioned, lives with Rearden at his home in Philadelphia. She is involved in charity work, and berates Rearden whenever she can. She dotes on her weak son Philip Rearden.\n", "BULLET::::- Philip Rearden is the younger brother of Hank Rearden. He lives in his brother's home in Philadelphia and is completely dependent on him. He is resentful of his brother's charity.\n", "BULLET::::- Dwight Sanders owns Sanders Aircraft, a producer of high-quality airplanes, and joins the strike.\n", "BULLET::::- Bertram Scudder is an editorial writer for the magazine \"The Future\". He typically bashes business and businessmen, but he never says anything specific in his articles, relying on innuendo, sneers, and denunciation. He wrote a hatchet job on Hank Rearden called \"The Octopus\". He is also vocal in support of the Equalization of Opportunity Bill. Scudder claims that the most important thing in life is \"brother love\" but seems to have nothing but hatred for those around him. He loses his job after Dagny Taggart reveals her affair with Hank Rearden over air on his radio show.\n", "BULLET::::- Claude Slagenhop is president of political organization Friends of Global Progress and one of Lillian Rearden's friends. He believes that ideas are just air, that this is no time for talk, but for action. Global Progress is a sponsor of the Equalization of Opportunity Bill.\n", "BULLET::::- Gerald and Ivy Starnes are the two surviving children of Jed Starnes, the founder of the Twentieth Century Motor Company. Together with their since-deceased brother Eric, they instituted a communistic payment-and-benefits program that drove the company into bankruptcy. Gerald, a dying alcoholic, and Ivy, a pseudo-Buddhist ascetic, continue to insist that the plan was perfect and that the failure of their father's company was entirely due to the workers. Eric was a weak, attention-seeking man with a pathological desire to be loved. He committed suicide after the woman he loved married another man. Gerald claims that he always acted for the good of the employees, but he was vain and incompetent and often threw lavish parties using company funds. Ivy, on the other hand, is described as a sadist who relishes seeing others in poverty, but who has no desire for wealth of her own.\n", "BULLET::::- Andrew Stockton runs the Stockton Foundry in Stockton, Colorado. When he joins the strike, he opens a foundry in Galt's Gulch.\n", "BULLET::::- Nathaniel \"Nat\" Taggart was the founder of Taggart Transcontinental. He built his railroad without any government handouts, and ran the business for no other reason than to turn a profit. He began as a penniless adventurer and ended up as one of the wealthiest men in the country. He never earned money by force or fraud (except for bribing government officials and throwing an opponent down a flight of stairs), and never apologized for becoming wealthy and successful. He was one of the most hated men of his time. Dagny is often inspired by looking at a statue of Nat Taggart at the railroad headquarters, and draws a dollar sign on its base as a signal to Francisco when she is ready to join Galt's strike. It is suspected that he is modeled after James Jerome Hill, builder of the Great Northern Railroad.\n", "BULLET::::- Mr. Thompson is the \"Head of the State\" for the United States. He is not particularly intelligent and has a very undistinguished look. He knows politics, however, and is a master of public relations and back-room deals. Rand's notes indicate that she modeled him on President Harry S. Truman, and that she deliberately decided not to call him \"President of the United States\" as this title has \"honorable connotations\" which the character does not deserve.\n", "BULLET::::- Lester Tuck is the campaign manager for Kip Chalmers and one of his guests on the train trip to California. He dies in the Taggart Tunnel disaster.\n", "BULLET::::- Clem Weatherby is a government representative on the board of directors of Taggart Transcontinental. Dagny considers him the least bad of the government representatives, since he does have some real knowledge on the running of trains. She notices, however, that he is the least appreciated by his own bosses.\n", "BULLET::::- The Wet Nurse (Tony) is a young bureaucrat sent by the government to watch over Rearden's mills. Though he starts out as a cynical follower of the looters' code, his experience at the mills transforms him, and he comes to respect and admire the producers. He is shot attempting to inform Hank Rearden about a government plot, but does succeed in warning Rearden just before he dies.\n", "BULLET::::- Ellis Wyatt is the head of Wyatt Oil. He has almost single-handedly revived the economy of Colorado by discovering a new process for extracting more oil from what were thought to be exhausted oil wells. When first introduced, he is aggressive towards Dagny, whom he does not yet know and whom he blames for what are, in fact, her brother's policies which directly threaten his business. When the government passes laws and decrees which make it impossible for him to continue, he sets all his oil wells on fire, leaving a jeering note: \"I am leaving it as I found it. Take over. It's yours.\" One particular burning well that resists all efforts to extinguish it becomes known as \"Wyatt's Torch\". Later Dagny meets him in Galt's Gulch.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Website with comprehensive list of individuals mentioned in Atlas Shrugged\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Alien\n", "Alien primarily refers to:\n", "BULLET::::- Extraterrestrial life, life which does not originate from Earth\n", "BULLET::::- Specifically, intelligent extraterrestrial beings; see List of alleged extraterrestrial beings\n", "BULLET::::- Alien (law), a person in a country who is not a national of that country\n", "Alien(s), or The Alien(s) may also refer to:\n", "Section::::Science and technology.\n", "BULLET::::- Introduced species, a species not native to its environment\n", "BULLET::::- Alien (file converter), a Linux program\n", "BULLET::::- AliEn (ALICE Environment), a grid framework\n", "BULLET::::- Alien Technology, a manufacturer of RFID technology\n", "Section::::Arts and entertainment.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Alien\" (franchise), a media franchise\n", "BULLET::::- Alien (creature in \"Alien\" franchise)\n", "Section::::Arts and entertainment.:Films.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Alien\" (film), a 1979 film by Ridley Scott\n", "BULLET::::- \"Aliens\" (film), the 1986 sequel by James Cameron\n", "BULLET::::- \"Alien 3\", third film in the series from 1992 by David Fincher\n", "BULLET::::- \"\", a 1980 unofficial sequel of the 1979 \"Alien\" film\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Alien\" (unproduced film), an incomplete 1960s IndianAmerican film\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Alien\" (2016 film), a 2016 Mexican film\n", "Section::::Arts and entertainment.:Literature.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Aliens\" (Tappan Wright novel), a 1902 novel by Mary Tappan Wright\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Aliens\" (play), a 2010 play by Annie Baker\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Alien\" (Animorphs), the eighth book in the \"Animorphs\" series\n", "BULLET::::- \"Alien\" novels, an extension of the \"Alien\" franchise\n", "Section::::Arts and entertainment.:Music.\n", "Section::::Arts and entertainment.:Music.:Performers.\n", "BULLET::::- Alien (band), a 1980s Swedish rock group\n", "BULLET::::- The Aliens (Australian band), a 1970s new wave group\n", "BULLET::::- The Aliens (Scottish band), a 2005–2008 rock group\n", "Section::::Arts and entertainment.:Music.:Albums.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Alien\" (Northlane album)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Alien\" (Strapping Young Lad album)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Alien\" (Tankard album)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Alien\" (soundtrack)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Aliens\" (soundtrack)\n", "Section::::Arts and entertainment.:Music.:Songs.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Alien\" (Britney Spears song)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Alien\" (Jonas Blue and Sabrina Carpenter song)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Alien\" (Pennywise song)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Alien\" (Third Day song)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Aliens\" (Coldplay song)\n", "BULLET::::- \"My Alien\", a song by Simple Plan on the album \"No Pads, No Helmets... Just Balls\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Alien\", a song by Bush on the album \"Sixteen Stone\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Alien\", a song by Erasure on the album \"Loveboat\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Alien\", a song by Japan on the album \"Quiet Life\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Alien\", a song by Lamb on the album \"Fear of Fours\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Alien\", a song by Nerina Pallot on the album \"Dear Frustrated Superstar\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Alien\", a song by P-Model on the album \"Landsale\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Alien\", a song by Thriving Ivory on their self-titled album\n", "BULLET::::- \"Alien\", a song by Tokio Hotel on the album \"Humanoid\". Also, fans of the band call themselves Aliens\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Aliens\", a song by Warlord\n", "Section::::Arts and entertainment.:Video games.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Aliens\" (1982 video game), a text-only clone of \"Space Invaders\" written for the CP/M operating system on the Kaypro computer\n", "BULLET::::- \"Alien\" (Atari 2600), a 1982 maze game based on the 1979 film\n", "BULLET::::- \"Alien\" (1984 video game), based on the film\n", "BULLET::::- \"Aliens\" (1990 video game), a game by Konami, based on the sequel of the film\n", "BULLET::::- \"\", a 2014 video game based on the \"Alien\" science fiction horror film series\n", "Section::::Arts and entertainment.:Other media.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Alien\" (Armenian TV series), a 2017 melodrama series\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Aliens\" (TV series), 2016 British sci-fi television series\n", "BULLET::::- \"Alien\" (sculpture), a 2012 work by David Breuer-Weil, in Mottisfont, Hampshire, England\n", "BULLET::::- \"Aliens\" (Dark Horse Comics line)\n", "Section::::Other uses.\n", "BULLET::::- Alien (shipping company), a Russian company\n", "BULLET::::- Alien Sun (born 1974), Singaporean actress\n", "BULLET::::- \"Alien\", a perfume by Thierry Mugler\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Astrobiology, the study of hypothetical alien life\n", "BULLET::::- Alien vs. Predator (disambiguation)\n", "BULLET::::- Alians, an Islamic order\n", "BULLET::::- \"ATLiens\", a 1996 album by OutKast\n", "BULLET::::- Unidentified flying object (disambiguation)\n", "BULLET::::- UFO (disambiguation)\n" ] }

{ "paragraph_id": [ 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 28, 29, 30, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 54, 55, 56, 57, 60, 61, 62, 63, 65, 66, 67, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74 ], "start": [ 12, 67, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 13, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 60, 50, 53, 51, 50, 59, 53, 49, 57, 36, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 34, 12, 12, 12, 13, 12, 12 ], "end": [ 33, 106, 23, 30, 34, 37, 28, 31, 49, 26, 27, 20, 41, 35, 42, 31, 35, 26, 24, 40, 38, 37, 47, 35, 32, 33, 41, 59, 36, 36, 36, 93, 63, 61, 61, 63, 84, 61, 72, 65, 43, 38, 32, 37, 38, 40, 36, 31, 45, 36, 21, 48, 24, 47, 18, 20, 55, 32 ], "text": [ "Extraterrestrial life", "List of alleged extraterrestrial beings", "Alien (law)", "Introduced species", "Alien (file converter)", "AliEn (ALICE Environment)", "Alien Technology", "\"Alien\" (franchise)", "Alien (creature in \"Alien\" franchise)", "\"Alien\" (film)", "\"Aliens\" (film)", "Alien 3", "\"The Alien\" (unproduced film)", "\"The Alien\" (2016 film)", "\"Aliens\" (Tappan Wright novel)", "\"The Aliens\" (play)", "\"The Alien\" (Animorphs)", "\"Alien\" novels", "Alien (band)", "The Aliens (Australian band)", "The Aliens (Scottish band)", "\"Alien\" (Northlane album)", "\"Alien\" (Strapping Young Lad album)", "\"Alien\" (Tankard album)", "\"Alien\" (soundtrack)", "\"Aliens\" (soundtrack)", "\"Alien\" (Britney Spears song)", "\"Alien\" (Jonas Blue and Sabrina Carpenter song)", "\"Alien\" (Pennywise song)", "\"Alien\" (Third Day song)", "\"Aliens\" (Coldplay song)", "No Pads, No Helmets... Just Balls", "Sixteen Stone", "Loveboat", "Quiet Life", "Fear of Fours", "Dear Frustrated Superstar", "Landsale", "their self-titled album", "Humanoid", "Warlord", "\"Aliens\" (1982 video game)", "\"Alien\" (Atari 2600)", "\"Alien\" (1984 video game)", "\"Aliens\" (1990 video game)", "\"Alien\" (Armenian TV series)", "\"The Aliens\" (TV series)", "\"Alien\" (sculpture)", "\"Aliens\" (Dark Horse Comics line)", "Alien (shipping company)", "Alien Sun", "Thierry Mugler", "Astrobiology", "Alien vs. Predator (disambiguation)", "Alians", "ATLiens", "Unidentified flying object (disambiguation)", "UFO (disambiguation)" ], "href": [ "Extraterrestrial%20life", "List%20of%20alleged%20extraterrestrial%20beings", "Alien%20%28law%29", "Introduced%20species", "Alien%20%28file%20converter%29", "AliEn%20%28ALICE%20Environment%29", "Alien%20Technology", "Alien%20%28franchise%29", "Alien%20%28creature%20in%20Alien%20franchise%29", "Alien%20%28film%29", "Aliens%20%28film%29", "Alien%203", "The%20Alien%20%28unproduced%20film%29", "The%20Alien%20%282016%20film%29", "Aliens%20%28Tappan%20Wright%20novel%29", "The%20Aliens%20%28play%29", "The%20Alien%20%28Animorphs%29", "Alien%20novels", "Alien%20%28band%29", "The%20Aliens%20%28Australian%20band%29", "The%20Aliens%20%28Scottish%20band%29", "Alien%20%28Northlane%20album%29", "Alien%20%28Strapping%20Young%20Lad%20album%29", "Alien%20%28Tankard%20album%29", "Alien%20%28soundtrack%29", "Aliens%20%28soundtrack%29", "Alien%20%28Britney%20Spears%20song%29", "Alien%20%28Jonas%20Blue%20and%20Sabrina%20Carpenter%20song%29", "Alien%20%28Pennywise%20song%29", "Alien%20%28Third%20Day%20song%29", "Aliens%20%28Coldplay%20song%29", "No%20Pads%2C%20No%20Helmets...%20Just%20Balls", "Sixteen%20Stone", "Loveboat%20%28album%29", "Quiet%20Life", "Fear%20of%20Fours", "Dear%20Frustrated%20Superstar", "Landsale%20%28P-Model%20album%29", "Thriving%20Ivory%20%28album%29", "Humanoid%20%28album%29", "Warlord%20%28band%29", "Aliens%20%281982%20video%20game%29", "Alien%20%28Atari%202600%29", "Alien%20%281984%20video%20game%29", "Aliens%20%281990%20video%20game%29", "Alien%20%28Armenian%20TV%20series%29", "The%20Aliens%20%28TV%20series%29", "Alien%20%28sculpture%29", "Aliens%20%28Dark%20Horse%20Comics%20line%29", "Alien%20%28shipping%20company%29", "Alien%20Sun", "Thierry%20Mugler%23Fragrances", "Astrobiology", "Alien%20vs.%20Predator%20%28disambiguation%29", "Alians", "ATLiens", "Unidentified%20flying%20object%20%28disambiguation%29", "UFO%20%28disambiguation%29" ], "wikipedia_title": [ "Extraterrestrial life", "List of alleged extraterrestrial beings", "Alien (law)", "Introduced species", "Alien (file converter)", "ALICE experiment", "Alien Technology", "Alien (franchise)", "Alien (creature in Alien franchise)", "Alien (film)", "Aliens (film)", "Alien 3", "The Alien (unproduced film)", "The Alien (2016 film)", "Aliens (Tappan Wright novel)", "The Aliens (play)", "The Alien (novel)", "List of Alien (franchise) novels", "Alien (band)", "The Aliens (Australian band)", "The Aliens (Scottish band)", "Alien (Northlane album)", "Alien (Strapping Young Lad album)", "Tankard (band)", "Alien (soundtrack)", "Aliens (soundtrack)", "Alien (Britney Spears song)", "Alien (Jonas Blue and Sabrina Carpenter song)", "Alien (Pennywise song)", "Conspiracy No. 5", "Aliens (Coldplay song)", "No Pads, No Helmets...Just Balls", "Sixteen Stone", "Loveboat (album)", "Quiet Life", "Fear of Fours", "Dear Frustrated Superstar", "Landsale (album)", "Thriving Ivory (album)", "Humanoid (album)", "Warlord (band)", "Aliens (1982 video game)", "Alien (Atari 2600)", "Alien (1984 video game)", "Aliens (1990 video game)", "Alien (Armenian TV series)", "The Aliens (TV series)", "Alien (sculpture)", "Aliens (Dark Horse Comics line)", "Alien (shipping company)", "Alien Sun", "Thierry Mugler", "Astrobiology", "Alien vs. Predator (disambiguation)", "Alians", "ATLiens", "Unidentified flying object (disambiguation)", "UFO (disambiguation)" ], "wikipedia_id": [ "9588", "10422207", "1703155", "394815", "1703204", "2575969", "274674", "6245494", "612467", "23487440", "213472", "213251", "7742919", "51564711", "14503636", "42537653", "7041356", "7555215", "18619893", "23225321", "1556258", "60749471", "1762915", "1038861", "16267084", "16265867", "41111017", "56850678", "6834574", "3617024", "53364979", "806242", "206838", "2062581", "1903189", "3205353", "5250724", "2520482", "19108395", "24230412", "11499828", "36800750", "2345102", "47262419", "17006490", "56309144", "49640989", "45711232", "3503918", "24282341", "8471756", "2685005", "2787", "1130320", "5771288", "1715433", "56254618", "703863" ] }

{ "description": "Wikimedia disambiguation page", "enwikiquote_title": "Alien", "wikidata_id": "Q226391", "wikidata_label": "Alien", "wikipedia_title": "Alien", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Aliens" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Agricultural science\n", "Agricultural science is a broad multidisciplinary field of biology that encompasses the parts of exact, natural, economic and social sciences that are used in the practice and understanding of agriculture. (Veterinary science, but not animal science, is often excluded from the definition.)\n", "Section::::Agriculture, agricultural science, and agronomy.\n", "The three terms are often confused. However, they cover different concepts:\n", "BULLET::::- Agriculture is the set of activities that transform the environment for the production of animals and plants for human use. Agriculture concerns techniques, including the application of agronomic research.\n", "BULLET::::- Agronomy is research and development related to studying and improving plant-based crops.\n", "Agricultural sciences include research and development on:\n", "BULLET::::- Plant Breeding and Genetics\n", "BULLET::::- Plant Pathology\n", "BULLET::::- Horticulture\n", "BULLET::::- Soil Science\n", "BULLET::::- Entomology\n", "BULLET::::- Production techniques (e.g., irrigation management, recommended nitrogen inputs)\n", "BULLET::::- Improving agricultural productivity in terms of quantity and quality (e.g., selection of drought-resistant crops and animals, development of new pesticides, yield-sensing technologies, simulation models of crop growth, in-vitro cell culture techniques)\n", "BULLET::::- Minimizing the effects of pests (weeds, insects, pathogens, nematodes) on crop or animal production systems.\n", "BULLET::::- Transformation of primary products into end-consumer products (e.g., production, preservation, and packaging of dairy products)\n", "BULLET::::- Prevention and correction of adverse environmental effects (e.g., soil degradation, waste management, bioremediation)\n", "BULLET::::- Theoretical production ecology, relating to crop production modeling\n", "BULLET::::- Traditional agricultural systems, sometimes termed subsistence agriculture, which feed most of the poorest people in the world. These systems are of interest as they sometimes retain a level of integration with natural ecological systems greater than that of industrial agriculture, which may be more sustainable than some modern agricultural systems.\n", "BULLET::::- Food production and demand on a global basis, with special attention paid to the major producers, such as China, India, Brazil, the US and the EU.\n", "BULLET::::- Various sciences relating to agricultural resources and the environment (e.g. soil science, agroclimatology); biology of agricultural crops and animals (e.g. crop science, animal science and their included sciences, e.g. ruminant nutrition, farm animal welfare); such fields as agricultural economics and rural sociology; various disciplines encompassed in agricultural engineering.\n", "Section::::Agriculture, agricultural science, and agronomy.:Agricultural biotechnology.\n", "Agricultural biotechnology is a specific area of agricultural science involving the use of scientific tools and techniques, including genetic engineering, molecular markers, molecular diagnostics, vaccines, and tissue culture, to modify living organisms: plants, animals, and microorganisms.\n", "Section::::Fertilizer.\n", "One of the most common yield reducers is because of fertilizer not being applied in slightly higher quantities during transition period, the time it takes the soil to rebuild its aggregates and organic matter. Yields will decrease temporarily because of nitrogen being immobilized in the crop residue, which can take a few months to several years to decompose, depending on the crop's C to N ratio and the local environment.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "In the 18th century, Johann Friedrich Mayer conducted experiments on the use of gypsum (hydrated calcium sulphate) as a fertilizer.\n", "In 1843, John Lawes and Joseph Henry Gilbert began a set of long-term field experiments at Rothamsted Research Station in England; some of them are still running.\n", "In the United States, a scientific revolution in agriculture began with the Hatch Act of 1887, which used the term \"agricultural science\". The Hatch Act was driven by farmers' interest in knowing the constituents of early artificial fertilizer. The Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 shifted agricultural education back to its vocational roots, but the scientific foundation had been built. After 1906, public expenditures on agricultural research in the US exceeded private expenditures for the next 44 years.\n", "Section::::Prominent agricultural scientists.\n", "BULLET::::- Robert Bakewell\n", "BULLET::::- Norman Borlaug\n", "BULLET::::- Luther Burbank\n", "BULLET::::- George Washington Carver\n", "BULLET::::- Carl Henry Clerk\n", "BULLET::::- George C. Clerk\n", "BULLET::::- René Dumont\n", "BULLET::::- Sir Albert Howard\n", "BULLET::::- Kailas Nath Kaul\n", "BULLET::::- Justus von Liebig\n", "BULLET::::- Jay Lush\n", "BULLET::::- Gregor Mendel\n", "BULLET::::- Louis Pasteur\n", "BULLET::::- M. S. Swaminathan\n", "BULLET::::- Jethro Tull\n", "BULLET::::- Artturi Ilmari Virtanen\n", "BULLET::::- Eli Whitney\n", "BULLET::::- Sewall Wright\n", "BULLET::::- Wilbur Olin Atwater\n", "Section::::Fields or related disciplines.\n", "BULLET::::- Agricultural biotechnology\n", "BULLET::::- Agricultural chemistry\n", "BULLET::::- Agricultural diversification\n", "BULLET::::- Agricultural education\n", "BULLET::::- Agricultural economics\n", "BULLET::::- Agricultural engineering\n", "BULLET::::- Agricultural geography\n", "BULLET::::- Agricultural philosophy\n", "BULLET::::- Agricultural marketing\n", "BULLET::::- Agricultural soil science\n", "BULLET::::- Agroecology\n", "BULLET::::- Agrophysics\n", "BULLET::::- Animal science\n", "BULLET::::- Animal breeding\n", "BULLET::::- Animal husbandry\n", "BULLET::::- Animal nutrition\n", "BULLET::::- Farm management\n", "BULLET::::- Agronomy\n", "BULLET::::- Botany\n", "BULLET::::- Theoretical production ecology\n", "BULLET::::- Horticulture\n", "BULLET::::- Plant breeding\n", "BULLET::::- Plant fertilization\n", "BULLET::::- Aquaculture\n", "BULLET::::- Biological engineering\n", "BULLET::::- Genetic engineering\n", "BULLET::::- Nematology\n", "BULLET::::- Microbiology\n", "BULLET::::- Plant pathology\n", "BULLET::::- Range management\n", "BULLET::::- Environmental science\n", "BULLET::::- Entomology\n", "BULLET::::- Food science\n", "BULLET::::- Human nutrition\n", "BULLET::::- Irrigation and water management\n", "BULLET::::- Soil science\n", "BULLET::::- Agrology\n", "BULLET::::- Waste management\n", "BULLET::::- Weed science\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Agricultural Research Council\n", "BULLET::::- Agricultural sciences basic topics\n", "BULLET::::- Agriculture ministry\n", "BULLET::::- Agroecology\n", "BULLET::::- American Society of Agronomy\n", "BULLET::::- Genomics of domestication\n", "BULLET::::- History of agricultural science\n", "BULLET::::- Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences\n", "BULLET::::- International Assessment of Agricultural Science and Technology for Development\n", "BULLET::::- International Food Policy Research Institute, IFPRI\n", "BULLET::::- List of agriculture topics\n", "BULLET::::- National FFA Organization\n", "BULLET::::- Research Institute of Crop Production (RICP) (in the Czech Republic)\n", "BULLET::::- University of Agricultural Sciences\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- Agricultural Research, Livelihoods, and Poverty: Studies of Economic and Social Impacts in Six Countries Edited by Michelle Adato and Ruth Meinzen-Dick (2007), Johns Hopkins University Press Food Policy Report\n", "BULLET::::- Claude Bourguignon, \"Regenerating the Soil: From Agronomy to Agrology\", Other India Press, 2005\n", "BULLET::::- Pimentel David, Pimentel Marcia, \"Computer les kilocalories\", Cérès, n. 59, sept-oct. 1977\n", "BULLET::::- Russell E. Walter, \"Soil conditions and plant growth\", Longman group, London, New York 1973\n", "BULLET::::- Salamini Francesco, Oezkan Hakan, Brandolini Andrea, Schaefer-Pregl Ralf, Martin William, \"Genetics and geography of wild cereal domestication in the Near East\", in Nature, vol. 3, ju. 2002\n", "BULLET::::- Saltini Antonio, \"Storia delle scienze agrarie\", 4 vols, Bologna 1984-89, , , ,\n", "BULLET::::- Vavilov Nicolai I. (Starr Chester K. editor), \"The Origin, Variation, Immunity and Breeding of Cultivated Plants. Selected Writings\", in Chronica botanica, 13: 1-6, Waltham, Mass., 1949–50\n", "BULLET::::- Vavilov Nicolai I., \"World Resources of Cereals, Leguminous Seed Crops and Flax,\" Academy of Sciences of Urss, National Science Foundation, Washington, Israel Program for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem 1960\n", "BULLET::::- Winogradsky Serge, \"Microbiologie du sol. Problèmes et methodes. Cinquante ans de recherches,\" Masson & c.ie, Paris 1949\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR)\n", "BULLET::::- Agricultural Research Service\n", "BULLET::::- Indian Council of Agricultural Research\n", "BULLET::::- International Institute of Tropical Agriculture\n", "BULLET::::- International Livestock Research Institute\n", "BULLET::::- The National Agricultural Library (NAL) - The most comprehensive agricultural library in the world.\n", "BULLET::::- Crop Science Society of America\n", "BULLET::::- American Society of Agronomy\n", "BULLET::::- Soil Science Society of America\n", "BULLET::::- Agricultural Science Researchers, Jobs and Discussions\n", "BULLET::::- Information System for Agriculture and Food Research\n", "BULLET::::- South Dakota Agricultural Laboratories\n", "BULLET::::- NMSU Department of Entomology Plant Pathology and Weed Science\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Austin (disambiguation)\n", "Austin is the capital of Texas in the United States.\n", "Austin may also refer to:\n", "Section::::People names.\n", "BULLET::::- Austin (name) - a short form of Augustin, or Augustine\n", "BULLET::::- Augustin (disambiguation)\n", "BULLET::::- Augustine (disambiguation)\n", "BULLET::::- August (disambiguation)\n", "Section::::Geographical locations.\n", "Section::::Geographical locations.:Australia.\n", "BULLET::::- Austin, Western Australia\n", "Section::::Geographical locations.:Canada.\n", "BULLET::::- Austin, Manitoba\n", "BULLET::::- Austin, Ontario\n", "BULLET::::- Austin, Quebec\n", "BULLET::::- Austin Island, Nunavut\n", "Section::::Geographical locations.:France.\n", "BULLET::::- Saint-Austin, hamlet at la Neuville-Chant-d'Oisel, Normandy\n", "Section::::Geographical locations.:United States of America.\n", "BULLET::::- Austin, Arkansas\n", "BULLET::::- Austin, Colorado\n", "BULLET::::- Austin, Illinois:\n", "BULLET::::- Austin Township, Macon County, Illinois\n", "BULLET::::- Austin, Chicago, Cook County, Illinois\n", "BULLET::::- Austin, Indiana\n", "BULLET::::- Austin, Kentucky\n", "BULLET::::- Austin, Minnesota\n", "BULLET::::- Austin, Missouri\n", "BULLET::::- Austin, Nevada\n", "BULLET::::- Austin, Ohio\n", "BULLET::::- Austin, Oregon\n", "BULLET::::- Austin, Texas\n", "BULLET::::- Austin County, Texas (note that the city of Austin, Texas is located in Travis County)\n", "Section::::Schools.\n", "BULLET::::- Austin College, Sherman, Texas\n", "BULLET::::- University of Texas at Austin, flagship institution of the University of Texas System\n", "BULLET::::- Austin Peay State University, Clarksville, Tennessee\n", "Section::::Religion.\n", "BULLET::::- Augustine of Hippo or Augustine of Canterbury\n", "BULLET::::- An adjective for the Augustinians\n", "Section::::Business.\n", "BULLET::::- Austin Automobile Company, short-lived American automobile company\n", "BULLET::::- Austin (brand), a brand owned by the Kellogg Company\n", "BULLET::::- Austin Motor Company, British car manufacturer\n", "BULLET::::- American Austin Car Company, short-lived American automobile maker\n", "Section::::Entertainment.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Austin\" (song), a single by Blake Shelton\n", "BULLET::::- Austin, a kangaroo Beanie Baby produced by Ty, Inc.\n", "BULLET::::- Austin the kangaroo from the children's television series \"The Backyardigans\"\n", "BULLET::::- Austin Moon, titular character in the television show \"Austin & Ally\"\n", "Section::::Other uses.\n", "BULLET::::- USS \"Austin\", three ships\n", "BULLET::::- Austin station (disambiguation), various public transportation stations\n", "BULLET::::- \"Austin\" (building), a building designed by artist Ellsworth Kelly under construction in Austin, Texas\n", "BULLET::::- Austin Allegro, a small family car that was manufactured by the Austin-Morris division of British Leyland from 1973 until 1982\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Austen (disambiguation)\n", "BULLET::::- Augustine (disambiguation)\n", "BULLET::::- Justice Austin (disambiguation)\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Altruism\n", "Altruism is the principle and moral practice of concern for happiness of other human beings and/or animals, resulting in a quality of life both material and spiritual. It is a traditional virtue in many cultures and a core aspect of various religious traditions and secular worldviews, though the concept of \"others\" toward whom concern should be directed can vary among cultures and religions. In an extreme case, altruism may become a synonym of selflessness which is the opposite of selfishness.\n", "The word \"altruism\" was coined by the French philosopher Auguste Comte in French, as \"altruisme\", for an antonym of egoism. He derived it from the Italian \"altrui\", which in turn was derived from Latin \"alteri\", meaning \"other people\" or \"somebody else\".\n", "Altruism in biological observations in field populations of the day organisms is an individual performing an action which is at a cost to themselves (e.g., pleasure and quality of life, time, probability of survival or reproduction), but benefits, either directly or indirectly, another third-party individual, without the expectation of reciprocity or compensation for that action. Steinberg suggests a definition for altruism in the clinical setting, that is \"intentional and voluntary actions that aim to enhance the welfare of another person in the absence of any quid pro quo external rewards\". In one sense, the opposite of altruism is spite; a spiteful action harms another with no self-benefit.\n", "Altruism can be distinguished from feelings of loyalty, in that whilst the latter is predicated upon social relationships, altruism does not consider relationships. Much debate exists as to whether \"\"true\"\" altruism is possible in human psychology. The theory of psychological egoism suggests that no act of sharing, helping or sacrificing can be described as truly altruistic, as the actor may receive an intrinsic reward in the form of personal gratification. The validity of this argument depends on whether intrinsic rewards qualify as \"benefits\".\n", "The term \"altruism\" may also refer to an ethical doctrine that claims that individuals are morally obliged to benefit others. Used in this sense, it is usually contrasted with egoism, which claims individuals are morally obligated to serve themselves first.\n", "Section::::The notion of altruism.\n", "The concept has a long history in philosophical and ethical thought. The term was originally coined in the 19th century by the founding sociologist and philosopher of science, Auguste Comte, and has become a major topic for psychologists (especially evolutionary psychology researchers), evolutionary biologists, and ethologists. Whilst ideas about altruism from one field can affect the other fields, the different methods and focuses of these fields always lead to different perspectives on altruism. In simple terms, altruism is caring about the welfare of other people and acting to help them.\n", "Section::::Scientific viewpoints.\n", "Section::::Scientific viewpoints.:Anthropology.\n", "Marcel Mauss's book \"The Gift\" contains a passage called \"Note on alms\". This note describes the evolution of the notion of alms (and by extension of altruism) from the notion of sacrifice. In it, he writes:\n", "Alms are the fruits of a moral notion of the gift and of fortune on the one hand, and of a notion of sacrifice, on the other. Generosity is an obligation, because Nemesis avenges the poor and the gods for the superabundance of happiness and wealth of certain people who should rid themselves of it. This is the ancient morality of the gift, which has become a principle of justice. The gods and the spirits accept that the share of wealth and happiness that has been offered to them and had been hitherto destroyed in useless sacrifices should serve the poor and children.\n", "BULLET::::- Compare Altruism (ethics) – perception of altruism as self-sacrifice.\n", "BULLET::::- Compare explanation of alms in various scriptures.\n", "Section::::Scientific viewpoints.:Evolutionary explanations.\n", "In the science of ethology (the study of animal behaviour), and more generally in the study of social evolution, altruism refers to behaviour by an individual that increases the fitness of another individual while decreasing the fitness of the actor. In evolutionary psychology this may be applied to a wide range of human behaviors such as charity, emergency aid, help to coalition partners, tipping, courtship gifts, production of public goods, and environmentalism.\n", "Theories of apparently altruistic behavior were accelerated by the need to produce theories compatible with evolutionary origins. Two related strands of research on altruism have emerged from traditional evolutionary analyses and from evolutionary game theory a mathematical model and analysis of behavioural strategies.\n", "Some of the proposed mechanisms are:\n", "BULLET::::- Kin selection. That animals and humans are more altruistic towards close kin than to distant kin and non-kin has been confirmed in numerous studies across many different cultures. Even subtle cues indicating kinship may unconsciously increase altruistic behavior. One kinship cue is facial resemblance. One study found that slightly altering photographs so that they more closely resembled the faces of study participants increased the trust the participants expressed regarding depicted persons. Another cue is having the same family name, especially if rare, and this has been found to increase helpful behavior. Another study found more cooperative behavior the greater the number of perceived kin in a group. Using kinship terms in political speeches increased audience agreement with the speaker in one study. This effect was especially strong for firstborns, who are typically close to their families.\n", "BULLET::::- Vested interests. People are likely to suffer if their friends, allies, and similar social ingroups suffer or even disappear. Helping such group members may therefore eventually benefit the altruist. Making ingroup membership more noticeable increases cooperativeness. Extreme self-sacrifice towards the ingroup may be adaptive if a hostile outgroup threatens to kill the entire ingroup.\n", "BULLET::::- Reciprocal altruism. See also Reciprocity (evolution).\n", "BULLET::::- Direct reciprocity. Research shows that it can be beneficial to help others if there is a chance that they can and will reciprocate the help. The effective tit for tat strategy is one game theoretic example. Many people seem to be following a similar strategy by cooperating if and only if others cooperate in return.\n", "BULLET::::- One consequence is that people are more cooperative if it is more likely that individuals will interact again in the future. People tend to be less cooperative if they perceive that the frequency of helpers in the population is lower. They tend to help less if they see non-cooperativeness by others and this effect tend to be stronger than the opposite effect of seeing cooperative behaviors. Simply changing the cooperative framing of a proposal may increase cooperativeness such as calling it a \"Community Game\" instead of a \"Wall Street Game.\"\n", "BULLET::::- A tendency towards reciprocity implies that people will feel obligated to respond if someone helps them. This has been used by charities that give small gifts to potential donors hoping thereby to induce reciprocity. Another method is to announce publicly that someone has given a large donation. The tendency to reciprocate can even generalize so people become more helpful toward others in general after being helped. On the other hand, people will avoid or even retaliate against those perceived not to be cooperating. People sometimes mistakenly fail to help when they intended to, or their helping may not be noticed, which may cause unintended conflicts. As such, it may be an optimal strategy to be slightly forgiving of and have a slightly generous interpretation of non-cooperation.\n", "BULLET::::- People are more likely to cooperate on a task if they can communicate with one another first. This may be due to better assessments of cooperativeness or due to exchange of promises. They are more cooperative if they can gradually build trust, instead of being asked to give extensive help immediately. Direct reciprocity and cooperation in a group can be increased by changing the focus and incentives from intra-group competition to larger scale competitions such as between groups or against the general population. Thus, giving grades and promotions based only on an individual's performance relative to a small local group, as is common, may reduce cooperative behaviors in the group.\n", "BULLET::::- Indirect reciprocity. The avoidance of poor reciprocators and cheaters causes a person's reputation to become very important. A person with a good reputation for reciprocity have a higher chance of receiving help even from persons they have had no direct interactions with previously.\n", "BULLET::::- Strong reciprocity. A form of reciprocity where some individuals seem to spend more resources on cooperating and punishing than would be most beneficial as predicted by several established theories of altruism. A number of theories have been proposed as explanations as well as criticisms regarding its existence.\n", "BULLET::::- Pseudo-reciprocity. An organism behaves altruistically and the recipient does not reciprocate but has an increased chance of acting in a way that is selfish but also as a byproduct benefits the altruist.\n", "BULLET::::- Costly signaling and the handicap principle. Since altruism takes away resources from the altruist it can be an \"honest signal\" of resource availability and the abilities needed to gather resources. This may signal to others that the altruist is a valuable potential partner. It may also be a signal of interactive and cooperative intentions since those not interacting further in the future gain nothing from the costly signaling. It is unclear if costly signaling can indicate a long-term cooperative personality but people have increased trust for those who help. Costly signaling is pointless if everyone has the same traits, resources, and cooperative intentions but become a potentially more important signal if the population increasingly varies on these characteristics.\n", "BULLET::::- Group selection. It has controversially been argued by some evolutionary scientists such as David Sloan Wilson that natural selection can act at the level of non-kin groups to produce adaptations that benefit a non-kin group even if these adaptions are detrimental at the individual level. Thus, while altruistic persons may under some circumstances be outcompeted by less altruistic persons at the individual level, according to group selection theory the opposite may occur at the group level where groups consisting of the more altruistic persons may outcompete groups consisting of the less altruistic persons. Such altruism may only extend to ingroup members while there may instead prejudice and antagonism against outgroup members (See also in-group favoritism). Group selection theory has been criticized by many other evolutionary scientists.\n", "Such explanations do not imply that humans are always consciously calculating how to increase their inclusive fitness when they are doing altruistic acts. Instead, evolution has shaped psychological mechanisms, such as emotions, that promote altruistic behaviors.\n", "Every single instance of altruistic behavior need not always increase inclusive fitness; altruistic behaviors would have been selected for if such behaviors on average increased inclusive fitness in the ancestral environment. This need not imply that on average 50% or more of altruistic acts were beneficial for the altruist in the ancestral environment; if the benefits from helping the right person were very high it would be beneficial to err on the side of caution and usually be altruistic even if in most cases there were no benefits.\n", "The benefits for the altruist may be increased and the costs reduced by being more altruistic towards certain groups. Research has found that people are more altruistic to kin than to no-kin, to friends than to strangers, to those attractive than to those unattractive, to non-competitors than to competitors, and to members ingroups than to members of outgroup.\n", "The study of altruism was the initial impetus behind George R. Price's development of the Price equation, which is a mathematical equation used to study genetic evolution. An interesting example of altruism is found in the cellular slime moulds, such as \"Dictyostelium mucoroides.\" These protists live as individual amoebae until starved, at which point they aggregate and form a multicellular fruiting body in which some cells sacrifice themselves to promote the survival of other cells in the fruiting body.\n", "Selective investment theory proposes that close social bonds, and associated emotional, cognitive, and neurohormonal mechanisms, evolved in order to facilitate long-term, high-cost altruism between those closely depending on one another for survival and reproductive success.\n", "Such cooperative behaviors have sometimes been seen as arguments for left-wing politics such by the Russian zoologist and anarchist Peter Kropotkin in his 1902 book \"\" and Peter Singer in his book \"A Darwinian Left.\"\n", "Section::::Scientific viewpoints.:Neurobiology.\n", "Jorge Moll and Jordan Grafman, neuroscientists at the National Institutes of Health and LABS-D'Or Hospital Network (J.M.) provided the first evidence for the neural bases of altruistic giving in normal healthy volunteers, using functional magnetic resonance imaging. In their research, published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA in October 2006, they showed that both pure monetary rewards and charitable donations activated the mesolimbic reward pathway, a primitive part of the brain that usually responds to food and sex. However, when volunteers generously placed the interests of others before their own by making charitable donations, another brain circuit was selectively activated: the subgenual cortex/septal region. These structures are intimately related to social attachment and bonding in other species. Altruism, the experiment suggested, was not a superior moral faculty that suppresses basic selfish urges but rather was basic to the brain, hard-wired and pleasurable. One brain region, the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex/basal forebrain, contributes to learning altruistic behavior, especially in those with trait empathy. The same study has shown a connection between giving to charity and the promotion of social bonding.\n", "In fact, in an experiment published in March 2007 at the University of Southern California neuroscientist Antonio R. Damasio and his colleagues showed that subjects with damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex lack the ability to empathically feel their way to moral answers, and that when confronted with moral dilemmas, these brain-damaged patients coldly came up with \"end-justifies-the-means\" answers, leading Damasio to conclude that the point was not that they reached immoral conclusions, but that when they were confronted by a difficult issue — in this case as whether to shoot down a passenger plane hijacked by terrorists before it hits a major city — these patients appear to reach decisions without the anguish that afflicts those with normally functioning brains. According to Adrian Raine, a clinical neuroscientist also at the University of Southern California, one of this study's implications is that society may have to rethink how it judges immoral people: \"Psychopaths often feel no empathy or remorse. Without that awareness, people relying exclusively on reasoning seem to find it harder to sort their way through moral thickets. Does that mean they should be held to different standards of accountability?\"\n", "In another study, in the 1990s, Dr. Bill Harbaugh, a University of Oregon economist, concluded people are motivated to give for reasons of personal prestige and in a similar fMRI scanner test in 2007 with his psychologist colleague Dr. Ulrich Mayr, reached the same conclusions of Jorge Moll and Jordan Grafman about giving to charity, although they were able to divide the study group into two groups: \"egoists\" and \"altruists\". One of their discoveries was that, though rarely, even some of the considered \"egoists\" sometimes gave more than expected because that would help others, leading to the conclusion that there are other factors in cause in charity, such as a person's environment and values.\n", "Section::::Scientific viewpoints.:Psychology.\n", "The International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences defines \"psychological altruism\" as \"a motivational state with the goal of increasing another’s welfare.\" Psychological altruism is contrasted with \"psychological egoism,\" which refers to the motivation to increase one's own welfare.\n", "There has been some debate on whether or not humans are truly capable of psychological altruism. Some definitions specify a self-sacrificial nature to altruism and a lack of external rewards for altruistic behaviors. However, because altruism ultimately benefits the self in many cases, the selflessness of altruistic acts is brought to question. The social exchange theory postulates that altruism only exists when benefits to the self outweigh costs to the self. Daniel Batson is a psychologist who examined this question and argues against the social exchange theory. He identified four major motives for altruism: altruism to ultimately benefit the self (egoism), to ultimately benefit the other person (altruism), to benefit a group (collectivism), or to uphold a moral principle (principlism). Altruism that ultimately serves selfish gains is thus differentiated from selfless altruism, but the general conclusion has been that empathy-induced altruism can be genuinely selfless. The \"empathy-altruism hypothesis\" basically states that psychological altruism does exist and is evoked by the empathic desire to help someone who is suffering. Feelings of empathic concern are contrasted with feelings of personal distress, which compel people to reduce their own unpleasant emotions. People with empathic concern help others in distress even when exposure to the situation could be easily avoided, whereas those lacking in empathic concern avoid helping unless it is difficult or impossible to avoid exposure to another's suffering. Helping behavior is seen in humans at about two years old, when a toddler is capable of understanding subtle emotional cues.\n", "In psychological research on altruism, studies often observe altruism as demonstrated through prosocial behaviors such as helping, comforting, sharing, cooperation, philanthropy, and community service. Research has found that people are most likely to help if they recognize that a person is in need and feel personal responsibility for reducing the person's distress. Research also suggests that the number of bystanders witnessing distress or suffering affects the likelihood of helping (the \"Bystander effect\"). Greater numbers of bystanders decrease individual feelings of responsibility. However, a witness with a high level of empathic concern is likely to assume personal responsibility entirely regardless of the number of bystanders.\n", "Many studies have observed the effects of volunteerism (as a form of altruism) on happiness and health and have consistently found a strong connection between volunteerism and current and future health and well-being. In a study of older adults, those who volunteered were higher on life satisfaction and will to live, and lower in depression, anxiety, and somatization. Volunteerism and helping behavior have not only been shown to improve mental health, but physical health and longevity as well, attributable to the activity and social integration it encourages. One study examined the physical health of mothers who volunteered over a 30-year period and found that 52% of those who did not belong to a volunteer organization experienced a major illness while only 36% of those who did volunteer experienced one. A study on adults ages 55+ found that during the four-year study period, people who volunteered for two or more organizations had a 63% lower likelihood of dying. After controlling for prior health status, it was determined that volunteerism accounted for a 44% reduction in mortality. Merely being aware of kindness in oneself and others is also associated with greater well-being. A study that asked participants to count each act of kindness they performed for one week significantly enhanced their subjective happiness. It is important to note that, while research supports the idea that altruistic acts bring about happiness, it has also been found to work in the opposite direction—that happier people are also kinder. The relationship between altruistic behavior and happiness is bidirectional. Studies have found that generosity increases linearly from sad to happy affective states.\n", "Studies have also been careful to note that feeling over-taxed by the needs of others has conversely negative effects on health and happiness. For example, one study on volunteerism found that feeling overwhelmed by others' demands had an even stronger negative effect on mental health than helping had a positive one (although positive effects were still significant). Additionally, while generous acts make people feel good about themselves, it is also important for people to appreciate the kindness they receive from others. Studies suggest that gratitude goes hand-in-hand with kindness and is also very important for our well-being. A study on the relationship happiness to various character strengths showed that \"a conscious focus on gratitude led to reductions in negative affect and increases in optimistic appraisals, positive affect, offering emotional support, sleep quality, and well-being.\".\n", "Section::::Scientific viewpoints.:Sociology.\n", "\"Sociologists have long been concerned with how to build the good society\" (\"Altruism, Morality, and Social Solidarity\". American Sociological Association.). The structure of our societies and how individuals come to exhibit charitable, philanthropic, and other pro-social, altruistic actions for the common good is a largely researched topic within the field. The American Sociology Association (ASA) acknowledges public sociology saying, \"The intrinsic scientific, policy, and public relevance of this field of investigation in helping to construct 'good societies' is unquestionable\" (\"Altruism, Morality, and Social Solidarity\" ASA). This type of sociology seeks contributions that aid grassroots and theoretical understandings of what motivates altruism and how it is organized, and promotes an altruistic focus in order to benefit the world and people it studies. How altruism is framed, organized, carried out, and what motivates it at the group level is an area of focus that sociologists seek to investigate in order to contribute back to the groups it studies and \"build the good society\". The motivation of altruism is also the focus of study; some publications link the occurrence of moral outrage to the punishment of perpetrators and compensation of victims.\n", "Section::::Scientific viewpoints.:Pathological altruism.\n", "Pathological altruism is when altruism is taken to an unhealthy extreme, and either harms the altruistic person, or well-intentioned actions cause more harm than good.\n", "The term \"pathological altruism\" was popularised by the book \"Pathological Altruism\".\n", "Examples include depression and burnout seen in healthcare professionals, an unhealthy focus on others to the detriment of one's own needs, hoarding of animals, and ineffective philanthropic and social programs that ultimately worsen the situations they are meant to aid.\n", "Section::::Religious viewpoints.\n", "Most, if not all, of the world's religions promote altruism as a very important moral value. Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Jainism, Judaism, and Sikhism, etc., place particular emphasis on altruistic morality.\n", "Section::::Religious viewpoints.:Buddhism.\n", "Altruism figures prominently in Buddhism. Love and compassion are components of all forms of Buddhism, and are focused on all beings equally: love is the wish that all beings be happy, and compassion is the wish that all beings be free from suffering. \"Many illnesses can be cured by the one medicine of love and compassion. These qualities are the ultimate source of human happiness, and the need for them lies at the very core of our being\" (Dalai Lama).\n", "Still, the notion of altruism is modified in such a world-view, since the belief is that such a practice promotes our own happiness: \"The more we care for the happiness of others, the greater our own sense of well-being becomes\" (Dalai Lama).\n", "In the context of larger ethical discussions on moral action and judgment, Buddhism is characterized by the belief that negative (unhappy) consequences of our actions derive not from punishment or correction based on moral judgment, but from the law of karma, which functions like a natural law of cause and effect. A simple illustration of such cause and effect is the case of experiencing the effects of what one causes: if one causes suffering, then as a natural consequence one would experience suffering; if one causes happiness, then as a natural consequence one would experience happiness.\n", "Section::::Religious viewpoints.:Jainism.\n", "The fundamental principles of Jainism revolve around the concept of altruism, not only for humans but for all sentient beings. Jainism preaches the view of \"Ahimsa\" – to live and let live, thereby not harming sentient beings, i.e. uncompromising reverence for all life. It also considers all living things to be equal. The first Tirthankara, Rishabhdev, introduced the concept of altruism for all living beings, from extending knowledge and experience to others to donation, giving oneself up for others, non-violence and compassion for all living things.\n", "Jainism prescribes a path of non-violence to progress the soul to this ultimate goal. A major characteristic of Jain belief is the emphasis on the consequences of not only physical but also mental behaviors. One's unconquered mind with anger, pride (ego), deceit, greed and uncontrolled sense organs are the powerful enemies of humans. Anger spoils good relations, pride destroys humility, deceit destroys peace and greed destroys everything. Jainism recommends conquering anger by forgiveness, pride by humility, deceit by straightforwardness and greed by contentment.\n", "Jains believe that to attain enlightenment and ultimately liberation, one must practice the following ethical principles (major vows) in thought, speech and action. The degree to which these principles are practiced is different for householders and monks. They are:\n", "BULLET::::1. Non-violence (Ahimsa);\n", "BULLET::::2. Truthfulness (Satya);\n", "BULLET::::3. Non-stealing (Asteya);\n", "BULLET::::4. Celibacy (Brahmacharya);\n", "BULLET::::5. Non-possession or non-materialism (Aparigraha);\n", "The \"great vows\" (Mahavrata) are prescribed for monks and \"limited vows\" (Anuvrata) are prescribed for householders. The house-holders are encouraged to practice the above-mentioned five vows. The monks have to observe them very strictly. With consistent practice, it will be possible to overcome the limitations gradually, accelerating the spiritual progress.\n", "The principle of non-violence seeks to minimize karmas which limit the capabilities of the soul. Jainism views every soul as worthy of respect because it has the potential to become \"Siddha\" (God in Jainism). Because all living beings possess a soul, great care and awareness is essential in one's actions. Jainism emphasizes the equality of all life, advocating harmlessness towards all, whether the creatures are great or small. This policy extends even to microscopic organisms. Jainism acknowledges that every person has different capabilities and capacities to practice and therefore accepts different levels of compliance for ascetics and householders.\n", "Section::::Religious viewpoints.:Christianity.\n", "Altruism is central to the teachings of Jesus found in the Gospel, especially in the Sermon on the Mount and the Sermon on the Plain. From biblical to medieval Christian traditions, tensions between self-affirmation and other-regard were sometimes discussed under the heading of \"disinterested love\", as in the Pauline phrase \"love seeks not its own interests.\" In his book \"Indoctrination and Self-deception,\" Roderick Hindery tries to shed light on these tensions by contrasting them with impostors of authentic self-affirmation and altruism, by analysis of other-regard within creative individuation of the self, and by contrasting love for the few with love for the many. Love confirms others in their freedom, shuns propaganda and masks, assures others of its presence, and is ultimately confirmed not by mere declarations from others, but by each person's experience and practice from within. As in practical arts, the presence and meaning of love becomes validated and grasped not by words and reflections alone, but in the making of the connection.\n", "St Thomas Aquinas interprets 'You should love your neighbour as yourself' as meaning that love for ourselves is the exemplar of love for others. Considering that \"the love with which a man loves himself is the form and root of friendship\" and quotes Aristotle that \"the origin of friendly relations with others lies in our relations to ourselves,\" he concluded that though we are not bound to love others more than ourselves, we naturally seek the common good, the good of the whole, more than any private good, the good of a part. However, he thinks we should love God more than ourselves and our neighbours, and more than our bodily life—since the ultimate purpose of loving our neighbour is to share in eternal beatitude: a more desirable thing than bodily well being. In coining the word Altruism, as stated above, Comte was probably opposing this Thomistic doctrine, which is present in some theological schools within Catholicism.\n", "Many biblical authors draw a strong connection between love of others and love of God. 1 John 4 states that for one to love God one must love his fellowman, and that hatred of one's fellowman is the same as hatred of God. Thomas Jay Oord has argued in several books that altruism is but one possible form of love. An altruistic action is not always a loving action. Oord defines altruism as acting for the other's good, and he agrees with feminists who note that sometimes love requires acting for one's own good when the other's demands undermine overall well-being.\n", "German philosopher Max Scheler distinguishes two ways in which the strong can help the weak. One way is a sincere expression of Christian love, \"motivated by a powerful feeling of security, strength, and inner salvation, of the invincible fullness of one’s own life and existence\". Another way is merely \"one of the many modern substitutes for love, ... nothing but the urge to turn away from oneself and to lose oneself in other people’s business.\" At its worst, Scheler says, \"love for the small, the poor, the weak, and the oppressed is really disguised hatred, repressed envy, an impulse to detract, etc., directed against the opposite phenomena: wealth, strength, power, largesse.\"\n", "Section::::Religious viewpoints.:Islam.\n", "In Islam, the concept 'ithaar' (إيثار) (altruism) is the notion of 'preferring others to oneself'. For Sufis, this means devotion to others through complete forgetfulness of one's own concerns, where concern for others is rooted to be a demand made by ALLAH on the human body, considered to be property of ALLAH alone. The importance lies in sacrifice for the sake of the greater good; Islam considers those practicing Eyaar as abiding by the highest degree of nobility.\n", "This is similar to the notion of chivalry, but unlike that European concept, in i'thar attention is focused on everything in existence. A constant concern for ALLAH (i.e. God) results in a careful attitude towards people, animals, and other things in this world.\n", "This concept was emphasized by Sufis of Islam like Rabia al-Adawiyya who paid attention to the difference between dedication to ALLAH (i.e. God) and dedication to people. Thirteenth-century Turkish Sufi poet Yunus Emre explained this philosophy as \"Yaratılanı severiz, Yaratandan ötürü\" or \"We love the creature, because of The Creator.\" For many Muslims, i'thar must be practiced as a religious obligation during specific Islamic holidays. However, i'thar is also still an Islamic ideal to which all Muslims should strive to adhere at all times.\n", "Section::::Religious viewpoints.:Judaism.\n", "Judaism defines altruism as the desired goal of creation. The famous Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook stated that love is the most important attribute in humanity. This is defined as bestowal, or giving, which is the intention of altruism. This can be altruism towards humanity that leads to altruism towards the creator or God. Kabbalah defines God as the force of giving in existence. Rabbi Moshe Chaim Luzzatto in particular focused on the 'purpose of creation' and how the will of God was to bring creation into perfection and adhesion with this upper force.\n", "Modern Kabbalah developed by Rabbi Yehuda Ashlag, in his writings about the future generation, focuses on how society could achieve an altruistic social framework. Ashlag proposed that such a framework is the purpose of creation, and everything that happens is to raise humanity to the level of altruism, love for one another. Ashlag focused on society and its relation to divinity.\n", "Section::::Religious viewpoints.:Sikhism.\n", "Altruism is essential to the Sikh religion. The central faith in Sikhism is that the greatest deed any one can do is to imbibe and live the godly qualities like love, affection, sacrifice, patience, harmony, truthfulness. The concept of \"seva,\" or selfless service to the community for its own sake is an important concept in Sikhism.\n", "The fifth Nanak, Guru Arjun Dev, sacrificed his life to uphold 22 carats of pure truth, the greatest gift to humanity, the Guru Granth. The ninth Guru, Tegh Bahadur, sacrificed his head to protect weak and defenseless people against atrocity. In the late seventeenth century, Guru Gobind Singh Ji (the tenth guru in Sikhism), was in war with the Mughal rulers to protect the people of different faiths when a fellow Sikh, Bhai Kanhaiya, attended the troops of the enemy. He gave water to both friends and foes who were wounded on the battlefield. Some of the enemy began to fight again and some Sikh warriors were annoyed by Bhai Kanhaiya as he was helping their enemy. Sikh soldiers brought Bhai Kanhaiya before Guru Gobind Singh Ji, and complained of his action that they considered counter-productive to their struggle on the battlefield.\"What were you doing, and why?\" asked the Guru. \"I was giving water to the wounded because I saw your face in all of them,\" replied Bhai Kanhaiya. The Guru responded, \"Then you should also give them ointment to heal their wounds. You were practicing what you were coached in the house of the Guru.\"\n", "It was under the tutelage of the Guru that Bhai Kanhaiya subsequently founded a volunteer corps for altruism. This volunteer corps still to date is engaged in doing good to others and trains new volunteering recruits for doing the same.\n", "Section::::Religious viewpoints.:Hinduism.\n", "In Hinduism Selflessness (Atmatyag), Love (Prema), Kindness (Daya) and Forgiveness (Kshama) are considered as the highest acts of humanity or \"Manushyattva\". Giving alms to the beggers or poor people is considered as a divine act or \"Punya\" and Hindus believe it will free their souls from guilt or \"Paapa\" and will led them to heaven or \"Swarga\" in afterlife. Altruism is also the central act of various Hindu mythology and religious poems and songs.\n", "Swami Vivekananda, the legendary Hindu monk, has said -\"Jive prem kare jeijon, Seijon sebiche Iswar\" (Whoever loves any living being, is serving god.). Mass donation of clothes to poor people (Vastraseva), or blood donation camp or mass food donation (Annaseva) for poor people is common in various Hindu religious ceremonies.\n", "Swami Sivananda, an Advaita scholar, reiterates the views in his commentary synthesising Vedanta views on the Brahma Sutras, a Vedantic text. In his commentary on Chapter 3 of the Brahma Sutras, Sivananda notes that karma is insentient and short-lived, and ceases to exist as soon as a deed is executed. Hence, karma cannot bestow the fruits of actions at a future date according to one's merit. Furthermore, one cannot argue that karma generates apurva or punya, which gives fruit. Since apurva is non-sentient, it cannot act unless moved by an intelligent being such as a god. It cannot independently bestow reward or punishment.\n", "However the very well known and popular text, the Bhagavad Gita supports the doctrine of karma yoga (achieving oneness with God through action) & \"nishkaama karma\" or action without expectation / desire for personal gain which can be said to encompass altruism. Altruistic acts are generally celebrated and very well received in Hindu literature and is central to Hindu morality.\n", "Section::::Philosophy.\n", "There exists a wide range of philosophical views on humans' obligations or motivations to act altruistically. Proponents of ethical altruism maintain that individuals are morally obligated to act altruistically. The opposing view is ethical egoism, which maintains that moral agents should always act in their own self-interest. Both ethical altruism and ethical egoism contrast with utilitarianism, which maintains that each agent should act in order to maximise the efficacy of their function and the benefit to both themselves and their co-inhabitants.\n", "A related concept in descriptive ethics is psychological egoism, the thesis that humans always act in their own self-interest and that true altruism is impossible. Rational egoism is the view that rationality consists in acting in one's self-interest (without specifying how this affects one's moral obligations).\n", "Section::::Genetics.\n", "The genes OXTR, CD38, COMT, DRD4, DRD5, IGF2, GABRB2 have been found to be candidate genes for altruism.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Altruria\n", "BULLET::::- Charity (practice)\n", "BULLET::::- Charitable organization\n", "BULLET::::- Comedy of the commons\n", "BULLET::::- Consideration\n", "BULLET::::- Earning to give\n", "BULLET::::- Effective altruism\n", "BULLET::::- Egotism\n", "BULLET::::- Empathy\n", "BULLET::::- Empathy-altruism\n", "BULLET::::- Family economics\n", "BULLET::::- Gene-centered view of evolution\n", "BULLET::::- Giving Pledge, pledge by Gates, Buffett and others to donate to charity at least half of their wealth\n", "BULLET::::- Inclusive fitness\n", "BULLET::::- Group selection\n", "BULLET::::- Humanity (virtue)\n", "BULLET::::- Kin selection\n", "BULLET::::- Misanthropy\n", "BULLET::::- Mutual aid\n", "BULLET::::- Non nobis solum\n", "BULLET::::- Philanthropy\n", "BULLET::::- Prisoner's dilemma\n", "BULLET::::- Prosocial behavior\n", "BULLET::::- Random act of kindness\n", "BULLET::::- Reciprocal altruism\n", "BULLET::::- Selfishness\n", "BULLET::::- Social psychology\n", "BULLET::::- Solidarity (sociology)\n", "BULLET::::- Spite\n", "BULLET::::- Tit for tat\n", "Section::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- Comte, Auguste, \"Catechisme positiviste\" (1852) or \"Catechism of Positivism\", tr. R. Congreve, (London: Kegan Paul, 1891)\n", "BULLET::::- Kropotkin, Peter, \"\" (1902)\n", "BULLET::::- Nietzsche, Friedrich, \"Beyond Good and Evil\"\n", "BULLET::::- Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, \"The Philosophy of Poverty\" (1847)\n", "BULLET::::- Lysander Spooner, \"Natural Law\"\n", "BULLET::::- Matt Ridley, \"The Origins of Virtue\"\n", "BULLET::::- Oliner, Samuel P. and Pearl M. Towards a Caring Society: Ideas into Action. West Port, CT: Praeger, 1995.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Richard Kraut (2016) Altruism Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy\n" ] }

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{ "description": "principle or practice of concern for the welfare of others", "enwikiquote_title": "Altruism", "wikidata_id": "Q167323", "wikidata_label": "altruism", "wikipedia_title": "Altruism", "aliases": { "alias": [ "selflessness", "Ministration" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Astronomer\n", "An astronomer is a scientist in the field of astronomy who focuses their studies on a specific question or field outside the scope of Earth. They observe astronomical objects such as stars, planets, moons, comets, and galaxies – in either observational (by analyzing the data) or theoretical astronomy. Examples of topics or fields astronomers study include planetary science, solar astronomy, the origin or evolution of stars, or the formation of galaxies. Related but distinct subjects like physical cosmology, which studies the Universe as a whole.\n", "Astronomers usually fall under either of two main types: observational and theoretical. Observational astronomers make direct observations of celestial objects and analyze the data. In contrast, theoretical astronomers create and investigate models of things that cannot be observed. Because it takes millions to billions of years for a system of stars or a galaxy to complete a life cycle, astronomers must observe snapshots of different systems at unique points in their evolution to determine how they form, evolve, and die. They use these data to create models or simulations to theorize how different celestial objects work.\n", "Further subcategories under these two main branches of astronomy include planetary astronomy, galactic astronomy, or physical cosmology.\n", "Section::::Academic.\n", "Historically, astronomy was more concerned with the classification and description of phenomena in the sky, while astrophysics attempted to explain these phenomena and the differences between them using physical laws. Today, that distinction has mostly disappeared and the terms \"astronomer\" and \"astrophysicist\" are interchangeable. Professional astronomers are highly educated individuals who typically have a Ph.D. in physics or astronomy and are employed by research institutions or universities. They spend the majority of their time working on research, although they quite often have other duties such as teaching, building instruments, or aiding in the operation of an observatory.\n", "The number of professional astronomers in the United States is actually quite small. The American Astronomical Society, which is the major organization of professional astronomers in North America, has approximately 7,000 members. This number includes scientists from other fields such as physics, geology, and engineering, whose research interests are closely related to astronomy. The International Astronomical Union comprises almost 10,145 members from 70 different countries who are involved in astronomical research at the Ph.D. level and beyond.\n", "Contrary to the classical image of an old astronomer peering through a telescope through the dark hours of the night, it is far more common to use a charge-coupled device (CCD) camera to record a long, deep exposure, allowing a more sensitive image to be created because the light is added over time. Before CCDs, photographic plates were a common method of observation. Modern astronomers spend relatively little time at telescopes usually just a few weeks per year. Analysis of observed phenomena, along with making predictions as to the causes of what they observe, takes the majority of observational astronomers' time.\n", "Astronomers who serve as faculty spend much of their time teaching undergraduate and graduate classes. Most universities also have outreach programs including public telescope time and sometimes planetariums as a public service to encourage interest in the field.\n", "Those who become astronomers usually have a broad background in maths, sciences and computing in high school. Taking courses that teach how to research, write and present papers are also invaluable. In college/university most astronomers get a Ph.D. in astronomy or physics.\n", "Section::::Amateur astronomers.\n", "While there is a relatively low number of professional astronomers, the field is popular among amateurs. Most cities have amateur astronomy clubs that meet on a regular basis and often host star parties. The Astronomical Society of the Pacific is the largest general astronomical society in the world, comprising both professional and amateur astronomers as well as educators from 70 different nations. Like any hobby, most people who think of themselves as amateur astronomers may devote a few hours a month to stargazing and reading the latest developments in research. However, amateurs span the range from so-called \"armchair astronomers\" to the very ambitious, who own science-grade telescopes and instruments with which they are able to make their own discoveries and assist professional astronomers in research.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- List of astronomers\n", "BULLET::::- List of women astronomers\n", "BULLET::::- List of Muslim astronomers\n", "BULLET::::- List of French astronomers\n", "BULLET::::- List of Hungarian astronomers\n", "BULLET::::- List of Russian astronomers and astrophysicists\n", "BULLET::::- List of Slovenian astronomers\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- American Astronomical Society\n", "BULLET::::- European Astronomical Society\n", "BULLET::::- International Astronomical Union\n", "BULLET::::- Astronomical Society of the Pacific\n", "BULLET::::- Space's astronomy news\n" ] }

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{ "description": "scientist who studies celestial bodies", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q11063", "wikidata_label": "astronomer", "wikipedia_title": "Astronomer", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 580, "parentid": 902573937, "revid": 902574615, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-06-19T19:14:21Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Astronomer&oldid=902574615" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Academy Awards\n", "The Academy Awards, also officially and popularly known as the Oscars, are awards for artistic and technical merit in the film industry. Given annually by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS), the awards are an international recognition of excellence in cinematic achievements as assessed by the Academy's voting membership. The various category winners are awarded a copy of a golden statuette, officially called the \"Academy Award of Merit\", although more commonly referred to by its nickname \"Oscar\". The statuette depicts a knight rendered in Art Deco style.\n", "The award was originally sculpted by George Stanley from a design sketch by Cedric Gibbons. AMPAS first presented it in 1929 at a private dinner hosted by Douglas Fairbanks in the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel. The Academy Awards ceremony was first broadcast on radio in 1930 and televised for the first time in 1953. It is the oldest worldwide entertainment awards ceremony and is now seen live worldwide. Its equivalents – the Emmy Awards for television, the Tony Awards for theater, and the Grammy Awards for music – are modeled after the Academy Awards.\n", "The 91st Academy Awards ceremony, honoring the best films of 2018, was held on February 24, 2019, at the Dolby Theatre, in Los Angeles, California. The ceremony was broadcast on ABC. A total of 3,096 Oscar statuettes have been awarded from the inception of the award through the 91st ceremony. It was the first ceremony since 1989 without a host.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "The first Academy Awards presentation was held on May 16, 1929, at a private dinner function at the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel with an audience of about 270 people.\n", "The post-awards party was held at the Mayfair Hotel. The cost of guest tickets for that night's ceremony was $5 ($ in dollars). Fifteen statuettes were awarded, honoring artists, directors and other participants in the film-making industry of the time, for their works during the 1927–28 period. The ceremony ran for 15 minutes.\n", "Winners were announced to media three months earlier. That was changed for the second ceremony in 1930. Since then, for the rest of the first decade, the results were given to newspapers for publication at 11:00 pm on the night of the awards. This method was used until an occasion when the \"Los Angeles Times\" announced the winners before the ceremony began; as a result, the Academy has, since 1941, used a sealed envelope to reveal the name of the winners.\n", "Section::::History.:Institutions.\n", "The first Best Actor awarded was Emil Jannings, for his performances in \"The Last Command\" and \"The Way of All Flesh\". He had to return to Europe before the ceremony, so the Academy agreed to give him the prize earlier; this made him the first Academy Award winner in history. At that time, the winners were recognized for all of their work done in a certain category during the qualifying period; for example, Jannings received the award for two movies in which he starred during that period, and Janet Gaynor later won a single Oscar for performances in three films. With the fourth ceremony, however, the system changed, and professionals were honored for a specific performance in a single film. For the first six ceremonies, the eligibility period spanned two calendar years.\n", "At the 29th ceremony, held on March 27, 1957, the Best Foreign Language Film category was introduced. Until then, foreign-language films had been honored with the Special Achievement Award.\n", "The 74th Academy Awards, held in 2002, presented the first Academy Award for Best Animated Feature.\n", "Since 1973, all Academy Awards ceremonies have ended with the Academy Award for Best Picture.\n", "Traditionally, the previous year's winner for Best Actor and Best Supporting Actor present the awards for Best Actress and Best Supporting Actress, while the previous year's winner for Best Actress and Best Supporting Actress present the awards for Best Actor and Best Supporting Actor.\n", "Section::::Oscar statuette.\n", "Section::::Oscar statuette.:Academy Award of Merit (Oscar statuette).\n", "The best known award is the Academy Award of Merit, more popularly known as the Oscar statuette. Made of gold-plated bronze on a black metal base, it is 13.5 in (34.3 cm) tall, weighs 8.5 lb (3.856 kg), and depicts a knight rendered in Art Deco style holding a crusader's sword standing on a reel of film with five spokes. The five spokes represent the original branches of the Academy: Actors, Writers, Directors, Producers, and Technicians.\n", "The model for the statuette is said to be Mexican actor Emilio \"El Indio\" Fernández. Sculptor George Stanley (who also did the Muse Fountain at the Hollywood Bowl) sculpted Cedric Gibbons' design. The statuettes presented at the initial ceremonies were gold-plated solid bronze. Within a few years, the bronze was abandoned in favor of Britannia metal, a pewter-like alloy which is then plated in copper, nickel silver, and finally, 24-karat gold. Due to a metal shortage during World War II, Oscars were made of painted plaster for three years. Following the war, the Academy invited recipients to redeem the plaster figures for gold-plated metal ones. The only addition to the Oscar since it was created is a minor streamlining of the base. The original Oscar mold was cast in 1928 at the C.W. Shumway & Sons Foundry in Batavia, Illinois, which also contributed to casting the molds for the Vince Lombardi Trophy and Emmy Award's statuettes. From 1983 to 2015, approximately 50 Oscars in a tin alloy with gold plating were made each year in Chicago by Illinois manufacturer R.S. Owens & Company. It would take between three and four weeks to manufacture 50 statuettes. In 2016, the Academy returned to bronze as the core metal of the statuettes, handing manufacturing duties to Walden, New York-based Polich Tallix Fine Art Foundry. While based on a digital scan of an original 1929 Oscar, the statuettes retain their modern-era dimensions and black pedestal. Cast in liquid bronze from 3D-printed ceramic molds and polished, they are then electroplated in 24-karat gold by Brooklyn, New York–based Epner Technology. The time required to produce 50 such statuettes is roughly three months. R.S. Owens is expected to continue producing other awards for the Academy and service existing Oscars that need replating.\n", "Section::::Oscar statuette.:Naming.\n", "The origin of the name \"Oscar\" is disputed. The Academy officially adopted the name \"Oscar\" for the trophies in 1939.\n", "One biography of Bette Davis, who was a president of the Academy in 1941, claims she named the award after her first husband, band leader Harmon Oscar Nelson. A frequently-mentioned originator is Margaret Herrick, the Academy executive secretary, who, when she first saw the award in 1931, said the statuette reminded her of \"Uncle Oscar\", a nickname for her cousin Oscar Pierce.\n", "Columnist Sidney Skolsky, who was present during Herrick's naming in 1931, wrote that \"Employees have affectionately dubbed their famous statuette 'Oscar.'\" The Academy credits Skolsky with \"the first confirmed newspaper reference\" to \"Oscar\" in his column on March 16, 1934, which was about that year's 6th Academy Awards. The 1934 awards appeared again in another early media mention of \"Oscar\": a \"Time\" magazine story. In the ceremonies that year, Walter Elias Disney thanked the Academy for his \"Oscar\".\n", "Section::::Oscar statuette.:Engraving.\n", "To prevent information identifying the Oscar winners from leaking ahead of the ceremony, Oscar statuettes presented at the ceremony have blank baseplates. Until 2010, winners returned their statuettes to the Academy, and had to wait several weeks to have their names inscribed on their respective Oscars. Since 2010, winners have had the option of having engraved nameplates applied to their statuettes at an inscription-processing station at the Governor's Ball, a party held immediately after the Oscar ceremony. The R.S. Owens company has engraved nameplates made before the ceremony, bearing the name of every potential winner. The nameplates for the non-winning nominees are later recycled.\n", "Section::::Oscar statuette.:Ownership of Oscar statuettes.\n", "Since 1950, the statuettes have been legally encumbered by the requirement that neither winners nor their heirs may sell the statuettes without first offering to sell them back to the Academy for US$1. If a winner refuses to agree to this stipulation, then the Academy keeps the statuette. Academy Awards not protected by this agreement have been sold in public auctions and private deals for six-figure sums. In December 2011, Orson Welles' 1941 Oscar for \"Citizen Kane\" (Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay) was put up for auction, after his heirs won a 2004 court decision contending that Welles did not sign any agreement to return the statue to the Academy. On December 20, 2011, it sold in an online auction for US$861,542.\n", "In 1992, Harold Russell needed money for his wife's medical expenses. In a controversial decision, he consigned his 1946 Oscar for Best Supporting Actor for \"The Best Years of Our Lives\" to Herman Darvick Autograph Auctions, and on August 6, 1992, in New York City, the Oscar sold to a private collector for $60,500. Since he won the award before 1950, he was not required to offer it to the Academy first. Russell defended his decision, saying, \"I don't know why anybody would be critical. My wife's health is much more important than sentimental reasons. The movie will be here, even if Oscar isn't.\" Harold Russell is the only Academy Award-winning actor to ever sell an Oscar.\n", "While the Oscar is owned by the recipient, it is essentially not on the open market. Michael Todd's grandson tried to sell Todd's Oscar statuette to a movie prop collector in 1989, but the Academy won the legal battle by getting a permanent injunction. Although some Oscar sales transactions have been successful, some buyers have subsequently returned the statuettes to the Academy, which keeps them in its treasury.\n", "Section::::Oscar statuette.:Other awards presented by the Academy.\n", "In addition to the Academy Award of Merit (Oscar award), there are nine honorary (non-competitive) awards presented by the Academy from time to time (except for the Academy Honorary Award, the Technical Achievement Award, and the Student Academy Awards, which are presented annually):\n", "BULLET::::- Governors Awards:\n", "BULLET::::- The Academy Honorary Award (annual) (which may or may not be in the form of an Oscar statuette);\n", "BULLET::::- The Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award (since 1938) (in the form of a bust of Thalberg);\n", "BULLET::::- The Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award (since 1957) (in the form of an Oscar statuette);\n", "BULLET::::- The Academy Scientific and Technical Awards:\n", "BULLET::::- Academy Award of Merit (non-competitive) (in the form of an Oscar statuette);\n", "BULLET::::- Scientific and Engineering Award (in the form of a bronze tablet);\n", "BULLET::::- Technical Achievement Award (annual) (in the form of a certificate);\n", "BULLET::::- The John A. Bonner Medal of Commendation (since 1978) (in the form of a medal);\n", "BULLET::::- The Gordon E. Sawyer Award (since 1982); and\n", "BULLET::::- The Academy Student Academy Awards (annual).\n", "The Academy also awards Nicholl Fellowships in Screenwriting.\n", "Section::::Nomination.\n", "Since 2004, Academy Award nomination results have been announced to the public in mid-January. Prior to that, the results were announced in early February.\n", "Section::::Nomination.:Voters.\n", "The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS), a professional honorary organization, maintains a voting membership of over 8,000 .\n", "Academy membership is divided into different branches, with each representing a different discipline in film production. Actors constitute the largest voting bloc, numbering 1,311 members (22 percent) of the Academy's composition. Votes have been certified by the auditing firm PricewaterhouseCoopers (and its predecessor Price Waterhouse) for the past 83 annual awards ceremonies. The firm mails the ballots of eligible nominees to members of the Academy in December to reflect the previous eligible year with a due date sometime in January of the next year, then tabulates the votes in a process that takes thousands of hours.\n", "All AMPAS members must be invited to join by the Board of Governors, on behalf of Academy Branch Executive Committees. Membership eligibility may be achieved by a competitive nomination or a member may submit a name based on other significant contributions to the field of motion pictures.\n", "New membership proposals are considered annually. The Academy does not publicly disclose its membership, although as recently as 2007 press releases have announced the names of those who have been invited to join. The 2007 release also stated that it has just under 6,000 voting members. While the membership had been growing, stricter policies have kept its size steady since then.\n", "In 2012, the results of a study conducted by the \"Los Angeles Times\" were published describing the demographic breakdown of approximately 88% of AMPAS' voting membership. Of the 5,100+ active voters confirmed, 94% were Caucasian, 77% were male, and 54% were found to be over the age of 60. 33% of voting members are former nominees (14%) and winners (19%).\n", "In May 2011, the Academy sent a letter advising its 6,000 or so voting members that an online system for Oscar voting would be implemented in 2013.\n", "Section::::Nomination.:Rules.\n", "According to Rules 2 and 3 of the official Academy Awards Rules, a film must open in the previous calendar year, from midnight at the start of January 1 to midnight at the end of December 31, in Los Angeles County, California, and play for seven consecutive days, to qualify (except for the Best Foreign Language Film, Best Documentary Feature, and Best Documentary Short Subject).\n", "The Best Foreign Language Film award does not require a U.S. release. It requires the film to be submitted as its country's official selection.\n", "The Best Documentary Feature award requires either week-long releases in both Los Angeles County and New York City during the previous calendar year, or a qualifying award at a competitive film festival from the Documentary Feature Qualifying Festival list (regardless of any public exhibition or distribution), or a submission in the Foreign Language Film category as its country's official selection.\n", "The Best Documentary Short Subject award has noticeably different eligibility rules from most other competitive awards. First, the qualifying period for release does not coincide with a calendar year, instead covering a one-year period starting on September 1 and ending on August 31 of the calendar year before the ceremony. Second, there are multiple methods of qualification. The main method is a week-long theatrical release in \"either\" Los Angeles County \"or\" New York City during the eligibility period. Films also can qualify by winning specified awards at one of a number of competitive film festivals designated by the Academy. Finally, a film that is selected as a gold, silver, or bronze medal winner in the Documentary category of the immediately previous Student Academy Awards is also eligible.\n", "For example, the 2009 Best Picture winner, \"The Hurt Locker\", was actually first released in 2008, but did not qualify for the 2008 awards, as it did not play its Oscar-qualifying run in Los Angeles until mid-2009, thus qualifying for the 2009 awards. Foreign films must include English subtitles, and each country can submit only one film per year.\n", "Rule 2 states that a film must be feature-length, defined as a minimum of 40 minutes, except for short-subject awards, and it must exist either on a 35 mm or 70 mm film print or in 24 frame/s or 48 frame/s progressive scan digital cinema format with a minimum projector resolution of 2048 by 1080 pixels. Effective with the 90th Academy Awards, presented in 2018, multi-part and limited series will be ineligible for the Best Documentary Feature award. This followed the win of \"\", an eight-hour presentation that was screened in a limited release before being broadcast in five parts on ABC and ESPN, in that category in 2017. The Academy's announcement of the new rule made no direct mention of that film.\n", "Producers must submit an Official Screen Credits online form before the deadline; in case it is not submitted by the defined deadline, the film will be ineligible for Academy Awards in any year. The form includes the production credits for all related categories. Then, each form is checked and put in a Reminder List of Eligible Releases.\n", "In late December, ballots and copies of the Reminder List of Eligible Releases are mailed to around 6,000 active members. For most categories, members from each of the branches vote to determine the nominees only in their respective categories (i.e. only directors vote for directors, writers for writers, actors for actors, etc.). In the special case of Best Picture, all voting members are eligible to select the nominees. In all major categories, a variant of the single transferable vote is used, with each member casting a ballot with up to five nominees (ten for Best Picture) ranked preferentially. In certain categories, including Foreign Film, Documentary and Animated Feature, nominees are selected by special screening committees made up of members from all branches.\n", "In most categories, the winner is selected from among the nominees by plurality voting of all members. Since 2009, the Best Picture winner has been chosen by instant runoff voting. Since 2013, re-weighted range voting has been used to select the nominees for the Best Visual Effects.\n", "Film companies will spend as much as several million dollars on marketing to awards voters for a movie in the running for Best Picture, in attempts to improve chances of receiving Oscars and other movie awards conferred in Oscar season. The Academy enforces rules to limit overt campaigning by its members so as to try to eliminate excesses and prevent the process from becoming undignified. It has an awards czar on staff who advises members on allowed practices and levies penalties on offenders. For example, a producer of the 2009 Best Picture nominee \"The Hurt Locker\" was disqualified as a producer in the category when he contacted associates urging them to vote for his film and not another that was seen as the front-runner (\"The Hurt Locker\" eventually won).\n", "Section::::Awards ceremonies.\n", "Section::::Awards ceremonies.:Telecast.\n", "The major awards are presented at a live televised ceremony, commonly in late February or early March following the relevant calendar year, and six weeks after the announcement of the nominees. It is the culmination of the film awards season, which usually begins during November or December of the previous year. This is an elaborate extravaganza, with the invited guests walking up the red carpet in the creations of the most prominent fashion designers of the day. Black tie dress is the most common outfit for men, although fashion may dictate not wearing a bow-tie, and musical performers sometimes do not adhere to this. (The artists who recorded the nominees for Best Original Song quite often perform those songs live at the awards ceremony, and the fact that they are performing is often used to promote the television broadcast.)\n", "The Academy Awards is the world's longest running awards show televised live in all U.S. time zones (excluding territories outside mainland North America), Canada, and the United Kingdom, and gathers billions of viewers elsewhere throughout the world. The Oscars were first televised in 1953 by NBC, which continued to broadcast the event until 1960, when ABC took over, televising the festivities (including the first color broadcast of the event in 1966) through 1970. NBC regained the rights for five years then ABC resumed broadcast duties in 1976 and its current contract with the Academy runs through 2028. The Academy has also produced condensed versions of the ceremony for broadcast in international markets (especially those outside of the Americas) in more desirable local timeslots. The ceremony was broadcast live internationally for the first time via satellite since 1970, but only two South American countries, Chile and Brazil, purchased the rights to air the broadcast. By that time, the television rights to the Academy Awards had been sold in 50 countries. A decade later, the rights were already being sold to 60 countries, and by 1984, the TV rights to the Awards were licensed in 76 countries.\n", "The ceremonies were moved up from late March/early April to late February, since 2004, to help disrupt and shorten the intense lobbying and ad campaigns associated with Oscar season in the film industry. Another reason was because of the growing TV ratings success coinciding with the NCAA Basketball Tournament, which would cut into the Academy Awards audience. (In 1976 and 1977, ABC's regained Oscars were moved from Tuesday to Monday and went directly opposite NBC's NCAA title game.) The earlier date is also to the advantage of ABC, as it now usually occurs during the highly profitable and important February sweeps period. Some years, the ceremony is moved into first Sunday of March in order to avoid clash with the Winter Olympic Games. Another reason for the move to late February and early March is also to avoid the awards ceremony occurring so close to the religious holidays of Passover and Easter, which for decades had been a grievance from members and the general public. Advertising is somewhat restricted, however, as traditionally no movie studios or competitors of official Academy Award sponsors may advertise during the telecast. The production of the Academy Awards telecast currently holds the distinction of winning the most Emmys in history, with 47 wins and 195 nominations overall since that award's own launch in 1949.\n", "After many years of being held on Mondays at 9:00 pm Eastern/6:00 p.m Pacific, since the 1999 ceremonies, it was moved to Sundays at 8:30 pm ET/5:30 pm PT. The reasons given for the move were that more viewers would tune in on Sundays, that Los Angeles rush-hour traffic jams could be avoided, and an earlier start time would allow viewers on the East Coast to go to bed earlier. For many years the film industry opposed a Sunday broadcast because it would cut into the weekend box office. In 2010, the Academy contemplated moving the ceremony even further back into January, citing TV viewers' fatigue with the film industry's long awards season. However, such an accelerated schedule would dramatically decrease the voting period for its members, to the point where some voters would only have time to view the contending films streamed on their computers (as opposed to traditionally receiving the films and ballots in the mail). Furthermore, a January ceremony on Sunday would clash with National Football League playoff games. In 2018, the Academy announced that the ceremony would be moved from late February to mid February beginning with the 92nd Academy Awards in 2020.\n", "Originally scheduled for April 8, 1968, the 40th Academy Awards ceremony was postponed for two days, because of the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.. On March 30, 1981, the 53rd Academy Awards was postponed for one day, after the shooting of President Ronald Reagan and others in Washington, D.C.\n", "In 1993, an \"In Memoriam\" segment was introduced, honoring those who had made a significant contribution to cinema who had died in the preceding 12 months, a selection compiled by a small committee of Academy members. This segment has drawn criticism over the years for the omission of some names. Criticism was also levied for many years regarding another aspect, with the segment having a \"popularity contest\" feel as the audience varied their applause to those who had died by the subject's cultural impact; the applause has since been muted during the telecast, and the audience is discouraged from clapping during the segment and giving silent reflection instead.\n", "In terms of broadcast length, the ceremony generally averages three and a half hours. The first Oscars, in 1929, lasted 15 minutes. At the other end of the spectrum, the 2002 ceremony lasted four hours and twenty-three minutes. In 2010, the organizers of the Academy Awards announced winners' acceptance speeches must not run past 45 seconds. This, according to organizer Bill Mechanic, was to ensure the elimination of what he termed \"the single most hated thing on the show\" – overly long and embarrassing displays of emotion. In 2016, in a further effort to streamline speeches, winners' dedications were displayed on an on-screen ticker. During the 2018 ceremony, host Jimmy Kimmel acknowledged how long the ceremony had become, by announcing that he would give a brand-new jet ski to whoever gave the shortest speech of the night (a reward won by Mark Bridges when accepting his Best Costume Design award for \"Phantom Thread\"). The \"Wall Street Journal\" analyzed the average minutes spent across the 2014–2018 telecasts as follows: 14 on song performances; 25 on the hosts' speeches; 38 on prerecorded clips; and 78 on the awards themselves, broken into 24 on the introduction and announcement, 24 on winners walking to the stage, and 30 on their acceptance speeches.\n", "Although still dominant in ratings, the viewership of the Academy Awards have steadily dropped; the 88th Academy Awards were the lowest-rated in the past eight years (although with increases in male and 18–49 viewership), while the show itself also faced mixed reception. Following the show, \"Variety\" reported that ABC was, in negotiating an extension to its contract to broadcast the Oscars, seeking to have more creative control over the broadcast itself. Currently and nominally, AMPAS is responsible for most aspects of the telecast, including the choice of production staff and hosting, although ABC is allowed to have some input on their decisions. In August 2016, AMPAS extended its contract with ABC through 2028: the contract neither contains any notable changes, nor gives ABC any further creative control over the telecast.\n", "Section::::Awards ceremonies.:TV ratings.\n", "Historically, the \"Oscarcast\" has pulled in a bigger haul when box-office hits are favored to win the Best Picture trophy. More than 57.25 million viewers tuned to the telecast for the 70th Academy Awards in 1998, the year of \"Titanic\", which generated close to US$500 million at the North American box office and 1.2 billion dollars worldwide pre-Oscars, with the final box office haul during its initial 1997–98 run being 600.8 million US$ in the US and 1.84 billion US$ worldwide, both sky-high box office records back then (they were only supassed 12 years later in 2010). The 76th Academy Awards ceremony, in which \"\" (pre-telecast box office earnings of US$368 million) received 11 Awards including Best Picture, drew 43.56 million viewers. The most watched ceremony based on Nielsen ratings to date, however, was the 42nd Academy Awards (Best Picture \"Midnight Cowboy\") which drew a 43.4% household rating on April 7, 1970.\n", "By contrast, ceremonies honoring films that have not performed well at the box office tend to show weaker ratings. The 78th Academy Awards which awarded low-budgeted, independent film \"Crash\" (with a pre-Oscar gross of US$53.4 million) generated an audience of 38.64 million with a household rating of 22.91%. In 2008, the 80th Academy Awards telecast was watched by 31.76 million viewers on average with an 18.66% household rating, the lowest rated and least watched ceremony at the time, in spite of celebrating 80 years of the Academy Awards. The Best Picture winner of that particular ceremony was another independently financed film (\"No Country for Old Men\").\n", "Section::::Venues.\n", "In 1929, the first Academy Awards were presented at a banquet dinner at the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel. From 1930 to 1943, the ceremony alternated between two venues: the Ambassador Hotel on Wilshire Boulevard and the Biltmore Hotel in downtown Los Angeles.\n", "Grauman's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood then hosted the awards from 1944 to 1946, followed by the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles from 1947 to 1948. The 21st Academy Awards in 1949 were held at the Academy Award Theatre at what was the Academy's headquarters on Melrose Avenue in Hollywood.\n", "From 1950 to 1960, the awards were presented at Hollywood's Pantages Theatre. With the advent of television, the awards from 1953 to 1957 took place simultaneously in Hollywood and New York, first at the NBC International Theatre (1953) and then at the NBC Century Theatre, after which the ceremony took place solely in Los Angeles. The Oscars moved to the Santa Monica Civic Auditorium in Santa Monica, California in 1961. By 1969, the Academy decided to move the ceremonies back to Los Angeles, this time to the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion at the Los Angeles County Music Center. Some years, the ceremony were at Shriners auditorium by USC.\n", "In 2002, the Dolby Theatre (previously known as the Kodak Theatre) became the presentation's current venue.\n", "Section::::Awards of Merit categories.\n", "Section::::Awards of Merit categories.:Current categories.\n", "In the first year of the awards, the Best Directing award was split into two categories (Drama and Comedy). At times, the Best Original Score award has also been split into separate categories (Drama and Comedy/Musical). From the 1930s through the 1960s, the Art Direction (now Production Design), Cinematography, and Costume Design awards were likewise split into two categories (black-and-white films and color films). Prior to 2012, the Production Design award was called Art Direction, while the Makeup and Hairstyling award was called Makeup.\n", "In August 2018, the Academy announced that several categories would not be televised live, but rather be recorded during commercial breaks and aired later in the ceremony.\n", "Following dissent from Academy members, they announced that they would indeed air all 24 categories live. This followed a number of proposals (including introducing a Popular Film category) that the Academy had announced but did not implement.\n", "Section::::Awards of Merit categories.:Proposed categories.\n", "The Board of Governors meets each year and considers new award categories. To date, the following categories have been proposed:\n", "BULLET::::- Best Casting: rejected in 1999\n", "BULLET::::- Best Popular Film: proposed in 2018 for presentation at the 2019 ceremony; postponed until the 2020 ceremony at the earliest\n", "BULLET::::- Best Stunt Coordination: rejected every year from 1991 to 2012\n", "BULLET::::- Best Title Design: rejected in 1999\n", "Section::::Special categories.\n", "The Special Academy Awards are voted on by special committees, rather than by the Academy membership as a whole. They are not always presented on a consistent annual basis.\n", "Section::::Special categories.:Current special categories.\n", "BULLET::::- Academy Honorary Award: since 1929\n", "BULLET::::- Academy Scientific and Technical Award (three different awards): since 1931\n", "BULLET::::- Gordon E. Sawyer Award: since 1981\n", "BULLET::::- Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award: since 1957\n", "BULLET::::- Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award: since 1938\n", "BULLET::::- Academy Special Achievement Award: from 1972 to 1995, and again for 2017\n", "Section::::Special categories.:Discontinued special categories.\n", "BULLET::::- Academy Juvenile Award: 1934 to 1960\n", "Section::::Criticism.\n", "Section::::Criticism.:Accusations of commercialism.\n", "Due to the positive exposure and prestige of the Academy Awards, many studios spend millions of dollars and hire publicists specifically to promote their films during what is typically called the \"Oscar season\". This has generated accusations of the Academy Awards being influenced more by marketing than quality. William Friedkin, an Academy Award-winning film director and former producer of the ceremony, expressed this sentiment at a conference in New York in 2009, describing it as \"the greatest promotion scheme that any industry ever devised for itself\".\n", "Tim Dirks, editor of AMC's filmsite.org, has written of the Academy Awards,\n", "A recent technique that has been claimed to be used during the Oscar season is the Whisper campaign. These campaigns are intended to spread negative perceptions of other movies nominated and are believed to be perpetrated by those that were involved in creating the movie. Examples of whisper campaigns include the allegations against \"Zero Dark Thirty\" suggesting that it justifies torture and the claim that \"Lincoln\" distorts history.\n", "Section::::Criticism.:Accusations of bias.\n", "Typical criticism of the Academy Awards for Best Picture is that among the winners and nominees there is an over-representation of romantic historical epics, biographical dramas, romantic dramedies and family melodramas, most of which are released in the U.S. the last three months of the calendar year. The Oscars have been infamously known for selecting specific genres of movies to be awarded. This has led to the coining of the term 'Oscar bait', describing such movies. This has led at times to more specific criticisms that the Academy is disconnected from the audience, e.g., by favoring 'Oscar bait' over audience favorites, or favoring historical melodramas over critically-acclaimed movies that depict current life issues.\n", "Section::::Criticism.:Allegations of a lack of diversity.\n", "The Academy Awards have long received criticism over its lack of diversity among the nominees. This criticism is based on the statistics from every Academy Awards since 1929, which shows us that only 6.4% of academy award nominees have been non-white and since 1991, 11.2% of nominees have been non-white, with the rate of winners being even more polarizing. More white actresses have won Oscars for yellowface portrayals of Asian characters than actual Asian actresses. The 88th awards ceremony became the target of a boycott, popularized on social media by the #OscarsSoWhite, based on critics' perception that its all-white acting nominee list reflected bias. In response, the Academy initiated \"historic\" changes in membership by the year 2020.\n", "Section::::Criticism.:Symbolism or sentimentalization.\n", "Acting prizes in certain years have been criticized for not recognizing superior performances so much as being awarded for personal popularity, to make up for a \"snub\" for a performance/work that proved in time to be more popular and/or renowned than the one actually awarded, or presented as a \"career honor\" to recognize a distinguished nominee's entire body of work.\n", "Section::::Criticism.:Recognition of streaming media film.\n", "Following the 91st Academy Awards in February 2019 in which the Netflix-broadcast film \"Roma\" had been nominated for ten awards including the Best Picture category, Steven Spielberg and other members of the Academy discussed changing the requirements through the Board of Governors for films as to exclude those from Netflix and other media streaming services. Spielberg had been concerned that Netflix as a movie production and distribution studio could spend much more than typical Oscar-winning films and have much wider and earlier distribution than other Best Picture-nominated films, while still being able to meet the minimal theatrical-run status to qualify for an Oscar. The United States Department of Justice, having heard of this potential rule change, wrote a letter to the Academy in March 2019, cautioning them that placing additional restrictions on films that originate from streaming media services without proper justification could raise anti-trust concerns against the Academy. Following its April 2019 board meeting, the Academy Board of Governors agreed to retain the current rules that allow for streaming media films to be eligible for Oscars as long as they enjoy limited theatrical runs.\n", "Section::::Criticism.:Refusing the award.\n", "Some winners critical of the Academy Awards have boycotted the ceremonies and refused to accept their Oscars. The first to do so was screenwriter Dudley Nichols (Best Writing in 1935 for \"The Informer\"). Nichols boycotted the 8th Academy Awards ceremony because of conflicts between the Academy and the Writers' Guild. Nichols eventually accepted the 1935 award three years later, at the 1938 ceremony. Nichols was nominated for three further Academy Awards during his career.\n", "George C. Scott became the second person to refuse his award (Best Actor in 1970 for \"Patton\") at the 43rd Academy Awards ceremony. Scott described it as a \"meat parade\", saying, \"I don't want any part of it.\"\n", "The third person to refuse the award was Marlon Brando, who refused his award (Best Actor for 1972's \"The Godfather\"), citing the film industry's discrimination and mistreatment of Native Americans. At the 45th Academy Awards ceremony, Brando sent actress and civil rights activist Sacheen Littlefeather to read a 15-page speech, detailing his criticisms, which was booed by the audience.\n", "Section::::Criticism.:Incidents.\n", "At the 89th Academy Awards ceremony, Warren Beatty and Faye Dunaway mistakenly announced \"La La Land\" as the recipient of the Best Picture award, instead of \"Moonlight\", the actual winner. Beatty had been given the wrong envelope and after hesitating during the announcement, handed the envelope to Dunaway, which listed Emma Stone as Best Actress for \"La La Land\" and led to the confusion. The proper winner was announced after the acceptance speeches by \"La La Land\" producers Fred Berger, Jordan Horowitz and Marc Platt.\n", "The following year, Beatty and Dunaway were invited back as presenters of the Best Picture award, which they accomplished without error.\n", "Section::::Criticism.:Plagiarism controversies.\n", "BULLET::::- Up to now, no movies have been disqualified for plagiarism.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Zootopia\": On March 21, 2017, a copyright infringement lawsuit was filed against Disney by Esplanade Productions, a company owned by Gary L. Goldman, the co-screenwriter of \"Total Recall\". The lawsuit claims that Goldman (in 2000 and 2009) pitched a concept to Disney for a live-action film titled \"Looney\", which was about a socially awkward animator who creates a self-inspired TV cartoon called \"Zootopia\". Disney twice rejected the pitch, but Goldman accused the company of copying the name, themes, settings and character tropes. Filed with the lawsuit was a graphic of early concept artwork of characters that are claimed to appear similar to major characters from the film, including Nick Wilde, Judy Hopps, Flash and Chief Bogo. A Disney spokesperson described the lawsuit as being \"ridden with patently false allegations.\" U.S. District Judge Michael W. Fitzgerald dismissed the infringement claims on November 8, 2017.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Shape of Water\": In February 2018, the estate of Paul Zindel initiated a lawsuit in United States District Court for the Central District of California against director Guillermo del Toro and associate producer Daniel Kraus, alleging that \"The Shape of Water\" \"brazenly copies the story, elements, characters, and themes\" of Zindel's 1969 work \"Let Me Hear You Whisper\", which depicts a cleaning lady bonding with a dolphin and attempting to rescue it from a secret research laboratory's nefarious uses. In July 2018, Judge Percy Anderson dismissed the suit.\n", "Section::::Criticism.:Disqualification.\n", "Seven films have been disqualified before an official award ceremony because they violated the regulations.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Circus\" (1928) – The film was removed by the Academy from competitive categories, in order to award Charlie Chaplin a special award.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Hondo\" (1953)\n", "BULLET::::- \"High Society\" (1955) – Withdrawn from screenwriting ballot after being mistaken for the 1956 movie of the same title.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Godfather\" (1972) – Initially nominated for eleven awards, its nomination for Best Original Score was revoked after it was discovered that its main theme was very similar to music that the score's composer had written for an earlier film. None of its other nominations were revoked, and it received three Oscars, including Best Picture.\n", "BULLET::::- \"A Place in the World\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Tuba Atlantic\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Alone yet Not Alone\"\n", "One film was disqualified after winning the award, and had the winner return the Oscar.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Young Americans\" (1969)\n", "Section::::Associated events.\n", "The following events are closely associated with the annual Academy Awards:\n", "BULLET::::- César Awards\n", "BULLET::::- Nominees luncheon\n", "BULLET::::- Governors Awards\n", "BULLET::::- The 25th Independent Spirit Awards (2010), usually held in Santa Monica, California the Saturday before the Oscars, marked the first time it was moved to a Friday and a change of venue to L.A. Live\n", "BULLET::::- The annual \"Night Before\", traditionally held at the Beverly Hills Hotel, begun in 2002 and generally known as \"the \"party of the season, benefits the Motion Picture & Television Fund, which operates a retirement home for SAG actors in the San Fernando Valley\n", "BULLET::::- Elton John AIDS Foundation Academy Award Party airs the awards live at the nearby Pacific Design Center\n", "BULLET::::- The Governors Ball is the Academy's official after-party, including dinner (until 2011), and is adjacent to the awards-presentation venue\n", "BULLET::::- The \"Vanity Fair\" after-party, historically at the former Morton's restaurant, has been at the Sunset Tower since 2009\n", "Section::::Presenter and performer gifts.\n", "It has become a tradition to give out gift bags to the presenters and performers at the Oscars. In recent years, these gifts have also been extended to award nominees and winners. The value of each of these gift bags can reach into the tens of thousands of dollars. In 2014, the value was reported to be as high as US$80,000. The value has risen to the point where the U.S. Internal Revenue Service issued a statement regarding the gifts and their taxable status.\n", "Oscar gift bags have included vacation packages to Hawaii and Mexico and Japan, a private dinner party for the recipient and friends at a restaurant, videophones, a four-night stay at a hotel, watches, bracelets, spa treatments, bottles of vodka, maple salad dressing and weight-loss gummie candy. Some of the gifts have even had a \"risque\" element to them; in 2014, the adult products retailer Adam & Eve had a \"Secret Room Gifting Suite\". Celebrities visiting the gifting suite included Judith Hoag, Carolyn Hennesy, Kate Linder, Chris Mulkey, Jim O'Heir, and NBA player John Salley.\n", "Section::::Television ratings and advertisement prices.\n", "From 2006 onwards, results are Live+SD; all previous years are live viewing.\n", "Section::::Trademark.\n", "The term \"Oscar\" is a registered trademark of the AMPAS; however, in the Italian language, it is used generically to refer to any award or award ceremony, regardless of which field.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- List of film awards\n", "BULLET::::- List of Academy Award records\n", "BULLET::::- List of superlative Academy Award winners and nominees\n", "BULLET::::- List of actors with Academy Award nominations\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- Brokaw, Lauren (2010). \"Wanna see an Academy Awards invite? We got it along with all the major annual events surrounding the Oscars\". Los Angeles: The Daily Truffle.\n", "BULLET::::- Wright, Jon (2007). \"The Lunacy of Oscar: The Problems with Hollywood's Biggest Night\". Thomas Publishing, Inc.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences\n", "BULLET::::- Official Academy Awards Database (searchable)\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Anarchism\n", "Anarchism is an anti-authoritarian political philosophy that rejects hierarchies deemed unjust and advocates their replacement with self-managed, self-governed societies based on voluntary, cooperative institutions. These institutions are often described as stateless societies, although several authors have defined them more specifically as distinct institutions based on non-hierarchical or free associations. Anarchism's central disagreement with other ideologies is that it holds the state to be undesirable, unnecessary, and harmful.\n", "Anarchism is usually placed on the far-left of the political spectrum, and much of its economics and legal philosophy reflect anti-authoritarian interpretations of communism, collectivism, syndicalism, mutualism, or participatory economics. As anarchism does not offer a fixed body of doctrine from a single particular worldview, many anarchist types and traditions exist and varieties of anarchy diverge widely. Anarchist schools of thought can differ fundamentally, supporting anything from extreme individualism to complete collectivism. Strains of anarchism have often been divided into the categories of social and individualist anarchism, or similar dual classifications.\n", "Section::::Etymology, terminology and definition.\n", "The etymological origin of the word \"anarchism\" is from the ancient Greek word \"anarkhia\", meaning \"without a ruler\", comprised of the prefix \"a-\" (i.e. \"without\") and the word \"arkhos\" (i.e. leader or ruler). The suffix -ism denotes the ideological current that favours anarchy. The word \"anarchism\" appears in English from 1642 as \"Anarchisme\" the word \"anarchy\" from 1539. Various factions within the French Revolution labelled their opponents as \"anarchists\" - few such accused shared many views with later anarchists. Many revolutionaries of the 19th century, such as William Godwin (1756-1836) and Wilhelm Weitling (1808-1871), would contribute to the anarchist doctrines of the next generation, but they did not use the word \"anarchist\" or \"anarchism\" in describing themselves or their beliefs.\n", "The first political philosopher to call himself an anarchist () was Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809-1865), marking the formal birth of anarchism in the mid-19th century. Since the 1890s and beginning in France, the term \"libertarianism\" has often been used as a synonym for anarchism and its use as a synonym is still common outside the United States. On the other hand, some use \"libertarianism\" to refer to individualistic free-market philosophy only, referring to free-market anarchism as \"libertarian anarchism\".\n", "While opposition to the state is central to anarchist thought, defining anarchism is not an easy task as there is a lot of talk among scholars and anarchists on the matter and various currents perceive anarchism slightly differently. Hence it might be true to say that anarchism is a cluster of political philosophies opposing authority and hierarchical organization (including the state, capitalism, nationalism and all associated institutions) in the conduct of all human relations in favour of a society based on voluntary association, on freedom and on decentralisation - but this definition has the same shortcomings as the definition based on etymology (which is simply a negation of a ruler), or based on anti-statism (anarchism is much more than that) or even the anti-authoritarian (which is an \"a posteriori\" conclusion). Major elements of the definition of anarchism include:\n", "BULLET::::1. the will for a non-coercive society\n", "BULLET::::2. the rejection of the state apparatus\n", "BULLET::::3. belief that human nature allows humans to exist in or progress toward such a non-coercive society; and\n", "BULLET::::4. a suggestion on how to act to pursue the ideal of anarchy\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Section::::History.:Prehistoric and ancient world.\n", "During the prehistoric era of mankind, an established authority did not exist. It was after the creation of towns and cities that hierarchy was invented and anarchistic ideas espoused as a reaction. Most notable examples of anarchism in the ancient world were in China and Greece. In China, philosophical anarchism, meaning peaceful delegitimizing of the state, was delineated by Taoist philosophers (i.e. Zhuangzi and Lao Tzu). Likewise in Greece, anarchist attitudes were articulated by tragedians and philosophers. Aeschylus and Sophocles used the myth of Antigone to illustrate the conflict between rules set by the state and personal autonomy. Socrates questioned Athenian authorities constantly and insisted to the right of individual freedom of consciousness. Cynics dismissed human law (\"Nomos\") and associated authorities while trying to live according to nature (\"physis\"). Stoics were supportive of a society based on unofficial and friendly relations among its citizens without the presence of a state.\n", "During the Middle Ages, there was no anarchistic activity except some ascetic religious movements in the Islamic world or in Christian Europe. This kind of tradition later gave birth to religious anarchism. In Persia, a Zoroastrian Prophet known as Mazdak was calling for an egalitarian society and the abolition of monarchy, but he soon found himself executed by the king. In Basra, religious sects preached against the state. In Europe, various sects developed anti-state and libertarian tendencies. Those currents were the precursor of religious anarchism in the centuries to come. It was in the Renaissance and with the spread of reasoning and humanism through Europe that libertarian ideas emerged. Writers were outlining in their novels ideal societies that were based not on coercion but voluntarism. The Enlightenment further pushed towards anarchism with the optimism for social progress.\n", "Section::::History.:Classical anarchism.\n", "The turning point towards anarchism was the French Revolution in which the anti-state and federalist sentiments began to take a form, mostly by Enragés and \"sans-culottes\". Some prominent figures of anarchism begun developing the first anarchist currents. That is the era of classical anarchism that lasted until the end of the Spanish Civil War of 1936 and was the golden age of anarchism. William Godwin espoused philosophical anarchism in England morally delegitimizing the state, Max Stirner's thinking paved the way to individualism and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's theory of mutualism found fertile soil in France.\n", "Michael Bakunin took mutualism and extended it to collectivist anarchism. Bakunin's current (Jura Federation) entered the class worker union called the International Workingmen's Association (IWA), later known as the First International, formed in 1864 to unite diverse revolutionary currents. Due to its links to active workers' movements, the International became a significant organisation. Karl Marx became a leading figure in the International and a member of its General Council. Proudhon's followers, the mutualists, opposed Marx's state socialism, advocating political abstentionism and small property holdings. Bakunin's followers entered a bitter dispute with Karl Marx which ended with the split of the workers movement that officially took place in the Fifth Congress of the IWA in the Hague, 1872. The major reason lay in fundamentally different approaches on how the workers would emancipate themselves. Marx was advocating for the creation of a political party to take part in electoral struggles whereas Bakunin thought that the whole set of Marx's thinking was very authoritarian. Bakunin is famous for predicting that if such a party would gain power by Marxist's terms, it would end up to be the new tyrant of workers. After being expelled from the IWA, anarchists formed the St. Imier International. Under the influence of Peter Kropotkin, a Russian philosopher and scientist, anarcho-communism overlapped collectivism. Anarcho-communists, who drew inspiration from the 1871 Paris Commune, advocated for free federation and distribution of goods according to one needs. The major argument of anarcho-communism was that Bakunian perspective would lead to antagonism among collectives.\n", "At the turning of the century, anarchism had spread all over the world. In China, small groups of students imported the humanistic pro-science version of anarcho-communism. Tokyo was a hotspot for rebellious youth from countries of the far east, pouring into Japanese capital to study. In Latin America, São Paulo was a stronghold, and anarchosyndicalism was the most prominent left-wing ideology. During that time, a minority of anarchists embarked into utilizing of violence in order to achieve their political ends. This kind of strategy is named as propaganda of the deed. The dismemberment of the French socialist movement into many groups and the execution and exile of many Communards to penal colonies following the suppression of the Paris Commune favoured individualist political expression and acts. Even though many anarchists distanced themselves from those terrorist acts, anarchists were persecuted and were given bad fame. Illegalism, stealing the possessions of the rich because capitalists were not their rightful owners, was another strategy some anarchist adopted during the same years.\n", "Anarchists took part enthusiastically in the Russian Revolution. During the revolution, anarchists had concerns, but they opted for the revolution rather than supporting the Whites. However, they met harsh suppression after the Bolshevik government was stabilized. Anarchists in central Russia were either imprisoned, driven underground or joined the victorious Bolsheviks. Anarchists from Petrograd and Moscow instead fled to Ukraine. The Kronstadt rebellion and Nestor Makhno's struggle in the Free Territory were the most notable examples. With the anarchists being crashed in Russia, two new antithetical currents emerged, namely platformism and synthesis anarchism. Platformists sought to create a coherent group that would push for the revolution while the latter were against anything that would resemble a political party. The victory of the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution and the resulting Russian Civil War did serious damage to anarchist movements internationally. Many workers and activists saw the Bolshevik success as setting an example and communist parties grew at the expense of anarchism and other socialist movements. In France and the United States, members of the major syndicalist movements of the General Confederation of Labour and Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) left the organisations and joined the Communist International.\n", "In the Spanish Civil War, anarchists and syndicalists (CNT and FAI) once again allied themselves with various currents of leftists. Spain had a long anarchist tradition and anarchists played an important role in the Civil War. In response to the army rebellion, an anarchist-inspired movement of peasants and workers, supported by armed militias, took control of Barcelona and of large areas of rural Spain where they collectivised the land. The Soviet Union provided some limited assistance at the beginning of the Civil War, but as Joseph Stalin tried to seize control of the Republicans the result was a bitter fight among communists and anarchists (i.e. at a series of events named May Days).\n", "Section::::History.:Post-World War II anarchism.\n", "In the first years after World War II, the anarchist movement was severely damaged. However, the 1960s witnessed a revival of anarchism. The main causes of such a revival may have been the perceived failure of Marxism–Leninism and the tension build by the Cold War. During this era, anarchism was mostly part of other movements critical to both the state and capitalism such as the anti-nuclear, environmental and pacifist movements, the New Left, or the counterculture of the 1960s. Anarchism was also associated with the punk rock movement as exemplified by bands such as Crass and the Sex Pistols. Although feminist tendencies have always been a part of the anarchist movement in the form of anarcha-feminism, they returned with vigour during the second wave of feminism in the 1960s.\n", "Around the turn of the 21st century, anarchism grew in popularity and influence as part of the anti-war, anti-capitalist and anti-globalisation movements. Anarchists became known for their involvement in protests against the meetings of the World Trade Organization (WTO), Group of Eight (G8) and the World Economic Forum (WEF). Some anarchist factions at these protests engaged in rioting, property destruction and violent confrontations with the police. These actions were precipitated by \"ad hoc\", leaderless, anonymous cadres known as black blocs—other organisational tactics pioneered in this time include security culture, affinity groups and the use of decentralised technologies such as the internet. A significant event of this period was the confrontations at the WTO conference in Seattle in 1999. Anarchist ideas have been influential in the development of the Zapatistas in Chiapas, Mexico, and the Democratic Federation of Northern Syria, more commonly known as Rojava, a \"de facto\" autonomous region in northern Syria.\n", "Section::::Anarchist schools of thought.\n", "Anarchist schools of thought had been generally grouped in two main historical traditions (individualist anarchism and social anarchism) which have some different origins, values and evolution. The individualist wing of anarchism emphasises negative liberty (opposition to state or social control over the individual) while those in the social wing emphasise positive liberty to achieve one's potential and argue that humans have needs that society ought to fulfil, \"recognising equality of entitlement\". In a chronological and theoretical sense, there are classical—those created throughout the 19th century—and post-classical anarchist schools—those created since the mid-20th century and after.\n", "Beyond the specific factions of anarchist thought is philosophical anarchism which the theoretical stance that the state lacks moral legitimacy without accepting the imperative of revolution to eliminate it. A component especially of individualist anarchism, philosophical anarchism may accept the existence of a minimal state as unfortunate and usually temporary, necessary evil, but argue that citizens do not have a moral obligation to obey the state when its laws conflict with individual autonomy. One reaction against sectarianism within the anarchist milieu was anarchism without adjectives, a call for toleration first adopted by Fernando Tarrida del Mármol in 1889 in response to the bitter debates of anarchist theory at the time. In abandoning the hyphenated anarchisms (i.e. collectivist-, communist-, mutualist- and individualist-anarchism), it sought to emphasise the anti-authoritarian beliefs common to all anarchist schools of thought. The various anarchist schools of thought or currents are not distinct entities, but intermingle with each other.\n", "Section::::Anarchist schools of thought.:Classical.\n", "Collectivist and communist anarchism and anarcho-syndicalism are all considered to be forms of social anarchism. Mutualism and individualism were the other notable anarchist currents through the 19th and early 20th century. Social anarchism rejects private property, seeing it as a source of social inequality (while retaining respect for personal property) and emphasises cooperation and mutual aid.\n", "Section::::Anarchist schools of thought.:Classical.:Mutualism.\n", "Mutualism began in 18th-century English and French labour movements before taking an anarchist form associated with Pierre-Joseph Proudhon in France and others in the United States. Proudhon proposed spontaneous order, whereby organisation emerges without central authority, a \"positive anarchy\" where order arises when everybody does \"what he wishes and only what he wishes\" and where \"business transactions alone produce the social order\".\n", "Proudhon distinguished between ideal political possibilities and practical governance. For this reason, much in contrast to some of his theoretical statements concerning ultimate spontaneous self-governance, Proudhon was heavily involved in French parliamentary politics and allied himself with the socialist factions of the workers movement. During his life of public service, he began advocating state-protected charters for worker-owned cooperatives and promoting certain nationalisation schemes.\n", "Mutualist anarchism is concerned with reciprocity, free association, voluntary contract, federation and credit and currency reform. According to the American mutualist William Batchelder Greene, each worker in the mutualist system would receive \"just and exact pay for his work; services equivalent in cost being exchangeable for services equivalent in cost, without profit or discount\". Mutualism has been retrospectively characterised as ideologically situated between individualist and collectivist forms of anarchism. Proudhon first characterised his goal as a \"third form of society, the synthesis of communism and property [which] we call LIBERTY\".\n", "Section::::Anarchist schools of thought.:Classical.:Collectivist anarchism.\n", "Collectivist anarchism, also referred to as revolutionary socialism or a form of such, is a revolutionary form of anarchism, commonly associated with Mikhail Bakunin and Johann Most.\n", "At the epicentre of collectivist anarchism lies the belief in the potential of humankind for goodness and solidarity which will flourish when oppressive governments are abolished. Collectivist anarchists oppose all private ownership of the means of production, instead advocating that ownership be collectivised. This was to be achieved through violent revolution, first starting with a small cohesive group through acts of violence, or propaganda by the deed, to inspire the workers as a whole to revolt and forcibly collectivise the means of production. However, collectivisation was not to be extended to the distribution of income as workers would be paid according to time worked, rather than receiving goods being distributed according to need as in anarcho-communism. This position was criticised by anarcho-communists as effectively \"uphold[ing] the wages system\". Collectivist anarchism arose contemporaneously with Marxism, but it opposed the Marxist dictatorship of the proletariat despite the stated Marxist goal of a collectivist stateless society.\n", "Anarchist, communist and collectivist ideas are not mutually exclusive—although the collectivist anarchists advocated compensation for labour, some held out the possibility of a post-revolutionary transition to a communist system of distribution according to need.\n", "Section::::Anarchist schools of thought.:Classical.:Anarcho-communism.\n", "Anarcho-communism, also known as anarchist-communism, communist anarchism and libertarian communism, is a theory of anarchism that advocates abolition of the state, markets, money, private property (while retaining respect for personal property) and capitalism in favour of common ownership of the means of production, direct democracy and a horizontal network of voluntary associations and workers' councils with production and consumption based on the guiding principle: \"From each according to his ability, to each according to his need\".\n", "Anarcho-communism developed out of radical socialist currents after the French Revolution, but it was first formulated as such in the Italian section of the First International. The theoretical work of Peter Kropotkin took importance later as it expanded and developed pro-organisationalist and insurrectionary anti-organisationalist sections.\n", "To date, the best known examples of an anarcho-communist society (i.e. established around the ideas as they exist today and achieving worldwide attention and knowledge in the historical canon), are the anarchist territories during the Spanish Revolution and the Free Territory during the Russian Revolution. Through the efforts and influence of the Spanish anarchists during the Spanish Revolution within the Spanish Civil War starting in 1936, anarcho-communism existed in most of Aragon, parts of the Levante and Andalusia as well as in the stronghold of Catalonia. Along with the Republicans, it was crushed by the combined forces of the Francisco Franco's Nationalists, Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini as well as repression by the Communist Party of Spain (backed by the Soviet Union) and economic and armaments blockades from the capitalist countries and the Spanish Republic itself.\n", "Section::::Anarchist schools of thought.:Classical.:Anarcho-syndicalism.\n", "Anarcho-syndicalism is a branch of anarchism that focuses on the labour movement.\n", "Anarcho-syndicalists view labour unions as a potential force for revolutionary social change, replacing capitalism and the state with a new society democratically self-managed by workers. The basic principles of anarcho-syndicalism are workers' solidarity, direct action and workers' self-management. Anarcho-syndicalists believe that only direct action—that is, action concentrated on directly attaining a goal as opposed to indirect action such as electing a representative to a government position—will allow workers to liberate themselves.\n", "Moreover, anarcho-syndicalists believe that workers' organisations (the organisations that struggle against the wage system which in anarcho-syndicalist theory will eventually form the basis of a new society) should be self-managing. They should not have bosses or business agents—rather, the workers should be able to make all the decisions that affect them themselves. Rudolf Rocker was one of the most popular voices in the anarcho-syndicalist movement. He outlined a view of the origins of the movement, what it sought and why it was important to the future of labour in his 1938 pamphlet \"Anarcho-Syndicalism\". The International Workers Association is an international anarcho-syndicalist federation of various labour unions from different countries. The Spanish CNT played and still plays a major role in the Spanish labour movement. It was also an important force in the Spanish Civil War.\n", "Section::::Anarchist schools of thought.:Classical.:Individualist anarchism.\n", "Individualist anarchism refers to several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasise the individual and their will over any kinds of external determinants such as groups, society, traditions and ideological systems. Individualist anarchism is not a single philosophy, but it instead refers to a group of individualistic philosophies that sometimes are in conflict.\n", "In 1793, William Godwin, who has often been cited as the first anarchist, wrote \"Political Justice\", which some consider the first expression of anarchism. Godwin was a philosophical anarchist and from a rationalist and utilitarian basis opposed revolutionary action and saw a minimal state as a present \"necessary evil\" that would become increasingly irrelevant and powerless by the gradual spread of knowledge. Godwin advocated individualism, proposing that all cooperation in labour be eliminated on the premise that this would be most conducive with the general good.\n", "An influential form of individualist anarchism called egoism, or egoist anarchism, was expounded by one of the earliest and best-known proponents of individualist anarchism, the German Max Stirner. Stirner's \"The Ego and Its Own\", published in 1844, is a founding text of the philosophy. According to Stirner, the only limitation on the rights of individuals is their power to obtain what they desire without regard for God, state, or morality. To Stirner, rights were \"spooks\" in the mind and he held that society does not exist, but \"the individuals are its reality\". Stirner advocated self-assertion and foresaw unions of egoists, non-systematic associations continually renewed by all parties' support through an act of will, which Stirner proposed as a form of organisation in place of the state. Egoist anarchists argue that egoism will foster genuine and spontaneous union between individuals. \"Egoism\" has inspired many interpretations of Stirner's philosophy. It was re-discovered and promoted by German philosophical anarchist and homosexual activist John Henry Mackay.\n", "Josiah Warren was a pioneer American anarcho-individualist, who drew inspiration from Proudhon. Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862) was an important early influence in individualist anarchist thought in the United States and Europe. Thoreau was an American author, poet, naturalist, tax resister, development critic, surveyor, historian, philosopher and leading transcendentalist. He is best known for his books \"Walden\", a reflection upon simple living in natural surroundings, as well as his essay, \"Civil Disobedience\", an argument for individual resistance to civil government in moral opposition to an unjust state. Benjamin Tucker later fused Stirner's egoism with the economics of Warren and Proudhon in his eclectic influential publication \"Liberty\".\n", "From these early influences, individualist anarchism in different countries attracted a small yet diverse following of Bohemian artists and intellectuals, free love and birth control advocates (see anarchism and issues related to love and sex), individualist naturists and nudists (see anarcho-naturism), freethought and anti-clerical activists as well as young anarchist outlaws in what became known as illegalism and individual reclamation (see European individualist anarchism and individualist anarchism in France). These authors and activists included Oscar Wilde, Emile Armand, Han Ryner, Henri Zisly, Renzo Novatore, Miguel Gimenez Igualada, Adolf Brand and Lev Chernyi, among others.\n", "Section::::Anarchist schools of thought.:Post-classical and contemporary.\n", "Anarchist principles undergird contemporary radical social movements of the left. Interest in the anarchist movement developed alongside momentum in the anti-globalization movement, whose leading activist networks were anarchist in orientation. As the movement shaped 21st century radicalism, wider embrace of anarchist principles signaled a revival of interest. Contemporary news coverage which emphasizes black bloc demonstrations has reinforced anarchism's historical association with chaos and violence, though its publicity has also led more scholars to engage with the anarchist movement. Anarchism continues to generate many philosophies and movements, at times eclectic, drawing upon various sources and syncretic, combining disparate concepts to create new philosophical approaches.\n", "Anticapitalism stays prominent within contemporary anarchism, continuing the tradition of classical anarchism.\n", "Insurrectionary anarchism is a revolutionary theory, practice and tendency within the anarchist movement which emphasises insurrection within anarchist practice. Critical of formal organisations such as labour unions and federations that are based on a political programme and periodic congresses, insurrectionary anarchists instead advocate informal organisation and small affinity group based organisation as well as putting value in attack, permanent class conflict and a refusal to negotiate or compromise with class enemies.\n", "Green anarchism, or eco-anarchism, is a school of thought within anarchism that emphasises environmental issues, with an important precedent in anarcho-naturism and whose main contemporary currents are anarcho-primitivism and social ecology. Writing from a green anarchist perspective, John Zerzan attributes the ills of today's social degradation to technology and the birth of agricultural civilization. While Layla AbdelRahim argues that \"the shift in human consciousness was also a shift in human subsistence strategies, whereby some human animals reinvented their narrative to center murder and predation and thereby institutionalize violence\". According to AbdelRahim, civilization was the result of the human development of technologies and grammar for predatory economics. Language and literacy, she claims, are some of these technologies.\n", "Anarcho-pacifism is a tendency that rejects violence in the struggle for social change (see non-violence). It developed mostly in the Netherlands, Britain and the United States before and during the Second World War. Christian anarchism is a movement in political theology that combines anarchism and Christianity. Its main proponents included Leo Tolstoy, Dorothy Day, Ammon Hennacy and Jacques Ellul.\n", "Religious anarchism refers to a set of related anarchist ideologies that are inspired by the teachings of religions. While many anarchists have traditionally been sceptical of and opposed to organized religion, many different religions have served as inspiration for religious forms of anarchism, most notably Christianity as Christian anarchists believe that biblical teachings give credence to anarchist philosophy. Other examples include Buddhist anarchism, Jewish anarchism and most recently Neopaganism.\n", "Synthesis anarchism is a form of anarchism that tries to join anarchists of different tendencies under the principles of anarchism without adjectives. In the 1920s, this form found as its main proponents the anarcho-communists Voline and Sébastien Faure. It is the main principle behind the anarchist federations grouped around the contemporary global International of Anarchist Federations.\n", "Platformism is a tendency within the wider anarchist movement based on the organisational theories in the tradition of Dielo Truda's \"Organisational Platform of the General Union of Anarchists (Draft)\". The document was based on the experiences of Russian anarchists in the 1917 October Revolution which led eventually to the victory of the Bolsheviks over the anarchists and other groups. The \"Platform\" attempted to address and explain the anarchist movement's failures during the Russian Revolution.\n", "Post-left anarchy is a recent current in anarchist thought that promotes a critique of anarchism's relationship to traditional left-wing politics. Some post-leftists seek to escape the confines of ideology in general also presenting a critique of organisations and morality. Influenced by the work of Max Stirner and by the Marxist Situationist International, post-left anarchy is marked by a focus on social insurrection and a rejection of leftist social organisation.\n", "Post-anarchism is a theoretical move towards a synthesis of classical anarchist theory and poststructuralist thought, drawing from diverse ideas including post-left anarchy, postmodernism, autonomism, postcolonialism and the Situationist International.\n", "Queer anarchism is a form of socialism which suggests anarchism as a solution to the issues faced by the LGBT community, mainly heteronormativity, homophobia, transphobia and biphobia. It arose during the late 20th century based on the work of Michel Foucault's \"The History of Sexuality\" (1976).\n", "Left-wing market anarchism strongly affirm the classical liberal ideas of self-ownership and free markets while maintaining that taken to their logical conclusions these ideas support strongly anti-capitalist, anti-corporatist, anti-hierarchical and pro-labour positions in economics; anti-imperialism in foreign policy; and thoroughly radical views regarding such cultural issues as gender, sexuality and race.\n", "Anarcho-capitalism advocates the elimination of the state in favour of self-ownership in a free market. Anarcho-capitalism developed from radical American anti-state libertarianism and individualist anarchism, drawing from Austrian School economics, study of law and economics and public choice theory. There is a strong current within anarchism which believes that anarcho-capitalism cannot be considered a part of the anarchist movement due to the fact that anarchism has historically been an anti-capitalist movement and for definitional reasons which see anarchism as incompatible with capitalist forms.\n", "Anarcho-transhumanism is a recently new branch of anarchism that takes traditional and modern anarchism, typically drawing from anarcho-syndicalism, left-libertarianism, or libertarian socialism, and combines it with transhumanism and post-humanism. It can be described as a \"liberal democratic revolution, at its core the idea that people are happiest when they have rational control over their lives. Reason, science, and technology provide one kind of control, slowly freeing us from ignorance, toil, pain, disease and limited lifespans (aging)\". Some anarcho-transhumanists might also follow technogaianism.\n", "Section::::Anarchist schools of thought.:Post-classical and contemporary.:Anarcha-feminism.\n", "Anarcha-feminism, also called anarchist feminism and anarcho-feminism, combines anarchism with feminism. It generally views patriarchy as a manifestation of involuntary coercive hierarchy that should be replaced by decentralised free association. Anarcha-feminists believe that the struggle against patriarchy is an essential part of class struggle and the anarchist struggle against the state. In essence, the philosophy sees anarchist struggle as a necessary component of feminist struggle and vice versa. Anarcha-feminists espoused to a detailed analysis of patriarchy and claim that oppression has its roots to social norms.\n", "Anarcha-feminism began with the late 19th-century writings of early feminist anarchists such as Emma Goldman and Voltairine de Cleyre. Mujeres Libres was an anarchist women's organisation in Spain that aimed to empower working class women, based on the idea of a double struggle for women's liberation and social revolution and argued that the two objectives were equally important and should be pursued in parallel. In order to gain mutual support, they created networks of women anarchists. The second wave of anarcha-feminism arose in the 1960s.\n", "Section::::Internal issues and debates.\n", "As anarchism is a philosophy that embodies many diverse attitudes, tendencies and schools of thought and as such disagreement over questions of values, ideology and tactics is common, its diversity has led to widely different use of identical terms among different anarchist traditions which has led to many definitional concerns in anarchist theory. For instance, the compatibility of capitalism, nationalism and religion with anarchism is widely disputed. Similarly, anarchism enjoys complex relationships with ideologies such as Marxism, communism, collectivism and trade unionism. Anarchists may be motivated by humanism, divine authority, enlightened self-interest, veganism, or any number of alternative ethical doctrines. Phenomena such as civilisation, technology (e.g. within anarcho-primitivism) and the democratic process may be sharply criticised within some anarchist tendencies and simultaneously lauded in others. On a tactical level, propaganda of the deed was a tactic used by anarchists in the 19th century (e.g. the nihilist movement), with some contemporary anarchists espousing alternative direct action methods such as nonviolence, counter-economics and anti-state cryptography to bring about an anarchist society. About the scope of an anarchist society, some anarchists advocate a global one while others do so by local ones.\n", "Section::::Topics of interest.\n", "Intersecting and overlapping between various schools of thought, certain topics of interest and internal disputes have proven perennial within anarchist theory.\n", "Section::::Topics of interest.:Anarchism and free love.\n", "An important current within anarchism is free love. In Europe, the main propagandist of free love within individualist anarchism was Emile Armand. He proposed the concept of \"la camaraderie amoureuse\" to speak of free love as the possibility of voluntary sexual encounter between consenting adults. He was also a consistent proponent of polyamory. In Germany, the Stirnerists Adolf Brand and John Henry Mackay were pioneering campaigners for the acceptance of male bisexuality and homosexuality. More recently, the British anarcho-pacifist Alex Comfort gained notoriety during the sexual revolution for writing the bestseller sex manual \"The Joy of Sex\". The issue of free love has a dedicated treatment in the work of French anarcho-hedonist philosopher Michel Onfray in such works as \"Théorie du corps amoureux. Pour une érotique solaire\" (2000) and \"L'invention du plaisir. Fragments cyréaniques\" (2002).\n", "Section::::Topics of interest.:Anarchism and education.\n", "English anarchist William Godwin considered education an important aspect. He was against state education as he considered those schools as a way of the state to replicate privileges of the ruling class. Godwin thought that education was the way to change the world. In his \"Political Justice\", he criticises state sponsored schooling and advocates for child's protection from coercion. Max Stirner wrote in 1842 a long essay on education called \"The False Principle of our Education\" in which Stirner was advocating for child's autonomy.\n", "In 1901, Catalan anarchist and free thinker Francesc Ferrer i Guàrdia established modern or progressive schools in Barcelona in defiance of an educational system controlled by the Catholic Church. Ferrer's approach was secular, rejecting both the state and church involvement in the educational process and gave pupils plenty of autonomy (i.e. on setting the curriculum). Ferrer was aiming to educate the working class. The school closed after constant harassment by the state and Ferrer was later on arrested. Ferrer's ideas generally formed the inspiration for a series of modern schools in the United States,\n", "Russian Christian anarchist Leo Tolstoy established a school for peasant children on his estate. Tolstoy's educational experiments were short-lived due to harassment by the Tsarist secret police. Tolstoy established a conceptual difference between education and culture. He thought that \"[e]ducation is the tendency of one man to make another just like himself. [...] Education is culture under restraint, culture is free. [Education is] when the teaching is forced upon the pupil, and when then instruction is exclusive, that is when only those subjects are taught which the educator regards as necessary\". For him, \"without compulsion, education was transformed into culture\".\n", "A more recent libertarian tradition on education is that of unschooling and the free school in which child-led activity replaces pedagogic approaches. Experiments in Germany led to A. S. Neill founding what became Summerhill School in 1921. Summerhill is often cited as an example of anarchism in practice. However, although Summerhill and other free schools are radically libertarian, they differ in principle from those of Ferrer by not advocating an overtly political class struggle-approach. In addition to organising schools according to libertarian principles, anarchists have also questioned the concept of schooling per se. The term deschooling was popularised by Ivan Illich, who argued that the school as an institution is dysfunctional for self-determined learning and serves the creation of a consumer society instead.\n", "Section::::Topics of interest.:Anarchism and the state.\n", "Objection to the state and its institutions is \"sine qua non\" of anarchism. Anarchists consider the government as a tool of domination and it is illegitimate regardless of political tendencies. Instead of people being able to control the aspects of their life, major decisions are taken by a small elite. Authority ultimately rests solely on power regardless if it is open or transparent as it still has the ability to coerce people. Another anarchist argument against states is that some people constituting a government, even the most altruistic among officials, will unavoidably seek to gain more power, leading to corruption. Anarchists consider the argument that the state is the collective will of people as a fairy tale since the ruling class is distinct from the rest of the society.\n", "Section::::Topics of interest.:Anarchism and violence.\n", "Anarchist perspectives towards violence have always been perplexed and controversial. On one hand, anarcho-pacifists point out the unity of means and ends. On the other hand, other groups of anarchist are for direct action that can include sabotage or even terrorism. Emma Goldman and Errico Malatesta, who were proponents of limited use of violence, were arguing that violence is merely a reaction to state violence as a necessary evil. Peace activist and anarchist April Carter argues that violence is incompatible with anarchism because it is mostly associated with the state and authority as violence is immanent to the state. As the state's capability to exercise violence is colossal nowadays, a rebellion or civil war would probably end in another authoritarian institute.\n", "Section::::Anarchist strategies and tactics.\n", "Anarchist tactics vary considerably. A broad categorization would be the preference of revolutionary tactics to destroy oppressive States and institutions or aiming to change society through evolutionary means. Revolutionary methods can take violent form as they did in past insurgencies (i.e., in Spain, Mexico, Russia) or during violent protests by militant protestors such as the black bloc, who are generally much less violent than revolutionary movements a century ago. Anarchists also commonly employ direct action, which can take the form of disrupting and protesting against unjust hierarchies, or the form of self-managing their lives through the creation of counterinstitutions such as communes and non-hierarchical collectives. Often decision-making is handled in an anti-authoritarian way, with everyone having equal say in each decision, an approach known as horizontalism. Another aspect of anarchist tactics is their aim to strengthen social bonds through common actions.\n", "Reclaiming public space by anarchists is another method of creating social spaces and creating squats in order to organise themselves. During important events such as protests, when spaces are being occupied, they are often called \n", "\"Temporary Autonomous Zones\" (TAZ).\n", "Section::::Criticisms.\n", "Moral and pragmatic criticism of anarchism includes allegations of utopianism, tacit authoritarianism and vandalism towards feats of civilization.\n", "Section::::Criticisms.:Allegation of utopianism.\n", "Anarchism is evaluated as unfeasible or utopian by its critics, often in general and formal debate. European history professor Carl Landauer argued that social anarchism is unrealistic and that government is a \"lesser evil\" than a society without \"repressive force\". He also argued that \"ill intentions will cease if repressive force disappears\" is an \"absurdity\". However, \"An Anarchist FAQ\" states the following: \"Anarchy is not a utopia, [and] anarchists make no such claims about human perfection. [...] Remaining disputes would be solved by reasonable methods, for example, the use of juries, mutual third parties, or community and workplace assemblies\". It also states that \"some sort of 'court' system would still be necessary to deal with the remaining crimes and to adjudicate disputes between citizens\".\n", "Section::::Criticisms.:Tacit authoritarianism.\n", "The anarchist tendency known as platformism has been criticized by Situationists, insurrectionaries, synthesis anarchists and others of preserving tacitly statist, authoritarian or bureaucratic tendencies.\n", "Section::::Criticisms.:Anarchism and civilization.\n", "In his essay \"On Authority\", Friedrich Engels claimed that radical decentralization promoted by anarchists would destroy modern industrial civilization, citing an example of railways: \n", "In the end, it is argued that authority in any form is a natural occurrence which should not be abolished.\n", "Section::::List of anarchist societies.\n", "BULLET::::- Federation of Neighborhood Councils-El Alto (Fejuve; 1979–present)\n", "BULLET::::- Popular Indigenous Council of Oaxaca \"Ricardo Flores Magón\" (CIPO-RFM; 1980s–present)\n", "BULLET::::- Barbacha (2001–present)\n", "BULLET::::- Villa de Zaachila (2006–present)\n", "BULLET::::- Cheran (2011–present)\n", "BULLET::::- Democratic Federation of Northern Syria (Rojava; 2013–present)\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Governance without government\n", "BULLET::::- Libertarian socialism\n", "BULLET::::- List of anarchist political ideologies\n", "Section::::See also.:Foundational texts of anarchism.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Enquiry Concerning Political Justice\" (1793)\n", "BULLET::::- \"What is Property? (1840)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Ego and Its Own\" (1844)\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- An utopian science fiction novel\n", "BULLET::::- Scott, James C., (2012) \"\", Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press .\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Anarchy Archives. Anarchy Archives is an online research center on the history and theory of anarchism\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Swing\n", "Swing or swinging may refer to:\n", "Section::::Apparatus.\n", "BULLET::::- Swing (seat), a hanging seat that swings back and forth\n", "BULLET::::- Russian swing, a swing-like circus apparatus\n", "BULLET::::- Sex swing, a type of harness for sexual intercourse\n", "BULLET::::- Swing ride, an amusement park ride consisting of suspended seats that rotate like a merry-go-round\n", "Section::::Arts, entertainment, and media.\n", "Section::::Arts, entertainment, and media.:Films.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Swing\" (1938 film), an American film directed by Oscar Micheaux\n", "BULLET::::- \"Swing\" (1999 film), an American film by Nick Mead\n", "BULLET::::- \"Swing\" (2002 film), a French film by Tony Gatlif\n", "BULLET::::- \"Swing\" (2003 film), an American film by Martin Guigui\n", "BULLET::::- \"Swing\" (2010 film), a Hindi short film\n", "BULLET::::- \"Swing\" (2011 film), a Kuwaiti short film\n", "Section::::Arts, entertainment, and media.:Music.\n", "Section::::Arts, entertainment, and media.:Music.:Groups and labels.\n", "BULLET::::- Swing (Canadian band), a Canadian néo-trad band\n", "BULLET::::- Swing (Hong Kong band), a Hong Kong pop music group\n", "BULLET::::- Swing Time Records, a record label\n", "Section::::Arts, entertainment, and media.:Music.:Albums.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Swing\" (INXS album), a 1984 album by Australian rock band INXS\n", "BULLET::::- \"Swing\" (The Manhattan Transfer album), 1997 album by The Manhattan Transfer\n", "BULLET::::- \"Swing\" (Renée Geyer album), 2013 album by Renée Geyer\n", "BULLET::::- \"Swing\" (EP), a 2014 album by South Korean-Chinese group, \"Super Junior-M\"\n", "Section::::Arts, entertainment, and media.:Songs.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Swing\" (Trace Adkins song), 2006, by Trace Adkins\n", "BULLET::::- \"Swing\" (AMO song), a 2012 song by Slovak hip hop band AMO\n", "BULLET::::- \"Swing\" (Savage song), 2005, by New Zealand performer Savage, released again in 2008 featuring Soulja Boy\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Swing\" (song), 1997, by American country music artist James Bonamy\n", "BULLET::::- \"Swing, Swing\", 2003, by the All-American Rejects\n", "BULLET::::- \"Swing\", 1980, by Japan from the album \"Gentlemen Take Polaroids\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Swing\", 2015, by Knuckle Puck from the album \"Copacetic\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Swing\", 2012, by Parkway Drive from the album \"Atlas\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Swing\", 2014, by Super Junior-M from the album \"Swing\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Swing\", 1983, by Yello\n", "Section::::Arts, entertainment, and media.:Songs.:Styles.\n", "BULLET::::- Swing (jazz performance style), the sense of propulsive rhythmic \"feel\" or \"groove\" in jazz\n", "BULLET::::- Swing music, a style of jazz popular during the 1930s–1950s\n", "Section::::Arts, entertainment, and media.:Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media.\n", "BULLET::::- Swing (dance), a group of dances that correspond to swing style of jazz music\n", "BULLET::::- \"Swing\" (musical), a 1999 Broadway musical\n", "BULLET::::- \"Swing\" (video game), a 1997 video game for the PC and PlayStation\n", "BULLET::::- Swing, an understudy in the musical theatre who prepares several roles\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Swing\" (painting), a 1767 rococo painting by Jean-Honoré Fragonard\n", "Section::::Politics.\n", "BULLET::::- Swing (politics), the extent of change in voter support\n", "BULLET::::- Swing (Australian politics), refers to the extent of change in voter support, typically from one election or opinion poll to another\n", "BULLET::::- Swing (United Kingdom), an indication of the scale of voter change between two political parties\n", "BULLET::::- Captain Swing, a name appended to several threatening letters during the rural English Swing Riots of 1830\n", "Section::::Sports.\n", "BULLET::::- Swing (boxing), a type of punch\n", "BULLET::::- Baseball swing, the process of hitting a ball with a bat in the game of baseball\n", "BULLET::::- Golf swing or golf stroke mechanics, the means by which golfers analyze the execute their shots in the sport of golf\n", "BULLET::::- Swing bowling, a subtype of fast bowling in cricket\n", "Section::::Transportation.\n", "BULLET::::- Aquilair Swing, a French ultralight trike aircraft design\n", "BULLET::::- S-Wing Swing, light sport aircraft designed and built in the Czech Republic\n", "BULLET::::- Swing Bike, a bicycle where both front and rear wheels are steerable\n", "BULLET::::- Swing Flugsportgeräte, German aircraft manufacturer\n", "Section::::Other uses.\n", "BULLET::::- Swing (Java), a GUI widget toolkit for the Java programming language\n", "BULLET::::- Swing rifle, type of firearm\n", "BULLET::::- Swing trading, when a tradable asset is held for one or more days to profit from price changes\n", "BULLET::::- Swinging (sexual practice), when partners in a committed relationship engage in sexual activities with others\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Swinger (disambiguation)\n", "BULLET::::- Swingin' (disambiguation)\n", "BULLET::::- Swings (disambiguation)\n", "BULLET::::- The Swing (disambiguation)\n" ] }

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(INXS album)", "\"Swing\" (The Manhattan Transfer album)", "\"Swing\" (Renée Geyer album)", "\"Swing\" (EP)", "\"Swing\" (Trace Adkins song)", "\"Swing\" (AMO song)", "\"Swing\" (Savage song)", "\"The Swing\" (song)", "Swing, Swing", "Gentlemen Take Polaroids", "Copacetic", "Atlas", "Swing", "Yello", "Swing (jazz performance style)", "Swing music", "Swing (dance)", "\"Swing\" (musical)", "\"Swing\" (video game)", "understudy", "\"The Swing\" (painting)", "Swing (politics)", "Swing (Australian politics)", "Swing (United Kingdom)", "Captain Swing", "Swing (boxing)", "hitting a ball", "golf stroke mechanics", "Swing bowling", "Aquilair Swing", "S-Wing Swing", "Swing Bike", "Swing Flugsportgeräte", "Swing (Java)", "Swing rifle", "Swing trading", "Swinging (sexual practice)", "Swinger (disambiguation)", "Swingin' (disambiguation)", "Swings (disambiguation)", "The Swing (disambiguation)" ], "href": [ "Swing%20%28seat%29", "Russian%20swing", "Sex%20swing", "Swing%20ride", 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{ "paragraph": [ "Achilles\n", "In Greek mythology, Achilles or Achilleus ( ; , \"Achilleus\" ) was a hero of the Trojan War, the greatest of all the Greek warriors, and is the central character of Homer's \"Iliad\". He was the son of the Nereid Thetis and Peleus, king of Phthia. \n", "Achilles' most notable feat during the Trojan War was the slaying of the Trojan prince Hector outside the gates of Troy. Although the death of Achilles is not presented in the \"Iliad\", other sources concur that he was killed near the end of the Trojan War by Paris, who shot him in the heel with an arrow. Later legends (beginning with Statius' unfinished epic \"Achilleid\", written in the 1st century AD) state that Achilles was invulnerable in all of his body except for his heel because, when his mother Thetis dipped him in the river Styx as an infant, she held him by one of his heels. Alluding to these legends, the term \"Achilles' heel\" has come to mean a point of weakness, especially in someone or something with an otherwise strong constitution. The Achilles tendon is also named after him due to these legends. \n", "Section::::Etymology.\n", "Linear B tablets attest to the personal name \"Achilleus\" in the forms \"a-ki-re-u\" and \"a-ki-re-we\", the latter being the dative of the former. The name grew more popular, even becoming common soon after the seventh century BC and was also turned into the female form Ἀχιλλεία (\"Achilleía\"), attested in Attica in the fourth century BC (IG II² 1617) and, in the form \"Achillia\", on a stele in Halicarnassus as the name of a female gladiator fighting an \"Amazon\".\n", "Achilles' name can be analyzed as a combination of (') \"distress, pain, sorrow, grief\" and (') \"people, soldiers, nation\", resulting in a proto-form \"*Akhí-lāu̯os\" \"he who has the people distressed\" or \"he whose people have distress\". The grief or distress of the people is a theme raised numerous times in the \"Iliad\" (and frequently by Achilles himself). Achilles' role as the hero of grief or distress forms an ironic juxtaposition with the conventional view of him as the hero of \"\" (\"glory\", usually in war). Furthermore, \"laós\" has been construed by Gregory Nagy, following Leonard Palmer, to mean \"a corps of soldiers\", a muster. With this derivation, the name obtains a double meaning in the poem: when the hero is functioning rightly, his men bring distress to the enemy, but when wrongly, his men get the grief of war. The poem is in part about the misdirection of anger on the part of leadership.\n", "Another etymology relates the name to a Proto-Indo-European compound \"*h₂eḱ-pṓds\" \"sharp foot\" which first gave an Illyrian \"*āk̂pediós\", evolving through time into \"*ākhpdeós\" and then \"*akhiddeús\". The shift from \"-dd-\" to \"-ll-\" is then ascribed to the passing of the name into Greek via a Pre-Greek source. The first root part \"*h₂eḱ-\" \"sharp, pointed\" also gave Greek ἀκή (\"akḗ\" \"point, silence, healing\"), ἀκμή (\"akmḗ\" \"point, edge, zenith\") and ὀξύς (\"oxús\" \"sharp, pointed, keen, quick, clever\"), whereas ἄχος stems from the root \"*h₂egʰ-\" \"to be upset, afraid\". The whole expression would be comparable to the Latin \"acupedius\" \"swift of foot\". Compare also the Latin word family of \"aciēs\" \"sharp edge or point, battle line, battle, engagement\", \"acus\" \"needle, pin, bodkin\", and \"acuō\" \"to make pointed, sharpen, whet; to exercise; to arouse\" (whence \"acute\"). Some topical epitheta of Achilles in the \"Iliad\" point to this \"swift-footedness\", namely ποδάρκης δῖος Ἀχιλλεὺς (\"podárkēs dĩos Achilleús\" \"swift-footed divine Achilles\") or, even more frequently, πόδας ὠκὺς Ἀχιλλεύς (\"pódas ōkús Achilleús\" \"quick-footed Achilles\").\n", "Some researchers deem the name a loan word, possibly from a Pre-Greek language. Achilles' descent from the Nereid Thetis and a similarity of his name with those of river deities such as Acheron and Achelous have led to speculations about him being an old water divinity (see below Worship). Robert S. P. Beekes has suggested a Pre-Greek origin of the name, based among other things on the coexistence of \"-λλ-\" and \"-λ-\" in epic language, which may account for a palatalized phoneme /l/ in the original language.\n", "Section::::Birth and early years.\n", "Achilles was the son of the Nereid Thetis and of Peleus, the king of the Myrmidons. Zeus and Poseidon had been rivals for the hand of Thetis until Prometheus, the fore-thinker, warned Zeus of a prophecy (originally uttered by Themis, goddess of divine law) that Thetis would bear a son greater than his father. For this reason, the two gods withdrew their pursuit, and had her wed Peleus.\n", "There is a tale which offers an alternative version of these events: In the \"Argonautica\" (4.760) Zeus' sister and wife Hera alludes to Thetis' chaste resistance to the advances of Zeus, pointing out that Thetis was so loyal to Hera's marriage bond that she coolly rejected the father of gods. Thetis, although a daughter of the sea-god Nereus, was also brought up by Hera, further explaining her resistance to the advances of Zeus. Zeus was furious and decreed that she would never marry an immortal.\n", "According to the \"Achilleid\", written by Statius in the 1st century AD, and to non-surviving previous sources, when Achilles was born Thetis tried to make him immortal by dipping him in the river Styx. However, he was left vulnerable at the part of the body by which she held him: his left heel (see Achilles' heel, Achilles' tendon). It is not clear if this version of events was known earlier. In another version of this story, Thetis anointed the boy in ambrosia and put him on top of a fire in order to burn away the mortal parts of his body. She was interrupted by Peleus and abandoned both father and son in a rage.\n", "However, none of the sources before Statius make any reference to this general invulnerability. To the contrary, in the \"Iliad\" Homer mentions Achilles being wounded: in Book 21 the Paeonian hero Asteropaeus, son of Pelagon, challenged Achilles by the river Scamander. He cast two spears at once, one grazed Achilles' elbow, \"drawing a spurt of blood\".\n", "Also, in the fragmentary poems of the Epic Cycle in which one can find description of the hero's death (i.e. the \"Cypria\", the \"Little Iliad\" by Lesches of Pyrrha, the \"Aithiopis\" and \"Iliou persis\" by Arctinus of Miletus), there is no trace of any reference to his general invulnerability or his famous weakness at the heel; in the later vase paintings presenting the death of Achilles, the arrow (or in many cases, arrows) hit his torso.\n", "Peleus entrusted Achilles to Chiron the Centaur, on Mount Pelion, to be reared. Thetis foretold that her son's fate was either to gain glory and die young, or to live a long but uneventful life in obscurity. Achilles chose the former, and decided to take part in the Trojan war. According to Homer, Achilles grew up in Phthia together with his companion Patroclus.\n", "According to Photius, the sixth book of the \"New History\" by Ptolemy Hephaestion reported that Thetis burned in a secret place the children she had by Peleus; but when she had Achilles, Peleus noticed, tore him from the flames with only a burnt foot, and confided him to the centaur Chiron. Later Chiron exhumed the body of the Damysus, who was the fastest of all the giants, removed the ankle, and incorporated it into Achilles' burnt foot.\n", "Section::::Birth and early years.:Other names.\n", "Among the appellations under which Achilles is generally known are the following:\n", "BULLET::::- Pyrisous, \"saved from the fire\", his first name, which seems to favour the tradition in which his mortal parts were burned by his mother Thetis\n", "BULLET::::- Aeacides, from his grandfather Aeacus\n", "BULLET::::- Aemonius, from Aemonia, a country which afterwards acquired the name of Thessaly\n", "BULLET::::- Aspetos, \"inimitable\" or \"vast\", his name at Epirus\n", "BULLET::::- Larissaeus, from Larissa (also called Cremaste), a town of Thessaly, which still bears the same name\n", "BULLET::::- Ligyron, his original name\n", "BULLET::::- Nereius, from his mother Thetis, one of the Nereids\n", "BULLET::::- Pelides, from his father, Peleus\n", "BULLET::::- Phthius, from his birthplace, Phthia\n", "Section::::Birth and early years.:Hidden on Skyros.\n", "Some post-Homeric sources claim that in order to keep Achilles safe from the war, Thetis (or, in some versions, Peleus) hid the young man at the court of Lycomedes, king of Skyros. There, Achilles is disguised as a girl and lives among Lycomedes' daughters, perhaps under the name \"Pyrrha\" (the red-haired girl). With Lycomedes' daughter Deidamia, whom in the account of Statius he rapes, Achilles there fathers a son, Neoptolemus (also called Pyrrhus, after his father's possible alias). According to this story, Odysseus learns from the prophet Calchas that the Achaeans would be unable to capture Troy without Achilles' aid. Odysseus goes to Skyros in the guise of a peddler selling women's clothes and jewellery and places a shield and spear among his goods. When Achilles instantly takes up the spear, Odysseus sees through his disguise and convinces him to join the Greek campaign. In another version of the story, Odysseus arranges for a trumpet alarm to be sounded while he was with Lycomedes' women; while the women flee in panic, Achilles prepares to defend the court, thus giving his identity away.\n", "Section::::In the Trojan War.\n", "According to the \"Iliad\", Achilles arrived at Troy with 50 ships, each carrying 50 Myrmidons. He appointed five leaders (each leader commanding 500 Myrmidons): Menesthius, Eudorus, Peisander, Phoenix and Alcimedon.\n", "Section::::In the Trojan War.:Telephus.\n", "When the Greeks left for the Trojan War, they accidentally stopped in Mysia, ruled by King Telephus. In the resulting battle, Achilles gave Telephus a wound that would not heal; Telephus consulted an oracle, who stated that \"he that wounded shall heal\". Guided by the oracle, he arrived at Argos, where Achilles healed him in order that he might become their guide for the voyage to Troy.\n", "According to other reports in Euripides' lost play about Telephus, he went to Aulis pretending to be a beggar and asked Achilles to heal his wound. Achilles refused, claiming to have no medical knowledge. Alternatively, Telephus held Orestes for ransom, the ransom being Achilles' aid in healing the wound. Odysseus reasoned that the spear had inflicted the wound; therefore, the spear must be able to heal it. Pieces of the spear were scraped off onto the wound and Telephus was healed.\n", "Section::::In the Trojan War.:Troilus.\n", "According to the \"Cypria\" (the part of the Epic Cycle that tells the events of the Trojan War before Achilles' wrath), when the Achaeans desired to return home, they were restrained by Achilles, who afterwards attacked the cattle of Aeneas, sacked neighbouring cities (like Pedasus and Lyrnessus, where the Greeks capture the queen Briseis) and killed Tenes, a son of Apollo, as well as Priam's son Troilus in the sanctuary of Apollo Thymbraios. However, the romance between Troilus and Chryseis described in Geoffrey Chaucer's \"Troilus and Criseyde\" and in William Shakespeare's \"Troilus and Cressida\" is a medieval invention.\n", "In Dares Phrygius' \"Account of the Destruction of Troy\", the Latin summary through which the story of Achilles was transmitted to medieval Europe, as well as in older accounts, Troilus was a young Trojan prince, the youngest of King Priam's and Hecuba's five legitimate sons (or according other sources, another son of Apollo). Despite his youth, he was one of the main Trojan war leaders, a \"horse fighter\" or \"chariot fighter\" according to Homer. Prophecies linked Troilus' fate to that of Troy and so he was ambushed in an attempt to capture him. Yet Achilles, struck by the beauty of both Troilus and his sister Polyxena, and overcome with lust, directed his sexual attentions on the youth – who, refusing to yield, instead found himself decapitated upon an altar-omphalos of Apollo Thymbraios. Later versions of the story suggested Troilus was accidentally killed by Achilles in an over-ardent lovers' embrace. In this version of the myth, Achilles' death therefore came in retribution for this sacrilege. Ancient writers treated Troilus as the epitome of a dead child mourned by his parents. Had Troilus lived to adulthood, the First Vatican Mythographer claimed, Troy would have been invincible.\n", "Section::::In the Trojan War.:In the \"Iliad\".\n", "Homer's \"Iliad\" is the most famous narrative of Achilles' deeds in the Trojan War. Achilles' wrath (μῆνις Ἀχιλλέως, \"mênis Achilléōs\") is the central theme of the poem. The first two lines of the \"Iliad\" read:\n", "The Homeric epic only covers a few weeks of the decade-long war, and does not narrate Achilles' death. It begins with Achilles' withdrawal from battle after being dishonoured by Agamemnon, the commander of the Achaean forces. Agamemnon has taken a woman named Chryseis as his slave. Her father Chryses, a priest of Apollo, begs Agamemnon to return her to him. Agamemnon refuses, and Apollo sends a plague amongst the Greeks. The prophet Calchas correctly determines the source of the troubles but will not speak unless Achilles vows to protect him. Achilles does so, and Calchas declares that Chryseis must be returned to her father. Agamemnon consents, but then commands that Achilles' battle prize Briseis, the daughter of Briseus, be brought to him to replace Chryseis. Angry at the dishonour of having his plunder and glory taken away (and, as he says later, because he loves Briseis), with the urging of his mother Thetis, Achilles refuses to fight or lead his troops alongside the other Greek forces. At the same time, burning with rage over Agamemnon's theft, Achilles prays to Thetis to convince Zeus to help the Trojans gain ground in the war, so that he may regain his honour.\n", "As the battle turns against the Greeks, thanks to the influence of Zeus, Nestor declares that the Trojans are winning because Agamemnon has angered Achilles, and urges the king to appease the warrior. Agamemnon agrees and sends Odysseus and two other chieftains, Ajax and Phoenix, to Achilles with the offer of the return of Briseis and other gifts. Achilles rejects all Agamemnon offers him and simply urges the Greeks to sail home as he was planning to do.\n", "The Trojans, led by Hector, subsequently push the Greek army back toward the beaches and assault the Greek ships. With the Greek forces on the verge of absolute destruction, Patroclus leads the Myrmidons into battle, wearing Achilles' armour, though Achilles remains at his camp. Patroclus succeeds in pushing the Trojans back from the beaches, but is killed by Hector before he can lead a proper assault on the city of Troy.\n", "After receiving the news of the death of Patroclus from Antilochus, the son of Nestor, Achilles grieves over his beloved companion's death. His mother Thetis comes to comfort the distraught Achilles. She persuades Hephaestus to make new armour for him, in place of the armour that Patroclus had been wearing, which was taken by Hector. The new armour includes the Shield of Achilles, described in great detail in the poem.\n", "Enraged over the death of Patroclus, Achilles ends his refusal to fight and takes the field, killing many men in his rage but always seeking out Hector. Achilles even engages in battle with the river god Scamander, who has become angry that Achilles is choking his waters with all the men he has killed. The god tries to drown Achilles but is stopped by Hera and Hephaestus. Zeus himself takes note of Achilles' rage and sends the gods to restrain him so that he will not go on to sack Troy itself before the time allotted for its destruction, seeming to show that the unhindered rage of Achilles can defy fate itself. Finally, Achilles finds his prey. Achilles chases Hector around the wall of Troy three times before Athena, in the form of Hector's favorite and dearest brother, Deiphobus, persuades Hector to stop running and fight Achilles face to face. After Hector realizes the trick, he knows the battle is inevitable. Wanting to go down fighting, he charges at Achilles with his only weapon, his sword, but misses. Accepting his fate, Hector begs Achilles, not to spare his life, but to treat his body with respect after killing him. Achilles tells Hector it is hopeless to expect that of him, declaring that \"my rage, my fury would drive me now to hack your flesh away and eat you raw – such agonies you have caused me\". Achilles then kills Hector and drags his corpse by its heels behind his chariot. After having a dream where Patroclus begs Achilles to hold his funeral, Achilles hosts a series of funeral games in his honour.\n", "At the onset of his duel with Hector, Achilles is referred to as the brightest star in the sky, which comes on in the autumn, Orion's dog (Sirius); a sign of evil. During the cremation of Patroclus, he is compared to Hesperus, the evening/western star (Venus), while the burning of the funeral pyre lasts until Phosphorus, the morning/eastern star (also Venus) has set (descended).\n", "With the assistance of the god Hermes (Argeiphontes), Hector's father Priam goes to Achilles' tent to plead with Achilles for the return of Hector's body so that he can be buried. Achilles relents and promises a truce for the duration of the funeral, lasting 9 days with a burial on the 10th (in the tradition of Niobe's offspring). The poem ends with a description of Hector's funeral, with the doom of Troy and Achilles himself still to come.\n", "Section::::In the Trojan War.:Later epic accounts: fighting Penthesilea and Memnon.\n", "The \"Aethiopis\" (7th century BC) and a work named \"Posthomerica\", composed by Quintus of Smyrna in the fourth century AD, relate further events from the Trojan War. When Penthesilea, queen of the Amazons and daughter of Ares, arrives in Troy, Priam hopes that she will defeat Achilles. After his temporary truce with Priam, Achilles fights and kills the warrior queen, only to grieve over her death later. At first, he was so distracted by her beauty, he did not fight as intensely as usual. Once he realized that his distraction was endangering his life, he refocused and killed her.\n", "Following the death of Patroclus, Nestor's son Antilochus becomes Achilles' closest companion. When Memnon, son of the Dawn Goddess Eos and king of Ethiopia, slays Antilochus, Achilles once more obtains revenge on the battlefield, killing Memnon. Consequently, Eos will not let the sun rise, until Zeus persuades her. The fight between Achilles and Memnon over Antilochus echoes that of Achilles and Hector over Patroclus, except that Memnon (unlike Hector) was also the son of a goddess.\n", "Many Homeric scholars argued that episode inspired many details in the \"Iliad\"s description of the death of Patroclus and Achilles' reaction to it. The episode then formed the basis of the cyclic epic \"Aethiopis\", which was composed after the \"Iliad\", possibly in the 7th century BC. The \"Aethiopis\" is now lost, except for scattered fragments quoted by later authors.\n", "Section::::In the Trojan War.:Achilles and Patroclus.\n", "The exact nature of Achilles' relationship with Patroclus has been a subject of dispute in both the classical period and modern times. In the \"Iliad\", it appears to be the model of a deep and loyal friendship. Homer does not suggest that Achilles and his close friend Patroclus were lovers. Despite there being no direct evidence in the text of the \"Iliad\" that Achilles and Patroclus were lovers, this theory was expressed by some later authors. Commentators from classical antiquity to the present have often interpreted the relationship through the lens of their own cultures. In 5th-century BC Athens, the intense bond was often viewed in light of the Greek custom of \"paiderasteia\". In Plato's \"Symposium\", the participants in a dialogue about love assume that Achilles and Patroclus were a couple; Phaedrus argues that Achilles was the younger and more beautiful one so he was the beloved and Patroclus was the lover. But ancient Greek had no words to distinguish heterosexual and homosexual, and it was assumed that a man could both desire handsome young men and have sex with women. Many pairs of men throughout history have been compared to Achilles and Patroclus to imply a homosexual relationship.\n", "Section::::In the Trojan War.:Death.\n", "The death of Achilles, even if considered solely as it occurred in the oldest sources, is a complex one, with many different versions. In the oldest one, the Iliad, and as predicted by Hector with his dying breath, the hero's death was brought about by Paris with an arrow (to the heel according to Statius). In some versions, the god Apollo guided Paris' arrow. Some retellings also state that Achilles was scaling the gates of Troy and was hit with a poisoned arrow. All of these versions deny Paris any sort of valour, owing to the common conception that Paris was a coward and not the man his brother Hector was, and Achilles remained undefeated on the battlefield. His bones were mingled with those of Patroclus, and funeral games were held. He was represented in the \"Aethiopis\" as living after his death in the island of Leuke at the mouth of the river Danube.\n", "Another version of Achilles' death is that he fell deeply in love with one of the Trojan princesses, Polyxena. Achilles asks Priam for Polyxena's hand in marriage. Priam is willing because it would mean the end of the war and an alliance with the world's greatest warrior. But while Priam is overseeing the private marriage of Polyxena and Achilles, Paris, who would have to give up Helen if Achilles married his sister, hides in the bushes and shoots Achilles with a divine arrow, killing him.\n", "In the \"Odyssey\", Agamemnon informs Achilles of his pompous burial and the erection of his mound at the Hellespont while they are receiving the dead suitors in Hades. He claims they built a massive burial mound on the beach of Ilion that could be seen by anyone approaching from the Ocean. Achilles was cremated and his ashes buried in the same urn as those of Patroclus. Paris was later killed by Philoctetes using the enormous bow of Heracles.\n", "In Book 11 of Homer's \"Odyssey\", Odysseus sails to the underworld and converses with the shades. One of these is Achilles, who when greeted as \"blessed in life, blessed in death\", responds that he would rather be a slave to the worst of masters than be king of all the dead. But Achilles then asks Odysseus of his son's exploits in the Trojan war, and when Odysseus tells of Neoptolemus' heroic actions, Achilles is filled with satisfaction. This leaves the reader with an ambiguous understanding of how Achilles felt about the heroic life.\n", "According to some accounts, he had married Medea in life, so that after both their deaths they were united in the Elysian Fields of Hades – as Hera promised Thetis in Apollonius' \"Argonautica\" (3rd century BC).\n", "Section::::In the Trojan War.:Fate of Achilles' armour.\n", "Achilles' armour was the object of a feud between Odysseus and Telamonian Ajax (Ajax the greater). They competed for it by giving speeches on why they were the bravest after Achilles to their Trojan prisoners, who after considering both men, decided Odysseus was more deserving of the armour. Furious, Ajax cursed Odysseus, which earned him the ire of Athena. Athena temporarily made Ajax so mad with grief and anguish that he began killing sheep, thinking them his comrades. After a while, when Athena lifted his madness and Ajax realized that he had actually been killing sheep, Ajax was left so ashamed that he committed suicide. Odysseus eventually gave the armour to Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles.\n", "A relic claimed to be Achilles' bronze-headed spear was for centuries preserved in the temple of Athena on the acropolis of Phaselis, Lycia, a port on the Pamphylian Gulf. The city was visited in 333 BC by Alexander the Great, who envisioned himself as the new Achilles and carried the \"Iliad\" with him, but his court biographers do not mention the spear. However, it was shown in the time of Pausanias in the 2nd century AD.\n", "Section::::In the Trojan War.:Achilles, Ajax and a game of \"petteia\".\n", "Numerous paintings on pottery have suggested a tale not mentioned in the literary traditions. At some point in the war, Achilles and Ajax were playing a board game (\"petteia\"). They were absorbed in the game and oblivious to the surrounding battle. The Trojans attacked and reached the heroes, who were saved only by an intervention of Athena.\n", "Section::::Worship and heroic cult.\n", "The tomb of Achilles, extant throughout antiquity in Troad, was venerated by Thessalians, but also by Persian expeditionary forces, as well as by Alexander the Great and the Roman emperor Caracalla. Achilles' cult was also to be found at other places, e. g. on the island of Astypalaea in the Sporades, in Sparta which had a sanctuary, in Elis and in Achilles' homeland Thessaly, as well as in the Magna Graecia cities of Tarentum, Locri and Croton, accounting for an almost Panhellenic cult to the hero.\n", "The cult of Achilles is illustrated in the 500 BC Polyxena sarcophagus, where the sacrifice of Polixena near the tumulus of Achilles is depicted. Strabo (13.1.32) also suggested that such a cult of Achilles existed in Troad:\n", "The spread and intensity of the hero's veneration among the Greeks that had settled on the northern coast of the Pontus Euxinus, today's Black Sea, appears to have been remarkable. An archaic cult is attested for the Milesian colony of Olbia as well as for an island in the middle of the Black Sea, today identified with Snake Island (Ukrainian Зміїний, \"Zmiinyi\", near Kiliya, Ukraine). Early dedicatory inscriptions from the Greek colonies on the Black Sea (graffiti and inscribed clay disks, these possibly being votive offerings, from Olbia, the area of Berezan Island and the Tauric Chersonese) attest the existence of a heroic cult of Achilles from the sixth century BC onwards. The cult was still thriving in the third century AD, when dedicatory stelae from Olbia refer to an \"Achilles Pontárchēs\" (Ποντάρχης, roughly \"lord of the Sea,\" or \"of the Pontus Euxinus\"), who was invoked as a protector of the city of Olbia, venerated on par with Olympian gods such as the local Apollo Prostates, Hermes Agoraeus, or Poseidon.\n", "Pliny the Elder (23–79 AD) in his \"Natural History\" mentions a \"port of the Achæi\" and an \"island of Achilles\", famous for the tomb of that \"man\" (portus Achaeorum, insula Achillis, tumulo eius viri clara), situated somewhat nearby Olbia and the Dnieper-Bug Estuary; furthermore, at 125 Roman miles from this island, he places a peninsula \"which stretches forth in the shape of a sword\" obliquely, called \"Dromos Achilleos\" (Ἀχιλλέως δρόμος, \"Achilléōs drómos\" \"the Race-course of Achilles\") and considered the place of the hero's exercise or of games instituted by him. This last feature of Pliny's account is considered to be the iconic spit, called today \"Tendra\" (or \"Kosa Tendra\" and \"Kosa Djarilgatch\"), situated between the mouth of the Dnieper and Karkinit Bay, but which is hardly 125 Roman miles (c. 185 km) away from the Dnieper-Bug estuary, as Pliny states. (To the \"Race-course\" he gives a length of 80 miles, c. 120 km, whereas the spit measures c. 70 km today.)\n", "In the following chapter of his book, Pliny refers to the same island as \"Achillea\" and introduces two further names for it: \"Leuce\" or \"Macaron\" (from Greek [νῆσος] μακαρῶν \"island of the blest\"). The \"present day\" measures, he gives at this point, seem to account for an identification of \"Achillea\" or \"Leuce\" with today's Snake Island. Pliny's contemporary Pomponius Mela (c. 43 AD) tells that Achilles was buried on an island named \"Achillea\", situated between the Borysthenes and the Ister, adding to the geographical confusion. Ruins of a square temple, measuring 30 meters to a side, possibly that dedicated to Achilles, were discovered by Captain Kritzikly in 1823 on Snake Island. A second exploration in 1840 showed that the construction of a lighthouse had destroyed all traces of this temple. A fifth century BC black-glazed lekythos inscription, found on the island in 1840, reads: \"Glaukos, son of Poseidon, dedicated me to Achilles, lord of Leuke.\" In another inscription from the fifth or fourth century BC, a statue is dedicated to Achilles, lord of Leuke, by a citizen of Olbia, while in a further dedication, the city of Olbia confirms its continuous maintenance of the island's cult, again suggesting its quality as a place of a supra-regional hero veneration.\n", "The heroic cult dedicated to Achilles on \"Leuce\" seems to go back to an account from the lost epic \"Aethiopis\" according to which, after his untimely death, Thetis had snatched her son from the funeral pyre and removed him to a mythical Λεύκη Νῆσος (\"Leúkē Nêsos\" \"White Island\"). Already in the fifth century BC, Pindar had mentioned a cult of Achilles on a \"bright island\" (φαεννά νᾶσος, \"phaenná nâsos\") of the Black Sea, while in another of his works, Pindar would retell the story of the immortalized Achilles living on a geographically indefinite Island of the Blest together with other heroes such as his father Peleus and Cadmus. Well known is the connection of these mythological Fortunate Isles (μακαρῶν νῆσοι, \"makárôn nêsoi\") or the Homeric Elysium with the stream Oceanus which according to Greek mythology surrounds the inhabited world, which should have accounted for the identification of the northern strands of the Euxine with it. Guy Hedreen has found further evidence for this connection of Achilles with the northern margin of the inhabited world in a poem by Alcaeus, speaking of \"Achilles lord of Scythia\" and the opposition of North and South, as evoked by Achilles' fight against the Aethiopian prince Memnon, who in his turn would be removed to his homeland by his mother Eos after his death.\n", "The \"Periplus of the Euxine Sea\" (c. 130 AD) gives the following details:\n", "The Greek geographer Dionysius Periegetes, who lived probably during the first century AD, wrote that the island was called \"Leuce\" \"because the wild animals which live there are white. It is said that there, in Leuce island, reside the souls of Achilles and other heroes, and that they wander through the uninhabited valleys of this island; this is how Jove rewarded the men who had distinguished themselves through their virtues, because through virtue they had acquired everlasting honour\". Similarly, others relate the island's name to its white cliffs, snakes or birds dwelling there. Pausanias has been told that the island is \"covered with forests and full of animals, some wild, some tame. In this island there is also Achilles' temple and his statue\". Leuce had also a reputation as a place of healing. Pausanias reports that the Delphic Pythia sent a lord of Croton to be cured of a chest wound. Ammianus Marcellinus attributes the healing to waters (\"aquae\") on the island.\n", "A number of important commercial port cities of the Greek waters were dedicated to Achilles. Herodotus, Pliny the Elder and Strabo reported on the existence of a town \"Achílleion\" (Ἀχίλλειον), built by settlers from Mytilene in the sixth century BC, close to the hero's presumed burial mound in the Troad. Later attestations point to an \"Achílleion\" in Messenia (according to Stephanus Byzantinus) and an \"Achílleios\" (Ἀχίλλειος) in Laconia. Nicolae Densuşianu recognized a connection to Achilles in the names of Aquileia and of the northern arm of the Danube delta, called Chilia (presumably from an older \"Achileii\"), though his conclusion, that Leuce had sovereign rights over the Black Sea, evokes modern rather than archaic sea-law.\n", "The kings of Epirus claimed to be descended from Achilles through his son, Neoptolemus. Alexander the Great, son of the Epirote princess Olympias, could therefore also claim this descent, and in many ways strove to be like his great ancestor. He is said to have visited the tomb of Achilles at Achilleion while passing Troy. In AD 216 the Roman Emperor Caracalla, while on his way to war against Parthia, emulated Alexander by holding games around Achilles' tumulus.\n", "Section::::Reception during antiquity.\n", "Section::::Reception during antiquity.:In Greek tragedy.\n", "The Greek tragedian Aeschylus wrote a trilogy of plays about Achilles, given the title \"Achilleis\" by modern scholars. The tragedies relate the deeds of Achilles during the Trojan War, including his defeat of Hector and eventual death when an arrow shot by Paris and guided by Apollo punctures his heel. Extant fragments of the \"Achilleis\" and other Aeschylean fragments have been assembled to produce a workable modern play. The first part of the \"Achilleis\" trilogy, \"The Myrmidons\", focused on the relationship between Achilles and chorus, who represent the Achaean army and try to convince Achilles to give up his quarrel with Agamemnon; only a few lines survive today. In Plato's \"Symposium\", Phaedrus points out that Aeschylus portrayed Achilles as the lover and Patroclus as the beloved; Phaedrus argues that this is incorrect because Achilles, being the younger and more beautiful of the two, was the beloved, who loved his lover so much that he chose to die to revenge him.\n", "The tragedian Sophocles also wrote \"The Lovers of Achilles\", a play with Achilles as the main character. Only a few fragments survive.\n", "Towards the end of the 5th century BC, a more negative view of Achilles emerges in Greek drama; Euripides refers to Achilles in a bitter or ironic tone in \"Hecuba\", \"Electra\", and \"Iphigenia in Aulis\".\n", "Section::::Reception during antiquity.:In Greek philosophy.\n", "The philosopher Zeno of Elea centred one of his paradoxes on an imaginary footrace between \"swift-footed\" Achilles and a tortoise, by which he attempted to show that Achilles could not catch up to a tortoise with a head start, and therefore that motion and change were impossible. As a student of the monist Parmenides and a member of the Eleatic school, Zeno believed time and motion to be illusions.\n", "Section::::Reception during antiquity.:Achilles in Roman and medieval literature.\n", "The Romans, who traditionally traced their lineage to Troy, took a highly negative view of Achilles. Virgil refers to Achilles as a savage and a merciless butcher of men, while Horace portrays Achilles ruthlessly slaying women and children. Other writers, such as Catullus, Propertius, and Ovid, represent a second strand of disparagement, with an emphasis on Achilles' erotic career. This strand continues in Latin accounts of the Trojan War by writers such as Dictys Cretensis and Dares Phrygius and in Benoît de Sainte-Maure's \"Roman de Troie\" and Guido delle Colonne's \"Historia destructionis Troiae\", which remained the most widely read and retold versions of the Matter of Troy until the 17th century.\n", "Achilles was described by the Byzantine chronicler Leo the Deacon, not as Hellene, but as Scythian, while according to the Byzantine author John Malalas, his army was made up of a tribe previously known as Myrmidons and later as Bulgars.\n", "Section::::In modern literature and arts.\n", "Section::::In modern literature and arts.:Literature.\n", "BULLET::::- Achilles appears in Dante's \"Inferno\" (composed 1308–1320). He is seen in Hell's second circle, that of lust.\n", "BULLET::::- Achilles is portrayed as a former hero who has become lazy and devoted to the love of Patroclus, in William Shakespeare's \"Troilus and Cressida\" (1602).\n", "BULLET::::- The French dramatist Thomas Corneille wrote a tragedy \"La Mort d'Achille\" (1673).\n", "BULLET::::- Achilles is the subject of the poem \"Achilleis\" (1799), a fragment by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.\n", "BULLET::::- Achilles is mentioned in Tennyson's poem \"Ulysses\" (published in 1842): \"[...] we shall touch the happy isles and meet there the great Achilles whom we knew.\"\n", "BULLET::::- In 1899, the Polish playwright, painter and poet Stanisław Wyspiański published a national drama, based on Polish history, named \"Achilles\".\n", "BULLET::::- In 1921, Edward Shanks published \"The Island of Youth and Other Poems\", concerned among others with Achilles.\n", "BULLET::::- The 1983 novel \"Kassandra\" by Christa Wolf also treats the death of Achilles.\n", "BULLET::::- Akhilles is killed by a poisoned Kentaur arrow shot by Kassandra in Marion Zimmer Bradley's novel \"The Firebrand\" (1987).\n", "BULLET::::- Achilles is one of various 'narrators' in Colleen McCullough's novel \"The Song of Troy\" (1998).\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Death of Achilles\" (\"Смерть Ахиллеса\", 1998) is an historical detective novel by Russian writer Boris Akunin that alludes to various figures and motifs from the \"Iliad\".\n", "BULLET::::- The character Achilles in \"Ender's Shadow\" (1999), by Orson Scott Card, shares his namesake's cunning mind and ruthless attitude.\n", "BULLET::::- Achilles is one of the main characters in Dan Simmons's novels \"Ilium\" (2003) and \"Olympos\" (2005).\n", "BULLET::::- Achilles is a major supporting character in David Gemmell's \"Troy\" series of books (2005-2007).\n", "BULLET::::- Achilles is the main character in David Malouf's novel \"Ransom\" (2009).\n", "BULLET::::- The ghost of Achilles appears in Rick Riordan's \"The Last Olympian\" (2009). He warns Percy Jackson about the Curse of Achilles and its side effects.\n", "BULLET::::- Achilles is a main character in Terence Hawkins' 2009 novel \"The Rage of Achilles\".\n", "BULLET::::- Achilles is a major character in Madeline Miller's debut novel, \"The Song of Achilles\" (2011), which won the 2012 Orange Prize for Fiction. The novel explores the relationship between Patroclus and Achilles from boyhood to the fateful events of the \"Iliad\".\n", "BULLET::::- Achilles appears in the light novel series \"Fate/Apocrypha\" (2012–2014) as the Rider of Red.\n", "BULLET::::- Achilles is a main character in Pat Barker’s 2018 novel \"The Silence of the Girls\", much of which is narrated by his slave Briseis.\n", "Section::::In modern literature and arts.:Visual arts.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Achilles with the Daughters of Lycomedes\" is a subject treated in paintings by Anthony van Dyck (before 1618; Museo del Prado, Madrid) and Nicolas Poussin (c. 1652; Museum of Fine Arts, Boston) among others.\n", "BULLET::::- Peter Paul Rubens has authored a series of works on the life of Achilles, comprising the titles: \"Thetis dipping the infant Achilles into the river Styx\", \"Achilles educated by the centaur Chiron\", \"Achilles recognized among the daughters of Lycomedes\", \"The wrath of Achilles\", \"The death of Hector\", \"Thetis receiving the arms of Achilles from Vulcanus\", \"The death of Achilles\" (Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, Rotterdam), and \"Briseis restored to Achilles\" (Detroit Institute of Arts; all c. 1630–1635)\n", "BULLET::::- Pieter van Lint, \"Achilles Discovered among the Daughters of Lycomedes\", 1645, at the Israel Museum, Jerusalem\n", "BULLET::::- \"Dying Achilles\" is a sculpture created by Christophe Veyrier (c. 1683; Victoria and Albert Museum, London).\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Rage of Achilles\" is a fresco by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo (1757, Villa Valmarana ai Nani, Vicenza).\n", "BULLET::::- Eugène Delacroix painted a version of \"The Education of Achilles\" for the ceiling of the Paris Palais Bourbon (1833–1847), one of the seats of the French Parliament.\n", "BULLET::::- created a statue group \"Achilles and Penthesilea\" (1895; Vienna).\n", "BULLET::::- \"Achilleus\" (1908) is a lithography by Max Slevogt.\n", "Section::::In modern literature and arts.:Music.\n", "Achilles has been frequently the subject of operas, ballets and related genres.\n", "BULLET::::- Operas titled \"Deidamia\" were composed by Francesco Cavalli (1644) and George Frideric Handel (1739).\n", "BULLET::::- \"Achille et Polyxène\" (Paris 1687) is an opera begun by Jean-Baptiste Lully and finished by Pascal Collasse.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Achille e Deidamia\" (Naples 1698) is an opera, composed by Alessandro Scarlatti.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Achilles\" (London 1733) is a ballad opera, written by John Gay, parodied by Thomas Arne as \"Achilles in petticoats\" in 1773.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Achille in Sciro\" is a libretto by Metastasio, composed by Domenico Sarro for the inauguration of the Teatro di San Carlo (Naples, 4 November 1737). An even earlier composition is from Antonio Caldara (Vienna 1736). Later operas on the same libretto were composed by Leonardo Leo (Turin 1739), Niccolò Jommelli (Vienna 1749 and Rome 1772), Giuseppe Sarti (Copenhagen 1759 and Florence 1779), Johann Adolph Hasse (Naples 1759), Giovanni Paisiello (St. Petersburg 1772), Giuseppe Gazzaniga (Palermo 1781) and many others. It has also been set to music as \"Il Trionfo della gloria\".\n", "BULLET::::- \"Achille\" (Vienna 1801) is an opera by Ferdinando Paër on a libretto by Giovanni de Gamerra.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Achille à Scyros\" (Paris 1804) is a ballet by Pierre Gardel, composed by Luigi Cherubini.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Achilles, oder Das zerstörte Troja\" (\"Achilles, or Troy Destroyed\", Bonn 1885) is an oratorio by the German composer Max Bruch.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Achilles auf Skyros\" (Stuttgart 1926) is a ballet by the Austrian-British composer and musicologist Egon Wellesz.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Achilles' Wrath\" is a concert piece by Sean O'Loughlin.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Achilles Last Stand\" a track on the 1976 Led Zeppelin album \"Presence\".\n", "BULLET::::- \"Achilles, Agony and Ecstasy in Eight Parts\" is the first song on the 1992 Manowar album \"The Triumph of Steel\".\n", "BULLET::::- \"Achilles Come Down\" is a song on the 2017 Gang of Youths album \"Go Farther in Lightness\".\n", "Section::::In modern literature and arts.:Film and television.\n", "In films Achilles has been portrayed in the following films and television series:\n", "BULLET::::- The 1924 film \"Helena\" by Carlo Aldini\n", "BULLET::::- The 1954 film \"Ulysses\" by Piero Lulli\n", "BULLET::::- The 1956 film \"Helen of Troy\" by Stanley Baker\n", "BULLET::::- The 1961 film \"The Trojan Horse\" by Arturo Dominici\n", "BULLET::::- The 1962 film \"The Fury of Achilles\" by Gordon Mitchell\n", "BULLET::::- The 1997 television miniseries \"The Odyssey\" by Richard Trewett\n", "BULLET::::- The 2003 television miniseries \"Helen of Troy\" by Joe Montana\n", "BULLET::::- The 2004 film \"Troy\" by Brad Pitt\n", "BULLET::::- The 2018 TV series \"\" by David Gyasi\n", "Section::::In modern literature and arts.:Architecture.\n", "In 1890, Elisabeth of Bavaria, Empress of Austria, had a summer palace built in Corfu. The building is named the \"Achilleion\", after Achilles. Its paintings and statuary depict scenes from the Trojan War, with particular focus on Achilles.\n", "Section::::Namesakes.\n", "BULLET::::- The name of Achilles has been used for at least nine Royal Navy warships since 1744 – both as HMS \"Achilles\" and with the French spelling HMS \"Achille\". A 60-gun ship of that name served at the Battle of Belleisle in 1761 while a 74-gun ship served at the Battle of Trafalgar. Other battle honours include Walcheren 1809. An armored cruiser of that name served in the Royal Navy during the First World War.\n", "BULLET::::- HMNZS \"Achilles\" was a \"Leander\"-class cruiser which served with the Royal New Zealand Navy in World War II. It became famous for its part in the Battle of the River Plate, alongside and . In addition to earning the battle honour 'River Plate', HMNZS Achilles also served at Guadalcanal 1942–43 and Okinawa in 1945. After returning to the Royal Navy, the ship was sold to the Indian Navy in 1948 but when she was scrapped parts of the ship were saved and preserved in New Zealand.\n", "BULLET::::- A species of lizard, \"Anolis achilles\", which has widened heel plates, is named for Achilles.\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- Ileana Chirassi Colombo (1977), \"Heroes Achilleus – Theos Apollon.\" In \"Il Mito Greco\", edd. Bruno Gentili and Giuseppe Paione. Rome: Edizione dell'Ateneo e Bizzarri.\n", "BULLET::::- Anthony Edwards (1985a), \"Achilles in the Underworld: Iliad, Odyssey, and Æthiopis\". \"Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies\". 26: pp. 215–227.\n", "BULLET::::- Anthony Edwards (1985b), \"Achilles in the Odyssey: Ideologies of Heroism in the Homeric Epic\". \"Beiträge zur klassischen Philologie\". 171.\n", "BULLET::::- Anthony Edwards (1988), \"Kleos Aphthiton and Oral Theory,\" \"Classical Quarterly\". 38: pp. 25–30.\n", "BULLET::::- Hélène Monsacré (1984), \"Les larmes d'Achille. Le héros, la femme et la souffrance dans la poésie d'Homère\", Paris: Albin Michel.\n", "BULLET::::- Gregory Nagy (1984), \"The Name of Achilles: Questions of Etymology and 'Folk Etymology\", \"Illinois Classical Studies\". 19.\n", "BULLET::::- Gregory Nagy (1999), \"The Best of The Acheans: Concepts of the Hero in Archaic Greek Poetry\". Johns Hopkins University Press (revised edition, online).\n", "BULLET::::- Dale S. Sinos (1991), \"The Entry of Achilles into Greek Epic\", Ph. D. thesis, Johns Hopkins University. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International.\n", "BULLET::::- Jonathan S. Burgess (2009), \"The Death and Afterlife of Achilles\". Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.\n", "BULLET::::- Abrantes, M.C. (2016), \"Themes of the Trojan Cycle: Contribution to the study of the greek mythological tradition\" (Coimbra).\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Trojan War Resources\n", "BULLET::::- Gallery of the Ancient Art: Achilles\n", "BULLET::::- Poem by Florence Earle Coates\n" ] }

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{ "description": "Greek mythological hero", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q41746", "wikidata_label": "Achilles", "wikipedia_title": "Achilles", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Albert of Aix\n", "Albert of Aix(-la-Chapelle) or Albert of Aachen (\"floruit\" circa AD 1100), historian of the First Crusade, was born during the later part of the 11th century, and afterwards became canon (priest) and \"custos\" (guardian) of the church of Aachen.\n", "Nothing else is known of his life except that he was the author of a \"Historia Hierosolymitanae expeditionis\" (“History of the Expedition to Jerusalem”), or \"Chronicon Hierosolymitanum de bello sacro\", a work in Latin in twelve books, written between 1125 and 1150. This history begins at the time of the Council of Clermont, deals with the fortunes of the First Crusade and the earlier history of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, and ends somewhat abruptly in 1121.\n", "The \"Historia\" was well known during the Middle Ages, and was largely used by William, archbishop of Tyre, for the first six books of his \"Belli sacri historia\". In modern times, it was accepted unreservedly for many years by most historians, including Edward Gibbon. In more recent times, its historical value has been seriously impugned, but the verdict of the best scholarship seems to be that in general it forms a true record of the events of the First Crusade, although containing some legendary matter.\n", "Albert never visited the Holy Land, but he appears to have had a considerable amount of discourse with returned crusaders, and to have had access to valuable correspondence. Unlike many other chronicles of the First Crusade, Albert did not rely on the Gesta Francorum, but used his own independent interviews; he may also have had access to the Chanson d'Antioche, as his work shares textual similarities with that poem. The first edition of the history was published at Helmstedt in 1584, and a good edition is in the \"Recueil des historiens des croisades\", tome iv (Paris, 1841–1887). A modern edition in Latin and English translation by Susan B. Edgington is available in the Oxford Medieval Texts series.\n", "Section::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- Susan B. Edgington, \"Albert of Aachen and the Chansons de Geste\" in \"The Crusades and their sources: essays presented to Bernard Hamilton\" ed. John France, William G. Zajac (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998) pp. 23–37.\n", "BULLET::::- Albert of Aachen, \"Historia Ierosolimitana\", ed. and trans. S. Edgington (Oxford: Oxford Medieval Texts, 2007).\n", "Section::::Bibliography.\n", "BULLET::::- Albert of Aachen, \"Albert of Aachen's History of the Journey to Jerusalem, vol.1: Books 1-6. The First Crusade 1095-1099\", trans. S.B. Edgington (Farnham, 2013).\n", "BULLET::::- Albert of Aachen, \"Albert of Aachen's History of the Journey to Jerusalem, vol. 2: Books 7-12. The Early History of the Latin States 1099-1119\", trans. S.B. Edgington (Farnham, 2013).\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Albert of Aix at The Latin Library (from the Patrologia Latina edition).\n" ] }

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{ "description": "historian of the First Crusade", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q4323", "wikidata_label": "Albert of Aix", "wikipedia_title": "Albert of Aix", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Albert of Aix-la-Chapelle", "Albert of Aachen" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Godfrey of Bouillon\n", "Godfrey of Bouillon (, , , ; 18 September 1060 – 18 July 1100) was a Frankish knight and one of the leaders of the First Crusade from 1096 until its conclusion in 1099. He was the Lord of Bouillon, from which he took his byname, from 1076 and the Duke of Lower Lorraine from 1087. After the successful siege of Jerusalem in 1099, Godfrey became the first ruler of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. He refused the title of King, however, as he believed that the true King of Jerusalem was Jesus Christ, preferring the title of Advocate (i.e., protector or defender) of the Holy Sepulchre (Latin: \"Advocatus Sancti Sepulchri\"). He is also known as the \"Baron of the Holy Sepulchre\" and the \"Crusader King\".\n", "Section::::Early life.\n", "Godfrey of Bouillon was born around 1060 as the second son of Eustace II, Count of Boulogne, and Ida, daughter of the Lotharingian duke Godfrey the Bearded by his first wife, Doda.\n", "His birthplace was probably Boulogne-sur-Mer, although one 13th-century chronicler cites Baisy, a town in what is now Walloon Brabant, Belgium.\n", "As second son, he had fewer opportunities than his older brother and seemed destined to become just one more minor knight in service to a rich landed nobleman. However his maternal uncle, Godfrey the Hunchback, died childless and named his nephew, Godfrey of Bouillon, as his heir and next in line to his Duchy of Lower Lorraine. This duchy was an important one at the time, serving as a buffer between the kingdom of France and the German lands.\n", "In fact, Lower Lorraine was so important to the German kingdom and the Holy Roman Empire that Henry IV, the German king and future emperor (reigned 1084–1105), decided in 1076 that he would place it in the hands of his own son and give Godfrey only Bouillon and the Margraviate of Antwerp as a test of Godfrey's abilities and loyalty. Godfrey served Henry IV loyally, supporting him even when Pope Gregory VII was battling the German king in the Investiture Controversy. Godfrey fought alongside Henry and his forces against the rival forces of Rudolf of Swabia and also took part in battles in Italy when Henry IV actually took Rome away from the pope.\n", "A major test of Godfrey’s leadership skills was shown in his battles to defend his inheritance against a significant array of enemies. In 1076 he had succeeded as designated heir to the Lotharingian lands of his uncle, Godfrey the Hunchback, and Godfrey was struggling to maintain control over the lands that Henry IV had not taken away from him. Claims were raised by his aunt Margravine Matilda of Tuscany, cousin Count Albert III of Namur, and Count Theoderic of Veluwe. This coalition was joined by Bishop Theoderic of Verdun, and two minor counts attempting to share in the spoils, Waleran I of Limburg and Arnold I of Chiny.\n", "As these enemies tried to take away portions of his land, Godfrey's brothers, Eustace and Baldwin, both came to his aid. Following these long struggles and proving that he was a loyal subject to Henry IV, Godfrey finally won back his duchy of Lower Lorraine in 1087. Still, Godfrey's influence in the German kingdom would have been minimal if it had not been for his major role in the First Crusade.\n", "Section::::First Crusade.\n", "In 1095 Pope Urban II called for a Crusade to liberate Jerusalem from Muslim forces and also to aid the Byzantine Empire which was under Muslim attack. Godfrey took out loans on most of his lands, or sold them, to the bishop of Liège and the bishop of Verdun. With this money he gathered thousands of knights to fight in the Holy Land as the Army of Godfrey of Bouillon. In this he was joined by his older brother, Eustace, and his younger brother, Baldwin, who had no lands in Europe. He was not the only major nobleman to gather such an army. Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse, also known as Raymond of Saint-Gilles, created the largest army. At age 55, Raymond was also the oldest and perhaps the best known of the Crusader nobles. Because of his age and fame, Raymond expected to be the leader of the entire First Crusade. Adhemar, the papal legate and bishop of Le Puy, travelled with him. There was also the fiery Bohemond, a Norman knight from southern Italy, and a fourth group under Robert II, Count of Flanders.\n", "Each of these armies travelled separately: some went southeast across Europe through Hungary and others sailed across the Adriatic Sea from southern Italy. Pope Urban II's call for the crusade had aroused the Catholic populace and spurred antisemitism. In the People's Crusade, beginning in the spring and early summer of 1096, bands of peasants and low-ranking knights set off early for Jerusalem on their own, and persecuted Jews during the Rhineland massacres. Godfrey, along with his two brothers, started in August 1096 at the head of an army from Lorraine (some say 40,000 strong) along \"Charlemagne's road\", as Urban II seems to have called it (according to the chronicler Robert the Monk)—the road to Jerusalem. A Hebrew text known to modern scholars as the Solomon bar Simson Chronicle, which seems to have been written more than 50 years after the events, says apparently of the Duke: \n" ] }

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{ "description": "Medieval Frankish knight", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q76721", "wikidata_label": "Godfrey of Bouillon", "wikipedia_title": "Godfrey of Bouillon", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Godefroy de Bouillon" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Clausthal-Zellerfeld\n", "Clausthal-Zellerfeld is a town in Lower Saxony, Germany. It is located in the southwestern part of the Harz mountains. Its population is approximately 15,000. The City is the location of the Clausthal University of Technology. The health resort is located in the Upper Harz at an altitude between 390 and 821 m above sea level.\n", "Section::::Geography.\n", "Clausthal-Zellerfeld is located on the Upper Harz Plateau. The environment is less mountainous compared to most of the Harz, but only hilly. As a result, the immediate surrounding area is less wooded and there are more meadow areas. Scattered in and around Clausthal-Zellerfeld are numerous dams and streams of the Upper Harz Water Regale.\n", "The depression between Clausthal and Zellerfeld marks a natural \"borderline\".\n", "Southwest extends the \"Small Clausthal valley\".\n", "Section::::Geography.:City districts.\n", "BULLET::::- Altenau-Schulenberg im Oberharz (since 2015)\n", "BULLET::::- Buntenbock (since 1972)\n", "BULLET::::- Clausthal-Zellerfeld\n", "BULLET::::- Wildemann (since 2015)\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Clausthal-Zellerfeld originally consisted of two towns which were merged in 1924 to form an administrative unit. Clausthal is well known for the old Clausthal University of Technology and its magnificent buildings, while Zellerfeld is a typical tourist resort for hikers and winter sportsmen. Clausthal-Zellerfeld is the largest town in the area that is situated in the mountains rather than on the edge.\n", "Mining in the area began in the 16th century. Modern wire rope was invented to service the iron mines in the 1830s by the German mining engineer Wilhelm Albert in the years between 1831 and 1834 for use in mining in the Harz Mountains in Clausthal. It was quickly accepted because it proved superior to ropes made of hemp or to metal chains, such as had been used before and soon found its way into diverse applications, including most notably, suspension bridges. The Innerste Valley Railway was inaugurated in 1877 and extended to Altenau in 1914. The large station building and 70 other buildings in the town were destroyed in an air raid on 7 October 1944. 92 people lost their lives.\n", "Mining activity halted in 1930 because the ore deposits were exhausted. Today, there are large remains of mines in the surrounding Harz region, some of which are now museums. The railway line was closed in 1976. The former railway station, which was rebuilt from 1961-1963 after being destroyed in 1944, houses the tourist information and the municipal library today.\n", "The Clausthal University of Technology was established in 1775 for the education of mining engineers. Today, it is a technical university for teaching engineering, natural science (especially chemistry, materials science and physics) and business studies.\n", "Section::::Politics.\n", "Section::::Politics.:Town council.\n", "2006 local elections:\n", "BULLET::::- SPD: 19 seats\n", "BULLET::::- CDU: 9 seats\n", "BULLET::::- FDP: 3 seats\n", "BULLET::::- UWG: 2 seats (independent electors community)\n", "Section::::Culture and sights.\n", "BULLET::::- Oberharzer Wasserwirschaft (Upper Harz Water Management)\n", "Section::::Culture and sights.:Museums.\n", "BULLET::::- Upper Harz Mining Museum\n", "BULLET::::- GeoMuseum of Clausthal University of Technology\n", "Section::::Culture and sights.:Buildings.\n", "BULLET::::- Plants of Upper Harz Water Regale\n", "BULLET::::- Market Church in Clausthal, the largest wooden church in Germany with 2,200 seats, built 1639-42. Tower dating from 1637.\n", "BULLET::::- Old pharmacy \"Bergapotheke\" in Zellerfeld, built in 1674, with wood carvings\n", "BULLET::::- Protestant Salvator Church in Zellerfeld, built 1674-83\n", "BULLET::::- Clausthal mint (1617–1849)\n", "BULLET::::- Oberbergamt building in Clausthal, built 1726-30\n", "BULLET::::- Dietzel House in Zellerfeld, dating from 1674\n", "BULLET::::- Former railway station, destroyed 1944 and rebuilt 1961-63\n", "BULLET::::- House where Robert Koch was born\n", "Section::::Persons.\n", "Section::::Persons.:People from Clausthal-Zellerfeld.\n", "BULLET::::- Bernhard Christoph Breitkopf (1695-1777), printer and publisher\n", "BULLET::::- Heinrich Halfeld (1797-1873), engineer\n", "BULLET::::- Carl Adolf Riebeck (1821-1883), industrialist and mining entrepreneur\n", "BULLET::::- Robert Koch (1843–1910), microbiologist\n", "BULLET::::- Otto Erich Hartleben (1864–1905), poet and dramatist\n", "BULLET::::- Robert Förster (1913-1984), diplomat\n", "BULLET::::- Helmut Sander (1920-1988), mayor of Goslar\n", "BULLET::::- Reinhard Roder (born 1941), football player, coache and -functionary\n", "BULLET::::- Dietrich Grönemeyer (born 1952), physician\n", "BULLET::::- Daniel Böhm (born 1986), biathlete\n", "Section::::Persons.:Notable people associated with Clausthal-Zellerfeld.\n", "BULLET::::- Georg Philipp Telemann (1681–1767), composer\n", "BULLET::::- Johann Friedrich Ludwig Hausmann (1782–1859), mineralogist\n", "BULLET::::- Wilhelm Albert (1787–1846), mining administrator and inventor\n", "BULLET::::- Friedrich Adolph Roemer (1809–1869), geologist\n", "BULLET::::- Arnold Sommerfeld (1868–1951), theoretical physicist\n", "BULLET::::- Helmut Kleinicke (1907-1979), engineer at Auschwitz concentration camp who saved Jews during the Holocaust\n", "Section::::International relations.\n", "Section::::International relations.:Twin towns – Sister cities.\n", "Clausthal-Zellerfeld is twinned with:\n", "BULLET::::- L'Aigle, France\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- clausthal-zellerfeld.de\n" ] }

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{ "description": "city in Lower Saxony, Germany", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q504590", "wikidata_label": "Clausthal-Zellerfeld", "wikipedia_title": "Clausthal-Zellerfeld", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Subhuman Race\n", "Subhuman Race (stylized sUBHUMAN rACE) is the third studio album by American heavy metal band Skid Row, released on March 28, 1995, by Atlantic Records. This is the last Skid Row album with singer Sebastian Bach and drummer Rob Affuso, and the last one to be released on Atlantic. It is regarded as the band's heaviest record, and despite receiving positive reviews, \"Subhuman Race\" was not as successful as the band's first two albums. Certain tracks from the album were remixed for the band's compilation \"\", given more tender, slightly cleaner mixes to fit better with the other tracks. To promote \"Subhuman Race\", Skid Row supported Van Halen in North America on their \"Balance\" tour.\n", "Following the album, Skid Row released a live EP titled \"Subhuman Beings on Tour\", featuring live performances from the \"Subhuman Race\" tour. It is also the band's only album to be produced by Bob Rock, also known for his work with bands like Metallica, Aerosmith, Mötley Crüe, Bon Jovi and The Offspring.\n", "Skid Row has not played any songs from \"Subhuman Race\" since the album's tour in 1995–1996, though Bach has occasionally played them on his solo tours, including \"Beat Yourself Blind\", \"Frozen\", and the singles \"My Enemy\", \"Into Another\" and \"Breakin' Down\". \"Beat Yourself Blind\" was the only song from this album to be performed live since Bach's departure, until ZP Theart performed \"Medicine Jar\" in 2018, while \"Remains to Be Seen\" has never been played live once.\n", "Section::::Critical reception.\n", "\"Subhuman Race\" received mixed to mostly positive reviews from music critics. AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine wrote that it saw the band \"strip back their music to the basics\" and was their \"strongest and most vicious record to date.\" \"Rolling Stone\" reviewer called it \"the freshest riffage since last year's Soundgarden record\" and also noted the \"tight, hot guitar lines and radio hooks that burn themselves into your brain\". \"Q\" praised both the guitars that \"grumble and mutter more menacingly than ever\" and Bach's \"awesome vocal pyrotechnics\", summarizing that \"Skid Row has come up with an outright winner.\" Canadian journalist Martin Popoff found the album quite complex, with Skid Row \"absorbing the best elements of grunge into their over-the-top love of all things metal.\" He praised Bach's performance and the band's \"street-savvy\" attitude and \"prog ethic\" shown in the record. Conversely, Jim Farber of \"Entertainment Weekly\" considered \"Subhuman Race\" made of \"the same squealing, yowling, third-rate metal that made Skid Row pariahs in the first place\", calling them an \"unrepentant hair band of the ’80s\" which had mangled their melodies \"to get over their old 'power ballad' stigma.\" Also Dean Golemis of the \"Chicago Tribune\" criticised Skid Row's \"campy, formulaic arrangements that still cater to commercial appeal and offer nothing new to a genre plagued by cliches and copycats\", but remarked as \"Bach's vocal bravura stands as the album's saving grace.\" Thomas Kupfer in his review for the German \"Rock Hard\" magazine wrote that \"Skid Row will offend a lot of old fans with this disc\", where \"mediocrity dominates, the songs seem uninspired, and only the compact sound and the solid craftsmanship of the band members\" save the album.\n", "The band members also do not reflect positively on their work on \"Subhuman Race\". In an interview in November 2006, bassist Rachel Bolan expressed his negative feelings about the album: \"That record was a nightmare. Internally the band had fallen apart but we were forced to go in and do another record and it was a nightmare with the recording, writing and producing. We worked with someone we had not worked with before after being so successful with Michael and we were used to the way he did things. I am not slighting Bob at all, he is a genius producer but it was bad timing. I did not have the greatest time, it was nobody's fault, it was just the way things were. Also the record absolutely sucks.\" In a June 2018 interview on the \"Rock Talk With Mitch Lafon\" podcast, vocalist Sebastian Bach indicated that, despite featuring \"some good tunes\", the \"very dated production sound\" of \"Subhuman Race\" has made it an unlistenable album: \"In the same way, probably, Lars Ulrich might think \"St. Anger\" is dated to that time, I think \"Subhuman Race\" might be our \"St. Anger\".\"\n", "Section::::Personnel.\n", "Section::::Personnel.:Skid Row.\n", "BULLET::::- Sebastian Bach – vocals\n", "BULLET::::- Scotti Hill – guitar, backing vocals\n", "BULLET::::- Dave Sabo – guitar, backing vocals\n", "BULLET::::- Rachel Bolan – bass guitar, backing vocals\n", "BULLET::::- Rob Affuso – drums, percussion\n", "Section::::Personnel.:Production.\n", "BULLET::::- Bob Rock – producer\n", "BULLET::::- Randy Staub – engineer, mixing at The Warehouse Studio, Vancouver, Canada\n", "BULLET::::- Brian Dobbs, Darrin Grahn – assistant engineers\n", "BULLET::::- George Marino – mastering at Sterling Sound, New York\n" ] }

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{ "description": "1995 studio album by Skid Row", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q2296042", "wikidata_label": "Subhuman Race", "wikipedia_title": "Subhuman Race", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Thomas John Barnardo\n", "Thomas John Barnardo (4 July 184519 September 1905) was an Irish philanthropist and founder and director of homes for poor children. From the foundation of the first Barnardo's home in 1867 to the date of Barnardo's death, nearly 60,000 children had been taken in.\n", "Although Barnardo never finished his studies at the London Hospital, he used the title of ‘doctor’ and later secured a licentiate.\n", "Section::::Early life.\n", "Barnardo was born in Dublin, Ireland, in 1845. He was the fourth of five children (one died in childbirth) of John Michaelis Barnardo, a furrier who was of Sephardic Jewish descent, and his second wife, Abigail, an Englishwoman and member of the Plymouth Brethren.\n", "In the early 1840s, John emigrated from Hamburg to Dublin, where he established a business; he married twice and fathered seven children. The Barnardo family \"traced its origin to Venice, followed by conversion to the Lutheran Church in the sixteenth century\".\n", "As a young child, Barnardo thought that everything that was not his should belong to him. However, as he grew older, he abandoned this mindset in favour of helping the poor.\n", "Barnardo moved to London in 1866. At that time he was interested in becoming a missionary.\n", "Section::::Philanthropy.\n", "In the 1860s, Barnardo opened a school in the East End of London to care for and educate children of the area left orphaned and destitute by a recent cholera outbreak. In 1870 he founded a boys' orphanage at 18 Stepney Causeway and later opened a girls' home. By the time of his death in 1905, Barnardo's institutions cared for over 8,500 children in 96 locations.\n", "Barnardo's work was carried on by his many supporters under the name \"Dr Barnardo's Homes\". Following societal changes in the mid-20th century, the charity changed its focus from the direct care of children to fostering and adoption, renaming itself \"Dr Barnardo's\". Following the closure of its last traditional orphanage in 1989, it took the still simpler name of \"Barnardo's\".\n", "Section::::Philanthropy.:Controversies.\n", "There was controversy early on with Barnardo's work. Specifically, he was accused of kidnapping children without parents' permission and of falsifying photographs of children to make the distinction between the period before they were rescued by Barnardo's and afterwards seem more dramatic. He openly confessed to the former of these charges, describing it as 'philanthropic abduction' and basing his defence on the idea that the end justified the means. In all, he was taken to court on 88 occasions, largely on the charge of kidnapping. However, being a charismatic speaker and popular figure, he rode through these scandals unscathed. Other charges brought against him included presenting staged images of children for Barnardo's 'before and after' cards and neglecting basic hygiene for the children under his care.\n", "Barnardo's was implicated in the scandal of forced child migration], in which children from poor social backgrounds were taken to the former colonies (Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa) by churches and charities, without their parents' consent and even under false claims of death. Although this was a legal scheme, favoured by Government and society, in many cases the children suffered harsh life conditions and many also suffered abuse. This practice went on until the 70's. This merited an apology by PM Gordon Brown in 2010.\n", "Section::::Philanthropy.:The charity today.\n", "The official mascot of Barnardo's is a bear called Barney. H.M. Queen Elizabeth II is the current patron of Barnardo's. Its chief executive is Javed Khan.\n", "Section::::Personal life.\n", "Section::::Personal life.:Marriage and family.\n", "In June 1873, Barnardo married Sara Louise Elmslie (1842–1944), known as Syrie, the daughter of an underwriter for Lloyd's of London. Syrie shared her husband's interests in evangelism and social work. The couple settled at Mossford Lodge, Essex, where they had seven children, three of whom died in early childhood. Another child, Marjorie, had Down syndrome.\n", "Another daughter, Gwendolyn Maud Syrie (1879–1955), known as Syrie like her mother, was married to wealthy businessman Henry Wellcome, and later to the writer Somerset Maugham, and became a socially prominent London interior designer.\n", "Section::::Personal life.:Death.\n", "Barnardo died of angina pectoris in London on 19 September 1905, and was buried in front of Cairns House, Barkingside, Essex. The house is now the head office of the children's charity he founded, Barnardo's. A memorial stands outside Cairn's House.\n", "Section::::Personal life.:Legacy.\n", "After Barnardo's death, a national memorial was instituted to form a fund of £250,000 to relieve the various institutions of all financial liability and to place the entire work on a permanent basis. William Baker, formerly the chairman of the council, was selected to succeed the founder of the homes as Honorary Director.Thomas Barnardo was the author of 192 books dealing with the charitable work to which he devoted his life.\n", "From the foundation of the homes in 1867 to the date of Barnardo's death, nearly 60,000 children had been taken-in, most being trained and placed out in life. At the time of his death, his charity was caring for over 8,500 children in 96 homes.\n", "Section::::Personal life.:Not a Jack the Ripper suspect.\n", "At the time of the Whitechapel murders, due to the supposed medical expertise of the Ripper, various doctors in the area were suspected. Barnardo was named a possible suspect long after his death. Ripperologist Gary Rowlands theorized that due to Barnardo's lonely childhood he had anger which led him to murder prostitutes. However, there is no evidence that he committed the murders. Critics have also pointed out that his age and appearance did not match any of the descriptions of the Ripper.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Likes of Us\"\n", "BULLET::::- Charitable organization\n", "BULLET::::- Orphanage\n", "BULLET::::- Ragged School Museum\n", "BULLET::::- List of Freemasons\n", "Section::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- Attribution\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- British Home Child Group International - research site\n", "BULLET::::- IllustratedPast.com – photographs of a Barnardo orphanage in 1893\n" ] }

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{ "description": "Philanthropist, founder and director of homes for poor children", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q692235", "wikidata_label": "Thomas John Barnardo", "wikipedia_title": "Thomas John Barnardo", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Battle of Magenta\n", "The Battle of Magenta was fought on 4 June 1859 during the Second Italian War of Independence, resulting in a French-Sardinian victory under Napoleon III against the Austrians under Marshal Ferencz Gyulai.\n", "It took place near the town of Magenta in the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, a crown land of the Austrian Empire on 4 June 1859. Napoleon III's army crossed the Ticino River and outflanked the Austrian right forcing the Austrian army under Gyulai to retreat. The confined nature of the country, a vast spread of orchards cut up by streams and irrigation canals, precluded elaborate manoeuvre. The Austrians turned every house into a miniature fortress. The brunt of the fighting was borne by 5,000 grenadiers of the French Imperial Guard, still mostly in their First Empire style of uniforms. The battle of Magenta was not a particularly large battle, but it was a decisive victory for the Franco-Sardinian alliance. Patrice Maurice de MacMahon was created Duke of Magenta for his role in this battle, and would later go on to serve as one of the French President of the Third French Republic.\n", "An overwhelming majority of the French-Piedmontese coalition soldiers were French (1,100 were Piedmontese and 58,000 were French).\n", "Section::::Aftermath.\n", "A dye producing the colour magenta was discovered in 1859, and was named after this battle, as was the Boulevard de Magenta in Paris.\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Guibert of Nogent\n", "Guibert de Nogent (c. 1055–1124) was a Benedictine historian, theologian and author of autobiographical memoirs. Guibert was relatively unknown in his own time, going virtually unmentioned by his contemporaries. He has only recently caught the attention of scholars who have been more interested in his extensive autobiographical memoirs and personality which provide insight into medieval life.\n", "Section::::Life.\n", "Guibert was born of parents from the minor nobility at Clermont-en-Beauvaisis. Guibert claims that it took his parents over seven years to conceive, as he writes in his \"Monodiae\". According to his memoirs, the labour nearly cost him and his mother their lives, as Guibert turned around in the womb. Guibert's family made an offering to a shrine of the Virgin Mary, and promised that if Guibert survived, he would be dedicated to a clerical life. Since he survived, he followed this path. His father was violent, unfaithful and prone to excess, and was captured at the Battle of Mortemer, dying eight months later. In his memoirs, Guibert views his death as a type of blessing, stating that if his father had survived, he likely would have forced Guibert to become a knight, thus breaking the oath to the Virgin Mary to dedicate Guibert to the church. His mother was domineering, of great beauty and intelligence, and exceedingly zealous. Guibert writes so much about his mother, and in such detail, that some scholars, such as Archambault, have suggested that he may have had an Oedipus complex. She assumed control of his education, isolated him from his peers and hired him a private tutor, from the ages of six to twelve. Guibert remembers the tutor as brutally exacting, and incompetent; nevertheless Guibert and his tutor developed a strong bond. When Guibert was around the age of twelve, his mother retired to an abbey near Saint-Germer-de-Fly (or Flay), and he soon followed. Entering the Order at St. Germer, he studied with great zeal, devoting himself at first to the secular poets Ovid and Virgil—an experience which left its imprint on his works. He later changed his focus to theology, through the influence of Anselm of Bec, who later became the Archbishop of Canterbury.\n", "In 1104, he was chosen abbot of the poor and tiny abbey of Nogent-sous-Coucy (founded 1059) and henceforth took a more prominent part in ecclesiastical affairs, where he came into contact with bishops and court society. More importantly, it gave him time to engage in his passion for writing. His first major work of this period is his history of the First Crusade called \"Dei gesta per Francos\" (\"God's deeds through the Franks\"), finished in 1108 and touched up in 1121. The history is largely a paraphrase, in ornate style, of the \"Gesta Francorum\" of an anonymous Norman author; Crusade historians have traditionally not given it favourable reviews; the fact that he stays so close to \"Gesta Francorum\", and the difficulty of his Latin, make it seem superfluous. Recent editors and translators, however, have called attention to his excellent writing and original material. More importantly, the \"Dei gesta\" supplies us with invaluable information about the reception of the crusade in France. Guibert personally knew crusaders, had grown up with crusaders, and talked with them about their memories and experiences.\n", "For the modern reader, his autobiography (\"De vita sua sive monodiarum suarum libri tres\"), or \"Monodiae\" (\"Solitary Songs\", commonly referred to as his \"Memoirs\"), written in 1115, is considered the most interesting of his works. Written towards the close of his life, and based on the model of the \"Confessions\" of Saint Augustine, he traces his life from his childhood to adulthood. Throughout, he gives picturesque glimpses of his time and the customs of his country. The text is divided into three \"Books.\" The first covers his own life, from birth to adulthood; the second is a brief history of his monastery; the third is a description of an uprising in nearby Laon. He provides invaluable information on daily life in castles and monasteries, on the educational methods then in vogue, and gives insights into some of the major and minor personalities of his time. His work is coloured by his passions and prejudices, which add a personal touch to the work.\n", "For example, he was quite sceptical about the propriety of Catholic relics of Jesus Christ, the Virgin Mary and numerous Catholic saints, and entertained doubts about their authenticity, noting that some shrines and pilgrimage sites made conflicting claims about which bodily remnants, clothing or other sacred objects were held at which site.\n", "Section::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- Sources\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Autobiography Of Guibert\". C.C. Swinton Bland, translator,\"The Autobiography of Guibert, Abbot of Nogent-sous-Coucy\" (London: George Routledge: New York: E.P. Dutton, 1925) From Internet Archive\n", "BULLET::::- \"Memoirs\" and from the Internet Medieval Sourcebook. Excerpts from the English translation by C.C. Swinton Bland.\n", "BULLET::::- \"On the Saints and their Relics\" from the Internet Medieval Sourcebook\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Revolt in Laon\" from the Internet Medieval Sourcebook.\n", "BULLET::::- \"On the First Crusade\", includes Guibert's version of Pope Urban's speech and impressions of Peter the Hermit.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Deeds of God through the Franks, e-text from Project Gutenburg. Translated by Robert Levine 1997.\n", "BULLET::::- Books\n", "BULLET::::- Paul J. Archambault (1995). \"A Monk's Confession: The Memoirs of Guibert of Nogent\".\n", "BULLET::::- John Benton, ed. (1970). \"Self and Society in Medieval France: The Memoirs of Abbot Guibert of Nogent\". A revised edition of the 1925 C.C. Swinton Bland edition, includes introduction and latest research. (1984 reprint, University of Toronto Press).\n", "BULLET::::- Guibert of Nogent, \"Dei Gesta per Francos\", ed. R.B.C. Huygens, Corpus Christianorum, Continuatio Mediaevalis 127A (Turnhout: Brepols, 1996)\n", "BULLET::::- Robert Levine (1997). \"The Deeds of God through the Franks : A Translation of Guibert de Nogent's `Gesta Dei per Francos' \".\n", "BULLET::::- Joseph McAlhany, Jay Rubenstein, eds. (2011). \"Monodies and On the Relics of Saints: the Autobiography and a Manifesto of a French Monk from the Time of the Crusades\". Translated from the Latin, with introduction and notes. Penguin Classics.\n", "BULLET::::- Jay Rubenstein (2002). \"Guibert of Nogent: Portrait of a Medieval Mind\", London. .\n", "BULLET::::- Karin Fuchs, \"Zeichen und Wunder bei Guibert de Nogent. Kommunikation, Deutungen und Funktionalisierungen von Wundererzählungen im 12. Jahrhundert\" (München: Oldenbourg, 2008) (Pariser Historische Studien, 84).\n", "BULLET::::- Laurence Terrier (2013). \"La doctrine de l'eucharistie de Guibert de Nogent. De pigneribus Livre II. Texte et Traduction\", Paris, Vrin.\n", "BULLET::::- Articles\n", "BULLET::::- Elizabeth Lapina, \"Anti-Jewish rhetoric in Guibert of Nogent's \"Dei gesta per Francos\",\" \"Journal of Medieval History\", 35,3 (2009), 239-253.\n" ] }

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{ "description": "Benedictine historian, theologian", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q4289", "wikidata_label": "Guibert of Nogent", "wikipedia_title": "Guibert of Nogent", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Raymond of Poitiers\n", "Raymond of Poitiers (c. 1099- 29 June 1149) was Prince of Antioch from 1136 to 1149. He was the younger son of William IX, Duke of Aquitaine and his wife Philippa, Countess of Toulouse, born in the very year that his father the Duke began his infamous liaison with Dangereuse de Chatelherault.\n", "Section::::Assuming control.\n", "Following the death of Prince Bohemund II of Antioch in 1130, the principality came under the regency first of King Baldwin II (1130–31), then King Fulk (1131–35), and finally Princess Alice (1135–36), Bohemond's widow. The reigning princess was Bohemond II's daughter, Constance (born 1127). Against the wishes of Alice, a marriage was arranged for Constance with Raymond, at the time staying in England, which he left only after the death of Henry I on 1 December 1135.\n", "Upon hearing word that Raymond was going to pass through his lands in order to marry the princess of Antioch, King Roger II of Sicily ordered him arrested. By a series of subterfuges, Raymond passed through southern Italy and only arrived at Antioch after 19 April 1136. Patriarch Ralph of Domfront then convinced Alice that Raymond was there to marry her, whereupon she allowed him to enter Antioch (whose loyal garrison had refused him entry) and the patriarch married him to Constance. Alice then left the city, now under the control of Raymond and Ralph.\n", "The first years of their joint rule were spent in conflicts with the Byzantine Emperor John II Comnenus, who had come south partly to recover Cilicia from Leo of Armenia, and to reassert his rights over Antioch. Raymond was forced to pay homage, and even to promise to cede his principality as soon as he was recompensed by a new fief, which John promised to carve out for him in the Muslim territory to the east of Antioch. The expedition of 1138, in which Raymond joined with John, and which was to conquer this territory, proved a failure. The expedition culminated in the unsuccessful Siege of Shaizar. Raymond was not anxious to help the emperor to acquire new territories, when their acquisition only meant for him the loss of Antioch. John Comnenus returned unsuccessful to Constantinople, after demanding from Raymond, without response, the surrender of the citadel of Antioch.\n", "Section::::Struggles.\n", "There followed a struggle between Raymond and the patriarch. Raymond was annoyed by the homage which he had been forced to pay to the patriarch in 1135 and the dubious validity of the patriarch's election offered a handle for opposition. Eventually Raymond triumphed, and the patriarch was deposed (1139). In 1142 John Comnenus returned to the attack, but Raymond refused to recognize or renew his previous submission, and John, though he ravaged the neighborhood of Antioch, was unable to effect anything against him. When, however Raymond demanded from Manuel, who had succeeded John in 1143, the cession of some of the Cilician towns, he found that he had met his match. Manuel forced him to a humiliating visit to Constantinople, during which he renewed his oath of homage and promised to acknowledge a Greek patriarch.\n", "In the last year of Raymond's life Louis VII and his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine (Raymond's niece) visited Antioch during the Second Crusade. Raymond sought to prevent Louis from going south to Jerusalem and to induce him to stay in Antioch and help in the conquest of Aleppo and Caesarea. Raymond was also suspected of having an incestuous affair with his beautiful niece Eleanor. According to John of Salisbury, Louis became suspicious of the attention Raymond lavished on Eleanor, and the long conversations they enjoyed. William of Tyre claims that Raymond seduced Eleanor to get revenge on her husband, who refused to aid him in his wars against the Saracens, and that \"\"contrary to [Eleanor's] royal dignity, she disregarded her marriage vows and was unfaithful to her husband.\"\" Most modern historians dismiss such rumours, however, pointing out the closeness of Raymond and his niece during her early childhood, and the effulgent Aquitainian manner of behaviour. Also, as the pious Louis continued to have relations with his wife, it is doubtful that he believed his charge of incest.\n", "Louis hastily left Antioch and Raymond was balked in his plans. In 1149 he was killed in the Battle of Inab during an expedition against Nur ad-Din Zangi. He was beheaded by Shirkuh, the uncle of Saladin, and his head was placed in a silver box and sent to the Caliph of Baghdad as a gift.\n", "Section::::Personality and family.\n", "Raymond is described by William of Tyre (the main authority for his career) as \"\"a lord of noble descent, of tall and elegant figure, the handsomest of the princes of the earth, a man of charming affability and conversation, open-handed and magnificent beyond measure\"\"; pre-eminent in the use of arms and military experience; \"litteratorum, licet ipse esset, cultor\" (\"although he was himself illiterate, he was a cultivator of literature\" – he caused the \"Chanson des chétifs\" to be composed); a regular churchman and faithful husband; but headstrong, irascible and unreasonable, with too great a passion for gambling (bk. xiv. c. xxi.). For his career see Rey, in the \"Revue de l'orient latin\", vol. iv.\n", "With Constance he had the following children: \n", "BULLET::::- Bohemond III\n", "BULLET::::- Maria, married emperor Manuel I Komnenos\n", "BULLET::::- Philippa\n", "BULLET::::- Baldwin\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Wall Street Crash of 1929\n", "The Wall Street Crash of 1929, also known as the Stock Market Crash of 1929 or the Great Crash, was a major stock market crash that occurred in late October 1929. It started on October 24 (\"Black Thursday\") and continued until October 29, 1929 (\"Black Tuesday\"), when share prices on the New York Stock Exchange collapsed.\n", "It was the most devastating stock market crash in the history of the United States, when taking into consideration the full extent and duration of its after effects. The crash, which followed the London Stock Exchange's crash of September, signaled the beginning of the 12-year Great Depression that affected all Western industrialized countries.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "The Roaring Twenties, the decade that followed World War I that led to the crash, was a time of wealth and excess. Building on post-war optimism, rural Americans migrated to the cities in vast numbers throughout the decade with the hopes of finding a more prosperous life in the ever-growing expansion of America's industrial sector. While American cities prospered, the overproduction of agricultural produce created widespread financial despair among American farmers throughout the decade. This would later be blamed as one of the key factors that led to the 1929 stock market crash.\n", "Despite the dangers of speculation, it was widely believed that the stock market would continue to rise forever. On March 25, 1929, after the Federal Reserve warned of excessive speculation, a small crash occurred as investors started to sell stocks at a rapid pace, exposing the market's shaky foundation. Two days later, banker Charles E. Mitchell announced that his company, the National City Bank, would provide $25 million in credit to stop the market's slide. Mitchell's move brought a temporary halt to the financial crisis, and call money declined from 20 to 8 percent. However, the American economy showed ominous signs of trouble: steel production declined, construction was sluggish, automobile sales went down, and consumers were building up high debts because of easy credit. Despite all the economic trouble signs and the market breaks in March and May 1929, stocks resumed their advance in June and the gains continued almost unabated until early September 1929 (the Dow Jones average gained more than 20% between June and September). The market had been on a nine-year run that saw the Dow Jones Industrial Average increase in value tenfold, peaking at 381.17 on September 3, 1929. Shortly before the crash, economist Irving Fisher famously proclaimed, \"Stock prices have reached what looks like a permanently high plateau.\" The optimism and the financial gains of the great bull market were shaken after a well-publicized early September prediction from financial expert Roger Babson that \"a crash was coming\". The initial September decline was thus called the \"Babson Break\" in the press. That was the start of the Great Crash, but until the severe phase of the crash in October, many investors regarded the September \"Babson Break\" as a \"healthy correction\" and buying opportunity.\n", "On September 20, the London Stock Exchange crashed when top British investor Clarence Hatry and many of his associates were jailed for fraud and forgery. The London crash greatly weakened the optimism of American investment in markets overseas. In the days leading up to the crash, the market was severely unstable. Periods of selling and high volumes were interspersed with brief periods of rising prices and recovery.\n", "Section::::Crash.\n", "Selling intensified in mid-October. On October 24 (\"Black Thursday\"), the market lost 11 percent of its value at the opening bell on very heavy trading. The huge volume meant that the report of prices on the ticker tape in brokerage offices around the nation was hours late and so investors had no idea what most stocks were actually trading for at the moment, increasing panic. Several leading Wall Street bankers met to find a solution to the panic and chaos on the trading floor. The meeting included Thomas W. Lamont, acting head of Morgan Bank; Albert Wiggin, head of the Chase National Bank; and Charles E. Mitchell, president of the National City Bank of New York. They chose Richard Whitney, vice president of the Exchange, to act on their behalf.\n", "With the bankers' financial resources behind him, Whitney placed a bid to purchase a large block of shares in U.S. Steel at a price well above the current market. As traders watched, Whitney then placed similar bids on other \"blue chip\" stocks. The tactic was similar to one that had ended the Panic of 1907. It succeeded in halting the slide. The Dow Jones Industrial Average recovered, closing with it down only 6.38 points for the day. The rally continued on Friday, October 25, and the half-day session on Saturday, October 26, but unlike 1907, the respite was only temporary.\n", "Over the weekend, the events were covered by the newspapers across the United States. On October 28, \"Black Monday\", more investors facing margin calls decided to get out of the market, and the slide continued with a record loss in the Dow for the day of 38.33 points, or 13%.\n", "The next day, \"Black Tuesday\", October 29, 1929, about 16 million shares traded as the panic selling reached its peak. Some stocks actually had no buyers at any price that day. The Dow lost an additional 30 points, or 12 percent. The volume of stocks traded that day was a record that would not be broken for nearly 40 years.\n", "On October 29, William C. Durant joined with members of the Rockefeller family and other financial giants to buy large quantities of stocks to demonstrate to the public their confidence in the market, but their efforts failed to stop the large decline in prices. The massive volume of stocks traded that day made the ticker continue to run until about 7:45 p.m. The market had lost over $30 billion in the space of two days, including $14 billion on October 29 alone.\n", "After a one-day recovery on October 30, when the Dow regained an additional 28.40 points, or 12 percent, to close at 258.47, the market continued to fall, arriving at an interim bottom on November 13, 1929, with the Dow closing at 198.60. The market then recovered for several months, starting on November 14, with the Dow gaining 18.59 points to close at 217.28, and reaching a secondary closing peak (bear market rally) of 294.07 on April 17, 1930. The following year, the Dow embarked on another, much longer, steady slide from April 1931 to July 8, 1932, when it closed at 41.22, its lowest level of the 20th century, concluding an 89 percent loss rate for all of the market's stocks. \n", "For the rest of the 1930s, beginning on March 15, 1933, the Dow began to slowly regain the ground it had lost during the 1929 crash and the three years following it. The largest percentage increases of the Dow Jones occurred during the early and mid-1930s. In late 1937, there was a sharp dip in the stock market, but prices held well above the 1932 lows. The market would not return to the peak closing of September 3, 1929, until November 23, 1954.\n", "Section::::Aftermath.\n", "In 1932, the Pecora Commission was established by the U.S. Senate to study the causes of the crash. The following year, the U.S. Congress passed the Glass–Steagall Act mandating a separation between commercial banks, which take deposits and extend loans, and investment banks, which underwrite, issue, and distribute stocks, bonds, and other securities.\n", "After the experience of the 1929 crash, stock markets around the world instituted measures to suspend trading in the event of rapid declines, claiming that the measures would prevent such panic sales. However, the one-day crash of Black Monday, October 19, 1987, when the Dow Jones Industrial Average fell 22.6%, was worse in percentage terms than any single day of the 1929 crash (although the combined 25% decline of October 28–29, 1929 was larger than that of October 19, 1987, and remains the worst two-day decline ever).\n", "Section::::Aftermath.:World War II.\n", "The American mobilization for World War II at the end of 1941 moved approximately ten million people out of the civilian labor force and into the war. World War II had a dramatic effect on many parts of the economy, and may have hastened the end of the Great Depression in the United States. Government-financed capital spending accounted for only 5 percent of the annual U.S. investment in industrial capital in 1940; by 1943, the government accounted for 67 percent of U.S. capital investment.\n", "Section::::Analysis.\n", "The crash followed a speculative boom that had taken hold in the late 1920s. During the latter half of the 1920s, steel production, building construction, retail turnover, automobiles registered, and even railway receipts advanced from record to record. The combined net profits of 536 manufacturing and trading companies showed an increase, in the first six months of 1929, of 36.6% over 1928, itself a record half-year. Iron and steel led the way with doubled gains. Such figures set up a crescendo of stock-exchange speculation that led hundreds of thousands of Americans to invest heavily in the stock market. A significant number of them were borrowing money to buy more stocks. By August 1929, brokers were routinely lending small investors more than two-thirds of the face value of the stocks they were buying. Over $8.5 billion was out on loan, more than the entire amount of currency circulating in the U.S. at the time.\n", "The rising share prices encouraged more people to invest, hoping the share prices would rise further. Speculation thus fueled further rises and created an economic bubble. Because of margin buying, investors stood to lose large sums of money if the market turned down—or even failed to advance quickly enough. The average P/E (price to earnings) ratio of S&P Composite stocks was 32.6 in September 1929, clearly above historical norms. According to economist John Kenneth Galbraith, this exuberance also resulted in a large number of people placing their savings and money in leverage investment products like Goldman Sachs' \"Blue Ridge trust\" and \"Shenandoah trust\". These too crashed in 1929, resulting in losses to banks of $475 billion 2010 dollars ($ billion in ).\n", "Good harvests had built up a mass of 250 million bushels of wheat to be \"carried over\" when 1929 opened. By May there was also a winter-wheat crop of 560 million bushels ready for harvest in the Mississippi Valley. This oversupply caused a drop in wheat prices so heavy that the net incomes of the farming population from wheat were threatened with extinction. Stock markets are always sensitive to the future state of commodity markets , and the slump in Wall Street predicted for May by Sir George Paish arrived on time. In June 1929, the position was saved by a severe drought in the Dakotas and the Canadian West, plus unfavorable seed times in Argentina and eastern Australia. The oversupply would now be wanted to fill the big gaps in the 1929 world wheat production. From 97¢ per bushel in May, the price of wheat rose to $1.49 in July. When it was seen that at this figure American farmers would get rather more for their smaller crop than for that of 1928, stocks went up again.\n", "In August, the wheat price fell when France and Italy were bragging of a magnificent harvest, and the situation in Australia improved. That sent a shiver through Wall Street and stock prices quickly dropped, but word of cheap stocks brought a fresh rush of \"stags\", amateur speculators and investors. Congress voted for a $100 million relief package for the farmers, hoping to stabilize wheat prices. By October though, the price had fallen to $1.31 per bushel.\n", "Other important economic barometers were also slowing or even falling by mid-1929, including car sales, house sales, and steel production. The falling commodity and industrial production may have dented even American self-confidence, and the stock market peaked on September 3 at 381.17 just after Labor Day, then started to falter after Roger Babson issued his prescient \"market crash\" forecast. By the end of September, the market was down 10% from the peak (the \"Babson Break\"). Selling intensified in early and mid October, with sharp down days punctuated by a few up days. Panic selling on huge volume started the week of October 21 and intensified and culminated on October 24, the 28th, and especially the 29th (\"Black Tuesday\").\n", "The president of the Chase National Bank, Albert H. Wiggin, said at the time:\n", "We are reaping the natural fruit of the orgy of speculation in which millions of people have indulged. It was inevitable, because of the tremendous increase in the number of stockholders in recent years, that the number of sellers would be greater than ever when the boom ended and selling took the place of buying.\"\n", "Section::::Effects.\n", "Section::::Effects.:United States.\n", "Together, the 1929 stock market crash and the Great Depression formed the largest financial crisis of the 20th century. The panic of October 1929 has come to serve as a symbol of the economic contraction that gripped the world during the next decade. The falls in share prices on October 24 and 29, 1929 were practically instantaneous in all financial markets, except Japan.\n", "The Wall Street Crash had a major impact on the U.S. and world economy, and it has been the source of intense academic historical, economic, and political debate from its aftermath until the present day. Some people believed that abuses by utility holding companies contributed to the Wall Street Crash of 1929 and the Depression that followed. Many people blamed the crash on commercial banks that were too eager to put deposits at risk on the stock market.\n", "In 1930, 1,352 banks held more than $853 million in deposits; in 1931, one year later, 2,294 banks went down with nearly $1.7 billion in deposits. Many businesses failed (28,285 failures and a daily rate of 133 in 1931).\n", "The 1929 crash brought the Roaring Twenties to a halt. As tentatively expressed by economic historian Charles P. Kindleberger, in 1929, there was no lender of last resort effectively present, which, if it had existed and been properly exercised, would have been key in shortening the business slowdown that normally follows financial crises. The crash instigated widespread and long-lasting consequences for the United States. Historians still debate whether the 1929 crash sparked the Great Depression or if it merely coincided with the bursting of a loose credit-inspired economic bubble. Only 16% of American households were invested in the stock market within the United States during the period leading up to this depression, suggesting that the crash carried somewhat less of a weight in causing it.\n", "However, the psychological effects of the crash reverberated across the nation as businesses became aware of the difficulties in securing capital market investments for new projects and expansions. Business uncertainty naturally affects job security for employees, and as the American worker (the consumer) faced uncertainty with regards to income, naturally the propensity to consume declined. The decline in stock prices caused bankruptcies and severe macroeconomic difficulties, including contraction of credit, business closures, firing of workers, bank failures, decline of the money supply, and other economically depressing events.\n", "The resultant rise of mass unemployment is seen as a result of the crash, although the crash is by no means the sole event that contributed to the depression. The Wall Street Crash is usually seen as having the greatest impact on the events that followed and therefore is widely regarded as signaling the downward economic slide that initiated the Great Depression. True or not, the consequences were dire for almost everybody. Most academic experts agree on one aspect of the crash: It wiped out billions of dollars of wealth in one day, and this immediately depressed consumer buying.\n", "The failure set off a worldwide run on US gold deposits (i.e. the dollar), and forced the Federal Reserve to raise interest rates into the slump. Some 4,000 banks and other lenders ultimately failed. Also, the uptick rule, which allowed short selling only when the last tick in a stock's price was positive, was implemented after the 1929 market crash to prevent short sellers from driving the price of a stock down in a bear raid.\n", "Section::::Effects.:Europe.\n", "The stock market crash of October 1929 led directly to the Great Depression in Europe. When stocks plummeted on the New York Stock Exchange, the world noticed immediately. Although financial leaders in the United Kingdom, as in the United States, vastly underestimated the extent of the crisis that would ensue, it soon became clear that the world's economies were more interconnected than ever. The effects of the disruption to the global system of financing, trade, and production and the subsequent meltdown of the American economy were soon felt throughout Europe.\n", "In 1930 and 1931, in particular, unemployed workers went on strike, demonstrated in public, and otherwise took direct action to call public attention to their plight. Within the UK, protests often focused on the so-called Means Test, which the government had instituted in 1931 to limit the amount of unemployment payments made to individuals and families. For working people, the Means Test seemed an intrusive and insensitive way to deal with the chronic and relentless deprivation caused by the economic crisis. The strikes were met forcefully, with police breaking up protests, arresting demonstrators, and charging them with crimes related to the violation of public order.\n", "Section::::Academic debate.\n", "There is ongoing debate among economists and historians as to what role the crash played in subsequent economic, social, and political events. \"The Economist\" argued in a 1998 article that the Depression did not start with the stock market crash, nor was it clear at the time of the crash that a depression was starting. They asked, \"Can a very serious Stock Exchange collapse produce a serious setback to industry when industrial production is for the most part in a healthy and balanced condition?\" They argued that there must be some setback, but there was not yet sufficient evidence to prove that it would be long or would necessarily produce a general industrial depression.\n", "However, \"The Economist\" also cautioned that some bank failures were also to be expected and some banks may not have had any reserves left for financing commercial and industrial enterprises. It concluded that the position of the banks was the key to the situation, but what was going to happen could not have been foreseen.\n", "Some academics view the Wall Street Crash of 1929 as part of a historical process that was a part of the new theories of boom and bust. According to economists such as Joseph Schumpeter, Nikolai Kondratiev and Charles E. Mitchell, the crash was merely a historical event in the continuing process known as economic cycles. The impact of the crash was merely to increase the speed at which the cycle proceeded to its next level.\n", "Milton Friedman's \"A Monetary History of the United States\", co-written with Anna Schwartz, advances the argument that what made the \"great contraction\" so severe was not the downturn in the business cycle, protectionism, or the 1929 stock market crash in themselves but the collapse of the banking system during three waves of panics from 1930 to 1933.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Causes of the Great Depression\n", "BULLET::::- Criticism of the Federal Reserve\n", "BULLET::::- Great Contraction\n", "BULLET::::- List of largest daily changes in the Dow Jones Industrial Average\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- Axon, Gordon V. The Stock Market Crash of 1929. London, England: Mason & Lipscomb Publishers Inc., 1974.\n", "BULLET::::- Brooks, John. (1969). \"Once in Golconda: A True Drama of Wall Street 1920–1938\". New York: Harper & Row. .\n", "BULLET::::- Galbraith, John Kenneth. \"1929: New York City.\" \"Lapham's Quarterly\", no. 2 (Spring 2015): 145–146\n", "BULLET::::- Klein, Maury. (2001). \"Rainbow's End: The Crash of 1929\". New York: Oxford University Press. .\n", "BULLET::::- Klingaman, William K. (1989). \"1929: The Year of the Great Crash\". New York: Harper & Row. .\n", "BULLET::::- Leone, Bruno. \"The Great Depression: Opposing Viewpoints,\" 14–25. San Diego, California: Bender, David L., 1994.\n", "BULLET::::- Pendergast, Tom. \"American Decades: 1920–1929\". Farmington Hills, Michigan: UXL American Decades Publishing, 2003.\n", "BULLET::::- Reed, Lawrence W. (1981 & 2008). \"Great Myths of the Great Depression\". Midland, Michigan: Mackinac Center.\n", "BULLET::::- Shachtman, Tom. (1979). \"The Day America Crashed: A Narrative Account of the Great Stock Market Crash of October 24, 1929\". New York: G.P. Putnam. .\n", "BULLET::::- Thomas, Gordon and Morgan-Witts, Max. (1979). \"The Day the Bubble Burst: A Social History of the Wall Street Crash of 1929\". Garden City, New York: Doubleday. .\n", "BULLET::::- Watkins, Tom H. \"The Great Depression: America in the 1930s,\" 22–55. New York: Little, Brown & Company, 1993.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Crash of 1929\", American Experience documentary\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Rachel Bolan\n", "Rachel Bolan (born February 9, 1966), born James Richard Southworth, is the bass guitar player and main songwriter of the metal band Skid Row. His stage name 'Rachel' is a hybrid of his brother's name, Richard, and his grandfather's name, Manuel. 'Bolan' is a tribute to one of his childhood idols, T. Rex frontman, Marc Bolan. He is the youngest of four children.\n", "Section::::Career.\n", "Bolan, who grew up in Toms River, New Jersey, founded Skid Row in 1986 with guitarist Dave \"The Snake\" Sabo. Bolan has appeared as a vocalist on two of Kiss guitarist Ace Frehley's solo albums and back-up vocals on Mötley Crüe's \"Dr. Feelgood\" album. He has produced numerous bands including Rockets to Ruin , the Luchagors in 2007 with former WWE wrestler Amy \"Lita\" Dumas and Atlantic Records stoner metal band Godspeed. He formed the band Prunella Scales with Solace guitarist Tommy Southard and L. Wood. Prunella Scales released \"Dressing up the Idiot\" on Mutiny Records in 1997. Jack Roberts (guitar) and Ray Kubian (drums), both from the New Jersey-based band Mars Needs Women, joined Prunella Scales for touring. Recently, he played the bass guitar for Stone Sour on the band's new records House of Gold & Bones - Part 1 and House of Gold & Bones – Part 2 as a replacement for the departed bassist Shawn Economaki. He also can be seen playing bass in TRUSTcompany music video for the single \"Heart in My Hands\".\n", "Bolan has another side project called The Quazimotors. He did this project with Skid Row drummer Rob Affuso, Jonathan Callicutt and Evil Jim Wright (guitarist for Spectremen, BigFoot, Road Hawgs).\n", "Section::::Personal life.\n", "He married longtime girlfriend Donna \"Roxxi\" Feldman on June 10, 1994 but later divorced. He has no children.\n", "He drives racecars in his free time. He competes in high performance go-karts, Legends Cars, Thunder Roadster and Pro-Challenge series cars.\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Specific replant disease\n", "Specific replant disease (also known as ‘Sick Soil Syndrome’) is a malady that manifests itself when susceptible plants such as apples, pears, plums, cherries and roses are placed into soil previously occupied by a related species. The exact causes are not known, but in the first year the new plants will grow poorly. Root systems are weak and may become blackened, and plants may fail to establish properly.\n", "One theory is that replant disease is due to a whole menagerie of tree pathogens - fungi, bacteria, nematodes, viruses and other organisms. These parasitise target the living tissues of the mature tree, hastening senility and death, and survive in the soil and decaying roots after the tree has died. Putting a young traumatised tree with an immature root system into this 'broth' of pathogens can be too much for an infant tree to cope with. Any new root growth is rapidly and heavily colonised, so that shoot growth is virtually zero. This is especially true if it is on a dwarfing rootstock, which by its nature will be relatively inefficient. As a rule, replant disease persists for around fifteen years in the soil, although this varies with local conditions. Pathogens survive in dead wood and organic matter until exposed to predation by their home rotting away, and will also depend on whether the original orchard was planted with dwarf or standard trees. Standards have more vigorous - therefore larger - roots, and are thus likely to take longer to degrade.\n", "It is good organic rotation practice not to follow ‘like with like’ and this rule applies to long lived trees as much as annual vegetables. In the case of temperate fruit trees, the 'Pomes and Stones' rule for rotation should be observed- don’t follow a ‘pome’ fruit (with an apple-type core—apples, pears, medlar, quince) with a tree from the same group. A ‘stone’ fruit (i.e., with a plum-type stone, such as plum, cherry, peach, apricot, almond) should be all right, and vice versa. However, rotation is not always easy in a well planned old orchard when the site it occupies may well be the best available, and starting another orchard elsewhere may not be practical. In this case, and replanting is\n", "unavoidable, a large hole should be dug out, and the soil removed and replaced with ‘clean’ soil from a site where susceptible plants have not been grown.\n", "Using trees on vigorous rootstocks which will have a better chance of competing with the pathogens, or plants grown in large containers with a large root ball may also have a better chance of resisting replant disease. The extra time to cropping may be offset if new trees are planted a few years in advance of old trees finally falling over, furthermore, if the old orchard was grubbed - i.e. trees were healthy when removed, it is unlikely that replant disease would be a problem as pathogen levels may never have been high. The malady is worse where trees have died in situ—pathogens are likely to have contributed to the death and therefore be at a higher level in the soil.\n", "Soil fumigation is another common method employed to control replant disease in both apple and cherry trees. Throughout the 90's, fumigants like Methyl Bromide (Bromomethane) were commonly used in this way to control and treat the disease, through this was later phased out in the 2000s in favour of more modern alternatives such as Chloropicrin, which some studies have shown to be an effective method for resolving SARD in Apple Tree Monoculture in Europe.\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Peter the Hermit\n", "Peter the Hermit (also known as Cucupeter, Little Peter or Peter of Amiens; 1050 – 8 July 1115) was a priest of Amiens and a key figure during the First Crusade.\n", "Section::::Family.\n", "His name in French is \"Pierre l'Ermite\". The structure of this name in French unlike in English has led some francophone scholars to treat l'Ermite as a surname rather than a title.\n", "According to some authors, he was born around 1050 and was the son of Renauld L'Ermite of Auvergne, and his wife Alide Montaigu, de Picardie. Others claim he was a member of the \"L'Hermite\" family of Auvergne in the Netherlands. These claims are disputed by other authors, who argue that nothing can confirm that \"the Hermit\" was an actual surname and that surnames had not developed until after his day.\n", "Section::::Before 1096.\n", "According to Anna Comnena, Peter had attempted to go on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem before 1096, but was prevented by the Seljuk Turks from reaching his goal and was reportedly mistreated. He used this supposed mistreatment to preach inflammatory statements about the Turks toward upset Christians. However, doubts remain whether he ever made such a journey.\n", "Sources differ as to whether he was present at Pope Urban II's famous Council of Clermont in 1095. It is certain that he was one of the preachers of the crusade in France afterward, and his own experience may have helped to give fire to the Crusading cause. Tradition in Huy holds that he was there when the crusade was announced and he began his preaching at once. He soon leapt into fame as an emotional revivalist, and the vast majority of sources and historians agree that thousands of peasants eagerly took the cross at his bidding.\n", "Jonathan Riley-Smith has proposed that the People's Crusade also included well-armed soldiers and nobles. This part of the crusade was also known as the crusade of the \"paupers\", a term which in the Middle Ages indicated a status as impoverished or mendicant wards of the Church. Peter organized and guided the paupers as a spiritually purified and holy group of pilgrims who would, supposedly, be protected by the Holy Ghost. A list of known participants in Peter's army can be found at Riley-Smith, et al.\n", "Section::::Crusade to the Holy Land.\n", "Before Peter went on his crusade he got permission from the Patriarch of Jerusalem. This particular Patriarch was named Simeon. Peter was able to recruit from England, Lorraine, France, and Flanders. Peter the Hermit arrived in Cologne, Germany, on Holy Saturday, the 12th of April in 1096. In Germany in spring 1096 Peter was one of the prominent leaders of crusaders involved in the Rhineland massacres against the Jews.\n", "Leading the first of the five sections of the People's Crusade to the destination of their pilgrimage, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, he started (with 40,000 men and women) from Cologne in April, 1096, and arrived (with 30,000 men and women) at Constantinople at the end of July. The Eastern Roman Emperor Alexios I Komnenos was less than pleased with their arrival, for along with the head of the Eastern Orthodox Church, Patriarch Nicholas III of Constantinople, he was now required to provide for the care and sustenance of the vast host of paupers for the remainder of their journey.\n", "Before reaching Constantinople though, Peter and his followers began to run into trouble. In Zemun, the Governor, who was descendant of a Ghuzz Turk, and a colleague, got frightened by the army's size and decided to tighten regulations on a frontier. This would have been fine if a dispute about the sale of a pair of shoes had not occurred. This led to a riot and against Peter's wishes the town was attacked and the citadel was stormed. This resulted in 4000 Hungarians being killed and lots of provisions stolen. Then on June 26, 1096 Peter's army was able to cross the Save river. Then the army marched into Belgrade and lit the town on fire and proceeded to pillage it. The army then made its way into and through Nish after an eight-day delay. After riding though Nish the Crusaders made their way towards Sofia when they were attacked on the road. The army took heavy losses. They lost 1/4 of their men but arrived in Sofia on July 12 nonetheless. The forces then arrived in Constantinople on August 1, 1096. After a while, they arrived at a castle called Xerigordon and captured it. They captured the castle by taking possession of the castle's spring and well. After setting off to Civetot they had set up camp near a village called Dracon. This is where the Turks ambushed Peter and his forces. This was the final battle of the People's Crusade that Peter led.\n", "Most of the paupers failed to make their way out of Catholic jurisdiction. The majority were incapable of being provided for by the various lordships and dioceses along the way and either starved, returned home or were put into servitude, while a substantial number were captured and sold into slavery by the various Slavic robber barons in the Balkans, kindling the view of the Balkan Slavs as unredeemed robbers and villains.\n", "Peter joined the only other section which had succeeded in reaching Constantinople, that of Walter Sans Avoir, into a single group and encamped the still numerous pilgrims around Constantinople while he negotiated the shipping of the People's Crusade to the Holy Land. The Emperor meanwhile had failed to provide for the pilgrims adequately and the camp made itself a growing nuisance, as the increasingly hungry paupers turned to pilfering the imperial stores.\n", "Alexios, worried at the growing disorder and fearful of his standing before the coming armed Crusader armies, quickly concluded negotiations and shipped them across the Bosporus to the Asiatic shore at the beginning of August, with promises of guards and passage through the Turkish lines. He warned the People's Crusade to await his orders, but in spite of his warnings, the paupers entered Turkish territory. The Turks began skirmishing with the largely unarmed host. Peter returned in desperation to Constantinople, seeking the Emperor's help.\n", "In Peter's absence, the pilgrims were ambushed and cut to pieces in detail by the Turks, who were more disciplined, at the Battle of Civetot. Despite Peter's pronunciations of divine protection, the vast majority of the pilgrims were slaughtered by the swords and arrows of the Turks or were enslaved. Left in Constantinople with the small number of surviving followers, during the winter of 1096–1097, with little hope of securing Byzantine support, the People's Crusade awaited the coming of the armed crusaders as their sole source of protection to complete the pilgrimage.\n", "When the princes arrived, Peter joined their ranks as a member of the council in May 1097, and with the little following which remained they marched together through Asia Minor to Jerusalem. While his \"paupers\" never regained the numbers previous to the Battle of Civetot, his ranks were increasingly replenished with disarmed, injured, or bankrupted crusaders. Nonetheless, aside from a few rousing speeches to motivate the Crusaders, he played a subordinate part in the remaining history of the First Crusade which at this point clearly settled on a military campaign as the means to secure the pilgrimage routes and holy sites in Palestine.\n", "Peter appears, at the beginning of 1098, as attempting to escape from the privations of the siege of Antioch—showing himself, as Guibert of Nogent says, a \"fallen star.\" Guibert and other sources go on to write that Peter was responsible for the speech before the half-starved and dead Crusaders which motivated their sally from the gates of Antioch and their subsequent crushing defeat of the overwhelmingly superior Muslim army besieging the city. Thus, having recovered his stature, in the middle of the year he was sent by the princes to invite Kerbogha to settle all differences via a duel, which the Emir subsequently declined.\n", "In 1099 Peter appears as the treasurer of the alms at the siege of Arqa (March), and as leader of the supplicatory processions around the walls of Jerusalem before it fell, and later within Jerusalem which preceded the Crusaders' surprising victory at the Battle of Ascalon (August). At the end of 1099, Peter went to Latakia, and sailed thence for the West. From this time he disappears from the historical record. Albert of Aix records that he died in 1131, as prior of a church of the Holy Sepulchre which he had founded in France.\n", "Section::::Role in Preaching First Crusade.\n", "Although later Catholic historians and many other scholars disagree, Roger of Wendover and Matthew Paris wrote that Peter the Hermit was the true author and originator of the First Crusade, a view also recounted in the anonymous Gesta Francorum – written c. 1100 – and by Albert of Aix in his \"Historia Hierosolymitanae Expeditionis\", and also supported by some modern scholars.\n", "Such historical sources recount that during an early visit to Jerusalem sometime before 1096, Jesus appeared to Peter the Hermit in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, and bade him preach the crusade. This story also appears in the pages of William of Tyre, which indicates that even a few generations after the crusade, the descendants of the crusaders already believed Peter was its originator. The origin of such a legend is a matter of some interest. Von Sybel, in his \"Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges\", published in 1841, suggested that in the camp of the paupers (which existed side by side with that of the knights, and grew increasingly large as the crusade took a more and more heavy toll on the purses of the crusaders) some idolization of Peter the Hermit had already begun, parallel to the similar glorification of Godfrey by the Lorrainers.\n", "Section::::Later life.\n", "There is very little concrete record for his life after returning to Europe and much of what we do know is speculation or legend. However, Albert of Aix records that he died in 1131, as prior of a church of the Holy Sepulchre which he had founded in France or Flanders. It is thought that during the Siege of Antioch during the days of famine and cold weather, Peter attempted to flee only to be captured by the Norman Tancred and placed back on the battlefield in 1112. Peter also held services of intercession for Latin and native recruits. Peter advised Greeks and Latins to form processions as well.\n", "It is generally quoted that he founded an Augustinian monastery in France named for the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. However, it was actually in Flanders at Neufmoustier near Huy, or Huy itself which may have been his home town. His tomb is in the Neufmoustier Abbey, so it is presumed that this was his Abbey but in another tradition the nearby Solières Abbey claims that it was his foundation.\n", "Peter's obituary is in the chronicle of Abbey Neufmoustier Huy. On its page entry of 8 July 1115 the chronicle says that this day saw \"the death of Dom Pierre, of pious memory, venerable priest and hermit, who deserved to be appointed by the Lord to announce the first to the holy Cross\" and the text continues with \"after the conquest of the holy land, Pierre returned to his native country\" and also that \"he founded this church ... and chooses them a decent burial\". This record further supports Neufmoustier's claim as his foundation.\n", "Section::::Legend.\n", "Since his death various legends have sprung up around Peter. One legend has its roots in the writings of Jacques de Vitry, who found it convenient to convince people from the bishopric of Liège of the merits of participating in the Albigensian crusade by manipulating the story of Peter.\n", "Another legend is given in the 14th century by the French troubadour Jehan-de-Bouteiller, who sings the memory of \"a dict Peter the Hermit deschendant a count of Clairmont by a Sieur d'Herrymont [who] married a Montagut\". Peter the Hermit's parents would, therefore, be Renauld de Hérimont and Aleidis Montaigu (Aleidis is known in Huy as the \"mother of Dom Pierre, with a home in Huy\").\n", "There is also a strong and old tradition that Peter the Hermit was the first to introduce the use of the Rosary. It follows that he began this tradition in about 1090. If this is the case and if he had also been on a previous pilgrimage to Jerusalem, it is possible that he derived this practice from similar Islamic practices.\n", "Section::::Sources.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Peter the Hermit\", \"Famous Men of the Middle Ages \"\n", "BULLET::::- Prof. J. S. C. Riley-Smith, Prof, Jonathan Phillips, Dr. Alan V. Murray, Dr. Guy Perry, Dr. Nicholas Morton, A Database of Crusaders to the Holy Land, 1099-1149 (available on-line)\n" ] }

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"Holy%20Land", "Bosporus", "Battle%20of%20Civetot", "Asia%20Minor", "Jerusalem", "Battle%20of%20Civetot", "Palestine%20%28region%29", "siege%20of%20Antioch", "Guibert%20of%20Nogent", "Kerbogha", "alms", "siege%20of%20Arqa", "Siege%20of%20Jerusalem%20%281099%29", "Battle%20of%20Ascalon", "Latakia", "Albert%20of%20Aix", "Roger%20of%20Wendover", "Matthew%20Paris", "Gesta%20Francorum", "Albert%20of%20Aix", "Jesus", "Church%20of%20the%20Holy%20Sepulchre", "William%20of%20Tyre", "Heinrich%20von%20Sybel", "Godfrey%20of%20Bouillon", "Lorraine%20%28province%29", "Albert%20of%20Aix", "prior", "church%20of%20the%20Holy%20Sepulchre", "Flanders", "monastery", "France", "Flanders", "Huy", "Huy%23history", "Soli%C3%A8res%20Abbey", "Abbey%20Neufmoustier%20Huy", "Jacques%20de%20Vitry", "Diocese%20of%20Li%C3%A8ge", "Albigensian%20crusade", "14th%20century", "troubadour", "Rosary", "Jerusalem" ], "wikipedia_title": [ "Amiens", "First Crusade", "French language", "English language", "French language", "Surname", "Picardy", "Netherlands", "Surname", "Anna Komnene", "Pilgrimage", "Jerusalem", "Seljuq dynasty", "Pope Urban II", "Council of Clermont", "Huy", "Jonathan Riley-Smith", "People's Crusade", "Middle Ages", "Mendicant", "Catholic Church", "Pilgrim", "Rhineland massacres", "People's Crusade", "Church of the Holy Sepulchre", "Cologne", "Constantinople", "List of Byzantine emperors", "Alexios I Komnenos", "Nicholas III of Constantinople", "Catholic Church", "Balkans", "Walter Sans Avoir", "Holy Land", "Bosporus", "Battle of Civetot", "Anatolia", "Jerusalem", "Battle of Civetot", "Palestine (region)", "Siege of Antioch", "Guibert of Nogent", "Kerbogha", "Alms", "March from Antioch to Jerusalem during the First Crusade", "Siege of Jerusalem (1099)", "Battle of Ascalon", "Latakia", "Albert of Aix", "Roger of Wendover", "Matthew Paris", "Gesta Francorum", "Albert of Aix", "Jesus", "Church of the Holy Sepulchre", "William of Tyre", "Heinrich von Sybel", "Godfrey of Bouillon", "Duchy of 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{ "description": "French Christian and Crusader", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q311845", "wikidata_label": "Peter the Hermit", "wikipedia_title": "Peter the Hermit", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Blue Meanies (Illinois band)\n", "Blue Meanies were an American ska-core band founded in Carbondale, Illinois, at Southern Illinois University, in 1989. They debuted in 1991 with the release of their first single, \"Grandma Shampoo\" c/w \"Dickory Dock\". This single would be the start of a lengthy discography and revolving lineup including Jay Vance, a great bass player. Although their personnel was continually changing, The Meanies' sound would remain consistent as they released the albums \"Peace Love Groove\" (1991), \"Pave The World\" (1992), \"Kiss Your Ass Goodbye\" (1995), \"Full Throttle\" (1997), and the live \"Sonic Documentation Of Exhibition And Banter\" (1998).\n", "By the time they signed with MCA Records, the lineup of John Paul Camp (III) (saxophone/ vocals), Sean Dolan (guitar), Jimmy Flame (trumpet/ vocals), Chaz Linde (keyboard/ vocal), Dave Lund (bass/ vocals), Billy Spunke (vocals/ megaphone), and Bob Trondson (drums) stuck together as a total of 22 musicians passed through the band since their formation. Their sixth full-length album, \"The Post Wave\", was released in late 2000. This album is musically the most different from the other five albums. This change in sound along with the title of the album probably resulted from the crash of the third wave ska scene within the US. In late 2001 the band took the rights to \"The Post Wave\" back from MCA records and reissued it on Thick Records in August 2001. Soon afterwards the band ceased touring, though they never issued an official break up statement.\n", "Section::::Post-breakup.\n", "In the summer of 2004 it was confirmed that the Meanies would temporarily revive the old tradition of the Winter Nationals. For years the Blue Meanies would have a show on December 23 in their hometown of Chicago. On December 22, 2004 the band played its first show in three years at Double Door with The Tossers and Cougars supporting. The next day the band played an all ages show at The Metro with Mu330, The Methadones, and New Black supporting. The Metro show was filmed with multiple cameras but no plans for a release of the footage have been announced. Future plans for the band remain vague as well.\n", "On August 16, 2006 it was announced that the Blue Meanies would reunite for Riot Fest 2006, an annual punk rock festival held in Chicago. Other high-profile reunions for the fest include Naked Raygun and The Bollweevils.\n", "Since April 24, 2006, the band (primarily Sean Dolan) has kept somewhat in contact with their fanbase with their MySpace profile. On it, they have provided previously unreleased tracks (any songs pulled from the site can be obtained via email), largely from the recording sessions of \"The Post Wave.\"\n", "On May 13, 2014, the organizers of Riot Fest and Blue Meanies revealed that the band will reunite and perform at the Chicago version of the 2014 festival.\n", "Section::::Discography.\n", "Albums\n", "BULLET::::- \"Peace Love Groove\" (1991) (live)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Pave The World EP\" (1992)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Kiss Your Ass Goodbye\" (Fuse Records, 1995—re-released by Asian Man Records, 1999)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Full Throttle\" (THICK Records, 1997—special edition re-released THICK, 2005)\n", "BULLET::::- \"PIGS EP\" (THICK Records, 1999)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Sonic Documentation Of Exhibition And Banter LIVE!\" (Asian Man Records, 1999) (live)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Post Wave\" (MCA, 2000—re-released by THICK Records, 2001)\n", "Vinyl\n", "BULLET::::- \"Grandma Shampoo b/w Dickory Dock 7\"\" (1992)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Urine Trouble 7\"\" (1994)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Pave The World/F.O.R.D. 10\" Picture Disc\" (1996)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Blue Meanies/MU330 Split 7\"\" (1998)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Blue Meanies/Alkaline Trio\" split 7\" picture disc (1999)\n", "Compilations\n", "BULLET::::- \"\" (Glue Factory, 1997)\n", "BULLET::::- \"\" (THICK Records, 2000 re-released 2007)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Skanarchy\" (Elevator Music, 2000)\n", "BULLET::::- \"\" (Asian Man Records, 2001)\n", "BULLET::::- \"\" (THICK Records, 2003)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Love and Rebellion\" (THICK Records, 2007)\n", "Other\n", "BULLET::::- \"Nude Ain't Crude\" cassette (1991)\n", "Section::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- Blue Meanies Official Facebook Page\n", "BULLET::::- Blue Meanies letter to MCA Records\n", "BULLET::::- Punknews.org review of the 2004 Winter Nationals show at The Metro\n", "BULLET::::- Riot Fest official website\n", "BULLET::::- Music downloads and partial discography\n", "BULLET::::- Tour Interview 1995\n" ] }

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{ "description": "", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q4929419", "wikidata_label": "Blue Meanies", "wikipedia_title": "Blue Meanies (Illinois band)", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Armillaria\n", "Armillaria, is a genus of parasitic fungi that includes the \"A. mellea\" species known as honey fungi that live on trees and woody shrubs. It includes about 10 species formerly categorized summarily as \"A. mellea\". \"Armillarias\" are long-lived and form some of the largest living organisms in the world. The largest known organism (of the species \"Armillaria solidipes\") covers more than in Oregon's Malheur National Forest and is more than 2,400 years old. Some species of \"Armillaria\" display bioluminescence, resulting in foxfire.\n", "\"Armillaria\" can be a destructive forest pathogen. It causes \"white rot\" root disease (see Plant Pathology section) of forests, which distinguishes it from \"Tricholoma\", a mycorrhizal (non-parasitic) genus. Because \"Armillaria\" is a facultative saprophyte, it also feeds on dead plant material, allowing it to kill its host, unlike parasites that must moderate their growth to avoid host death. \n", "In the Canadian Prairies (particularly Manitoba), \"Armillaria\" is referred to often as \"openky\" (), meaning “near the stump” in Ukrainian.\n", "Section::::Description.\n", "The basidiocarp (reproductive structure) of the fungus is a mushroom that grows on wood, typically in small dense clumps or tufts. Their caps (mushroom tops) are typically yellow-brown, somewhat sticky to touch when moist, and, depending on age, may range in shape from conical to convex to depressed in the center. The stipe (stalk) may or may not have a ring. All \"Armillaria\" species have a white spore print and none have a volva (cup at base) (compare \"Amanita\").\n", "Similar species include \"Pholiota\" spp. which also grow in cespitose (mat-like) clusters on wood and fruit in the fall. \"Pholiota\" spp. are separated from Armillaria by its yellowish to greenish-yellow tone and a dark brown to grey-brown spore print. Mushroom hunters need to be wary of \"Galerina \" spp. which can grow side-by-side with \"Armillaria\" spp. on wood. \"Galerina\" have a dark brown spore print and are deadly poisonous (alpha-amanitin) – see: mushroom poisoning.\n", "Section::::Plant pathology.\n", "Honey fungus is a \"white rot\" fungus, which is a pathogenic organism that affects trees, shrubs, woody climbers and, rarely, woody herbaceous perennial plants. Honey fungus can grow on living, decaying, and dead plant material.\n", "Honey fungus spreads from living trees, dead and live roots and stumps by means of reddish-brown to black rhizomorphs (root-like structures) at the rate of approximately 1 m a year, but infection by root contact is possible. Infection by spores is rare. Rhizomorphs grow close to the soil surface (in the top 20 cm) and invade new roots, or the root collar (where the roots meet the stem) of plants. An infected tree will die once the fungus has girdled it, or when significant root damage has occurred. This can happen rapidly, or may take several years. Infected plants will deteriorate, although may exhibit prolific flower or fruit production shortly before death.\n", "Initial symptoms of honey fungus infection include dieback or shortage of leaves in spring. Rhizomorphs appear under the bark and around the tree, and mushrooms grow in clusters from the infected plant in autumn and die back after the first frost. However these symptoms and signs do not necessarily mean that the pathogenic strains of honey fungus are the cause, so other identification methods are advised before diagnosis. Thin sheets of cream colored mycelium, beneath the bark at the base of the trunk or stem indicated that honey fungus is likely the pathogen. It will give off a strong mushroom scent and the mushrooms sometimes extend upward. On conifers honey fungus often exudes a gum or resin from cracks in the bark.\n", "The linkage of morphological, genetic, and molecular characters of \"Armillaria\" over the past few decades has led to the recognition of intersterile groups designated as “biological species”. Data from such studies, especially those using molecular diagnostic tools, have removed much uncertainty for mycologists and forest pathologists. New questions remain unanswered regarding the phylogeny of North American \"Armillaria\" species and their relationships to their European counterparts, particularly within the “\"Armillaria mellea\" complex”. Some data suggest that North American and European \"A. gallica\" isolates are not monophyletic. Although North American and European isolates of \"A. gallica\" may be interfertile, some North American isolates of \"A. gallica\" are more closely related to the North American taxon \"A. calvescens\" than to European isolates of \"A. gallica\". The increase in genetic divergence has not necessarily barred inter-sterility between isolated populations of \"A. gallica\". Although the relationships among some groups in the genus seem clearer, the investigation of geographically diverse isolates has revealed that the relationship between some North American species is still unclear (Hughes et al. 2003).\n", "Intersterile species of \"Armillaria\" occurring in North America (North American Biological Species = NABS) were listed by Mallett (1992):\n", "BULLET::::- I \"Armillaria ostoyae\" (Romagn.) Herink\n", "BULLET::::- II \"Armillaria gemina\" Bérubé & Dessureault\n", "BULLET::::- III \"Armillaria calvescens\" Bérubé & Dessureault\n", "BULLET::::- V \"Armillaria sinapina\" Bérubé & Dessureault\n", "BULLET::::- VI \"Armillaria mellea\" (Vahl.:Fries) Kummer\n", "BULLET::::- VII \"Armillaria gallica\" (Marxmüller & Romagn.)\n", "BULLET::::- IX \"Armillaria nabsnona\" T.J. Volk & Burds.,(1996)\n", "BULLET::::- X \"Armillaria altimontana\" Brazee, B. Ortiz, Banik & D.L. Lindner (2012)\n", "and XI taxonomically undescribed\n", "NABS I, V, VII, IX, X, and XI have been found in British Columbia; I, III, V have been found in the Prairie Provinces, with I and V occurring in both the boreal and subalpine regions; I, III, V, and VII have been found in Ontario; and I, II, III, V, and VI have been found in Quebec. \"Armillaria ostoyae\" is the species most commonly found in all Canadian provinces surveyed (Mallett 1990). \"Armillaria\" root rot occurs in the Northwest Territories, and was identified on white spruce at Pine Point on Great Slave Lake prior to NABS findings.\n", "Section::::Edibility.\n", "Honey Fungus are regarded in Ukraine, Russia, Poland, Germany and other European countries as one of the best wild mushrooms. They are commonly ranked above morels and chanterelles and only the cep / porcini is more highly prized. However, honey fungus must be thoroughly cooked as they are mildly poisonous raw. One of the four UK species can cause sickness when ingested with alcohol. For those unfamiliar with the species, it is advisable not to drink alcohol for 12 hours before and \"24\" hours after eating this mushroom to avoid any possible nausea and vomiting. However, if these rules are followed this variety of mushroom is a delicacy with a distinctive mushroomy and nutty flavor. Reference texts for identification are \"Collins Complete British Mushrooms and Toadstools\" for the variety of field pictures in it, and Roger Philips' \"Mushrooms\" for the quality of his out of field pictures and descriptions.\n", "Norway used to consider Honey Fungus edible, but because the health department is moving away from parboiling, they are now considered poisonous.\n", "Section::::Hosts.\n", "Potential hosts include conifers and various monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous trees, shrubs, and herbaceous species, ranging from asparagus and strawberry to large forest trees (Patton and Vasquez Bravo 1967). \"Armillaria\" root rot enters hosts through the roots. In Alberta, 75% of trap logs (Mallett and Hiratsuka 1985) inserted into the soil between planted spruce became infected with the distinctive white mycelium of \"Armillaria\" within one year. Of the infestations, 12% were \"A. ostoyae\", and 88% were \"A. sinapina\" (Blenis et al. 1995). Reviews of the biology, diversity, pathology, and control of \"Armillaria\" in Fox (2000) are useful.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Bioluminescence\n", "BULLET::::- Foxfire\n", "BULLET::::- List of \"Armillaria\" species\n" ] }

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{ "description": "genus of fungi", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q952036", "wikidata_label": "Armillaria", "wikipedia_title": "Armillaria", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "List of cities in Sierra Leone\n", "This is a list of cities and towns in Sierre Leone\".\n", "Section::::Largest cities.\n", "The following table is the list of cities in Sierra Leone by population.\n", "Other notable cities\n", "BULLET::::- Wangechi\n", "BULLET::::- Kalewa\n", "BULLET::::- Magburaka\n", "BULLET::::- Kabala\n", "BULLET::::- Moyamba\n", "BULLET::::- Kailahun\n", "BULLET::::- Bonthe\n", "BULLET::::- Kambia\n", "Towns and villages\n", "BULLET::::- Alikalia\n", "BULLET::::- Binkolo\n", "BULLET::::- Daru\n", "BULLET::::- Falaba\n", "BULLET::::- Gbinti\n", "BULLET::::- Kamakwie\n", "BULLET::::- Kaima\n", "BULLET::::- Koindu\n", "BULLET::::- Lungi\n", "BULLET::::- Lunsar\n", "BULLET::::- Madina\n", "BULLET::::- Mange\n", "BULLET::::- Mano\n", "BULLET::::- Matru\n", "BULLET::::- Momaligi\n", "BULLET::::- Njala\n", "BULLET::::- Pepel\n", "BULLET::::- Pendembu\n", "BULLET::::- Shenge\n", "BULLET::::- Sulima\n", "BULLET::::- Sumbaria\n", "BULLET::::- Taiama\n", "BULLET::::- Tongo\n", "BULLET::::- Tumbu\n", "BULLET::::- Worodu\n", "BULLET::::- Yana\n", "BULLET::::- Yele\n", "BULLET::::- Yengema\n", "BULLET::::- Yonibana\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Map\n" ] }

{ "paragraph_id": [ 1, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 27, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 36, 39, 41, 42 ], "start": [ 38, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12 ], "end": [ 50, 20, 18, 21, 18, 19, 20, 18, 18, 20, 19, 16, 18, 18, 20, 17, 18, 17, 18, 16, 17, 17, 17, 20, 18, 18, 17, 16, 19, 20 ], "text": [ "Sierre Leone", "Wangechi", "Kalewa", "Magburaka", "Kabala", "Moyamba", "Kailahun", "Bonthe", "Kambia", "Alikalia", "Binkolo", "Daru", "Falaba", "Gbinti", "Kamakwie", "Kaima", "Koindu", "Lungi", "Lunsar", "Mano", "Matru", "Njala", "Pepel", "Pendembu", "Shenge", "Sulima", "Tongo", "Yana", "Yengema", "Yonibana" ], "href": [ "Sierre%20Leone", "Wangechi", "Kalewa", "Magburaka", "Kabala%2C%20Sierra%20Leone", "Moyamba", "Kailahun", "Bonthe", "Kambia%20%28Sierra%20Leone%29", "Alikalia", "Binkolo", "Daru%2C%20Sierra%20Leone", "Falaba", "Gbinti", "Kamakwie", "Kaima", "Koindu", "Lungi%2C%20Sierra%20Leone", "Lunsar", "Mano%2C%20Sierra%20Leone", "Matru", "Njala%2C%20Sierra%20Leone", "Pepel", "Pendembu", "Shenge", "Sulima%2C%20Sierra%20Leone", "Tongo%2C%20Sierra%20Leone", "Yana%2C%20Sierra%20Leone", "Yengema", "Yonibana" ], "wikipedia_title": [ "Sierra Leone", "Wangechi", "Kalewa", "Magburaka", "Kabala, Sierra Leone", "Moyamba", "Kailahun", "Bonthe", "Kambia, Sierra Leone", "Alikalia", "Binkolo", "Daru, Sierra Leone", "Falaba", "Gbinti", "Kamakwie", "Kaima", "Koindu", "Lungi, Sierra Leone", "Lunsar", "Mano, Sierra Leone", "Mitu, Iran", "Njala, Moyamba", "Pepel", "Pendembu, Sierra Leone", "Shenge", "Sulima, Sierra Leone", "Tongo, Sierra Leone", "Yana, Sierra Leone", "Yengema", "Yonibana" ], "wikipedia_id": [ "27308", "47904298", "5841004", "4590698", "1561515", "14620285", "2486733", "4590673", "7290696", "21242403", "13979195", "14864094", "2811433", "14170306", "14789722", "14659461", "18099389", "9141212", "9241412", "35893851", "41327845", "7521918", "1507997", "9176784", "24414947", "1561512", "11308565", "26623405", "2384269", "18356143" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Anna Komnene\n", "Anna Komnene (, \"Ánna Komnēnḗ\"; 1 December 1083 – 1153), commonly latinized as Anna Comnena, was a Byzantine princess, scholar, physician, hospital administrator, and historian. She was the daughter of the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos and his wife Irene Doukaina. She is best known for her attempt to usurp her brother, John II Komnenos, and for her work \"The Alexiad\", an account of her father's reign.\n", "At birth, Anna was betrothed to Constantine Doukas, and she grew up in his mother's household. She was well-educated in \"Greek literature and history, philosophy, theology, mathematics, and medicine.\" Anna and Constantine were next in the line to throne until Anna's younger brother, John II Komnenos, became the heir in 1092. Constantine died around 1094, and Anna married Nikephoros Bryennios in 1097. The two had several children before Nikephoros' death around 1136.\n", "Following her father’s death in 1118, Anna and her mother attempted to usurp John II Komnenos. Her husband refused to cooperate with them, and the usurpation failed. As a result, John exiled Anna to the Kecharitomene monastery, where she spent the rest of her life.\n", "In confinement there, she wrote the \"Alexiad\".\n", "She died sometime in the 1150s; the exact date is unknown.\n", "Section::::Family and early life.\n", "Anna was born on 1 December 1083 to Alexios I Komnenos and Irene Doukaina. Her father, Alexios I Komnenos, became emperor in 1081, after usurping the previous Byzantine Emperor, Nikephoros Botaneiates. Her mother, Irene Doukaina, was part of the imperial Doukai family. In the \"Alexiad\", Anna emphasizes her affection for her parents in stating her relationship to Alexios and Irene. She was the eldest of seven children; her younger siblings were (in order) Maria, John II, Andronikos, Isaac, Eudokia, and Theodora.\n", "Anna was born in the Porphyra Chamber of the imperial palace in Constantinople, making her a \"porphyrogenita,\" which underscored her imperial status. She noted this status in the \"Alexiad,\" stating that that she was \"born and bred in the purple.\" \n", "According to Anna's description in the Alexiad, her mother asked Anna to wait to be born until her father returned from war. Obediently, Anna waited until her father came home.\n", "At birth, Anna was betrothed to Constantine Doukas, the son of Emperor Michael VII and Maria of Alania. The two were the heirs to the empire until sometime between c.1088 and 1092, after the birth of Anna's brother, John II Komnenos. Various scholars point out that the betrothal was probably a political match intended to establish the legitimacy of Anna's father, who had usurped the previous emperor.\n", "Starting around 1090, Constantine's mother – Maria of Alania – raised Anna in her home. It was common in Byzantium for mothers-in-law to raise daughters-in-law. In 1094, Maria of Alania was implicated in an attempt to overthrow Alexios I Komnenos. Some scholars argue that Anna's betrothal to Constantine Doukas may not have ended there, as he was not implicated in the plot against Alexios, but it certainly ended when he died around 1094.\n", "Some scholars have also now started to look at Anna's relationships to Maria of Alania; Anna Dalassene, Anna's paternal grandmother; and Irene Doukaina as sources of inspiration and admiration for Anna. For example, Thalia Gouma-Peterson argues that Irene Doukaina's \"maternal ability to deal with the speculative and the intellectual enables the daughter to become the highly accomplished scholar she proudly claims to be in the opening pages of the \"Alexiad\".\"\n", "Section::::Education.\n", "Anna wrote at the beginning of the \"Alexiad\" about her education, highlighting her experience with literature, Greek language, rhetoric, and sciences. Tutors trained her in subjects that included astronomy, medicine, history, military affairs, geography, and mathematics. Anna was noted for her education by the medieval scholar, Niketas Choniates, who wrote that Anna \"was ardently devoted to philosophy, the queen of all sciences, and was educated in every field.\" Anna’s conception of her education is shown in her testament, which credited her parents for allowing her to obtain an education. This testament is in contrast to a funeral oration about Anna given by her contemporary, Georgios Tornikes. In his oration he said that she had to read ancient poetry, such as the \"Odyssey\", in secret because her parents disapproved of its dealing with polytheism and other \"dangerous exploits,\" which were considered \"dangerous\" for men and \"excessively insidious\" for women. Tornikes went on to say that Anna \"braced the weakness of her soul\" and studied the poetry \"taking care not to be detected by her parents.\" \n", "Anna proved to be capable not only on an intellectual level but also in practical matters. Her father placed her in charge of a large hospital and orphanage that he built for her to administer in Constantinople. The hospital was said to hold beds for 10,000 patients and orphans. Anna taught medicine at the hospital, as well as at other hospitals and orphanages. She was considered an expert on gout. Anna treated her father during his final illness.\n", "Section::::Marriage.\n", "In roughly 1097, Anna's parents married her to \"Caesar\" Nikephoros Bryennios. Nikephoros Bryennios a member of the Bryennios family that had held the throne before the accession of Anna's father, Alexios I. Nikephoros was a soldier and a historian.\n", "Most scholars agree that the marriage was a political one – it created legitimacy for Anna's paternal family through Bryennois' connections to past emperor's family. The two were an intellectual couple, and Nikephoros Bryennios tolerated and possibly encouraged Anna's scholarly interests by allowing her to participate in various scholarly circles. The couple had six known children: Eirene, Maria, Alexios, John, Andronikos, and Constantine. Only Eirene, John, and Alexios survived to adulthood.\n", "Section::::Claim to the throne.\n", "In 1087, Anna’s brother, John, was born. Several years after his birth, in 1092, John was designated emperor. According to Niketas Choniates, Emperor Alexios \"favored\" John and declared him emperor while the Empress Irene \"threw her full influence on [Anna's] side\" and \"continually attempted\" to persuade the emperor to designate Nikephoros Bryennios, Anna’s husband, in John's place. Around 1112, Alexios fell sick with rheumatism and could not move. He therefore turned the civil government over to his wife, Irene; she in turn directed the administration to Bryennios. Choniates states that, as Emperor Alexios lay dying in his imperial bedchamber, John arrived and \"secretly\" took the emperor’s ring from his father during an embrace \"as though in mourning.\" Anna also worked in her husband's favor during her father's illness. In 1118, Alexios I Komnenos died. A cleric acclaimed John emperor in Hagia Sophia.\n", "According to Smythe, Anna \"felt cheated\" because she \"should have inherited.\" Indeed, according to Anna Komnene in the \"Alexiad\", at her birth she was presented with \"a crown and imperial diadem.\" Anna’s \"main aim\" in the depiction of events in the Alexiad, according to Stankovich, was to \"stress her own right\" to the throne and \"precedence over her brother, John.\"\n", "In view of this belief, Jarratt et al. record that Anna was \"almost certainly\" involved in the murder plot against John at Alexios’s funeral. Indeed, Anna, according to Hill, attempted to create military forces to depose John. According to Choniates, Anna was \"stimulated by ambition and revenge\" to scheme for the murder of her brother. Smythe states the plots \"came to nothing.\" Jarratt et al., record that, a short time afterward, Anna and Bryennios \"organized another conspiracy.\" However, according to Hill, Bryennios refused to overthrow John, making Anna unable to continue with her plans. With this refusal, Anna, according to Choniates, exclaimed \"that nature had mistaken their sexes, for he ought to have been the woman.\" According to Jarratt et al., Anna shows \"a repetition of sexualized anger.\" Indeed, Smythe asserts that Anna’s goals were \"thwarted by the men in her life.\" Irene, however, according to Hill, had declined to participate in plans to revolt against an \"established\" emperor. Hill, however, points out that Choniates, whom the above sources draw upon, wrote after 1204, and accordingly was \"rather far removed\" from \"actual\" events and that his \"agenda\" was to \"look for the causes\" of the toppling of Constantinople in 1204.\n", "In contrast, Leonora Neville argues that Anna probably not involved in the attempted usurpation. Anna plays a minor role in most of the available medieval sources – only Choniates portrays her as a rebel. Choniates' history is from around 1204, almost a hundred years after Alexios I's death. Instead, most of the sources question whether John II Komnenos' behavior at his father's deathbed was appropriate. \n", "The plots were discovered and Anna forfeited her estates. After her husband's death, she entered the convent of Kecharitomene, which had been founded by her mother. She remained there until her death.\n", "Section::::Historian and intellectual.\n", "In the seclusion of the monastery, Anna dedicated her time to studying philosophy and history. She held esteemed intellectual gatherings, including those dedicated to Aristotelian studies. Anna's intellectual genius and breadth of knowledge is evident in her few works. Among other things, she was conversant with philosophy, literature, grammar, theology, astronomy, and medicine. It can be assumed because of minor errors that she may have quoted Homer and the Bible from memory when writing her most celebrated work, the \"Alexiad\". Her contemporaries, like the metropolitan Bishop of Ephesus, Georgios Tornikes, regarded Anna as a person who had reached \"the highest summit of wisdom, both secular and divine.\"\n", "Section::::Historian and intellectual.:The \"Alexiad\".\n", "Anna wrote the \"Alexiad\" in the mid-1140s or 1150s. Anna cited her husband's unfinished work as the reason why she began the \"Alexiad\". Before his death in 1137, her husband, Nikephoros Bryennios the Younger, was working on a history, which was supposed to record the events before and during the reign of Alexios I. His death left the history unfinished after recording the events of the reign of Emperor Nikephoros Botaneiates. Ruth Macrides argues that while Bryennios' writing may have been a source of inspiration for the \"Alexiad\", it is incorrect to suggest that the \"Alexiad\" was Bryennios' work edited by Anna (as Howard-Johnston has argued on tenuous grounds). \n", "In what is considered to be a sort-of statement on how she gathered her sources for the \"Alexiad\", Anna wrote, “My material ... has been gathered from insignificant writings, absolutely devoid of literary pretensions, and from old soldiers who were serving in the army at the time that my father seized the Roman sceptre ... I based the truth of my history on them by examining their narratives and comparing them with what I had written, and what they told me with what I had often heard, from my father in particular and from my uncles … From all these materials the whole fabric of my history – my true history – has been woven.” Beyond just eyewitness accounts from veterans or her male family members, scholars have also noted that Anna used the imperial archives, which allowed her access to official documents. \n", "In the \"Alexiad\", Anna provided insight on political relations and wars between Alexios I and the West. She vividly described weaponry, tactics, and battles. It has been noted that she was writing about events that occurred when she was a child, so these are not eye-witness accounts. Her neutrality is compromised by the fact that she was writing to praise her father and denigrate his successors. Despite her unabashed partiality, her account of the First Crusade is of great value to history because it is the only Byzantine eyewitness account available. She had the opportunity to gather information from key figures in the Byzantine elite; her husband, Nikephorus Bryennios, had fought in the clash with crusade leader Godfrey of Bouillon outside Constantinople on Maundy Thursday 1097; and her uncle, George Palaeologus, was present at Pelekanon in June 1097 when Alexios I discussed future strategy with the crusaders. Thus, the \"Alexiad\" allows the events of the First Crusade to be seen from the Byzantine elite's perspective. It conveys the alarm felt at the scale of the western European forces proceeding through the Empire, and the dangers they might have posed to the safety of Constantinople. Anna also identified for the first time, the Vlachs from Balkans with Dacians, in Alexiad (Chapter XIV), describing their places around Haemus mountains: \"...on either side of its slopes dwell many very wealthy tribes, the Dacians and the Thracians on the northern side, and on the southern, more Thracians and the Macedonians\". Special suspicion was reserved for crusading leader Bohemond of Taranto, a southern Italian Norman who, under the leadership of his father Robert Guiscard, had invaded Byzantine territory in the Balkans in 1081.\n", "The \"Alexiad\" was written in Attic Greek, and the literary style is fashioned after Thucydides, Polybius, and Xenophon. Consequently, it exhibits a struggle for an Atticism characteristic of the period, whereby the resulting language is highly artificial. Peter Frankopan argues that the lapses in some of the chronology of events can in part be attributed to errors in, or lack of, source material for those events. Anna herself also addressed these lapses, explaining them as a result of memory loss and old age. But regardless of errors in chronology, her history meets the standards of her time.\n", "Moreover, the \"Alexiad\" sheds light on Anna’s emotional turmoil, including her grief over the deaths of her father, mother, and husband, among other things. At the end of the \"Alexiad\", Anna wrote \"But living I died a thousand deaths … Yet I am more grief-stricken than [Niobe]: after my misfortunes, great and terrible as they are, I am still alive – to experience yet more … Let this be the end of my history, then, lest as I write of these sad events I become even more resentful.\"\n", "Section::::Depictions in fiction and other media.\n", "BULLET::::- Anna Komnene plays a secondary role in Sir Walter Scott’s 1832 novel \"Count Robert of Paris\".\n", "BULLET::::- Fictional accounts of her life are given in the 1928 novel \"Anna Comnena\" by Naomi Mitchison, and the 1999 novel for young people \"Anna of Byzantium\" by Tracy Barrett.\n", "BULLET::::- She appears prominently in the first volume of the trilogy \"The Crusaders\" by the Polish novelist Zofia Kossak-Szczucka, written in 1935.\n", "BULLET::::- A novel written in 2008 by the Albanian writer Ben Blushi called \"Living on an Island\" also mentions her.\n", "BULLET::::- The novel \"Аз, Анна Комнина\" (\"Az, Anna Komnina\", in English: \"I, Anna Comnena\") was written by Vera Mutafchieva, a Bulgarian writer and historian.\n", "BULLET::::- She is also a minor character in Nan Hawthorne's novel of the Crusade of 1101, \"Beloved Pilgrim\" (2011).\n", "BULLET::::- Anna appears in \"\" video game campaigns as a Byzantine princess diplomat, under the name Anna Comnenus.\n", "BULLET::::- In Julia Kristeva's 2006 murder mystery \"Murder in Byzantium\", Anna Komnene is the focus of the villain's scholarly and amorous fantasy of the past. The novel includes considerable detail on Anna Komnene's life, work, and historical context.\n", "BULLET::::- In Harry Turtledove's Videssos cycle of novels the character Alypia Gavra is a fictionalized version of Anna Komnene.\n", "BULLET::::- In the board game Nations, Anna Komnene is an adviser in the Medieval Age.\n", "Section::::References.\n", "Section::::References.:Primary sources.\n", "BULLET::::- Niketas Choniates, \"O City of Byzantium: Annals of Niketas Choniates\" (Michigan: Wayne State University Press, 1984)\n", "BULLET::::- Anna Comnena (2001). Dawes, Elizabeth A., ed. \"The Alexiad.\" \"The Internet Medieval Sourcebook\". Fordham University. Retrieved April 22, 2018.\n", "BULLET::::- Anna Komnene, \"The Alexiad\", translated by E.R.A. Sewter, ed. Peter Frankopan, (New York: Penguin, 2009)\n", "BULLET::::- Georgios Tornikes, 'An unpublished funeral oration on Anna Comnena', English translation by Robert Browning, in \"Aristotle Transformed: The Ancient Commentators and Their Influence\", ed. R. Sorabji (New York: Cornell University Press, 1990)\n", "Section::::References.:Secondary sources.\n", "BULLET::::- Carolyn R. Connor, \"Women of Byzantium\" (Connecticut: Yale University Press, 2004)\n", "BULLET::::- Dalven, Rae (1972). \"Anna Comnena\". New York: Twayne Publishers, Inc.\n", "BULLET::::- Frankopan, Peter (2002). \"Perception and Projection of Prejudice: Anna Comnena, the \"Alexiad\", and the First Crusade.\" Chapter 5 in Edgington, Susan B.; Lambert, Sarah. \"Gendering the Crusades\". New York: Columbia University Press.\n", "BULLET::::- Gouma-Peterson, Thalia. \"Gender and Power: Passages to the Maternal in Anna Komnene's \"Alexiad\".\" In Gouma-Peterson, Thalia. \"Anna Komnene and Her Times\". New York: Garland Publishing Inc. pp. 107–125.\n", "BULLET::::- Hanawalt, Emily Albu (1982). \"Anna Komnene\". In Strayer, Joseph R. ed. \"The Dictionary of the Middle Ages.\" 1. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 303–304.\n", "BULLET::::- Hill, Barbara (2000). \"Actions Speak Louder Than Words: Anna Komnene's Attempted Usurpation\". In Gouma-Peterson, Thaila. \"Anna Komnene and Her Times.\" New York: Garland Publishing Inc. pp. 45–62.\n", "BULLET::::- Jongh, Suzanne Wittek-De (1953). \"Le César Nicéphore Byennois, l'historien, et sese ascendants\". \"Byzantion.\" 23: 463–468., cited in Dion C. Smythe (2006), Garland, Lynda ed. \"Middle Byzantine Family Values and Anna Komnene's Alexiad\". \"Byzantine Women: Varieties of Experience\" \"800–1200.\" Burlington: Ashgate Publishing Limited.\n", "BULLET::::- Lynda Garland & Stephen Rapp, \"Maria ‘of Alania’: Woman & Empress Between Two Worlds,\" \"Byzantine Women: Varieties of Experience\", ed. Lynda Garland, (New Hampshire: Ashgate, 2006).\n", "BULLET::::- Angeliki Laiou, \"Introduction: Why Anna Komnene?\" \"Anna Komnene and Her Times\", ed. Thalia Gouma-Peterson, (New York: Garland, 2000). .\n", "BULLET::::- Larmour, David (2004). Margolis, Nadia; Wilson, Katherina M., eds. \"Comnene, Anna\". \"Women in the Middle Ages: an encyclopedia.\" 1. Westport: Greenwood Press. p. 203–205. .\n", "BULLET::::- Macrides, Ruth (2000). \"The Pen and the Sword: Who Wrote the \"Alexiad\"?.\" In Gouma-Peterson, Thaila. \"Anna Komnene and Her Times.\" New York: Garland Publishing Inc. pp. 63–82.\n", "BULLET::::- Neville, Leonora (2016). \"Anna Komnene: the life and work of a medieval historian\". New York: Oxford University Press. .\n", "BULLET::::- Reinsch, Diether R. (2000). \"Women’s Literature in Byzantium? – The Case of Anna Komnene.\" Translated from German by Thomas Dunlap. In \"Anna Komnene and Her Times\", ed. Thalia Gouma-Peterson. New York: Garland Publishing Inc.\n", "BULLET::::- Dion C. Smythe, \"Middle Byzantine Family Values and Anna Komnene’s Alexiad,\" \"Byzantine Women: Varieties of Experience 800–1200\", ed. Lynda Garland, (New Hampshire: Ashgate, 2006). .\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- Georgina Buckler, \"Anna Comnena: A Study\", Oxford University Press, 1929.\n", "BULLET::::- Anna Comnena, \"The Alexiad\", translated by Elizabeth A. Dawes in 1928\n", "BULLET::::- Anna Comnena, \"The Alexiad of Anna Comnena\", edited and translated by E.R.A. Sewter. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1969. (This print version uses more idiomatic English, has more extensive notes, and mistakes).\n", "BULLET::::- John France, \"Anna Comnena, the Alexiad and the First Crusade\", \"Reading Medieval Studies\" v. 9 (1983)\n", "BULLET::::- Ed. Kurtz, 'Unedierte Texte aus der Zeit des Kaisers Johannes Komnenos, in \"Byzantinische Zeitschrift\" 16 (1907): 69–119 (Greek text of Anna Comnene’s testament)\n", "BULLET::::- Thalia Gouma-Peterson (ed.), \"Anna Komnene and her Times\", New York: Garland, 2000. .\n", "BULLET::::- Jonathan Harris, \"Byzantium and the Crusades\", Bloomsbury, 2nd ed., 2014.\n", "BULLET::::- Barbara Hill, \"Actions speak louder than words: Anna Komnene’s attempted usurpation,\" in Anna Komnene and her times (2000): 46–47.\n", "BULLET::::- Levin, Carole, et al. \"Extraordinary Women of the Medieval and Renaissance World\". Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2000.\n", "BULLET::::- 5–6.\n", "BULLET::::- Ellen Quandahl and Susan C. Jarratt, \"'To recall him…will be a subject of lamentation': Anna Comnene as rhetorical historiographer\" in \"Rhetorica: A Journal of the History of Rhetoric\" (2008): 301–335.\n", "BULLET::::- Vlada Stankovíc, \"Nikephoros Bryennios, Anna Komnene and Konstantios Doukas. A Story of Different Perspectives,\" in Byzantinische Zeitschrift (2007): 174.\n", "BULLET::::- Paul Stephenson, \"Anna Comnena's Alexiad as a source for the Second Crusade?\", \"Journal of Medieval History\" v. 29 (2003)\n", "BULLET::::- Dion C. Smythe, \"Middle Byzantine Family Values and Anna Komnene’s Alexiad,\" in Byzantine Women: Varieties of Experience (2006): 125–127.\n", "BULLET::::- Dion C. Symthe, \"Outsiders by taxis perceptions of non-conformity eleventh and twelfth-century literature,\" in Byzantinische Forschungen: Internationale Zeitschrift für Byzantinistik (1997): 241.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Female Heroes \"From The Time of the Crusades: Anna Comnena\". 1999. Women in World History.\n" ] }

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{ "description": "Byzantine historian", "enwikiquote_title": "Anna Comnena", "wikidata_id": "Q179284", "wikidata_label": "Anna Komnene", "wikipedia_title": "Anna Komnene", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "ASCII\n", "ASCII ( ), abbreviated from American Standard Code for Information Interchange, is a character encoding standard for electronic communication. ASCII codes represent text in computers, telecommunications equipment, and other devices. Most modern character-encoding schemes are based on ASCII, although they support many additional characters.\n", "ASCII is the traditional name for the encoding system; the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) prefers the updated name US-ASCII, which clarifies that this system was developed in the US and based on the typographical symbols predominantly in use there.\n", "ASCII is one of the IEEE milestones.\n", "Section::::Overview.\n", "ASCII was developed from telegraph code. Its first commercial use was as a seven-bit teleprinter code promoted by Bell data services. Work on the ASCII standard began on October 6, 1960, with the first meeting of the American Standards Association's (ASA) (now the American National Standards Institute or ANSI) X3.2 subcommittee. The first edition of the standard was published in 1963, underwent a major revision during 1967, and experienced its most recent update during 1986. Compared to earlier telegraph codes, the proposed Bell code and ASCII were both ordered for more convenient sorting (i.e., alphabetization) of lists, and added features for devices other than teleprinters.\n", "Originally based on the English alphabet, ASCII encodes 128 specified characters into seven-bit integers as shown by the ASCII chart above. Ninety-five of the encoded characters are printable: these include the digits \"0\" to \"9\", lowercase letters \"a\" to \"z\", uppercase letters \"A\" to \"Z\", and punctuation symbols. In addition, the original ASCII specification included 33 non-printing control codes which originated with Teletype machines; most of these are now obsolete, although a few are still commonly used, such as the carriage return, line feed and tab codes.\n", "For example, lowercase \"i\" would be represented in the ASCII encoding by binary 1101001 = hexadecimal 69 (\"i\" is the ninth letter) = decimal 105.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) was developed under the auspices of a committee of the American Standards Association (ASA), called the X3 committee, by its X3.2 (later X3L2) subcommittee, and later by that subcommittee's X3.2.4 working group (now INCITS). The ASA became the United States of America Standards Institute (USASI) and ultimately the American National Standards Institute (ANSI).\n", "With the other special characters and control codes filled in, ASCII was published as ASA X3.4-1963, leaving 28 code positions without any assigned meaning, reserved for future standardization, and one unassigned control code. There was some debate at the time whether there should be more control characters rather than the lowercase alphabet. The indecision did not last long: during May 1963 the CCITT Working Party on the New Telegraph Alphabet proposed to assign lowercase characters to \"sticks\" 6 and 7, and International Organization for Standardization TC 97 SC 2 voted during October to incorporate the change into its draft standard. The X3.2.4 task group voted its approval for the change to ASCII at its May 1963 meeting. Locating the lowercase letters in \"sticks\" 6 and 7 caused the characters to differ in bit pattern from the upper case by a single bit, which simplified case-insensitive character matching and the construction of keyboards and printers.\n", "The X3 committee made other changes, including other new characters (the brace and vertical bar characters), renaming some control characters (SOM became start of header (SOH)) and moving or removing others (RU was removed). ASCII was subsequently updated as USAS X3.4-1967, then USAS X3.4-1968, ANSI X3.4-1977, and finally, ANSI X3.4-1986.\n", "Revisions of the ASCII standard:\n", "BULLET::::- ASA X3.4-1963\n", "BULLET::::- ASA X3.4-1965 (approved, but not published, nevertheless used by IBM 2260 & 2265 Display Stations and IBM 2848 Display Control)\n", "BULLET::::- USAS X3.4-1967\n", "BULLET::::- USAS X3.4-1968\n", "BULLET::::- ANSI X3.4-1977\n", "BULLET::::- ANSI X3.4-1986\n", "BULLET::::- ANSI X3.4-1986 (R1992)\n", "BULLET::::- ANSI X3.4-1986 (R1997)\n", "BULLET::::- ANSI INCITS 4-1986 (R2002)\n", "BULLET::::- ANSI INCITS 4-1986 (R2007)\n", "BULLET::::- ANSI INCITS 4-1986 (R2012)\n", "In the X3.15 standard, the X3 committee also addressed how ASCII should be transmitted (least significant bit first), and how it should be recorded on perforated tape. They proposed a 9-track standard for magnetic tape, and attempted to deal with some punched card formats.\n", "Section::::Design considerations.\n", "Section::::Design considerations.:Bit width.\n", "The X3.2 subcommittee designed ASCII based on the earlier teleprinter encoding systems. Like other character encodings, ASCII specifies a correspondence between digital bit patterns and character symbols (i.e. graphemes and control characters). This allows digital devices to communicate with each other and to process, store, and communicate character-oriented information such as written language. Before ASCII was developed, the encodings in use included 26 alphabetic characters, 10 numerical digits, and from 11 to 25 special graphic symbols. To include all these, and control characters compatible with the Comité Consultatif International Téléphonique et Télégraphique (CCITT) International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2 (ITA2) standard of 1924, FIELDATA (1956), and early EBCDIC (1963), more than 64 codes were required for ASCII.\n", "ITA2 were in turn based on the 5-bit telegraph code Émile Baudot invented in 1870 and patented in 1874.\n", "The committee debated the possibility of a shift function (like in ITA2), which would allow more than 64 codes to be represented by a six-bit code. In a shifted code, some character codes determine choices between options for the following character codes. It allows compact encoding, but is less reliable for data transmission, as an error in transmitting the shift code typically makes a long part of the transmission unreadable. The standards committee decided against shifting, and so ASCII required at least a seven-bit code.\n", "The committee considered an eight-bit code, since eight bits (octets) would allow two four-bit patterns to efficiently encode two digits with binary-coded decimal. However, it would require all data transmission to send eight bits when seven could suffice. The committee voted to use a seven-bit code to minimize costs associated with data transmission. Since perforated tape at the time could record eight bits in one position, it also allowed for a parity bit for error checking if desired. Eight-bit machines (with octets as the native data type) that did not use parity checking typically set the eighth bit to 0. In some printers, the high bit was used to enable Italics printing.\n", "Section::::Design considerations.:Internal organization.\n", "The code itself was patterned so that most control codes were together and all graphic codes were together, for ease of identification. The first two so-called \"ASCII sticks\" (32 positions) were reserved for control characters. The \"space\" character had to come before graphics to make sorting easier, so it became position 20; for the same reason, many special signs commonly used as separators were placed before digits. The committee decided it was important to support uppercase 64-character alphabets, and chose to pattern ASCII so it could be reduced easily to a usable 64-character set of graphic codes, as was done in the DEC SIXBIT code (1963). Lowercase letters were therefore not interleaved with uppercase. To keep options available for lowercase letters and other graphics, the special and numeric codes were arranged before the letters, and the letter \"A\" was placed in position 41 to match the draft of the corresponding British standard. The digits 0–9 are prefixed with 011, but the remaining 4 bits correspond to their respective values in binary, making conversion with binary-coded decimal straightforward.\n", "Many of the non-alphanumeric characters were positioned to correspond to their shifted position on typewriters; an important subtlety is that these were based on \"mechanical\" typewriters, not \"electric\" typewriters. Mechanical typewriters followed the standard set by the Remington No. 2 (1878), the first typewriter with a shift key, and the shifted values of codice_1 were codice_2 early typewriters omitted \"0\" and \"1\", using \"O\" (capital letter \"o\") and \"l\" (lowercase letter \"L\") instead, but codice_3 and codice_4 pairs became standard once 0 and 1 became common. Thus, in ASCII codice_5 were placed in the second stick, positions 1–5, corresponding to the digits 1–5 in the adjacent stick. The parentheses could not correspond to \"9\" and \"0\", however, because the place corresponding to \"0\" was taken by the space character. This was accommodated by removing codice_6 (underscore) from \"6\" and shifting the remaining characters, which corresponded to many European typewriters that placed the parentheses with \"8\" and \"9\". This discrepancy from typewriters led to bit-paired keyboards, notably the Teletype Model 33, which used the left-shifted layout corresponding to ASCII, not to traditional mechanical typewriters. Electric typewriters, notably the IBM Selectric (1961), used a somewhat different layout that has become standard on computers following the IBM PC (1981), especially Model M (1984) and thus shift values for symbols on modern keyboards do not correspond as closely to the ASCII table as earlier keyboards did. The codice_7 pair also dates to the No. 2, and the codice_8 pairs were used on some keyboards (others, including the No. 2, did not shift codice_9 (comma) or codice_10 (full stop) so they could be used in uppercase without unshifting). However, ASCII split the codice_11 pair (dating to No. 2), and rearranged mathematical symbols (varied conventions, commonly codice_12) to codice_13.\n", "Some common characters were not included, notably codice_14, while codice_15 were included as diacritics for international use, and codice_16 for mathematical use, together with the simple line characters codice_17 (in addition to common codice_18). The \"@\" symbol was not used in continental Europe and the committee expected it would be replaced by an accented \"À\" in the French variation, so the \"@\" was placed in position 40, right before the letter A.\n", "The control codes felt essential for data transmission were the start of message (SOM), end of address (EOA), end of message (EOM), end of transmission (EOT), \"who are you?\" (WRU), \"are you?\" (RU), a reserved device control (DC0), synchronous idle (SYNC), and acknowledge (ACK). These were positioned to maximize the Hamming distance between their bit patterns.\n", "Section::::Design considerations.:Character order.\n", "ASCII-code order is also called \"ASCIIbetical\" order. Collation of data is sometimes done in this order rather than \"standard\" alphabetical order (collating sequence). The main deviations in ASCII order are:\n", "BULLET::::- All uppercase come before lowercase letters; for example, \"Z\" precedes \"a\"\n", "BULLET::::- Digits and many punctuation marks come before letters\n", "An intermediate order converts uppercase letters to lowercase before comparing ASCII values.\n", "Section::::Character groups.\n", "Section::::Character groups.:Control characters.\n", "ASCII reserves the first 32 codes (numbers 0–31 decimal) for control characters: codes originally intended not to represent printable information, but rather to control devices (such as printers) that make use of ASCII, or to provide meta-information about data streams such as those stored on magnetic tape.\n", "For example, character 10 represents the \"line feed\" function (which causes a printer to advance its paper), and character 8 represents \"backspace\". refers to control characters that do not include carriage return, line feed or white space as non-whitespace control characters. Except for the control characters that prescribe elementary line-oriented formatting, ASCII does not define any mechanism for describing the structure or appearance of text within a document. Other schemes, such as markup languages, address page and document layout and formatting.\n", "The original ASCII standard used only short descriptive phrases for each control character. The ambiguity this caused was sometimes intentional, for example where a character would be used slightly differently on a terminal link than on a data stream, and sometimes accidental, for example with the meaning of \"delete\".\n", "Probably the most influential single device on the interpretation of these characters was the Teletype Model 33 ASR, which was a printing terminal with an available paper tape reader/punch option. Paper tape was a very popular medium for long-term program storage until the 1980s, less costly and in some ways less fragile than magnetic tape. In particular, the Teletype Model 33 machine assignments for codes 17 (Control-Q, DC1, also known as XON), 19 (Control-S, DC3, also known as XOFF), and 127 (Delete) became de facto standards. The Model 33 was also notable for taking the description of Control-G (code 7, BEL, meaning audibly alert the operator) literally, as the unit contained an actual bell which it rang when it received a BEL character. Because the keytop for the O key also showed a left-arrow symbol (from ASCII-1963, which had this character instead of underscore), a noncompliant use of code 15 (Control-O, Shift In) interpreted as \"delete previous character\" was also adopted by many early timesharing systems but eventually became neglected.\n", "When a Teletype 33 ASR equipped with the automatic paper tape reader received a Control-S (XOFF, an abbreviation for transmit off), it caused the tape reader to stop; receiving Control-Q (XON, \"transmit on\") caused the tape reader to resume. This technique became adopted by several early computer operating systems as a \"handshaking\" signal warning a sender to stop transmission because of impending overflow; it persists to this day in many systems as a manual output control technique. On some systems Control-S retains its meaning but Control-Q is replaced by a second Control-S to resume output. The 33 ASR also could be configured to employ Control-R (DC2) and Control-T (DC4) to start and stop the tape punch; on some units equipped with this function, the corresponding control character lettering on the keycap above the letter was TAPE and TAPE respectively.\n", "The Teletype could not move the head backwards, so it did not put a key on the keyboard to send a BS (backspace). Instead there was a key marked that sent code 127 (DEL). The purpose of this key was to erase mistakes in a hand-typed paper tape: the operator had to push a button on the tape punch to back it up, then type the rubout, which punched all holes and replaced the mistake with a character that was intended to be ignored. Teletypes were commonly used for the less-expensive computers from Digital Equipment Corporation, so these systems had to use the available key and thus the DEL code to erase the previous character. Because of this, DEC video terminals (by default) sent the DEL code for the key marked \"Backspace\" while the key marked \"Delete\" sent an escape sequence, while many other terminals sent BS for the Backspace key. The Unix terminal driver could only use one code to back up, this could be set to BS \"or\" DEL, but not both, resulting in a very long period of annoyance where you had to correct it depending on what terminal you were using (shells that allow line editing, such as ksh, bash, and zsh, understand both). The assumption that no key sent a BS caused Control+H to be used for other purposes, such as the \"help\" prefix command in GNU Emacs.\n", "Many more of the control codes have been given meanings quite different from their original ones. The \"escape\" character (ESC, code 27), for example, was intended originally to allow sending other control characters as literals instead of invoking their meaning. This is the same meaning of \"escape\" encountered in URL encodings, C language strings, and other systems where certain characters have a reserved meaning. Over time this meaning has been co-opted and has eventually been changed. In modern use, an ESC sent to the terminal usually indicates the start of a command sequence usually in the form of a so-called \"ANSI escape code\" (or, more properly, a \"Control Sequence Introducer\") from ECMA-48 (1972) and its successors, beginning with ESC followed by a \"[\" (left-bracket) character. An ESC sent from the terminal is most often used as an out-of-band character used to terminate an operation, as in the TECO and vi text editors. In graphical user interface (GUI) and windowing systems, ESC generally causes an application to abort its current operation or to exit (terminate) altogether.\n", "The inherent ambiguity of many control characters, combined with their historical usage, created problems when transferring \"plain text\" files between systems. The best example of this is the newline problem on various operating systems. Teletype machines required that a line of text be terminated with both \"Carriage Return\" (which moves the printhead to the beginning of the line) and \"Line Feed\" (which advances the paper one line without moving the printhead). The name \"Carriage Return\" comes from the fact that on a manual typewriter the carriage holding the paper moved while the position where the typebars struck the ribbon remained stationary. The entire carriage had to be pushed (returned) to the right in order to position the left margin of the paper for the next line.\n", "DEC operating systems (OS/8, RT-11, RSX-11, RSTS, TOPS-10, etc.) used both characters to mark the end of a line so that the console device (originally Teletype machines) would work. By the time so-called \"glass TTYs\" (later called CRTs or terminals) came along, the convention was so well established that backward compatibility necessitated continuing the convention. When Gary Kildall created CP/M he was inspired by some command line interface conventions used in DEC's RT-11. Until the introduction of PC DOS in 1981, IBM had no hand in this because their 1970s operating systems used EBCDIC instead of ASCII and they were oriented toward punch-card input and line printer output on which the concept of carriage return was meaningless. IBM's PC DOS (also marketed as MS-DOS by Microsoft) inherited the convention by virtue of being loosely based on CP/M, and Windows inherited it from MS-DOS.\n", "Unfortunately, requiring two characters to mark the end of a line introduces unnecessary complexity and questions as to how to interpret each character when encountered alone. To simplify matters plain text data streams, including files, on Multics used line feed (LF) alone as a line terminator. Unix and Unix-like systems, and Amiga systems, adopted this convention from Multics. The original Macintosh OS, Apple DOS, and ProDOS, on the other hand, used carriage return (CR) alone as a line terminator; however, since Apple replaced these operating systems with the Unix-based macOS operating system, they now use line feed (LF) as well. The Radio Shack TRS-80 also used a lone CR to terminate lines.\n", "Computers attached to the ARPANET included machines running operating systems such as TOPS-10 and TENEX using CR-LF line endings, machines running operating systems such as Multics using LF line endings, and machines running operating systems such as OS/360 that represented lines as a character count followed by the characters of the line and that used EBCDIC rather than ASCII. The Telnet protocol defined an ASCII \"Network Virtual Terminal\" (NVT), so that connections between hosts with different line-ending conventions and character sets could be supported by transmitting a standard text format over the network. Telnet used ASCII along with CR-LF line endings, and software using other conventions would translate between the local conventions and the NVT. The File Transfer Protocol adopted the Telnet protocol, including use of the Network Virtual Terminal, for use when transmitting commands and transferring data in the default ASCII mode. This adds complexity to implementations of those protocols, and to other network protocols, such as those used for E-mail and the World Wide Web, on systems not using the NVT's CR-LF line-ending convention.\n", "The PDP-6 monitor, and its PDP-10 successor TOPS-10, used Control-Z (SUB) as an end-of-file indication for input from a terminal. Some operating systems such as CP/M tracked file length only in units of disk blocks and used Control-Z to mark the end of the actual text in the file. For these reasons, EOF, or end-of-file, was used colloquially and conventionally as a three-letter acronym for Control-Z instead of SUBstitute. The end-of-text code (ETX), also known as Control-C, was inappropriate for a variety of reasons, while using Z as the control code to end a file is analogous to it ending the alphabet and serves as a very convenient mnemonic aid. A historically common and still prevalent convention uses the ETX code convention to interrupt and halt a program via an input data stream, usually from a keyboard.\n", "In C library and Unix conventions, the null character is used to terminate text strings; such null-terminated strings can be known in abbreviation as ASCIZ or ASCIIZ, where here Z stands for \"zero\".\n", "Other representations might be used by specialist equipment, for example ISO 2047 graphics or hexadecimal numbers.\n", "Section::::Character groups.:Printable characters.\n", "Codes 20 to 7E, known as the printable characters, represent letters, digits, punctuation marks, and a few miscellaneous symbols. There are 95 printable characters in total.\n", "Code 20, the \"space\" character, denotes the space between words, as produced by the space bar of a keyboard. Since the space character is considered an invisible graphic (rather than a control character) it is listed in the table below instead of in the previous section.\n", "Code 7F corresponds to the non-printable \"delete\" (DEL) control character and is therefore omitted from this chart; it is covered in the previous section's chart. Earlier versions of ASCII used the up arrow instead of the caret (5E) and the left arrow instead of the underscore (5F).\n", "]]\n", "Section::::Use.\n", "ASCII was first used commercially during 1963 as a seven-bit teleprinter code for American Telephone & Telegraph's TWX (TeletypeWriter eXchange) network. TWX originally used the earlier five-bit ITA2, which was also used by the competing Telex teleprinter system. Bob Bemer introduced features such as the escape sequence. His British colleague Hugh McGregor Ross helped to popularize this work according to Bemer, \"so much so that the code that was to become ASCII was first called the \"Bemer–Ross Code\" in Europe\". Because of his extensive work on ASCII, Bemer has been called \"the father of ASCII\".\n", "On March 11, 1968, U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson mandated that all computers purchased by the United States Federal Government support ASCII, stating:\n", "I have also approved recommendations of the Secretary of Commerce [Luther H. Hodges] regarding standards for recording the Standard Code for Information Interchange on magnetic tapes and paper tapes when they are used in computer operations.\n", "All computers and related equipment configurations brought into the Federal Government inventory on and after July 1, 1969, must have the capability to use the Standard Code for Information Interchange and the formats prescribed by the magnetic tape and paper tape standards when these media are used.\n", "ASCII was the most common character encoding on the World Wide Web until December 2007, when UTF-8 encoding surpassed it; UTF-8 is backward compatible with ASCII.\n", "Section::::Variants and derivations.\n", "As computer technology spread throughout the world, different standards bodies and corporations developed many variations of ASCII to facilitate the expression of non-English languages that used Roman-based alphabets. One could class some of these variations as \"ASCII extensions\", although some misuse that term to represent all variants, including those that do not preserve ASCII's character-map in the 7-bit range. Furthermore, the ASCII extensions have also been mislabelled as ASCII.\n", "Section::::Variants and derivations.:7-bit codes.\n", "From early in its development, ASCII was intended to be just one of several national variants of an international character code standard.\n", "Other international standards bodies have ratified character encodings such as ISO 646 (1967) that are identical or nearly identical to ASCII, with extensions for characters outside the English alphabet and symbols used outside the United States, such as the symbol for the United Kingdom's pound sterling (£). Almost every country needed an adapted version of ASCII, since ASCII suited the needs of only the US and a few other countries. For example, Canada had its own version that supported French characters.\n", "Many other countries developed variants of ASCII to include non-English letters (e.g. é, ñ, ß, Ł), currency symbols (e.g. £, ¥), etc. See also YUSCII (Yugoslavia).\n", "It would share most characters in common, but assign other locally useful characters to several code points reserved for \"national use\". However, the four years that elapsed between the publication of ASCII-1963 and ISO's first acceptance of an international recommendation during 1967 caused ASCII's choices for the national use characters to seem to be de facto standards for the world, causing confusion and incompatibility once other countries did begin to make their own assignments to these code points.\n", "ISO/IEC 646, like ASCII, is a 7-bit character set. It does not make any additional codes available, so the same code points encoded different characters in different countries. Escape codes were defined to indicate which national variant applied to a piece of text, but they were rarely used, so it was often impossible to know what variant to work with and, therefore, which character a code represented, and in general, text-processing systems could cope with only one variant anyway.\n", "Because the bracket and brace characters of ASCII were assigned to \"national use\" code points that were used for accented letters in other national variants of ISO/IEC 646, a German, French, or Swedish, etc. programmer using their national variant of ISO/IEC 646, rather than ASCII, had to write, and thus read, something such as\n", "instead of\n", "C trigraphs were created to solve this problem for ANSI C, although their late introduction and inconsistent implementation in compilers limited their use. Many programmers kept their computers on US-ASCII, so plain-text in Swedish, German etc. (for example, in e-mail or Usenet) contained \"{, }\" and similar variants in the middle of words, something those programmers got used to. For example, a Swedish programmer mailing another programmer asking if they should go for lunch, could get \"N{ jag har sm|rg}sar\" as the answer, which should be \"Nä jag har smörgåsar\" meaning \"No I've got sandwiches\".\n", "Section::::Variants and derivations.:8-bit codes.\n", "Eventually, as 8-, 16- and 32-bit (and later 64-bit) computers began to replace 12-, 18- and 36-bit computers as the norm, it became common to use an 8-bit byte to store each character in memory, providing an opportunity for extended, 8-bit relatives of ASCII. In most cases these developed as true extensions of ASCII, leaving the original character-mapping intact, but adding additional character definitions after the first 128 (i.e., 7-bit) characters.\n", "Encodings include ISCII (India), VISCII (Vietnam). Although these encodings are sometimes referred to as ASCII, true ASCII is defined strictly only by the ANSI standard.\n", "Most early home computer systems developed their own 8-bit character sets containing line-drawing and game glyphs, and often filled in some or all of the control characters from 0 to 31 with more graphics. Kaypro CP/M computers used the \"upper\" 128 characters for the Greek alphabet.\n", "The PETSCII code Commodore International used for their 8-bit systems is probably unique among post-1970 codes in being based on ASCII-1963, instead of the more common ASCII-1967, such as found on the ZX Spectrum computer. Atari 8-bit computers and Galaksija computers also used ASCII variants.\n", "The IBM PC defined code page 437, which replaced the control characters with graphic symbols such as smiley faces, and mapped additional graphic characters to the upper 128 positions. Operating systems such as DOS supported these code pages, and manufacturers of IBM PCs supported them in hardware. Digital Equipment Corporation developed the Multinational Character Set (DEC-MCS) for use in the popular VT220 terminal as one of the first extensions designed more for international languages than for block graphics. The Macintosh defined Mac OS Roman and Postscript also defined a set, both of these contained both international letters and typographic punctuation marks instead of graphics, more like modern character sets.\n", "The ISO/IEC 8859 standard (derived from the DEC-MCS) finally provided a standard that most systems copied (at least as accurately as they copied ASCII, but with many substitutions). A popular further extension designed by Microsoft, Windows-1252 (often mislabeled as ISO-8859-1), added the typographic punctuation marks needed for traditional text printing. ISO-8859-1, Windows-1252, and the original 7-bit ASCII were the most common character encodings until 2008 when UTF-8 became more common.\n", "ISO/IEC 4873 introduced 32 additional control codes defined in the 80–9F hexadecimal range, as part of extending the 7-bit ASCII encoding to become an 8-bit system.\n", "Section::::Variants and derivations.:Unicode.\n", "Unicode and the ISO/IEC 10646 Universal Character Set (UCS) have a much wider array of characters and their various encoding forms have begun to supplant ISO/IEC 8859 and ASCII rapidly in many environments. While ASCII is limited to 128 characters, Unicode and the UCS support more characters by separating the concepts of unique identification (using natural numbers called \"code points\") and encoding (to 8-, 16- or 32-bit binary formats, called UTF-8, UTF-16 and UTF-32).\n", "ASCII was incorporated into the Unicode (1991) character set as the first 128 symbols, so the 7-bit ASCII characters have the same numeric codes in both sets. This allows UTF-8 to be backward compatible with 7-bit ASCII, as a UTF-8 file containing only ASCII characters is identical to an ASCII file containing the same sequence of characters. Even more importantly, forward compatibility is ensured as software that recognizes only 7-bit ASCII characters as special and does not alter bytes with the highest bit set (as is often done to support 8-bit ASCII extensions such as ISO-8859-1) will preserve UTF-8 data unchanged.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- 3568 ASCII, an asteroid named after the character encoding\n", "BULLET::::- Ascii85\n", "BULLET::::- ASCII art\n", "BULLET::::- ASCII Ribbon Campaign\n", "BULLET::::- Basic Latin (Unicode block) (ASCII as a subset of Unicode)\n", "BULLET::::- Extended ASCII\n", "BULLET::::- HTML decimal character rendering\n", "BULLET::::- List of Unicode characters\n", "BULLET::::- Jargon File, a glossary of computer programmer slang which includes a list of common slang names for ASCII characters\n", "BULLET::::- List of computer character sets\n", "BULLET::::- Alt codes\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- from:\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- \n" ] }

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"punctuation%20mark", "Space%20%28punctuation%29", "caret", "underscore", "ITA2", "Telex", "Robert%20William%20Bemer", "Escape%20character", "Hugh%20McGregor%20Ross", "Lyndon%20B.%20Johnson", "United%20States%20Federal%20Government", "Secretary%20of%20Commerce", "Luther%20H.%20Hodges", "World%20Wide%20Web", "UTF-8", "Standardization", "ASCII%20extension", "ISO%20646", "alphabet", "pound%20sterling", "%C3%A9", "%C3%B1", "%C3%9F", "%C5%81", "%C2%A3", "%C2%A5", "YUSCII", "code%20point", "C%20trigraph", "ANSI%20C", "Usenet", "16-bit", "32-bit", "64-bit", "12-bit", "18-bit", "36-bit", "ISCII", "VISCII", "Kaypro", "CP/M", "PETSCII", "Commodore%20International", "8-bit", "ZX%20Spectrum%20character%20set", "ATASCII", "Galaksija%20%28computer%29%23Character%20ROM", "code%20page%20437", "Emoticon", "DOS", "IBM%20PC", "Digital%20Equipment%20Corporation", "Multinational%20Character%20Set", "VT220", "computer%20terminal", "Mac%20OS%20Roman", "ISO/IEC%208859", "Windows-1252", "ISO-8859-1", "UTF-8", "hexadecimal", "Unicode", "Universal%20Character%20Set", "natural%20number", "UTF-8", "UTF-16", "UTF-32", "UTF-8", "Backward%20compatibility", "forward%20compatibility", "3568%20ASCII", "Ascii85", "ASCII%20art", "ASCII%20Ribbon%20Campaign", "Basic%20Latin%20%28Unicode%20block%29", "Extended%20ASCII", "HTML%20decimal%20character%20rendering", "List%20of%20Unicode%20characters", "Jargon%20File", "List%20of%20computer%20character%20sets", "Alt%20codes" ], "wikipedia_title": [ "Character encoding", "Telecommunications equipment", "Internet Assigned Numbers Authority", "List of IEEE milestones", "Telegraph code", "Bit", "Teleprinter", "American National Standards Institute", "American National Standards Institute", "English alphabet", "Character (computing)", "Punctuation", "Control character", "Teleprinter", "Carriage return", "Newline", "Tab key", "I", "Binary number", "Hexadecimal", "Decimal", "American National Standards Institute", "International Committee for Information Technology Standards", "American National Standards Institute", "American National Standards Institute", "International Organization for Standardization", "Case sensitivity", "Bracket", "Vertical bar", "IBM 2260", "IBM 2260", "IBM 2260", "Bit numbering", "9 track tape", "Punched card", "Teleprinter", "Character encoding", "Character (computing)", "Grapheme", "Control character", "Digital data", "English alphabet", "Numerical digit", "ITU-T", "Baudot code", "Fieldata", "EBCDIC", "Émile Baudot", "Shift key", "Baudot code", "Six-bit character code", "Data transmission", "Octet (computing)", "Binary-coded decimal", "Parity bit", "Error detection and correction", "Italic type", "Space (punctuation)", "Sorting algorithm", "Letter case", "Six-bit character code", "Six-bit character code", "Letter case", "Nibble", "Binary-coded decimal", "Bit-paired keyboard", "Teletype Model 33", "IBM Selectric typewriter", "IBM Personal Computer", "Model M keyboard", "End of message", "Hamming distance", "Collation", "Collation", "Control character", "Printer (computing)", "Metadata", "Whitespace character", "Markup language", "Data stream", "Teletype Model 33", "Punched tape", "Delete key", "Underscore", "Digital Equipment Corporation", "KornShell", "Bash (Unix shell)", "Z shell", "GNU Emacs", "C (programming language)", "ANSI escape code", "ANSI escape code", "Out-of-band data", "TECO (text editor)", "Vi", "Text editor", "Graphical user interface", "Window (computing)", "Exit (system call)", "Newline", "Operating system", "Typewriter", "Digital Equipment Corporation", "OS/8", "RT-11", "RSX-11", "RSTS/E", "TOPS-10", "Teleprinter", "Gary Kildall", "CP/M", "Digital Equipment Corporation", "RT-11", "IBM PC DOS", "IBM", "IBM PC DOS", "MS-DOS", "CP/M", "Microsoft Windows", "Plain text", "Multics", "Unix", "Unix-like", "Amiga", "Macintosh operating systems", "Apple DOS", "Apple ProDOS", "MacOS", "TRS-80", "ARPANET", "TENEX (operating system)", "OS/360 and successors", "EBCDIC", "Telnet", "File Transfer Protocol", "End-of-file", "Three-letter acronym", "End-of-Text character", "Control-C", "Mnemonic", "Unix", "Null character", "String (computer science)", "Null-terminated string", "ISO 2047", "Hexadecimal", "Punctuation", "Space (punctuation)", "Caret", "Underscore", "Baudot code", "Telex", "Bob Bemer", "Escape character", "Hugh McGregor Ross", "Lyndon B. Johnson", "Federal government of the United States", "United States Secretary of Commerce", "Luther H. Hodges", "World Wide Web", "UTF-8", "Standardization", "Extended ASCII", "ISO/IEC 646", "Alphabet", "Pound sterling", "É", "Ñ", "ß", "Ł", "Pound sign", "Yen sign", "YUSCII", "Code point", "Digraphs and trigraphs", "ANSI C", "Usenet", "16-bit", "32-bit", "64-bit computing", "12-bit", "18-bit", "36-bit", "Indian Script Code for Information Interchange", "VISCII", "Kaypro", "CP/M", "PETSCII", "Commodore International", "8-bit", "ZX Spectrum character set", "ATASCII", "Galaksija (computer)", "Code page 437", "Emoticon", "DOS", "IBM Personal Computer", "Digital Equipment Corporation", "Multinational Character Set", "VT220", "Computer terminal", "Mac OS Roman", "ISO/IEC 8859", "Windows-1252", "ISO/IEC 8859-1", "UTF-8", "Hexadecimal", "Unicode", "Universal Coded Character Set", "Natural number", "UTF-8", "UTF-16", "UTF-32", "UTF-8", "Backward compatibility", "Forward compatibility", "3568 ASCII", "Ascii85", "ASCII art", "ASCII ribbon campaign", "Basic Latin (Unicode block)", "Extended ASCII", "Character encodings in HTML", "List of Unicode characters", "Jargon File", "List of information system character sets", "Alt code" ], "wikipedia_id": [ "5295", "27452465", "84022", "9531655", "679207", "3364", "31247", "659", "659", "378194", "73443", "23711", "5298", "31247", "238770", "238775", "351358", "25346998", "238686", "13263", "8214", "659", "2180501", "659", "659", "14934", "46063", "59338", "641073", "1399623", "1399623", "1399623", "11310261", "6128750", "24420", "31247", "5295", "73443", "12579", "5298", "8276", "378194", "280582", "14744", "4748", "383855", "9773", "10207", "555350", "4748", "9131098", "42168", "4240997", "3821", "194467", "10375", "265914", "143856", "28442", "625125", "9131098", "9131098", "625125", "21150", "3821", "43646081", "1507684", "23861711", "15032", "847145", "5022261", "41227", "7489", "7489", "5298", "5272", "18933632", "2956700", "18910", "47868", "1507684", "49761", "43605227", "477081", "7952", "17213", "4547", "95928", "17698784", "6021", "65930", "65930", "4565254", "30449", "32494", "30310", "12293", "207897", "6539754", "238775", "22194", "44365", "7952", "254134", "69309", "62342", "313899", "529607", "31247", "12740", "45146", "7952", "69309", "148169", "40379651", "148169", "21291954", "45146", "18890", "25030", "18847", "21347364", "21347057", "1980", "21347643", "253848", "253838", "20640", "30747", "253111", "60783728", "14387737", "9773", "31062", "53289", "342322", "270906", "13015384", "6916301", "40411", "21347364", "338161", "27701", "338167", "40017490", "13263", "23711", "143856", "981746", "477081", "4748", "28658647", "643475", "41123", "3775083", "54533", "195149", "44272", "434405", "33139", "32188", "27065", "18950011", "193891", "670", "270673", "249013", "249027", "198274", "1251430", "367168", "248943", "4710349", "2102354", "403720", "3172", "18588994", "23592304", "80733", "148285", "9787742", "16569244", "920064", "533706", "503143", "194763", "45146", "469047", "7580", "45148", "30871665", "560142", "981218", "1028188", "9739", "21304364", "15032", "7952", "310033", "310034", "249402", "709621", "15020", "231817", "15019", "32188", "13263", "31742", "23431060", "21474", "32188", "40317", "183928", "32188", "4459", "305972", "625298", "1562179", "1884", "3687076", "16640011", "18950011", "5315", "10328596", "25523630", "50482133", "3994421" ] }

{ "description": "computer character encoding", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q8815", "wikidata_label": "ASCII", "wikipedia_title": "ASCII", "aliases": { "alias": [ "US-ASCII", "American Standard Code for Information Interchange" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Osterode (district)\n", "Osterode () was a district in Lower Saxony, Germany. It was bounded by (from the southwest and clockwise) the districts of Göttingen, Northeim and Goslar, and by the state of Thuringia (districts of Nordhausen and Eichsfeld).\n", "Section::::History.\n", "This part of the Harz mountains was ruled by the Welfen dynasty from the 12th century on. Osterode was the centre of the Principality of Brunswick-Grubenhagen, one of many small states within Brunswick-Lüneburg. Later this principality became part of Hanover, which in turn fell to the Kingdom of Prussia in 1866. In 1885 the Prussian administration established districts, among them Osterode.\n", "On 1 November 2016, Osterode ceased to become a separate district and was merged with an enlarged Göttingen.\n", "Section::::Geography.\n", "More than two thirds of the district's area were occupied by the southwestern part of the Harz mountains, including the southern portion of the Harz National Park.\n", "Section::::Towns and municipalities.\n", "Towns:\n", "BULLET::::1. Bad Lauterberg\n", "BULLET::::2. Bad Sachsa\n", "BULLET::::3. Herzberg am Harz\n", "BULLET::::4. Osterode am Harz\n", "Municipalities:\n", "BULLET::::1. Bad Grund\n", "Unincorporated area\n", "BULLET::::- Harz (Landkreis Osterode am Harz) (267.37 km², uninhabited)\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Metropolitan region Hannover-Braunschweig-Göttingen-Wolfsburg\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Local history (German)\n" ] }

{ "paragraph_id": [ 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4, 6, 6, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 18 ], "start": [ 30, 44, 123, 134, 147, 175, 199, 214, 17, 49, 137, 192, 286, 98, 90, 144, 13, 13, 13, 13, 13, 0, 12, 12 ], "end": [ 42, 51, 132, 142, 153, 184, 209, 223, 21, 55, 158, 210, 304, 107, 94, 162, 27, 23, 29, 29, 22, 19, 45, 73 ], "text": [ "Lower Saxony", "Germany", "Göttingen", "Northeim", "Goslar", "Thuringia", "Nordhausen", "Eichsfeld", "Harz", "Welfen", "Brunswick-Grubenhagen", "Brunswick-Lüneburg", "Kingdom of Prussia", "Göttingen", "Harz", "Harz National Park", "Bad Lauterberg", "Bad Sachsa", "Herzberg am Harz", "Osterode am Harz", "Bad Grund", "Unincorporated area", "Harz (Landkreis Osterode am Harz)", "Metropolitan region Hannover-Braunschweig-Göttingen-Wolfsburg" ], "href": [ "Lower%20Saxony", "Germany", "G%C3%B6ttingen%20%28district%29", "Northeim%20%28district%29", "Goslar%20%28district%29", "Thuringia", "Nordhausen%20%28district%29", "Eichsfeld%20%28district%29", "Harz", "Welfen", "Brunswick-Grubenhagen", "Brunswick-L%C3%BCneburg", "Kingdom%20of%20Prussia", "G%C3%B6ttingen%20%28district%29", "Harz", "Harz%20National%20Park", "Bad%20Lauterberg", "Bad%20Sachsa", "Herzberg%20am%20Harz", "Osterode%20am%20Harz", "Bad%20Grund", "Unincorporated%20area", "Harz%20%28Landkreis%20Osterode%20am%20Harz%29", "Metropolitan%20region%20Hannover-Braunschweig-G%C3%B6ttingen-Wolfsburg" ], "wikipedia_title": [ "Lower Saxony", "Germany", "Göttingen (district)", "Northeim (district)", "Goslar (district)", "Thuringia", "Nordhausen (district)", "Eichsfeld (district)", "Harz", "House of Welf", "Principality of Grubenhagen", "Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg", "Kingdom of Prussia", "Göttingen (district)", "Harz", "Harz National Park", "Bad Lauterberg", "Bad Sachsa", "Herzberg am Harz", "Osterode am Harz", "Bad Grund", "Unincorporated area", "Harz (Landkreis Göttingen)", "Hannover–Braunschweig–Göttingen–Wolfsburg Metropolitan Region" ], "wikipedia_id": [ "18435", "11867", "156864", "156857", "157612", "31130", "346253", "256803", "157237", "330634", "2654496", "248957", "242701", "156864", "157237", "157625", "4559128", "4559165", "2722993", "1333682", "4559230", "232346", "37497390", "21737769" ] }

{ "description": "former district in Lower Saxony, Germany", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q6037", "wikidata_label": "Osterode", "wikipedia_title": "Osterode (district)", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Aristotle\n", "Aristotle (; \"Aristotélēs\", ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher during the Classical period in Ancient Greece, the founder of the Lyceum and the Peripatetic school of philosophy and Aristotelian tradition. Along with his teacher Plato, he has been called the \"Father of Western Philosophy\". His writings cover many subjects – including physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, logic, ethics, aesthetics, poetry, theatre, music, rhetoric, psychology, linguistics, economics, politics and government. Aristotle provided a complex synthesis of the various philosophies existing prior to him, and it was above all from his teachings that the West inherited its intellectual lexicon, as well as problems and methods of inquiry. As a result, his philosophy has exerted a unique influence on almost every form of knowledge in the West and it continues to be a subject of contemporary philosophical discussion.\n", "Little is known about his life. Aristotle was born in the city of Stagira in Northern Greece. His father, Nicomachus, died when Aristotle was a child, and he was brought up by a guardian. At seventeen or eighteen years of age, he joined Plato's Academy in Athens and remained there until the age of thirty-seven (c. 347 BC). Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of Philip II of Macedon, tutored Alexander the Great beginning in 343 BC. He established a library in the Lyceum which helped him to produce many of his hundreds of books on papyrus scrolls. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues for publication, only around a third of his original output has survived, none of it intended for publication.\n", "Aristotle's views on physical science profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. Their influence extended from Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance, and were not replaced systematically until the Enlightenment and theories such as classical mechanics. Some of Aristotle's zoological observations found in his biology, such as on the hectocotyl (reproductive) arm of the octopus, were disbelieved until the 19th century. His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, studied by medieval scholars such as Peter Abelard and John Buridan. Aristotle's influence on logic also continued well into the 19th century.\n", "He influenced Islamic thought during the Middle Ages, as well as Christian theology, especially the Neoplatonism of the Early Church and the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church. Aristotle was revered among medieval Muslim scholars as \"The First Teacher\" and among medieval Christians like Thomas Aquinas as simply \"The Philosopher\". His ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics, such as in the thinking of Alasdair MacIntyre and Philippa Foot.\n", "Section::::Life.\n", "In general, the details of Aristotle's life are not well-established. The biographies written in ancient times are often speculative and historians only agree on a few salient points.\n", "Aristotle, whose name means \"the best purpose\" in Ancient Greek, was born in 384 BC in Stagira, Chalcidice, about 55 km (34 miles) east of modern-day Thessaloniki. His father Nicomachus was the personal physician to King Amyntas of Macedon. Both of Aristotle's parents died when he was about thirteen, and Proxenus of Atarneus became his guardian. Although little information about Aristotle's childhood has survived, he probably spent some time within the Macedonian palace, making his first connections with the Macedonian monarchy.\n", "At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at Plato's Academy. He probably experienced the Eleusinian Mysteries as he wrote when describing the sights one viewed at the Eleusinian Mysteries, “to experience is to learn” [παθείν μαθεĩν]. Aristotle remained in Athens for nearly twenty years before leaving in 348/47 BC. The traditional story about his departure records that he was disappointed with the Academy's direction after control passed to Plato's nephew Speusippus, although it is possible that he feared the anti-Macedonian sentiments in Athens at that time and left before Plato died. Aristotle then accompanied Xenocrates to the court of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in Asia Minor. After the death of Hermias, Aristotle travelled with his pupil Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos, where together they researched the botany and zoology of the island and its sheltered lagoon. While in Lesbos, Aristotle married Pythias, either Hermias's adoptive daughter or niece. She bore him a daughter, whom they also named Pythias. In 343 BC, Aristotle was invited by Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor to his son Alexander.\n", "Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of Macedon. During Aristotle's time in the Macedonian court, he gave lessons not only to Alexander, but also to two other future kings: Ptolemy and Cassander. Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest, and Aristotle's own attitude towards Persia was unabashedly ethnocentric. In one famous example, he counsels Alexander to be \"a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants\". By 335 BC, Aristotle had returned to Athens, establishing his own school there known as the Lyceum. Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next twelve years. While in Athens, his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became involved with Herpyllis of Stagira, who bore him a son whom he named after his father, Nicomachus. According to the \"Suda\", he also had an \"erômenos\", Palaephatus of Abydus.\n", "This period in Athens, between 335 and 323 BC, is when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his works. He wrote many dialogues, of which only fragments have survived. Those works that have survived are in treatise form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread publication; they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most important treatises include \"Physics\", \"Metaphysics\", \"Nicomachean Ethics\", \"Politics\", \"On the Soul\" and \"Poetics\". Aristotle studied and made significant contributions to \"logic, metaphysics, mathematics, physics, biology, botany, ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine, dance and theatre.\"\n", "Near the end of his life, Alexander and Aristotle became estranged over Alexander's relationship with Persia and Persians. A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected Aristotle of playing a role in Alexander's death, but the only evidence of this is an unlikely claim made some six years after the death. Following Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens was rekindled. In 322 BC, Demophilus and Eurymedon the Hierophant reportedly denounced Aristotle for impiety, prompting him to flee to his mother's family estate in Chalcis, on Euboea, at which occasion he was said to have stated: \"I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy\" – a reference to Athens's trial and execution of Socrates. He died on Euboea of natural causes later that same year, having named his student Antipater as his chief executor and leaving a will in which he asked to be buried next to his wife.\n", "Section::::Speculative philosophy.\n", "Section::::Speculative philosophy.:Logic.\n", "With the \"Prior Analytics\", Aristotle is credited with the earliest study of formal logic, and his conception of it was the dominant form of Western logic until 19th-century advances in mathematical logic. Kant stated in the \"Critique of Pure Reason\" that with Aristotle logic reached its completion.\n", "Section::::Speculative philosophy.:Logic.:\"Organon\".\n", "What we today call \"Aristotelian logic\" with its types of syllogism (methods of logical argument), Aristotle himself would have labelled \"analytics\". The term \"logic\" he reserved to mean \"dialectics\". Most of Aristotle's work is probably not in its original form, because it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into a set of six books called the \"Organon\" around 40 BC by Andronicus of Rhodes or others among his followers. The books are:\n", "BULLET::::1. \"Categories\"\n", "BULLET::::2. \"On Interpretation\"\n", "BULLET::::3. \"Prior Analytics\"\n", "BULLET::::4. \"Posterior Analytics\"\n", "BULLET::::5. \"Topics\"\n", "BULLET::::6. \"On Sophistical Refutations\"\n", "The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. It goes from the basics, the analysis of simple terms in the \"Categories,\" the analysis of propositions and their elementary relations in \"On Interpretation\", to the study of more complex forms, namely, syllogisms (in the \"Analytics\") and dialectics (in the \"Topics\" and \"Sophistical Refutations\"). The first three treatises form the core of the logical theory \"stricto sensu\": the grammar of the language of logic and the correct rules of reasoning. The \"Rhetoric\" is not conventionally included, but it states that it relies on the \"Topics\".\n", "Section::::Speculative philosophy.:Metaphysics.\n", "The word \"metaphysics\" appears to have been coined by the first century AD editor who assembled various small selections of Aristotle's works to the treatise we know by the name \"Metaphysics\". Aristotle called it \"first philosophy\", and distinguished it from mathematics and natural science (physics) as the contemplative (\"theoretikē\") philosophy which is \"theological\" and studies the divine. He wrote in his \"Metaphysics\" (1026a16):\n", "Section::::Speculative philosophy.:Metaphysics.:Substance.\n", "Aristotle examines the concepts of substance (\"ousia\") and essence (\"to ti ên einai\", \"the what it was to be\") in his \"Metaphysics\" (Book VII), and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form, a philosophical theory called hylomorphism. In Book VIII, he distinguishes the matter of the substance as the substratum, or the stuff of which it is composed. For example, the matter of a house is the bricks, stones, timbers etc., or whatever constitutes the \"potential\" house, while the form of the substance is the \"actual\" house, namely 'covering for bodies and chattels' or any other differentia that let us define something as a house. The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form.\n", "Section::::Speculative philosophy.:Metaphysics.:Substance.:Immanent realism.\n", "Like his teacher Plato, Aristotle's philosophy aims at the universal. Aristotle's ontology places the universal (\"katholou\") in particulars (\"kath' hekaston\"), things in the world, whereas for Plato the universal is a separately existing form which actual things imitate. For Aristotle, \"form\" is still what phenomena are based on, but is \"instantiated\" in a particular substance. \n", "Plato argued that all things have a universal form, which could be either a property or a relation to other things. When we look at an apple, for example, we see an apple, and we can also analyse a form of an apple. In this distinction, there is a particular apple and a universal form of an apple. Moreover, we can place an apple next to a book, so that we can speak of both the book and apple as being next to each other. Plato argued that there are some universal forms that are not a part of particular things. For example, it is possible that there is no particular good in existence, but \"good\" is still a proper universal form. Aristotle disagreed with Plato on this point, arguing that all universals are instantiated at some period of time, and that there are no universals that are unattached to existing things. In addition, Aristotle disagreed with Plato about the location of universals. Where Plato spoke of the world of forms, a place where all universal forms subsist, Aristotle maintained that universals exist within each thing on which each universal is predicated. So, according to Aristotle, the form of apple exists within each apple, rather than in the world of the forms.\n", "Section::::Speculative philosophy.:Metaphysics.:Substance.:Potentiality and actuality.\n", "With regard to the change (\"kinesis\") and its causes now, as he defines in his \"Physics\" and \"On Generation and Corruption\" 319b–320a, he distinguishes the coming to be from:\n", "BULLET::::1. growth and diminution, which is change in quantity;\n", "BULLET::::2. locomotion, which is change in space; and\n", "BULLET::::3. alteration, which is change in quality.\n", "The coming to be is a change where nothing persists of which the resultant is a property. In that particular change he introduces the concept of potentiality (\"dynamis\") and actuality (\"entelecheia\") in association with the matter and the form. Referring to potentiality, this is what a thing is capable of doing, or being acted upon, if the conditions are right and it is not prevented by something else. For example, the seed of a plant in the soil is potentially (\"dynamei\") plant, and if it is not prevented by something, it will become a plant. Potentially beings can either 'act' (\"poiein\") or 'be acted upon' (\"paschein\"), which can be either innate or learned. For example, the eyes possess the potentiality of sight (innate – being acted upon), while the capability of playing the flute can be possessed by learning (exercise – acting). Actuality is the fulfilment of the end of the potentiality. Because the end (\"telos\") is the principle of every change, and for the sake of the end exists potentiality, therefore actuality is the end. Referring then to our previous example, we could say that an actuality is when a plant does one of the activities that plants do.\n", "In summary, the matter used to make a house has potentiality to be a house and both the activity of building and the form of the final house are actualities, which is also a final cause or end. Then Aristotle proceeds and concludes that the actuality is prior to potentiality in formula, in time and in substantiality. With this definition of the particular substance (i.e., matter and form), Aristotle tries to solve the problem of the unity of the beings, for example, \"what is it that makes a man one\"? Since, according to Plato there are two Ideas: animal and biped, how then is man a unity? However, according to Aristotle, the potential being (matter) and the actual one (form) are one and the same.\n", "Section::::Speculative philosophy.:Epistemology.\n", "Aristotle's immanent realism means his epistemology is based on the study of things that exist or happen in the world, and rises to knowledge of the universal, whereas for Plato epistemology begins with knowledge of universal Forms (or ideas) and descends to knowledge of particular imitations of these. Aristotle uses induction from examples alongside deduction, whereas Plato relies on deduction from \"a priori\" principles.\n", "Section::::Natural philosophy.\n", "Aristotle's \"natural philosophy\" spans a wide range of natural phenomena including those now covered by physics, biology and other natural sciences. In Aristotle's terminology, \"natural philosophy\" is a branch of philosophy examining the phenomena of the natural world, and includes fields that would be regarded today as physics, biology and other natural sciences. Aristotle's work encompassed virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry. Aristotle makes philosophy in the broad sense coextensive with reasoning, which he also would describe as \"science\". Note, however, that his use of the term \"science\" carries a different meaning than that covered by the term \"scientific method\". For Aristotle, \"all science (\"dianoia\") is either practical, poetical or theoretical\" (\"Metaphysics\" 1025b25). His practical science includes ethics and politics; his poetical science means the study of fine arts including poetry; his theoretical science covers physics, mathematics and metaphysics.\n", "Section::::Natural philosophy.:Physics.\n", "Section::::Natural philosophy.:Physics.:Five elements.\n", "In his \"On Generation and Corruption\", Aristotle related each of the four elements proposed earlier by Empedocles, Earth, Water, Air, and Fire, to two of the four sensible qualities, hot, cold, wet, and dry. In the Empedoclean scheme, all matter was made of the four elements, in differing proportions. Aristotle's scheme added the heavenly Aether, the divine substance of the heavenly spheres, stars and planets.\n", "Section::::Natural philosophy.:Physics.:Motion.\n", "Aristotle describes two kinds of motion: \"violent\" or \"unnatural motion\", such as that of a thrown stone, in the \"Physics\" (254b10), and \"natural motion\", such as of a falling object, in \"On the Heavens\" (300a20). In violent motion, as soon as the agent stops causing it, the motion stops also; in other words, the natural state of an object is to be at rest, since Aristotle does not address friction. With this understanding, it can be observed that, as Aristotle stated, heavy objects (on the ground, say) require more force to make them move; and objects pushed with greater force move faster. This would imply the equation\n", "incorrect in modern physics.\n", "Natural motion depends on the element concerned: the aether naturally moves in a circle around the heavens, while the 4 Empedoclean elements move vertically up (like fire, as is observed) or down (like earth) towards their natural resting places.\n", "In the \"Physics\" (215a25), Aristotle effectively states a quantitative law, that the speed, v, of a falling body is proportional (say, with constant c) to its weight, W, and inversely proportional to the density, ρ, of the fluid in which it is falling:\n", "Aristotle implies that in a vacuum the speed of fall would become infinite, and concludes from this apparent absurdity that a vacuum is not possible. Opinions have varied on whether Aristotle intended to state quantitative laws. Henri Carteron held the \"extreme view\" that Aristotle's concept of force was basically qualitative, but other authors reject this.\n", "Archimedes corrected Aristotle's theory that bodies move towards their natural resting places; metal boats can float if they displace enough water; floating depends in Archimedes' scheme on the mass and volume of the object, not as Aristotle thought its elementary composition.\n", "Aristotle's writings on motion remained influential until the Early Modern period. John Philoponus (in the Middle Ages) and Galileo are said to have shown by experiment that Aristotle's claim that a heavier object falls faster than a lighter object is incorrect. A contrary opinion is given by Carlo Rovelli, who argues that Aristotle's physics of motion is correct within its domain of validity, that of objects in the Earth's gravitational field immersed in a fluid such as air. In this system, heavy bodies in steady fall indeed travel faster than light ones (whether friction is ignored, or not), and they do fall more slowly in a denser medium.\n", "Newton's \"forced\" motion corresponds to Aristotle's \"violent\" motion with its external agent, but Aristotle's assumption that the agent's effect stops immediately it stops acting (e.g., the ball leaves the thrower's hand) has awkward consequences: he has to suppose that surrounding fluid helps to push the ball along to make it continue to rise even though the hand is no longer acting on it, resulting in the Medieval theory of impetus.\n", "Section::::Natural philosophy.:Physics.:Four causes.\n", "Aristotle suggested that the reason for anything coming about can be attributed to four different types of simultaneously active factors. His term \"aitia\" is traditionally translated as \"cause\", but it does not always refer to temporal sequence; it might be better translated as \"explanation\", but the traditional rendering will be employed here.\n", "BULLET::::- Material cause describes the material out of which something is composed. Thus the material cause of a table is wood. It is not about action. It does not mean that one domino knocks over another domino.\n", "BULLET::::- The formal cause is its form, i.e., the arrangement of that matter. It tells us what a thing is, that a thing is determined by the definition, form, pattern, essence, whole, synthesis or archetype. It embraces the account of causes in terms of fundamental principles or general laws, as the whole (i.e., macrostructure) is the cause of its parts, a relationship known as the whole-part causation. Plainly put, the formal cause is the idea in the mind of the sculptor that brings the sculpture into being. A simple example of the formal cause is the mental image or idea that allows an artist, architect, or engineer to create a drawing.\n", "BULLET::::- The efficient cause is \"the primary source\", or that from which the change under consideration proceeds. It identifies 'what makes of what is made and what causes change of what is changed' and so suggests all sorts of agents, nonliving or living, acting as the sources of change or movement or rest. Representing the current understanding of causality as the relation of cause and effect, this covers the modern definitions of \"cause\" as either the agent or agency or particular events or states of affairs. In the case of two dominoes, when the first is knocked over it causes the second also to fall over. In the case of animals, this agency is a combination of how it develops from the egg, and how its body functions.\n", "BULLET::::- The final cause (\"telos\") is its purpose, the reason why a thing exists or is done, including both purposeful and instrumental actions and activities. The final cause is the purpose or function that something is supposed to serve. This covers modern ideas of motivating causes, such as volition. In the case of living things, it implies adaptation to a particular way of life.\n", "Section::::Natural philosophy.:Physics.:Optics.\n", "Aristotle describes experiments in optics using a camera obscura in \"Problems\", book 15. The apparatus consisted of a dark chamber with a small aperture that let light in. With it, he saw that whatever shape he made the hole, the sun's image always remained circular. He also noted that increasing the distance between the aperture and the image surface magnified the image.\n", "Section::::Natural philosophy.:Physics.:Chance and spontaneity.\n", "According to Aristotle, spontaneity and chance are causes of some things, distinguishable from other types of cause such as simple necessity. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of accidental things, \"from what is spontaneous\". There is also more a specific kind of chance, which Aristotle names \"luck\", that only applies to people's moral choices.\n", "Section::::Natural philosophy.:Astronomy.\n", "In astronomy, Aristotle refuted Democritus's claim that the Milky Way was made up of \"those stars which are shaded by the earth from the sun's rays,\" pointing out correctly that if \"the size of the sun is greater than that of the earth and the distance of the stars from the earth many times greater than that of the sun, then... the sun shines on all the stars and the earth screens none of them.\"\n", "Section::::Natural philosophy.:Geology.\n", "Aristotle was one of the first people to record any geological observations. He stated that geological change was too slow to be observed in one person's lifetime.\n", "The geologist Charles Lyell noted that Aristotle described such change, including \"lakes that had dried up\" and \"deserts that had become watered by rivers\", giving as examples the growth of the Nile delta since the time of Homer, and \"the upheaving of one of the Aeolian islands, previous to a volcanic eruption.\"'\n", "Section::::Natural philosophy.:Biology.\n", "Section::::Natural philosophy.:Biology.:Empirical research.\n", "Aristotle was the first person to study biology systematically, and biology forms a large part of his writings. He spent two years observing and describing the zoology of Lesbos and the surrounding seas, including in particular the Pyrrha lagoon in the centre of Lesbos. His data in \"History of Animals\", \"Generation of Animals\", \"Movement of Animals\", and \"Parts of Animals\" are assembled from his own observations, statements given by people with specialised knowledge such as beekeepers and fishermen, and less accurate accounts provided by travellers from overseas. His apparent emphasis on animals rather than plants is a historical accident: his works on botany have been lost, but two books on plants by his pupil Theophrastus have survived.\n", "Aristotle reports on the sea-life visible from observation on Lesbos and the catches of fishermen. He describes the catfish, electric ray, and frogfish in detail, as well as cephalopods such as the octopus and paper nautilus. His description of the hectocotyl arm of cephalopods, used in sexual reproduction, was widely disbelieved until the 19th century. He gives accurate descriptions of the four-chambered fore-stomachs of ruminants, and of the ovoviviparous embryological development of the hound shark.\n", "He notes that an animal's structure is well matched to function, so, among birds, the heron, which lives in marshes with soft mud and lives by catching fish, has a long neck and long legs, and a sharp spear-like beak, whereas ducks that swim have short legs and webbed feet. Darwin, too, noted these sorts of differences between similar kinds of animal, but unlike Aristotle used the data to come to the theory of evolution. Aristotle's writings can seem to modern readers close to implying evolution, but while Aristotle was aware that new mutations or hybridisations could occur, he saw these as rare accidents. For Aristotle, accidents, like heat waves in winter, must be considered distinct from natural causes. He was thus critical of Empedocles's materialist theory of a \"survival of the fittest\" origin of living things and their organs, and ridiculed the idea that accidents could lead to orderly results. To put his views into modern terms, he nowhere says that different species can have a common ancestor, or that one kind can change into another, or that kinds can become extinct.\n", "Section::::Natural philosophy.:Biology.:Scientific style.\n", "Aristotle did not do experiments in the modern sense. He used the ancient Greek term \"pepeiramenoi\" to mean observations, or at most investigative procedures like dissection. In \"Generation of Animals\", he finds a fertilised hen's egg of a suitable stage and opens it to see the embryo's heart beating inside.\n", "Instead, he practised a different style of science: systematically gathering data, discovering patterns common to whole groups of animals, and inferring possible causal explanations from these. This style is common in modern biology when large amounts of data become available in a new field, such as genomics. It does not result in the same certainty as experimental science, but it sets out testable hypotheses and constructs a narrative explanation of what is observed. In this sense, Aristotle's biology is scientific.\n", "From the data he collected and documented, Aristotle inferred quite a number of rules relating the life-history features of the live-bearing tetrapods (terrestrial placental mammals) that he studied. Among these correct predictions are the following. Brood size decreases with (adult) body mass, so that an elephant has fewer young (usually just one) per brood than a mouse. Lifespan increases with gestation period, and also with body mass, so that elephants live longer than mice, have a longer period of gestation, and are heavier. As a final example, fecundity decreases with lifespan, so long-lived kinds like elephants have fewer young in total than short-lived kinds like mice.\n", "Section::::Natural philosophy.:Biology.:Classification of living things.\n", "Aristotle distinguished about 500 species of animals, arranging these in the \"History of Animals\" in a graded scale of perfection, a \"scala naturae\", with man at the top. His system had eleven grades of animal, from highest potential to lowest, expressed in their form at birth: the highest gave live birth to hot and wet creatures, the lowest laid cold, dry mineral-like eggs. Animals came above plants, and these in turn were above minerals. see also: He grouped what the modern zoologist would call vertebrates as the hotter \"animals with blood\", and below them the colder invertebrates as \"animals without blood\". Those with blood were divided into the live-bearing (mammals), and the egg-laying (birds, reptiles, fish). Those without blood were insects, crustacea (non-shelled – cephalopods, and shelled) and the hard-shelled molluscs (bivalves and gastropods). He recognised that animals did not exactly fit into a linear scale, and noted various exceptions, such as that sharks had a placenta like the tetrapods. To a modern biologist, the explanation, not available to Aristotle, is convergent evolution. He believed that purposive final causes guided all natural processes; this teleological view justified his observed data as an expression of formal design.\n", "Section::::Natural philosophy.:Psychology.\n", "Section::::Natural philosophy.:Psychology.:Soul.\n", "Aristotle's psychology, given in his treatise \"On the Soul\" (\"peri psychēs\"), posits three kinds of soul (\"psyches\"): the vegetative soul, the sensitive soul, and the rational soul. Humans have a rational soul. The human soul incorporates the powers of the other kinds: Like the vegetative soul it can grow and nourish itself; like the sensitive soul it can experience sensations and move locally. The unique part of the human, rational soul is its ability to receive forms of other things and to compare them using the \"nous\" (intellect) and \"logos\" (reason).\n", "For Aristotle, the soul is the form of a living being. Because all beings are composites of form and matter, the form of living beings is that which endows them with what is specific to living beings, e.g. the ability to initiate movement (or in the case of plants, growth and chemical transformations, which Aristotle considers types of movement). In contrast to earlier philosophers, but in accordance with the Egyptians, he placed the rational soul in the heart, rather than the brain. Notable is Aristotle's division of sensation and thought, which generally differed from the concepts of previous philosophers, with the exception of Alcmaeon.\n", "Section::::Natural philosophy.:Psychology.:Memory.\n", "According to Aristotle in \"On the Soul\", memory is the ability to hold a perceived experience in the mind and to distinguish between the internal \"appearance\" and an occurrence in the past. In other words, a memory is a mental picture (phantasm) that can be recovered. Aristotle believed an impression is left on a semi-fluid bodily organ that undergoes several changes in order to make a memory. A memory occurs when stimuli such as sights or sounds are so complex that the nervous system cannot receive all the impressions at once. These changes are the same as those involved in the operations of sensation, Aristotelian 'common sense', and thinking.\n", "Aristotle uses the term 'memory' for the actual retaining of an experience in the impression that can develop from sensation, and for the intellectual anxiety that comes with the impression because it is formed at a particular time and processing specific contents. Memory is of the past, prediction is of the future, and sensation is of the present. Retrieval of impressions cannot be performed suddenly. A transitional channel is needed and located in our past experiences, both for our previous experience and present experience.\n", "Because Aristotle believes people receive all kinds of sense perceptions and perceive them as impressions, people are continually weaving together new impressions of experiences. To search for these impressions, people search the memory itself. Within the memory, if one experience is offered instead of a specific memory, that person will reject this experience until they find what they are looking for. Recollection occurs when one retrieved experience naturally follows another. If the chain of \"images\" is needed, one memory will stimulate the next. When people recall experiences, they stimulate certain previous experiences until they reach the one that is needed. Recollection is thus the self-directed activity of retrieving the information stored in a memory impression. Only humans can remember impressions of intellectual activity, such as numbers and words. Animals that have perception of time can retrieve memories of their past observations. Remembering involves only perception of the things remembered and of the time passed.\n", "Aristotle believed the chain of thought, which ends in recollection of certain impressions, was connected systematically in relationships such as similarity, contrast, and contiguity, described in his Laws of Association. Aristotle believed that past experiences are hidden within the mind. A force operates to awaken the hidden material to bring up the actual experience. According to Aristotle, association is the power innate in a mental state, which operates upon the unexpressed remains of former experiences, allowing them to rise and be recalled.\n", "Section::::Natural philosophy.:Psychology.:Dreams.\n", "Aristotle describes sleep in \"On Sleep and Wakefulness\". Sleep takes place as a result of overuse of the senses or of digestion, so it is vital to the body. While a person is asleep, the critical activities, which include thinking, sensing, recalling and remembering, do not function as they do during wakefulness. Since a person cannot sense during sleep they can not have desire, which is the result of sensation. However, the senses are able to work during sleep, albeit differently, unless they are weary.\n", "Dreams do not involve actually sensing a stimulus. In dreams, sensation is still involved, but in an altered manner. Aristotle explains that when a person stares at a moving stimulus such as the waves in a body of water, and then look away, the next thing they look at appears to have a wavelike motion. When a person perceives a stimulus and the stimulus is no longer the focus of their attention, it leaves an impression. When the body is awake and the senses are functioning properly, a person constantly encounters new stimuli to sense and so the impressions of previously perceived stimuli are ignored. However, during sleep the impressions made throughout the day are noticed as there are no new distracting sensory experiences. So, dreams result from these lasting impressions. Since impressions are all that are left and not the exact stimuli, dreams do not resemble the actual waking experience. During sleep, a person is in an altered state of mind. Aristotle compares a sleeping person to a person who is overtaken by strong feelings toward a stimulus. For example, a person who has a strong infatuation with someone may begin to think they see that person everywhere because they are so overtaken by their feelings. Since a person sleeping is in a suggestible state and unable to make judgements, they become easily deceived by what appears in their dreams, like the infatuated person. This leads the person to believe the dream is real, even when the dreams are absurd in nature.\n", "One component of Aristotle's theory of dreams disagrees with previously held beliefs. He claimed that dreams are not foretelling and not sent by a divine being. Aristotle reasoned naturalistically that instances in which dreams do resemble future events are simply coincidences. Aristotle claimed that a dream is first established by the fact that the person is asleep when they experience it. If a person had an image appear for a moment after waking up or if they see something in the dark it is not considered a dream because they were awake when it occurred. Secondly, any sensory experience that is perceived while a person is asleep does not qualify as part of a dream. For example, if, while a person is sleeping, a door shuts and in their dream they hear a door is shut, this sensory experience is not part of the dream. Lastly, the images of dreams must be a result of lasting impressions of waking sensory experiences.\n", "Section::::Practical philosophy.\n", "Aristotle's practical philosophy covers areas such as ethics, politics, economics, and rhetoric.\n", "Section::::Practical philosophy.:Just war theory.\n", "Aristotelian just war theory is not well regarded in the present day, especially his view that warfare was justified to enslave \"natural slaves\". In Aristotelian philosophy, the abolition of what he considers \"natural slavery\" would undermine civic freedom. The pursuit of freedom is inseparable from pursuing mastery over \"those who deserve to be slaves\". According to \"The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle's Politics\" the targets of this aggressive warfare were non-Greeks, noting Aristotle's view that \"our poets say 'it is proper for Greeks to rule non-Greeks'\".\n", "Aristotle generally has a favorable opinion of war, extolling it as a chance for virtue and writing that \"the leisure that accompanies peace\" tends to make people \"arrogant\". War to \"avoid becoming enslaved to others\" is justified as self-defense. He writes that war \"compels people to be just and temperate\", however, in order to be just \"war must be chosen for the sake of peace\" (with the exception of wars of aggression discussed above).\n", "Section::::Practical philosophy.:Ethics.\n", "Aristotle considered ethics to be a practical rather than theoretical study, i.e., one aimed at becoming good and doing good rather than knowing for its own sake. He wrote several treatises on ethics, including most notably, the \"Nicomachean Ethics\".\n", "Aristotle taught that virtue has to do with the proper function (\"ergon\") of a thing. An eye is only a good eye in so much as it can see, because the proper function of an eye is sight. Aristotle reasoned that humans must have a function specific to humans, and that this function must be an activity of the \"psuchē\" (\"soul\") in accordance with reason (\"logos\"). Aristotle identified such an optimum activity (the virtuous mean, between the accompanying vices of excess or deficiency) of the soul as the aim of all human deliberate action, \"eudaimonia\", generally translated as \"happiness\" or sometimes \"well being\". To have the potential of ever being happy in this way necessarily requires a good character (\"ēthikē\" \"aretē\"), often translated as moral or ethical virtue or excellence.\n", "Aristotle taught that to achieve a virtuous and potentially happy character requires a first stage of having the fortune to be habituated not deliberately, but by teachers, and experience, leading to a later stage in which one consciously chooses to do the best things. When the best people come to live life this way their practical wisdom (\"phronesis\") and their intellect (\"nous\") can develop with each other towards the highest possible human virtue, the wisdom of an accomplished theoretical or speculative thinker, or in other words, a philosopher.\n", "Section::::Practical philosophy.:Politics.\n", "In addition to his works on ethics, which address the individual, Aristotle addressed the city in his work titled \"Politics\". Aristotle considered the city to be a natural community. Moreover, he considered the city to be prior in importance to the family which in turn is prior to the individual, \"for the whole must of necessity be prior to the part\". He also famously stated that \"man is by nature a political animal\" and also arguing that humanity's defining factor among others in the animal kingdom is its rationality. Aristotle conceived of politics as being like an organism rather than like a machine, and as a collection of parts none of which can exist without the others. Aristotle's conception of the city is organic, and he is considered one of the first to conceive of the city in this manner.\n", "The common modern understanding of a political community as a modern state is quite different from Aristotle's understanding. Although he was aware of the existence and potential of larger empires, the natural community according to Aristotle was the city (\"polis\") which functions as a political \"community\" or \"partnership\" (\"koinōnia\"). The aim of the city is not just to avoid injustice or for economic stability, but rather to allow at least some citizens the possibility to live a good life, and to perform beautiful acts: \"The political partnership must be regarded, therefore, as being for the sake of noble actions, not for the sake of living together.\" This is distinguished from modern approaches, beginning with social contract theory, according to which individuals leave the state of nature because of \"fear of violent death\" or its \"inconveniences.\"\n", "In \"Protrepticus\", the character 'Aristotle' states:\n", "Section::::Practical philosophy.:Economics.\n", "Aristotle made substantial contributions to economic thought, especially to thought in the Middle Ages. In \"Politics\", Aristotle addresses the city, property, and trade. His response to criticisms of private property, in Lionel Robbins's view, anticipated later proponents of private property among philosophers and economists, as it related to the overall utility of social arrangements. Aristotle believed that although communal arrangements may seem beneficial to society, and that although private property is often blamed for social strife, such evils in fact come from human nature. In \"Politics\", Aristotle offers one of the earliest accounts of the origin of money. Money came into use because people became dependent on one another, importing what they needed and exporting the surplus. For the sake of convenience, people then agreed to deal in something that is intrinsically useful and easily applicable, such as iron or silver.\n", "Aristotle's discussions on retail and interest was a major influence on economic thought in the Middle Ages. He had a low opinion of retail, believing that contrary to using money to procure things one needs in managing the household, retail trade seeks to make a profit. It thus uses goods as a means to an end, rather than as an end unto itself. He believed that retail trade was in this way unnatural. Similarly, Aristotle considered making a profit through interest unnatural, as it makes a gain out of the money itself, and not from its use.\n", "Aristotle gave a summary of the function of money that was perhaps remarkably precocious for his time. He wrote that because it is impossible to determine the value of every good through a count of the number of other goods it is worth, the necessity arises of a single universal standard of measurement. Money thus allows for the association of different goods and makes them \"commensurable\". He goes to on state that money is also useful for future exchange, making it a sort of security. That is, \"if we do not want a thing now, we shall be able to get it when we do want it\".\n", "Section::::Practical philosophy.:Rhetoric and poetics.\n", "Aristotle's \"Rhetoric\" proposes that a speaker can use three basic kinds of appeals to persuade his audience: \"ethos\" (an appeal to the speaker's character), \"pathos\" (an appeal to the audience's emotion), and \"logos\" (an appeal to logical reasoning). He also categorises rhetoric into three genres: epideictic (ceremonial speeches dealing with praise or blame), forensic (judicial speeches over guilt or innocence), and deliberative (speeches calling on an audience to make a decision on an issue). Aristotle also outlines two kinds of rhetorical proofs: \"enthymeme\" (proof by syllogism) and \"paradeigma\" (proof by example).\n", "Aristotle writes in his \"Poetics\" that epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic poetry, painting, sculpture, music, and dance are all fundamentally acts of \"mimesis\" (\"imitation\"), each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner. He applies the term \"mimesis\" both as a property of a work of art and also as the product of the artist's intention and contends that the audience's realisation of the \"mimesis\" is vital to understanding the work itself. Aristotle states that \"mimesis\" is a natural instinct of humanity that separates humans from animals and that all human artistry \"follows the pattern of nature\". Because of this, Aristotle believed that each of the mimetic arts possesses what Stephen Halliwell calls \"highly structured procedures for the achievement of their purposes.\" For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation – through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama.\n", "While it is believed that Aristotle's \"Poetics\" originally comprised two books – one on comedy and one on tragedy – only the portion that focuses on tragedy has survived. Aristotle taught that tragedy is composed of six elements: plot-structure, character, style, thought, spectacle, and lyric poetry. The characters in a tragedy are merely a means of driving the story; and the plot, not the characters, is the chief focus of tragedy. Tragedy is the imitation of action arousing pity and fear, and is meant to effect the catharsis of those same emotions. Aristotle concludes \"Poetics\" with a discussion on which, if either, is superior: epic or tragic mimesis. He suggests that because tragedy possesses all the attributes of an epic, possibly possesses additional attributes such as spectacle and music, is more unified, and achieves the aim of its mimesis in shorter scope, it can be considered superior to epic. Aristotle was a keen systematic collector of riddles, folklore, and proverbs; he and his school had a special interest in the riddles of the Delphic Oracle and studied the fables of Aesop.\n", "Section::::Practical philosophy.:Views on women.\n", "Aristotle's analysis of procreation describes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert, passive female element. On this ground, proponents of feminist metaphysics have accused Aristotle of misogyny and sexism. However, Aristotle gave equal weight to women's happiness as he did to men's, and commented in his \"Rhetoric\" that the things that lead to happiness need to be in women as well as men.\n", "Section::::Influence.\n", "More than 2300 years after his death, Aristotle remains one of the most influential people who ever lived. He contributed to almost every field of human knowledge then in existence, and he was the founder of many new fields. According to the philosopher Bryan Magee, \"it is doubtful whether any human being has ever known as much as he did\". Among countless other achievements, Aristotle was the founder of formal logic, pioneered the study of zoology, and left every future scientist and philosopher in his debt through his contributions to the scientific method. Taneli Kukkonen, writing in \"The Classical Tradition\", observes that his achievement in founding two sciences is unmatched, and his reach in influencing \"every branch of intellectual enterprise\" including Western ethical and political theory, theology, rhetoric and literary analysis is equally long. As a result, Kukkonen argues, any analysis of reality today \"will almost certainly carry Aristotelian overtones ... evidence of an exceptionally forceful mind.\" Jonathan Barnes wrote that \"an account of Aristotle's intellectual afterlife would be little less than a history of European thought\".\n", "Section::::Influence.:On his successor, Theophrastus.\n", "Aristotle's pupil and successor, Theophrastus, wrote the \"History of Plants\", a pioneering work in botany. Some of his technical terms remain in use, such as carpel from \"carpos\", fruit, and pericarp, from \"pericarpion\", seed chamber.\n", "Theophrastus was much less concerned with formal causes than Aristotle was, instead pragmatically describing how plants functioned.\n", "Section::::Influence.:On later Greek philosophers.\n", "The immediate influence of Aristotle's work was felt as the Lyceum grew into the Peripatetic school. Aristotle's notable students included Aristoxenus, Dicaearchus, Demetrius of Phalerum, Eudemos of Rhodes, Harpalus, Hephaestion, Mnason of Phocis, Nicomachus, and Theophrastus. Aristotle's influence over Alexander the Great is seen in the latter's bringing with him on his expedition a host of zoologists, botanists, and researchers. He had also learned a great deal about Persian customs and traditions from his teacher. Although his respect for Aristotle was diminished as his travels made it clear that much of Aristotle's geography was clearly wrong, when the old philosopher released his works to the public, Alexander complained \"Thou hast not done well to publish thy acroamatic doctrines; for in what shall I surpass other men if those doctrines wherein I have been trained are to be all men's common property?\"\n", "Section::::Influence.:On Hellenistic science.\n", "After Theophrastus, the Lyceum failed to produce any original work. Though interest in Aristotle's ideas survived, they were generally taken unquestioningly. It is not until the age of Alexandria under the Ptolemies that advances in biology can be again found.\n", "The first medical teacher at Alexandria, Herophilus of Chalcedon, corrected Aristotle, placing intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished between veins and arteries, noting that the latter pulse while the former do not. Though a few ancient atomists such as Lucretius challenged the teleological viewpoint of Aristotelian ideas about life, teleology (and after the rise of Christianity, natural theology) would remain central to biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries. Ernst Mayr states that there was \"nothing of any real consequence in biology after Lucretius and Galen until the Renaissance.\"\n", "Section::::Influence.:On Byzantine scholars.\n", "Greek Christian scribes played a crucial role in the preservation of Aristotle by copying all the extant Greek language manuscripts of the corpus. The first Greek Christians to comment extensively on Aristotle were Philoponus, Elias, and David in the sixth century, and Stephen of Alexandria in the early seventh century. John Philoponus stands out for having attempted a fundamental critique of Aristotle's views on the eternity of the world, movement, and other elements of Aristotelian thought. Philoponus questioned Aristotle's teaching of physics, noting its flaws and introducing the theory of impetus to explain his observations.\n", "After a hiatus of several centuries, formal commentary by Eustratius and Michael of Ephesus reappeared in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, apparently sponsored by Anna Comnena.\n", "Section::::Influence.:On the medieval Islamic world.\n", "Aristotle was one of the most revered Western thinkers in early Islamic theology. Most of the still extant works of Aristotle, as well as a number of the original Greek commentaries, were translated into Arabic and studied by Muslim philosophers, scientists and scholars. Averroes, Avicenna and Alpharabius, who wrote on Aristotle in great depth, also influenced Thomas Aquinas and other Western Christian scholastic philosophers. Alkindus greatly admired Aristotle's philosophy, and Averroes spoke of Aristotle as the \"exemplar\" for all future philosophers. Medieval Muslim scholars regularly described Aristotle as the \"First Teacher\". The title \"teacher\" was first given to Aristotle by Muslim scholars, and was later used by Western philosophers (as in the famous poem of Dante) who were influenced by the tradition of Islamic philosophy.\n", "Section::::Influence.:On medieval Europe.\n", "With the loss of the study of ancient Greek in the early medieval Latin West, Aristotle was practically unknown there from c. AD 600 to c. 1100 except through the Latin translation of the \"Organon\" made by Boethius. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, interest in Aristotle revived and Latin Christians had translations made, both from Arabic translations, such as those by Gerard of Cremona, and from the original Greek, such as those by James of Venice and William of Moerbeke. After the Scholastic Thomas Aquinas wrote his \"Summa Theologica\", working from Moerbeke's translations and calling Aristotle \"The Philosopher\", the demand for Aristotle's writings grew, and the Greek manuscripts returned to the West, stimulating a revival of Aristotelianism in Europe that continued into the Renaissance. These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. Scholars such as Boethius, Peter Abelard, and John Buridan worked on Aristotelian logic.\n", "The medieval English poet Chaucer describes his student as being happy by having\n", "A cautionary medieval tale held that Aristotle advised his pupil Alexander to avoid the king's seductive mistress, Phyllis, but was himself captivated by her, and allowed her to ride him. Phyllis had secretly told Alexander what to expect, and he witnessed Phyllis proving that a woman's charms could overcome even the greatest philosopher's male intellect. Artists such as Hans Baldung produced a series of illustrations of the popular theme.\n", "The Italian poet Dante says of Aristotle in \"The Divine Comedy\":\n", "Section::::Influence.:On Early Modern scientists.\n", "In the Early Modern period, scientists such as William Harvey in England and Galileo Galilei in Italy reacted against the theories of Aristotle and other classical era thinkers like Galen, establishing new theories based to some degree on observation and experiment. Harvey demonstrated the circulation of the blood, establishing that the heart functioned as a pump rather than being the seat of the soul and the controller of the body's heat, as Aristotle thought. Galileo used more doubtful arguments to displace Aristotle's physics, proposing that bodies all fall at the same speed whatever their weight.\n", "Section::::Influence.:On 19th-century thinkers.\n", "The 19th-century German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche has been said to have taken nearly all of his political philosophy from Aristotle. Aristotle rigidly separated action from production, and argued for the deserved subservience of some people (\"natural slaves\"), and the natural superiority (virtue, \"arete\") of others. It was Martin Heidegger, not Nietzsche, who elaborated a new interpretation of Aristotle, intended to warrant his deconstruction of scholastic and philosophical tradition.\n", "The English mathematician George Boole fully accepted Aristotle's logic, but decided \"to go under, over, and beyond\" it with his system of algebraic logic in his 1854 book \"The Laws of Thought\". This gives logic a mathematical foundation with equations, enables it to solve equations as well as check validity, and allows it to handle a wider class of problems by expanding propositions of any number of terms, not just two.\n", "Section::::Influence.:Modern rejection and rehabilitation.\n", "During the 20th century, Aristotle's work was widely criticised. The philosopher Bertrand Russell\n", "argued that \"almost every serious intellectual advance has had to begin with an attack on some Aristotelian doctrine\". Russell called Aristotle's ethics \"repulsive\", and labelled his logic \"as definitely antiquated as Ptolemaic astronomy\". Russell stated that these errors made it difficult to do historical justice to Aristotle, until one remembered what an advance he made upon all of his predecessors.\n", "The Dutch historian of science Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis wrote that Aristotle and his predecessors showed the difficulty of science by \"proceed[ing] so readily to frame a theory of such a general character\" on limited evidence from their senses. In 1985, the biologist Peter Medawar could still state in \"pure seventeenth century\" tones that Aristotle had assembled \"a strange and generally speaking rather tiresome farrago of hearsay, imperfect observation, wishful thinking and credulity amounting to downright gullibility\".\n", "By the start of the 21st century, however, Aristotle was taken more seriously: Kukkonen noted that \"In the best 20th-century scholarship Aristotle comes alive as a thinker wrestling with the full weight of the Greek philosophical tradition.\" Ayn Rand accredited Aristotle as \"the greatest philosopher in history\" and cited him as a major influence on her thinking. More recently, Alasdair MacIntyre has attempted to reform what he calls the Aristotelian tradition in a way that is anti-elitist and capable of disputing the claims of both liberals and Nietzscheans. Kukkonen observed, too, that \"that most enduring of romantic images, Aristotle tutoring the future conqueror Alexander\" remained current, as in the 2004 film \"Alexander\", while the \"firm rules\" of Aristotle's theory of drama have ensured a role for the \"Poetics\" in Hollywood.\n", "Biologists continue to be interested in Aristotle's thinking. Armand Marie Leroi has reconstructed Aristotle's biology, while Niko Tinbergen's four questions, based on Aristotle's four causes, are used to analyse animal behaviour; they examine function, phylogeny, mechanism, and ontogeny.\n", "Section::::Surviving works.\n", "Section::::Surviving works.:Corpus Aristotelicum.\n", "The works of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity through medieval manuscript transmission are collected in the Corpus Aristotelicum. These texts, as opposed to Aristotle's lost works, are technical philosophical treatises from within Aristotle's school. Reference to them is made according to the organisation of Immanuel Bekker's Royal Prussian Academy edition (\"Aristotelis Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica\", Berlin, 1831–1870), which in turn is based on ancient classifications of these works.\n", "Section::::Surviving works.:Loss and preservation.\n", "Aristotle wrote his works on papyrus scrolls, the common writing medium of that era. His writings are divisible into two groups: the \"exoteric\", intended for the public, and the \"esoteric\", for use within the Lyceum school. Aristotle's \"lost\" works stray considerably in characterisation from the surviving Aristotelian corpus. Whereas the lost works appear to have been originally written with a view to subsequent publication, the surviving works mostly resemble lecture notes not intended for publication. Cicero's description of Aristotle's literary style as \"a river of gold\" must have applied to the published works, not the surviving notes. A major question in the history of Aristotle's works is how the exoteric writings were all lost, and how the ones we now possess came to us. The consensus is that Andronicus of Rhodes collected the esoteric works of Aristotle's school which existed in the form of smaller, separate works, distinguished them from those of Theophrastus and other Peripatetics, edited them, and finally compiled them into the more cohesive, larger works as they are known today.\n", "Section::::Legacy.\n", "Section::::Legacy.:Depictions.\n", "Aristotle has been depicted by major artists including Lucas Cranach the Elder, Justus van Gent, Raphael, Paolo Veronese, Jusepe de Ribera, Rembrandt, and Francesco Hayez over the centuries. Among the best-known is Raphael's fresco \"The School of Athens\", in the Vatican's Apostolic Palace, where the figures of Plato and Aristotle are central to the image, at the architectural vanishing point, reflecting their importance. Rembrandt's \"Aristotle with a Bust of Homer\", too, is a celebrated work, showing the knowing philosopher and the blind Homer from an earlier age: as the art critic Jonathan Jones writes, \"this painting will remain one of the greatest and most mysterious in the world, ensnaring us in its musty, glowing, pitch-black, terrible knowledge of time.\"\n", "Section::::Legacy.:Eponyms.\n", "The Aristotle Mountains in Antarctica are named after Aristotle. He was the first person known to conjecture, in his book \"Meteorology\", the existence of a landmass in the southern high-latitude region and called it \"Antarctica\". Aristoteles is a crater on the Moon bearing the classical form of Aristotle's name.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Aristotelian Society\n", "BULLET::::- Conimbricenses\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n", "The secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The following is only a small selection.\n", "BULLET::::- Ackrill, J. L. (1997). \"Essays on Plato and Aristotle\", Oxford University Press.\n", "BULLET::::- These translations are available in several places online; see External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Bakalis, Nikolaos. (2005). \"Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments\", Trafford Publishing\n", "BULLET::::- Bolotin, David (1998). \"An Approach to Aristotle's Physics: With Particular Attention to the Role of His Manner of Writing.\" Albany: SUNY Press. A contribution to our understanding of how to read Aristotle's scientific works.\n", "BULLET::::- Burnyeat, Myles F. \"et al.\" (1979). \"Notes on Book Zeta of Aristotle's Metaphysics\". Oxford: Sub-faculty of Philosophy.\n", "BULLET::::- Code, Alan (1995). Potentiality in Aristotle's Science and Metaphysics, Pacific Philosophical Quarterly 76.\n", "BULLET::::- De Groot, Jean (2014). \"Aristotle's Empiricism: Experience and Mechanics in the 4th Century BC\", Parmenides Publishing,\n", "BULLET::::- Frede, Michael (1987). \"Essays in Ancient Philosophy\". Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.\n", "BULLET::::- Gendlin, Eugene T. (2012). \"Line by Line Commentary on Aristotle's De Anima\", Volume 1: Books I & II; Volume 2: Book III. The Focusing Institute.\n", "BULLET::::- Gill, Mary Louise (1989). \"Aristotle on Substance: The Paradox of Unity\". Princeton University Press.\n", "BULLET::::- Halper, Edward C. (2009). \"One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 1: Books Alpha – Delta\", Parmenides Publishing.\n", "BULLET::::- Halper, Edward C. (2005). \"One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 2: The Central Books\", Parmenides Publishing.\n", "BULLET::::- Irwin, Terence H. (1988). \"Aristotle's First Principles\". Oxford: Clarendon Press.\n", "BULLET::::- Jori, Alberto (2003). \"Aristotele\", Bruno Mondadori (Prize 2003 of the \"International Academy of the History of Science\").\n", "BULLET::::- Knight, Kelvin (2007). \"Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre\", Polity Press.\n", "BULLET::::- Lewis, Frank A. (1991). \"Substance and Predication in Aristotle\". Cambridge University Press.\n", "BULLET::::- Lord, Carnes (1984). \"Introduction to \"The Politics\", by Aristotle\". Chicago University Press.\n", "BULLET::::- Loux, Michael J. (1991). Primary Ousia: An Essay on Aristotle's Metaphysics Ζ and Η. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.\n", "BULLET::::- Maso, Stefano (Ed.), Natali, Carlo (Ed.), Seel, Gerhard (Ed.) (2012) \"Reading Aristotle: Physics\" VII. 3: \"What is Alteration?\" \"Proceedings of the International ESAP-HYELE Conference\", Parmenides Publishing.\n", "BULLET::::- [Reprinted in J. Barnes, M. Schofield, and R.R.K. Sorabji, eds.(1975). \"Articles on Aristotle\" Vol 1. Science. London: Duckworth 14–34.]\n", "BULLET::::- Pangle, Lorraine Smith (2003). \"Aristotle and the Philosophy of Friendship\". Cambridge University Press.\n", "BULLET::::- Reeve, C. D. C. (2000). \"Substantial Knowledge: Aristotle's Metaphysics\". Hackett.\n", "BULLET::::- Scaltsas, T. (1994). \"Substances and Universals in Aristotle's Metaphysics\". Cornell University Press.\n", "BULLET::::- Strauss, Leo (1964). \"On Aristotle's \"Politics\"\", in \"The City and Man\", Rand McNally.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- At the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy:\n", "BULLET::::- From the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:\n", "BULLET::::- Collections of works\n", "BULLET::::- At Massachusetts Institute of Technology\n", "BULLET::::- Perseus Project at Tufts University\n", "BULLET::::- At the University of Adelaide\n", "BULLET::::- P. Remacle\n", "BULLET::::- The 11-volume 1837 Bekker edition of \"Aristotle's Works\" in Greek (PDFDJVU)\n" ] }

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Ackrill", "Myles Burnyeat", "Eugene Gendlin", "Terence Irwin", "Alberto Jori", "International Academy of the History of Science", "Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy", "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy", "Tufts University" ], "wikipedia_id": [ "23276", "11936957", "66540", "25617723", "529396", "309909", "22954", "13704154", "1692795", "9127632", "34413", "18895", "46426065", "2130", "397064", "25447", "22921", "22760983", "9223", "22986", "18077", "879525", "27376630", "14063972", "2420319", "1216", "547420", "54204", "783", "23664", "1120048", "10279126", "823343", "532476", "25532", "30758", "19555586", "48691513", "1308109", "22780", "37464286", "172466", "1367068", "18836", "27968837", "23385833", "14117", "39872", "606848", "21490957", "261873", "595344", "1385364", "879525", "461152", "40471", "14063972", "1730", "10274454", "42012", "2420319", "52000", "612408", "171850", "9559842", "854", "98409", "2633994", "4183", "83779", "54204", "783", "42012", "84096", "164281", "14653", "9827", "25617723", "10274360", "14063954", "78815", "3352973", "3207470", "11896315", "1692795", "2590334", "591767", "1692804", "1692791", "397064", "1657210", "9654608", "171288", "30337", "258647", "603624", "77697", "491442", "19636", "14631", "347543", "48046", "499019", "1764", "27568", "480672", "162776", "2967231", "11964", "23474", "22261", "23196", "60931", "25754129", "2384021", "1692795", "1692739", "2384021", "2384021", "4599105", "22954", "9247", "25754129", "393736", "61093", "6679056", "1692739", "9553", "6317", "6316", "6315", "6314", "1949268", "383129", "11062", "32502", "1844", "333420", "1291656", "2673476", "18836", "29688374", "474202", "9228", "12320384", "4599105", "4599105", "4599105", "8449", "23597", "4599105", "942048", "22483", "48193", "25691182", "47474", "741128", "50650", "8211", "2589714", "12207", "32128", "7472", "498611", "13633", "44889", "8921015", "2633994", "1692666", "1692706", "3589686", "1692768", "4183", "47335", "437961", "4627070", "42726", "22780", "634032", "1308109", "246806", "354967", "4261505", "237577", "37674", "8145410", "9236", "41244", "5259", "29000", "49417", "55170", "50550012", "18669", "23496", "900798", "11039790", "177793", "354964", "19828134", "36856", "15223", "18838", "3410", "25409", "4699587", "40119056", "19773328", "202240", "179252", "67166", "82804", "80757", "22921", "1692791", "28297", "3657390", "162776", "2139512", "18546203", "21478754", "57395711", "35001481", "173505", "25655142", "43571413", "49901", "591767", "1692791", "319762", "189616", "581086", "839045", "3657390", "1692804", "131855", "39704", "278263", "30099671", "9223", "1692804", "23626", "29678", "147767", "471630", "45479", "4744384", "8983183", "27119", "183515", "146738", "14252702", "795780", "1009030", "319762", "4202524", "39131926", "39190318", "27952971", "515973", "48046", "44310332", "9418", "544080", "329625", "52031586", "197055", "53258", "20012109", "42412671", "19168", "27165", "851085", "19636", "34413", "2145896", "98409", "42773375", "2394288", "15881720", "529396", "98921", "47724", "260858", "3454204", "2107750", "203963", "9736495", "14063954", "3080", "7606081", "189622", "53227", "36790", "41600", "5756554", "37145", "80757", "21665", "9238", "7614405", "2673476", "12320384", "21688986", "157653", "42199619", "47836", "1130", "175040", "21490957", "272065", "8169", "166162", "18836", "195684", "231112", "9937124", "318826", "39872", "3047155", "11887", "25532", "37464286", "172466", "12787", "56990334", "14068", "31140", "1291656", "50203", "29688374", "12326", "57330", "10671", "37304", "38298", "54476844", "1993328", "21304742", "4163", "2337371", "172002", "339", "595344", "1138675", "418334", "3596643", "9314943", "9425", "10013669", "149326", "10013115", "22469", "162195", "407695", "495185", "25617723", "6046", "79884", "2970450", "44525", "236906", "902105", "4254144", "1016842", "11144", "3206582", "313895", "538119", "19146501", "2683604", "38117420", "18959138", "1692685", "890352", "7527838", "1069961", "9979204", "9653188", "1849918", "16310046", "8150928", "30428341", "1967949", "357356", "84077" ] }

{ "description": "Classical Greek philosopher, student of Plato and founder of Western philosophy", "enwikiquote_title": "Aristotle", "wikidata_id": "Q868", "wikidata_label": "Aristotle", "wikipedia_title": "Aristotle", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Aristoteles", "Aristo", "Aristoételes", "Aristotelés", "Aristotel'", "Aristotile", "Aristotel", "Yalisiduode", "Aristóteles", "Aristóteles de Estagira", "Ya-li-ssu-to-te", "Yalishiduode", "Ya-li-shih-to-te", "Arisutoteresu", "Aristoteles Stagirites", "Aristotele", "Arestoteles", "Aristote", "Arystoteles", "Aristòtil", "Aristoeteles", "Aristoteles de Estagira", "Aristotil", "Aristotile.", "Aristotle.", "Aristotele.", "Aristote.", "Aristoteles Stagirites." ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Battle of Malakoff\n", "The Battle of Malakoff was a French attack against Russian forces on the Malakoff redoubt and its subsequent capture on 8 September 1855 as a part of the Siege of Sevastopol during the Crimean War. The French army under General MacMahon successfully stormed the Malakoff redoubt, while a simultaneous British attack on the Redan to the south of the Malakoff was repulsed. In one of the war's defining moments, the French \"zouave\" Eugène Libaut raised the French flag on the top of the Russian redoubt. The Battle of Malakoff resulted in the fall of Sevastopol on 9 September, bringing the 11-month siege to an end.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "Until 1784 most of the fortifications around Sevastopol were dedicated to the protection of the harbour entrance, the city itself and its naval base and were positioned close to these features. The construction of fortifications in the surrounding hills had been planned as early as 1837, but at the time of the battle only basic facilities and roadways had been completed on the north side of the long, westward-facing bay. To the south the central anchor of the defence system was the Malakoff-Kurgan ridge. Situated about southeast of the city, it consisted of a two-story stone tower of limestone on which the Russians had placed five heavy 18-pounder cannons at the beginning of the siege.\n", "There is some mystery surrounding this tower. Although it is known that the tower was built some time before the start of the war, the historical records do not show exactly when this occurred, and no mention of this is made in the contemporary descriptions of the siege itself. Additionally, there are different spellings and translations into or from Russian, including Малахова башня. What is known is that the tower was originally built or expanded by Sevastopol merchants and then later taken over by the Russian Navy. The tower had a diameter of about and a height of . In its centre the battery known as \"Lunette Kamchatka\" was placed. This was a smaller fortification that was designed to protect several artillery pieces.\n", "At this time the Russian cartographers marked all landmarks in and around this ridge as \"Fort Malakoff\". This included several large grave mounds and the same ridge lying in front known as Mamelon (\"vert Mamelon\"). The name \"Fortmortal Malakoff\" (or French \"Fort Malakoff\", Russian \"Mal'akhoff\") was retained after the war in Western literature covering the Crimean War.\n", "The harbour of Sevastopol, formed by the estuary of the Chernaya, was protected against attack by sea not only by the Russian war-vessels, afloat and sunken, but also by heavy granite forts on the south side and by the defensive works. For the town itself and the Karabelnaya suburb the plans for the works had been laid down for years. The Malakoff Tower covered the suburb, flanked on either side by the Redan and the Little Redan. The town was covered by a line of works marked by a flagstaff and central bastions, and separated from the Redan by the inner harbour.\n", "Lieutenant Colonel Eduard Totleben, the Russian chief engineer, had begun work on these sites early in the war. Through daily efforts to rebuild, re-arm and improve the fortifications, he was able to finally connect them with a continuous defence system enceinte. Yet early in October 1854, Sevastopol was not the towering fortress it later became, and Totleben himself maintained that had the allies assaulted it immediately, they would have succeeded in taking the city. There were, however, many reasons against them doing so at the time, and it was not until 17 October that the first attack took place.\n", "Section::::Battle.\n", "Throughout 17 October, a tremendous artillery duel raged. The Russian artillery was initially successful, the French corps fell under siege and suffered heavy losses. The advancing fleet engaging the harbour batteries also suffered a loss of 500 men and several ships were heavily damaged. Still, British siege batteries managed to silence the Malakoff and its annexes, after having succeeded in hitting a munitions depot and, if failure had not occurred at the other points of attack, an assault might have succeeded. As it was, by daybreak, Totleben's engineers had repaired and improved the damaged works.\n", "For months the siege of Sevastopol continued. During July the Russians lost on an average of 250 men a day, and finally the Russians decided to break the stalemate and gradual attrition of their army. Gorchakov and the field army were to make another attack at the Chernaya, the first since the Inkerman. On 16 August, both Pavel Liprandi and Read's corps furiously attacked the 37,000 French and Sardinian troops on the heights above Traktir Bridge. The assailants came on with the greatest determination, but they were ultimately unsuccessful. At the end of the day, the Russians drew off leaving 260 officers and 8,000 men dead or dying on the field; the French and British only lost 1,700. With this defeat the last chance of saving Sevastopol vanished.\n", "The same day, a determined bombardment once more reduced the Malakoff and its dependencies to impotence, and it was with absolute confidence in the result that Marshal Pélissier planned the final assault. At noon on 8 September 1855, the whole of Bosquet's corps suddenly attacked all along the right sector. The fighting was of the most desperate kind: the French attack on the Malakoff was successful, but the other two French attacks were repelled. The British attack on the Redan was initially successful, but a Russian counterattack drove the British out of the bastion after two hours after the French attacks on the Flagstaff Bastion (left of the Great Redan) were repelled. With the failure of the French attacks in the left sector but with the fall of the Malakoff in French hands further attacks were cancelled. The Russian positions around the city were no longer tenable.\n", "Throughout the day the bombardment mowed down the massed Russian soldiers along the whole line. The fall of the Malakoff was the end of the siege of the city. That night the Russians fled over the bridges to the north side, and on 9 September the victors took possession of the empty and burning city. The losses in the last assault had been very heavy: for the Allies over 10,000 men, for the Russians 13,000. At least nineteen generals had fallen on the final day and with the capture of Sevastopol the war was decided. No serious operations were undertaken against Gorchakov who, with the field army and the remnants of the garrison, held the heights at Mackenzie's Farm. But Kinburn was attacked by sea and, from the naval point of view, became the first instance of the employment of Ironclad warships. An armistice was agreed upon on 26 February and the Treaty of Paris was signed on 30 March 1856.\n", "Section::::Order of Battle, 8th September 1855.\n", "Right to left\n", "French right sector (French 2nd Corps under GdD Bosquet)\n", "BULLET::::- Little Redan: 3rd Division (GdD Dulac) - 17th Chasseurs, 10th, 57th, 61st and 85th Line, with 2nd brigade, 2nd Division of the Reserve Corps (GdB Jonquière) attached - 15th and 95th Line, and the Chasseurs of the Guard also attached\n", "BULLET::::- Curtain wall between Malakoff and Little Redan: 4th Division (GdD La Motte Rouge) - 4th Chasseurs, 49th, 86th, 91st and 100th line, with Imperial Guard infantry brigade (GdB Uhrich) attached - 1st and 2nd Guard Grenadiers (1 Bn each) and 1st and 2nd Guard Voltigeurs (1 Bn each)\n", "BULLET::::- Malakoff: 1st Division (GdD MacMahon) - 1st Chasseurs; 7th, 20th, and 27th Line, and 1st Zouaves, with 1st brigade, 2nd Division (GdB Wimpffen) attached - Tirailleurs Algerien, 3rd Zouaves and 50th Line, and the Guard Zouaves (two battalions under Colonel Jannin) also attached\n", "British sector (see Battle of the Great Redan)\n", "French left sector (French 1st Corps under GdD La Salles)\n", "BULLET::::- Bastion du Mat (Flagstaff bastion): 1st Division (GdD D'Autemarre) - 5th Chasseurs, 19th, 26th, 39th and 74th Line, with Cialdini's Sardinian brigade attached\n", "BULLET::::- Central Bastion: 2nd Division (GdD Levaillant) - 9th Chasseurs, 21st, 42nd, 46th and 80th Line, with 3rd Division (GdD Paté) - 6th Chasseurs, 28th and 98th Line, and 1st and 2nd Foreign Legion, and 4th Division (GdD Lefevre) - 10th Chasseurs, 14th, 18th, 43rd and 79th Line in reserve\n", "BULLET::::- Covering the left flank - 30th and 35th Line (detached from other commands)\n", "Section::::Aftermath.\n", "At first sight Russia would seem to be almost invulnerable to a sea power, and no first success, however crushing, could have humbled Nicholas I. Indeed, the mere capture of Sevastopol would not have been strategically decisive. However, as the Tsar had decided to defend it at all costs and with unlimited resources, it became an unpleasant defeat, especially as the Allies had reached victory with limited resources.\n", "During the nearly one-year siege of Sevastopol in the Crimean War, the fortifications on the Malakhov were hotly contested as they overlooked the whole city and the inner harbour. After the success of the French troops under the command of Marshal Pelissier, later the Duke of Malakoff (French: Duc de Malakoff), and General Patrice de Mac-Mahon, the Russian defenders evacuated the entire city on 8 September 1855, bringing a climax to the war.\n", "As the fortress enabled the control of the Black Sea port of Sevastopol, the Russian forces destroyed all of their equipment and withdrew, leaving Russia with no more military fortifications on the Black Sea. The long-awaited Russian domination of the inland sea to obtain free passage through the Bosporus to the Mediterranean (and beyond) was now not possible.\n", "In terms of logistics, the British and French had a significant advantage over the Russians as they were able to receive supplies from the sea, while the Russians had to bring supplies over the underdeveloped and dangerous desert tracks of southern Russia. The Russians lost many men and horses in bringing supplies to Sevastopol. The hasty nature, too, of the fortifications, which were damaged every day during the siege by the fire of a thousand guns, and had to be rebuilt every night, required large, unprotected working parties and the losses amongst these were correspondingly heavy. These losses exhausted Russia's resources and when they were forced to employ large bodies of militia in the Battle of Traktir Bridge, it was obvious that the end was at hand. The short stories of Leo Tolstoy, who was present at the siege, give a graphic picture of the war from the Russian point of view, portraying the miseries of the desert march, the still greater miseries of life in the casemates, and the almost daily ordeal of manning the lines, under shell-fire, against an assault which might or might not come.\n", "Among the seven surviving defenders of a stone tower on the Malakov Kurgan, which were found by French troops among the dead, was the seriously wounded Vasily Kolchak, the father of Aleksandr Vasiliyevich Kolchak. Kolchak would later become the head of all the counter-revolutionary anti-communist White forces during the Russian Civil War.\n", "As a result of press coverage of the siege of the tower, Malakhov Kurgan became a household name in Europe and many large and expensive towers in Western Europe were named after it. Among these were a number of stone mining towers in the Ruhrgebiet, the so-called caponier Fort Malakoff in Mainz, and the yellow sandstone Malakoff Tower in the city of Luxembourg. In addition, the Malakoff cake was named after the Duke of Malakoff, as was a cheese dish in parts of Switzerland. In France, the battle was officially commemorated in a rare way: apart from the Battle of Magenta (in the Italian Campaign), it was the only one of Emperor Napoleon III's exploits to result in the awarding of a victory title (both of ducal rank); this distinction was bestowed upon Marshal Pélissier. A suburb of Paris was also named after this battle, as well as the Avenue de Malakoff. Malakhov Kurgan, where it was fought, now contains the Eternal Fire, commemorating the Siege of Sevastopol during World War II. A branch of Franz Roubaud's great panorama representing the battle of 1855 is also located there.\n" ] }

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{ "description": "battle", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q586204", "wikidata_label": "Battle of Malakoff", "wikipedia_title": "Battle of Malakoff", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Physiological plant disorder\n", "Physiological plant disorders are caused by non-pathological conditions such as poor light, adverse weather, water-logging, phytotoxic compounds or a lack of nutrients, and affect the functioning of the plant system. Physiological disorders are distinguished from plant diseases caused by pathogens, such as a virus or fungus. While the symptoms of physiological disorders may appear disease-like, they can usually be prevented by altering environmental conditions. However, once a plant shows symptoms of a physiological disorder it is likely that, that season’s growth or yield will be reduced.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis of disorders.\n", "Diagnosis of the cause of a physiological disorder (or disease) can be difficult, but there are many web-based guides that may assist with this. Examples are: \"Abiotic plant disorders: Symptoms, signs and solutions\"; \"Georgia Corn Diagnostic Guide\"; \"Diagnosing Plant Problems\" (Kentucky); and \"Diagnosing Plant Problems\" (Virginia).\n", "Some general tips to diagnosing plant disorders:\n", "BULLET::::- Examine where symptoms first appear on a plant—on new leaves, old leaves or all over?\n", "BULLET::::- Note the pattern of any discolouration or yellowing—is it all over, between the veins or around the edges? If only the veins are yellow deficiency is probably not involved.\n", "BULLET::::- Note general patterns rather than looking at individual plants—are the symptoms distributed throughout a group of plants of the same type growing together. In the case of a deficiency all of the plants should be similarly effected, although distribution will depend on past treatments applied to the soil.\n", "BULLET::::- Soil analysis, such as determining pH, can help to confirm the presence of physiological disorders.\n", "BULLET::::- Consider recent conditions, such as heavy rains, dry spells, frosts, etc., may also help to determine the cause of plant disorders.\n", "Section::::Weather damage.\n", "Frost and cold are major causes of crop damage to tender plants, although hardy plants can also suffer if new growth is exposed to a hard frost following a period of warm weather. Symptoms will often appear overnight, affecting many types of plants. Leaves and stems may turn black, and buds and flowers may be discoloured, and frosted blooms may not produce fruit. Many annual plants, or plants grown in frost free areas, can suffer from damage when the air temperature drops below 40 degrees Fahrenheit (4 degrees Celsius). Tropical plants may begin to experience cold damage when the temperature is 42 to 48 °F (5 to 9 °C), symptoms include wilting of the top of the stems and/or leaves, and blackening or softening of the plant tissue.\n", "Frost or cold damage can be avoided by ensuring that tender plants are properly hardened before planting, and that they are not planted too early in the season, before the risk of frost has passed. Avoid planting susceptible plants in frost pockets, or where they will receive early morning sun. Protect young buds and bloom with horticultural fleece if frost is forecast.\n", "Cold, drying easterly winds can also severely inhibit spring growth even without an actual frost, thus adequate shelter or the use of windbreaks is important.\n", "Drought can cause plants to suffer from water stress and wilt. Adequate irrigation is required during prolonged hot, dry periods. Rather than shallow daily watering, during a drought water should be directed towards the roots, ensuring that the soil is thoroughly soaked two or three times a week. Mulches also help preserve soil moisture and keep roots cool.\n", "Heavy rains, particularly after prolonged dry periods, can also cause roots to split, onion saddleback (splitting at the base), tomatoes split and potatoes to become deformed or hollow. Using mulches or adding organic matter such as leaf mold, compost or well rotted manure to the soil will help to act as a 'buffer' between sudden changes in\n", "conditions. Water-logging can occur on poorly drained soils, particularly following heavy rains. Plants can become yellow and stunted, and will tend to be more prone to drought and diseases. Improving drainage will help to alleviate this problem.\n", "Hail can cause damage to soft skinned fruits, and may also allow brown rot or other fungi to penetrate the plant. Brown spot markings or lines on one side of a mature apple are indicative of a spring hailstorm.\n", "Plants affected by salt stress are able to take water from soil, due to an osmotic imbalance between soil and plant.\n", "Section::::Nutrient deficiencies.\n", "Poor growth and a variety of disorders such as leaf discolouration (chlorosis) can be caused by a shortage of one or more plant nutrients. Poor plant uptake of a nutrient from the soil (or other growing medium) may be due to an absolute shortage of that element in the growing medium, or because that element is present in a form that is not available to the plant. The latter can be caused by incorrect pH, shortage of water, poor root growth or an excess of another nutrient. Plant nutrient deficiencies can be avoided or corrected using a variety of approaches including the consultation of experts on-site, the use of soil and plant-tissue testing services, the application of prescription-blend fertilizers, the application of fresh or well-decomposed organic matter, and the use of biological systems such as cover crops, intercropping, improved fallows, ley cropping, permaculture, or crop rotation.\n", "Nutrient (or mineral) deficiencies include:\n", "BULLET::::- Boron deficiency\n", "BULLET::::- Calcium deficiency\n", "BULLET::::- Iron deficiency\n", "BULLET::::- Magnesium deficiency\n", "BULLET::::- Manganese deficiency\n", "BULLET::::- Molybdenum deficiency\n", "BULLET::::- Nitrogen deficiency\n", "BULLET::::- Phosphorus deficiency\n", "BULLET::::- Potassium deficiency\n", "BULLET::::- Zinc deficiency\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Prunella Scales\n", "Prunella Margaret Scales (\"née\" Illingworth; born 22 June 1932) is an English actress best known for her role as Basil Fawlty's wife Sybil in the BBC comedy \"Fawlty Towers\" and her BAFTA award-nominated role as Queen Elizabeth II in \"A Question of Attribution\" (\"Screen One\", BBC 1991) by Alan Bennett.\n", "Section::::Early life.\n", "Scales was born in Sutton Abinger, Surrey, the daughter of Catherine (\"née\" Scales), an actress, and John Richardson Illingworth, a cotton salesman. She attended Moira House Girls School, Eastbourne. She had a younger brother, Timothy (\"Timmo\") Illingworth (1934–2017).\n", "Scales' parents moved their family to Bucks Mill near Bideford in Devon in 1939 at the start of the Second World War. Scales herself (and her brother) were evacuated to Near Sawrey (then in Lancashire, now in Cumbria).\n", "Section::::Career.\n", "Scales started her career in 1951 as an assistant stage manager at the Bristol Old Vic. Throughout her career she has often been cast in comic roles. Her early work included the second UK adaptation of \"Pride and Prejudice\" (1952), \"Hobson's Choice\" (1954), \"Room at the Top\" (1959) and \"Waltz of the Toreadors\" (1962).\n", "Her career break came with the early 1960s sitcom \"Marriage Lines\" starring opposite Richard Briers. In addition to \"Fawlty Towers\", she has had roles in BBC Radio 4 sitcoms, and comedy series including \"After Henry\", \"Smelling of Roses\" and \"Ladies of Letters\"; on television she starred in the London Weekend Television/Channel 4 series \"Mapp & Lucia\" based on the novels by E. F. Benson. She played Queen Elizabeth II in Alan Bennett's \"A Question of Attribution\".\n", "In 1973, Scales was cast with Ronnie Barker in \"One Man's Meat\" which formed part of Barker's \"Seven of One\" series, also for the BBC. Her later film appearances include \"Escape from the Dark\" (1976), \"The Hound of the Baskervilles\" (1978), \"The Boys From Brazil\" (1978), \"The Wicked Lady\" (1983), \"The Lonely Passion of Judith Hearne\" (1987), \"Stiff Upper Lips\" (1997), \"Howards End\" (1992) and \"Wolf\" (1994). For the BBC Television Shakespeare production of \"The Merry Wives of Windsor\" (1982) she played Mistress Page and the \"Theatre Night\" series (BBC) she appeared with her husband Timothy West in the Joe Orton farce \"What the Butler Saw\" (1987) playing Mrs Prentice.\n", "For ten years, Prunella appeared with Jane Horrocks in advertisements for UK supermarket chain Tesco. In 1996, Scales starred in the television film, \"Lord of Misrule\", alongside Richard Wilson, Emily Mortimer and Stephen Moyer. The film was directed by Guy Jenkins and filming took place in Fowey in Cornwall. Also in 1996, she appeared as Miss Bates in Jane Austen’s Emma. In 1997, Scales starred in Chris Barfoot's science-fiction film short \"Phoenix\" which was first aired in 1999 by NBC Universal's Sci Fi Channel. Scales played 'The Client', an evil government minister funding inter-genetic time travel experiments. The same year she played Dr. Minny Stinkler in the comedy film \"Mad Cows\", directed by Sara Sugarman. In 1993 Scales voiced Mrs Tiggy-Winkle in The World of Peter Rabbit and Friends.\n", "In 2000 she appeared in the film \"The Ghost of Greville Lodge\" as Sarah. The same year she appeared as Eleanor Dunsall in Midsomer Murders Beyond the Grave. In 2001 she appeared in 2 episodes of Silent Witness, “Faith” as Mrs Parker. In 2003, she appeared as Hilda, \"she who must be obeyed\", wife of Horace Rumpole in four BBC Radio 4 plays, with Timothy West playing her fictional husband. Scales and West toured Australia at the same time in different productions. Scales appeared in a one-woman show called \"\"An Evening with Queen Victoria\"\", which also featured the tenor Ian Partridge singing songs written by Prince Albert.\n", "Also in 2003, she voiced the speaking (\"cawing\") role of Magpie, the eponymous thief in a recording of Gioachino Rossini's opera \"La gazza ladra\" (The Thieving Magpie).\n", "In 2006, she appeared alongside Academy Award winners Vanessa Redgrave and Maximilian Schell in the mini-series \"The Shell Seekers\".\n", "On 16 November 2007, Scales appeared in \"Children in Need\", reprising her role as Sybil Fawlty, the new manager who wants to take over Hotel Babylon. She appeared in the audio play \"The Youth of Old Age\", produced in 2008 by the Wireless Theatre Company, and available to download free of charge on their website. She appeared in a production of \"Carrie's War\", the Nina Bawden novel, at the Apollo Theatre in 2009. In 2008, she appeared in Agatha Christie's, \"A Pocket Full of Rye\", as Mrs. Mackenzie.\n", "John Cleese said in an interview on 8 May 2009 that the role of Sybil Fawlty was originally offered to Bridget Turner, who turned down the part, claiming \"it wasn't right for her\".\n", "She starred in the 2011 British live-action 3D family comedy film \"\" as the titular character's Great Aunt Greta.\n", "Scales appeared in a short audio story, \"Dandruff Hits the Turtleneck\", written by John Mayfield, and available for download.\n", "She starred in a Virgin Short \"Stranger Danger\" alongside Roderick Cowie in 2012. In 2013 she made a guest appearance in the popular BBC radio comedy \"Cabin Pressure\" as Wendy Crieff, the mother of Captain Martin Crieff.\n", "Alongside husband Timothy West she has appeared in \"Great Canal Journeys\" for Channel 4 every year since 2014. Stuart Heritage, writing for \"The Guardian\" in November 2016, commented that it \"is ultimately a work about a devoted couple facing something huge together. It’s a beautiful, meditative programme\". \"An emotional but unrooted glimpse of life with dementia\" was Christopher Howse's characterization in October 2018, writing for \"The Telegraph\".\n", "Section::::Personal life.\n", "Scales is married to the actor Timothy West, with whom she has two sons; the elder is actor and director Samuel West. Their younger son Joseph participated in two episodes of \"Great Canal Journeys\" filmed in France. Scales also has a step-daughter, Juliet, by West's first marriage.\n", "Her biography, \"Prunella\", written by Teresa Ransom, was published by UK publishing imprint John Murray in 2005.\n", "She was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1992 Birthday Honours List. Her husband received the same honour in the 1984 Birthday Honours List.\n", "Section::::Personal life.:Other activities.\n", "Scales is an ambassador of SOS Children's Villages charity. an international orphan charity providing homes and mothers for orphaned and abandoned children. She supports the charity's annual World Orphan Week campaign, which takes place each February.\n", "Scales is a patron of the Lace Market Theatre in Nottingham.\n", "In 2005, she named the P&O cruise ship, \"Artemis\".\n", "Section::::Personal life.:Later life.\n", "In March 2014, her husband told \"The Guardian\" that Scales was living with Alzheimer's disease. The couple discussed practical measures in a radio programme about age and dementia on BBC Radio 4 in December 2014. In June 2018, her husband characterized her short-term memory as \"no good at all\", and admitted her condition \"slowed them down\", but \"not so it closes up opportunities.\"\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "The Unseen (band)\n", "The Unseen is an American punk rock band that was formed in 1993 in Hingham, Massachusetts. One of the more prominent bands to revive street punk, The Unseen were originally called The Extinct.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "The Unseen formed in Hingham, Massachusetts in 1993. They then moved to Boston, Massachusetts. Along with other street punk bands, they set out to revive the English street punk sound of the 1980s.\n", "The quintet also released a best-of compilation for the European market in June 2000 titled \"\", which contained two previously unreleased tracks.\n", "The group's solid early line-up consisted of Tripp on bass and vocals, Scott on lead guitar, Civitarese on drums and vocals and Paul Russo on second guitar and vocals as well as drums and bass during live shows when the band switched instruments for certain songs. Most shows would begin with Russo and Tripp singing lead, and then the show would end with Paul playing drums and Civitarese singing lead. Russo went on to play in The Pinkerton Thugs as well as a solo project called The Strings. He is currently playing in a punk band called Broken Stereo.\n", "Mark Unseen (real name: Mark Civitarese), who played drums on the band's first few albums, became the lead singer after Paul Russo's departure. He also formed and currently runs ADD Records. He briefly joined the Boston punk group A Global Threat as a second singer, and recorded the full-length \"What The Fuck Will Change?\" and \"Until We Die\" before deciding to concentrate on his duties with The Unseen. However shortly after his departure he and Unseen guitarist Scott along with Mike Graves and Peter Curtis (then both members of A Global Threat) formed Self Destruct. They released only one 7-inch EP entitled \"Violent Affair\" and played fewer than 10 shows but the musical style and lyrical content displayed on their one record would have great influence on all Unseen music to follow, helping to shape their future sound with Civitarese as lead singer. In 2010 Civitarese started a punk rock band called Ashers in and released a 7\" vinyl and full-length album \"Kill Your Master\". More recently Civitarese joined up with various member of Boston's hardcore scene to form the hardcore/metal band \"Tenebrae.\".\n", "There has been some controversy concerning the band, including allegations that in recent years they have \"sold out\". Also that the band should have called it quits after losing Paul Russo and therefore their strong political message (Paul Russo wrote and sang most of 'Lower Class Crucifixion', 'So This Is Freedom?', and 'The Anger and The Truth'). Most widely cited is the fact that The Unseen have produced music videos to air on commercial music video channels such as GMTV2, an avenue looked-down upon in the underground street punk scene which also goes against the political message of the first few albums. Darkbuster, a band from The Unseen's area of origin, even released a joke song called \"I Hate The Unseen\". Members of Darkbuster and The Unseen are friends.\n", "They have toured Europe, North America, Australia, Japan, and Mexico with many punk bands from The Bouncing Souls and Rancid to decidedly more hardcore outfits like Hatebreed and Sick of It All. Since the departure of Russo, the band has used many replacements on tour such as members from The Virus, Strike Anywhere, and F-Minus, however, recently, on their MySpace page, The Unseen have included a fifth band member, Jonny, an ex-guitarist of A Global Threat who was in the band at the same time as Civitarese.\n", "2006 also saw the release of Tripp's book \"So This Is Readin'?\", which details the life and hardships of being in an underground band with dry comedy. It started as a lengthy band history on the band's website, but after a few amusing \"chapters\" he was contacted by a publishing company to release it in book form.\n", "In May 2006, The Unseen announced on their official website that they would begin writing their sixth studio full-length album during the summer of that year. The album, titled \"Internal Salvation\", was released on July 10, 2007. The first song released from that album is a track titled \"Right Before Your Eyes\" which was followed up by the track \"Break Away\", for which the band shot a music video. In support of the new album, the band joined the thirteenth Warped Tour in 2007 and launched a US–Canada tour in March 2008.\n", "The Unseen remained inactive, until May 25, 2013, when they played at Punk Rock Bowling at the Fremont Country Club in Las Vegas. They have continued performing live sporadically since then.\n", "Section::::Members.\n", "BULLET::::- Mark Civitarese (Mark Unseen) - Drums, Vocals (1993–2003), Lead Vocals (2003–present)\n", "BULLET::::- Tripp Underwood - Bass Guitar, Vocals (1993–present)\n", "BULLET::::- Scott Unseen - Lead Guitar, Vocals (1993–present)\n", "BULLET::::- Pat Melzard - Drums (2003–present)\n", "BULLET::::- Jonny Thayer- Rhythm Guitar, Backing Vocals (2006–present)\n", "Section::::Members.:Past members.\n", "BULLET::::- Paul Russo - Vocals, Rhythm Guitar, Bass, Drums (1995-1997,1998–2003)\n", "BULLET::::- Marc Carlson - Vocals (1993–1995)\n", "BULLET::::- Brian \"Chainsaw\" Riley - Rhythm Guitar, Vocals (1997 - 1999)\n", "BULLET::::- Ian Galloway - Rhythm Guitar, Backing Vocals **Touring (2003-2004,2006,2008)\n", "Section::::Studio albums.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Lower Class Crucifixion\" (1997) (originally released by VML Records, re-issued in 1998 by A-F Records)\n", "BULLET::::- \"So This Is Freedom\" (1999) (A-F Records)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Anger & The Truth\" (2001) (BYO Records)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Explode\" (2003) (BYO Records)\n", "BULLET::::- \"State of Discontent\" (2005) (Hellcat Records)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Internal Salvation\" (2007) (Hellcat Records)\n", "Section::::Collections.\n", "BULLET::::- \"\" (2000) (Step-1 Records)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Complete Singles Collection 1994-2000\" (2002) (Punkcore Records)\n", "Section::::7\" Vinyl.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Too Young To Know... Too Reckless To Care\" (1995 Rodent Popsicle Records)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Protect And Serve\" (1996 VML records)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Raise Your Finger Raise Your Fist\" (1996 VML records)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Tom and BootBoys Split\" (1998 Pogo 77 records)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Boston's Finest - Split with Toxic Narcotic\" (1998 ADD/Rodent popsicle records)\n", "Section::::Music videos.\n", "BULLET::::- '\"False Hope\" from Explode\n", "BULLET::::- \"Scream Out\" from State of Discontent\n", "BULLET::::- \"You Can Never Go Home\" from State of Discontent\n", "BULLET::::- \"Break Away\" from Internal Salvation\n", "Section::::In popular culture.\n", "BULLET::::- The Unseen are featured as background music in two skits for the TV series Jackass.\n", "BULLET::::- Mark Unseen makes a cameo appearance in the music video \"Used to Be\" by fellow Boston punk band The Have Nots.\n", "BULLET::::- Atlanta based rapper Pill wears a T-shirt for The Unseen in his music video \"Glass.\"\n", "BULLET::::- A poster of the band is seen in the background during one of the scenes of the movie Superbad.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Interview with Mark Unseen\n", "BULLET::::- Interview with Mark of Unseen\n", "BULLET::::- The Unseen on MySpace\n", "BULLET::::- Paul Russo on Facebook\n" ] }

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{ "description": "band that plays punk rock", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q1927585", "wikidata_label": "The Unseen", "wikipedia_title": "The Unseen (band)", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Battle of Malplaquet\n", "The Battle of Malplaquet, one of the bloodiest of modern times, was fought near the border of France on 11 September 1709, by the forces of Louis XIV of France commanded by Marshal Villars against a Dutch-British army led by Duke of Marlborough. After a string of defeats, failure of the harvest, and the prospect of invasion, Louis XIV had appealed to French patriotism, recruited fresh soldiers, and instructed Marshal Villars to use the country's last army to give battle against Marlborough's formidable force. After a series of manoeuvres, Villars settled on a position in which both his flanks were anchored in woods. Even though the French were outnumbered, Marlborough's by-now-familiar tactics of flank attacks to draw off troops from the centre incurred serious attrition by massed French musketry and skilful use of artillery. By the time Marlborough's assault on the denuded enemy centre came, his Allied army was badly weakened, and there was no attempt at pursuit by the Allies when the French retreated in good order. The Allies lost 20,000 men, twice as many as the French, and what was regarded by contemporaries as a shockingly large number of casualties caused Britain to question the sacrifices that might be required for Marlborough's campaign to continue. The Battle of Malplaquet is often regarded as a Pyrrhic victory because its main effect was to prevent the nominal winners from invading France.\n", "Section::::Prelude.\n", "After a late start to the campaigning season owing to the unusually harsh winter preceding it, the allied campaign of 1709 began in mid-June. Unable to bring the French army under Marshal Villars to battle owing to strong French defensive lines and the Marshal's orders from Versailles not to risk battle, the Duke of Marlborough concentrated instead on taking the fortresses of Tournai and Ypres. Tournai fell after an unusually long siege of almost 70 days, by which time it was early September, and rather than run the risk of disease spreading in his army in the poorly draining land around Ypres, Marlborough instead moved eastwards towards the lesser fortress of Mons, hoping by taking it to outflank the French defensive lines in the west. Villars moved after him, under new orders from Louis XIV to prevent the fall of Mons at all costs—effectively an order for the aggressive Marshal to give battle. After several complicated manoeuvres, the two armies faced each other across the gap of Malplaquet, south-west of Mons.\n", "Section::::Battle.\n", "The Allied army, mainly consisting of Dutch and Austrian troops, but also with considerable British and Prussian contingents, was led by the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene of Savoy, while the French were commanded by Villars and Marshal Boufflers. Boufflers was officially Villars' superior but voluntarily serving under him.\n", "The allies had about 86,000 troops and 100 guns and the French had about 75,000 and 80 guns, and they were encamped within cannon range of each other near what is now the France/Belgium border. At 9:00 am on 11 September, the Austrians attacked with the support of Prussian and Danish troops under the command of Count Albrecht Konrad Finck von Finckenstein, pushing the French left wing back into the forest behind them. Prince Eugene was wounded twice in the fighting. The Dutch under command of John William Friso, Prince of Orange, on the Allied left wing, attacked the French right flank half an hour later, and succeeded with heavy casualties in distracting Boufflers enough so that he could not come to Villars' aid.\n", "Villars was able to regroup his forces, but Marlborough and Savoy attacked again, assisted by the advance of a detachment under General Henry Withers advancing on the French left flank, forcing Villars to divert forces from his centre to confront them. At around 1:00 pm Villars was badly wounded by a musket ball which smashed his knee, and command passed to Boufflers. The decisive final attack was made on the now weakened French centre by British infantry under the command of the Earl of Orkney, which managed to occupy the French line of redans. This enabled the Allied cavalry to advance through this line and confront the French cavalry behind it. A fierce cavalry battle now ensued, in which Boufflers personally led the elite troops of the Maison du Roi. He managed six times to drive the Allied cavalry back upon the redans, but every time the French cavalry in its turn was driven back by British infantry fire. Finally, by 3:00 pm Boufflers, realising that the battle could not be won, ordered a retreat, which was made in good order. The Allies had suffered so many casualties in their attack that they could not pursue him. By this time they had lost over 24,000 men, including 6,500 killed, almost twice as many as the French. Villars himself remarked on the enemy's Pyrrhic victory via the flip-side of King Pyrrhus's famous quote: \"If it please God to give your majesty's enemies another such victory, they are ruined.\"\n", "Section::::First-hand account.\n", "A first-hand account of the Battle of Malplaquet is given in the book \"Amiable Renegade: The Memoirs of Peter Drake (1671–1753)\" on pages 163 to 170. Captain Drake, an Irishman who served as a mercenary in various European armies, served the French cause in the battle and was wounded several times. Drake wrote his memoirs at an advanced age (another Irish émigré, Féilim Ó Néill, died in the battle).\n", "Section::::Aftermath.\n", "By the norms of warfare of the era, the battle was an allied victory, because the French withdrew at the end of the day's fighting, and left Marlborough's army in possession of the battlefield, but with double the casualties. In contrast with the Duke's previous victories, however, the French army was able to withdraw in good order and relatively intact, and remained a potent threat to further allied operations. As Winston Churchill noted in \"\": \"The enemy had been beaten... But they had not been routed; they had not been destroyed. They retreated, but they cheered. They were beaten, but they boasted.\" Indeed, Villars wrote to Louis XIV that another such French defeat would destroy the allied armies, and historian John A. Lynn in \"The Wars of Louis XIV 1667–1714\" terms the battle a Pyrrhic victory. However, the attempt to save Mons failed and the fortress fell on 20 October. News of Malplaquet, the bloodiest battle of the eighteenth century, stunned Europe; a rumour abounded that even Marlborough had died, possibly inspiring the popular French folk song, \"\"Marlbrough s'en va-t-en guerre\"\".\n", "For the last of his four great battlefield victories, the Duke of Marlborough received no personal letter of thanks from Queen Anne. Richard Blackmore's \"Instructions to Vander Beck\" was virtually alone among English poems in attempting to celebrate the \"victory\" of Marlborough at Malplaquet, while it moved the English Tory party to begin agitating for a withdrawal from the alliance as soon as they formed a government the next year.\n" ] }

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{ "description": "Battle of the War of the Spanish Succession", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q316897", "wikidata_label": "Battle of Malplaquet", "wikipedia_title": "Battle of Malplaquet", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Die for the Government\n", "Die for the Government is the debut album by the U.S. punk rock band Anti-Flag, released in 1996. After this album, bassist Andy Flag played with Anti-Flag on their EP \"North America Sucks\", but left soon after as they couldn't get along as a band. The CD booklet bids farewell to Andy Flag.\n", "The front cover gives the title \"Die for the Government\", but side of the CD reads \"Die for Your Government\". Also the \"title track\" is actually named You've Got to Die for the Government.\n", "Section::::Personnel.\n", "BULLET::::- Justin Sane – guitar/vocals\n", "BULLET::::- Andy Flag – bass/vocals\n", "BULLET::::- Pat Thetic – drums\n", "BULLET::::- Andy Wright mixed tracks 4,6,7,8,12,13,16, and 17.\n", "BULLET::::- Andy \"Reagan\" Wheeler, Ricky \"Reagan\" Wright, Anne Flag, Mike Poisel, Mike Armstrong, Dan D. Lion, Jason DeCosta, and the band Disco Crisis all provided back up vocals.\n" ] }

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{ "description": "album", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q115295", "wikidata_label": "Die for the Government", "wikipedia_title": "Die for the Government", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Bremen (state)\n", "Bremen (), officially the Free Hanseatic City of Bremen (), is the smallest and least populous of Germany's 16 states. It is informally called \"Land Bremen\" (\"State of Bremen\"), although this is sometimes used in official contexts. The state consists of the city of Bremen as well as the small exclave of Bremerhaven in Northern Germany, surrounded by the larger state of Lower Saxony.\n", "Section::::Geography.\n", "The state of Bremen consists of two separated enclaves. These enclaves contain Bremen, officially the 'City' (\"Stadtgemeinde Bremen\") which is the state capital and located in both enclaves, and the city of Bremerhaven (\"Stadt Bremerhaven\"). Both are located on the River Weser; Bremerhaven is further downstream than the main parts of Bremen and serves as a North Sea harbour (the name \"Bremerhaven\" means \"Bremen's harbour\"). Both enclaves are completely surrounded by the neighbouring State of Lower Saxony (\"Niedersachsen\"). The two cities are the only administrative subdivisions the state has.\n", "The highest point in the state is in Friedehorst Park (32.5m).\n", "Section::::History.\n", "At the unwinding of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 the Free Imperial City of Bremen (as of 1646, after earlier privileges of autonomy of 1186) was not mediatised but became a sovereign state officially titled \"Free Hanseatic City of Bremen\". Its currency was the Bremen thaler (until 1873). In 1811 the First French Empire annexed the city-state. Upon the first, albeit only preliminary, defeat of Napoléon Bonaparte, Bremen resumed its pre-1811 status as city-state in 1813.\n", "The Vienna Congress of 1815 confirmed Bremen's—as well as Frankfurt's, Hamburg's, and Lübeck's—independence after pressuring by Bremen's emissary, and later burgomaster, Johann Smidt. Bremen became one of 39 sovereign states of the German Confederation. In 1827 the state of Bremen bought the tract of land from the Kingdom of Hanover, where future Bremerhaven would be established. Bremen became part of the North German Confederation in 1867 and became an autonomous component state of the new-founded German Empire in 1871 and stayed with Germany in its following forms of government.\n", "Bremen, which in 1935 had become a regular city at the de facto abolition of statehood of all component German states within the Third Reich, was reestablished as a state in 1947. Being—at that time—actually located in the British Zone of Occupation the Control Commission for Germany - British Element and the Office of Military Government for Germany, U.S. (OMGUS) agreed in 1947 to constitute the cities of \"Bremen\" and then Wesermünde—in their borders altered in 1939—as a German state named again \"Free Hanseatic City of Bremen\", becoming at that occasion an exclave of the American Zone of Occupation within the \"British zone\". In 1949 the city-state joined the then West German Federal Republic of Germany.\n", "Section::::Politics.\n", "Section::::Politics.:Political system.\n", "The legislature of the state of Bremen is the 83-member Bürgerschaft (citizens' assembly), elected by the citizens in the two cities of Bremen and Bremerhaven.\n", "The executive is constituted by the Senate of Bremen, elected by the Bürgerschaft. The Senate is chaired by the President of the senate (\"Senatspräsident\"), who is also one of the mayors of the city of Bremen (\"Bürgermeister\") and is elected directly by the Bürgerschaft. The Senate selects of its members as a second mayor who serves as deputy of the president. In contrast to the Federal Chancellor of Germany or other German states, the President of the Senate has no authority to override senators on policy, which is decided upon by the senate collectively. Since 1945, the Senate has continuously been dominated by the Social Democratic Party.\n", "On a municipal level, the two cities in the state are administered separately:\n", "BULLET::::- The administration of the city of Bremen is headed by the two mayors and controlled by the portion of the Bürgerschaft elected in the city of Bremen (68 members).\n", "BULLET::::- Bremerhaven, on the other hand, has a municipal assembly distinct from the state legislature and an administration under a distinct head mayor (\"Oberbürgermeister\") and a distinct second mayor.\n", "Section::::Politics.:2003 state reelections.\n", "Henning Scherf (SPD) remained Mayor and Senate President, in an SPD-CDU grand coalition. As promised he resigned after half of the legislative period. The Mayor and Senate President from 8 November 2005, until 17 July 2015, was Jens Böhrnsen.\n", "Section::::Politics.:2007 state elections.\n", "The 2007 elections were held on 13 May.\n", "Section::::Politics.:Coat of arms.\n", "The coat of arms and flag of Bremen state include:\n", "Section::::Economy.\n", "The unemployment rate stood at 9.5% in October 2018 and was the highest of all 16 German states.\n", "Section::::Education.\n", "The University of Bremen is the largest university in Bremen. Furthermore, Bremen has a University of the Arts Bremen, a University of Applied Sciences in Bremen and another one in Bremerhaven, and more recently the Jacobs University Bremen.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Bombing of Bremen in World War II\n", "BULLET::::- Former countries in Europe after 1815\n", "BULLET::::- Timeline of Bremen (city) history\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Official state portal\n", "BULLET::::- Official governmental portal\n", "BULLET::::- Constitution of the state, German only\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Ayn Rand\n", "Ayn Rand (; born Alisa Zinovyevna Rosenbaum;  – March 6, 1982) was a Russian-American writer and philosopher. She is known for her two best-selling novels, \"The Fountainhead\" and \"Atlas Shrugged\", and for developing a philosophical system she named Objectivism. Educated in Russia, she moved to the United States in 1926. She had a play produced on Broadway in 1935 and 1936. After two early novels that were initially unsuccessful, she achieved fame with her 1943 novel, \"The Fountainhead\". In 1957, Rand published her best-known work, the novel \"Atlas Shrugged\". Afterward, she turned to non-fiction to promote her philosophy, publishing her own periodicals and releasing several collections of essays until her death in 1982.\n", "Rand advocated reason as the only means of acquiring knowledge and rejected faith and religion. She supported rational and ethical egoism and rejected altruism. In politics, she condemned the initiation of force as immoral and opposed collectivism and statism as well as anarchism, instead supporting \"laissez-faire\" capitalism, which she defined as the system based on recognizing individual rights, including property rights. In art, Rand promoted romantic realism. She was sharply critical of most philosophers and philosophical traditions known to her, except for Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas and classical liberals.\n", "Literary critics received Rand's fiction with mixed reviews and academia generally ignored or rejected her philosophy, though academic interest has increased in recent decades. The Objectivist movement attempts to spread her ideas, both to the public and in academic settings. She has been a significant influence among libertarians and American conservatives.\n", "Section::::Life.\n", "Section::::Life.:Early life.\n", "Rand was born Alisa Zinovyevna Rosenbaum () on February 2, 1905, to a Russian-Jewish bourgeois family living in Saint Petersburg. She was the eldest of three daughters of Zinovy Zakharovich Rosenbaum and his wife, Anna Borisovna (née Kaplan). Her father was upwardly mobile and a pharmacist and her mother was socially ambitious and religiously observant. Rand later said she found school unchallenging and began writing screenplays at the age of eight and novels at the age of ten. At the prestigious , her closest friend was Vladimir Nabokov's younger sister, Olga. The two girls shared an intense interest in politics and would engage in debates at the Nabokov mansion: while Olga defended constitutional monarchy, Alisa supported republican ideals.\n", "She was twelve at the time of the February Revolution of 1917, during which she favored Alexander Kerensky over Tsar Nicholas II. The subsequent October Revolution and the rule of the Bolsheviks under Vladimir Lenin disrupted the life the family had previously enjoyed. Her father's business was confiscated, and the family fled to the Crimean Peninsula, which was initially under control of the White Army during the Russian Civil War. While in high school, she realized that she was an atheist and valued reason above any other human virtue. After graduating from high school in the Crimea in June 1921, she returned with her family to Petrograd (as Saint Petersburg was renamed at that time), where they faced desperate conditions, on occasion nearly starving.\n", "After the Russian Revolution, universities were opened to women, allowing her to be in the first group of women to enroll at Petrograd State University. At the age of 16, she began her studies in the department of social pedagogy, majoring in history. At the university she was introduced to the writings of Aristotle and Plato, who would be her greatest influence and counter-influence, respectively. She also studied the philosophical works of Friedrich Nietzsche. Able to read French, German and Russian, she also discovered the writers Fyodor Dostoevsky, Victor Hugo, Edmond Rostand, and Friedrich Schiller, who became her perennial favorites.\n", "Along with many other bourgeois students, she was purged from the university shortly before graduating. After complaints from a group of visiting foreign scientists, however, many of the purged students were allowed to complete their work and graduate, which she did in October 1924. She then studied for a year at the State Technicum for Screen Arts in Leningrad. For an assignment she wrote an essay about the Polish actress Pola Negri, which became her first published work.\n", "By this time she had decided her professional surname for writing would be \"Rand\", possibly because it is graphically similar to a vowelless excerpt of her birth surname in Cyrillic handwriting, and she adopted the first name \"Ayn\", either from a Finnish name \"Aino\" or from the Hebrew word (\"ayin\", meaning \"eye\").\n", "Section::::Life.:Arrival in the United States.\n", "In late 1925, Rand was granted a visa to visit relatives in Chicago. She departed on January 17, 1926. When she arrived in New York City on February 19, 1926, she was so impressed with the skyline of Manhattan that she cried what she later called \"tears of splendor\". Intent on staying in the United States to become a screenwriter, she lived for a few months with her relatives, one of whom owned a movie theater and allowed her to watch dozens of films free of charge. She then left for Hollywood, California.\n", "In Hollywood, a chance meeting with famed director Cecil B. DeMille led to work as an extra in his film \"The King of Kings\" and a subsequent job as a junior screenwriter. While working on \"The King of Kings\", she met an aspiring young actor, Frank O'Connor; the two were married on April 15, 1929. She became a permanent American resident in July 1929 and an American citizen on March 3, 1931. Taking various jobs during the 1930s to support her writing, she worked for a time as the head of the costume department at RKO Studios. She made several attempts to bring her parents and sisters to the United States, but they were unable to acquire permission to emigrate.\n", "Section::::Life.:Early fiction.\n", "Rand's first literary success came with the sale of her screenplay \"Red Pawn\" to Universal Studios in 1932, although it was never produced. This was followed by the courtroom drama \"Night of January 16th\", first produced by E. E. Clive in Hollywood in 1934 and then successfully reopened on Broadway in 1935. Each night a jury was selected from members of the audience; based on the jury's vote, one of two different endings would be performed. In 1941, Paramount Pictures produced a movie loosely based on the play. Rand did not participate in the production and was highly critical of the result. \"Ideal\" is a novel and play written in 1934 which were first published in 2015 by her estate. The heroine is an actress who embodies Randian ideals.\n", "Rand's first published novel, the semi-autobiographical \"We the Living\", was published in 1936. Set in Soviet Russia, it focused on the struggle between the individual and the state. In a 1959 foreword to the novel, Rand stated that \"We the Living\" \"is as near to an autobiography as I will ever write. It is not an autobiography in the literal, but only in the intellectual sense. The plot is invented, the background is not ...\" Initial sales were slow and the American publisher let it go out of print, although European editions continued to sell. After the success of her later novels, Rand was able to release a revised version in 1959 that has since sold over three million copies. In 1942, without Rand's knowledge or permission, the novel was made into a pair of Italian films, \"Noi vivi\" and \"Addio, Kira\". Rediscovered in the 1960s, these films were re-edited into a new version which was approved by Rand and re-released as \"We the Living\" in 1986.\n", "Her novella \"Anthem\" was written during a break from the writing of her next major novel, \"The Fountainhead\". It presents a vision of a dystopian future world in which totalitarian collectivism has triumphed to such an extent that even the word 'I' has been forgotten and replaced with 'we'. It was published in England in 1938, but Rand initially could not find an American publisher. As with \"We the Living\", Rand's later success allowed her to get a revised version published in 1946, which has sold more than 3.5 million copies.\n", "Section::::Life.:\"The Fountainhead\" and political activism.\n", "During the 1940s, Rand became politically active. She and her husband worked as full-time volunteers for the 1940 presidential campaign of Republican Wendell Willkie. This work led to Rand's first public speaking experiences; she enjoyed fielding sometimes hostile questions from New York City audiences who had viewed pro-Willkie newsreels. This activity brought her into contact with other intellectuals sympathetic to free-market capitalism. She became friends with journalist Henry Hazlitt and his wife, and Hazlitt introduced her to the Austrian School economist Ludwig von Mises. Despite her philosophical differences with them, Rand strongly endorsed the writings of both men throughout her career, and both of them expressed admiration for her. Mises once referred to Rand as \"the most courageous man in America\", a compliment that particularly pleased her because he said \"man\" instead of \"woman\". Rand also became friends with libertarian writer Isabel Paterson. Rand questioned Paterson about American history and politics long into the night during their many meetings and gave Paterson ideas for her only non-fiction book, \"The God of the Machine\".\n", "Rand's first major success as a writer came in 1943 with \"The Fountainhead\", a romantic and philosophical novel that she wrote over a period of seven years. The novel centers on an uncompromising young architect named Howard Roark and his struggle against what Rand described as \"second-handers\"—those who attempt to live through others, placing others above themselves. It was rejected by twelve publishers before finally being accepted by the Bobbs-Merrill Company on the insistence of editor Archibald Ogden, who threatened to quit if his employer did not publish it. While completing the novel, Rand was prescribed the amphetamine Benzedrine to fight fatigue. The drug helped her to work long hours to meet her deadline for delivering the novel, but afterwards she was so exhausted that her doctor ordered two weeks' rest. Her use of the drug for approximately three decades may have contributed to what some of her later associates described as volatile mood swings.\n", "\"The Fountainhead\" became a worldwide success, bringing Rand fame and financial security. In 1943, Rand sold the rights for a film version to Warner Bros. and she returned to Hollywood to write the screenplay. Finishing her work on that screenplay, she was hired by producer Hal B. Wallis as a screenwriter and script-doctor. Her work for Wallis included the screenplays for the Oscar-nominated \"Love Letters\" and \"You Came Along\". Rand also worked on other projects, including a planned nonfiction treatment of her philosophy to be called \"The Moral Basis of Individualism\". Although the planned book was never completed, a condensed version was published as an essay titled \"The Only Path to Tomorrow\" in the January 1944 edition of \"Reader's Digest\" magazine.\n", "Rand extended her involvement with free-market and anti-communist activism while working in Hollywood. She became involved with the Motion Picture Alliance for the Preservation of American Ideals, a Hollywood anti-Communist group, and wrote articles on the group's behalf. She also joined the anti-Communist American Writers Association. A visit by Isabel Paterson to meet with Rand's California associates led to a final falling out between the two when Paterson made comments, which Rand considered rude, to valued political allies. In 1947, during the Second Red Scare, Rand testified as a \"friendly witness\" before the United States House Un-American Activities Committee. Her testimony described the disparity between her personal experiences in the Soviet Union and the portrayal of it in the 1944 film \"Song of Russia\". Rand argued that the film grossly misrepresented conditions in the Soviet Union, portraying life there as much better and happier than it actually was. She wanted to also criticize the lauded 1946 film \"The Best Years of Our Lives\" for what she interpreted as its negative presentation of the business world, but she was not allowed to testify about it. When asked after the hearings about her feelings on the effectiveness of the investigations, Rand described the process as \"futile\".\n", "After several delays, the film version of \"The Fountainhead\" was released in 1949. Although it used Rand's screenplay with minimal alterations, she \"disliked the movie from beginning to end\", and complained about its editing, acting, and other elements.\n", "Section::::Life.:\"Atlas Shrugged\" and Objectivism.\n", "In the years following the publication of \"The Fountainhead\", Rand received numerous letters from readers, some of whom the book profoundly influenced. In 1951, Rand moved from Los Angeles to New York City, where she gathered a group of these admirers around her. This group (jokingly designated \"The Collective\") included future Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan, a young psychology student named Nathan Blumenthal (later Nathaniel Branden) and his wife Barbara and Barbara's cousin Leonard Peikoff. Initially the group was an informal gathering of friends who met with Rand on weekends at her apartment to discuss philosophy. She later began allowing them to read the drafts of her new novel, \"Atlas Shrugged\", as the manuscript pages were written. In 1954 Rand's close relationship with the younger Nathaniel Branden turned into a romantic affair, with the consent of their spouses.\n", "\"Atlas Shrugged\", published in 1957, was considered Rand's \"magnum opus\". Rand described the theme of the novel as \"the role of the mind in man's existence—and, as a corollary, the demonstration of a new moral philosophy: the morality of rational self-interest\". It advocates the core tenets of Rand's philosophy of Objectivism and expresses her concept of human achievement. The plot involves a dystopian United States in which the most creative industrialists, scientists, and artists respond to a welfare state government by going on strike and retreating to a mountainous hideaway where they build an independent free economy. The novel's hero and leader of the strike, John Galt, describes the strike as \"stopping the motor of the world\" by withdrawing the minds of the individuals most contributing to the nation's wealth and achievement. With this fictional strike, Rand intended to illustrate that without the efforts of the rational and productive, the economy would collapse and society would fall apart. The novel includes elements of mystery, romance, and science fiction, and it contains an extended exposition of Objectivism in the form of a lengthy monologue delivered by Galt.\n", "Despite many negative reviews, \"Atlas Shrugged\" became an international bestseller. In an interview with Mike Wallace, Rand declared herself \"the most creative thinker alive\". However, Rand was discouraged and depressed by the reaction of intellectuals to the novel. \"Atlas Shrugged\" was Rand's last completed work of fiction; it marked the end of her career as a novelist and the beginning of her role as a popular philosopher.\n", "In 1958, Nathaniel Branden established Nathaniel Branden Lectures, later incorporated as the Nathaniel Branden Institute (NBI), to promote Rand's philosophy. Collective members gave lectures for NBI and wrote articles for Objectivist periodicals that she edited. Rand later published some of these articles in book form. Critics, including some former NBI students and Branden himself, later described the culture of NBI as one of intellectual conformity and excessive reverence for Rand, with some describing NBI or the Objectivist movement itself as a cult or religion. Rand expressed opinions on a wide range of topics, from literature and music to sexuality and facial hair, and some of her followers mimicked her preferences, wearing clothes to match characters from her novels and buying furniture like hers. However, some former NBI students believed the extent of these behaviors was exaggerated, and the problem was concentrated among Rand's closest followers in New York. Rand was unimpressed with many of the NBI students and held them to strict standards, sometimes reacting coldly or angrily to those who disagreed with her.\n", "Section::::Life.:Later years.\n", "Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, Rand developed and promoted her Objectivist philosophy through her nonfiction works and by giving talks to students at institutions such as Yale, Princeton, Columbia, Harvard, and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. She received an honorary Doctorate of Humane Letters from Lewis & Clark College on 2 October 1963. She also began delivering annual lectures at the Ford Hall Forum, responding afterward to questions from the audience. During these speeches and Q&A sessions, she often took controversial stances on political and social issues of the day. These included supporting abortion rights, opposing the Vietnam War and the military draft (but condemning many draft dodgers as \"bums\"), supporting Israel in the Yom Kippur War of 1973 against a coalition of Arab nations as \"civilized men fighting savages\", saying European colonists had the right to develop land taken from American Indians, and calling homosexuality \"immoral\" and \"disgusting\", while also advocating the repeal of all laws about it. She also endorsed several Republican candidates for President of the United States, most strongly Barry Goldwater in 1964, whose candidacy she promoted in several articles for \"The Objectivist Newsletter\".\n", "In 1964, Nathaniel Branden began an affair with the young actress Patrecia Scott, whom he later married. Nathaniel and Barbara Branden kept the affair hidden from Rand. When she learned of it in 1968, though her romantic relationship with Branden had already ended, Rand terminated her relationship with both Brandens, which led to the closure of NBI. Rand published an article in \"The Objectivist\" repudiating Nathaniel Branden for dishonesty and other \"irrational behavior in his private life\". In subsequent years, Rand and several more of her closest associates parted company.\n", "Rand underwent surgery for lung cancer in 1974 after decades of heavy smoking. In 1976, she retired from writing her newsletter and, after her initial objections, she allowed social worker Evva Pryor, an employee of her attorney, to enroll her in Social Security and Medicare. During the late 1970s her activities within the Objectivist movement declined, especially after the death of her husband on November 9, 1979. One of her final projects was work on a never-completed television adaptation of \"Atlas Shrugged\".\n", "Rand died of heart failure on March 6, 1982, at her home in New York City, and was interred in the Kensico Cemetery, Valhalla, New York. Rand's funeral was attended by some of her prominent followers, including Alan Greenspan. A floral arrangement in the shape of a dollar sign was placed near her casket. In her will, Rand named Leonard Peikoff to inherit her estate.\n", "Section::::Philosophy.\n", "Rand called her philosophy \"Objectivism\", describing its essence as \"the concept of man as a heroic being, with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life, with productive achievement as his noblest activity, and reason as his only absolute\". She considered Objectivism a systematic philosophy and laid out positions on metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, political philosophy, and aesthetics.\n", "In metaphysics, Rand supported philosophical realism, and opposed anything she regarded as mysticism or supernaturalism, including all forms of religion.\n", "In epistemology, she considered all knowledge to be based on sense perception, the validity of which she considered axiomatic, and reason, which she described as \"the faculty that identifies and integrates the material provided by man's senses\". She rejected all claims of non-perceptual or \"a priori\" knowledge, including instinct,' 'intuition,' 'revelation,' or any form of 'just knowing. In her \"Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology\", Rand presented a theory of concept formation and rejected the analytic–synthetic dichotomy.\n", "In ethics, Rand argued for rational and ethical egoism (rational self-interest), as the guiding moral principle. She said the individual should \"exist for his own sake, neither sacrificing himself to others nor sacrificing others to himself\". She referred to egoism as \"the virtue of selfishness\" in her book of that title, in which she presented her solution to the is-ought problem by describing a meta-ethical theory that based morality in the needs of \"man's survival \"qua\" man\". She condemned ethical altruism as incompatible with the requirements of human life and happiness, and held that the initiation of force was evil and irrational, writing in \"Atlas Shrugged\" that \"Force and mind are opposites.\"\n", "Rand's political philosophy emphasized individual rights (including property rights), and she considered \"laissez-faire\" capitalism the only moral social system because in her view it was the only system based on the protection of those rights. She opposed statism, which she understood to include theocracy, absolute monarchy, Nazism, fascism, communism, democratic socialism, and dictatorship. Rand believed that natural rights should be enforced by a constitutionally limited government. Although her political views are often classified as conservative or libertarian, she preferred the term \"radical for capitalism\". She worked with conservatives on political projects, but disagreed with them over issues such as religion and ethics. She denounced libertarianism, which she associated with anarchism. She rejected anarchism as a naïve theory based in subjectivism that could only lead to collectivism in practice.\n", "In aesthetics, Rand defined art as a \"selective re-creation of reality according to an artist's metaphysical value-judgments\". According to her, art allows philosophical concepts to be presented in a concrete form that can be easily grasped, thereby fulfilling a need of human consciousness. As a writer, the art form Rand focused on most closely was literature, where she considered romanticism to be the approach that most accurately reflected the existence of human free will. She described her own approach to literature as \"romantic realism\".\n", "Rand acknowledged Aristotle as her greatest influence and remarked that in the history of philosophy she could only recommend \"three A's\"—Aristotle, Aquinas, and Ayn Rand. In a 1959 interview with Mike Wallace, when asked where her philosophy came from she responded: \"Out of my own mind, with the sole acknowledgement of a debt to Aristotle, the only philosopher who ever influenced me. I devised the rest of my philosophy myself.\" However, she also found early inspiration in Friedrich Nietzsche, and scholars have found indications of his influence in early notes from Rand's journals, in passages from the first edition of \"We the Living\" (which Rand later revised), and in her overall writing style. However, by the time she wrote \"The Fountainhead\", Rand had turned against Nietzsche's ideas, and the extent of his influence on her even during her early years is disputed. Rational egoism was embodied by Russian author Nikolay Chernyshevsky in the 1863 novel \"What Is to Be Done?\" and several critics claim that \"What Is to Be Done?\" is one of the sources of inspiration for Rand's thought. For example, the book's main character Lopuhov says \"I am not a man to make sacrifices. And indeed there are no such things. One acts in the way that one finds most pleasant.\" Among the philosophers Rand held in particular disdain was Immanuel Kant, whom she referred to as a \"monster\", although philosophers George Walsh and Fred Seddon have argued that she misinterpreted Kant and exaggerated their differences.\n", "Rand said her most important contributions to philosophy were her \"theory of concepts, [her] ethics, and [her] discovery in politics that evil—the violation of rights—consists of the initiation of force\". She believed epistemology was a foundational branch of philosophy and considered the advocacy of reason to be the single most significant aspect of her philosophy, stating: \"I am not \"primarily\" an advocate of capitalism, but of egoism; and I am not \"primarily\" an advocate of egoism, but of reason. If one recognizes the supremacy of reason and applies it consistently, all the rest follows.\"\n", "Section::::Reception and legacy.\n", "Section::::Reception and legacy.:Critical reception.\n", "During Rand's lifetime, her work evoked both extreme praise and condemnation. Rand's first novel, \"We the Living\", was admired by the literary critic H. L. Mencken, her Broadway play \"Night of January 16th\" was both a critical and popular success, and \"The Fountainhead\" was hailed by \"The New York Times\" reviewer Lorine Pruette as \"masterful\". Rand's novels were derided by some critics when they were first published as being long and melodramatic. However, they became bestsellers largely through word of mouth.\n", "The first reviews Rand received were for \"Night of January 16th\". Reviews of the production were largely positive, but Rand considered even positive reviews to be embarrassing because of significant changes made to her script by the producer. Rand believed that her first novel, \"We the Living\", was not widely reviewed, but Rand scholar Michael S. Berliner writes \"it was the most reviewed of any of her works\", with approximately 125 different reviews being published in more than 200 publications. Overall these reviews were more positive than the reviews she received for her later work. Her 1938 novella \"Anthem\" received little attention from reviewers, both for its first publication in England and for subsequent re-issues.\n", "Rand's first bestseller, \"The Fountainhead\", received far fewer reviews than \"We the Living\", and reviewers' opinions were mixed. Lorine Pruette's positive review in \"The New York Times\" was one that Rand greatly appreciated. Pruette called Rand \"a writer of great power\" who wrote \"brilliantly, beautifully and bitterly\", and stated that \"you will not be able to read this masterful book without thinking through some of the basic concepts of our time\". There were other positive reviews, but Rand dismissed most of them as either not understanding her message or as being from unimportant publications. Some negative reviews focused on the length of the novel, such as one that called it \"a whale of a book\" and another that said \"anyone who is taken in by it deserves a stern lecture on paper-rationing\". Other negative reviews called the characters unsympathetic and Rand's style \"offensively pedestrian\".\n", "Rand's 1957 novel \"Atlas Shrugged\" was widely reviewed and many of the reviews were strongly negative. In \"National Review\", conservative author Whittaker Chambers called the book \"sophomoric\" and \"remarkably silly\". He described the tone of the book as \"shrillness without reprieve\" and accused Rand of supporting a godless system (which he related to that of the Soviets), claiming \"From almost any page of \"Atlas Shrugged\", a voice can be heard, from painful necessity, commanding: 'To a gas chamber—go!. \"Atlas Shrugged\" received positive reviews from a few publications, including praise from the noted book reviewer John Chamberlain, but Rand scholar Mimi Reisel Gladstein later wrote that \"reviewers seemed to vie with each other in a contest to devise the cleverest put-downs\", calling it \"execrable claptrap\" and \"a nightmare\"—they also said it was \"written out of hate\" and showed \"remorseless hectoring and prolixity\".\n", "Rand's nonfiction received far fewer reviews than her novels had. The tenor of the criticism for her first nonfiction book, \"For the New Intellectual\", was similar to that for \"Atlas Shrugged\", with philosopher Sidney Hook likening her certainty to \"the way philosophy is written in the Soviet Union\", and author Gore Vidal calling her viewpoint \"nearly perfect in its immorality\". Her subsequent books got progressively less attention from reviewers.\n", "On the 100th anniversary of Rand's birth in 2005, Edward Rothstein, writing for \"The New York Times\", referred to her fictional writing as quaint utopian \"retro fantasy\" and programmatic neo-Romanticism of the misunderstood artist while criticizing her characters' \"isolated rejection of democratic society\". In 2007, book critic Leslie Clark described her fiction as \"romance novels with a patina of pseudo-philosophy\". In 2009, \"GQ\"s critic columnist Tom Carson described her books as \"capitalism's version of middlebrow religious novels\" such as \"\" and the \"Left Behind\" series.\n", "Section::::Reception and legacy.:Popular interest.\n", "In 1991, a survey conducted for the Library of Congress and the Book-of-the-Month Club asked club members what the most influential book in the respondent's life was. Rand's \"Atlas Shrugged\" was the second most popular choice, after the Bible. Rand's books continue to be widely sold and read, with over 29 million copies sold (with about 10% of that total purchased for free distribution to schools by the Ayn Rand Institute). In 1998, Modern Library readers voted \"Atlas Shrugged\" the 20th century's finest work of fiction, followed by \"The Fountainhead\" in second place, \"Anthem\" in seventh, and \"We the Living\" eighth; none of the four appeared on the critics' list. Although Rand's influence has been greatest in the United States, there has been international interest in her work.\n", "Rand's contemporary admirers included fellow novelists, such as Ira Levin, Kay Nolte Smith and L. Neil Smith; and later writers such as Erika Holzer and Terry Goodkind have been influenced by her. Other artists who have cited Rand as an important influence on their lives and thought include comic book artist Steve Ditko and musician Neil Peart of Rush. Rand provided a positive view of business and subsequently many business executives and entrepreneurs have admired and promoted her work. John Allison of BB&T and Ed Snider of Comcast Spectacor have funded the promotion of Rand's ideas, while Mark Cuban (owner of the Dallas Mavericks) as well as John P. Mackey (CEO of Whole Foods) among others have said they consider Rand crucial to their success.\n", "Rand and her works have been referred to in a variety of media: on television shows including animated sitcoms, live-action comedies, dramas, and game shows, as well as in movies and video games. She, or a character based on her, figures prominently (in positive and negative lights) in literary and science fiction novels by prominent American authors. Nick Gillespie, editor in chief of \"Reason\", has remarked that \"Rand's is a tortured immortality, one in which she's as likely to be a punch line as a protagonist...\" and that \"jibes at Rand as cold and inhuman, run through the popular culture\". Two movies have been made about Rand's life. A 1997 documentary film, \"\", was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature. \"The Passion of Ayn Rand\", a 1999 television adaptation of the book of the same name, won several awards. Rand's image also appears on a 1999 U.S. postage stamp illustrated by artist Nick Gaetano.\n", "Section::::Reception and legacy.:Political influence.\n", "Although she rejected the labels \"conservative\" and \"libertarian\", Rand has had continuing influence on right-wing politics and libertarianism. Jim Powell, a senior fellow at the Cato Institute, considers Rand one of the three most important women (along with Rose Wilder Lane and Isabel Paterson) of modern American libertarianism, and David Nolan, one of the founders of the Libertarian Party, stated that \"without Ayn Rand, the libertarian movement would not exist\". In his history of the libertarian movement, journalist Brian Doherty described her as \"the most influential libertarian of the twentieth century to the public at large\" and biographer Jennifer Burns referred to her as \"the ultimate gateway drug to life on the right\". Economist and Ayn Rand student George Reisman wrote: \"Ayn Rand...in particular, must be cited as providing a philosophical foundation for the case of capitalism, and as being responsible probably more than anyone else for the current spread of pro-capitalist ideas.\"\n", "She faced intense opposition from William F. Buckley, Jr. and other contributors for the \"National Review\" magazine. They published numerous criticisms in the 1950s and 1960s by Whittaker Chambers, Garry Wills, and M. Stanton Evans. Nevertheless, her influence among conservatives forced Buckley and other \"National Review\" contributors to reconsider how traditional notions of virtue and Christianity could be integrated with support for capitalism.\n", "The political figures who cite Rand as an influence are usually conservatives (often members of the Republican Party), despite Rand taking some positions that are atypical for conservatives, such as being pro-choice and an atheist. A 1987 article in \"The New York Times\" referred to her as the Reagan administration's \"novelist laureate\". Republican Congressmen and conservative pundits have acknowledged her influence on their lives and have recommended her novels.\n", "The financial crisis of 2007–2008 spurred renewed interest in her works, especially \"Atlas Shrugged\", which some saw as foreshadowing the crisis. Opinion articles compared real-world events with the plot of the novel. During this time, signs mentioning Rand and her fictional hero John Galt appeared at Tea Party protests. There was also increased criticism of her ideas, especially from the political left, with critics blaming the economic crisis on her support of selfishness and free markets, particularly through her influence on Alan Greenspan. For example, \"Mother Jones\" remarked that \"Rand's particular genius has always been her ability to turn upside down traditional hierarchies and recast the wealthy, the talented, and the powerful as the oppressed\" while equating Randian individual well-being with that of the \"Volk\" according to Goebbels. Corey Robin of \"The Nation\" alleged similarities between the \"moral syntax of Randianism\" and fascism.\n", "Section::::Reception and legacy.:Academic reaction.\n", "Section::::Reception and legacy.:Academic reaction.:Scholarly reception during Rand's lifetime.\n", "During Rand's lifetime, her work received little attention from academic scholars. When the first academic book about Rand's philosophy appeared in 1971, its author declared writing about Rand \"a treacherous undertaking\" that could lead to \"guilt by association\" for taking her seriously. A few articles about Rand's ideas appeared in academic journals before her death in 1982, many of them in \"The Personalist\". One of these was \"On the Randian Argument\" by libertarian philosopher Robert Nozick, who argued that her meta-ethical argument is unsound and fails to solve the is–ought problem posed by David Hume. Other philosophers, writing in the same publication, argued that Nozick misstated Rand's case. Academic consideration of Rand as a literary figure during her life was even more limited. Academic Mimi Gladstein was unable to find any scholarly articles about Rand's novels when she began researching her in 1973, and only three such articles appeared during the rest of the 1970s.\n", "Section::::Reception and legacy.:Academic reaction.:Posthumous overall assessments.\n", "Since Rand's death, interest in her work has gradually increased. In 2009, historian Jennifer Burns identified \"three overlapping waves\" of scholarly interest in Rand, including \"an explosion of scholarship\" since the year 2000. However, as of that same year, few universities included Rand or Objectivism as a philosophical specialty or research area, with many literature and philosophy departments dismissing her as a pop culture phenomenon rather than a subject for serious study.\n", "Writing in the 1998 edition of the \"Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy\", political theorist Chandran Kukathas summarizes the mainstream philosophical reception to her work in two parts. Her ethical argument, he says, is viewed by most commentators as an unconvincing variant of Aristotle's ethics. Her political theory, he says, \"is of little interest\", marred by an \"ill-thought out and unsystematic\" effort to reconcile her hostility to the state with her rejection of anarchism. Libertarian philosopher Michael Huemer argues that very few people find Rand's ideas convincing, especially her ethics, which he believes are difficult to interpret and may lack logical coherence. He attributes the attention she receives to her being a \"compelling writer\", especially as a novelist, noting that \"Atlas Shrugged\" outsells Rand's non-fiction works as well as the works of other philosophers of classical liberalism such as Ludwig von Mises, Friedrich Hayek, or Frederic Bastiat.\n", "Political scientist Charles Murray, while praising Rand's literary accomplishments, criticizes her claim that her only \"philosophical debt\" was to Aristotle, instead asserting that her ideas were derivative of previous thinkers such as John Locke and Friedrich Nietzsche. Although Rand maintained that Objectivism was an integrated philosophical system, philosopher Robert H. Bass argues that her central ethical ideas are inconsistent and contradictory to her central political ideas.\n", "In the \"Literary Encyclopedia\" entry for Rand written in 2001, John David Lewis declared that \"Rand wrote the most intellectually challenging fiction of her generation\".\n", "Section::::Reception and legacy.:Academic reaction.:Rand-specific scholarship.\n", "Some scholars focus specifically on Rand's work. In 1987 Allan Gotthelf, George Walsh and David Kelley co-founded the Ayn Rand Society, a group affiliated with the American Philosophical Association. Gladstein, Harry Binswanger, Allan Gotthelf, John Hospers, Edwin A. Locke, Wallace Matson, Leonard Peikoff, Chris Matthew Sciabarra, and Tara Smith have taught her work in academic institutions. Sciabarra co-edits the \"Journal of Ayn Rand Studies\", a nonpartisan peer-reviewed journal dedicated to the study of Rand's philosophical and literary work. In a 1999 interview in the \"Chronicle of Higher Education\", Sciabarra commented, \"I know they laugh at Rand\", while forecasting a growth of interest in her work in the academic community.\n", "In 2012, the University of Pittsburgh Press launched an \"Ayn Rand Society Philosophical Studies\" series based on the proceedings of the Society. Smith has written several academic books and papers on Rand's ideas, including \"Ayn Rand's Normative Ethics: The Virtuous Egoist\", a volume on Rand's ethical theory published by Cambridge University Press. Rand's ideas have also been made subjects of study at Clemson and Duke universities. Scholars of English and American literature have largely ignored her work, although attention to her literary work has increased since the 1990s.\n", "Rand scholars Douglas Den Uyl and Douglas B. Rasmussen, while stressing the importance and originality of her thought, describe her style as \"literary, hyperbolic and emotional\". Political writer and Rand scholar Jack Wheeler writes that despite \"the incessant bombast and continuous venting of Randian rage\", Rand's ethics are \"a most immense achievement, the study of which is vastly more fruitful than any other in contemporary thought\". \n", "Section::::Reception and legacy.:Objectivist movement.\n", "In 1985, Rand's intellectual heir Leonard Peikoff established the Ayn Rand Institute, a nonprofit organization dedicated to promoting Rand's ideas and works. In 1990, after an ideological disagreement with Peikoff, philosopher David Kelley founded the Institute for Objectivist Studies, now known as The Atlas Society. In 2001, historian John McCaskey organized the Anthem Foundation for Objectivist Scholarship, which provides grants for scholarly work on Objectivism in academia. The charitable foundation of BB&T Corporation has also given grants for teaching Rand's ideas or works. The University of Texas at Austin, the University of Pittsburgh, and University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill are among the schools that have received grants. In some cases, these grants have been controversial due to their requiring research or teaching related to Rand.\n", "Section::::Selected works.\n", "Novels:\n", "BULLET::::- 1936 \"We the Living\"\n", "BULLET::::- 1943 \"The Fountainhead\"\n", "BULLET::::- 1957 \"Atlas Shrugged\"\n", "Other fiction:\n", "BULLET::::- 1934 \"Night of January 16th\"\n", "BULLET::::- 1938 \"Anthem\"\n", "BULLET::::- 2015 \"Ideal\"\n", "Non-fiction:\n", "BULLET::::- 1961 \"For the New Intellectual\"\n", "BULLET::::- 1964 \"The Virtue of Selfishness\"\n", "BULLET::::- 1966 \"\"\n", "BULLET::::- 1969 \"The Romantic Manifesto\"\n", "BULLET::::- 1971 \"\"\n", "BULLET::::- 1979 \"Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology\"\n", "BULLET::::- 1982 \"\"\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- List of people influenced by Ayn Rand\n", "BULLET::::- \"Letters of Ayn Rand\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Journals of Ayn Rand\"\n", "BULLET::::- Murder of Marion Parker\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Frequently Asked Questions About Ayn Rand from the Ayn Rand Institute\n", "BULLET::::- Rand's papers at The Library of Congress\n", "BULLET::::- Ayn Rand Lexicon – searchable database\n", "BULLET::::- \"Writings of Ayn Rand\" – from C-SPAN's \"\"\n" ] }

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{ "description": "Russian-American novelist and philosopher", "enwikiquote_title": "Ayn Rand", "wikidata_id": "Q132524", "wikidata_label": "Ayn Rand", "wikipedia_title": "Ayn Rand", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Alisa Zinov'yevna Rosenbaum" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse\n", "Raymond IV ( 1041 – 28 February 1105), sometimes called Raymond of Saint-Gilles or Raymond I of Tripoli, was a powerful noble in southern France and one of the leaders of the First Crusade (1096–99). He was the Count of Toulouse, Duke of Narbonne and Margrave of Provence from 1094, and he spent the last five years of his life establishing the County of Tripoli in the Near East.\n", "Section::::Early years.\n", "Raymond was a son of Pons of Toulouse and Almodis de La Marche. He received Saint-Gilles with the title of \"count\" from his father and displaced his niece Philippa, Duchess of Aquitaine, his brother William IV's daughter, in 1094 from inheriting Toulouse.\n", "In 1094, William Bertrand of Provence died and his margravial title to Provence passed to Raymond. A bull of Urban's dated 22 July 1096 names Raymond \"comes Nimirum Tholosanorum ac Ruthenensium et marchio Provintie Raimundus\" (\"Raymond, count of Nîmes, Toulouse and Rouergue and margrave of Provence\").\n", "Section::::The First Crusade.\n", "Raymond was deeply religious, and wished to die in the Holy Land, and so when the call was raised for the First Crusade, he was one of the first to take the cross. He is sometimes called \"the one-eyed\" (\"monoculus\" in Latin) after a rumour that he had lost an eye in a scuffle with the doorkeeper of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre during an earlier pilgrimage to Jerusalem. The oldest and the richest of the crusaders, Raymond left Toulouse at the end of October 1096, with a large company that included his wife Elvira, his infant son (who would die on the journey) and Adhemar, bishop of Le Puy, the papal legate. He ignored requests by his niece, Philippa (the rightful heiress to Toulouse) to grant the rule of Toulouse to her in his stead; instead, he left Bertrand, his eldest son, to govern. He marched to Dyrrhachium, and then east to Constantinople along the same route used by Bohemond of Taranto. At the end of April 1097, he was the only crusade leader not to swear an oath of fealty to Byzantine emperor Alexius I. Instead, Raymond swore an oath of friendship, and offered his support against Bohemond, mutual enemy of both Raymond and Alexius.\n", "He was present at the siege of Nicaea and the Battle of Dorylaeum in 1097, but his first major role came in October 1097 at the siege of Antioch. The crusaders heard a rumour that Antioch had been deserted by the Seljuk Turks, so Raymond sent his army ahead to occupy it, offending Bohemond of Taranto who wanted the city for himself. The city was, however, still occupied, and was taken by the crusaders only after a difficult siege in June 1098. Raymond took the \"palatium Cassiani\" (the palace of the emir, Yaghi-Siyan) and the tower over the Bridge Gate. He was ill during the second siege of Antioch by Kerbogha which culminated in a controversial rediscovery of the Holy Lance by a monk named Peter Bartholomew.\n", "The \"miracle\" raised the morale of the crusaders, and to their surprise they were able to rout Kerbogha outside Antioch. The Lance itself became a valuable relic among Raymond's followers, despite Adhemar of Le Puy's skepticism and Bohemond's disbelief and occasional mockery. Raymond also refused to relinquish his control of the city to Bohemond, reminding Bohemond that he was obligated to return Antioch to the court of Emperor Alexius, as he had sworn to do. A struggle then arose between Raymond's supporters and the supporters of Bohemond, partly over the genuineness of the Lance, but mostly over the possession of Antioch.\n", "Section::::Extending his territorial reach.\n", "Many of the minor knights and foot soldiers preferred to continue their march to Jerusalem, and they convinced Raymond to lead them there in the autumn of 1098. Raymond led them out to besiege Ma'arrat al-Numan, although he left a small detachment of his troops in Antioch, where Bohemond also remained. As Adhemar had died in Antioch, Raymond, along with the prestige given to him by the Holy Lance, became the new leader of the crusade. Bohemond however, expelled Raymond's detachment from Antioch in January 1099. Raymond then began to search for a city of his own. He marched from Ma'arrat, which had been captured in December 1098, into the emirate of Tripoli, and began the siege of Arqa on 14 February 1099, apparently with the intent of founding an independent territory in Tripoli that could limit the power of Bohemond to expand the Principality of Antioch to the south.\n", "The siege of Arqa, a town outside Tripoli, lasted longer than Raymond had hoped. Although he successfully captured Hisn al-Akrad, a fortress that would later become the important Krak des Chevaliers, his insistence on taking Tripoli delayed the march to Jerusalem, and he lost much of the support he had gained after Antioch. Raymond finally agreed to continue the march to Jerusalem on 13 May, and after months of siege the city was captured on 15 July. Raymond was offered the crown of the new Kingdom of Jerusalem, but refused, as he was reluctant to rule in the city in which Jesus had suffered. He said that he shuddered to think of being called \"King of Jerusalem\". It is also likely that he wished to continue the siege of Tripoli rather than remain in Jerusalem. However, he was also reluctant to give up the Tower of David in Jerusalem, which he had taken after the fall of the city, and it was only with difficulty that Godfrey of Bouillon was able to take it from him.\n", "Raymond participated in the battle of Ascalon soon after the capture of Jerusalem, during which an invading army from Egypt was defeated. However, Raymond wanted to occupy Ascalon himself rather than give it to Godfrey, and in the resulting dispute Ascalon remained unoccupied. It was not taken by the crusaders until 1153. Godfrey also blamed him for the failure of his army to capture Arsuf. When Raymond went north, in the winter of 1099–1100, his first act was one of hostility against Bohemond, capturing Laodicea from (Bohemond had himself recently taken it from Alexius). From Laodicea he went to Constantinople, where he allied with Alexius I, Bohemond's most powerful enemy. Bohemond was at the time attempting to expand Antioch into Byzantine territory, and blatantly refused to fulfill his oath to the Byzantine Empire.\n", "Section::::Crusade of 1101, siege of Tripoli, and death.\n", "Raymond was part of the doomed Crusade of 1101, where he was defeated at Mersivan in Anatolia. He escaped and returned to Constantinople. In 1102 he traveled by sea from Constantinople to Antioch, where he was imprisoned by Tancred, regent of Antioch during the captivity of Bohemond, and was only dismissed after promising not to attempt any conquests in the country between Antioch and Acre. He immediately broke his promise, attacking and capturing Tartus, and began to build a castle on the Mons Peregrinus (\"Pilgrim's Mountain\") which would help in his siege of Tripoli. He was aided by Alexius I, who preferred a friendly state in Tripoli to balance the hostile state in Antioch. Raymond died on February 28, 1105, before Tripoli was captured.\n", "Section::::Spouses and progeny.\n", "Raymond IV of Toulouse was married three times, and twice excommunicated for marrying within forbidden degrees of consanguinity. \n", "BULLET::::- His first wife was his cousin, daughter of Geoffrey I of Provence and the mother of his son Bertrand.\n", "BULLET::::- His second wife was Matilda (Mafalda), the daughter of Count Roger I of Sicily.\n", "BULLET::::- Raymond's third wife was Elvira, the illegitimate daughter of King Alfonso VI of León, the Spanish king who also campaigned furiously against the Moors. Their son was Alfonso Jordan.\n", "Following Raymond's death, his nephew William-Jordan in 1109, with the aid of King Baldwin I of Jerusalem, finally captured Tripoli and established the County of Tripoli. William was deposed in the same year by Raymond's eldest son Bertrand, and the county remained in the possession of the counts of Toulouse throughout the 12th century.\n", "Raymond of Toulouse seems to have been driven both by religious and material motives. On the one hand he accepted the discovery of the Holy Lance and rejected the kingship of Jerusalem, but on the other hand he could not resist the temptation of a new territory. Raymond of Aguilers, a clerk in Raymond's army, wrote an account of the crusade from Raymond's point of view.\n" ] }

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{ "description": "Occitan noble", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q299612", "wikidata_label": "Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse", "wikipedia_title": "Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Animation\n", "Animation is a method in which pictures are manipulated to appear as moving images. In traditional animation, images are drawn or painted by hand on transparent celluloid sheets to be photographed and exhibited on film. Today, most animations are made with computer-generated imagery (CGI). Computer animation can be very detailed 3D animation, while 2D computer animation can be used for stylistic reasons, low bandwidth or faster real-time renderings. Other common animation methods apply a stop motion technique to two and three-dimensional objects like paper cutouts, puppets or clay figures.\n", "Commonly the effect of animation is achieved by a rapid succession of sequential images that minimally differ from each other. The illusion—as in motion pictures in general—is thought to rely on the phi phenomenon and beta movement, but the exact causes are still uncertain.\n", "Analog mechanical animation media that rely on the rapid display of sequential images include the phénakisticope, zoetrope, flip book, praxinoscope and film. Television and video are popular electronic animation media that originally were analog and now operate digitally. For display on the computer, techniques like animated GIF and Flash animation were developed.\n", "Animation is more pervasive than many people realise. Apart from short films, feature films, animated gifs and other media dedicated to the display of moving images, animation is also heavily used for video games, motion graphics and special effects. Animation is also prevalent in information technology interfaces.\n", "The physical movement of image parts through simple mechanics – in for instance the moving images in magic lantern shows – can also be considered animation. The mechanical manipulation of puppets and objects to emulate living beings has a very long history in automata. Automata were popularised by Disney as animatronics.\n", "Animators are artists who specialize in creating animation.\n", "Section::::Etymology.\n", "The word \"animation\" stems from the Latin \"animationem\" (nominative \"animatio\"), noun of action from past participle stem of \"animare\", meaning \"the action of imparting life\". The primary meaning of the English word is \"liveliness\" and has been in use much longer than the meaning of \"moving image medium\".\n", "Section::::History.\n", "The history of animation started long before the development of cinematography. Humans have probably attempted to depict motion as far back as the Paleolithic period. Shadow play and the magic lantern offered popular shows with moving images as the result of manipulation by hand and/or some minor mechanics.\n", "A 5,200-year old pottery bowl discovered in Shahr-e Sukhteh, Iran, has five sequential images painted around it that seem to show phases of a goat leaping up to nip at a tree. In 1833, the phenakistiscope introduced the stroboscopic principle of modern animation, which would also provide the basis for the zoetrope (1866), the flip book (1868), the praxinoscope (1877) and cinematography.\n", "Charles-Émile Reynaud further developed his projection praxinoscope into the Théâtre Optique with transparent hand-painted colorful pictures in a long perforated strip wound between two spools, patented in December 1888. From 28 October 1892 to March 1900 Reynaud gave over 12,800 shows to a total of over 500.000 visitors at the Musée Grévin in Paris. His \"Pantomimes Lumineuses\" series of animated films each contained 300 to 700 frames that were manipulated back and forth to last 10 to 15 minutes per film. Piano music, song, and some dialogue were performed live, while some sound effects were synchronized with an electromagnet.\n", "After cinematography became a popular medium, some manufacturers of optical toys adapted small magic lanterns into toy film projectors for short loops of film. By 1902, they were producing many chromolithography film loops, usually by tracing live-action film footage (much like the later rotoscoping technique).\n", "Some early filmmakers, including J. Stuart Blackton, Arthur Melbourne-Cooper, Segundo de Chomón and Edwin S. Porter experimented with stop-motion animation, possibly since around 1899. Blackton's \"The Haunted Hotel\" (1907) was the first huge success that baffled audiences with objects apparently moving by themselves and inspired other filmmakers to try the technique.\n", "J. Stuart Blackton also experimented with animation drawn on blackboards and some cutout animation in \"Humorous Phases of Funny Faces\" (1906).\n", "In 1908, Émile Cohl's \"Fantasmagorie\" was released with a white-on-black chalkline look created with negative prints from black ink drawings on white paper. The film largely consists of a stick figure moving about and encountering all kinds of morphing objects, including a wine bottle that transforms into a flower.\n", "Inspired by Émile Cohl's stop-motion film \"Les allumettes animées [Animated Matches]\" (1908), Ladislas Starevich started making his influential puppet animations in 1910.\n", "Winsor McCay's \"Little Nemo\" (1911) showcased very detailed drawings. His \"Gertie the Dinosaur\" (1914) was also an early example of character development in drawn animation.\n", "During the 1910s, the production of animated short films, known as \"cartoons\", became an industry and cartoon shorts were produced for showing in cinemas. The most successful producer at the time was John Randolph Bray, who, along with animator Earl Hurd, patented the cel animation process that dominated the animation industry for the rest of the decade.\n", "\"El Apóstol\" (Spanish: \"The Apostle\") was a 1917 Argentine animated film utilizing cutout animation, and the world's first animated feature film. A fire that destroyed producer Federico Valle's film studio incinerated the only known copy of \"El Apóstol\", and it is now considered a lost film.\n", "In 1919, the silent animated short \"Feline Follies\" marked the debut of Felix the Cat, becoming the first animated character in the silent film era to gain significant popularity.\n", "The earliest extant feature-length animated film is The Adventures of Prince Achmed (1926) made by director Lotte Reiniger and her collaborators Carl Koch and Berthold Bartosch.\n", "The first animation with full sound synchronization (both music and dialogue) was a short by Walt Disney’s animation studio called \"Steamboat Willie\", featuring Mickey Mouse in 1928.\n", "In 1932, the first short animated film created entirely with Technicolor (using red/green/blue photographic filters and three strips of film in the camera) was Disney's \"Flowers and Trees\", directed by Burt Gillett. The first full-color animated feature film was \"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\", also by Walt Disney.\n", "Through the 1930s and 1950s, the golden age of American animation saw new animated characters emerge, including Goofy, Donald Duck, Daisy Duck, Bugs Bunny, Daffy Duck, Porky Pig, Betty Boop, Popeye, Sylvester the Cat, Woody Woodpecker, Tweety, Wile E. Coyote and Road Runner, Elmer Fudd, Foghorn Leghorn, Yosemite Sam, Tasmanian Devil, Hunky and Spunky, Droopy, Little Audrey, Tom and Jerry, Barney Bear, Mr. Magoo, Mighty Mouse, Gandy Goose, Heckle and Jeckle, George and Junior, the Fox and the Crow and the animated adoption of Superman, Baby Huey, Casper the Friendly Ghost, Little Lulu, among others.\n", "In 1958, Hanna-Barbera released \"The Huckleberry Hound Show\", the first half hour television program to feature only in animation. Terrytoons released \"Tom Terrific\" that same year. Television significantly decreased public attention to the animated shorts being shown in theaters.\n", "Computer animation has become popular since \"Toy Story\" (1995), the first feature-length animated film completely made using this technique.\n", "In 2008, the animation market was worth US$68.4 billion. Animation as an art and industry continues to thrive as of the mid-2010s because well-made animated projects can find audiences across borders and in all four quadrants. Animated feature-length films returned the highest gross margins (around 52%) of all film genres in 2004–2013.\n", "Section::::Techniques.\n", "Section::::Techniques.:Traditional animation.\n", "Traditional animation (also called cel animation or hand-drawn animation) was the process used for most animated films of the 20th century. The individual frames of a traditionally animated film are photographs of drawings, first drawn on paper. To create the illusion of movement, each drawing differs slightly from the one before it. The animators' drawings are traced or photocopied onto transparent acetate sheets called cels, which are filled in with paints in assigned colors or tones on the side opposite the line drawings. The completed character cels are photographed one-by-one against a painted background by a rostrum camera onto motion picture film.\n", "The traditional cel animation process became obsolete by the beginning of the 21st century. Today, animators' drawings and the backgrounds are either scanned into or drawn directly into a computer system. Various software programs are used to color the drawings and simulate camera movement and effects. The final animated piece is output to one of several delivery media, including traditional 35 mm film and newer media with digital video. The \"look\" of traditional cel animation is still preserved, and the character animators' work has remained essentially the same over the past 70 years. Some animation producers have used the term \"tradigital\" (a play on the words \"traditional\" and \"digital\") to describe cel animation that uses significant computer technology.\n", "Examples of traditionally animated feature films include \"Pinocchio\" (United States, 1940), \"Animal Farm\" (United Kingdom, 1954), \"Lucky and Zorba\" (Italy, 1998), and \"The Illusionist\" (British-French, 2010). Traditionally animated films produced with the aid of computer technology include \"The Lion King\" (US, 1994), \"The Prince of Egypt\" (US, 1998), \"Akira\" (Japan, 1988), \"Spirited Away\" (Japan, 2001), \"The Triplets of Belleville\" (France, 2003), and \"The Secret of Kells\" (Irish-French-Belgian, 2009).\n", "Section::::Techniques.:Traditional animation.:Full animation.\n", "Full animation refers to the process of producing high-quality traditionally animated films that regularly use detailed drawings and plausible movement, having a smooth animation. Fully animated films can be made in a variety of styles, from more realistically animated works like those produced by the Walt Disney studio (\"The Little Mermaid\", \"Beauty and the Beast\", \"Aladdin\", \"The Lion King\") to the more 'cartoon' styles of the Warner Bros. animation studio. Many of the Disney animated features are examples of full animation, as are non-Disney works, \"The Secret of NIMH\" (US, 1982), \"The Iron Giant\" (US, 1999), and \"Nocturna\" (Spain, 2007). Fully animated films are animated at 24 frames per second, with a combination of animation on ones and twos, meaning that drawings can be held for one frame out of 24 or two frames out of 24.\n", "Section::::Techniques.:Traditional animation.:Limited animation.\n", "Limited animation involves the use of less detailed or more stylized drawings and methods of movement usually a choppy or \"skippy\" movement animation. Limited animation uses fewer drawings per second, thereby limiting the fluidity of the animation. This is a more economic technique. Pioneered by the artists at the American studio United Productions of America, limited animation can be used as a method of stylized artistic expression, as in \"Gerald McBoing-Boing\" (US, 1951), \"Yellow Submarine\" (UK, 1968), and certain anime produced in Japan. Its primary use, however, has been in producing cost-effective animated content for media for television (the work of Hanna-Barbera, Filmation, and other TV animation studios) and later the Internet (web cartoons).\n", "Section::::Techniques.:Traditional animation.:Rotoscoping.\n", "Rotoscoping is a technique patented by Max Fleischer in 1917 where animators trace live-action movement, frame by frame. The source film can be directly copied from actors' outlines into animated drawings, as in \"The Lord of the Rings\" (US, 1978), or used in a stylized and expressive manner, as in \"Waking Life\" (US, 2001) and \"A Scanner Darkly\" (US, 2006). Some other examples are \"Fire and Ice\" (US, 1983), \"Heavy Metal\" (1981), and \"Aku no Hana\" (2013).\n", "Section::::Techniques.:Traditional animation.:Live-action/animation.\n", "Live-action/animation is a technique combining hand-drawn characters into live action shots or live action actors into animated shots. One of the earlier uses was in Koko the Clown when Koko was drawn over live action footage. Other examples include \"Allegro Non Troppo\" (Italy, 1976), \"Who Framed Roger Rabbit\" (US, 1988), \"Space Jam\" (US, 1996) and \"Osmosis Jones\" (US, 2001).\n", "Section::::Techniques.:Stop motion animation.\n", "Stop-motion animation is used to describe animation created by physically manipulating real-world objects and photographing them one frame of film at a time to create the illusion of movement. There are many different types of stop-motion animation, usually named after the medium used to create the animation. Computer software is widely available to create this type of animation; traditional stop motion animation is usually less expensive but more time-consuming to produce than current computer animation.\n", "BULLET::::- Puppet animation typically involves stop-motion puppet figures interacting in a constructed environment, in contrast to real-world interaction in model animation. The puppets generally have an armature inside of them to keep them still and steady to constrain their motion to particular joints. Examples include \"The Tale of the Fox\" (France, 1937), \"The Nightmare Before Christmas\" (US, 1993), \"Corpse Bride\" (US, 2005), \"Coraline\" (US, 2009), the films of Jiří Trnka and the adult animated sketch-comedy television series \"Robot Chicken\" (US, 2005–present).\n", "BULLET::::- Puppetoon, created using techniques developed by George Pal, are puppet-animated films that typically use a different version of a puppet for different frames, rather than simply manipulating one existing puppet.\n", "BULLET::::- Clay animation, or Plasticine animation (often called \"claymation\", which, however, is a trademarked name), uses figures made of clay or a similar malleable material to create stop-motion animation. The figures may have an armature or wire frame inside, similar to the related puppet animation (below), that can be manipulated to pose the figures. Alternatively, the figures may be made entirely of clay, in the films of Bruce Bickford, where clay creatures morph into a variety of different shapes. Examples of clay-animated works include \"The Gumby Show\" (US, 1957–1967), \"Mio Mao\" (Italy, 1974–2005), \"Morph\" shorts (UK, 1977–2000), \"Wallace and Gromit\" shorts (UK, as of 1989), Jan Švankmajer's \"Dimensions of Dialogue\" (Czechoslovakia, 1982), \"The Trap Door\" (UK, 1984). Films include \"\", \"Chicken Run\" and \"The Adventures of Mark Twain\".\n", "BULLET::::- Strata-cut animation, Strata-cut animation is most commonly a form of clay animation in which a long bread-like \"loaf\" of clay, internally packed tight and loaded with varying imagery, is sliced into thin sheets, with the animation camera taking a frame of the end of the loaf for each cut, eventually revealing the movement of the internal images within.\n", "BULLET::::- Cutout animation is a type of stop-motion animation produced by moving two-dimensional pieces of material paper or cloth. Examples include Terry Gilliam's animated sequences from \"Monty Python's Flying Circus\" (UK, 1969–1974); \"Fantastic Planet\" (France/Czechoslovakia, 1973) ; \"Tale of Tales\" (Russia, 1979), The pilot episode of the adult television sitcom series (and sometimes in episodes) of \"South Park\" (US, 1997) and the music video Live for the moment, from Verona Riots band (produced by Alberto Serrano and Nívola Uyá, Spain 2014).\n", "BULLET::::- Silhouette animation is a variant of cutout animation in which the characters are backlit and only visible as silhouettes. Examples include \"The Adventures of Prince Achmed\" (Weimar Republic, 1926) and \"Princes et princesses\" (France, 2000).\n", "BULLET::::- Model animation refers to stop-motion animation created to interact with and exist as a part of a live-action world. Intercutting, matte effects and split screens are often employed to blend stop-motion characters or objects with live actors and settings. Examples include the work of Ray Harryhausen, as seen in films, \"Jason and the Argonauts\" (1963), and the work of Willis H. O'Brien on films, \"King Kong\" (1933).\n", "BULLET::::- Go motion is a variant of model animation that uses various techniques to create motion blur between frames of film, which is not present in traditional stop-motion. The technique was invented by Industrial Light & Magic and Phil Tippett to create special effect scenes for the film \"The Empire Strikes Back\" (1980). Another example is the dragon named \"Vermithrax\" from \"Dragonslayer\" (1981 film).\n", "BULLET::::- Object animation refers to the use of regular inanimate objects in stop-motion animation, as opposed to specially created items.\n", "BULLET::::- Graphic animation uses non-drawn flat visual graphic material (photographs, newspaper clippings, magazines, etc.), which are sometimes manipulated frame-by-frame to create movement. At other times, the graphics remain stationary, while the stop-motion camera is moved to create on-screen action.\n", "BULLET::::- Brickfilm are a subgenre of object animation involving using Lego or other similar brick toys to make an animation. These have had a recent boost in popularity with the advent of video sharing sites, YouTube and the availability of cheap cameras and animation software.\n", "BULLET::::- Pixilation involves the use of live humans as stop motion characters. This allows for a number of surreal effects, including disappearances and reappearances, allowing people to appear to slide across the ground, and other effects. Examples of pixilation include \"The Secret Adventures of Tom Thumb\" and \"Angry Kid\" shorts, and the academy award-winning \"Neighbours\" by Norman McLaren.\n", "Section::::Techniques.:Computer animation.\n", "Computer animation encompasses a variety of techniques, the unifying factor being that the animation is created digitally on a computer. 2D animation techniques tend to focus on image manipulation while 3D techniques usually build virtual worlds in which characters and objects move and interact. 3D animation can create images that seem real to the viewer.\n", "Section::::Techniques.:Computer animation.:2D animation.\n", "2D animation figures are created or edited on the computer using 2D bitmap graphics and 2D vector graphics. This includes automated computerized versions of traditional animation techniques, interpolated morphing, onion skinning and interpolated rotoscoping.\n", "2D animation has many applications, including analog computer animation, Flash animation, and PowerPoint animation. Cinemagraphs are still photographs in the form of an animated GIF file of which part is animated.\n", "Final line advection animation is a technique used in 2D animation, to give artists and animators more influence and control over the final product as everything is done within the same department. Speaking about using this approach in \"Paperman\", John Kahrs said that \"Our animators can change things, actually erase away the CG underlayer if they want, and change the profile of the arm.\"\n", "Section::::Techniques.:Computer animation.:3D animation.\n", "3D animation is digitally modeled and manipulated by an animator. The animator usually starts by creating a 3D polygon mesh to manipulate. A mesh typically includes many vertices that are connected by edges and faces, which give the visual appearance of form to a 3D object or 3D environment. Sometimes, the mesh is given an internal digital skeletal structure called an armature that can be used to control the mesh by weighting the vertices. This process is called rigging and can be used in conjunction with keyframes to create movement.\n", "Other techniques can be applied, mathematical functions (e.g., gravity, particle simulations), simulated fur or hair, and effects, fire and water simulations. These techniques fall under the category of 3D dynamics.\n", "Section::::Techniques.:Computer animation.:3D animation.:3D terms.\n", "BULLET::::- Cel-shaded animation is used to mimic traditional animation using computer software. Shading looks stark, with less blending of colors. Examples include \"Skyland\" (2007, France), \"The Iron Giant\" (1999, United States), \"Futurama\" (Fox, 1999) \"Appleseed Ex Machina\" (2007, Japan), \"\" (2002, Japan), \"\" (2017, Japan)\n", "BULLET::::- Machinima – Films created by screen capturing in video games and virtual worlds. The term originated from the software introduction in the 1980s demoscene, as well as the 1990s recordings of the first-person shooter video game \"Quake\".\n", "BULLET::::- Motion capture is used when live-action actors wear special suits that allow computers to copy their movements into CG characters. Examples include \"Polar Express\" (2004, US), \"Beowulf\" (2007, US), \"A Christmas Carol\" (2009, US), \"The Adventures of Tintin\" (2011, US) \"kochadiiyan\" (2014, India)\n", "BULLET::::- Photo-realistic animation is used primarily for animation that attempts to resemble real life, using advanced rendering that mimics in detail skin, plants, water, fire, clouds, etc. Examples include \"Up\" (2009, US), \"How to Train Your Dragon\" (2010, US)\n", "BULLET::::- Physically based animation is animation using computer simulations.\n", "Section::::Techniques.:Mechanical animation.\n", "BULLET::::- Animatronics is the use of mechatronics to create machines that seem animate rather than robotic.\n", "BULLET::::- Audio-Animatronics and Autonomatronics is a form of robotics animation, combined with 3-D animation, created by Walt Disney Imagineering for shows and attractions at Disney theme parks move and make noise (generally a recorded speech or song). They are fixed to whatever supports them. They can sit and stand, and they cannot walk. An Audio-Animatron is different from an android-type robot in that it uses prerecorded movements and sounds, rather than responding to external stimuli. In 2009, Disney created an interactive version of the technology called Autonomatronics.\n", "BULLET::::- Linear Animation Generator is a form of animation by using static picture frames installed in a tunnel or a shaft. The animation illusion is created by putting the viewer in a linear motion, parallel to the installed picture frames. The concept and the technical solution were invented in 2007 by Mihai Girlovan in Romania.\n", "BULLET::::- Chuckimation is a type of animation created by the makers of the television series \"Action League Now!\" in which characters/props are thrown, or chucked from off camera or wiggled around to simulate talking by unseen hands.\n", "BULLET::::- The magic lantern used mechanical slides to project moving images, probably since Christiaan Huygens invented this early image projector in 1659.\n", "Section::::Techniques.:Other animation styles, techniques, and approaches.\n", "BULLET::::- Hydrotechnics: a technique that includes lights, water, fire, fog, and lasers, with high-definition projections on mist screens.\n", "BULLET::::- Drawn on film animation: a technique where footage is produced by creating the images directly on film stock, for example by Norman McLaren, Len Lye and Stan Brakhage.\n", "BULLET::::- Paint-on-glass animation: a technique for making animated films by manipulating slow drying oil paints on sheets of glass, for example by Aleksandr Petrov.\n", "BULLET::::- Erasure animation: a technique using traditional 2D media, photographed over time as the artist manipulates the image. For example, William Kentridge is famous for his charcoal erasure films, and Piotr Dumała for his auteur technique of animating scratches on plaster.\n", "BULLET::::- Pinscreen animation: makes use of a screen filled with movable pins that can be moved in or out by pressing an object onto the screen. The screen is lit from the side so that the pins cast shadows. The technique has been used to create animated films with a range of textural effects difficult to achieve with traditional cel animation.\n", "BULLET::::- Sand animation: sand is moved around on a back- or front-lighted piece of glass to create each frame for an animated film. This creates an interesting effect when animated because of the light contrast.\n", "BULLET::::- Flip book: a flip book (sometimes, especially in British English, called a flick book) is a book with a series of pictures that vary gradually from one page to the next, so that when the pages are turned rapidly, the pictures appear to animate by simulating motion or some other change. Flip books are often illustrated books for children, they also be geared towards adults and employ a series of photographs rather than drawings. Flip books are not always separate books, they appear as an added feature in ordinary books or magazines, often in the page corners. Software packages and websites are also available that convert digital video files into custom-made flip books.\n", "BULLET::::- Character animation\n", "BULLET::::- Multi-sketching\n", "BULLET::::- Special effects animation\n", "Section::::Animator.\n", "An animator is an artist who creates a visual sequence (or audio-visual if added sound) of multiple sequential images that generate the illusion of movement, that is, an animation. Animations are currently in many areas of technology and video, such as cinema, television, video games or the internet. Generally, these works require the collaboration of several animators. The methods to create these images depend on the animator and style that one wants to achieve (with images generated by computer, manually ...).\n", "Animators can be divided into animators of characters (artists who are specialized in the movements, dialogue and acting of the characters) and animators of special effects (for example vehicles, machinery or natural phenomena such as water, snow, rain).\n", "Section::::Production.\n", "The creation of non-trivial animation works (i.e., longer than a few seconds) has developed as a form of filmmaking, with certain unique aspects. Traits common to both live-action and animated feature-length films are labor-intensity and high production costs.\n", "The most important difference is that once a film is in the production phase, the marginal cost of one more shot is higher for animated films than live-action films. It is relatively easy for a director to ask for one more take during principal photography of a live-action film, but every take on an animated film must be manually rendered by animators (although the task of rendering slightly different takes has been made less tedious by modern computer animation). It is pointless for a studio to pay the salaries of dozens of animators to spend weeks creating a visually dazzling five-minute scene if that scene fails to effectively advance the plot of the film. Thus, animation studios starting with Disney began the practice in the 1930s of maintaining story departments where storyboard artists develop every single scene through storyboards, then handing the film over to the animators only after the production team is satisfied that all the scenes make sense as a whole. While live-action films are now also storyboarded, they enjoy more latitude to depart from storyboards (i.e., real-time improvisation).\n", "Another problem unique to animation is the requirement to maintain a film's consistency from start to finish, even as films have grown longer and teams have grown larger. Animators, like all artists, necessarily have individual styles, but must subordinate their individuality in a consistent way to whatever style is employed on a particular film. Since the early 1980s, teams of about 500 to 600 people, of whom 50 to 70 are animators, typically have created feature-length animated films. It is relatively easy for two or three artists to match their styles; synchronizing those of dozens of artists is more difficult.\n", "This problem is usually solved by having a separate group of visual development artists develop an overall look and palette for each film before animation begins. Character designers on the visual development team draw model sheets to show how each character should look like with different facial expressions, posed in different positions, and viewed from different angles. On traditionally animated projects, maquettes were often sculpted to further help the animators see how characters would look from different angles.\n", "Unlike live-action films, animated films were traditionally developed beyond the synopsis stage through the storyboard format; the storyboard artists would then receive credit for writing the film. In the early 1960s, animation studios began hiring professional screenwriters to write screenplays (while also continuing to use story departments) and screenplays had become commonplace for animated films by the late 1980s.\n", "Section::::Criticism.\n", "Criticism of animation has been common in media and cinema since its inception. With its popularity, a large amount of criticism has arisen, especially animated feature-length films. Many concerns of cultural representation, psychological effects on children have been brought up around the animation industry, which has remained rather politically unchanged and stagnant since its inception into mainstream culture.\n", "Section::::Awards.\n", "As with any other form of media, animation too has instituted awards for excellence in the field. The original awards for animation were presented by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences for animated shorts from the year 1932, during the 5th Academy Awards function. The first winner of the Academy Award was the short \"Flowers and Trees\", a production by Walt Disney Productions. The Academy Award for a feature-length animated motion picture was only instituted for the year 2001, and awarded during the 74th Academy Awards in 2002. It was won by the film \"Shrek\", produced by DreamWorks and Pacific Data Images. Disney/Pixar have produced the most films either to win or be nominated for the award. The list of both awards can be obtained here:\n", "BULLET::::- Academy Award for Best Animated Feature\n", "BULLET::::- Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film\n", "Several other countries have instituted an award for best-animated feature film as part of their national film awards: Africa Movie Academy Award for Best Animation (since 2008), BAFTA Award for Best Animated Film (since 2006), César Award for Best Animated Film (since 2011), Golden Rooster Award for Best Animation (since 1981), Goya Award for Best Animated Film (since 1989), Japan Academy Prize for Animation of the Year (since 2007), National Film Award for Best Animated Film (since 2006). Also since 2007, the Asia Pacific Screen Award for Best Animated Feature Film has been awarded at the Asia Pacific Screen Awards. Since 2009, the European Film Awards have awarded the European Film Award for Best Animated Film.\n", "The Annie Award is another award presented for excellence in the field of animation. Unlike the Academy Awards, the Annie Awards are only received for achievements in the field of animation and not for any other field of technical and artistic endeavor. They were re-organized in 1992 to create a new field for Best Animated Feature. The 1990s winners were dominated by Walt Disney, however, newer studios, led by Pixar & DreamWorks, have now begun to consistently vie for this award. The list of awardees is as follows:\n", "BULLET::::- Annie Award for Best Animated Feature\n", "BULLET::::- Annie Award for Best Animated Short Subject\n", "BULLET::::- Annie Award for Best Animated Television Production\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- 12 basic principles of animation\n", "BULLET::::- Animated war film\n", "BULLET::::- Animation department\n", "BULLET::::- Animation software\n", "BULLET::::- Anime\n", "BULLET::::- Architectural animation\n", "BULLET::::- Avar (animation variable)\n", "BULLET::::- Computer-generated imagery\n", "BULLET::::- Independent animation\n", "BULLET::::- International Animated Film Association\n", "BULLET::::- International Tournée of Animation\n", "BULLET::::- List of motion picture topics\n", "BULLET::::- Model sheet\n", "BULLET::::- Motion graphic design\n", "BULLET::::- Society for Animation Studies\n", "BULLET::::- Tradigital art\n", "BULLET::::- Wire-frame model\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- The making of an 8-minute cartoon short\n", "BULLET::::- \"Animando\", a 12-minute film demonstrating 10 different animation techniques (and teaching how to use them).\n", "BULLET::::- 19 types of animation techniques and styles\n", "BULLET::::- Bibliography on animation – Websiite \"Histoire de la télévision\"\n" ] }

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Stuart Blackton", "Arthur Melbourne-Cooper", "Segundo de Chomón", "Edwin S. Porter", "cutout animation", "Humorous Phases of Funny Faces", "Émile Cohl", "Fantasmagorie", "negative prints", "stick figure", "morphing", "Ladislas Starevich", "Winsor McCay", "Little Nemo", "Gertie the Dinosaur", "cartoons", "John Randolph Bray", "Earl Hurd", "El Apóstol", "lost film", "Felix the Cat", "The Adventures of Prince Achmed", "Lotte Reiniger", "Carl Koch", "Berthold Bartosch", "Walt Disney", "Steamboat Willie", "Mickey Mouse", "Technicolor", "Flowers and Trees", "Burt Gillett", "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs", "golden age of American animation", "Goofy", "Donald Duck", "Daisy Duck", "Bugs Bunny", "Daffy Duck", "Porky Pig", "Betty Boop", "Popeye", "Sylvester the Cat", "Woody Woodpecker", "Tweety", "Wile E. 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{ "description": "process of creating animated films and series", "enwikiquote_title": "Animation", "wikidata_id": "Q11425", "wikidata_label": "animation", "wikipedia_title": "Animation", "aliases": { "alias": [ "cartoon" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Abraham Lincoln\n", "Abraham Lincoln (February 12, 1809 – April 15, 1865) was an American statesman and lawyer who served as the 16th president of the United States from 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. Lincoln led the nation through the American Civil War, its bloodiest war and its greatest moral, constitutional, and political crisis. He preserved the Union, abolished slavery, strengthened the federal government, and modernized the U.S. economy.\n", "Born in Kentucky, Lincoln grew up on the frontier in a poor family. Self-educated, he became a lawyer, Whig Party leader, Illinois state legislator and Congressman. In 1849, he left government to resume his law practice, but angered by the success of Democrats in opening the prairie lands to slavery, reentered politics in 1854. He became a leader in the new Republican Party and gained national attention in 1858 for debating national Democratic leader Stephen A. Douglas in the 1858 Illinois Senate campaign. He then ran for President in 1860, sweeping the North and winning. Southern pro-slavery elements took his win as proof that the North was rejecting the constitutional rights of Southern states to practice slavery. They began the process of seceding from the union. To secure its independence, the new Confederate States of America fired on Fort Sumter, one of the few U.S. forts in the South. Lincoln called up volunteers and militia to suppress the rebellion and restore the Union.\n", "As the leader of the moderate faction of the Republican Party, Lincoln confronted Radical Republicans, who demanded harsher treatment of the South; War Democrats, who rallied a large faction of former opponents into his camp; anti-war Democrats (called Copperheads), who despised him; and irreconcilable secessionists, who plotted his assassination. Lincoln fought the factions by pitting them against each other, by carefully distributing political patronage, and by appealing to the American people. His Gettysburg Address became an iconic call for nationalism, republicanism, equal rights, liberty, and democracy. He suspended \"habeas corpus\", and he averted British intervention by defusing the \"Trent\" Affair. Lincoln closely supervised the war effort, including the selection of generals and the naval blockade that shut down the South's trade. As the war progressed, he maneuvered to end slavery, issuing the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863; ordering the Army to protect escaped slaves, encouraging border states to outlaw slavery, and pushing through Congress the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which outlawed slavery across the country.\n", "Lincoln managed his own re-election campaign. He sought to reconcile his damaged nation by avoiding retribution against the secessionists. A few days after the Battle of Appomattox Court House, he was shot by John Wilkes Booth, an actor and Confederate sympathizer, on April 14, 1865, and died the following day. Abraham Lincoln is remembered as the United States' martyr hero. He is consistently ranked both by scholars and the public as among the greatest U.S. presidents.\n", "Section::::Family and childhood.\n", "Section::::Family and childhood.:Early life.\n", "Abraham Lincoln was born on February 12, 1809, as the second child of Thomas Lincoln and Nancy Hanks Lincoln, in a one-room log cabin on Sinking Spring Farm near Hodgenville, Kentucky. He was a descendant of Samuel Lincoln, an Englishman who migrated from Hingham, Norfolk, to its namesake Hingham, Massachusetts, in 1638. Samuel's grandson and great-grandson began the family's westward migration, passing through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. Lincoln's paternal grandfather and namesake, Captain Abraham Lincoln, moved the family from Virginia to Jefferson County, Kentucky, in the 1780s. Captain Lincoln was killed in an Indian raid in 1786. His children, including eight-year-old Thomas, Abraham's father, witnessed the attack. Thomas then worked at odd jobs in Kentucky and in Tennessee, before settling with members of his family in Hardin County, Kentucky, in the early 1800s.\n", "Lincoln's mother, Nancy, is widely assumed to have been the daughter of Lucy Hanks, although no record documents this. Thomas and Nancy married on June 12, 1806, in Washington County, and moved to Elizabethtown, Kentucky. They produced three children: Sarah, born on February 10, 1807; Abraham, on February 12, 1809; and Thomas, who died in infancy.\n", "Thomas Lincoln bought or leased farms in Kentucky. Thomas became embroiled in legal disputes, and lost all but of his land in court disputes over property titles. In 1816, the family moved to Indiana, where the survey process was more reliable and land titles were more secure. Indiana was a \"free\" (non-slaveholding) territory, and they settled in an \"unbroken forest\" in Hurricane Township, Perry County. (Their land became part of Spencer County, Indiana, when the county was established in 1818.) In 1860, Lincoln noted that the family's move to Indiana was \"partly on account of slavery\", but mainly due to land title difficulties.\n", "In Kentucky and Indiana, Thomas worked as a farmer, cabinetmaker, and carpenter. He owned farms, town lots and livestock, paid taxes, sat on juries, appraised estates, served on country slave patrols, and guarded prisoners. Thomas and Nancy were members of a Separate Baptists church, which forbade alcohol, dancing, and slavery.\n", "Overcoming financial challenges, Thomas eventually obtained clear title to of land in what became known as the Little Pigeon Creek Community.\n", "Section::::Family and childhood.:Mother's death.\n", "On October 5, 1818, Nancy Lincoln died of milk sickness, leaving 11-year-old Sarah in charge of a household that included her father, 9-year-old Abraham, and Dennis Hanks, Nancy's 19-year-old orphaned cousin. Those who knew Lincoln later recalled that he was distraught over his sister's death; she died on January 20, 1828, while giving birth to a stillborn son.\n", "On December 2, 1819, Thomas married Sarah \"Sally\" Bush Johnston, a widow from Elizabethtown, Kentucky, with three children of her own. Abraham became close to his stepmother, whom he referred to as \"Mother\". Lincoln disliked the hard labor associated with farm life. He was called lazy for all his \"reading, scribbling, writing, ciphering, writing Poetry, etc.\". His stepmother acknowledged he did not enjoy \"physical labor\", but loved to read.\n", "Section::::Family and childhood.:Education.\n", "Lincoln was largely self-educated. His formal schooling (from travelling teachers) was intermittent, totaling less than 12 months; however, he was an avid reader and retained a lifelong interest in learning. Family, neighbors, and schoolmates recalled that he read and reread the King James Bible, Aesop's Fables, John Bunyan's \"The Pilgrim's Progress\", Daniel Defoe's \"Robinson Crusoe\", Mason Locke Weems's \"The Life of Washington\", and \"The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin\", among others.\n", "Teenaged Lincoln took responsibility for chores. He accepted the customary practice that a son give his father all earnings from work outside the home until age 21. Lincoln became adept at using an axe. Tall for his age, Lincoln was strong and athletic. He became known for his strength and audacity after winning a wrestling match with the renowned leader of a group of ruffians known as \"the Clary's Grove boys\".\n", "Section::::Family and childhood.:Illinois.\n", "In early March 1830, partly out of fear of a milk sickness outbreak, several members of the extended Lincoln family moved west to Illinois, a free state, and settled in Macon County, west of Decatur. Historians disagree on who initiated the move; Thomas Lincoln had no obvious reason to do so. One possibility is that other members of the family, including Dennis Hanks, might not have matched Thomas's stability and steady income.\n", "After the family relocated to Illinois, Abraham became increasingly distant from Thomas, in part because of his father's lack of education, although occasionally lending him money. In 1831, as Thomas and other family prepared to move to a new homestead in Coles County, Illinois, Abraham left home. He lived in New Salem for six years. Lincoln and some friends took goods by flatboat to New Orleans, where he witnessed slavery firsthand.\n", "Section::::Family and childhood.:Marriage and children.\n", "According to some sources, Lincoln's first romantic interest was Ann Rutledge, whom he met when he first moved to New Salem; these sources indicate that by 1835, they were in a relationship but not formally engaged. She died on August 25, 1835, most likely of typhoid fever. In the early 1830s, he met Mary Owens from Kentucky.\n", "Late in 1836, Lincoln agreed to a match with Mary if she returned to New Salem. Mary arrived in November 1836, and Lincoln courted her for a time; however, they both had second thoughts. On August 16, 1837, Lincoln wrote Mary a letter suggesting he would not blame her if she ended the relationship. She never replied.\n", "In 1840, Lincoln became engaged to Mary Todd, a daughter of Robert Smith Todd, a wealthy slave-owner in Lexington, Kentucky. They met in Springfield, Illinois in December 1839 and were engaged a year later. A wedding set for January 1, 1841, was canceled at Lincoln's initiative. They reconciled and married on November 4, 1842, in the Springfield mansion of Mary's married sister. While anxiously preparing for the nuptials, Lincoln was asked where he was going and replied, \"To hell, I suppose.\" In 1844, the couple bought a house in Springfield near Lincoln's law office. Mary kept house, often with the help of a relative or hired servant.\n", "He was an affectionate, though often absent, husband and father of four children. Robert Todd Lincoln was born in 1843 and Edward Baker Lincoln (Eddie) in 1846. Edward died on February 1, 1850, in Springfield, probably of tuberculosis. \"Willie\" Lincoln was born on December 21, 1850, and died of a fever on February 20, 1862. The Lincolns' fourth son, Thomas \"Tad\" Lincoln, was born on April 4, 1853, and died of heart failure at the age of 18 on July 16, 1871. Robert reached adulthood and produced children. The Lincolns' last descendant, great-grandson Robert Todd Lincoln Beckwith, died in 1985. Lincoln \"was remarkably fond of children\", and the Lincolns were not considered to be strict with their own. In fact, Lincoln's law partner William H. Herndon would grow irritated when Lincoln would bring his children to the law office. Their father, it seemed, was often too absorbed in his own work to notice his children's behaviour. Herndon recounted, \"I have felt many and many a time that I wanted to wring their little necks, and yet out of respect for Lincoln I kept my mouth shut. Lincoln did not note what his children were doing or had done.\"\n", "The deaths of their sons had profound effects on both parents. Abraham suffered from \"melancholy\", a condition later referred to as clinical depression. Later in life, Mary struggled with the stresses of losing her husband and sons, and Robert committed her temporarily to a mental health asylum in 1875.\n", "Lincoln's father-in-law and others of the Todd family were either slave owners or slave traders. Lincoln was close to the Todds, and he and his family occasionally visited them.\n", "Mary cooked for Lincoln often during his presidency. Raised by a wealthy family, her cooking was simple, but satisfied Lincoln's tastes, which included imported oysters.\n", "Section::::Early career and militia service.\n", "In 1832, Lincoln and partner Denton Offutt bought a general store on credit in New Salem, Illinois. Although the economy was booming, the business struggled and Lincoln eventually sold his share. That March he entered politics, running for the Illinois General Assembly, advocating navigational improvements on the Sangamon River. He could draw crowds as a raconteur, but he lacked an education, powerful friends, and money and lost the election.\n", "Lincoln interrupted his campaign to briefly serve as a captain in the Illinois Militia (during the Black Hawk War). He then returned to his campaign. At his first speech, he observed a supporter in the crowd under attack, grabbed the assailant by his \"neck and the seat of his trousers\" and tossed him. Lincoln finished eighth out of 13 candidates (the top four were elected), though he received 277 of the 300 votes cast in the New Salem precinct.\n", "Lincoln served as New Salem's postmaster and later as county surveyor, all the while reading voraciously. He decided to become a lawyer and began teaching himself law by reading Blackstone's \"Commentaries on the Laws of England\" and other law books. Of his learning method, Lincoln stated: \"I studied with nobody\".\n", "Section::::Illinois state legislature.\n", "His second state legislature campaign in 1834 was successful. Although he ran as a Whig, many Democrats favored him over a more powerful Whig opponent. Lincoln served four successive terms in the Illinois House of Representatives as a Whig from Sangamon County. He supported the construction of the Illinois and Michigan Canal, later serving as a Canal Commissioner. In the 1835–36 legislative session, he voted to expand suffrage beyond white landowners to all white males. He was known for his \"free soil\" stance of opposing both slavery and abolitionism. He first articulated this in 1837, saying, \"[The] Institution of slavery is founded on both injustice and bad policy, but the promulgation of abolition doctrines tends rather to increase than abate its evils.\" He followed Henry Clay in supporting the American Colonization Society program of advocating abolition and helping freed slaves to settle in Liberia.\n", "Admitted to the Illinois bar in 1836, he moved to Springfield, Illinois, and began to practice law under John T. Stuart, Mary Todd's cousin. Lincoln developed a reputation as a formidable adversary during cross-examinations and closing arguments. He partnered with Stephen T. Logan from 1841 until 1844. Then Lincoln began his practice with William Herndon, whom Lincoln thought \"a studious young man\".\n", "Section::::U.S. House of Representatives, 1847–1849.\n", "From the early 1830s, Lincoln was a steadfast Whig and professed to friends in 1861 to be \"an old line Whig, a disciple of Henry Clay\". The party, including Lincoln, favored economic modernization in banking, tariffs to fund internal improvements including railroads, and urbanization.\n", "Lincoln ran for the Whig nomination for Illinois's 7th district of the U.S. House of Representatives in 1843, but was defeated by John J. Hardin. However, Lincoln won support for the principle of rotation, whereby Hardin would retire after only one term. Lincoln hoped that this arrangement would lead to his nomination in 1846. Lincoln was indeed elected to the House of Representatives in 1846, where he served one two-year term. He was the only Whig in the Illinois delegation, showing party loyalty by participating in almost all votes and making speeches that echoed the party line. Lincoln, in collaboration with abolitionist Congressman Joshua R. Giddings, wrote a bill to abolish slavery in the District of Columbia with compensation for the owners, enforcement to capture fugitive slaves, and a popular vote on the matter. He abandoned the bill when it failed to garner sufficient Whig supporters.\n", "Section::::U.S. House of Representatives, 1847–1849.:Committee assignments.\n", "BULLET::::- Committee on Post Office and Post Roads\n", "BULLET::::- Committee on Expenditures in the War Department\n", "Section::::U.S. House of Representatives, 1847–1849.:Political views.\n", "On foreign and military policy, Lincoln spoke out against the Mexican–American War, which he attributed to President James K. Polk's desire for \"military glory—that attractive rainbow, that rises in showers of blood\". Lincoln supported the Wilmot Proviso, which if passed would have banned slavery in any U.S. territory won from Mexico.\n", "Lincoln emphasized his opposition to Polk by drafting and introducing his Spot Resolutions. The war had begun with a Mexican slaughter of American soldiers in territory disputed by Mexico, and Polk insisted that Mexican soldiers had \"invaded our territory and shed the blood of our fellow-citizens on our own soil\". Lincoln demanded that Polk show Congress the exact spot on which blood had been shed and prove that the spot was on American soil.\n", "Congress neither debated nor enacted the resolution, the national papers ignored it, and it cost Lincoln political support in his district. One Illinois newspaper derisively nicknamed him \"spotty Lincoln\". Lincoln later regretted some of his statements, especially his attack on presidential war-making powers.\n", "Realizing Clay was unlikely to win the presidency, Lincoln, who had pledged in 1846 to serve only one term in the House, supported General Zachary Taylor for the Whig nomination in the 1848 presidential election. Taylor won and Lincoln hoped to be appointed Commissioner of the General Land Office, but lost out. The administration offered him the consolation prize of secretary or governor of the Oregon Territory. This distant territory was a Democratic stronghold, and acceptance of the post would have effectively ended his legal and political career in Illinois, so he declined and resumed his law practice.\n", "Section::::Prairie lawyer.\n", "Lincoln practiced law in Springfield, handling \"every kind of business that could come before a prairie lawyer\". Twice a year for 16 years, 10 weeks at a time, he appeared in county seats in the midstate region when the county courts were in session. Lincoln handled transportation cases in the midst of the nation's western expansion, particularly river barge conflicts under the many new railroad bridges. As a riverboat man, Lincoln initially favored those interests, but ultimately represented whoever hired him. He later represented a bridge company against a riverboat company in a landmark case involving a canal boat that sank after hitting a bridge. In 1849, he received a patent for a flotation device for the movement of boats in shallow water. The idea was never commercialized, but Lincoln is the only president to hold a patent.\n", "In 1851, he represented the Alton & Sangamon Railroad in a dispute with shareholder James A. Barret, who had refused to pay the balance on his pledge to buy shares on the grounds that the company had changed its original train route. Lincoln successfully argued that the railroad company was not bound by its original charter; the charter was amended in the public interest to provide a newer, superior, and less expensive route, and the corporation retained the right to demand Barret's payment. The decision by the Illinois Supreme Court was cited by many other courts. Lincoln appeared before the Illinois Supreme Court in 175 cases, in 51 as sole counsel, of which 31 were decided in his favor. From 1853 to 1860, another of Lincoln's largest clients was the Illinois Central Railroad. Lincoln's legal reputation gave rise to his nickname \"Honest Abe\".\n", "Lincoln's most notable criminal trial occurred in 1858 when he defended William \"Duff\" Armstrong, who was on trial for the murder of James Preston Metzker. The case is famous for Lincoln's use of a fact established by judicial notice in order to challenge the credibility of an eyewitness. After an opposing witness testified to seeing the crime in the moonlight, Lincoln produced a \"Farmers' Almanac\" showing the moon was at a low angle, drastically reducing visibility. Armstrong was acquitted.\n", "Lincoln rarely raised objections; but in an 1859 case, where he defended a cousin, Peachy Harrison, who was accused of killing a man, Lincoln angrily protested the judge's decision to exclude evidence favorable to his client. Instead of holding Lincoln in contempt of court as was expected, the judge, a Democrat, reversed his ruling, allowing the evidence and acquitting Harrison.\n", "Section::::Republican politics 1854–1860.\n", "Section::::Republican politics 1854–1860.:Emergence as Republican leader.\n", "The debate over the status of slavery in the territories exacerbated sectional tensions between the slave-holding South and the free North. The Compromise of 1850 failed to defuse the issue. In the early 1850s, Lincoln supported sectional mediation, and his 1852 eulogy for Clay focused on the latter's support for gradual emancipation and opposition to \"both extremes\" on the slavery issue. As the 1850s progressed, the debate over slavery in the Nebraska Territory and Kansas Territory became particularly acrimonious, and Senator Douglas proposed popular sovereignty as a compromise measure; the proposal would allow the electorate of each territory to decide the status of slavery. The proposal alarmed many Northerners, who hoped to prevent the spread of slavery into the territories. Despite this Northern opposition, Douglas's Kansas–Nebraska Act narrowly passed Congress in May 1854.\n", "For months after its passage, Lincoln did not publicly comment, but he came to strongly oppose it. On October 16, 1854, in his \"Peoria Speech\", Lincoln declared his opposition to slavery, which he repeated en route to the presidency. Speaking in his Kentucky accent, with a powerful voice, he said the Kansas Act had a \"\"declared\" indifference, but as I must think, a covert \"real\" zeal for the spread of slavery. I cannot but hate it. I hate it because of the monstrous injustice of slavery itself. I hate it because it deprives our republican example of its just influence in the world ...\" Lincoln's attacks on the Kansas–Nebraska Act marked his return to political life.\n", "Nationally, the Whigs were irreparably split by the Kansas–Nebraska Act and other efforts to compromise on the slavery issue. Reflecting the demise of his party, Lincoln wrote in 1855, \"I think I am a Whig, but others say there are no Whigs, and that I am an abolitionist [...] I do no more than oppose the \"extension\" of slavery.\" Drawing on the antislavery portion of the Whig Party, and combining Free Soil, Liberty, and antislavery Democratic Party members, the new Republican Party formed as a northern party dedicated to antislavery. Lincoln resisted early recruiting attempts, fearing that it would serve as a platform for extreme abolitionists. Lincoln hoped to rejuvenate the Whigs, though he lamented his party's growing closeness with the nativist Know Nothing movement.\n", "In the 1854 elections, Lincoln was elected to the Illinois legislature but declined to take his seat. In the elections' aftermath, which showed the power and popularity of the movement opposed to the Kansas–Nebraska Act, Lincoln instead sought election to the United States Senate. At that time, senators were elected by the state legislature. After leading in the first six rounds of voting, he was unable to obtain a majority. Lincoln instructed his backers to vote for Lyman Trumbull. Trumbull was an antislavery Democrat, and had received few votes in the earlier ballots; his supporters, also antislavery Democrats, had vowed not to support any Whig. Lincoln's decision to withdraw enabled his Whig supporters and Trumbull's antislavery Democrats to combine and defeat the mainstream Democratic candidate, Joel Aldrich Matteson.\n", "Section::::Republican politics 1854–1860.:Emergence as Republican leader.:1856 campaign.\n", "In part due to the ongoing violent political confrontations in Kansas, opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act remained strong throughout the North. As the 1856 elections approached, Lincoln joined the Republicans. He attended the May 1856 Bloomington Convention, which formally established the Illinois Republican Party. The convention platform asserted that Congress had the right to regulate slavery in the territories and called for the immediate admission of Kansas as a free state. Lincoln gave the final speech of the convention, in which he endorsed the party platform and called for the preservation of the Union. At the June 1856 Republican National Convention, Lincoln received significant support to run for vice president, though the party nominated William Dayton to run with John C. Frémont. Lincoln supported the Republican ticket, campaigning throughout Illinois. The Democrats nominated former Ambassador James Buchanan, who had been out of the country since 1853 and thus had avoided the slavery debate, while the Know Nothings nominated former Whig President Millard Fillmore. Buchanan defeated both his challengers. Republican William Henry Bissell won election as Governor of Illinois. Lincoln's vigorous campaigning had made him the leading Republican in Illinois.\n", "Section::::Republican politics 1854–1860.:Emergence as Republican leader.:Principles.\n", "Eric Foner (2010) contrasts the abolitionists and anti-slavery Radical Republicans of the Northeast, who saw slavery as a sin, with the conservative Republicans, who thought it was bad because it hurt white people and blocked progress. Foner argues that Lincoln was a moderate in the middle, opposing slavery primarily because it violated the republicanism principles of the Founding Fathers, especially the equality of all men and democratic self-government as expressed in the Declaration of Independence.\n", "Section::::Republican politics 1854–1860.:Emergence as Republican leader.:\"Dred Scott\".\n", "In March 1857, in \"Dred Scott v. Sandford,\" Supreme Court Chief Justice Roger B. Taney wrote that blacks were not citizens and derived no rights from the Constitution. While many Democrats hoped that \"Dred Scott\" would end the dispute over slavery in the territories, the decision sparked further outrage in the North. Lincoln denounced it, alleging it was the product of a conspiracy of Democrats to support the Slave Power. Lincoln argued, \"The authors of the Declaration of Independence never intended 'to say all were equal in color, size, intellect, moral developments, or social capacity', but they 'did consider all men created equal—equal in certain inalienable rights, among which are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness'.\"\n", "Section::::Republican politics 1854–1860.:Lincoln–Douglas debates and Cooper Union speech.\n", "Douglas was up for re-election in 1858, and Lincoln hoped to defeat him. With the former Democrat Trumbull now serving as a Republican senator, many in the party felt that a former Whig should be nominated in 1858, and Lincoln's 1856 campaigning and willingness to support Trumbull in 1854 had earned him favor. Some eastern Republicans favored Douglas's re-election in 1858, since he had led the opposition to the Lecompton Constitution, which would have admitted Kansas as a slave state. Many Illinois Republicans resented this eastern interference. For the first time, Illinois Republicans held a convention to agree upon a Senate candidate, and Lincoln won the nomination with little opposition.\n", "Accepting the nomination, Lincoln delivered his House Divided Speech, drawing on , \"A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved—I do not expect the house to fall—but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing, or all the other.\" The speech created an evocative image of the danger of disunion. The stage was then set for the campaign for statewide election of the Illinois legislature which would, in turn, select Lincoln or Douglas. When informed of Lincoln's nomination, Douglas stated, \"[Lincoln] is the strong man of the party ... and if I beat him, my victory will be hardly won.\"\n", "The Senate campaign featured seven debates, the most famous political debates in American history. The principals stood in stark contrast both physically and politically. Lincoln warned that \"The Slave Power\" was threatening the values of republicanism, and accused Douglas of distorting the values of the Founding Fathers that all men are created equal, while Douglas emphasized his Freeport Doctrine, that local settlers were free to choose whether to allow slavery, and accused Lincoln of having joined the abolitionists. The debates had an atmosphere of a prize fight and drew crowds in the thousands. Lincoln's argument was rooted in morality. He claimed that Douglas represented a conspiracy to extend slavery to free states. Douglas's argument was legal, claiming that Lincoln was defying the authority of the U.S. Supreme Court and the \"Dred Scott\" decision.\n", "Though the Republican legislative candidates won more popular votes, the Democrats won more seats, and the legislature re-elected Douglas. Lincoln's articulation of the issues gave him a national political presence. In May 1859, Lincoln purchased the \"Illinois Staats-Anzeiger\", a German-language newspaper that was consistently supportive; most of the state's 130,000 German Americans voted Democratic but the German-language paper mobilized Republican support. In the aftermath of the 1858 election, newspapers frequently mentioned Lincoln as a potential Republican presidential candidate, rivaled by William H. Seward, Salmon P. Chase, Edward Bates, and Simon Cameron. While Lincoln was popular in the Midwest, he lacked support in the Northeast, and was unsure whether to seek the office. In January 1860, Lincoln told a group of political allies that he would accept the nomination if offered, and in the following months several local papers endorsed his candidacy.\n", "On February 27, 1860, New York party leaders invited Lincoln to give a speech at Cooper Union to a group of powerful Republicans. Lincoln argued that the Founding Fathers had little use for popular sovereignty and had repeatedly sought to restrict slavery. Lincoln insisted that morality required opposition to slavery, and rejected any \"groping for some middle ground between the right and the wrong\". Despite his inelegant appearance—many in the audience thought him awkward and even ugly—Lincoln demonstrated intellectual leadership that brought him into contention. Journalist Noah Brooks reported, \"No man ever before made such an impression on his first appeal to a New York audience.\"\n", "Historian David Herbert Donald described the speech as a \"superb political move for an unannounced candidate, to appear in one rival's (Seward) own state at an event sponsored by the second rival's (Chase) loyalists, while not mentioning either by name during its delivery\". In response to an inquiry about his ambitions, Lincoln said, \"The taste \"is\" in my mouth a little.\"\n", "Section::::Republican politics 1854–1860.:1860 presidential election.\n", "On May 9–10, 1860, the Illinois Republican State Convention was held in Decatur. Lincoln's followers organized a campaign team led by David Davis, Norman Judd, Leonard Swett, and Jesse DuBois, and Lincoln received his first endorsement. Exploiting his embellished frontier legend (clearing land and splitting fence rails), Lincoln's supporters adopted the label of \"The Rail Candidate\". In 1860, Lincoln described himself: \"I am in height, six feet, four inches, nearly; lean in flesh, weighing, on an average, one hundred and eighty pounds; dark complexion, with coarse black hair, and gray eyes.\"\n", "On May 18, at the Republican National Convention in Chicago, Lincoln won the nomination on the third ballot, beating candidates such as Seward and Chase. A former Democrat, Hannibal Hamlin of Maine, was nominated for Vice President to balance the ticket. Lincoln's success depended on his campaign team, his reputation as a moderate on the slavery issue, and his strong support for Whiggish programs of internal improvements and the tariff.\n", "Pennsylvania put him over the top, led by Pennsylvania iron interests who were reassured by his tariff support. Lincoln's managers had focused on this delegation, while following Lincoln's dictate to \"Make no contracts that bind me\".\n", "Most Republicans agreed with Lincoln that the North was the aggrieved party, as the Slave Power tightened its grasp on the national government. Throughout the 1850s, Lincoln doubted the prospects of civil war, and his supporters rejected claims that his election would incite secession. Douglas was selected as the candidate of the Northern Democrats. Delegates from eleven slave states walked out of the Democratic convention, disagreeing with Douglas's position on popular sovereignty, and ultimately selected incumbent Vice President John C. Breckinridge as their candidate. A group of former Whigs and Know Nothings formed the Constitutional Union Party and nominated John Bell of Tennessee. Lincoln and Douglas competed for votes in the North, while Bell and Breckinridge primarily found support in the South.\n", "Lincoln's campaign team carefully projected his image as an ideal candidate. Michael Martinez wrote:\n", "Prior to the Republican convention, the Lincoln campaign began cultivating a nationwide youth organization, the Wide Awakes, which it used to generate popular support throughout the country to spearhead voter registration drives, thinking that new voters and young voters tended to embrace new parties. Lincoln's ideas of abolishing slavery grew, drawing more supporters. People of the Northern states knew the Southern states would vote against Lincoln and rallied supporters for Lincoln.\n", "As Douglas and the other candidates campaigned, Lincoln was the only one to give no speeches. Instead, he relied on the enthusiasm of the Republican Party. The party did the leg work that produced majorities across the North, and produced an abundance of campaign posters, leaflets, and newspaper editorials. Thousands of Republican speakers focused first on the party platform, and second on Lincoln's life story, emphasizing his childhood poverty. The goal was to demonstrate the superior power of \"free labor\", whereby a common farm boy could work his way to the top by his own efforts. The Republican Party's production of campaign literature dwarfed the combined opposition; a \"Chicago Tribune\" writer produced a pamphlet that detailed Lincoln's life, and sold 100,000–200,000 copies.\n", "On November 6, Lincoln was elected the 16th president of the United States. He was the first Republican president and his victory was entirely due to his support in the North and West; no ballots were cast for him in 10 of the 15 Southern slave states, and he won only two of 996 counties in all the Southern states. Lincoln received 1,866,452 votes, or 39.8% of the total in a four-way race. He won the free Northern states, as well as California and Oregon.\n", "Lincoln's victory in the electoral college was decisive: Lincoln had 180 and his opponents added together had only 123.\n", "Section::::Presidency.\n", "Section::::Presidency.:Secession and inauguration.\n", "After the November election, secessionists planned to leave the Union before he took office in March. On December 20, 1860, South Carolina took the lead by adopting an ordinance of secession; by February 1, 1861, Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas had followed. Six of these states declared themselves to be a sovereign nation, the Confederate States of America and adopted a constitution. The upper South and border states (Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri, and Arkansas) listened to, but initially rejected, the secessionist appeal. President Buchanan and President-elect Lincoln refused to recognize the Confederacy, declaring secession illegal. The Confederacy selected Jefferson Davis as its provisional President on February 9, 1861.\n", "Attempts at compromise followed. Lincoln and the Republicans rejected the proposed Crittenden Compromise as contrary to the Party's free-soil in the territories platform. Lincoln rejected the idea, saying, \"I will suffer death before I consent ... to any concession or compromise which looks like buying the privilege to take possession of this government to which we have a constitutional right.\"\n", "Lincoln did tacitly support the proposed Corwin Amendment to the Constitution, which passed Congress before Lincoln came into office and was then awaiting ratification by the states. That proposed amendment would have protected slavery in states where it already existed. A few weeks before the war, Lincoln sent a letter to every governor informing them Congress had passed a joint resolution to amend the Constitution. Lincoln was open to the possibility of a constitutional convention to make further amendments to the Constitution.\n", "En route to his inauguration, Lincoln addressed crowds and legislatures across the North. The president-elect evaded possible assassins in Baltimore. On February 23, 1861, he arrived in disguise in Washington, D.C., which was placed under substantial military guard. Lincoln directed his inaugural address to the South, proclaiming once again that he had no intention, or inclination, to abolish slavery in the Southern states:\n", "Lincoln cited his plans for banning the expansion of slavery as the key source of conflict between North and South, stating \"One section of our country believes slavery is right and ought to be extended, while the other believes it is wrong and ought not to be extended. This is the only substantial dispute.\" The President ended his address with an appeal to the people of the South: \"We are not enemies, but friends. We must not be enemies ... The mystic chords of memory, stretching from every battlefield, and patriot grave, to every living heart and hearthstone, all over this broad land, will yet swell the chorus of the Union, when again touched, as surely they will be, by the better angels of our nature.\" The failure of the Peace Conference of 1861 signaled that legislative compromise was impossible. By March 1861, no leaders of the insurrection had proposed rejoining the Union on any terms. Meanwhile, Lincoln and the Republican leadership agreed that the dismantling of the Union could not be tolerated. Lincoln said in his second inaugural address:\n", "Section::::Presidency.:The Civil War.\n", "Fort Sumter's commander, Major Robert Anderson, sent a request for provisions to Washington, and the execution of Lincoln's order to meet that request was seen by the secessionists as an act of war. On April 12, 1861, Confederate forces fired on Union troops at Fort Sumter and began the fight. Historian Allan Nevins argued that the newly inaugurated Lincoln made three miscalculations: underestimating the gravity of the crisis, exaggerating the strength of Unionist sentiment in the South, and not realizing the Southern Unionists were insisting there be no invasion.\n", "William Tecumseh Sherman talked to Lincoln during inauguration week and was \"sadly disappointed\" at his failure to realize that \"the country was sleeping on a volcano\" and that the South was preparing for war. Donald concludes that, \"His repeated efforts to avoid collision in the months between inauguration and the firing on Ft. Sumter showed he adhered to his vow not to be the first to shed fraternal blood. But he also vowed not to surrender the forts. The only resolution of these contradictory positions was for the confederates to fire the first shot; they did just that.\"\n", "On April 15, Lincoln called on the states to send detachments totaling 75,000 troops to recapture forts, protect Washington, and \"preserve the Union\", which, in his view, remained intact despite the seceding states. This call forced states to choose sides. Virginia seceded and was rewarded with the Confederate capital, despite the exposed position of Richmond close to Union lines. North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas followed over the following two months. Secession sentiment was strong in Missouri and Maryland, but did not prevail; Kentucky remained neutral. The Fort Sumter attack rallied Americans north of the Mason-Dixon line to defend the nation.\n", "States sent Union regiments south. On April 19, mobs in Baltimore, which controlled rail links, attacked Union troops who were changing trains. Local leaders' groups later burned critical rail bridges to the capital. The Army responded by arresting local Maryland officials. Lincoln suspended the writ of \"habeas corpus\" in areas the army felt it needed to secure for troops to reach Washington. John Merryman, a Maryland official involved in hindering the U.S. troop movements, petitioned Supreme Court Chief Justice and Marylander, Roger B. Taney, author of the \"Dred Scott\" opinion, to issue a writ of \"habeas corpus.\" In June Taney, acting as a circuit judge and not speaking for the Supreme Court, issued the writ, because in his opinion only Congress could suspend the writ. Lincoln continued the army policy that the writ was suspended in limited areas despite the ex parte Merryman ruling.\n", "Section::::Presidency.:The Civil War.:Union military strategy.\n", "After the Battle of Fort Sumter, Lincoln took executive control of the war and formed an overall Union military strategy. Lincoln responded to this unprecedented political and military crisis as commander-in-chief, using unprecedented powers. He expanded his war powers, imposed a blockade on Confederate ports, disbursed funds before appropriation by Congress, suspended \"habeas corpus\", and arrested and imprisoned thousands of suspected Confederate sympathizers. Lincoln was supported by Congress and the northern public for these actions. In addition, Lincoln had to reinforce Union sympathies in the border slave states and keep the war from becoming an international conflict.\n", "The war dominated Lincoln's time and attention. From the start, it was clear that bipartisan support would be essential to success, and that any compromise would alienate factions on both sides of the aisle, such as the appointment of Republicans and Democrats to command positions. Copperheads criticized Lincoln for refusing to compromise on slavery. The Radical Republicans criticized him for moving too slowly in abolishing slavery. On August 6, 1861, Lincoln signed the Confiscation Act that authorized judicial proceedings to confiscate and free slaves who were used to support the Confederates. In practice, the law had little effect, but it did signal political support for abolishing slavery.\n", "In late August 1861, General John C. Frémont, the 1856 Republican presidential nominee, without consulting his superiors in Washington, proclaimed a very harsh martial law in Missouri. Lincoln cancelled the proclamation, saying its emancipation plan was political, lacking military necessity and a legal basis. After Lincoln acted, Union enlistments from Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri increased by over 40,000.\n", "In foreign policy, Lincoln's main goal was to stop military aid to the Confederacy. Lincoln left most diplomatic matters to his Secretary of State, William Seward. At times Seward was too bellicose, so for balance Lincoln maintained a close working relationship with Senate Foreign Relations Committee chairman Charles Sumner. The Trent Affair of late 1861 threatened war with Great Britain. The U.S. Navy had illegally intercepted a British mail ship, the \"Trent\", on the high seas and seized two Confederate envoys; Britain protested vehemently while the U.S. cheered. Lincoln ended the crisis by releasing the two diplomats. Biographer James G. Randall dissected Lincoln's successful techniques:\n", "Lincoln painstakingly monitored the telegraph reports coming into War Department. He tracked all phases of the effort, consulted with governors, and selected generals based on their success (as well as their state and party). In January 1862, after many complaints of inefficiency and profiteering in the War Department, Lincoln replaced Simon Cameron with Edwin Stanton as War Secretary. Stanton centralized the War Department's activities, auditing and cancelling contracts, saving the federal government $17,000,000. Stanton was a staunchly Unionist, pro-business, conservative Democrat who moved toward the Radical Republican faction. He worked more often and more closely with Lincoln than any other senior official. \"Stanton and Lincoln virtually conducted the war together,\" say Thomas and Hyman.\n", "In terms of war strategy, Lincoln articulated two priorities: to ensure that Washington was well-defended, and to conduct an aggressive war effort leading to prompt, decisive victory. However major Northern newspapers demanded more—they expected victory within 90 days. Twice a week, Lincoln met with his cabinet in the afternoon. Occasionally Mary would force him to take a carriage ride, concerned that he was working too hard. Lincoln learned from reading his chief of staff General Henry Halleck's book, a disciple of the European strategist Jomini; he began to appreciate the critical need to control strategic points, such as the Mississippi River. Lincoln saw the importance of Vicksburg and understood the necessity of defeating the enemy's army, rather than simply capturing territory.\n", "Section::::Presidency.:The Civil War.:General McClellan.\n", "After the Union rout at Bull Run and Winfield Scott's retirement, Lincoln appointed Major General George B. McClellan general-in-chief. McClellan then took months to plan his Peninsula Campaign. McClellan's slow progress frustrated Lincoln, as did his position that no troops were needed to defend Washington. McClellan blamed Lincoln's holding troops back for his campaign's subsequent failure. Lincoln went as far as meeting with General McClellan in his home to discuss matters privately. Once McClellan heard Lincoln was in his home, McClellan stay hidden away until Lincoln left.\n", "Lincoln removed McClellan in March 1862, after McClellan offered unsolicited political advice. In July Lincoln elevated Henry Halleck. Lincoln appointed John Pope as head of the new Army of Virginia. Pope complied with Lincoln's desire to advance on Richmond from the north, thus protecting Washington from counterattack.\n", "Pope was then soundly defeated at the Second Battle of Bull Run in the summer of 1862, forcing the Army of the Potomac back to defend Washington.\n", "Despite his dissatisfaction with McClellan's failure to reinforce Pope, Lincoln restored him to command of all forces around Washington. Two days after McClellan's return to command, General Robert E. Lee's forces crossed the Potomac River into Maryland, leading to the Battle of Antietam in September. The ensuing Union victory was among the bloodiest in American history, but it enabled Lincoln to announce that he would issue an Emancipation Proclamation in January. Lincoln had waited for a military victory so that the Proclamation would not be perceived as the product of desperation.\n", "McClellan then resisted the president's demand that he pursue Lee's army, while General Don Carlos Buell likewise refused orders to move the Army of the Ohio against rebel forces in eastern Tennessee. Lincoln replaced Buell with William Rosecrans; and, after the 1862 midterm elections, replaced McClellan with Ambrose Burnside. Both were presumably more supportive of the commander-in-chief.\n", "Burnside, against presidential advice, launched an offensive across the Rappahannock River and was defeated by Lee at Fredericksburg in December. Desertions during 1863 came in the thousands and increased after Fredericksburg. Lincoln promoted Joseph Hooker.\n", "The midterm elections in 1862 cost the Republicans severe losses due to rising inflation, high taxes, rumors of corruption, suspension of \"habeas corpus\", military draft law, and fears that freed slaves would come North and undermine the labor market. The Emancipation Proclamation gained votes for Republicans in rural New England and the upper Midwest, but cost votes in the Irish and German strongholds and in the lower Midwest, where many Southerners had lived for generations.\n", "In the spring of 1863, Lincoln became optimistic about upcoming military campaigns to the point of thinking the end of the war could be near if a string of victories could be put together; these plans included attacks by Hooker on Lee north of Richmond, Rosecrans on Chattanooga, Grant on Vicksburg, and a naval assault on Charleston.\n", "Hooker was routed by Lee at the Battle of Chancellorsville in May. He then resigned and was replaced by George Meade as Lee moved north. Meade followed Lee into Pennsylvania and beat him in the Gettysburg Campaign, but then failed to follow up despite Lincoln's demands. At the same time, Grant captured Vicksburg and gained control of the Mississippi River, splitting off the far western rebel states.\n", "Section::::Presidency.:The Civil War.:Emancipation Proclamation.\n", "The Federal government's power to end slavery was limited by the Constitution, which before 1865, committed the issue to individual states. Lincoln argued that slavery would end by preventing its expansion into new territories. He sought to persuade the states to accept compensated emancipation in return for their prohibition of slavery. Lincoln believed that curtailing slavery would make it obsolete. Lincoln rejected Fremont's two emancipation attempts in August 1861 and one by Major General David Hunter in May 1862, on the grounds that it was not within their power, and would upset loyal border states.\n", "On June 19, 1862, endorsed by Lincoln, Congress passed an act banning slavery on all federal territory. In July, the Confiscation Act of 1862 was enacted, which set up court procedures to free the slaves of those convicted of aiding the rebellion. Although Lincoln believed this was not within Congress's power, he approved the bill in deference to the legislature. He felt such action could be taken only by the Commander-in-Chief, using Constitutional war powers, which he planned to do. Lincoln discussed a draft of the Emancipation Proclamation with his cabinet.\n", "Privately, Lincoln concluded that the Confederacy's slave base had to be eliminated. However, Copperheads argued that emancipation was a stumbling block to peace and reunification. Republican editor Horace Greeley of the \"New York Tribune\" agreed. Lincoln rejected this argument directly in his letter of August 22, 1862. Although he said he personally wished all men could be free, Lincoln stated that the primary goal of his actions as president (he used the first person pronoun and explicitly refers to his \"official duty\") was that of preserving the Union:\n", "The Emancipation Proclamation, issued on September 22, 1862, with effect on January 1, 1863, declared free the slaves in 10 states not then under Union control, with exemptions specified for areas under Union control in two states. Lincoln spent the next 100 days preparing the army and the nation for emancipation, while Democrats rallied their voters by warning of the threat that freed slaves posed to northern whites.\n", "Once the abolition of slavery in the rebel states became a military objective, Union armies advancing south liberated three million slaves. Lincoln's comment on the signing of the Proclamation was: \"I never, in my life, felt more certain that I was doing right, than I do in signing this paper.\" Lincoln continued earlier plans to set up colonies for the newly freed slaves. He supported this in the Proclamation, but the undertaking failed.\n", "Enlisting former slaves became official policy. By the spring of 1863, Lincoln was ready to recruit black troops in more than token numbers. In a letter to Tennessee military governor Andrew Johnson encouraging him to lead the way in raising black troops, Lincoln wrote, \"The bare sight of 50,000 armed and drilled black soldiers on the banks of the Mississippi would end the rebellion at once\". By the end of 1863, at Lincoln's direction, General Lorenzo Thomas had recruited 20 regiments of blacks from the Mississippi Valley.\n", "Section::::Presidency.:The Civil War.:Gettysburg Address (1863).\n", "Lincoln spoke at the Gettysburg battlefield cemetery on November 19, 1863. Defying his prediction that \"the world will little note, nor long remember what we say here\", the Address became the most quoted speech in American history.\n", "In 272 words, and three minutes, Lincoln asserted that the nation was born not in 1789, but in 1776, \"conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal\". He defined the war as dedicated to the principles of liberty and equality for all. He declared that the deaths of so many brave soldiers would not be in vain, that slavery would end, and the future of democracy would be assured, that \"government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth\".\n", "Section::::Presidency.:The Civil War.:General Grant.\n", "Grant's victories at the Battle of Shiloh and in the Vicksburg campaign impressed Lincoln. Responding to criticism of Grant after Shiloh, Lincoln had said, \"I can't spare this man. He fights.\" With Grant in command, Lincoln felt the Union Army could advance in multiple theaters, and incorporate black troops. Meade's failure to capture Lee's army after Gettysburg and the continued passivity of the Army of the Potomac persuaded Lincoln to promote Grant to supreme commander. Grant stayed with Meade's army and told Meade what to do.\n", "Lincoln was concerned that Grant might be considering a presidential candidacy in 1864, as was McClellan. Lincoln arranged for an intermediary to inquire into Grant's political intentions. Assured that he had none, Lincoln submitted Grant's appointment to the Senate. He obtained Congress's consent to make him Lieutenant General, a rank that had remained unoccupied since George Washington.\n", "Grant waged his bloody Overland Campaign in 1864, with heavy losses on both sides. Despite this, when Lincoln asked what Grant's plans were, the general replied, \"I propose to fight it out on this line if it takes all summer.\"\n", "Grant's army moved steadily south. Lincoln traveled to Grant's headquarters at City Point, Virginia to confer with Grant and William Tecumseh Sherman. Lincoln replaced the Union losses by mobilizing support throughout the North.\n", "Lincoln authorized Grant to target infrastructure—plantations, railroads, and bridges—hoping to destroy the South's morale and weaken its fighting ability. Lincoln emphasized defeat of the Confederate armies rather than destruction (which was considerable) for its own sake.\n", "In 1864 Confederate general Jubal Early raided Washington, D.C., while Lincoln watched from an exposed position; Captain Oliver Wendell Holmes shouted at him, \"Get down, you damn fool, before you get shot!\"\n", "As Grant continued to attrit Lee's forces, efforts to discuss peace began. Confederate Vice President Stephens led a group to meet with Lincoln, Seward, and others at Hampton Roads. Lincoln refused to allow any negotiation with the Confederacy as a coequal; his sole objective was an agreement to end the fighting and the meetings produced no results. On April 1, 1865, Grant nearly encircled Petersburg. The Confederate government evacuated and the city fell. Lincoln visited the conquered capital. On April 9, Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox officially ending the war.\n", "Section::::Presidency.:Re-election.\n", "Lincoln ran again in 1864. He united the main Republican factions, along with War Democrats such as Edwin M. Stanton and Andrew Johnson. Lincoln used conversation and his patronage powers—greatly expanded from peacetime—to build support and fend off the Radicals' efforts to replace him. At its convention, the Republicans selected Johnson as his running mate. To broaden his coalition to include War Democrats as well as Republicans, Lincoln ran under the label of the new Union Party.\n", "Grant's bloody stalemates damaged Lincoln's re-election prospects, and many Republicans feared defeat. Lincoln confidentially pledged in writing that if he should lose the election, he would still defeat the Confederacy before turning over the White House: Lincoln did not show the pledge to his cabinet, but asked them to sign the sealed envelope.\n", "While the Democratic platform followed the \"Peace wing\" of the party and called the war a \"failure\", their candidate, McClellan, supported the war and repudiated the platform. Lincoln provided Grant with more troops and led his party to renew its support for Grant. Sherman's capture of Atlanta in September and David Farragut's capture of Mobile ended defeatism. The Democratic Party was deeply split, with some leaders and most soldiers openly for Lincoln. The National Union Party was united by Lincoln's support for emancipation. State Republican parties stressed the perfidy of the Copperheads. On November 8, Lincoln carried all but three states, including 78 percent of Union soldiers.\n", "On March 4, 1865, Lincoln delivered his second inaugural address. In it, he deemed the endless casualties to be God's will. Historian Mark Noll claims this speech to rank \"among the small handful of semi-sacred texts by which Americans conceive their place in the world\". Lincoln said:\n", "Section::::Presidency.:Reconstruction.\n", "Reconstruction began during the war, as Lincoln and his associates considered how to reintegrate the nation, and the fates of Confederate leaders and freed slaves. Shortly after Lee's surrender, a general asked Lincoln how to treat defeated Confederates. Lincoln replied, \"Let 'em up easy.\" Lincoln was determined to find meaning in the war even when it had passed, and did not want to continue to outcast the southern states. His main goal was to keep the union together. He planned to go forward not by focusing on who to blame, but on how to rebuild the nation as one. Lincoln led the moderates regarding Reconstruction policy, and was opposed by the Radicals, under Rep. Thaddeus Stevens, Sen. Charles Sumner and Sen. Benjamin Wade, who otherwise remained Lincoln's allies. Determined to reunite the nation and not alienate the South, Lincoln urged that speedy elections under generous terms be held. His Amnesty Proclamation of December 8, 1863, offered pardons to those who had not held a Confederate civil office, had not mistreated Union prisoners, and would sign an oath of allegiance.\n", "As Southern states fell, they needed leaders while their administrations re-formed. In Tennessee and Arkansas, Lincoln appointed Johnson and Frederick Steele as military governors, respectively. In Louisiana, Lincoln ordered General Nathaniel P. Banks to promote a plan that would restore statehood when 10 percent of the voters agreed. Democratic opponents accused Lincoln of using the military to ensure his and the Republicans' political aspirations. The Radicals denounced his policy as too lenient, and passed their own plan, the Wade-Davis Bill, in 1864, which Lincoln vetoed. The Radicals retaliated by refusing to seat elected representatives from Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee.\n", "Lincoln's appointments were designed to harness both moderates and Radicals. To fill Chief Justice Taney's seat on the Supreme Court, he named the Radicals' choice, Salmon P. Chase, who Lincoln believed would uphold his emancipation and paper money policies.\n", "After implementing the Emancipation Proclamation, Lincoln increased pressure on Congress to outlaw slavery throughout the nation with a constitutional amendment. He declared that such an amendment would \"clinch the whole matter\". By December 1863, an amendment was brought to Congress. This first attempt failed, falling short of the required two-thirds majority on June 15, 1864, in the House of Representatives. Passage became part of the Republican/Unionist platform. After a House debate, the second attempt passed on January 31, 1865. With ratification, it became the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution on December 6, 1865.\n", "Lincoln believed the federal government had limited responsibility to the millions of freedmen. He signed Senator Charles Sumner's Freedmen's Bureau bill that set up a temporary federal agency designed to meet the immediate needs of former slaves. The law opened land for a lease of three years with the ability to purchase title for the freedmen. Lincoln announced a Reconstruction plan that involved short-term military control, pending readmission under the control of southern Unionists.\n", "Historians agree that it is impossible to predict exactly how Reconstruction would have proceeded had Lincoln lived. Biographers James G. Randall and Richard Current, according to David Lincove, argue that:\n", "Eric Foner argues that:\n", "Section::::Presidency.:Other enactments.\n", "Lincoln adhered to the Whig theory of the presidency, giving Congress primary responsibility for lawmaking while the Executive enforced them. Lincoln vetoed only four bills; the only important one was the Wade-Davis Bill with its harsh Reconstruction program. The 1862 Homestead Act made millions of acres of Western government-held land available for purchase at low cost. The 1862 Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act provided government grants for agricultural colleges in each state. The Pacific Railway Acts of 1862 and 1864 granted federal support for the construction of the United States' First Transcontinental Railroad, which was completed in 1869. The passage of the Homestead Act and the Pacific Railway Acts was enabled by the absence of Southern congressmen and senators who had opposed the measures in the 1850s.\n", "In July 1861, the US issued paper currency for the first time. The currency became known greenbacks, because it was printed in green on the reverse side.\n", "Other important legislation involved two measures to raise revenues for the Federal government: tariffs (a policy with long precedent), and a Federal income tax. In 1861, Lincoln signed the second and third Morrill Tariffs, following the first enacted by Buchanan. Also in 1861, Lincoln signed the Revenue Act of 1861, creating the first U.S. income tax. This created a flat tax of 3 percent on incomes above $800 ($ in current dollar terms). The Revenue Act of 1862 adopted rates that increased with income.\n", "Lincoln presided over the expansion of the federal government's economic influence in other areas. The National Banking Act created the system of national banks. It also established a national currency. In 1862, Congress created the Department of Agriculture. In 1862, Lincoln sent a senior general, John Pope to put down the \"Sioux Uprising\" in Minnesota. Presented with 303 execution warrants for Santee Dakota who were convicted of killing innocent farmers, Lincoln conducted his own personal review of each warrant, eventually approving 39 for execution (one was later reprieved).\n", "In response to rumors of a renewed draft, the editors of the \"New York World\" and the \"Journal of Commerce\" published a false draft proclamation that created an opportunity for the editors and others employed at the publications to corner the gold market. Lincoln attacked the media about such behavior, ordering the military to seize the two papers. The seizure lasted for two days.\n", "Lincoln is largely responsible for the Thanksgiving holiday. Thanksgiving had became a regional holiday in New England in the 17th century. It had been sporadically proclaimed by the federal government on irregular dates. The prior proclamation had been during James Madison's presidency 50 years earlier. In 1863, Lincoln declared the final Thursday in November of that year to be a day of Thanksgiving.\n", "In June 1864, Lincoln approved the Yosemite Grant enacted by Congress, which provided unprecedented federal protection for the area now known as Yosemite National Park.\n", "Section::::Presidency.:Judicial appointments.\n", "Section::::Presidency.:Judicial appointments.:Supreme Court appointments.\n", "Lincoln's declared philosophy on court nominations was that \"we cannot ask a man what he will do, and if we should, and he should answer us, we should despise him for it. Therefore we must take a man whose opinions are known.\" Lincoln made five appointments to the United States Supreme Court. Noah Haynes Swayne was chosen as an anti-slavery lawyer who was committed to the Union. Samuel Freeman Miller, supported Lincoln in the 1860 election and was an avowed abolitionist. David Davis was Lincoln's campaign manager in 1860 and had served as a judge in Lincoln's Illinois court circuit. Democrat Stephen Johnson Field, a previous California Supreme Court justice, provided geographic and political balance. Finally, Lincoln's Treasury Secretary, Salmon P. Chase, became Chief Justice. Lincoln believed Chase was an able jurist, would support Reconstruction legislation, and that his appointment united the Republican Party.\n", "Section::::Presidency.:Judicial appointments.:Other judicial appointments.\n", "Lincoln appointed 32 federal judges, including four Associate Justices and one Chief Justice to the Supreme Court of the United States, and 27 judges to the United States district courts. Lincoln appointed no judges to the United States circuit courts during his time in office.\n", "Section::::Presidency.:States admitted to the Union.\n", "West Virginia was admitted to the Union on June 20, 1863. Nevada, which became the third State in the far-west of the continent, was admitted as a free state on October 31, 1864.\n", "Section::::Presidency.:Assassination.\n", "Abraham Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth on Good Friday, April 14, 1865, while attending a play at Ford's Theatre, five days after Lee's surrender. Booth was a well-known actor and a Confederate spy from Maryland; though he never joined the Confederate army, he had contacts with the Confederate secret service. After attending an April 11, 1865, speech in which Lincoln promoted voting rights for blacks, Booth decided to assassinate the President. Learning of Lincoln's intent to attend the play with Grant, Booth and his co-conspirators planned to assassinate Lincoln and Grant at the theater and to kill Vice President Johnson and Secretary of State Seward at their respective homes. Lincoln left to attend the play \"Our American Cousin\" on April 14. At the last minute, Grant decided to go to New Jersey to visit his children instead of attending the play.\n", "Booth crept up from behind and at about 10:13 pm, fired at the back of Lincoln's head, mortally wounding him. Lincoln's guest Major Henry Rathbone momentarily grappled with Booth, but Booth stabbed him and escaped.\n", "Lincoln was taken across the street to Petersen House. After remaining in a coma for nine hours, Lincoln died at 7:22 am on April 15. After death his face relaxed into a smile. Stanton saluted and said, \"Now he belongs to the ages.\"\n", "Lincoln's flag-enfolded body was then escorted in the rain to the White House by bareheaded Union officers, while the city's church bells rang. President Johnson was sworn in at 10:00 am, less than 3 hours after Lincoln's death.\n", "Booth was tracked to a farm in Virginia. Refusing to surrender, he was shot on April 26.\n", "Section::::Presidency.:Funeral and burial.\n", "The late President lay in state, first in the East Room, and then in the Capitol Rotunda from April 19 through April 21. The caskets containing Lincoln's body and the body of his son Willie traveled for three weeks on the \"Lincoln Special\" funeral train. The train followed a circuitous route from Washington D.C. to Springfield, Illinois, stopping at many cities for memorials attended by hundreds of thousands. Many others gathered along the tracks as the train passed with bands, bonfires, and hymn singing or in silent grief. Poet Walt Whitman composed \"When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd\" to eulogize him, one of four poems he wrote about Lincoln. African-Americans were especially moved; they had lost 'their Moses'. In a larger sense, the reaction was in response to the deaths of so many men in the war. Historians emphasized the widespread shock and sorrow, but noted that some Lincoln haters celebrated his death.\n", "Section::::Religious and philosophical beliefs.\n", "As a young man, Lincoln was a religious skeptic. Later in life, Lincoln's frequent use of religious imagery and language might have reflected his own personal beliefs or might have been a device to reach his audiences, who were mostly evangelical Protestants. He never joined a church, although he frequently attended with his wife. He was deeply familiar with the Bible, and he both quoted and praised it. He was private about his beliefs and respected the beliefs of others. Lincoln never made a clear profession of Christian beliefs. However, he did believe in an all-powerful God that shaped events and by 1865 was expressing those beliefs in major speeches.\n", "In the 1840s, Lincoln subscribed to the Doctrine of Necessity, a belief that asserted the human mind was controlled by some higher power. In the 1850s, Lincoln asserted his belief in \"providence\" in a general way, and rarely used the language or imagery of the evangelicals; he regarded the republicanism of the Founding Fathers with an almost religious reverence. With the death of his son Edward, Lincoln more frequently expressed a need to depend on God. The death of son Willie in February 1862 may have caused Lincoln to look toward religion for solace. After Willie's death, Lincoln considered why, from a divine standpoint, the severity of the war was necessary. He wrote at this time that God \"could have either saved or destroyed the Union without a human contest. Yet the contest began. And having begun, He could give the final victory to either side any day. Yet the contest proceeds.\" On the day Lincoln was assassinated, he reportedly told his wife he desired to visit the Holy Land.\n", "Section::::Health.\n", "Several claims have been made that Lincoln's health was declining before the assassination. These are often based on photographs appearing to show weight loss and muscle wasting. One such claim is that he suffered from a rare genetic disorder, MEN2b, which manifests with a medullary thyroid carcinoma, mucosal neuromas and a Marfanoid appearance. Others simply claim he had Marfan syndrome, based on his tall appearance with spindly fingers, and the association of possible aortic regurgitation, which can cause bobbing of the head (DeMusset's sign) – based on blurring of Lincoln's head in photographs, which required long exposure times. Confirmation of this and other diseases could possibly be obtained via DNA analysis of a pillow case stained with Lincoln's blood, currently in possession of the Grand Army of the Republic Museum & Library in Philadelphia, but as of 2009, the museum refused to provide a sample for testing.\n", "Section::::Legacy.\n", "The successful reunification of the states had consequences for the name of the country. The term \"the United States\" has historically been used, sometimes in the plural (\"these United States\"), and other times in the singular, without any particular grammatical consistency. The Civil War was a significant force in the eventual dominance of the singular usage by the end of the 19th century.\n", "Historians such as Harry Jaffa, Herman Belz, John Diggins, Vernon Burton, and Eric Foner stress Lincoln's redefinition of \"republican values\". As early as the 1850s, a time when most political rhetoric focused on the Constitution, Lincoln redirected emphasis to the Declaration of Independence as the foundation of American political values—what he called the \"sheet anchor\" of republicanism. The Declaration's emphasis on equality and freedom for all, in contrast to the Constitution's tolerance of slavery, shifted the debate. Regarding the 1860 Cooper Union speech, Diggins notes, \"Lincoln presented Americans a theory of history that offers a profound contribution to the theory and destiny of republicanism itself.\" He highlights the moral basis of republicanism, rather than its legalisms. Nevertheless, Lincoln justified the war via legalisms (the Constitution was a contract, and for one party to get out of a contract all the other parties had to agree), and then in terms of the national duty to guarantee a republican form of government in every state. Burton argues that Lincoln's republicanism was taken up by the emancipated Freedmen.\n", "In Lincoln's first inaugural address, he explored the nature of democracy. He denounced secession as anarchy, and explained that majority rule had to be balanced by constitutional restraints. He said \"A majority held in restraint by constitutional checks and limitations, and always changing easily with deliberate changes of popular opinions and sentiments, is the only true sovereign of a free people.\"\n", "Section::::Legacy.:Historical reputation.\n", "In surveys of U.S. scholars ranking presidents conducted since the 1940s, Lincoln is consistently ranked in the top three, often as number one. A 2004 study found that scholars in the fields of history and politics ranked Lincoln number one, while legal scholars placed him second after George Washington. In presidential ranking polls conducted in the United States since 1948, Lincoln has been rated at the top in the majority of polls. Generally, the top three presidents are rated as 1. Lincoln; 2. Washington; and 3. Franklin Delano Roosevelt, although the order varies.\n", "President Lincoln's assassination left him a national martyr. He was viewed by abolitionists as a champion for human liberty. Republicans linked Lincoln's name to their party. Many, though not all, in the South considered Lincoln as a man of outstanding ability. Historians have said he was \"a classical liberal\" in the 19th century sense. Allen C. Guelzo states that Lincoln was a\n", "Lincoln became a favorite exemplar for liberal intellectuals across the world.\n", "Schwartz argues that Lincoln's American reputation grew slowly from the late 19th century until the Progressive Era (1900–1920s) when he emerged as one of America's most venerated heroes, even among white Southerners. The high point came in 1922 with the dedication of the Lincoln Memorial on the National Mall in Washington, D.C. In the New Deal era, liberals honored Lincoln not so much as the self-made man or the great war president, but as the advocate of the common man who they claimed would have supported the welfare state. In the Cold War years, Lincoln's image shifted to a symbol of freedom who brought hope to those oppressed by Communist regimes.\n", "By the 1970s, Lincoln had become a hero to political conservatives for his intense nationalism, support for business, his insistence on stopping the spread of human bondage, his acting in terms of Lockean and Burkean principles on behalf of both liberty and tradition, and his devotion to the principles of the Founding Fathers. As a Whig activist, Lincoln was a spokesman for business interests, favoring high tariffs, banks, infrastructure improvements, and railroads, in opposition to the agrarian Democrats. William C. Harris found that Lincoln's \"reverence for the Founding Fathers, the Constitution, the laws under it, and the preservation of the Republic and its institutions strengthened his conservatism\". James G. Randall emphasizes his tolerance and moderation \"in his preference for orderly progress, his distrust of dangerous agitation, and his reluctance toward ill digested schemes of reform\". Randall concludes that, \"he was conservative in his complete avoidance of that type of so-called 'radicalism' which involved abuse of the South, hatred for the slaveholder, thirst for vengeance, partisan plotting, and ungenerous demands that Southern institutions be transformed overnight by outsiders.\"\n", "By the late 1960s, some African American intellectuals, led by Lerone Bennett Jr., rejected Lincoln's role as the Great Emancipator. Bennett won wide attention when he called Lincoln a white supremacist in 1968. He noted that Lincoln used ethnic slurs and told jokes that ridiculed blacks. Bennett argued that Lincoln opposed social equality, and proposed sending freed slaves to another country. Defenders, such as authors Dirck and Cashin, retorted that he was not as bad as most politicians of his day; and that he was a \"moral visionary\" who deftly advanced the abolitionist cause, as fast as politically possible. The emphasis shifted away from Lincoln the emancipator to an argument that blacks had freed themselves from slavery, or at least were responsible for pressuring the government on emancipation. Historian Barry Schwartz wrote in 2009 that Lincoln's image suffered \"erosion, fading prestige, benign ridicule\" in the late 20th century. On the other hand, Donald opined in his 1996 biography that Lincoln was distinctly endowed with the personality trait of negative capability, defined by the poet John Keats and attributed to extraordinary leaders who were \"content in the midst of uncertainties and doubts, and not compelled toward fact or reason\". In the 21st century, President Barack Obama named Lincoln his favorite president and insisted on using Lincoln's Bible for his inaugural ceremonies.\n", "Lincoln has often been portrayed by Hollywood, almost always in a flattering light.\n", "Union nationalism, as envisioned by Lincoln, \"helped lead America to the nationalism of Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson, and Franklin Delano Roosevelt.\"\n", "Section::::Legacy.:Memory and memorials.\n", "Lincoln's portrait appears on two denominations of United States currency, the penny and the $5 bill. His likeness also appears on many postage stamps and he has been memorialized in many town, city, and county names, including the capital of Nebraska. While he is usually portrayed bearded, he first grew a beard in 1860 at the suggestion of 11-year-old Grace Bedell.\n", "The most famous and most visited memorials are Lincoln's sculpture on Mount Rushmore; Lincoln Memorial, Ford's Theatre, and Petersen House (where he died) in Washington, D.C.; and the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum in Springfield, Illinois, not far from Lincoln's home, as well as his tomb.\n", "Sociologist Barry Schwartz argues that in the 1930s and 1940s, the memory of Abraham Lincoln was practically sacred and provided the nation with \"a moral symbol inspiring and guiding American life\". During the Great Depression, he argues, Lincoln served \"as a means for seeing the world's disappointments, for making its sufferings not so much explicable as meaningful\". Franklin D. Roosevelt, preparing America for war, used the words of the Civil War president to clarify the threat posed by Germany and Japan. Americans asked, \"What would Lincoln do?\" However, Schwartz also finds that since World War II, Lincoln's symbolic power has lost relevance, and this \"fading hero is symptomatic of fading confidence in national greatness\". He suggested that postmodernism and multiculturalism have diluted greatness as a concept.\n", "The United States Navy is named after Lincoln, the second Navy ship to bear his name.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Outline of Abraham Lincoln\n", "BULLET::::- Sexuality of Abraham Lincoln\n", "BULLET::::- Dakota War of 1862\n", "BULLET::::- Grace Bedell\n", "BULLET::::- Lincoln Tower\n", "BULLET::::- List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln\n", "BULLET::::- List of civil rights leaders\n", "Section::::References.\n", "Section::::References.:Citations.\n", "Section::::References.:Citations.:Historiography.\n", "BULLET::::- Barr, John M. \"Holding Up a Flawed Mirror to the American Soul: Abraham Lincoln in the Writings of Lerone Bennett Jr.,\" Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association 35 (Winter 2014), 43–65.\n", "BULLET::::- Barr, John M. \"Loathing Lincoln: An American Tradition from the Civil War to the Present\" (LSU Press, 2014).\n", "BULLET::::- Holzer, Harold and Craig L. Symonds, eds. \"Exploring Lincoln: Great Historians Reappraise Our Greatest President\" (2015), essays by 16 scholars\n", "BULLET::::- Manning, Chandra, \"The Shifting Terrain of Attitudes toward Abraham Lincoln and Emancipation\", \"Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association\", 34 (Winter 2013), 18–39.\n", "BULLET::::- Smith, Adam I.P. \"The 'Cult' of Abraham Lincoln and the Strange Survival of Liberal England in the Era of the World Wars\", \"Twentieth Century British History\", (December 2010) 21#4 pp. 486–509\n", "BULLET::::- Spielberg, Steven; Goodwin, Doris Kearns; Kushner, Tony. \"Mr. Lincoln Goes to Hollywood\", \"Smithsonian\" (2012) 43#7 pp. 46–53.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "Section::::External links.:Official.\n", "BULLET::::- Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum\n", "BULLET::::- ALPLM's ongoing digitization of all Lincoln papers\n", "BULLET::::- White House biography\n", "Section::::External links.:Organizations.\n", "BULLET::::- Abraham Lincoln Association\n", "BULLET::::- Abraham Lincoln Bicentennial Foundation\n", "Section::::External links.:Other.\n", "BULLET::::- Abraham Lincoln: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress\n", "BULLET::::- \"Life Portrait of Abraham Lincoln\", from C-SPAN's \"American presidents: Life Portraits\", June 28, 1999\n", "BULLET::::- \"Writings of Abraham Lincoln\" from C-SPAN's \"\"\n", "BULLET::::- Abraham Lincoln: Original Letters and Manuscripts – Shapell Manuscript Foundation\n", "BULLET::::- Lincoln/Net: Abraham Lincoln Historical Digitization Project – Northern Illinois University Libraries\n", "BULLET::::- Teaching Abraham Lincoln – National Endowment for the Humanities\n", "BULLET::::- In Popular Song:Our Noble Chief Has Passed Away by Cooper/Thomas\n", "BULLET::::- Abraham Lincoln Recollections and Newspaper Articles Collection, McLean County Museum of History\n", "BULLET::::- Digitized items in the Alfred Whital Stern Collection of Lincolniana in the Rare Book and Special Collections Division in the Library of Congress\n" ] }

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{ "description": "16th President of the United States", "enwikiquote_title": "Abraham Lincoln", "wikidata_id": "Q91", "wikidata_label": "Abraham Lincoln", "wikipedia_title": "Abraham Lincoln", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Honest Abe", "A. Lincoln", "President Lincoln", "Abe Lincoln", "Lincoln" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Bohemond II of Antioch\n", "Bohemond II (1107/1108 – February 1130) was Prince of Taranto from 1111 to 1128 and Prince of Antioch from 1111/1119 to 1130. He was the son of Bohemond I, who in 1108 was forced to submit to the authority of the Byzantine Empire in the Treaty of Devol. Three years later, the infant Bohemond inherited the Principality of Taranto under the guardianship of his mother, Constance of France. The Principality of Antioch was administered by his father's nephew, Tancred, until 1111. Tancred's cousin, Roger of Salerno, managed the principality from 1111 to 1119. After Roger died in the Battle of the Field of Blood, Baldwin II of Jerusalem took over the administration of Antioch. However, he did acknowledge Bohemond's right to personally rule the principality upon reaching the age of majority.\n", "Bohemond came to Antioch in autumn 1126. He launched successful military campaigns against the nearby Moslem rulers, but his conflict with Joscelin I of Courtenay enabled Imad ad-Din Zengi to secure Mosul and Aleppo. Meanwhile, Roger II of Sicily occupied the Principality of Taranto in 1128. Bohemond died fighting against Danishmend Emir Gazi Gümüshtigin during a military campaign against Cilician Armenia, and Gümüshtigin sent Bohemond's embalmed head to the Abbasid Caliph.\n", "Section::::Early life.\n", "Bohemond II was the son of Bohemond I, Prince of Taranto and Antioch, and Constance of France. He was born in 1107 or 1108. In 1104, Bohemond I returned to Europe to seek military assistance against the Byzantine Empire and left his nephew Tancred in Syria to administer Antioch. Two charters show that Tancred styled himself \"prince of Antioch\" in 1108. In September of that year, Bohemond I was forced to sign the Treaty of Devol, which authorized the Byzantine Empire to annex the Principality of Antioch upon his death.\n", "Bohemond I died in Apulia in 1111. Bohemond II was still a minor, so his mother took charge of the government of Taranto. The Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos sent envoys to Tancred to demand control of Antioch, but Tancred refused to obey and continued to govern the principality. Tancred died in 1112 and bequeathed Antioch to his sister's son, Roger of Salerno.\n", "Roger's legal status during his rule in Antioch is uncertain. According to William of Tyre, Tancred made Roger his successor \"with the understanding that, at the demand of Bohemond or his heirs, he should not refuse to return it,\" suggesting that Roger was simply regent for the child Bohemond. Roger adopted the title of prince, which implies that he regarded himself the ruler of Antioch in his own right. The contemporaneous Fulcher of Chartres accused Roger of depriving of \"his inheritence his own lord, the son of Bohemond [I], then living in Apulia with his mother.\" Charters issued in Bohemond's Italian domains between 1117 and 1119 emphasized that he was the son of the prince of Antioch, but did not style him prince.\n", "After Roger and most Antiochene noblemen perished in the Battle of the Field of Blood on 28 June 1119, Baldwin II of Jerusalem hurried to Syria to save Antioch from Ilghazi, the Artuqid ruler of Mardin. The notables of Antioch proclaimed Baldwin ruler of Antioch, but they emphasized that Antioch was Bohemond's \"rightful inheritance,\" according to Walter the Chancellor. Baldwin promised to cede Antioch to Bohemond if Bohemond came to the principality. Those who were present at the meeting agreed that Bohemond should marry Baldwin's daughter, Alice. They also decreed that Bohemond would not be entitled to reclaim grants made during his absence from the principality.\n", "Baldwin II was captured in 1123, and the burghers of Antioch sent envoys to Bohemond, urging him to come to his principality. Bohemond reached the age of majority at the age of 16. According to William of Tyre, he made an agreement with William II, Duke of Apulia, stipulating that the one who first died without issue was to will his principality to the other; however, the reliability of William's report is suspect. Alexander of Telese recorded that before leaving for Syria, Bohemond entrusted his Italian domains to the Holy See, but Romuald of Salerno said that he made Alexander, Count of Conversano, the overseer of those lands. Bohemond sailed from Otranto with a fleet of twenty-four ships in September 1126.\n", "Section::::Prince of Antioch.\n", "Bohemond landed at the port of St. Symeon in the Principality of Antioch in October or November. He went to Antioch to meet Baldwin II of Jerusalem, who subsequently ceded Antioch to him. Bohemond was officially installed as prince in Baldwin's presence.\n", "Matthew of Edessa portrayed Bohemond as \"a forceful character and great power.\" Badr ad-Daulah captured Kafartab shortly after Bohemond's arrival, but Bohemond quickly recaptured the fortress in early 1127. According to historian Steven Runciman, Bohemond's attack against the Munqidhites of Shaizar, which was recorded by Usama ibn Munqidh, also occurred during this period.\n", "Bohemond came into conflict with Joscelin I of Edessa in 1127, although sources do not reveal the reason behind the enmity of the two Christian rulers. According to Runciman, Joscelin seized former Antiochene territories from Il-Bursuqi, governor of Mosul. Furthermore, Bohemond refused to cede Azaz to Joscelin, despite the fact that Roger of Salerno promised it to Joscelin as the dowry of his second wife, Maria of Salerno. Taking advantage of Bohemond's absence due to a campaign, Joscelin invaded Antioch with the assistance of Turkish mercenaries, plundering the villages along the frontier.\n", "Bernard of Valence, Latin Patriarch of Antioch, imposed an interdict on the County of Edessa. Baldwin II of Jerusalem hurried to Syria to mediate between Bohemond and Joscelin in early 1128. Joscelin, who had become seriously ill, agreed to restore the property to Bohemond and to do homage to him. However, the conflict between Bohemond and Joscelin enabled Imad ad-Din Zengi, Il-Bursuqi's successor as governor of Mosul, to seize Aleppo without resistance on 28 June 1128.\n", "Meanwhile, Bohemond's cousin, William II of Apulia, had died without issue on 25 July 1127. Pope Honorius II tried to prevent Roger II of Sicily (the cousin of both William and Bohemond) from seizing Apulia, but Roger did not obey him. In May 1128, he invaded Bohemond's Italian principality, capturing Taranto, Otranto and Brindisi without resistance. He completed the conquest of the whole principality around 15 June.\n", "Taking advantage of the disputes between the Assassins and Taj al-Muluk Buri, atabeg of Damascus, Baldwin II of Jerusalem invaded Damascene territory and laid siege to Banias in November 1129. Bohemond and Joscelin joined Baldwin, but a heavy rainfall forced the crusaders to abandon the siege.\n", "Bohemond decided to recover Anazarbus and other territories which had been lost to the Cilician Armenia. He invaded Cilicia in February 1130, traveling along the Ceyhan River. Leo I of Cilicia sought assistance from the Danishmend Emir Gazi Gümüshtigin who made a surprise attack on Bohemond's army. Bohemond and his soldiers were massacred in the battle. According to Michael the Syrian, the Turks killed Bohemond because they did not recognize him; had they recognized him, they would have saved him so they could demand a ransom from him. Gümüshtigin had Bohemond's head embalmed and sent to Al-Mustarshid, the Abbasid Caliph.\n", "Section::::Family.\n", "Bohemond's wife, Alice, was the second daughter of Baldwin II of Jerusalem and Morphia of Melitene. Their only child, Constance, was two when Bohemond died in 1130. Alice tried to secure the regency for Constance for herself, but the Antiochene noblemen preferred her father, Baldwin II of Jerusalem. After Bohemond's death, Roger II of Sicily laid claim to Antioch, but he could never assert it against Constance.\n" ] }

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{ "description": "Prince of Antioch", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q333884", "wikidata_label": "Bohemond II of Antioch", "wikipedia_title": "Bohemond II of Antioch", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Bohemond II" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Farnham (disambiguation)\n", "Farnham is a town in Surrey, England, within the Borough of Waverley.\n", "Farnham may also refer to:\n", "Section::::Places.\n", "Section::::Places.:Canada.\n", "BULLET::::- Farnham, Quebec\n", "Section::::Places.:United Kingdom.\n", "BULLET::::- Farnham, Dorset\n", "BULLET::::- Farnham, Essex\n", "BULLET::::- Farnham, North Yorkshire\n", "BULLET::::- Farnham, Suffolk\n", "BULLET::::- Farnham, Surrey\n", "BULLET::::- Farnham Castle, Surrey\n", "BULLET::::- Farnham Common, Buckinghamshire\n", "BULLET::::- Farnham Royal, Buckinghamshire\n", "Section::::Places.:United States.\n", "BULLET::::- Farnham, New York\n", "BULLET::::- Farnham, Virginia\n", "BULLET::::- Farnham Creek, a stream in Minnesota\n", "BULLET::::- Farnham Lake, a lake in Minnesota\n", "Section::::People.\n", "BULLET::::- Farnham (surname)\n", "Section::::Fiction.\n", "BULLET::::- Farnham the Drunk, a character in the popular role playing game \"Diablo\"\n", "BULLET::::- Hubert Farnham, the title character in the Robert A. Heinlein novel \"Farnham's Freehold\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Farnham's Legend\", a science fiction novel, based on the \"X\" computer game series\n", "BULLET::::- The Farnhams, a family in the British TV soap \"Brookside\"\n", "Section::::Other.\n", "BULLET::::- Baron Farnham, a title in the peerage of Ireland\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Farnam (disambiguation)\n", "BULLET::::- Farnum (disambiguation)\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Anthropology\n", "Anthropology is the scientific study of humans and human behavior and societies in the past and present. Social anthropology studies patterns of behaviour and cultural anthropology studies cultural meaning, including norms and values. Linguistic anthropology studies how language influences social life. Biological or physical anthropology studies the biological development of humans.\n", "Archaeology, which studies human activity through investigation of physical evidence, is thought of as a branch of anthropology in the United States and Canada, while in Europe, it is viewed as a discipline in its own right or grouped under other related disciplines, such as history.\n", "Section::::Origin and development of the term.\n", "The abstract noun \"anthropology\" is first attested in reference to history. Its present use first appeared in Renaissance Germany in the works of Magnus Hundt and Otto Casmann. Their New Latin ' derived from the combining forms of the Greek words \"ánthrōpos\" (, \"human\") and \"lógos\" (, \"study\"). (Its adjectival form appeared in the works of Aristotle.) It began to be used in English, possibly via French ', by the early 18th century.\n", "Section::::Origin and development of the term.:Through the 19th century.\n", "In 1647, the Bartholins, founders of the University of Copenhagen, defined \"\" as follows:\n", "Sporadic use of the term for some of the subject matter occurred subsequently, such as the use by Étienne Serres in 1839 to describe the natural history, or paleontology, of man, based on comparative anatomy, and the creation of a chair in anthropology and ethnography in 1850 at the National Museum of Natural History (France) by Jean Louis Armand de Quatrefages de Bréau. Various short-lived organizations of anthropologists had already been formed. The Société Ethnologique de Paris, the first to use Ethnology, was formed in 1839. Its members were primarily anti-slavery activists. When slavery was abolished in France in 1848 the Société was abandoned.\n", "Meanwhile, the Ethnological Society of New York, currently the American Ethnological Society, was founded on its model in 1842, as well as the Ethnological Society of London in 1843, a break-away group of the Aborigines' Protection Society. These anthropologists of the times were liberal, anti-slavery, and pro-human-rights activists. They maintained international connections.\n", "Anthropology and many other current fields are the intellectual results of the comparative methods developed in the earlier 19th century. Theorists in such diverse fields as anatomy, linguistics, and Ethnology, making feature-by-feature comparisons of their subject matters, were beginning to suspect that similarities between animals, languages, and folkways were the result of processes or laws unknown to them then. For them, the publication of Charles Darwin's \"On the Origin of Species\" was the epiphany of everything they had begun to suspect. Darwin himself arrived at his conclusions through comparison of species he had seen in agronomy and in the wild.\n", "Darwin and Wallace unveiled evolution in the late 1850s. There was an immediate rush to bring it into the social sciences. Paul Broca in Paris was in the process of breaking away from the Société de biologie to form the first of the explicitly anthropological societies, the Société d'Anthropologie de Paris, meeting for the first time in Paris in 1859. When he read Darwin, he became an immediate convert to \"Transformisme\", as the French called evolutionism. His definition now became \"the study of the human group, considered as a whole, in its details, and in relation to the rest of nature\".\n", "Broca, being what today would be called a neurosurgeon, had taken an interest in the pathology of speech. He wanted to localize the difference between man and the other animals, which appeared to reside in speech. He discovered the speech center of the human brain, today called Broca's area after him. His interest was mainly in Biological anthropology, but a German philosopher specializing in psychology, Theodor Waitz, took up the theme of general and social anthropology in his six-volume work, entitled \"Die Anthropologie der Naturvölker\", 1859–1864. The title was soon translated as \"The Anthropology of Primitive Peoples\". The last two volumes were published posthumously.\n", "Waitz defined anthropology as \"the science of the nature of man\". Following Broca's lead, Waitz points out that anthropology is a new field, which would gather material from other fields, but would differ from them in the use of comparative anatomy, physiology, and psychology to differentiate man from \"the animals nearest to him\". He stresses that the data of comparison must be empirical, gathered by experimentation. The history of civilization, as well as ethnology, are to be brought into the comparison. It is to be presumed fundamentally that the species, man, is a unity, and that \"the same laws of thought are applicable to all men\".\n", "Waitz was influential among the British ethnologists. In 1863 the explorer Richard Francis Burton and the speech therapist James Hunt broke away from the Ethnological Society of London to form the Anthropological Society of London, which henceforward would follow the path of the new anthropology rather than just ethnology. It was the 2nd society dedicated to general anthropology in existence. Representatives from the French \"Société\" were present, though not Broca. In his keynote address, printed in the first volume of its new publication, \"The Anthropological Review\", Hunt stressed the work of Waitz, adopting his definitions as a standard. Among the first associates were the young Edward Burnett Tylor, inventor of cultural anthropology, and his brother Alfred Tylor, a geologist. Previously Edward had referred to himself as an ethnologist; subsequently, an anthropologist.\n", "Similar organizations in other countries followed: The Anthropological Society of Madrid (1865), the American Anthropological Association in 1902, the Anthropological Society of Vienna (1870), the Italian Society of Anthropology and Ethnology (1871), and many others subsequently. The majority of these were evolutionist. One notable exception was the Berlin Society for Anthropology, Ethnology, and Prehistory (1869) founded by Rudolph Virchow, known for his vituperative attacks on the evolutionists. Not religious himself, he insisted that Darwin's conclusions lacked empirical foundation.\n", "During the last three decades of the 19th century, a proliferation of anthropological societies and associations occurred, most independent, most publishing their own journals, and all international in membership and association. The major theorists belonged to these organizations. They supported the gradual osmosis of anthropology curricula into the major institutions of higher learning. By 1898 the American Association for the Advancement of Science was able to report that 48 educational institutions in 13 countries had some curriculum in anthropology. None of the 75 faculty members were under a department named anthropology.\n", "Section::::Origin and development of the term.:20th and 21st centuries.\n", "This meager statistic expanded in the 20th century to comprise anthropology departments in the majority of the world's higher educational institutions, many thousands in number. Anthropology has diversified from a few major subdivisions to dozens more. Practical anthropology, the use of anthropological knowledge and technique to solve specific problems, has arrived; for example, the presence of buried victims might stimulate the use of a forensic archaeologist to recreate the final scene. The organization has reached global level. For example, the World Council of Anthropological Associations (WCAA), \"a network of national, regional and international associations that aims to promote worldwide communication and cooperation in anthropology\", currently contains members from about three dozen nations.\n", "Since the work of Franz Boas and Bronisław Malinowski in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, \"social\" anthropology in Great Britain and \"cultural\" anthropology in the US have been distinguished from other social sciences by its emphasis on cross-cultural comparisons, long-term in-depth examination of context, and the importance it places on participant-observation or experiential immersion in the area of research. Cultural anthropology, in particular, has emphasized cultural relativism, holism, and the use of findings to frame cultural critiques. This has been particularly prominent in the United States, from Boas' arguments against 19th-century racial ideology, through Margaret Mead's advocacy for gender equality and sexual liberation, to current criticisms of post-colonial oppression and promotion of multiculturalism. Ethnography is one of its primary research designs as well as the text that is generated from anthropological fieldwork.\n", "In Great Britain and the Commonwealth countries, the British tradition of social anthropology tends to dominate. In the United States, anthropology has traditionally been divided into the four field approach developed by Franz Boas in the early 20th century: \"biological\" or \"physical\" anthropology; \"social\", \"cultural\", or \"sociocultural\" anthropology; and archaeology; plus anthropological linguistics. These fields frequently overlap but tend to use different methodologies and techniques.\n", "European countries with overseas colonies tended to practice more ethnology (a term coined and defined by Adam F. Kollár in 1783). It is sometimes referred to as sociocultural anthropology in the parts of the world that were influenced by the European tradition.\n", "Section::::Fields.\n", "Anthropology is a global discipline involving humanities, social sciences and natural sciences. Anthropology builds upon knowledge from natural sciences, including the discoveries about the origin and evolution of \"Homo sapiens\", human physical traits, human behavior, the variations among different groups of humans, how the evolutionary past of \"Homo sapiens\" has influenced its social organization and culture, and from social sciences, including the organization of human social and cultural relations, institutions, social conflicts, etc. Early anthropology originated in Classical Greece and Persia and studied and tried to understand observable cultural diversity. As such, anthropology has been central in the development of several new (late 20th century) interdisciplinary fields such as cognitive science, global studies, and various ethnic studies.\n", "According to Clifford Geertz,\n", "Sociocultural anthropology has been heavily influenced by structuralist and postmodern theories, as well as a shift toward the analysis of modern societies. During the 1970s and 1990s, there was an epistemological shift away from the positivist traditions that had largely informed the discipline. During this shift, enduring questions about the nature and production of knowledge came to occupy a central place in cultural and social anthropology. In contrast, archaeology and biological anthropology remained largely positivist. Due to this difference in epistemology, the four sub-fields of anthropology have lacked cohesion over the last several decades.\n", "Section::::Fields.:Sociocultural.\n", "Sociocultural anthropology draws together the principle axes of cultural anthropology and social anthropology. Cultural anthropology is the comparative study of the manifold ways in which people \"make sense\" of the world around them, while social anthropology is the study of the \"relationships\" among individuals and groups. Cultural anthropology is more related to philosophy, literature and the arts (how one's culture affects the experience for self and group, contributing to a more complete understanding of the people's knowledge, customs, and institutions), while social anthropology is more related to sociology and history. In that, it helps develop an understanding of social structures, typically of others and other populations (such as minorities, subgroups, dissidents, etc.). There is no hard-and-fast distinction between them, and these categories overlap to a considerable degree.\n", "Inquiry in sociocultural anthropology is guided in part by cultural relativism, the attempt to understand other societies in terms of their own cultural symbols and values. Accepting other cultures in their own terms moderates reductionism in cross-cultural comparison. This project is often accommodated in the field of ethnography. Ethnography can refer to both a methodology and the product of ethnographic research, i.e. an ethnographic monograph. As a methodology, ethnography is based upon long-term fieldwork within a community or other research site. Participant observation is one of the foundational methods of social and cultural anthropology. Ethnology involves the systematic comparison of different cultures. The process of participant-observation can be especially helpful to understanding a culture from an emic (conceptual, vs. etic, or technical) point of view.\n", "The study of kinship and social organization is a central focus of sociocultural anthropology, as kinship is a human universal. Sociocultural anthropology also covers economic and political organization, law and conflict resolution, patterns of consumption and exchange, material culture, technology, infrastructure, gender relations, ethnicity, childrearing and socialization, religion, myth, symbols, values, etiquette, worldview, sports, music, nutrition, recreation, games, food, festivals, and language (which is also the object of study in linguistic anthropology).\n", "Comparison across cultures is a key element of method in sociocultural anthropology, including the industrialized (and de-industrialized) West. Cultures in the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample (SCCS) of world societies are:\n", "Section::::Fields.:Biological.\n", "Biological anthropology and physical anthropology are synonymous terms to describe anthropological research focused on the study of humans and non-human primates in their biological, evolutionary, and demographic dimensions. It examines the biological and social factors that have affected the evolution of humans and other primates, and that generate, maintain or change contemporary genetic and physiological variation.\n", "Section::::Fields.:Archaeological.\n", "Archaeology is the study of the human past through its material remains. Artifacts, faunal remains, and human altered landscapes are evidence of the cultural and material lives of past societies. Archaeologists examine this material remains in order to deduce patterns of past human behavior and cultural practices. Ethnoarchaeology is a type of archaeology that studies the practices and material remain of living human groups in order to gain a better understanding of the evidence left behind by past human groups, who are presumed to have lived in similar ways.\n", "Section::::Fields.:Linguistic.\n", "Linguistic anthropology (not to be confused with anthropological linguistics) seeks to understand the processes of human communications, verbal and non-verbal, variation in language across time and space, the social uses of language, and the relationship between language and culture. It is the branch of anthropology that brings linguistic methods to bear on anthropological problems, linking the analysis of linguistic forms and processes to the interpretation of sociocultural processes. Linguistic anthropologists often draw on related fields including sociolinguistics, pragmatics, cognitive linguistics, semiotics, discourse analysis, and narrative analysis.\n", "Section::::Key topics by field: sociocultural.\n", "Section::::Key topics by field: sociocultural.:Art, media, music, dance and film.\n", "Section::::Key topics by field: sociocultural.:Art, media, music, dance and film.:Art.\n", "One of the central problems in the anthropology of art concerns the universality of 'art' as a cultural phenomenon. Several anthropologists have noted that the Western categories of 'painting', 'sculpture', or 'literature', conceived as independent artistic activities, do not exist, or exist in a significantly different form, in most non-Western contexts. To surmount this difficulty, anthropologists of art have focused on formal features in objects which, without exclusively being 'artistic', have certain evident 'aesthetic' qualities. Boas' \"Primitive Art\", Claude Lévi-Strauss' \"The Way of the Masks\" (1982) or Geertz's 'Art as Cultural System' (1983) are some examples in this trend to transform the anthropology of 'art' into an anthropology of culturally specific 'aesthetics'.\n", "Section::::Key topics by field: sociocultural.:Art, media, music, dance and film.:Media.\n", "Media anthropology (also known as the anthropology of media or mass media) emphasizes ethnographic studies as a means of understanding producers, audiences, and other cultural and social aspects of mass media. The types of ethnographic contexts explored range from contexts of media production (e.g., ethnographies of newsrooms in newspapers, journalists in the field, film production) to contexts of media reception, following audiences in their everyday responses to media. Other types include cyber anthropology, a relatively new area of internet research, as well as ethnographies of other areas of research which happen to involve media, such as development work, social movements, or health education. This is in addition to many classic ethnographic contexts, where media such as radio, the press, new media, and television have started to make their presences felt since the early 1990s.\n", "Section::::Key topics by field: sociocultural.:Art, media, music, dance and film.:Music.\n", "Ethnomusicology is an academic field encompassing various approaches to the study of music (broadly defined), that emphasize its cultural, social, material, cognitive, biological, and other dimensions or contexts instead of or in addition to its isolated sound component or any particular repertoire.\n", "Section::::Key topics by field: sociocultural.:Art, media, music, dance and film.:Visual.\n", "Visual anthropology is concerned, in part, with the study and production of ethnographic photography, film and, since the mid-1990s, new media. While the term is sometimes used interchangeably with ethnographic film, visual anthropology also encompasses the anthropological study of visual representation, including areas such as performance, museums, art, and the production and reception of mass media. Visual representations from all cultures, such as sandpaintings, tattoos, sculptures and reliefs, cave paintings, scrimshaw, jewelry, hieroglyphics, paintings, and photographs are included in the focus of visual anthropology.\n", "Section::::Key topics by field: sociocultural.:Economic, political economic, applied and development.\n", "Section::::Key topics by field: sociocultural.:Economic, political economic, applied and development.:Economic.\n", "Economic anthropology attempts to explain human economic behavior in its widest historic, geographic and cultural scope. It has a complex relationship with the discipline of economics, of which it is highly critical. Its origins as a sub-field of anthropology begin with the Polish-British founder of anthropology, Bronisław Malinowski, and his French compatriot, Marcel Mauss, on the nature of gift-giving exchange (or reciprocity) as an alternative to market exchange. Economic Anthropology remains, for the most part, focused upon exchange. The school of thought derived from Marx and known as Political Economy focuses on production, in contrast. Economic anthropologists have abandoned the primitivist niche they were relegated to by economists, and have now turned to examine corporations, banks, and the global financial system from an anthropological perspective.\n", "Section::::Key topics by field: sociocultural.:Economic, political economic, applied and development.:Political economy.\n", "Political economy in anthropology is the application of the theories and methods of Historical Materialism to the traditional concerns of anthropology, including, but not limited to, non-capitalist societies. Political economy introduced questions of history and colonialism to ahistorical anthropological theories of social structure and culture. Three main areas of interest rapidly developed. The first of these areas was concerned with the \"pre-capitalist\" societies that were subject to evolutionary \"tribal\" stereotypes. Sahlin's work on hunter-gatherers as the \"original affluent society\" did much to dissipate that image. The second area was concerned with the vast majority of the world's population at the time, the peasantry, many of whom were involved in complex revolutionary wars such as in Vietnam. The third area was on colonialism, imperialism, and the creation of the capitalist world-system. More recently, these political economists have more directly addressed issues of industrial (and post-industrial) capitalism around the world.\n", "Section::::Key topics by field: sociocultural.:Economic, political economic, applied and development.:Applied.\n", "Applied anthropology refers to the application of the method and theory of anthropology to the analysis and solution of practical problems. It is a \"complex of related, research-based, instrumental methods which produce change or stability in specific cultural systems through the provision of data, initiation of direct action, and/or the formulation of policy\". More simply, applied anthropology is the practical side of anthropological research; it includes researcher involvement and activism within the participating community. It is closely related to development anthropology (distinct from the more critical anthropology of development).\n", "Section::::Key topics by field: sociocultural.:Economic, political economic, applied and development.:Development.\n", "Anthropology of development tends to view development from a \"critical\" perspective. The kind of issues addressed and implications for the approach simply involve pondering why, if a key development goal is to alleviate poverty, is poverty increasing? Why is there such a gap between plans and outcomes? Why are those working in development so willing to disregard history and the lessons it might offer? Why is development so externally driven rather than having an internal basis? In short, why does so much planned development fail?\n", "Section::::Key topics by field: sociocultural.:Kinship, feminism, gender and sexuality.\n", "Section::::Key topics by field: sociocultural.:Kinship, feminism, gender and sexuality.:Kinship.\n", "\"Kinship\" can refer both to \"the study of\" the patterns of social relationships in one or more human cultures, or it can refer to \"the patterns of social relationships\" themselves. Over its history, anthropology has developed a number of related concepts and terms, such as \"descent\", \"descent groups\", \"lineages\", \"affines\", \"cognates\", and even \"fictive kinship\". Broadly, kinship patterns may be considered to include people related both by descent (one's social relations during development), and also relatives by marriage.\n", "Section::::Key topics by field: sociocultural.:Kinship, feminism, gender and sexuality.:Feminist.\n", "Feminist anthropology is a four field approach to anthropology (archeological, biological, cultural, linguistic) that seeks to reduce male bias in research findings, anthropological hiring practices, and the scholarly production of knowledge. Anthropology engages often with feminists from non-Western traditions, whose perspectives and experiences can differ from those of white European and American feminists. Historically, such 'peripheral' perspectives have sometimes been marginalized and regarded as less valid or important than knowledge from the western world. Feminist anthropologists have claimed that their research helps to correct this systematic bias in mainstream feminist theory. Feminist anthropologists are centrally concerned with the construction of gender across societies. Feminist anthropology is inclusive of birth anthropology as a specialization.\n", "The first African-American female anthropologist and Caribbeanist is said to be Vera Mae Green who studied ethnic and family relations in the Caribbean as well as the United States, and thereby tried to improve the way black life, experiences, and culture were studied.\n", "Section::::Key topics by field: sociocultural.:Medical, nutritional, psychological, cognitive and transpersonal.\n", "Section::::Key topics by field: sociocultural.:Medical, nutritional, psychological, cognitive and transpersonal.:Medical.\n", "Medical anthropology is an interdisciplinary field which studies \"human health and disease, health care systems, and biocultural adaptation\". It is believed that William Caudell was the first to discover the field of medical anthropology. Currently, research in medical anthropology is one of the main growth areas in the field of anthropology as a whole. It focuses on the following six basic fields:\n", "Other subjects that have become central to medical anthropology worldwide are violence and social suffering (Farmer, 1999, 2003; Beneduce, 2010) as well as other issues that involve physical and psychological harm and suffering that are not a result of illness. On the other hand, there are fields that intersect with medical anthropology in terms of research methodology and theoretical production, such as \"cultural psychiatry\" and \"transcultural psychiatry\" or \"ethnopsychiatry\".\n", "Section::::Key topics by field: sociocultural.:Medical, nutritional, psychological, cognitive and transpersonal.:Nutritional.\n", "Nutritional anthropology is a synthetic concept that deals with the interplay between economic systems, nutritional status and food security, and how changes in the former affect the latter. If economic and environmental changes in a community affect access to food, food security, and dietary health, then this interplay between culture and biology is in turn connected to broader historical and economic trends associated with globalization. Nutritional status affects overall health status, work performance potential, and the overall potential for economic development (either in terms of human development or traditional western models) for any given group of people.\n", "Section::::Key topics by field: sociocultural.:Medical, nutritional, psychological, cognitive and transpersonal.:Psychological.\n", "Psychological anthropology is an interdisciplinary subfield of anthropology that studies the interaction of cultural and mental processes. This subfield tends to focus on ways in which humans' development and enculturation within a particular cultural group – with its own history, language, practices, and conceptual categories – shape processes of human cognition, emotion, perception, motivation, and mental health. It also examines how the understanding of cognition, emotion, motivation, and similar psychological processes inform or constrain our models of cultural and social processes.\n", "Section::::Key topics by field: sociocultural.:Medical, nutritional, psychological, cognitive and transpersonal.:Cognitive.\n", "Cognitive anthropology seeks to explain patterns of shared knowledge, cultural innovation, and transmission over time and space using the methods and theories of the cognitive sciences (especially experimental psychology and evolutionary biology) often through close collaboration with historians, ethnographers, archaeologists, linguists, musicologists and other specialists engaged in the description and interpretation of cultural forms. Cognitive anthropology is concerned with what people from different groups know and how that implicit knowledge changes the way people perceive and relate to the world around them.\n", "Section::::Key topics by field: sociocultural.:Medical, nutritional, psychological, cognitive and transpersonal.:Transpersonal.\n", "Transpersonal anthropology studies the relationship between altered states of consciousness and culture. As with transpersonal psychology, the field is much concerned with altered states of consciousness (ASC) and transpersonal experience. However, the field differs from mainstream transpersonal psychology in taking more cognizance of cross-cultural issues – for instance, the roles of myth, ritual, diet, and texts in evoking and interpreting extraordinary experiences.\n", "Section::::Key topics by field: sociocultural.:Political and legal.\n", "Section::::Key topics by field: sociocultural.:Political and legal.:Political.\n", "Political anthropology concerns the structure of political systems, looked at from the basis of the structure of societies. Political anthropology developed as a discipline concerned primarily with politics in stateless societies, a new development started from the 1960s, and is still unfolding: anthropologists started increasingly to study more \"complex\" social settings in which the presence of states, bureaucracies and markets entered both ethnographic accounts and analysis of local phenomena. The turn towards complex societies meant that political themes were taken up at two main levels. Firstly, anthropologists continued to study political organization and political phenomena that lay outside the state-regulated sphere (as in patron-client relations or tribal political organization). Secondly, anthropologists slowly started to develop a disciplinary concern with states and their institutions (and on the relationship between formal and informal political institutions). An anthropology of the state developed, and it is a most thriving field today. Geertz' comparative work on \"Negara\", the Balinese state, is an early, famous example.\n", "Section::::Key topics by field: sociocultural.:Political and legal.:Legal.\n", "Legal anthropology or anthropology of law specializes in \"the cross-cultural study of social ordering\". Earlier legal anthropological research often focused more narrowly on conflict management, crime, sanctions, or formal regulation. More recent applications include issues such as human rights, legal pluralism, and political uprisings.\n", "Section::::Key topics by field: sociocultural.:Political and legal.:Public.\n", "Public anthropology was created by Robert Borofsky, a professor at Hawaii Pacific University, to \"demonstrate the ability of anthropology and anthropologists to effectively address problems beyond the discipline – illuminating larger social issues of our times as well as encouraging broad, public conversations about them with the explicit goal of fostering social change\".\n", "Section::::Key topics by field: sociocultural.:Nature, science and technology.\n", "Section::::Key topics by field: sociocultural.:Nature, science and technology.:Cyborg.\n", "Cyborg anthropology originated as a sub-focus group within the American Anthropological Association's annual meeting in 1993. The sub-group was very closely related to STS and the Society for the Social Studies of Science. Donna Haraway's 1985 \"Cyborg Manifesto\" could be considered the founding document of cyborg anthropology by first exploring the philosophical and sociological ramifications of the term. Cyborg anthropology studies humankind and its relations with the technological systems it has built, specifically modern technological systems that have reflexively shaped notions of what it means to be human beings.\n", "Section::::Key topics by field: sociocultural.:Nature, science and technology.:Digital.\n", "Digital anthropology is the study of the relationship between humans and digital-era technology, and extends to various areas where anthropology and technology intersect. It is sometimes grouped with sociocultural anthropology, and sometimes considered part of material culture. The field is new, and thus has a variety of names with a variety of emphases. These include techno-anthropology, digital ethnography, cyberanthropology, and virtual anthropology.\n", "Section::::Key topics by field: sociocultural.:Nature, science and technology.:Ecological.\n", "Ecological anthropology is defined as the \"study of cultural adaptations to environments\". The sub-field is also defined as, \"the study of relationships between a population of humans and their biophysical environment\". The focus of its research concerns \"how cultural beliefs and practices helped human populations adapt to their environments, and how their environment across space and time. The contemporary perspective of environmental anthropology, and arguably at least the backdrop, if not the focus of most of the ethnographies and cultural fieldworks of today, is political ecology. Many characterize this new perspective as more informed with culture, politics and power, globalization, localized issues, century anthropology and more. The focus and data interpretation is often used for arguments for/against or creation of policy, and to prevent corporate exploitation and damage of land. Often, the observer has become an active part of the struggle either directly (organizing, participation) or indirectly (articles, documentaries, books, ethnographies). Such is the case with environmental justice advocate Melissa Checker and her relationship with the people of Hyde Park.\n", "Section::::Key topics by field: sociocultural.:Historical.\n", "Ethnohistory is the study of ethnographic cultures and indigenous customs by examining historical records. It is also the study of the history of various ethnic groups that may or may not exist today. Ethnohistory uses both historical and ethnographic data as its foundation. Its historical methods and materials go beyond the standard use of documents and manuscripts. Practitioners recognize the utility of such source material as maps, music, paintings, photography, folklore, oral tradition, site exploration, archaeological materials, museum collections, enduring customs, language, and place names.\n", "Section::::Key topics by field: sociocultural.:Religion.\n", "The anthropology of religion involves the study of religious institutions in relation to other social institutions, and the comparison of religious beliefs and practices across cultures. Modern anthropology assumes that there is complete continuity between magical thinking and religion, and that every religion is a cultural product, created by the human community that worships it.\n", "Section::::Key topics by field: sociocultural.:Urban.\n", "Urban anthropology is concerned with issues of urbanization, poverty, and neoliberalism. Ulf Hannerz quotes a 1960s remark that traditional anthropologists were \"a notoriously agoraphobic lot, anti-urban by definition\". Various social processes in the Western World as well as in the \"Third World\" (the latter being the habitual focus of attention of anthropologists) brought the attention of \"specialists in 'other cultures'\" closer to their homes. There are two main approaches to urban anthropology: examining the types of cities or examining the social issues within the cities. These two methods are overlapping and dependent of each other. By defining different types of cities, one would use social factors as well as economic and political factors to categorize the cities. By directly looking at the different social issues, one would also be studying how they affect the dynamic of the city.\n", "Section::::Key topics by field: archaeological and biological.\n", "Section::::Key topics by field: archaeological and biological.:Anthrozoology.\n", "Anthrozoology (also known as \"human–animal studies\") is the study of interaction between living things. It is an interdisciplinary field that overlaps with a number of other disciplines, including anthropology, ethology, medicine, psychology, veterinary medicine and zoology. A major focus of anthrozoologic research is the quantifying of the positive effects of human-animal relationships on either party and the study of their interactions. It includes scholars from a diverse range of fields, including anthropology, sociology, biology, and philosophy.\n", "Section::::Key topics by field: archaeological and biological.:Biocultural.\n", "Biocultural anthropology is the scientific exploration of the relationships between human biology and culture. Physical anthropologists throughout the first half of the 20th century viewed this relationship from a racial perspective; that is, from the assumption that typological human biological differences lead to cultural differences. After World War II the emphasis began to shift toward an effort to explore the role culture plays in shaping human biology.\n", "Section::::Key topics by field: archaeological and biological.:Evolutionary.\n", "Evolutionary anthropology is the interdisciplinary study of the evolution of human physiology and human behaviour and the relation between hominins and non-hominin primates. Evolutionary anthropology is based in natural science and social science, combining the human development with socioeconomic factors. Evolutionary anthropology is concerned with both biological and cultural evolution of humans, past and present. It is based on a scientific approach, and brings together fields such as archaeology, behavioral ecology, psychology, primatology, and genetics. It is a dynamic and interdisciplinary field, drawing on many lines of evidence to understand the human experience, past and present.\n", "Section::::Key topics by field: archaeological and biological.:Forensic.\n", "Forensic anthropology is the application of the science of physical anthropology and human osteology in a legal setting, most often in criminal cases where the victim's remains are in the advanced stages of decomposition. A forensic anthropologist can assist in the identification of deceased individuals whose remains are decomposed, burned, mutilated or otherwise unrecognizable. The adjective \"forensic\" refers to the application of this subfield of science to a court of law.\n", "Section::::Key topics by field: archaeological and biological.:Palaeoanthropology.\n", "Paleoanthropology combines the disciplines of paleontology and physical anthropology. It is the study of ancient humans, as found in fossil hominid evidence such as petrifacted bones and footprints. Genetics and morphology of specimens are crucially important to this field. Markers on specimens, such as enamel fractures and dental decay on teeth, can also give insight into the behaviour and diet of past populations.\n", "Section::::Organizations.\n", "Contemporary anthropology is an established science with academic departments at most universities and colleges. The single largest organization of anthropologists is the American Anthropological Association (AAA), which was founded in 1903. Its members are anthropologists from around the globe.\n", "In 1989, a group of European and American scholars in the field of anthropology established the European Association of Social Anthropologists (EASA) which serves as a major professional organization for anthropologists working in Europe. The EASA seeks to advance the status of anthropology in Europe and to increase visibility of marginalized anthropological traditions and thereby contribute to the project of a global anthropology or world anthropology.\n", "Hundreds of other organizations exist in the various sub-fields of anthropology, sometimes divided up by nation or region, and many anthropologists work with collaborators in other disciplines, such as geology, physics, zoology, paleontology, anatomy, music theory, art history, sociology and so on, belonging to professional societies in those disciplines as well.\n", "Section::::Organizations.:List of major organizations.\n", "BULLET::::- American Anthropological Association\n", "BULLET::::- American Ethnological Society\n", "BULLET::::- Asociación de Antropólogos Iberoamericanos en Red, AIBR\n", "BULLET::::- Moving Anthropology Student Network\n", "BULLET::::- Anthropological Society of London\n", "BULLET::::- Center for World Indigenous Studies\n", "BULLET::::- Ethnological Society of London\n", "BULLET::::- Institute of Anthropology and Ethnography\n", "BULLET::::- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology\n", "BULLET::::- Network of Concerned Anthropologists\n", "BULLET::::- N.N. Miklukho-Maklai Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology\n", "BULLET::::- Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland\n", "BULLET::::- Society for anthropological sciences\n", "BULLET::::- Society for Applied Anthropology\n", "BULLET::::- USC Center for Visual Anthropology\n", "Section::::Ethics.\n", "As the field has matured it has debated and arrived at ethical principles aimed at protecting both the subjects of anthropological research as well as the researchers themselves, and professional societies have generated codes of ethics.\n", "Anthropologists, like other researchers (especially historians and scientists engaged in field research), have over time assisted state policies and projects, especially colonialism.\n", "Some commentators have contended:\n", "BULLET::::- That the discipline grew out of colonialism, perhaps was in league with it, and derives some of its key notions from it, consciously or not. (See, for example, Gough, Pels and Salemink, but cf. Lewis 2004).\n", "BULLET::::- That ethnographic work is often ahistorical, writing about people as if they were \"out of time\" in an \"ethnographic present\" (Johannes Fabian, \"Time and Its Other\").\n", "Section::::Ethics.:Cultural relativism.\n", "As part of their quest for scientific objectivity, present-day anthropologists typically urge cultural relativism, which has an influence on all the sub-fields of anthropology. This is the notion that cultures should not be judged by another's values or viewpoints, but be examined dispassionately on their own terms. There should be no notions, in good anthropology, of one culture being better or worse than another culture.\n", "Ethical commitments in anthropology include noticing and documenting genocide, infanticide, racism, mutilation (including circumcision and subincision), and torture. Topics like racism, slavery, and human sacrifice attract anthropological attention and theories ranging from nutritional deficiencies to genes to acculturation have been proposed, not to mention theories of colonialism and many others as root causes of Man's inhumanity to man. To illustrate the depth of an anthropological approach, one can take just one of these topics, such as \"racism\" and find thousands of anthropological references, stretching across all the major and minor sub-fields.\n", "Section::::Ethics.:Military involvement.\n", "Anthropologists' involvement with the U.S. government, in particular, has caused bitter controversy within the discipline. Franz Boas publicly objected to US participation in World War I, and after the war he published a brief expose and condemnation of the participation of several American archaeologists in espionage in Mexico under their cover as scientists.\n", "But by the 1940s, many of Boas' anthropologist contemporaries were active in the allied war effort against the Axis Powers (Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan). Many served in the armed forces, while others worked in intelligence (for example, Office of Strategic Services and the Office of War Information). At the same time, David H. Price's work on American anthropology during the Cold War provides detailed accounts of the pursuit and dismissal of several anthropologists from their jobs for communist sympathies.\n", "Attempts to accuse anthropologists of complicity with the CIA and government intelligence activities during the Vietnam War years have turned up surprisingly little. Many anthropologists (students and teachers) were active in the antiwar movement. Numerous resolutions condemning the war in all its aspects were passed overwhelmingly at the annual meetings of the American Anthropological Association (AAA).\n", "Professional anthropological bodies often object to the use of anthropology for the benefit of the state. Their codes of ethics or statements may proscribe anthropologists from giving secret briefings. The Association of Social Anthropologists of the UK and Commonwealth (ASA) has called certain scholarship ethically dangerous. The \"Principles of Professional Responsibility\" issued by the American Anthropological Association and amended through November 1986 stated that \"in relation with their own government and with host governments ... no secret research, no secret reports or debriefings of any kind should be agreed to or given.\" The current \"Principles of Professional Responsibility\" does not make explicit mention of ethics surrounding state interactions.\n", "Anthropologists, along with other social scientists, are working with the US military as part of the US Army's strategy in Afghanistan. The \"Christian Science Monitor\" reports that \"Counterinsurgency efforts focus on better grasping and meeting local needs\" in Afghanistan, under the \"Human Terrain System\" (HTS) program; in addition, HTS teams are working with the US military in Iraq. In 2009, the American Anthropological Association's Commission on the Engagement of Anthropology with the US Security and Intelligence Communities released its final report concluding, in part, that, \"When ethnographic investigation is determined by military missions, not subject to external review, where data collection occurs in the context of war, integrated into the goals of counterinsurgency, and in a potentially coercive environment – all characteristic factors of the HTS concept and its application – it can no longer be considered a legitimate professional exercise of anthropology. In summary, while we stress that constructive engagement between anthropology and the military is possible, CEAUSSIC suggests that the AAA emphasize the incompatibility of HTS with disciplinary ethics and practice for job seekers and that it further recognize the problem of allowing HTS to define the meaning of \"anthropology\" within DoD.\"\n", "Section::::Post–World War II developments.\n", "Before WWII British 'social anthropology' and American 'cultural anthropology' were still distinct traditions. After the war, enough British and American anthropologists borrowed ideas and methodological approaches from one another that some began to speak of them collectively as 'sociocultural' anthropology.\n", "Section::::Post–World War II developments.:Basic trends.\n", "There are several characteristics that tend to unite anthropological work. One of the central characteristics is that anthropology tends to provide a comparatively more holistic account of phenomena and tends to be highly empirical. The quest for holism leads most anthropologists to study a particular place, problem or phenomenon in detail, using a variety of methods, over a more extensive period than normal in many parts of academia.\n", "In the 1990s and 2000s, calls for clarification of what constitutes a culture, of how an observer knows where his or her own culture ends and another begins, and other crucial topics in writing anthropology were heard. These dynamic relationships, between what can be observed on the ground, as opposed to what can be observed by compiling many local observations remain fundamental in any kind of anthropology, whether cultural, biological, linguistic or archaeological.\n", "Biological anthropologists are interested in both human variation and in the possibility of human universals (behaviors, ideas or concepts shared by virtually all human cultures). They use many different methods of study, but modern population genetics, participant observation and other techniques often take anthropologists \"into the field,\" which means traveling to a community in its own setting, to do something called \"fieldwork.\" On the biological or physical side, human measurements, genetic samples, nutritional data may be gathered and published as articles or monographs.\n", "Along with dividing up their project by theoretical emphasis, anthropologists typically divide the world up into relevant time periods and geographic regions. Human time on Earth is divided up into relevant cultural traditions based on material, such as the Paleolithic and the Neolithic, of particular use in archaeology. Further cultural subdivisions according to tool types, such as Olduwan or Mousterian or Levalloisian help archaeologists and other anthropologists in understanding major trends in the human past. Anthropologists and geographers share approaches to culture regions as well, since mapping cultures is central to both sciences. By making comparisons across cultural traditions (time-based) and cultural regions (space-based), anthropologists have developed various kinds of comparative method, a central part of their science.\n", "Section::::Post–World War II developments.:Commonalities between fields.\n", "Because anthropology developed from so many different enterprises (see History of anthropology), including but not limited to fossil-hunting, exploring, documentary film-making, paleontology, primatology, antiquity dealings and curatorship, philology, etymology, genetics, regional analysis, ethnology, history, philosophy, and religious studies, it is difficult to characterize the entire field in a brief article, although attempts to write histories of the entire field have been made.\n", "Some authors argue that anthropology originated and developed as the study of \"other cultures\", both in terms of time (past societies) and space (non-European/non-Western societies). For example, the classic of urban anthropology, Ulf Hannerz in the introduction to his seminal \"Exploring the City: Inquiries Toward an Urban Anthropology\" mentions that the \"Third World\" had habitually received most of attention; anthropologists who traditionally specialized in \"other cultures\" looked for them far away and started to look \"across the tracks\" only in late 1960s.\n", "Now there exist many works focusing on peoples and topics very close to the author's \"home\". It is also argued that other fields of study, like History and Sociology, on the contrary focus disproportionately on the West.\n", "In France, the study of Western societies has been traditionally left to sociologists, but this is increasingly changing, starting in the 1970s from scholars like Isac Chiva and journals like \"Terrain\" (\"fieldwork\"), and developing with the center founded by Marc Augé (\"Le Centre d'anthropologie des mondes contemporains\", the Anthropological Research Center of Contemporary Societies).\n", "Since the 1980s it has become common for social and cultural anthropologists to set ethnographic research in the North Atlantic region, frequently examining the connections between locations rather than limiting research to a single locale. There has also been a related shift toward broadening the focus beyond the daily life of ordinary people; increasingly, research is set in settings such as scientific laboratories, social movements, governmental and nongovernmental organizations and businesses.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Outline of anthropology\n", "BULLET::::- Anthropological science fiction\n", "BULLET::::- Christian anthropology, a sub-field of theology\n", "BULLET::::- Engaged theory\n", "BULLET::::- Ethnobiology\n", "BULLET::::- Human ethology\n", "BULLET::::- Human Relations Area Files\n", "BULLET::::- Intangible cultural heritage\n", "BULLET::::- List of anthropologists\n", "BULLET::::- Memetics\n", "BULLET::::- Origins of society\n", "BULLET::::- Philosophical anthropology, a sub-field of philosophy\n", "BULLET::::- Prehistoric medicine\n", "BULLET::::- Qualitative research\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n", "Section::::Further reading.:Histories.\n", "BULLET::::- .\n", "Section::::Further reading.:Textbooks and key theoretical works.\n", "BULLET::::- Carneiro's circumscription theory\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- (AIO)\n" ] }

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{ "description": "science of humanity", "enwikiquote_title": "Anthropology", "wikidata_id": "Q23404", "wikidata_label": "anthropology", "wikipedia_title": "Anthropology", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Battle of Neuwied (1797)\n", "The Battle of Neuwied (18 April 1797) saw Lazare Hoche lead part of the French Army of Sambre-et-Meuse against Franz von Werneck's Austrian army. The French attack surprised their enemies and broke through their lines. Aside from 1,000 men killed and wounded, Austrian losses included at least 3,000 prisoners, 24 artillery pieces, 60 vehicles, and five colors. For their part, the French lost 2,000 men killed, wounded, and captured. The losses were in vain because Napoleon Bonaparte signed the Preliminaries of Leoben with Austria the same day. The armistice halted the fighting so that both sides could negotiate a peace. The action occurred during the War of the First Coalition, part of the French Revolutionary Wars.\n", "Section::::The battle.\n", "The battle opened with an Austrian cannonade causing an attack by the French right wing on the Austrian left wing under Pál Kray. After several attacks against the key position on the Austrian right near the village of Bendorff, the French infantry, aided by several squadrons of chasseurs, were able to dislodge the Austrians from this position. A French cavalry charge drove the Austrians out of the village of Sayn. Hoche then launched a column under Antoine Richepanse in the pursuit of the retreating Austrians. Richepanse succeeded in capturing seven cannons, fifty caissons and five Austrian colors. The French infantry, supported by the guns of François Joseph Lefebvre, managed to dislodge the Austrians from the village of Zolenberg, causing the final defeat of the Austrian left wing.\n", "As the French right wing attacked the Austrian left wing, Hoche launched a second assault, this time on the Austrian center. After an artillery barrage, the grenadiers of General Paul Grenier assaulted the redoubts of Hettersdorff and took the village in a bayonet charge, while the hussars of Michel Ney outflanked the Austrian center position from the left. These attacks forced the Austrian center to retreat.\n", "After being dislodged by Richepanse, the Austrian left was rallied by Kray who was able to withstand further French attacks. To counter this, Hoche launched the grenadiers of Grenier and several squadrons of dragoons and Ney's hussars against Kray. Ney with some 500 hussars proceeded to Dierdorf where he engaged the Austrian reserve of 6,000 for four hours until the rest of the French army caught up. During a counterattack by Austrian cavalry Ney's horse fell and he was captured. Under this attack the Austrian left collapsed and in the pursuit the hussars captured 4,000 men and two colors. On their part of the battlefield the French left wing under Jean Étienne Championnet succeeded in driving the Austrians out of Altenkirchen and Kerathh.\n", "Section::::Result.\n", "The Austrian army lost 3,000 men in the battle and another 7,000 men were captured in the aftermath of the battle. The French captured twenty-seven cannon and seven Austrian colors in this major success. Hoche's successful offensive was stopped by news of the Preliminaries of Leoben which led to the Treaty of Campo Formio. The Battle of Neuwied is inscribed on the Arc de Triomphe in Paris.\n" ] }

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{ "description": "battle", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q443501", "wikidata_label": "Battle of Neuwied", "wikipedia_title": "Battle of Neuwied (1797)", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Bohemond I of Antioch\n", "Bohemond I (3 March 1111) was the Prince of Taranto from 1089 to 1111 and the Prince of Antioch from 1098 to 1111. He was a leader of the First Crusade, which was governed by a committee of nobles. The Norman monarchy he founded in Antioch arguably outlasted those of England and of Sicily.\n", "Section::::Early life.\n", "Section::::Early life.:Childhood and youth.\n", "Bohemond was the son of Robert Guiscard, Count of Apulia and Calabria, and his first wife, Alberada of Buonalbergo. He was born between 1050 and 1058—in 1054 according to historian John Julius Norwich. He was baptised Mark, possibly because he was born at his father's castle at San Marco Argentano in Calabria. He was nicknamed Bohemond after a legendary giant.\n", "His parents were related within the degree of kinship that made their marriage invalid under canon law. In 1058, Pope Nicholas II strengthened existing canon law against consanguinity and, on that basis, Guiscard repudiated Alberada in favour of a then more advantageous marriage to Sikelgaita, the sister of Gisulf, the Lombard Prince of Salerno. With the annulment of his parents' marriage, Bohemond became a bastard. Before long, Alberada married Robert Guiscard's nephew, Richard of Hauteville. She arranged for a knightly education for Bohemond.\n", "Robert Guiscard was taken seriously ill in early 1073. Fearing that he was dying, Sikelgaita held an assembly in Bari. She persuaded Robert's vassals who were present to proclaim her eldest son, the thirteen-year-old Roger Borsa, Robert's heir, claiming that the half-Lombard Roger would be the ruler most acceptable to the Lombard nobles in Southern Italy. Robert's nephew, Abelard of Hauteville, was the only baron to protest, because he regarded himself Robert's lawful heir.\n", "Section::::Early life.:Byzantine wars.\n", "Bohemond fought in his father's army during the rebellion of Jordan I of Capua, Geoffrey of Conversano and other Norman barons in 1079. His father dispatched him at the head of an advance guard against the Byzantine Empire in early 1081 and he captured Valona (now Vlorë in Albania). He sailed to Corfu, but did not invade the island since the local garrison outnumbered his army. He withdrew to Butrinto to await the arrival of his father's forces. After Robert Guiscard arrived in the latter half of May, they laid siege to Durazzo (present-day Durrës). The Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos came to the rescue of the town but, on 18 October, his army suffered a crushing defeat. Bohemond commanded the left flank, which defeated the Emperor's largely Anglo-Saxon \"Varangian Guard\".\n", "The Normans captured Durazzo on 21 February 1082. They marched along the Via Egnatia as far as Kastoria, but Alexios's agents stirred up a rebellion in Southern Italy, forcing Robert Guiscard to return to his realm in April. He charged Bohemond with the command of his army in the Balkans. Bohemond defeated the Byzantines at Ioannina and at Arta, taking control of most of Macedonia and Thessaly; however, the six-month siege of Larissa was unsuccessful. Supply and pay problems (and the gifts promised to deserters by the Byzantines) undermined the morale of the Norman army, so Bohemond returned to Italy for financial support. During his absence, most of the Norman commanders deserted to the Byzantines and a Venetian fleet recaptured Durazzo and Corfu.\n", "Bohemond accompanied his father to the Byzantine Empire again in 1084, when they defeated the Venetian fleet and captured Corfu. An epidemic decimated the Normans and Bohemond, who was taken seriously ill, was forced to return to Italy in December 1084.\n", "Section::::Early life.:Succession crisis.\n", "Robert Guiscard died at Cephalonia on 17 July 1085. Orderic Vitalis, William of Malmesbury and other contemporaneous writers accused his widow, Sikelgaita, of having poisoned Robert to secure Apulia for her son, Roger Borsa, but failed to establish her guilt. She persuaded the army to acclaim Roger Borsa his father's successor and they hurried back to Southern Italy. Two months later, the assembly of the Norman barons confirmed the succession, but Bohemond regarded himself his father's lawful heir. He made an alliance with Jordan of Capua, and captured Oria and Otranto. Bohemond and Roger Borsa met at their father's tomb at Venosa to reach a compromise. Under the terms of their agreement, Bohemond received Taranto, Oria, Otranto, Brindisi and Gallipoli, but acknowledged Roger Borsa's suzerainty.\n", "Bohemond renewed the war against his brother in the autumn of 1087. The ensuing civil war prevented the Normans from supporting Pope Urban II, and enabled the brothers' uncle, Roger I of Sicily, to increase his power. Bohemond captured Bari in 1090 and before long, took control of most lands to the south of Melfi.\n", "Section::::First Crusade.\n", "In 1097, Bohemond and his uncle Roger I of Sicily were attacking Amalfi, which had revolted against Duke Roger, when bands of crusaders began to pass on their way through Italy to Constantinople. It is possible that Bohemond had religious reasons for joining the First Crusade. It is equally likely that he saw in the First Crusade the chance to gain a lordship in the Middle East. Lilie details that Bohemond's \"father's second marriage deprived him of future prospects,\" in Norman Italy. While he was well known as a warrior, Bohemond's lordship in Italy was small. Geoffrey Malaterra bluntly states that Bohemond took the Cross with the intention of plundering and conquering Greek lands. Another reason to suspect Bohemond's religious zeal is the supposed embassy Bohemond sent to Godfrey, a powerful Crusade leader, asking him to join forces to sack Constantinople. While Godfrey declined his offer taking Constantinople was never far from Bohemond's mind, as seen in his later attempt to take over the Byzantine Empire. \n", "He gathered a Norman army, which would have been one of the smaller crusade forces with 500 knights and about 2500-3500 infantry soldiers, alongside his nephew Tancred's force of 2000 men. What contributed to the Norman army's reputation as a great fighting force was their experience fighting in the East. Many Normans had been employed as mercenaries by the Byzantine Empire. Others like Bohemond had experience fighting the Byzantines and other Muslim groups in the East fifteen years prior with Robert Guiscard.Bohemond crossed the Adriatic Sea to Constantinople along the route he had tried to follow in 1082–1084 when attacking the Byzantine Empire. He was careful to observe the correct attitude towards Alexius along this route, which was mainly keeping his soldiers from plundering Byzantine villages en route to Constantinople. \n", "When he arrived at Constantinople in April 1097, he took an oath of homage to Emperor Alexios, which he demanded from all crusade leaders. It's not clear what exact negotiations Bohemond and Alexios made concerning Bohemond governing part of the Eastern Byzantine Empire Alexios hoped the crusaders would reclaim. Alexios had no reason to trust Bohemond enough to give him a position at the time, but hinted that he could get a position by proving his loyalty. Bohemond's best chance at gaining a favorable position was to be loyal to Alexios, which he attempted to prove while the crusaders were camped around Constantinople. Bohemond, proficient in Greek, was able to be a conduit between Alexios and the crusade leaders. Bohemond also attempted to prove his loyalty by convincing other crusade leaders to take the oath of homage to Alexios.\n", "From Constantinople to Antioch, Bohemond was a stand out among the leaders of the First Crusade. Bohemond's reputation as an effective strategist and leader came from his fighting experience in the Balkans when he took charge of his father's army against Emperor Alexios (1082-1085). There Bohemond became familiar with various Byzantine and Muslim strategies, including an encircling strategy used by Turkish Forces at the siege of Nicaea. Mounted archers would encircle the crusader force, who would be unable to retaliate using close combat weaponry. Bohemond's familiarity with this Eastern strategy allowed him to adapt quickly leading to crusader victories through Antioch. \n", "The Emperor's daughter, Anna Comnena, leaves a portrait of him in her Alexiad. She met him for the first time when she was fourteen and was seemingly fascinated by him, leaving no similar portrait of any other Crusader prince. Of Bohemond, she wrote:\n", "Now the man was such as, to put it briefly, had never before been seen in the land of the Romans, be he either of the barbarians or of the Greeks (for he was a marvel for the eyes to behold, and his reputation was terrifying). Let me describe the barbarian's appearance more particularly – he was so tall in stature that he overtopped the tallest by nearly one cubit, narrow in the waist and loins, with broad shoulders and a deep chest and powerful arms. And in the whole build of the body he was neither too slender nor overweighted with flesh, but perfectly proportioned and, one might say, built in conformity with the canon of Polycleitus... His skin all over his body was very white, and in his face the white was tempered with red. His hair was yellowish, but did not hang down to his waist like that of the other barbarians; for the man was not inordinately vain of his hair, but had it cut short to the ears. Whether his beard was reddish, or any other colour I cannot say, for the razor had passed over it very closely and left a surface smoother than chalk... His blue eyes indicated both a high spirit and dignity; and his nose and nostrils breathed in the air freely; his chest corresponded to his nostrils and by his nostrils...the breadth of his chest. For by his nostrils nature had given free passage for the high spirit which bubbled up from his heart. A certain charm hung about this man but was partly marred by a general air of the horrible... He was so made in mind and body that both courage and passion reared their crests within him and both inclined to war. His wit was manifold and crafty and able to find a way of escape in every emergency. In conversation he was well informed, and the answers he gave were quite irrefutable. This man who was of such a size and such a character was inferior to the Emperor alone in fortune and eloquence and in other gifts of nature.\n", "Bohemond saw the opportunity to use the crusade for his own ends at the siege of Antioch. When his nephew Tancred left the main army at Heraclea Cybistra and attempted to establish a footing in Cilicia, the movement may have been already intended as a preparation for Bohemond's eastern principality. Bohemond was the first to take up a position before Antioch (October 1097) and he played a considerable part in the siege, in gathering supplies, beating off Ridwan of Allepo's attempt to relieve the city from the east, and connecting the besiegers on the west with the Genoese ships which lay in the port of St Simeon. Due to his successful efforts Bohemond was seen as the actual leader of the siege of Antioch, rather than the elected leader Stephen of Blois who would soon leave the siege, claiming illness. \n", "Bohemond was able to make a deal with Firouz, one of the commanders of the city wall to end the siege of Antioch. However, he did not press to end the siege until May 1098 when learning of the approach of Kerbogha with a relief army to aid Antioch. He then proposed to the other crusade leaders that the leader to take Antioch should be put in charge of the city as Alexios' representative Tetigus had left in February 1098. Firouz led Bohemond's force up the walls of Antioch, allowing the Norman troops to infiltrate and ultimately capture the city. \n", "The Crusaders' troubles were not over, however, as Kerbogha started his own siege on the newly crusader held Antioch. Bohemond was credited as the general and creator of the battle plan used to defeat Kerbogha by Raymond of Aguilers. Running very low on food and supplies Bohemond took the initiative in his strategy to leave the city and attack Kerbogha's forces, leading to a victory for the crusaders. \n", "Bohemond then wanted to take control of Antioch for himself, but there were some problems he had to face first. Raymond of Toulouse, a prominent crusade leader, did not want to hand Antioch over to Bohemond. Raymond claimed that Bohemond and other leaders would be breaking their oath to Alexios, which was to give any conquered lands to the Byzantine Empire. Bohemond argued that because Alexios had failed to come to the crusader's aid at Antioch that the oath was no longer valid. Bohemond set himself up as the Prince of Antioch, and no Latin crusader or Byzantine force came to take it from him. Raymond of Toulouse decided to give up Antioch to Bohemond in January 1099, as he other crusaders moved south to the capture of Jerusalem.\n", "After the fall of Jerusalem to the crusaders, Bohemond went to Jerusalem at Christmas 1099 to fulfill his crusade vows. While there he took part in the installation of Dagobert of Pisa as Patriarch of Jerusalem, perhaps in order to check the growth of Lotharingian power in the city. By submitting to the patriarch Bohemond made connections to Jerusalem, who could be an ally against future attacks on Antioch, and to keep in the good graces of the Pope. While Bohemond had the fine territory, strategic position, and army necessary to found a principality in Antioch, he had to face two great forces—the Byzantine Empire, which claimed the whole of his territories, and the strong Muslim principalities in the north-east of Syria. Against these two forces he would ultimately fail.\n", "Section::::Wars between Antioch and the Byzantine Empire.\n", "By 1100, the town of Malatia, which guarded one of the Cilician Gates through the Taurus Mountains, had been captured by an Armenian soldier of fortune. He received reports that the Malik Ghazi Danishmend (Danishmend Emir), Ghazi Gümüştekin of Sivas, was preparing an expedition to capture Malatia. The Armenians sought help from Bohemond.\n", "Afraid to weaken his forces at Antioch, but not wishing to avoid the chance to extend his domain northwards, in August 1100 Bohemond marched north with only 300 knights and a small force of foot soldiers. Failing to send scouting parties, they were ambushed by the Turks and completely encircled at the Battle of Melitene. Bohemond managed to send one soldier to seek help from Baldwin of Edessa but was captured. He was laden with chains and imprisoned in Neo-Caesarea (modern Niksar) until 1103.\n", "Alexius I was incensed that Bohemond had broken his oath made in Constantinople and kept Antioch for himself. When he heard of Bohemond's capture, he offered to redeem the Norman commander for 260,000 dinars, if Ghazi Gumushtakin would hand the prisoner over to Byzantium. When Kilij Arslan I, the Seljuk overlord of the Emir, heard of the proposed payment, he threatened to attack unless given half the ransom. Bohemond proposed instead a ransom of 130,000 dinars paid just to the Emir. The bargain was concluded, and Ghazi and Bohemond exchanged oaths of friendship. Ransomed by Baldwin of Edessa, he returned in triumph to Antioch in August 1103.\n", "His nephew Tancred had taken his uncle's place for three years. During that time, he had attacked the Byzantines, and had added Tarsus, Adana and Massissa in Cilicia to his uncle's territory; he was now deprived of his lordship by Bohemond's return. During the summer of 1103, the northern Franks attacked Ridwan of Aleppo to gain supplies and compelled him to pay tribute. Meanwhile, Raymond had established himself in Tripoli with the aid of Alexius, and was able to check the expansion of Antioch to the south. Early in 1104, Baldwin and Bohemond passed Aleppo to move eastward and attack Harran.\n", "Whilst leading the campaign against Harran, Bohemond was defeated at Balak, near Raqqa on the Euphrates (see Battle of Harran). The defeat was decisive, making impossible the great eastern principality which Bohemond had contemplated. It was followed by a Greek attack on Cilicia and, despairing of his own resources, Bohemond returned to Europe for reinforcements in late 1104. It is a matter of historical debate whether his \"crusade\" against the Byzantine empire was to gain the backing and indulgences of Pope Paschal II. Either way, he enthralled audiences across France with gifts of relics from the Holy Land and tales of heroism while fighting the infidel, gathering a large army in the process. Henry I of England famously prevented him from landing on English shores, since the king anticipated Bohemond's great attraction to the English nobility. His newfound status won him the hand of Constance, daughter of the French king, Philip I. Of this marriage wrote Abbot Suger:\n", "Bohemond came to France to seek by any means he could the hand of the Lord Louis' sister Constance, a young lady of excellent breeding, elegant appearance and beautiful face. So great was the reputation for valour of the French kingdom and of the Lord Louis that even the Saracens were terrified by the prospect of that marriage. She was not engaged since she had broken off her agreement to wed Hugh, count of Troyes, and wished to avoid another unsuitable match. The prince of Antioch was experienced and rich both in gifts and promises; he fully deserved the marriage, which was celebrated with great pomp by the bishop of Chartres in the presence of the king, the Lord Louis, and many archbishops, bishops and noblemen of the realm.\n", "Bohemond and Constance produced a son, Bohemond II of Antioch.\n", "Bohemond saw the root of his problems in Alexios and Constantinople when it came to preserving the Principality of Antioch. He thought that defending Antioch against Alexios would not be enough, since he was greatly outnumbered by the Byzantine army. Instead, Bohemond decided to go on the offensive and attack the Byzantine Empire at its core in Constantinople.\n", "Bohemond was then resolved to use his newly recruited army of 34,000 men not to defend Antioch against the Greeks, but to attack Alexius. Bohemond took a similar route that was successful for his father in Ilyria and Greece. Alexius, aided by the Venetians, proved to be much stronger than when he faced Bohemond and Robert Guiscard in 1082-1084. Alexios was used to Norman battle tactics and their strength, and decided on a war of attrition rather than face them head on. While the Normans laid siege to Dyrrhachium, Alexios blockaded the Norman camp until Bohemond was forced to negotiate.\n", "Bohemond had to submit to a humiliating peace, all his ambitions destroyed. Under the Treaty of Devol in 1108, he became the vassal of Alexius with the title of \"sebastos\", consented to receive Alexius' pay, and promised to cede disputed territories and to admit a Greek patriarch into Antioch. Henceforth, Bohemond was a broken man. He died six months later without returning to Antioch. With one last jab at Alexios, by not returning to Antioch the Treaty of Devol became null and void as it only applied to Bohemond himself. Antioch was left in Norman hands with Bohemond's nephew Tancred.\n", "Bohemond was buried at Canosa in Apulia, in 1111.\n", "Section::::Bohemond I in literature and media.\n", "The anonymous \"Gesta Francorum\" was written by one of Bohemond's followers. \"The Alexiad\" of Anna Comnena is a primary authority for the whole of his life. A 1924 biography exists by Yewdale. See also the Gesta Tancredi by Ralph of Caen, which is a panegyric of Bohemond's second-in-command, Tancred. His career is discussed by B von Kügler, \"Bohemund und Tancred\" (1862); while L von Heinemann, \"Geschichte der Normannen in Sicilien und Unteritalien\" (1894), and R. Röhricht's \"Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges\" (1901) and \"Geschichte das Königreichs Jerusalem\" (1898) may also be consulted for his history. The only major biography that exists in English is \"Tancred : a study of his career and work in their relation to the First Crusade and the establishment of the Latin states in Syria and Palestine\" by Robert Lawrence Nicholson. Details of his pre-crusade career can found in Geoffrey Malaterra's \"Deeds of Count Roger...\".\n", "\"Count Bohemund\" by Alfred Duggan (1964) is an historical novel concerning the life of Bohemund and its events up to the fall of Jerusalem to the crusaders. Bohemond also appears in the historical novel \"Silver Leopard\" by F. Van Wyck Mason (1955), the short story \"The Track of Bohemond\" in the collection \"The Road of Azrael\" by Robert E. Howard (1979) and in the fantastical novel \"Pilgermann\" by Russell Hoban (1983).\n", "The historical fiction novel \"Wine of Satan\" (1949) written by Laverne Gay gives an embellished accounting of the life of Bohemond.\n", "The Crusades Series by David Donachie (writing as Jack Ludlow) casts Bohemund as its main protagonist.\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- Ghisalberti, Albert M. (ed) \"Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani\". Rome.\n" ] }

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{ "description": "Prince of Taranto and Prince of Antioch", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q220806", "wikidata_label": "Bohemond I of Antioch", "wikipedia_title": "Bohemond I of Antioch", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Boamund", "Bohemund I" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Battle of Ocaña\n", "The Battle of Ocaña was fought on 19 November 1809 between French forces under Marshal Nicolas Jean de Dieu Soult, Duke of Dalmatia and King Joseph Bonaparte and the Spanish army under Juan Carlos de Aréizaga, which suffered its greatest single defeat in the Peninsular War. General Juan Carlos de Aréizaga's Spanish army of 51,000 lost nearly 19,000 killed, wounded, prisoners and deserters, mostly due to the French use of their cavalry. Tactically, the battle was a Cannae-like encirclement of the Spanish army. The strategic consequences were also devastating, as it destroyed the only force capable of defending southern Spain; the area was overrun over the winter in the Andalusia campaign.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "Section::::Background.:Maneuvers.\n", "The Spanish campaign in the autumn of 1809 called for their armies to lunge at Madrid from both north and south. They called for assistance from Arthur Wellesley, Viscount Wellington, but after experiencing a lack of cooperation from the Spanish during the Talavera campaign the British general refused. The French were nearly surprised by the southern thrust. By 9 November, the southern army was within 35 miles of Madrid with only 7,000 French troops blocking them. Then Aréizaga lost his nerve and halted for three days. He then pressed on toward Madrid but ran into two French divisions and pulled back. Several days of fruitless countermarching found the thoroughly alerted French concentrated and moving to intercept the Spanish army.\n", "Section::::Background.:Spanish Army.\n", "Aréizaga commanded 51,000 men in eight infantry and four cavalry divisions, with 60 cannon manned by 1,500 artillerists. Other authorities give the Spanish 60,000 or 56,500 men\n", "BULLET::::- Spanish infantry\n", "BULLET::::- 1st Division: Luis Roberto de Lacy (7,700)\n", "BULLET::::- 9 battalions of Burgos, Alcala, 1/Espana, 1/Loxa, 1/Seville, Provincial of Cordova, Prov. of Chinchilla.\n", "BULLET::::- 2nd Division: Gaspar de Vigodet (7,100)\n", "BULLET::::- 9 bns. of Corona, Military Orders, Ronda, Alcazar, Ciudad Real, 1/Guadix.\n", "BULLET::::- 3rd Division: Pedro Agustín Girón (5,200)\n", "BULLET::::- 8 bns. of 1/Guards, 2/Guards, 2/Cordova, Gailen, Prov. of Jaen, Prov. of Toledo.\n", "BULLET::::- 4th Division: F. Castejon (6,400)\n", "BULLET::::- 8 bns. of 1/Malaga, 5/Seville, 2/Loxa, Bujalance, Xeres, 3/Cordova, Velez Malaga Cazadores.\n", "BULLET::::- 5th Division: N. Zerain (5,900)\n", "BULLET::::- 7 bns. of Barbastro Cazadores, 2/Espana, 2/Seville, 2/Madrid, Provincial of Granada, 3/Walloon Guards.\n", "BULLET::::- 6th Division: N. Jacome (7,600)\n", "BULLET::::- 9 bns. of Badajoz, Jaen, Alpujarras, 4/Seville, Prov. of Malaga, Prov. of Ecija, Estremadura Tiradores.\n", "BULLET::::- 7th Division: Francisco Copons (5,100)\n", "BULLET::::- 6 bns. of Murcia, Real Marina, Africa, Reyna Regts.\n", "BULLET::::- Vanguard: José Pascual de Zayas y Chacón (6,000)\n", "BULLET::::- 7 bns. Cantabria, Valencia Volunteers, 2/Majorca, Prov. of Plasencia, Prov. Grenadiers, Espana Vols.\n", "BULLET::::- Manuel Alberto Freire de Andrade y Armijo, Spanish cavalry (5,800)\n", "BULLET::::- 1st Division: Juan Bernuy\n", "BULLET::::- Rey, Infante, Almanza, Estremadura Carabineers and Lancers, Madrid Vols.\n", "BULLET::::- 2nd Division: Jose Rivas\n", "BULLET::::- Pavia, 1st and 2nd Estremadura Hussars, Toledo Cazadores.\n", "BULLET::::- 3rd Division: Miguel March\n", "BULLET::::- Montesa, Reyna, Santiago, Principe, Cordova, Alcantara.\n", "BULLET::::- 4th Division: V. Osorio\n", "BULLET::::- Farnesio, Lusitania, Espana, Granada Cazadores, Fernanda VII Grenadiers.\n", "Section::::Background.:French Army.\n", "King Joseph led the French army in name only. Actual command over the 24,000 infantry, 5,000 cavalry, 1,500 artillerists and 50 cannon was exercised by Marshal Nicolas Soult. Two army corps, three cavalry divisions and the Central Reserve formed core of the army.\n", "BULLET::::- IV Corps Horace Sébastiani\n", "BULLET::::- Division: Jean Leval\n", "BULLET::::- 2 battalions each of Dutch brigade, 2nd Nassau, Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt \"Erbprinz\" Regts., 1 bn. Frankfurt.\n", "BULLET::::- Division: François Werlé\n", "BULLET::::- 2 bns. each of 4th, 7th and 9th Poles.\n", "BULLET::::- Five artillery batteries.\n", "BULLET::::- Cavalry:\n", "BULLET::::- 3rd Dutch Hussar, Polish \"Vistula\" Lancer Regts.\n", "BULLET::::- V Corps Marshal Édouard Adolphe Casimir Joseph Mortier\n", "BULLET::::- Division: Jean Baptiste Girard\n", "BULLET::::- 3 bns. each of 17th Light, 40th, 64th, 88th Line. 4 bns. 34th Line.\n", "BULLET::::- Division: Honoré Théodore Maxime Gazan de la Peyrière\n", "BULLET::::- 3 bns. each of 21st and 28th Light, 100th and 103rd Line.\n", "BULLET::::- Five artillery batteries.\n", "BULLET::::- Cavalry and Central Reserve\n", "BULLET::::- Division: Édouard Jean Baptiste Milhaud (1,800)\n", "BULLET::::- 5th, 12th, 16th, 20th, 21st Dragoon Regiments.\n", "BULLET::::- Division: Antoine Paris d'Illins (1,000)\n", "BULLET::::- 10th and 26th Chasseur, Westphalian Light Horse Regts.\n", "BULLET::::- Division: Charles Victor Woirgard (Beauregard) (1,500)\n", "BULLET::::- 10th Hussar, 21st Chasseur, 13th and 22nd Dragoon Regts.\n", "BULLET::::- Royal Guard cavalry: (700)\n", "BULLET::::- King's Spanish Chasseur, 27th Chasseur Regts.\n", "BULLET::::- Central Reserve: Jean-Joseph, Marquis Dessolles (7,000)\n", "BULLET::::- Royal Guard Brigade: 4 Guard battalions, 51st and 55th Line.\n", "BULLET::::- Brigade: Louis Emmanuel Rey: 12th Light, 43rd Line.\n", "Section::::Battle.\n", "Section::::Battle.:Cavalry action.\n", "On 18 November, one of the largest cavalry actions of the Peninsular War took place. Three of Freire's divisions, 4,000 horsemen, attempted to clear a route of retreat for the Spanish army. The French deployed with Paris's light cavalry in the front line and Milhaud's dragoons in the second line. Paris charged, broke the Spanish first line, and was checked when Freire brought up his reserves. At this juncture, Milhaud's dragoons attacked and drove the Spanish cavalry from the field. The French lost less than 100 men, while Spanish losses were in the hundreds, with 80 captured.\n", "William Napier writes of the cavalry action before the battle: \"The Spaniards came on at a trot, and Sebastiani directed Paris, with a regiment of light cavalry and the Polish lancers, to turn and fall upon the right flank of the approaching squadrons, which being executed with great vigor, especially by the Poles, caused considerable confusion, which the Spanish general endeavored to remedy by closing to the assailed flank.\"\n", "Section::::Battle.:Positions.\n", "West of Ocaña town, Aréizaga placed José Pascual de Zayas y Chacón's Vanguard and Rivas's cavalry. From Ocaña to the east, the Spanish commander aligned his center and right. The right flank, which hung in air, was held by Freire's remaining three cavalry divisions. From there to Ocaña, Luis Roberto de Lacy, Castejon, Pedro Agustín Girón and Vigodet held the front line. Their battalions were arranged in a double line. In reserve behind Castejon stood Jacome's men, Zerain supported Giron and Copons backed up Vigodet.\n", "The Royal Guard and one brigade of Dessolles stood north of Ocaña, facing across a deep ravine. The next unit to the east was Louis Rey's brigade of Dessolles. Gazan and Girard of the V Corps, Leval and Werlé of IV Corps, and the cavalry completed the line to the east. Soult massed 30 cannons near Dessolles and the V Corps' positions.\n", "Section::::Battle.:Battle.\n", "On 19 November, the massed battery pounded the Spanish center as Leval attacked Castejon and Werlé went in against Lacy's division. At first the Spanish swung their line back. Then, as the IV Corps halted to wait for artillery to be brought up, the two Spanish divisions surged forward into musket range and opened fire. The Dutch, Germans and Poles began to edge rearward. Soult ordered up Girard's division to support the wavering IV Corps battalions.\n", "While this was going on, Milhaud's dragoons, supported by Woirgard and Paris, moved rapidly toward the vulnerable Spanish right flank. Screened by olive groves, they suddenly appeared in front of Freire's command. The French charged and soon routed the Spanish horsemen. Milhaud, Paris and Woirgard neatly wheeled their squadrons and tore into the unprotected flank of Lacy's infantry. Soult sent the French line forward. The massed battery savaged the Spanish line with renewed fury.\n", "Faced by the threat of infantry pressing their front while cavalry slashed into their flank, the Spanish divisions collapsed one after another and bolted for the rear. At this crisis, Dessolles and the Royal Guard dashed across the ravine and burst into Ocaña, severing the Spanish left from their disintegrating center and right. As the Spanish army streamed away to the south, only Zayas's division remained intact to cover the retreat. Soult's cavalry pressed the pursuit and broke Zayas later in the day.\n", "Section::::Battle.:Results.\n", "The French captured 14,000 Spaniards, 50 cannon, 30 flags and the entire baggage train. Another 4,000 were killed and wounded. French losses were 2,000 killed and wounded. Paris was killed and Girard wounded. This catastrophe temporarily laid Spain open to French domination. The northern Spanish army was beaten a week later at the Battle of Alba de Tormes. The way was open for the French conquest of Andalusia.\n", "Section::::Bibliography.\n", "BULLET::::- Glover, Michael. \"The Peninsular War 1807-1814.\" London: Penguin, 2001.\n", "BULLET::::- Napier, William. \"History of the war in the Peninsula and the south of France, from the year 1807 to the year 1814 (1873)\" New York : D. & J. Sadlier. \n", "BULLET::::- Smith, Digby. \"The Napoleonic Wars Data Book.\" London: Greenhill, 1993.\n", "BULLET::::- Zimmermann, Dick. \"The Battle of Ocana,\" Wargamer's Digest magazine. v. 6, no. 1, Nov. 1979.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Pieter Hendrik van Zuylen van Nijevelt\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Napoleonic Guide description\n", "BULLET::::- The Vistula Uhlans - Picadors of the Hell\n" ] }

{ "paragraph_id": [ 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 4, 4, 10, 12, 22, 26, 34, 34, 35, 37, 38, 43, 44, 46, 50, 54, 58, 60, 63, 66, 66, 67, 73, 73, 76, 80 ], "start": [ 59, 87, 166, 259, 283, 309, 469, 145, 257, 26, 26, 22, 12, 0, 160, 21, 33, 22, 28, 22, 22, 22, 22, 29, 21, 58, 36, 320, 126, 333, 403, 12, 12 ], "end": [ 65, 113, 178, 273, 306, 316, 475, 182, 274, 43, 45, 52, 15, 11, 173, 38, 46, 36, 66, 42, 65, 51, 45, 59, 39, 72, 66, 339, 135, 357, 412, 28, 50 ], "text": [ "French", "Nicolas Jean de Dieu Soult", "Spanish army", "Peninsular War", "Juan Carlos de Aréizaga", "Spanish", "Cannae", "Arthur Wellesley, Viscount Wellington", "Talavera campaign", "Gaspar de Vigodet", "Pedro Agustín Girón", "José Pascual de Zayas y Chacón", "Rey", "King Joseph", "Nicolas Soult", "Horace Sébastiani", "Dutch brigade", "François Werlé", "Édouard Adolphe Casimir Joseph Mortier", "Jean Baptiste Girard", "Honoré Théodore Maxime Gazan de la Peyrière", "Édouard Jean Baptiste Milhaud", "Charles Victor Woirgard", "Jean-Joseph, Marquis Dessolles", "Louis Emmanuel Rey", "Peninsular War", "José Pascual de Zayas y Chacón", "Pedro Agustín Girón", "Louis Rey", "Battle of Alba de Tormes", "Andalusia", "Napier, William.", "Pieter Hendrik van Zuylen van Nijevelt" ], "href": [ "France", "Nicolas%20Jean%20de%20Dieu%20Soult", "Army%20of%20Spain%20%28Peninsular%20War%29", "Peninsular%20War", "Juan%20Carlos%20de%20Ar%C3%A9izaga", "Kingdom%20of%20Spain", "Battle%20of%20Cannae", "Arthur%20Wellesley%2C%201st%20Duke%20of%20Wellington", "Battle%20of%20Talavera", "Gaspar%20de%20Vigodet", "Pedro%20Agust%C3%ADn%20Gir%C3%B3n", "Jos%C3%A9%20Pascual%20de%20Zayas%20y%20Chac%C3%B3n", "Cavalry%20Regiment%20El%20Rey", "Joseph%20Bonaparte", "Nicolas%20Jean%20de%20Dieu%20Soult", "Horace%20Fran%C3%A7ois%20Bastien%20S%C3%A9bastiani%20de%20La%20Porta", "Dutch%20Brigade%20%28Peninsular%20War%29", "Fran%C3%A7ois%20Werl%C3%A9", "%C3%89douard%20Adolphe%20Casimir%20Joseph%20Mortier", "Jean-Baptiste%20Girard%20%28soldier%29", "Honor%C3%A9%20Th%C3%A9odore%20Maxime%20Gazan%20de%20la%20Peyri%C3%A8re", "%C3%89douard%20Jean%20Baptiste%20Milhaud", "Charles%20Victor%20Woirgard", "Jean-Joseph%2C%20Marquis%20Dessolles", "Louis%20Emmanuel%20Rey", "Peninsular%20War", "Jos%C3%A9%20Pascual%20de%20Zayas%20y%20Chac%C3%B3n", "Pedro%20Agust%C3%ADn%20Gir%C3%B3n", "Louis%20Emmanuel%20Rey", "Battle%20of%20Alba%20de%20Tormes", "Andalusia", "William%20Francis%20Patrick%20Napier", "Pieter%20Hendrik%20van%20Zuylen%20van%20Nijevelt%23Napoleonic%20era" ], "wikipedia_title": [ "France", "Jean-de-Dieu Soult", "Spanish Army (Peninsular War)", "Peninsular War", "Juan Carlos de Aréizaga", "Spain", "Battle of Cannae", "Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington", "Battle of Talavera", "Gaspar de Vigodet", "Pedro Agustín Girón", "José Pascual de Zayas y Chacón", "Cavalry Regiment El Rey", "Joseph Bonaparte", "Jean-de-Dieu Soult", "Horace François Bastien Sébastiani de La Porta", "Dutch Brigade (Peninsular War)", "François Werlé", "Édouard Mortier, Duke of Trévise", "Jean-Baptiste Girard (soldier)", "Honoré Théodore Maxime Gazan de la Peyrière", "Édouard Jean Baptiste Milhaud", "Charles Victor Woirgard", "Jean-Joseph, Marquis Dessolles", "Louis Emmanuel Rey", "Peninsular War", "José Pascual de Zayas y Chacón", "Pedro Agustín Girón", "Louis Emmanuel Rey", "Battle of Alba de Tormes", "Andalusia", "William Francis Patrick Napier", "Pieter Hendrik van Zuylen van Nijevelt" ], "wikipedia_id": [ "5843419", "209843", "40410720", "102485", "28160648", "26667", "157814", "8474", "867686", "32433449", "18781974", "3382771", "47991894", "62556", "209843", "850121", "39191226", "14687800", "450874", "13148366", "336362", "13792496", "21953358", "923845", "13704727", "102485", "3382771", "18781974", "13704727", "13998172", "2736", "632938", "28320295" ] }

{ "description": "battle", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q601872", "wikidata_label": "Battle of Ocaña", "wikipedia_title": "Battle of Ocaña", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 157712, "parentid": 847625276, "revid": 856818400, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2018-08-27T18:31:38Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Ocaña&oldid=856818400" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Christmas Eve\n", "Christmas Eve is the evening or entire day before Christmas Day, the festival commemorating the birth of Jesus. Christmas Day is observed around the world, and Christmas Eve is widely observed as a full or partial holiday in anticipation of Christmas Day. Together, both days are considered one of the most culturally significant celebrations in Christendom and Western society.\n", "Christmas celebrations in the denominations of Western Christianity have long begun on the night of the 24th, due in part to the Christian liturgical day starting at sunset, a practice inherited from Jewish tradition and based on the story of Creation in the Book of Genesis: \"And there was evening, and there was morning – the first day.\" Many churches still ring their church bells and hold prayers in the evening; for example, the Nordic Lutheran churches. Since tradition holds that Jesus was born at night (based in Luke 2:6-8), Midnight Mass is celebrated on Christmas Eve, traditionally at midnight, in commemoration of his birth. The idea of Jesus being born at night is reflected in the fact that Christmas Eve is referred to as \"Heilige Nacht\" (Holy Night) in German, \"Nochebuena\" (the Good Night) in Spanish and similarly in other expressions of Christmas spirituality, such as the song \"Silent Night, Holy Night\".\n", "Many other varying cultural traditions and experiences are also associated with Christmas Eve around the world, including the gathering of family and friends, the singing of Christmas carols, the illumination and enjoyment of Christmas lights, trees, and other decorations, the wrapping, exchange and opening of gifts, and general preparation for Christmas Day. Legendary Christmas gift-bearing figures including Santa Claus, Father Christmas, Christkind, and Saint Nicholas are also often said to depart for their annual journey to deliver presents to children around the world on Christmas Eve, although until the Protestant introduction of Christkind in 16th-century Europe, such figures were said to instead deliver presents on the eve of Saint Nicholas' feast day (6 December).\n", "Section::::Religious traditions.\n", "Section::::Religious traditions.:Western churches.\n", "Roman Catholics and high church Anglicans traditionally celebrate Midnight Mass, which begins either at or sometime before midnight on Christmas Eve. This ceremony, which is held in churches throughout the world, celebrates the birth of Christ, which is believed to have occurred at night. Midnight Mass is popular in Poland (pasterka).\n", "In recent years some churches have scheduled their \"Midnight\" Mass as early as 7 pm. This better suits the young children, whose choral singing has become a popular feature in some traditions. In Spanish-speaking areas, the Midnight Mass is sometimes referred to as \"Misa de Gallo\", or \"Missa do Galo\" in Portuguese (\"Rooster's Mass\"). In the Philippines, the custom has expanded into the nine-day \"Simbang Gabi\", when Filipinos attend dawn Masses (traditionally beginning around 04:00 to 05:00 PST) from 16 December, continuing daily until Christmas Eve. In 2009 Vatican officials scheduled the Midnight Mass to start at 10 pm so that the 82-year-old Pope Benedict XVI would not have too late a night.\n", "A nativity scene may be erected indoors or outdoors, and is composed of figurines depicting the infant Jesus resting in a manger, Mary, and Joseph. Other figures in the scene may include angels, shepherds, and various animals. The figures may be made of any material, and arranged in a stable or grotto. The Magi may also appear, and are sometimes not placed in the scene until the week following Christmas to account for their travel time to Bethlehem. While most home nativity scenes are packed away at Christmas or shortly thereafter, nativity scenes in churches usually remain on display until the feast of the Baptism of the Lord.\n", "Whilst it does not include any kind of Mass, the Church of Scotland has a service beginning just before midnight, in which carols are sung. The Church of Scotland no longer holds Hogmanay services on New Year's Eve, however. The Christmas Eve Services are still very popular.\n", "On Christmas Eve, the Christ Candle in the center of the Advent wreath is traditionally lit in many church services. In candlelight services, while singing \"Silent Night\", each member of the congregation receives a candle and passes along their flame which is first received from the Christ Candle.\n", "Lutherans traditionally practice Christmas Eve Eucharistic traditions typical of Germany and Scandinavia. \"Krippenspiele\" (Nativity plays), special festive music for organ, vocal and brass choirs and candlelight services make Christmas Eve one of the highlights in the Lutheran Church calendar. \n", "Christmas Vespers are popular in the early evening, and midnight services are also widespread in regions which are predominantly Lutheran. The old Lutheran tradition of a Christmas Vigil in the early morning hours of Christmas Day (Christmette) can still be found in some regions. In eastern and middle Germany, congregations still continue the tradition of \"Quempas singing\": separate groups dispersed in various parts of the church sing verses of the song \"He whom shepherds once came Praising\" (\"Quem pastores laudavere\") responsively.\n", "Methodists celebrate the evening in different ways. Some, in the early evening, come to their church to celebrate Holy Communion with their families. The mood is very solemn, and the only visible light is the Advent Wreath, and the candles upon the Lord's Table. Others celebrate the evening with services of light, which include singing the song \"Silent Night\" as a variety of candles (including personal candles) are lit. Other churches have late evening services perhaps at 11 pm, so that the church can celebrate Christmas Day together with the ringing of bells at midnight. Others offer Christmas Day services as well.\n", "The annual \"Nine Lessons and Carols\", broadcast from King's College, Cambridge on Christmas Eve, has established itself a Christmas custom in the United Kingdom. It is broadcast outside the UK via the BBC World Service, and is also bought by broadcasters around the world.\n", "Section::::Religious traditions.:Eastern churches.\n", "In the Byzantine Rite, Christmas Eve is referred to as Paramony (\"preparation\"). It is the concluding day of the Nativity Fast and is observed as a day of strict fasting by those devout Byzantine Christians who are physically capable of doing so. In some traditions, nothing is eaten until the first star appears in the evening sky, in commemoration of the Star of Bethlehem. The liturgical celebration begins earlier in the day with the celebration of the Royal Hours, followed by the Divine Liturgy combined with the celebration of Vespers, during which a large number of passages from the Old Testament are chanted, recounting the history of salvation. After the dismissal at the end of the service, a new candle is brought out into the center of the church and lit, and all gather round and sing the Troparion and Kontakion of the Feast.\n", "In the evening, the All-Night Vigil for the Feast of the Nativity is composed of Great Compline, Matins and the First Hour. The Byzantine services of Christmas Eve are intentionally parallel to those of Good Friday, illustrating the theological point that the purpose of the Incarnation was to make possible the Crucifixion and Resurrection. This is illustrated in Eastern icons of the Nativity, on which the Christ Child is wrapped in swaddling clothes reminiscent of his burial wrappings. The child is also shown lying on a stone, representing the Tomb of Christ, rather than a manger. The Cave of the Nativity is also a reminder of the cave in which Jesus was buried.\n", "The services of Christmas Eve are also similar to those of the Eve of Theophany (Epiphany), and the two Great Feasts are considered one celebration.\n", "In some Orthodox cultures, after the Vesperal Liturgy the family returns home to a festive meal, but one at which Orthodox fasting rules are still observed: no meat or dairy products (milk, cheese, eggs, etc.) are consumed (see below for variations according to nationality). Then they return to the church for the All-Night Vigil.\n", "The next morning, Christmas Day, the Divine Liturgy is celebrated again, but with special features that occur only on Great Feasts of the Lord. After the dismissal of this Liturgy, the faithful customarily greet each other with the kiss of peace and the words: \"Christ is Born!\", to which the one being greeted responds: \"Glorify Him!\" (the opening words of the Canon of the Nativity that was chanted the night before during the Vigil). This greeting, together with many of the hymns of the feast, continue to be used until the leave-taking of the feast on 29 December.\n", "The first three days of the feast are particularly solemn. The second day is known as the Synaxis of the Theotokos, and commemorates the role of the Virgin Mary in the Nativity of Jesus. The third day is referred to simply as \"the Third Day of the Nativity\". The Saturday and Sunday following 25 December have special Epistle and Gospel readings assigned to them. 29 December celebrates the Holy Innocents.\n", "Byzantine Christians observe a festal period of twelve days, during which no one in the Church fasts, even on Wednesdays and Fridays, which are normal fasting days throughout the rest of the year. During this time one feast leads into another: 25–31 December is the afterfeast of the Nativity; 2–5 January is the forefeast of the Epiphany.\n", "Section::::Religious traditions.:Meals.\n", "Section::::Religious traditions.:Meals.:Bulgaria.\n", "In Bulgaria, the meal consists of an odd number of lenten dishes in compliance with the rules of fasting. They are usually the traditional sarma, bob chorba (bean soup), fortune kravai (pastry with a fortune in it; also called \"bogovitsa\", \"vechernik\", \"kolednik\"), stuffed peppers, nuts, dried fruit, boiled wheat. The meal is often accompanied with wine or Bulgaria's traditional alcoholic beverage rakia, in the past \"olovina\" (a type of homemade rye beer). The meals used to be put on top of hay, directly on the floor, together with a ploughshare or a coulter.\n", "Section::::Religious traditions.:Meals.:France.\n", "In French-speaking places, Réveillon is a long dinner eaten on Christmas Eve.\n", "Section::::Religious traditions.:Meals.:Italy.\n", "While other Christian families throughout the world celebrate the Christmas Eve meal with various meats, Italians (especially Sicilians) celebrate the traditional Catholic \"Feast of the Seven Fishes\" which was historically served after a 24-hour fasting period. Although Christmas fasting is no longer a popular custom, some Italian-Americans still enjoy a meatless Christmas Eve feast and attend the Midnight Mass. In various cultures, a festive dinner is traditionally served for the family and close friends in attendance, when the first star (usually Sirius) arrives on the sky.\n", "Section::::Religious traditions.:Meals.:Poland.\n", "A similar tradition (\"Wigilia\", or 'Christmas Vigil') exists in Poland. The number of dishes used to be traditionally an odd number (usually 5, 7, 9, or 11.) According to the \"Słownik etymologiczny języka polskiego\" (\"Etymological Dictionary of the Polish Language\") by Aleksander Brückner, the number of dishes was traditionally related to social class: the peasants' vigil consisted of 5 or 7 dishes, the gentry usually had 9, and the aristocracy, 11 dishes, but the even number 12 is also found today to remember the 12 disciples. It is obligatory to try a portion of all of them. Some traditions specify that the number of guests cannot be odd.\n", "In Poland, gifts are unwrapped on the Christmas Eve, as opposed to the Christmas Day.\n", "Section::::Religious traditions.:Meals.:Lithuania.\n", "Lithuanian Christmas Eve blends pagan and Christian traditions as initially it was a celebration of winter solstice. Traditionally, Lithuanians believed that animals could talk on that night, and it was possible to predict the future. \"Kūčios\" (\"Holy Meal\") is the most important event of the year and family reunion. Dead relatives are remembered with an empty plate set at the table. The feast starts after the rise of the evening star. No products made from meat, milk and alcohol are allowed during the Kūčios. In all, 12 dishes are served, each of them are rustic, made from grains, fish, dried fruit or mushrooms including \"kūčiukai,\" Small bread biscuits with poppy seed milk are served. After the dinner is over the table is left uncleared overnight for the feast of \"vėlės\" (spirits or soul).\n", "Section::::Religious traditions.:Meals.:Russia, Ukraine.\n", "In Russia, Ukraine, traditional, meatless, 12-dishes Christmas Eve Supper is served on Christmas Eve before opening gifts. The table is spread with a white cloth symbolic of the swaddling clothes the Child Jesus was wrapped in, and a large white candle stands in the center of the table symbolizing Christ the Light of the World. Next to it is a round loaf of bread symbolizing Christ Bread of Life. Hay is often displayed either on the table or as a decoration in the room, reminiscent of the manger in Bethlehem. The twelve dishes (which differ by nationality or region) symbolize the Twelve Apostles.\n", "The Holy Meal was a common Eastern Orthodox tradition in the Russian Empire, but during the era of the Soviet Union it was greatly discouraged as a result of the official atheism of the former regime. It is coming back in Russia and continues to be popular in Ukraine.\n", "The main attributes of Holy Meal in Ukraine are kutia, a poppy seed, honey and wheat dish, and uzvar, a drink made from reconstituted dried fruits. Other typical dishes are borscht, Varenyky, and dishes made of fish, phaseolus and cabbage.\n", "Section::::Religious traditions.:Meals.:Serbia.\n", "In accordance with the Christmas traditions of the Serbs, their festive meal has a copious and diverse selection of foods, although it is prepared according to the rules of fasting.\n", "As well as a round, unleavened loaf of bread and salt, which are necessary, this meal may comprise roast fish, cooked beans, sauerkraut, noodles with ground walnuts, honey, and wine.\n", "Families in some Slavic countries leave an empty place at the table for guests (alluding to Mary and Joseph looking for shelter in Bethlehem).\n", "Section::::Gift giving.\n", "During the Reformation in 16th- and 17th-century Europe, many Protestants changed the gift bringer to the Christ Child or \"Christkindl\", and the date of giving gifts changed from 6 December to Christmas Eve. It is the night when Santa Claus makes his rounds delivering gifts to good children. Many trace the custom of giving gifts to the Magi who brought gifts for the Christ child in the manger.\n", "In the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Croatia and Hungary, where Saint Nicholas (sv. Mikuláš/szent Mikulás) gives his sweet gifts on 6 December, the Christmas gift-giver is the Child Jesus (Ježíšek in Czech, Jézuska in Hungarian, Ježiško in Slovak and Isusek in Croatian).\n", "In most parts of Austria, Germany, Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic and Switzerland, presents are traditionally exchanged on the evening of 24 December. Children are commonly told that presents were brought either by the Christkind (German for Christ child), or by the Weihnachtsmann. Both leave the gifts, but are in most families not seen doing so. In Germany, the gifts are also brought on 6 December by \"the Nikolaus\" with his helper Knecht Ruprecht.\n", "In Estonia \"Jõuluvana\", Finland \"Joulupukki\", Denmark \"Julemanden\", Norway \"Julenissen\" and Sweden \"Jultomten\", personally meets children and gives presents in the evening of Christmas Eve.\n", "In Argentina, Austria, Brazil, Bulgaria, Colombia, Denmark, Estonia, the Faroe Islands, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Slovakia, Iceland, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Quebec, Romania, Uruguay, Slovenia, Sweden, Switzerland and the Czech Republic, Christmas presents are opened mostly on the evening of the 24th – following German tradition, this is also the practice among the British Royal Family since it was introduced by Queen Victoria and Albert, Prince Consort – while in Italy, the United States, the United Kingdom, Republic of Ireland, English Canada, South Africa, New Zealand and Australia, this occurs mostly on the morning of Christmas Day.\n", "In other Latin American countries, people stay awake until midnight, when they open the presents.\n", "In Spain, gifts are traditionally opened on the morning of 6 January, Epiphany day (\"Día de Los Tres Reyes Magos\"), though in some other countries, like Argentina and Uruguay, people receive presents both around Christmas and on the morning of Epiphany day.\n", "In Belgium and the Netherlands Saint Nicholas or Sinterklaas and his companion Zwarte Piet deliver presents to children and adults alike on the evening of 5 December, the eve of his nameday. On 24 December they go to church or watch the late-night Mass on TV, or have a meal.\n", "Section::::Christmas Eve around the world.\n", "Christmas Eve is celebrated in different ways around the world, varying by country and region. Elements common to many areas of the world include the attendance of special religious observances such as a midnight Mass or Vespers and the giving and receiving of presents. Along with Easter, Christmastime is one of the most important periods on the Christian calendar, and is often closely connected to other holidays at this time of year, such as Advent, the Feast of the Immaculate Conception, St. Nicholas Day, St. Stephen's Day, New Year's, and the Feast of the Epiphany.\n", "Section::::Christmas Eve around the world.:Celebrations.\n", "Among Christians, as well as non-Christians who celebrate Christmas, the significant amount of vacation travel, and travel back to family homes, that takes place in the lead-up to Christmas means that Christmas Eve is also frequently a time of social events and parties, worldwide.\n", "Section::::Christmas Eve around the world.:In Jewish culture.\n", "Nittel Nacht is a name given to Christmas Eve by Jewish scholars in the 17th century.\n", "Section::::Christmas Eve around the world.:In Jewish culture.:In contemporary American-Jewish culture.\n", "With Christmas Day a work holiday throughout the United States, there is a space of unfilled free time during which much of American commerce and society is not functioning, and which can give rise to a sense of loneliness or alienation for American Jews.\n", "Jews also typically do not engage in the family gathering and religious worship activities that are central to Christmas Eve for Christians.\n", "Typical contemporary activities have usually been limited to \"Chinese and a movie\"—consuming a meal at a Chinese restaurant, which tend to be open for business on the Christmas holiday, and watching a movie at the theater or at home, stereotypically a rerun of \"It's a Wonderful Life\".\n", "Since the 1980s a variety of social events for young Jews have sprung up, and become popular, on Christmas Eve. These include the Matzo Ball, The Ball, and a number of local events organized by Jewish communities and local Jewish Federations in North America.\n", "Section::::Christmas Eve around the world.:In Chinese culture.\n", "In Mandarin, Christmas Eve is called 平安夜 (\"peaceful night\"). People exchange apples, because the word for \"apple\" (果) is a rhyming wordplay with \"peace\" (安).\n", "Section::::Historical events.\n", "A number of historical events have been influenced by the occurrence of Christmas Eve.\n", "Section::::Historical events.:Christmas truce.\n", "During World War I in 1914 and 1915 there was an unofficial Christmas truce, particularly between British and German troops. The truce began on Christmas Eve, 24 December 1914, when German troops began decorating the area around their trenches in the region of Ypres, Belgium, for Christmas. They began by placing candles on trees, then continued the celebration by singing Christmas carols, most notably \"Stille Nacht\" (\"Silent Night\"). The British troops in the trenches across from them responded by singing English carols. The two sides shouted Christmas greetings to each other. Soon there were calls for visits across the \"No man's land\" when small gifts were exchanged. The truce also allowed a breathing space during which recently killed soldiers could be brought back behind their lines by burial parties. Funerals took place as soldiers from both sides mourned the dead together and paid their respects. At one funeral in No Man's Land, soldiers from both sides gathered and read a passage from Psalm 23. The truce occurred in spite of opposition at higher levels of the military command. Earlier in the autumn, a call by Pope Benedict XV for an official truce between the warring governments had been ignored.\n", "Section::::Historical events.:Apollo 8 reading from Genesis.\n", "On 24 December 1968, in what was the most watched television broadcast to that date, the astronauts Bill Anders, Jim Lovell and Frank Borman of Apollo 8 surprised the world with a reading of the Creation from the Book of Genesis as they orbited the moon. Madalyn Murray O'Hair, an atheist activist, filed a lawsuit under the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment. The trial court dismissed the lawsuit, which was upheld on appeal.\n", "In 1969, the United States Postal Service issued a stamp (Scott# 1371) commemorating the Apollo 8 flight around the moon. The stamp featured a detail of the famous photograph, \"Earthrise\", of the Earth \"rising\" over the moon (NASA image AS8-14-2383HR), taken by Anders on Christmas Eve, and the words, \"In the beginning God...\".\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Christmas Day\n", "BULLET::::- Nativity of Jesus\n", "BULLET::::- Santa Claus\n", "BULLET::::- Winter holiday season\n" ] }

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{ "description": "evening or entire day before Christmas Day", "enwikiquote_title": "Christmas Eve", "wikidata_id": "Q106010", "wikidata_label": "Christmas Eve", "wikipedia_title": "Christmas Eve", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Dressing Up the Idiot\n", "Dressing Up the Idiot (1997) was the only album by the band Prunella Scales.\n", "Section::::Track listing.\n", "BULLET::::1. \"Crisp\"\n", "BULLET::::2. \"Deadman\"\n", "BULLET::::3. \"Freak Machine\"\n", "BULLET::::4. \"When\"\n", "BULLET::::5. \"Fifty Tons of Life\"\n", "BULLET::::6. \"Don't Let the Flowers Die\"\n", "BULLET::::7. \"Toms River\"\n", "BULLET::::8. \"TV is King\"\n", "BULLET::::9. \"Had to Look\"\n", "BULLET::::10. \"Talk Myself Down\"\n", "Section::::Bonus track on WEA Japan release.\n", "BULLET::::1. \"The Hardest Part\"\n", "Section::::Personnel.\n", "BULLET::::- Rachel Bolan: Bass and Vocals\n", "BULLET::::- Phil Varone: Drums and Vocals\n", "BULLET::::- Elwood Francis: Guitar and Vocals\n", "BULLET::::- Tommy Southard: Guitar and Vocals\n", "Tommy Southard is current founder/member of \"Solace\" and past member of \"Godspeed\".\n", "Elwood Francis is featured in the film \"FUZZ: The Sound that Revolutionized the World\".\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Battle of Marengo\n", "The Battle of Marengo was fought on 14 June 1800 between French forces under Napoleon Bonaparte and Austrian forces near the city of Alessandria, in Piedmont, Italy. Near the end of the day, the French overcame Gen. Michael von Melas's surprise attack, driving the Austrians out of Italy and consolidating Napoleon's political position in Paris as First Consul of France in the wake of his coup d’état the previous November.\n", "Surprised by the Austrian advance toward Genoa in mid-April 1800, Bonaparte hastily led his army over the Alps in mid-May and reached Milan on 2 June. After cutting Melas’ line of communications by crossing the River Po and defeating \"Feldmarschallleutnant\" (FML) Peter Karl Ott von Bátorkéz at Montebello on 9 June, the French closed in on the Austrian army, which had massed in Alessandria. Deceived by a local double agent, Bonaparte dispatched large forces to the north and south, but the Austrians launched a surprise attack on 14 June against the main French army under Gen. Louis Alexandre Berthier.\n", "Initially their two assaults across the Fontanone stream near Marengo village were repelled, and Gen. Jean Lannes reinforced the French right. Bonaparte realized the true position and issued orders at 11:00 am to recall the detachment under \"Général de Division\" (GdD) Louis Desaix, while moving his reserve forward. On the Austrian left Ott's column had taken Castel Ceriolo, and its advance guard moved south to attack Lannes’ flank. Melas renewed the main assault and the Austrians broke the central French position. By 2:30 pm the French were withdrawing and Austrian dragoons seized the Marengo farm. Bonaparte had by then arrived with the reserve, but Berthier's troops began to fall back on the main vine belts. Knowing Desaix was approaching, Bonaparte was anxious about a column of Ott's soldiers marching from the north, so he deployed his Consular Guard infantry to delay it. The French then withdrew steadily eastward toward San Giuliano Vecchio as the Austrians formed a column to follow them in line with Ott's advance in the northern sector.\n", "Desaix's arrival around 5:30 pm stabilized the French position, as the 9th Light Infantry Regiment delayed the Austrian advance down the main road and the rest of the army reformed north of Cascina Grossa. As the pursuing Austrian troops arrived, a mix of musketry and artillery fire concealed the surprise attack of \"Général de Brigade\" (GdB) François Étienne de Kellermann’s cavalry, which threw the Austrian pursuit into disordered flight back into Alessandria, with about 14,000 killed, wounded or captured. The French casualties were considerably fewer, but included Desaix. The whole French line chased after the Austrians to seal \"une victoire politique\" (a political victory) that secured Bonaparte's grip on power after the coup. It would be followed by a propaganda campaign that sought to rewrite the story of the battle three times during Napoleon's rule.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "The Battle of Marengo was the victory that sealed the success of Bonaparte's Italian campaign of 1800 and is best understood in the context of that campaign. By a daring crossing of the Alps with his Army of the Reserve (officially commanded by Louis Alexandre Berthier) in mid-May 1800 almost before the passes were open, Bonaparte (who crossed on a mule) had threatened Melas' lines of communications in northern Italy. The French army then seized Milan on 2 June, followed by Pavia, Piacenza and Stradella, Lombardy, cutting the main Austrian supply route eastward along the south bank of the Po river. Bonaparte hoped that Melas' preoccupation with the Siege of Genoa, held by Gen. André Masséna, would prevent the Austrians from responding to his offensive. However, Genoa surrendered on 4 June, freeing a large number of Austrians for operations against the French.\n", "On 9 June Gen. Jean Lannes beat Feldmarschallleutnant Peter Ott in the Battle of Montebello. This caused Bonaparte to get overconfident. He became convinced that Melas would not attack and, further, that the Austrians were about to retreat. As other French forces closed from the west and south, the Austrian commander had withdrawn most of his troops from their positions near Nice and Genoa to Alessandria on the main Turin-Mantua road.\n", "Section::::Background.:Austrian plans and preliminary French moves.\n", "The Austrians planned to fight their way out eastward but--using a local double agent, usually known by his cover of François Toli--attempted to deceive Bonaparte into thinking they would try to march north, cross the Po and head for Milan, joined by the remaining troops marching up from Genoa. The spy would advise Bonaparte to march via Sale on the northern side of the plain, so that he could be engaged by the Austrian left wing; meanwhile the main force would move through Marengo village in the centre, turn north and fall into the French left flank. Ott arrived from Montebello of 13 June in a war council. The senior generals of the Austrian army strongly approved this plan, as the alternative would have meant that the army would have had to retreat along the River Po and leave Piedmont to the enemy without a fight. Nonetheless, by abandoning the San Giuliano plain, where the superior Austrian cavalry could have given him an edge, Melas probably made a serious mistake.\n", "Bonaparte knew that Ott had no way out from Alessandria, but he had no idea of Melas' position. Following his meeting with the spy and fearing that the Austrian general might try to escape, Bonaparte spread his army out in a wide net by sending Louis Desaix with Divisional General Jean Boudet's division (6,000 men) south to Novi Ligure and Divisional General Jean François Cornu de La Poype (3,500 men) north on the other bank of the Po. Further north, from Vercelli to Lake Maggiore, were stationed the divisions of Antoine de Béthencourt and Joseph Chabran and, further to the rear, north of Piacenza, Jean Thomas Guillaume Lorge's division. Bonaparte's view was confirmed when Gen. Claude Victor-Perrin, supported by Divisional General Joachim Murat’s cavalry, swiftly evicted FML Andreas O'Reilly von Ballinlough’s Austrian brigade from Marengo village that afternoon. Victor then deployed divisional generals Gaspard Amédée Gardanne and Jacques-Antoine de Chambarlhac de Laubespin's divisions along the Fontanone stream. Austrian headquarters debated building a bridge to the north to outflank the French, but the lack of pontoons and time forced the Austrians to cross the River Bormida and then launch a single, direct assault across the Fontanone bridge.\n", "Section::::Prelude.\n", "Section::::Prelude.:Battlefield.\n", "The battle took place to the east of Alessandria, on a plain crossed by a river forming meanders, the Bormida, over which the Austrians installed a bridgehead. On the plain were spread numerous hamlets and farms that represented strategic points. The three main sites of the battle formed a triangle, with Marengo in the west, Castel Ceriolo in the north and San Giuliano Vecchio in the east. A small stream, the Fontanone, passed between Marengo and the Bormida. The First Consul had established his headquarters at Torre Garofoli, which was further to the east. This headquarters, nowadays visitable, is situated in the street: \"Strada Comunale Cerca\" coordinates N44°53'37.01\" E 8°48'14.12\"\n", "Section::::Prelude.:Forces.\n", "The 30,000 Austrians and their 100 guns were opposed by 22,000 French and their 15 guns. Meanwhile, after the arrival of Desaix, 6,000 men would reinforce Bonaparte's army.\n", "The 1799 campaign had exhausted the Austrian army in Italy, casualties and disease reducing some regiments to 300 men. The largest component of the army was in Piedmont and the neighbouring Po\n", "valley; only a few units were moved to winter quarters in better-supplied areas. Long distances from the home bases, from which the regiments drew reinforcements, meant that troop transports had to endure miserable conditions, so only about 15% reached the field army. The army of March 1800 was scarcely larger than at the conclusion of the 1799 campaign. Equipment and uniforms were improved and updated. Although a simpler uniform, with a leather helmet and smaller-caliber muskets, was introduced, little had reached the field armies by 1800. Efforts were made to standardize equipment, but many units used a variety of musket and saber patterns. Melas split his army into three corps facing the Bormida, in front of Alessandria. In the north Ott commanded Friedrich Heinrich von Gottesheim's advance guard plus Joseph von Schellenberg and Ludwig von Vogelsang's divisions. In the south was Feldmarschallleutnant Andreas O'Reilly von Ballinlough's division. Melas himself took control of the center, with the divisions of Karl Joseph Hadik von Futak, Konrad Valentin von Kaim, Ferdinand Johann von Morzin and Anton von Elsnitz.\n", "In 1799 the 36,000 French troops in Italy were in a desperate state similar to that at the end of 1795. Supplies of all sorts were inadequate, discipline was breaking down, desertion was increasing and, on a few occasions, whole formations marched to the rear in search of food. The\n", "survivors would be of limited combat value. In establishing the Army of the Reserve in France, Bonaparte's first move was to overhaul the supply system to provide the troops with regular food and decent uniforms. Lacking the large superiority in infantry and artillery enjoyed in many\n", "Republican campaigns, the core of Bonaparte's reserve was 30,000 men, mostly from the Batavian Republic, who had been used under Guillaume Marie Anne Brune to crush the rebellion in the Vendée. Additional veteran troops came from the remains of the former Army of England. The new military doctrine emphasised the offensive, mobility and the bayonet over linear firepower. In front of the Austrian army were stationed, in and to the south of Marengo, the corps of Victor (Jacques-Antoine de Chambarlhac de Laubespin and Gaspard Amédée Gardanne's divisions), supported on the left by François Étienne de Kellermann's cavalry and, further to the northeast, by the corps of Lannes (François Watrin's division, Mainoni's brigade) together with two cavalry brigades. To the east of Castel Ceriolo took position Jean-Charles Monnier's division, supported by the Guard, which formed the reserve. Victor was the one who would bear the brunt of the Austrian attack.\n", "Section::::Battle.\n", "Section::::Battle.:Austrian attack.\n", "The Austrian troops advanced from Alessandria eastwards across the Bormida river by two bridges debouching in a narrow bend of the river (the river being not easily crossed elsewhere). Poor Austrian staff work prevented any rapid development of their attack and the entire army had to file through a narrow bridgehead. The movement began about 6 am with the first shots fired around 8 am, but the attack was not fully developed until 9 am.\n", "The 1,200-man Austrian advance guard, under Colonel (\"Oberst\") Johann Maria Philipp Frimont and a division of 3,300 men under FML O'Reilly, pushed the French outposts back and deployed to become the Austrian right wing, driving the enemy from Pedrabona farm, then\n", "heading south to tackle the French at La Stortiglione farm. The Austrian centre (about 18,000 under Melas) advanced towards Marengo until halted by GdD Gardanne's French infantry deployed in front of the Fontanone stream. On the Austrian left, 7,500 men under FML Peter Ott waited for the road to clear before heading for the village of Castel Ceriolo well to the north of the French positions. This move threatened either an envelopment of the French right, or a further advance to cut the French line of communication with Milan.\n", "Gardanne's men gave a good account of themselves, holding up the Austrian deployment for a considerable time. When Gardanne's division was exhausted, Victor pulled it back behind the Fontanone and committed his second division under GdD Chambarlhac (this officer soon lost his nerve and fled). The French held Marengo village and the line of the Fontanone until about noon, with both flanks in the air. First, at 8 am, Melas hurled FML Karl Joseph Hadik von Futak's division (four battalions) at Victor's defenses, supported by Frimont's advance guard battery along the stream. Forced into a funnel by the bad ground and Fontanone stream, Hadik's attack came under fire from two sides and failed, with Hadik being killed. The Austrian commander then committed FML Konrad Valentin von Kaim's division but this attack was also thwarted by 11 am. Finally, as the French position was reinforced by François Étienne de Kellermann's cavalry and Jean Lannes's formation was on the way, FML Ferdinand Johann von Morzin's elite grenadier division was sent in to attack Marengo village. Melas also committed a serious tactical blunder, detaching \"Generalmajor\" (GM) Nimptsch's brigade of 2,300 hussars and two artillery batteries back over the Bormida bridge to block the corps of General Louis Gabriel Suchet, which was mistakenly reported around 9 am from Acqui Terme to be approaching Alessandria from the south. Besides delaying the crossing of the Austrian left wing, this also meant that, being 30 kilometers away, Nimptsch's brigade would play no part in the battle.\n", "Section::::Battle.:Austrian attack.:Stalemate in the centre around Marengo.\n", "It took Bonaparte (5 kilometers away from Marengo) until about 10 am to recognize that the Austrian activity was not a diversionary attack to cover the anticipated retreat by Melas. His subordinates had brought their troops up in support of Victor's corps. Lannes's corps had deployed on the crucial right flank. GM Friedrich Joseph Anton von Bellegarde’s part of Kaim's division had crossed the Fontanone north of Marengo and occupied La Barbotta farm. Lannes directed Watrin's infantry to drive Bellegarde back. They briefly crossed the Fontanone before Austrian reserve guns drove the French back. Kellermann's heavy cavalry brigade and the 8th Dragoons took up a covering position on the left, smashing an attempt by GM Giovanni Pilatti's light dragoon brigade which attempted to cross the steep-sided Fontanone at its southern end to envelop Victor's flank. On the right, GdB Pierre Champeaux was killed trying to stop the progress of Ott's column. A small part of the 6ème Légère (6th Light Infantry Regiment) occupied Castel Ceriolo to the north, but soon Ott's lead units took it around 11:30 am and began putting pressure on the French right flank. Ott could not see any sign of the expected main French advance from Sale (to the northeast), so he sent GM Friedrich Heinrich von Gottesheim’s reinforced advance guard to outflank Lannes north of Marengo. By 11 am Bonaparte was on the battlefield. He sent urgent recalls to his recently detached forces and summoned up his last reserves. As they came up, GdD Jean-Charles Monnier's division and the Consular Guard were committed to extend and shore up the French right, rather than to try to hold Marengo where Victor's men were running short of ammunition.\n", "Section::::Battle.:Austrian attack.:Austrian breakout across the Fontanone.\n", "Toward 12:30 pm Lannes moved the rest of his force to face Gottesheim in a hook shape, while Kaim attacked again, but this time against Victor's wings. A \"Laufbrücke\" (small bridge) was thrown over the Fontanone and supported by reserve artillery. GM Christoph von Latterman’s grenadiers crossed to engage Olivier Macoux Rivaud de la Raffinière’s two demibrigades defending Marengo village, while Bellegarde and Frimont's four squadrons split Watrin off. Although Rivaud retook the village, O’Reilly had taken Stortiglione by 2:00 pm, and in the north, Ott prepared to send FML Joseph von Schellenberg’s column to support Gottesheim. After securing the Fontanone bridge, Pilatti's cavalry crossed but were again charged and defeated by Kellermann. However, Victor could no longer hold his positions and withdrew southeast to the main vine belt (grape vines slung among mulberry trees), Lannes mirroring the move. The Marengo farm garrison was abandoned and at around 2:30 pm Melas led two cavalry squadrons to capture them.\n", "At about 2:00 pm the French attacked Castel Ceriolo and delayed the advance of Schellenberg's column by attacking its tail. Aided by Frimont, Ott defeated Monnier and forced two-thirds of his command to retreat to the northeast. About the same time, Marengo had fallen to the Austrians, forcing Napoleon's men into a general retreat. As Austrian troops crossed the Fontanone, their guns bombarded the French infantry in the vines. In a bid to further delay Schellenberg's advance, Bonaparte committed his main Guard battalion and its artillery, which moved to flank the column. After driving off Austrian dragoons with the aid of GdB Champeaux's remaining cavalry (under Joachim Murat), they engaged the head of the column. After a 15-minute firefight around 4:00 pm the Guard were surprised and destroyed by Frimont's cavalry.\n", "The French fell back c. 3 km and attempted to regroup to hold the village of San Giuliano. With the French outnumbered and driven from their best defensive position, the battle was as good as won by the Austrians. Melas, who was slightly wounded, and 71, handed over command to his chief-of-staff, General Anton von Zach, and Kaim. The Austrian centre formed into a massive pursuit column in order to chase the French off the battlefield, with the advance guard commanded by GM Franz Xaver Saint-Julien. The column formed up around Spinetta, southeast of Marengo, and advanced down the New Road. However, delays in the flanks led to the Austrian army forming a crescent shape with a thinly stretched central sector. On the Austrian right wing, O'Reilly wasted time hunting down a 300-man French detachment led by Achille Dampierre (which was finally captured) and moved southeast. This took his troops out of supporting distance from the Austrian main body. On the Austrian left, Ott hesitated to press hard against the French because GdB Jean Rivaud's small brigade of French cavalry hovered to the north.\n", "Section::::Battle.:French counter-attack.\n", "However, Desaix, in charge of the force Bonaparte had detached southwards, had hastened his advance and reached a small road junction north of Cascina Grossa (3 kilometers west of San Giuliano). Shortly before 5:00 pm, he reported to Bonaparte in person with the news that his force (6,000 men and 9 guns of Boudet's division) was not far behind. The story goes that, asked by Bonaparte what he thought of the situation, Desaix replied: \"This battle is completely lost. However, there is time to win another.\"\n", "The French were fast to bring up and deploy the fresh troops in front of San Giuliano, and the Austrians were slow to mount their attack. Boudet and the 9ème Légère (9th Light Infantry Regiment) were quickly moved on to the exit from the main vine belt, where they surprised the head of Saint-Julien's column. As the Austrian infantry deployed on the south side of the road, the 9ème Légère conducted a steady withdrawal for 30 minutes back to Desaix's position. There he had placed GdB Louis Charles de Guénand's brigade on the north side while most of the remaining French army (Monnier and Lannes) were forming up north from there. The Austrians deployed three artillery batteries on the north side of the road supported by a dragoon regiment. GdB Auguste de Marmont massed the remaining French cannon against the Austrians as they advanced. Boudet's division advanced in line of brigades against the head of the Austrian column, defeating Saint-Julien's leading Austrian brigade. Zach brought forward GM Latterman's grenadier brigade in line and renewed the attack. Faced with a crisis, Napoleon sent Desaix forward again and ordered a cavalry charge requested by Desaix. The 9ème Légère halted to face the main Austrian advance and Marmont's guns blasted the Austrians with grapeshot at close range. Further back, an Austrian ammunition limber exploded. In the temporary heightening of confusion, Lattermann's formation was charged on its left flank by Kellermann's heavy cavalry (ca. 400 men) and disintegrated. At the decisive moment of the battle, Desaix was shot from his horse. Zach and at least 2,000 of his men were taken prisoners.\n", "Murat and Kellermann immediately pounced on the supporting Liechtenstein Dragoons who were too slow to respond and routed them as well. The fleeing Austrian horsemen crashed into the ranks of Pilatti's rattled troopers and carried them away. As the mob of terrified cavalry stampeded past them, the exhausted Austrian infantry of the main body lost heart, provoking a wild rush to the rear. The gun teams fled, pursued by French cavalry, while their whole infantry line advanced westward. The second grenadier brigade under GM Karl Philippi von Weidenfeld and some unpanicked cavalry delayed Boudet's advance long enough for O’Reilly's cavalry to return, and together with Frimont, they mounted a last defense around Marengo village as night fell, allowing the Austrian centre to reach safety behind the Bormida. Ott with the Austrian left failed to intervene and found his retreat through Castel Ceriolo blocked by French troops advancing northwest from the centre, but managed to fight his way back to the Bormida bridgehead.\n", "The Austrians fell back into Alessandria, having lost about half the forces they had committed. The Austrians had lost heavily in the 12 hours of fighting: 15 colours, 40 guns, almost 8,000 taken prisoner, and 6,500 dead or wounded. French casualties (killed and wounded) were on the order of 4,700 and 900 missing or captured, but they retained the battlefield and the strategic initiative. Desaix's body was found among the slain.\n", "Section::::Aftermath.\n", "Bonaparte needed to depart for Paris urgently and the next morning sent Berthier on a surprise visit to Austrian headquarters. Within 24 hours of the battle, Melas entered into negotiations (the Convention of Alessandria) which led to the Austrians evacuating northwestern Italy west of the Ticino river, and suspending military operations in Italy.\n", "Bonaparte's position as First Consul was strengthened by the successful outcome of the battle and the preceding campaign. After this victory, Napoleon could breathe a sigh of relief. The generals who had been hostile to him could see that his luck had not abandoned him. Thus, he had surpassed Schérer, Joubert, Championnet, and even Moreau, none of whom had been able to inflict a decisive blow on the Coalition. Moreau's victory at Hohenlinden, which was the one that in reality had put an end to the war, was minimised by Bonaparte who, from then on, would pose as a saviour of the fatherland, and even of the Republic. He rejected offers from Louis XVIII, who had considered the Consulate to be a mere transition towards the restoration of the king. Thanks to the victory at Marengo, Napoleon could finally set about reforming France according to his own vision.\n", "Section::::Aftermath.:Propaganda.\n", "A last-gasp victory in reality, Marengo was mythologised in an army bulletin and three increasingly glamourised \"Official Reports\" during Bonaparte's reign. Tales were invented about the Guard and the 72ème demibrigade, which had been under his direct control throughout.\n", "General François Kellermann distinguished himself at Marengo. Melas, trapped in Alessandria with his hopes of breaking through to the east shattered, sent the same evening to Vienna a message in which he explained that the \"charge of Kellermann had broken the soldiers and this sudden and terrible change of fortunes finished by smashing the courage of the troops. The disorder of the cavalry which had disorganised our infantry precipitated its retreat.\" At the same time, Murat was writing to Berthier: \"I especially have to tell you about Kellermann; through a powerful charge he managed to tilt the balance in our favour.\" However, in the \"Bulletin de l'armée\" issued the following day, Napoleon sought to counterbalance Kellermann's charge with Jean-Baptiste Bessières's: \"The \"chef de brigade\" Bessières, in front of the reckless grenadiers of the guard, executed a charge with as much activity as valour and penetrated the line of the enemy cavalry; this resulted in the entire rout of the army.\"\n", "Another piece of work which attempted to justify the retreat maneuver and to present it as a highly strategic calculation was Berthier's \"Relation de la bataille de Marengo\", published in 1804. Berthier suggests that time had to be given to Desaix and Boudet's division to occupy their positions: \"The enemy general misinterpreted this maneuver and thought the army was in full retreat, while in reality it was only executing a movement of conversion.\" However, it is known that Desaix's arrival, while definitely expected, was not certain before the retreat. The bulletin explains that Desaix's forces were waiting in reserve with artillery pieces, which in reality was false, because they arrived late in the battle. Several participants to the fighting reveal the precarious condition of the army throughout the day, including Marmont in his Memoirs, Captain Coignet: \"We were retreating in good order but all ready to start running at the earliest sign of danger\", Captain Gervais: \"In this battle, we were many times on the verge of being defeated. The enemy cavalry, on a terrain favourable to this arm, charged us repeatedly. We were often obliged to concentrate and even to retreat\", and General Thévenet: \"There is no doubt that a part of the French army was repelled up to the Scrivia\".\n", "Section::::Legacy.\n", "Section::::Legacy.:Marengo museum.\n", "The Museum of Marengo \"Museo della Battaglia di Marengo\" is located in Via della Barbotta, Spinetta Marengo, Alessandria. This is exactly the place where most of the fights between the French and Austrian armies took place. It is a part of Villa Delavo, with the park of the museum surrounding the village of Marengo.\n", "Section::::Legacy.:Remembrance.\n", "Napoleon sought to ensure that his victory would not be forgotten, so, besides the propaganda campaign, he entrusted General Chasseloup with the construction of a pyramid on the site of the battle. On 5 May 1805, a ceremony took place on the field of Marengo. Napoleon, dressed in the uniform he wore on 14 June 1800, together with Empress Joséphine seated on a throne placed under a tent, oversaw a military parade. Then, Chasseloup gave Napoleon the founding stone, on which was inscribed: \"Napoleon, Emperor of the French and King of Italy, to the \"manes\" of the defenders of the fatherland who perished on the day of Marengo.\" This pyramid was actually part of a very ambitious project meant to glorify Bonaparte's conquests in Italy. The field of Marengo was supposed to become the site of a \"city of Victories\" whose boulevards, named after Italian battles, would converge to the pyramid. In the event, the project was abandoned in 1815 and the stones recovered by the peasants. The column erected in 1801 was also removed, only to be restored in 1922.\n", "Napoleon ordered that several ships of the French Navy be named Marengo, including \"Sceptre (1780)\", \"Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1795)\", \"Ville de Paris (1851)\" and \"Marengo (1810)\". In 1802, the Marengo department was named in the honour of the battle. Furthermore, Napoleon's mount throughout the battle was named Marengo and further carried the Emperor in the Battle of Austerlitz, Battle of Jena-Auerstedt, Battle of Wagram, and Battle of Waterloo.\n", "After Bonaparte's fall, Marengo County, Alabama, first settled by Napoleonic refugees with their Vine and Olive Colony, was named in honour of this battle. Since then, numerous settlements were named Marengo in Canada and the United States (see places named Marengo).\n", "Presently, a museum of the battle exists on the outskirts of Alessandria. Re-enactments are also organised every year to commemorate the event.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Battle of Marengo Maps\n", "BULLET::::- The Battle of Marengo – A Bicentennial Review \"An overview of the battle, including short summaries for beginning students and detailed analysis for more serious readers.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Defeat of Bonaparte's Guard at Marengo, 1800.\n", "BULLET::::- Battle of Marengo in the memoirs of Captain Coignet \"\n", "BULLET::::- Gaspar Cugnac, Campaign of the Army of the Reserve in 1800 \"French scans and OCR complete, English translation for vol 1 only, use French version for the battle proper.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Alex. Berthier, Relation of the Battle of Marengo\n", "BULLET::::- Marengo Museum\n" ] }

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{ "description": "battle", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q273011", "wikidata_label": "Battle of Marengo", "wikipedia_title": "Battle of Marengo", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 157671, "parentid": 901827676, "revid": 901827721, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-06-14T14:52:20Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Marengo&oldid=901827721" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Battle of Montmirail\n", "The Battle of Montmirail (11 February 1814) was fought between a French force led by Emperor Napoleon and two Allied corps commanded by Fabian Wilhelm von Osten-Sacken and Ludwig Yorck von Wartenburg. In hard fighting that lasted until evening, French troops including the Imperial Guard defeated Sacken's Russian soldiers and compelled them to retreat to the north. Part of Yorck's Prussian I Corps tried to intervene in the struggle but it was also driven off. The battle occurred near Montmirail, France during the Six Days Campaign of the Napoleonic Wars. Montmirail is located east of Meaux.\n", "After Napoleon crushed Zakhar Dmitrievich Olsufiev's small isolated corps in the Battle of Champaubert on 10 February, he found himself in the midst of Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher's widely-spread Army of Silesia. Leaving a small force in the east to watch Blücher, Napoleon turned the bulk of his army to the west in an attempt to destroy Sacken. Unaware of the size of Napoleon's army, Sacken tried to smash his way east to join Blücher. The Russians managed to hold their ground for several hours, but were forced back as more and more French soldiers appeared on the battlefield. Yorck's troops belatedly arrived only to be repulsed, but the Prussians distracted the French long enough to allow Sacken's Russians to join them in a withdrawal to the north. The following day would see the Battle of Château-Thierry as Napoleon launched an all-out pursuit.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "On 1 February 1814, Prussian Field Marshal Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher commanding 80,000 Allied soldiers from his own Army of Silesia and Austrian Field Marshal Karl Philipp, Prince of Schwarzenberg's Army of Bohemia defeated Napoleon with 45,000 French troops in the Battle of La Rothière. Elated by their triumph, the Allied commanders devised a new plan whereby Schwarzenberg advanced from Troyes toward Paris while Blücher operated on a more northerly axis from Châlons-sur-Marne toward Meaux. The two armies would be linked by Peter Wittgenstein's corps and a scouting force led by Alexander Nikitich Seslavin. Within a few days the cautious Schwarzenberg began pulling Wittgenstein's troops to the south. Believing the war was almost over, Blücher pressed rapidly west after a smaller French force under Marshal Jacques MacDonald. Unknown to the Prussian field marshal, on 5 February Schwarzenberg switched Seslavin's force from the right flank to the extreme left flank without informing Blücher. Since he lacked a liaison officer with Seslavin, the Prussian was unaware that a dangerous gap yawned on his left flank.\n", "Until 6 February, Napoleon planned to strike a blow against the Army of Bohemia. But that day the French emperor received intelligence that Blücher was moving on Paris, via Meaux. Since MacDonald was too weak to stop Army of Silesia, Napoleon was compelled to deal with Blücher first. While sending out patrols to determine the precise whereabouts of the Prussian field marshal's army, Napoleon sent Marshal Auguste de Marmont with 8,000 troops to Sézanne. On 8 February these were joined by part of the Imperial Guard and a large force of cavalry. On the same day MacDonald's patrols reported that Ludwig Yorck von Wartenburg was near Épernay with 18,000 men. When, on the morning of 9 February, Napoleon received news from Marmont that Fabian Wilhelm von Osten-Sacken was near Montmirail with about 15,000 troops, the French army lurched into action.\n", "Marshal Claude Perrin Victor with 14,000 men, consisting of his own corps, a force under Etienne Maurice Gérard and cavalry, would hold Nogent-sur-Seine. Marshal Nicolas Oudinot with 20,000 men including the newly formed VII Corps, a 5,000-man Young Guard division, National Guards and a cavalry force under Pierre Claude Pajol was instructed to guard the bridges at Bray-sur-Seine, Montereau, Pont-sur-Yonne and Sens. At this time, Napoleon had only 70,000 soldiers to confront about 200,000 Allies. With Victor and Oudinot watching Schwarzenberg, Napoleon decided to act against Blücher who he assumed to have 45,000 troops.\n", "In fact, the Army of Silesia had 57,000 soldiers, including 18,000 under Yorck at Château-Thierry, 20,000 under Sacken near La Ferté-sous-Jouarre and 19,000 under Zakhar Dmitrievich Olsufiev, Peter Mikhailovich Kaptzevich and Friedrich von Kleist at Champaubert, Vertus and Bergères-lès-Vertus. However, Blücher's army was spread across a front of and Napoleon might count on the help of the 10,000 men under MacDonald. Napoleon striking force numbered 30,000 men and 120 guns. It consisted of Marmont's corps, two Young Guard divisions led by Marshal Michel Ney, the I Cavalry Corps, two Old Guard divisions under Marshal Édouard Mortier, duc de Trévise, part of the Guard Cavalry and Jean-Marie Defrance's independent cavalry division. Mortier was ordered to bring up the rear.\n", "Fearing that Napoleon would offer battle near Nogent, Schwarzenberg asked his colleague Blücher to send Kleist's corps south to help. Obligingly, the Prussian field marshal ordered Kleist, Kaptzevich and Olsufiev to converge on Sézanne on 10 February. Riding with Kleist and Kaptzevich, Blücher led them south from Vertus toward Fère-Champenoise, planning to turn west from there to Sézanne. After days of rain, the roads were swamped, but the French country people assisted the army in dragging Napoleon's cannons through the mud. The French army fell on Olsufiev's small corps with crushing force in the Battle of Champaubert on 10 February. With only 5,000 men and 24 guns, the Russian general unwisely held his ground; Olsufiev ended the day as a French prisoner and his corps was nearly destroyed. The 1,500 survivors were formed into three or four \"ad hoc\" battalions.\n", "Section::::Battle.\n", "Section::::Battle.:Advance to contact.\n", "Blücher was near Fère-Champenoise when heard that Olsufiev's corps was wrecked; he immediately ordered Kleist and Kaptzevich to undertake a night march back to Vertus. The Prussian field marshal ordered Yorck to march to Montmirail while holding the important bridge over the Marne River at Château-Thierry in case a retreat was necessary. During 10 February, Sacken advanced west to Trilport where there was a bridge over the Marne. Blücher recalled Sacken, instructing him to march east to Montmirail to rendezvous with Yorck, then clear the highway between there and Vertus. Blücher neglected to mention anything to Sacken about escaping over the Marne.\n", "Napoleon ordered MacDonald to move east from Trilport. At 7:00 pm, the emperor instructed Étienne Marie Antoine Champion de Nansouty with two divisions of cavalry to march west to capture Montmirail, followed at 3:00 am by Étienne Pierre Sylvestre Ricard's division of Marmont's corps. Ney's Young Guard divisions would move in their wake at 6:00 am while Mortier's Old Guard would march directly from Sézanne to Montmirail. Jean François Leval's division was detached from Oudinot and ordered to march to Montmirail via La Ferté-Gaucher. Napoleon posted Marmont at Étoges with Joseph Lagrange's division and the I Cavalry Corps. Using his central position, Napoleon hoped to smash Sacken and Yorck while they were isolated from Blücher. Accordingly, he ordered MacDonald to retake Château-Thierry and its vital bridge while Marmont kept an eye on Blücher.\n", "Yorck sent a dispatch to Blücher expressing doubt whether he could join Sacken at Montmirail because his soldiers were too worn out to march on the night of 10–11 February. Instead, Yorck promised to move south to Viffort on the road to Montmirail. When he received his orders, Sacken destroyed the bridge at La Ferté-sous-Jouarre and began marching east at 9:00 pm on the 10th. By 9:00 am the following day, Russian corps commander's leading elements were clashing with French patrols east of Viels-Maisons. The French had driven Sacken's Cossacks under Akim Akimovich Karpov out of Montmirail early that morning. At 9:00 am Yorck reached Viffort and was skirmishing with French cavalry. With the La Ferté-sous-Jouarre bridge broken to the west and unknown forces looming to the east, Sacken was in serious danger of becoming trapped. Understanding this, Yorck sent a staff officer to his Russian colleague to warn him that his Prussians would be late to the battlefield. Due to the muddy roads, the heavy Prussian field guns and a brigade had to be left behind. Yorck's messenger recommended that Sacken retreat north to Château-Thierry.\n", "Sacken would have none of it. Against the advice of his own staff who urged him to move closer to Yorck, the Russian commander deployed his army corps with its main weight to the south. Strictly following his orders, Sacken determined to smash his way east through Montmirail. At the start of the battle Napoleon was significantly outnumbered and could only defend with 5,000 Old Guard infantry, 4,500 cavalry, Ricard's division and 36 guns. Because of the bad condition of the roads and the exhaustion of the soldiers, it was not clear whether French reinforcements or Yorck's Prussians would first arrive on the field. Napoleon was taking a huge risk.\n", "Section::::Battle.:Deployment.\n", "Sacken's strength was variously given as 18,000 men and 90 guns by David G. Chandler, 14,000 soldiers and 80 guns by George Nafziger, and 18,000 soldiers by Francis Loraine Petre. Prussian staff officer Karl Freiherr von Müffling credited the Russians with 20,000 troops while another German officer counted 16,300 men and 90 guns. Sacken led two infantry and one cavalry corps. The foot soldiers belonged to Alexander Ivanovich Tallisin's VI Corps with the 7th and 18th Infantry Divisions and Ivan Andreievich Lieven's XI Corps with the 10th and 27th Infantry Divisions and a brigade from the 16th Division. The cavalry corps included Sergei Nicholaevich Lanskoi's 2nd Hussar Division and Semyon Davydovich Pandschulishev's 3rd Dragoon Division. Artillery chief Alexey Petrovich Nikitin directed three batteries of 12-pound cannons and four batteries of 6-pounders. Tallisin was acting corps commander in place of Alexei Grigorievich Scherbatov who was ill. The cavalry corps was directed by Ilarion Vasilievich Vasilshikov.\n", "According to Chandler and Petre, Napoleon's greatest strength during the battle was 20,000 men. Nafziger arrived at a larger total of 27,153 soldiers. The cavalry was made up of the 2,582 troopers of the 1st Guard Cavalry Division under Pierre David de Colbert-Chabanais, the 2,164 sabers of the 3rd Guard Cavalry Division under Louis Marie Levesque de Laferrière and the 896 horsemen of Defrance's division. The infantry numbered 4,133 men from Claude Marie Meunier's 1st Young Guard Division, 2,840 soldiers from Philibert Jean-Baptiste Curial's 2nd Young Guard Division, 4,796 men from Louis Friant's 1st Old Guard Division, 3,878 soldiers from Claude-Étienne Michel's 2nd Old Guard Division and 2,917 men from Ricard's 8th Infantry Division. Finally, Charles Lefebvre-Desnouettes led either 3,535 horsemen from the 2nd Guard Cavalry Division or 4,947 infantry from the 3rd Young Guard Division.\n", "The Petit Morin River flows west on the southern margin of the battlefield, which was mostly rolling terrain covered by several woods. Just north of the Petit Morin there was a forest which anchored the French left flank. On the northern fringe of the forest was the village of Marchais-en-Brie with a north-south stream a little to the west. Farther north was the east-west highway. Napoleon placed Ricard's division in columns east of Marchais. Two of Ricard's battalions were detached and posted north of the highway in the Bailly Wood. Behind Ricard were Ney's two Young Guard divisions under Meunier and Curial. In reserve was Friant's division in battalion columns at 100-pace intervals. To keep Sacken and Yorck from linking up, the French emperor deployed Friant's division where the Château-Thierry road met the main east-west highway, with Defrance's cavalry on his right. Farther north, blocking the Château-Thierry road was Nansouty who had overall command of the Guard cavalry divisions.\n", "Sacken posted Tallisin's corps to the south with the 7th Division on the right and the 18th Division in the center. On the north, but still south of the highway was Lieven's corps with the 10th Division in the center and the 27th Division on the left. The infantry was arrayed in two lines with each battalion in column. Three lines of skirmishers deployed in front and the light artillery was posted on the flanks of the infantry. The 12-pounders of Battery Nr. 18 were positioned in the center between the 10th and 18th Divisions while the other two heavy batteries were kept in reserve. The Russians massed 36 guns on the west side of the ravine. According to one account, Lieven's corps was in reserve west of the village of L'Épine-aux-Bois. Vasilshikov's cavalry was arranged to the left of Lieven's infantry near the highway.\n", "Section::::Battle.:Combat.\n", "Sacken created a 2,360-man task force under General-major Heidenreich that included the Pskov, Vladimir, Kostroma and Tambov Infantry Regiments, two companies of the 11th Jägers, the Lukovkin Cossack Regiment and six guns. Except for the guns which were unable to cross the stream, Heidenreich's troops moved east and seized Marchais at about 11:00 am. More French artillery having arrived in the interval, Napoleon ordered Ricard to attack Marchais at noon. A bitter struggle for Marchais raged for two hours, with the Russians retaining control of the village. Napoleon ordered an artillery bombardment while he waited for Michel's Old Guard division to march forward from Montmirail. At 2:00 pm the emperor ordered an attack on Sacken's left flank. Four of Friant's Old Guard battalions marched west along the highway toward Haute-Épine dairy farm, supported on their right by seven squadrons of Gardes d'Honneur. At the same time, Claude-Étienne Guyot led four Guard cavalry squadrons around the Russian left flank. The combined attacks broke Sacken's first line and compelled him to send his second line into action while moving his cavalry to the left to get in contact with Yorck's Prussians.\n", "To break the connection with Yorck, Napoleon ordered a new attack straight down the highway by Nansouty with all three of his divisions, Colbert, Desnouettes and Laferrière. This charge broke up some Russian formations, forcing the soldiers to scatter into the Viels-Maisons woods. Vasilshikov's cavalry counterattacked, forcing Nansouty's horsemen back and restoring the link with the Prussians. By this time Meunier's Young Guard division joined Ricard's in the fighting for Marchais on Napoleon's left flank. The French captured Marchais twice before being driven out again when Sacken's 18th Division recaptured the village.\n", "At either 3:00 pm or 3:30 pm Otto Karl Lorenz von Pirch's 1st Infantry Brigade and Heinrich Wilhelm von Horn's 7th Infantry Brigade arrived at Fontenelle-en-Brie on the Château-Thierry highway. Because of the poor condition of the roads, the Prussians only had brigade Batteries Nrs. 2 and 3 armed with 6-pounders. The heavier cannons were left behind with the 8th Brigade at Château-Thierry. Fearing the appearance of MacDonald's forces in his right rear, Yorck also sent his remaining infantry brigade back to hold Château-Thierry. The Prussian reserve cavalry deployed near Fontenelle though it lacked its artillery. Pirch deployed his brigade in two lines between Fontenelle and the hamlet of Tourneux farther east. After waiting for Horn's brigade to close up behind him, Pirch began attacking toward the Bailly and Plenois woods. Sacken ordered his two reserve heavy batteries to support the Prussian advance. At the same time, Michel's Old Guard division reached the battlefield and was committed to the fight against Yorck.\n", "Napoleon ordered the tired soldiers of Ricard and Meunier back into the battle for Marchais. The emperor sent Marshal François Joseph Lefebvre with two battalions of Old Guard Foot Chasseurs to cut off Marchais from the north. Ricard organized a four-battalion attack from the hamlet of Pomesson in the south. Lefebvre's two battalions captured L'Épine-aux-Bois. Though the French achieved local artillery superiority, the Russians in Marchais continued to resist until 5:00 pm when they were forced to relinquish control of the village and pull back. When they reached the west side of the ravine, Defrance's cavalry charged into them, inflicting heavy losses on the brigades of Dietrich and Blagovenzenko. Several hundred Russian skirmishers near Marchais were either cut down or captured. Realizing that without control of Marchais, the battle was lost, Sacken began pulling back his artillery from the right wing toward the center. Near the highway, Russian infantry squares were charged by French cavalry, but they were able to escape when their own cavalry intervened. The Sophia Regiment was completely engulfed by French cavalry but fought its way clear.\n", "Pirch attacked with the 1st East Prussian and West Prussian Grenadier Battalions and the 5th Silesian Landwehr Regiment in the first line screened by a cloud of skirmishers. The second line consisted of the Leib and Silesian Grenadier Battalions and the 13th Landwehr Regiment. Mortier put four Old Guard battalions into the Bailly woods alongside Ricard's 2/2nd Light and 7/4th Light Infantry Battalions. Despite the support from Russian artillery, the Prussian attack recoiled amid blistering musketry and canister shot. When French skirmishers threatened to envelop one flank, the 2/5th Silesian Landwehr charged with the bayonet to cut its way out. Ignoring the protests of his staff, Yorck went up to encourage the skirmish line, saying, \"I want to die if you cannot stop the enemy.\"\n", "After Michel counterattacked the Prussians with ten battalions, the Leib Grenadier Battalion and the 1/5th Silesian Landwehr met them. Two battalions of the Leib Infantry Regiment anchored the Prussian right flank while the 1st Brigade reformed on their left. Pirch led a bayonet attack that temporarily stopped the French, but he was badly wounded. He was replaced in command by Colonel Losthin. As Prussian retreat continued, the 13th Silesian Landwehr and the Silesian Grenadier Battalion were assailed in the woods, but managed to drive off their French pursuers. The Prussians ended the day between Fontenelle and Viffort.\n", "By evening the Polish Lancers of the Guard fought their way as far west as Viels-Maisons. Sacken was nearly trapped, but Yorck's effort gave the Russians enough time and space to get away. With Vasilshikov's cavalry covering the withdrawal, the Russians headed for the Château-Thierry road as it rained. The Russian retreat through marshes and woods was guided by a line of bonfires. The artillery was saved by detailing 50 cavalrymen to help pull each gun using ropes, though eight disabled pieces were abandoned. After an all-night march, Sacken's troops reached Viffort on the main road and continued marching northward toward Château-Thierry.\n", "Section::::Results.\n", "According to Petre, the French sustained 2,000 casualties while inflicting losses of 2,000 killed and wounded on the Russians while capturing 800 soldiers, six colors and 13 guns. The Prussians suffered an additional 900 casualties. Chandler asserted that the French lost 2,000 men while the Allies lost 4,000. Nafziger noted that the 1st Prussian Brigade lost 877 officers and men while the 7th Brigade's casualties are unknown. He cited various sources that gave Allied losses ranging from a low of 1,500 Russians, 877 Prussians and nine guns to a high of 3,000 killed and wounded plus 708 prisoners, 26 guns and 200 wagons. French losses are consistently reported at 2,000 men with Generals Nansouty, Michel and Boudin de Roville wounded.\n", "MacDonald at Meaux was unable to carry out his orders to advance because he had destroyed the Trilport bridge. His subordinate Horace François Bastien Sébastiani de La Porta was unable to move because Sacken had broken the La Ferté-sous-Jouarre bridge. MacDonald sent his cavalry under Antoine Louis Decrest de Saint-Germain to join Napoleon via Coulommiers. Napoleon again ordered MacDonald to seize Château-Thierry, so that the Allied retreat would be blocked. He was taking a gamble. Napoleon intended to pursue Sacken and Yorck with maximum forces, hoping to trap them against the Marne. He also needed to consider that Blücher was positioned to the east with 20,000 men and 80 guns. Though the emperor began getting calls for help from Victor, he calculated that the unaggressive Schwarzenberg would move slowly while he dealt with Blücher's army. The Battle of Château-Thierry would be fought on 12 February.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- — French Army Archives, Château Vincennes, C2-555 Copyright GFN 1994\n" ] }

{ "paragraph_id": [ 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 8, 8, 11, 11, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 13, 13, 13, 16, 16, 16, 16, 17, 17, 17, 17, 17, 17, 18, 18, 19, 21, 21, 21, 23, 24, 25, 27, 30, 30, 30 ], "start": [ 93, 136, 172, 273, 306, 383, 488, 500, 543, 590, 23, 81, 152, 793, 43, 163, 228, 270, 395, 409, 468, 534, 812, 820, 408, 448, 599, 636, 738, 8, 136, 162, 221, 266, 308, 367, 383, 394, 413, 82, 124, 163, 192, 226, 250, 263, 274, 552, 568, 686, 329, 606, 276, 384, 90, 223, 425, 521, 566, 578, 214, 494, 540, 67, 117, 157, 203, 237, 446, 515, 589, 648, 755, 4, 278, 729, 44, 171, 935, 143, 118, 508, 15, 127, 346, 857 ], "end": [ 101, 167, 199, 287, 313, 391, 498, 506, 558, 595, 50, 102, 181, 818, 72, 200, 236, 291, 401, 414, 485, 552, 819, 837, 426, 455, 626, 643, 769, 28, 152, 177, 230, 281, 327, 381, 392, 408, 417, 97, 145, 190, 221, 246, 261, 269, 293, 562, 583, 705, 345, 627, 287, 392, 132, 254, 444, 537, 572, 593, 221, 507, 548, 84, 132, 178, 229, 270, 466, 545, 601, 669, 783, 15, 294, 745, 57, 177, 955, 161, 142, 521, 42, 173, 357, 882 ], "text": [ "Napoleon", "Fabian Wilhelm von Osten-Sacken", "Ludwig Yorck von Wartenburg", "Imperial Guard", "Russian", "Prussian", "Montmirail", "France", "Napoleonic Wars", "Meaux", "Zakhar Dmitrievich Olsufiev", "Battle of Champaubert", "Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher", "Battle of Château-Thierry", "Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher", "Karl Philipp, Prince of Schwarzenberg", "Napoleon", "Battle of La Rothière", "Troyes", "Paris", "Châlons-sur-Marne", "Peter Wittgenstein", "Marshal", "Jacques MacDonald", "Auguste de Marmont", "Sézanne", "Ludwig Yorck von Wartenburg", "Épernay", "Fabian Wilhelm von Osten-Sacken", "Claude Perrin Victor", "Nogent-sur-Seine", "Nicolas Oudinot", "VII Corps", "National Guards", "Pierre Claude Pajol", "Bray-sur-Seine", "Montereau", "Pont-sur-Yonne", "Sens", "Château-Thierry", "La Ferté-sous-Jouarre", "Zakhar Dmitrievich Olsufiev", "Peter Mikhailovich Kaptzevich", "Friedrich von Kleist", "Champaubert", "Vertus", "Bergères-lès-Vertus", "Michel Ney", "I Cavalry Corps", "Jean-Marie Defrance", "Fère-Champenoise", "Battle of Champaubert", "Marne River", "Trilport", "Étienne Marie Antoine Champion de Nansouty", "Étienne Pierre Sylvestre Ricard", "Jean François Leval", "La Ferté-Gaucher", "Étoges", "Joseph Lagrange", "Viffort", "Viels-Maisons", "Cossacks", "David G. Chandler", "George Nafziger", "Francis Loraine Petre", "Karl Freiherr von Müffling", "Pierre David de Colbert-Chabanais", "Claude Marie Meunier", "Philibert Jean-Baptiste Curial", "Louis Friant", "Claude-Étienne Michel", "Charles Lefebvre-Desnouettes", "Petit Morin", "Marchais-en-Brie", "L'Épine-aux-Bois", "General-major", "Jägers", "Claude-Étienne Guyot", "Fontenelle-en-Brie", "François Joseph Lefebvre", "canister shot", "Polish Lancers of the Guard", "Horace François Bastien Sébastiani de La Porta", "Coulommiers", "Battle of Château-Thierry" ], "href": [ "Napoleon", "Fabian%20Wilhelm%20von%20Osten-Sacken", "Ludwig%20Yorck%20von%20Wartenburg", "Imperial%20Guard%20%28Napoleon%20I%29", "Russian%20Empire", "Kingdom%20of%20Prussia", "Montmirail%2C%20Marne", "France", "Napoleonic%20Wars", "Meaux", "Zakhar%20Dmitrievich%20Olsufiev", "Battle%20of%20Champaubert", "Gebhard%20Leberecht%20von%20Bl%C3%BCcher", "Battle%20of%20Ch%C3%A2teau-Thierry%20%281814%29", "Gebhard%20Leberecht%20von%20Bl%C3%BCcher", "Karl%20Philipp%2C%20Prince%20of%20Schwarzenberg", "Napoleon", "Battle%20of%20La%20Rothi%C3%A8re", "Troyes", "Paris", "Ch%C3%A2lons-sur-Marne", "Peter%20Wittgenstein", "Marshal%20of%20France", "Jacques%20MacDonald", "Auguste%20de%20Marmont", "S%C3%A9zanne", "Ludwig%20Yorck%20von%20Wartenburg", "%C3%89pernay", "Fabian%20Wilhelm%20von%20Osten-Sacken", "Claude%20Perrin%20Victor", "Nogent-sur-Seine", "Nicolas%20Oudinot", "VII%20Corps%20%28Grande%20Arm%C3%A9e%29", "National%20Guard%20%28France%29", "Pierre%20Claude%20Pajol", "Bray-sur-Seine", "Montereau-Fault-Yonne", "Pont-sur-Yonne", "Sens", "Ch%C3%A2teau-Thierry", "La%20Fert%C3%A9-sous-Jouarre", "Zakhar%20Dmitrievich%20Olsufiev", "Peter%20Mikhailovich%20Kaptzevich", "Friedrich%20Graf%20Kleist%20von%20Nollendorf", "Champaubert", "Vertus", "Berg%C3%A8res-l%C3%A8s-Vertus", "Michel%20Ney", "I%20Cavalry%20Corps%20%28Grande%20Arm%C3%A9e%29", "Jean-Marie%20Defrance", "F%C3%A8re-Champenoise", "Battle%20of%20Champaubert", "Marne%20%28river%29", "Trilport", "%C3%89tienne%20Marie%20Antoine%20Champion%20de%20Nansouty", "%C3%89tienne%20Pierre%20Sylvestre%20Ricard", "Jean%20Fran%C3%A7ois%20Leval", "La%20Fert%C3%A9-Gaucher", "%C3%89toges", "Joseph%20Lagrange%20%28soldier%29", "Viffort", "Viels-Maisons", "Don%20Cossacks", "David%20G.%20Chandler", "George%20Nafziger", "Francis%20Loraine%20Petre", "Karl%20Freiherr%20von%20M%C3%BCffling", "Pierre%20David%20de%20Colbert-Chabanais", "Claude%20Marie%20Meunier", "Philibert%20Jean-Baptiste%20Curial", "Louis%20Friant", "Claude-%C3%89tienne%20Michel", "Charles%20Lefebvre-Desnouettes", "Petit%20Morin", "Marchais-en-Brie", "L%27%C3%89pine-aux-Bois", "General-major", "J%C3%A4ger%20%28military%29", "Claude-%C3%89tienne%20Guyot", "Fontenelle-en-Brie", "Fran%C3%A7ois%20Joseph%20Lefebvre", "canister%20shot", "1st%20Polish%20Light%20Cavalry%20Regiment%20of%20the%20Imperial%20Guard", "Horace%20Fran%C3%A7ois%20Bastien%20S%C3%A9bastiani%20de%20La%20Porta", "Coulommiers%2C%20Seine-et-Marne", "Battle%20of%20Ch%C3%A2teau-Thierry%20%281814%29" ], "wikipedia_title": [ "Napoleon", "Fabian Gottlieb von der Osten-Sacken", "Ludwig Yorck von Wartenburg", "Imperial Guard (Napoleon I)", "Russian Empire", "Kingdom of Prussia", "Montmirail, Marne", "France", "Napoleonic Wars", "Meaux", "Zakhar Dmitrievich Olsufiev", "Battle of Champaubert", "Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher", "Battle of Château-Thierry (1814)", "Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher", "Karl Philipp, Prince of Schwarzenberg", "Napoleon", "Battle of La Rothière", "Troyes", "Paris", "Châlons-en-Champagne", "Peter Wittgenstein", "List of Marshals of France", "Jacques MacDonald", "Auguste de Marmont", "Sézanne", "Ludwig Yorck von Wartenburg", "Épernay", "Fabian Gottlieb von der Osten-Sacken", "Claude Victor-Perrin, Duc de Belluno", "Nogent-sur-Seine", "Nicolas Oudinot", "VII Corps (Grande Armée)", "National Guard (France)", "Pierre Claude Pajol", "Bray-sur-Seine", "Montereau-Fault-Yonne", "Pont-sur-Yonne", "Sens", "Château-Thierry", "La Ferté-sous-Jouarre", "Zakhar Dmitrievich Olsufiev", "Peter Mikhailovich Kaptzevich", "Friedrich Graf Kleist von Nollendorf", "Champaubert", "Vertus", "Bergères-lès-Vertus", "Michel Ney", "I Cavalry Corps (Grande Armée)", "Jean-Marie Defrance", "Fère-Champenoise", "Battle of Champaubert", "Marne (river)", "Trilport", "Étienne Marie Antoine Champion de Nansouty", "Étienne Pierre Sylvestre Ricard", "Jean François Leval", "La Ferté-Gaucher", "Étoges", "Joseph Lagrange (soldier)", "Viffort", "Viels-Maisons", "Don Cossacks", "David G. Chandler", "George Nafziger", "Francis Loraine Petre", "Karl Freiherr von Müffling", "Pierre David de Colbert-Chabanais", "Claude Marie Meunier", "Philibert Jean-Baptiste Curial", "Louis Friant", "Claude-Étienne Michel", "Charles Lefebvre-Desnouettes", "Petit Morin", "Marchais-en-Brie", "L'Épine-aux-Bois", "Major general", "Jäger (infantry)", "Claude-Étienne Guyot", "Fontenelle-en-Brie", "François Joseph Lefebvre", "Canister shot", "1st Polish Light Cavalry Regiment of the Imperial Guard", "Horace François Bastien Sébastiani de La Porta", "Coulommiers, Seine-et-Marne", "Battle of Château-Thierry (1814)" ], "wikipedia_id": [ "69880", "3977125", "398841", "410259", "20611504", "242701", "15881433", "5843419", "45420", "921911", "49786602", "157373", "178312", "2967054", "178312", "5622009", "69880", "3398808", "101607", "22989", "99185", "1430546", "310824", "330232", "330266", "5558256", "398841", "900484", "3977125", "1805117", "2694969", "311478", "36192257", "753952", "2515257", "9713157", "1017014", "5558257", "1105285", "97031", "9079862", "49786602", "49785845", "3395800", "15880421", "15882116", "15880161", "229575", "32895990", "26793849", "15881057", "157373", "802318", "11754907", "14059256", "49224702", "35763173", "5558250", "15881030", "657360", "15414747", "15414743", "525726", "17290843", "8351987", "27853206", "588224", "28255670", "52797883", "27542920", "4243815", "345789", "1673399", "19390589", "15413783", "15413305", "36301471", "254406", "30512395", "15413395", "761136", "1191481", "22338117", "850121", "3174320", "2967054" ] }

{ "description": "battle", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q745543", "wikidata_label": "Battle of Montmirail", "wikipedia_title": "Battle of Montmirail", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "The Logic of Scientific Discovery\n", "The Logic of Scientific Discovery is a 1959 book about the philosophy of science by Karl Popper. Popper rewrote his book in English from the 1934 German original, titled \"Logik der Forschung. Zur Erkenntnistheorie der modernen Naturwissenschaft\", which literally translates as, \"Logic of Research: On the Epistemology of Modern Natural Science\"'.\n", "Section::::Summary.\n", "Popper argues that science should adopt a methodology based on falsifiability, because no number of experiments can ever prove a theory, but a reproducible experiment or observation can refute one. According to Popper: \"non-reproducible single occurrences are of no significance to science. Thus a few stray basic statements contradicting a theory will hardly induce us to reject it as falsified. We shall take it as falsified only if we discover a reproducible effect which refutes the theory\". Popper argues that science should adopt a methodology based on \"an \"asymmetry\" between verifiability and falsifiability; an asymmetry which results from the logical form of universal statements. For these are never derivable from singular statements, but can be contradicted by singular statements\".\n", "Section::::Reception.\n", "\"The Logic of Scientific Discovery\" is famous. The psychologist Harry Guntrip wrote that its publication \"greatly stimulated the discussion of the nature of scientific knowledge\", including by philosophers who did not completely agree with Popper, such as Thomas Kuhn and Horace Romano Harré. Carl Jung, founder of analytical psychology, valued the work. The biographer Vincent Brome recalls Jung remarking in 1938 that it exposed \"some of the shortcomings of science\". The historian Peter Gay described Popper's work as \"an important treatise in epistemology\". The philosopher Bryan Magee wrote that Popper's criticisms of logical positivism were \"devastating\". In his view, Popper's most important argument against logical positivism is that, while it claimed to be a scientific theory of the world, its central tenet, the verification principle, effectively destroyed all of science. The physicists Alan Sokal and Jean Bricmont argued that critiques of Popper's work have provoked an \"irrationalist drift\", and that a significant part of the problems that currently affect the philosophy of science \"can be traced to ambiguities or inadequacies\" in Popper's book.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- English version publisher's website\n", "BULLET::::- German version publisher's website\n", "BULLET::::- Excerpts on Google Books\n", "BULLET::::- Full version on Internet Archive\n" ] }

{ "paragraph_id": [ 1, 1, 1, 3, 3, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 9, 10 ], "start": [ 59, 84, 146, 63, 583, 64, 256, 272, 293, 315, 370, 484, 578, 624, 902, 917, 24, 28 ], "end": [ 80, 95, 152, 77, 596, 77, 267, 291, 302, 336, 383, 493, 589, 642, 912, 930, 36, 44 ], "text": [ "philosophy of science", "Karl Popper", "German", "falsifiability", "verifiability", "Harry Guntrip", "Thomas Kuhn", "Horace Romano Harré", "Carl Jung", "analytical psychology", "Vincent Brome", "Peter Gay", "Bryan Magee", "logical positivism", "Alan Sokal", "Jean Bricmont", "Google Books", "Internet Archive" ], "href": [ "philosophy%20of%20science", "Karl%20Popper", "German%20language", "falsifiability", "Formal%20verification", "Harry%20Guntrip", "Thomas%20Kuhn", "Horace%20Romano%20Harr%C3%A9", "Carl%20Jung", "analytical%20psychology", "Vincent%20Brome", "Peter%20Gay", "Bryan%20Magee", "logical%20positivism", "Alan%20Sokal", "Jean%20Bricmont", "Google%20Books", "Internet%20Archive" ], "wikipedia_title": [ "Philosophy of science", "Karl Popper", "German language", "Falsifiability", "Formal verification", "Harry Guntrip", "Thomas Kuhn", "Horace Romano Harré", "Carl Jung", "Analytical psychology", "Vincent Brome", "Peter Gay", "Bryan Magee", "Logical positivism", "Alan Sokal", "Jean Bricmont", "Google Books", "Internet Archive" ], "wikipedia_id": [ "37010", "16623", "11884", "11283", "270054", "3179193", "25778629", "5110268", "42031", "448370", "1108506", "722501", "851085", "18403", "326674", "574226", "3190097", "176931" ] }

{ "description": "book by Karl Popper", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q1868040", "wikidata_label": "The Logic of Scientific Discovery", "wikipedia_title": "The Logic of Scientific Discovery", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 157720, "parentid": 876751653, "revid": 900110263, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-06-03T14:11:59Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The%20Logic%20of%20Scientific%20Discovery&oldid=900110263" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Battle of Pozzolo\n", "The Battle of Pozzolo (also known as the Battle of the Mincio River, and Monzambano) was fought on 25 December 1800 and resulted the difficult victory of French under General Brune against Austrians under General Bellegarde.\n", "Following the armistice agreed after the Battle of Marengo the Austrians had held the line of the Mincio river. The French \"Army of Reserve\" was now commanded by Brune after Napoleon's departure for Paris. On Christmas Day 1800, he attacked the Austrian positions and broke their line. The Austrians fell back eastwards over the Adige River. Two days later the armistice was renewed.\n", "Section::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- Pope, Stephen. \"The Cassell Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars\". Cassell (1999)\n" ] }

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{ "description": "battle", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q745096", "wikidata_label": "Battle of Pozzolo", "wikipedia_title": "Battle of Pozzolo", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Battle of Mormant\n", "The Battle of Mormant (17 February 1814) was fought during the War of the Sixth Coalition between an Imperial French army under Emperor Napoleon I and a division of Russians under Count Peter Petrovich Pahlen. Enveloped by cavalry led by François Étienne de Kellermann and Édouard Jean-Baptiste Milhaud and infantry led by Étienne Maurice Gérard, Pahlen's outnumbered force was nearly destroyed, with only about a third of its soldiers escaping. Later in the day, a French column led by Marshal Claude Perrin Victor encountered an Austrian-Bavarian rearguard under Anton Leonhard von Hardegg and Peter de Lamotte in the Battle of Valjouan. Attacked by French infantry and cavalry, the Allied force was mauled before it withdrew behind the Seine River. The Mormant-Valjouan actions and the Battle of Montereau the following day marked the start of a French counteroffensive intended to drive back Karl Philipp, Prince of Schwarzenberg's Allied Army of Bohemia. The town of Mormant is located southeast of Paris.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "The Allied generals, particularly the Prussians, were exuberant following their victory over Napoleon at the Battle of La Rothière on 1 February 1814. They soon conceived a plan in which the main army under the Austrian Field Marshal Schwarzenberg advanced toward Paris via Troyes. Simultaneously, Prussian Field Marshal Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher's army took a more northerly route along the Marne River toward Meaux. When Napoleon realized that Blücher represented the more serious threat on 6 February, he began to shift his strength northward in order to deal with the Prussian field marshal. Leaving Marshals Victor and Nicolas Oudinot with 34,000 men to hold off Schwarzenberg's much larger army, Napoleon headed north on 9 February with 30,000 troops.\n", "Napoleon landed some damaging blows on Blücher's army in the subsequent Six Days' Campaign. On 10 February in the Battle of Champaubert, the French army fell on Zakhar Dmitrievich Olsufiev's corps, which numbered only 4,000 infantry and 24 guns. Only 1,700 Russians escaped the disaster and the French made Olsufiev a prisoner. The next day, Napoleon defeated Fabian Gottlieb von Osten-Sacken's Russians and Ludwig Yorck von Wartenburg's Prussians in the Battle of Montmirail. For the loss of 2,000 killed and wounded, the French inflicted a loss of 3,700 men and 13 guns on the Allies. On 12 February, the French beat Sacken and Yorck again in the Battle of Château-Thierry. French losses were 600; the Allies lost 2,750 men and nine guns. Blücher attacked the French on 14 February and was nearly destroyed in the Battle of Vauchamps. The French sustained a loss of 600 men while the Allies lost 6,000 men and 16 guns. Altogether, Blücher's 56,000-man army lost over 16,000 soldiers and 47 guns during the week while Napoleon's losses added up to only 4,000.\n", "While Napoleon was drubbing Blücher, Schwarzenberg's main army pushed back the forces of Marshals Victor and Oudinot. On the Allied right wing, Peter Wittgenstein's Russian corps advanced toward Nogent-sur-Seine while Karl Philipp von Wrede's Austro-Bavarian corps struck toward Bray-sur-Seine. On the Allied left wing, Crown Prince Frederick William of Württemberg's Württemberg corps moved toward Sens with Frederick Bianchi's Austrian corps on his left. Ignaz Gyulai's Austrian corps supported the left wing while Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly's Allied Reserves supported the right wing. Wrede got across the Seine at Bray, causing the French to abandon Nogent to Wittgenstein. Victor and Oudinot retreated behind the Yerres stream, dangerously close to Paris. When the marshals called for help, Napoleon sent Marshal Jacques MacDonald to Guignes where he arrived on 14 February with a corps that was rebuilt by replacements from Paris. A blunder caused the army's wagon train to withdraw across the Marne near Paris, causing panic in the French capital.\n", "Leaving Marshals Auguste de Marmont and Édouard Mortier to watch Blücher, Napoleon rapidly transferred his strength southward against Schwarzenberg's army. The French emperor arrived at Guignes on the evening of 16 February and planned to launch his offensive the next day. He found the army of Victor and Oudinot in good order and prepared to go over to the offensive.\n", "Section::::Battle.\n", "Section::::Battle.:Armies.\n", "Schwarzenberg had over 100,000 soldiers in his main army. A week later, on 23 February, the army counted Moritz von Liechtenstein's 2nd Light Division (4,000), Bianchi's I Corps (13,000), Gyulai's III Corps (11,000), Württemberg's IV Corps (10,000), Wrede's V Corps (21,000), Wittgenstein's VI Corps (15,000) and Barclay's Guard and Reserve Corps (30,000). This reckoning was made after the Battle of Montereau which cost the I Corps 2,000 casualties and the IV Corps 2,844 casualties. When Schwarzenberg heard about Blücher's defeats, he ordered his army to pull back behind the Seine. Instead of obeying, Wittgenstein aggressively pushed his corps west beyond Provins toward Nangis while his advanced guard under Pahlen reached Mormant. On 16 February, Wrede's corps was near Donnemarie-Dontilly except for Anton von Hardegg's division which was in Nangis. Württemberg's corps was near Montereau with advance guards near Melun. Bianchi's corps was south of the Seine between Moret-sur-Loing and Villeneuve-la-Guyard with advance guards farther west in Fontainebleau. Gyulai's corps was in Pont-sur-Yonne, Barclay's Russian Reserves were near Nogent while Liechtenstein's division and the Austrian Reserves were at Sens.\n", "Napoleon massed his army near Guinges by the evening of 16 February. The Imperial Guard forces included Louis Friant's Old Guard division (4,500), Marshal Michel Ney's Young Guard divisions (3,000) and Guard cavalry under Louis Marie Laferrière-Levesque, Rémi Joseph Isidore Exelmans and Louis Michel Pac (3,000 total). The line troops consisted of Victor's II Corps (6,549 men, 40 guns), from Oudinot's VII Corps (7,516 men, 34 guns), from MacDonald's XI Corps (8,797 men, 37 guns), Édouard Jean Baptiste Milhaud's V Cavalry Corps (4,700) and François Étienne de Kellermann's VI Cavalry Corps (2,788). In addition, there were 4,500 men from Étienne Maurice Gérard's Reserve of Paris. Farther east near Melun were Henri François Marie Charpentier's Young Guard division (3,500), Michel-Marie Pacthod's National Guards division (5,000) and Pierre Claude Pajol's cavalry division (1,400). On the march to Guignes were Jean François Leval's division (4,500), Joseph Boyer de Rébeval's Young Guard division (3,300) and Antoine-Louis Decrest de Saint-Germain's division (1,300). Étienne Tardif de Pommeroux de Bordesoulle was also on hand with 581 newly recruited horsemen.\n", "Section::::Battle.:Mormant.\n", "At Mormant, Pahlen became aware that large numbers of French troops were near his position. The Russian placed two battalions in Mormant and massed the rest of his troops on both sides of the highway with his artillery in the center. He was prepared to fight or to retreat. During the night, Wittgenstein received positive orders to withdraw so he marched his corps east toward Provins at dawn. He forwarded the orders to Pahlen but they came too late. At daybreak, Pahlen saw that he faced an overwhelming force and began to retreat. The Russian commanded 2,000–2,500-foot soldiers and 1,500–1,800 mounted troops. The infantry consisted of Selenginsk, Reval, Tenguinsk and Estonia Regiments and the 4th and 34th Jäger Regiments. The cavalry were led by Theodor von Rüdiger and included 14 squadrons from the Soumy Hussar, Olviopol Hussar and Tchougoulev Uhlan Regiments plus the Illowaiski XII, Rebrikov III and two unnamed Cossack Regiments. Colonel Rosen's brigade was to the east at Bailly. Another source stated that the Grodno rather than the Olviopol Hussars were engaged, that the 20th and 21st Jägers were involved and that the Russians had 12 field pieces.\n", "At 5:00 a.m. the French infantry advanced with Guillaume Philibert Duhesme's II Corps division on the left, Gérard's Paris Reserve in the center and Louis Huguet-Château's II Corps division on the right. Victor's corps artillery marched in the intervals. Milhaud's corps included Hippolyte Piré's light cavalry division, André Briche's dragoon division and Samuel-François Lhéritier dragoon division. Kellermann's corps had only Anne-François-Charles Trelliard's dragoon division, fresh from the Spanish theater. Lhéritier was temporarily assigned to Kellermann. Milhaud commanded the left wing cavalry with Piré's horsemen deployed on Duhesme's left and Briche's troopers echeloned to Piré's left rear. Kellermann commanded the right wing cavalry with Trelliard's dragoons on Huguet-Château's right and Lhéritier's troopers echeloned to Trelliard's right rear. Behind the front-line units marched two VII Corps units on the north side of the highway. Pierre François Xavier Boyer's division was in the lead with Henri Rottembourg's division farther back. The Imperial Guard artillery moved along the main road beside the VII Corps. The remainder of the army followed.\n", "Pahlen ordered the two battalions in Mormant to hold back the French at all cost in order to allow the rest of his command to escape. Four Cossack regiments opposed Kellermann's corps while Rüdiger's regular cavalry faced Milhaud's corps. Jacques Gervais, baron Subervie's brigade of Pire's division turned half-right and swooped down on the Russian skirmishers while the rest of Milhaud's cavalry advanced on Rüdiger's horsemen. In the center, Gérard's infantry forced its way into the village of Mormant, flushing its defenders into the open. Pierre Ismert, leading one of Trelliard's brigades, hurled the 4th Dragoons at the fleeing Russians, forcing many to surrender. On the right flank, Lhéritier's first brigade under August Étienne Lamotte dispersed the first two Cossack regiments. When the Illowaiski and Rebrikov Cossacks tried to intervene they were swept away by Lhéritier's second brigade led by Jean Antoine de Collaert. As Lhéritier's horsemen galloped after the routed Cossacks, the 16th Dragoons of Trelliard's division charged and broke a Russian square.\n", "On the north flank, Rüdiger deployed nine squadrons in the first line and five squadrons in the second line. Against the Russian horsemen, Milhaud had Piré's division (minus Subervie's brigade) in the first line, Gabriel Gaspard Montelégier's brigade in the second and Denis Éloi Ludot's in the third. Successive charges by Piré and Montelégier broke Rüdiger's squadrons and chased them off the battlefield with the French light cavalry in pursuit. Milhaud directed Montelégier to deal with the Russian infantry while sending Ludot on a sweep to block Pahlen's escape route. Without its supporting cavalry, Pahlen's infantry battalions were compelled to form into a square formation to defend against cavalry. Antoine Drouot aggressively pushed 36 guns from the French Guard artillery into the front line where they pummeled the Russians.\n", "Pahlen sent messengers to Nangis pleading for assistance, but Ignaz Splény de Miháldi's division had already marched off leaving only Anton Leonhard von Hardegg's Austrian division from Wrede's V Corps. Hardegg had some infantry battalions in Nangis and two cavalry regiments in Bailly. The Austrian division commander declined to assist his ally and ordered an immediate retreat. However, before they could get away, the two Austrian cavalry regiments were disordered by the fleeing Cossacks and then scattered by Piré's and August Lamotte's horsemen. The Russian infantry's withdrawal continued, leaving a trail of casualties from artillery fire. On the outskirts of Grandpuits they were finally brought to halt by Ludot's brigade which was now blocking the Russian line of retreat. Surrounded and hammered by artillery, the Russian battalions were all overrun by cavalry charges. The final square was broken when charged simultaneously by the brigades of Ludot and Ismert.\n", "The Russians probably lost one-third of their cavalry and admitted the loss of 2,114-foot soldiers. The French claimed 9–12 guns and 40 caissons captured while the Russians said they saved two cannons. The French cavalry commanders reported losing 150 horsemen and Gérard reported only 30 casualties. Pahlen's survivors dispersed over the French countryside. Another authority stated that Pahlen lost 2,000 men and 10 guns. The Reval and Selenginsk Regiments lost so many men that they were withdrawn to Plock in Poland to reorganize.\n", "Section::::Battle.:Valjouan.\n", "At Nangis, Napoleon split his advancing army into three columns. Victor led the right-most column south toward Montereau. This force included the II Corps, Paris Reserve, Lhéritier's dragoons and Bordesoulle's recruits. The left-most column under Oudinot, with the VII Corps and Trelliard's dragoons, followed Wittgenstein's retreat east toward Provins. MacDonald's center column consisted of the XI Corps, Piré light horsemen and Briche's dragoons; it headed southeast toward Donnemarie. The French emperor held the Imperial Guard in reserve at Nangis. Wittgenstein retreated rapidly and crossed the Seine at Nogent that evening.\n", "Victor's column departed Nangis at 1:30 p.m. and bumped into enemy resistance at Villeneuve-le-Comte about 3:00 p.m. Tipped off by Hardegg's survivors, Peter de Lamotte deployed the 3rd Bavarian Division on the Valjouan heights, blocking the road. Lamotte posted the 11th Bavarian Line Infantry in an advanced position at Villeneuve and Grand-Maison farm; his cavalry covered both flanks. The divisions of Hardegg and Splény were behind Lamotte; they began withdrawing as soon as the French appeared. The Schwarzenberg Uhlans Nr. 1 and Archduke Joseph Hussars Nr. 2, rallied from their earlier mauling by the French cavalry, were positioned to assist the Bavarian cavalry. Gérard, whose troops led the infantry column, decided to attack at once and asked Victor for help from the II Corps. Gérard deployed Lhéritier to the right and Bordesoulle to the left.\n", "Supported by 12 cannons, Jacques Félix Jan de La Hamelinaye's brigade stormed Villeneuve and Grand-Maison at 3:30 p.m. Gérard held Georges Joseph Dufour's brigade in reserve. As the Bavarian foot soldiers bolted from both positions, they were set upon by Bordesoulle's cavalrymen. When some Allied cavalry tried to rescue the Bavarians, the French horsemen rode into them and chased them away. Next, the Iller Mobile Legion tried to intervene, only to be routed by the French recruits. Altogether, Bordesoulle's half-trained horsemen inflicted about 300 casualties on their foes. They apparently took no prisoners except a wounded Austrian officer who Bordesoulle had to personally save.\n", "Peter de Lamotte formed his division into a square formation and began to retreat, followed by Bordesoulle. At some point during the withdrawal, the two Austrian mounted regiments were attacked by a large force of French cavalry and suffered 200 casualties in the melee. After Lamotte marched about toward Donnemarie, Gérard's infantry burst out of the woods and nearly broke up Lamotte's division. However, the French cavalry was absent this time, allowing the Bavarians to reform their battalions and resume their retreat. That evening, Wrede got the V Corps across the Seine at Bray, except for a rearguard at Mouy-sur-Seine.\n", "Section::::Battle.:Other actions.\n", "On 17 February, Charpentier's division and a task force under Jacques Alexandre Allix de Vaux advanced south from Melun, driving Ignaz von Hardegg's division (Bianchi's I Corps) from Fontainebleau. Pajol and Pacthod left Saint-Germain-Laxis and headed southeast toward Montereau. They skirmished with Prince Adam of Württemberg's 1,000 infantry and cavalry during the day.\n", "Section::::Result.\n", "The Allies had become overextended and Napoleon took advantage of this to strike hard at his enemies. One historian estimated that the French sustained 800 casualties while the Allies lost 3,000 men and 14 guns at Mormant and Valjouan. A second authority gave casualties for the actions as 600 French and 3,114 Allied, with the French seizing nine guns and 40 caissons. Pahlen was credited with 2,500 infantry and 1,800 cavalry of which 1,250 were Russian and 550 were Austrian. Though the author listed the Valjouan action, he did not list Bavarian numbers. The French brought 18,000–20,000 men to the battlefield.\n", "Napoleon was angry at Victor for not pressing on that evening. He expected Victor to be at Montereau at 6:00 a.m. the next day. When Victor did not arrive before the town until 9:00 a.m., the French emperor replaced him with Gérard. Schwarzenberg ordered the Crown Prince of Württemberg to hold a bridgehead at Montereau for a day. The Battle of Montereau was fought on 18 February.\n" ] }

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{ "description": "battle", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q752253", "wikidata_label": "Battle of Mormans", "wikipedia_title": "Battle of Mormant", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Siege of Pavia (773–74)\n", "The Siege or Battle of Pavia was fought in 773–774 in northern Italy, near Ticinum (modern Pavia), and resulted in the victory of the Franks under Charlemagne against the Lombards under king Desiderius.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "Charlemagne, \"rex Francorum\", had succeeded to the throne in 768 jointly with his brother Carloman. At the time there was antagonism between not only the two ruling brothers, but between the king of the Lombards, Desiderius, and the papacy. In 772, Pope Hadrian I expelled all the Lombard officials from the papal curia. In response, Desiderius invaded papal territory, even taking Otriculum (modern Otricoli), just a day's march from Rome. Hadrian called Charlemagne for assistance.\n", "Charles had produced an alliance with the Lombards by marrying one of Desiderius' daughters, Desiderata; within a year, however, he had changed his mind about the marriage and alliance, and divorced his wife, sending her back to her father. This was taken as an insult by the Lombards.\n", "Upon the death of Carloman in 771, his own wife, Gerberge fled the kingdom with her children for reasons now unclear (Einhard disingenuously protests that she spurned her husband's brother \"for no reason at all\") and sought refuge with Desiderius at Pavia. Desiderius now returned the insult to the Franks by giving her asylum, and protesting that her children be allowed their share of the Kingdom of the Franks. The relationship between Frank and Lombard now broke down completely and the pope took full advantage. His embassy landed at Marseilles and travelled to Thionville, where they delivered this message:\n", "Charlemagne ascertained the truth of Desiderius' aggressions and the threat he posed to his own Frankish realm and marched his troops towards Italy in the early summer of 773.\n", "Section::::Siege.\n", "Charles' army had 10,000–40,000 troops; he divided it in half, giving command of one half to his uncle, Bernard, son of Charles Martel; and led it through the Alpine passes, he through that of the Dora Susa near Mont Cenis and Bernard through the Great St Bernard Pass. At the foot of the mountains, Charles' army met the fortifications of Desiderius, but scouting forces found an alternate route. A cavalcade was sent to attack the defenders from the flank and, with Bernard's forces approaching from the east, the Lombards fled to fortified Pavia. The Frankish troops then marched on to begin the siege of Pavia by September.\n", "The entire Frankish army was capable of wholly surrounding the Lombard capital. They had brought no siege engines, however. The Lombards too had failed in their preparations: the city was poorly stocked with food and the surrounding countryside was now in the hands of the Franks. Desiderius remained in Pavia, but Adelchis, his son, had left to stronger Verona to guard over the family of Carloman. Charles led a small force to besiege Verona. Adelchis fled in fear to Constantinople and the city and Carloman's family were taken.\n", "Charles then began to subdue the whole region around Pavia in the early months of 774. Charles even visited the pope in Rome at Easter. No other Lombard dukes or counts made any attempt at relief and Desiderius made no strong counterattack. In the tenth month of the siege, famine was hitting Pavia hard and Desiderius, realising that he was left on his own, opened the gates to Charles and surrendered on some Tuesday in June.\n", "The Longobards who managed to leave Pavia crossed the Apennines and settled in present-day Liguria where the Republic of Genoa was born later.\n", "Section::::Legacy.\n", "After the victory, Charlemagne had himself declared \"rex Langobardorum\", and from that time onwards he was to be called King of the Franks \"and\" Lombards. This was unique in the history of the Germanic kingdoms of the Dark Ages: a ruler taking the title of the conquered. Charles was forging what could truly be called an \"empire\". He was also allying himself very closely with the church as its protector. His recognition of temporal papal authority in central Italy laid the foundation for mediaeval Papal power.\n", "The decline of the Lombard state had been swift and the changes wrought in Italy by the Frankish conquest were great. Many Franks entered into positions of power and authority in Italy, though many Lombards, on account of their willingness to make peace with Charles, retained their positions.\n", "As Paul K. Davis writes, \"The defeat and consequent destruction of the Lombard monarchy rid Rome of its most persistent threat to papal security, laying the groundwork for the Holy Roman Empire.\"\n" ] }

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{ "description": "battle", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q114717", "wikidata_label": "Siege of Pavia", "wikipedia_title": "Siege of Pavia (773–74)", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Alchemy\n", "Alchemy (from Arabic: \"al-kīmiyā\") was an ancient branch of natural philosophy, a philosophical and protoscientific tradition practised throughout Europe, Africa, and Asia, originating in Greco-Roman Egypt in the first few centuries .\n", "Alchemists attempted to purify, mature, and perfect certain materials. Common aims were chrysopoeia, the transmutation of \"base metals\" (e.g., lead) into \"noble metals\" (particularly gold); the creation of an elixir of immortality; the creation of panaceas able to cure any disease; and the development of an alkahest, a universal solvent. The perfection of the human body and soul was thought to permit or result from the alchemical \"magnum opus\" and, in the Hellenistic and Western mystery tradition, the achievement of gnosis. In Europe, the creation of a philosopher's stone was variously connected with all of these projects.\n", "In English, the term is often limited to descriptions of European alchemy, but similar practices existed in the Far East, the Indian subcontinent, and the Muslim world. In Europe, following the 12th-century Renaissance produced by the translation of Medieval Islamic works on science and the rediscovery of Aristotelian philosophy, alchemists played a significant role in early modern science (particularly chemistry and medicine). Islamic and European alchemists developed a structure of basic laboratory techniques, theory, terminology, and experimental method, some of which are still in use today. However, they continued antiquity's belief in four elements and guarded their work in secrecy including cyphers and cryptic symbolism. Their work was guided by Hermetic principles related to magic, mythology, and religion.\n", "Modern discussions of alchemy are generally split into an examination of its exoteric practical applications and its esoteric spiritual aspects, despite the arguments of scholars like Holmyard and von Franz that they should be understood as complementary. The former is pursued by historians of the physical sciences who examine the subject in terms of early chemistry, medicine, and charlatanism, and the philosophical and religious contexts in which these events occurred. The latter interests historians of esotericism, psychologists, and some philosophers and spiritualists. The subject has also made an ongoing impact on literature and the arts. Despite this split, which von Franz believes has existed since the Western traditions' origin in a mix of Greek philosophy that was mixed with Egyptian and Mesopotamian technology, numerous sources have stressed an integration of esoteric and exoteric approaches to alchemy as far back as Pseudo-Democritus's first-century  \"On Physical and Mystical Matters\" (). \n", "Although alchemy is popularly associated with magic, historian Lawrence M. Principe argues that recent historical research has revealed that medieval and early modern alchemy embraced a much more varied set of ideas, goals, techniques, and practices: \n", "Most readers probably are aware of several common claims about alchemy—for example, ... that it is akin to magic, or that its practice then or now is essentially deceptive. These ideas about alchemy emerged during the eighteenth century or after. While each of them might have limited validity within a narrow context, none of them is an accurate depiction of alchemy in general.\"\n", "Section::::Etymology.\n", "The word alchemy comes from Old French \"alquemie\", \"alkimie\", used in Medieval Latin as \"alchymia\". This name was itself brought from the Arabic word \"al-kīmiyā\" ( or ) composed of two parts: the Late Greek term \"khēmeía\" (χημεία), \"khēmía\" (χημία), meaning 'to fuse or cast a metal', and the Arabic definite article \"al-\" (), meaning 'The'. Together this association can be interpreted as 'the process of transmutation by which to fuse or reunite with the divine or original form'. Its roots can be traced to the Egyptian name \"kēme\" (hieroglyphic 𓆎𓅓𓏏𓊖 \"khmi\" ), meaning 'black earth' which refers to the fertile and auriferous soil of the Nile valley, as opposed to red desert sand.\n", "According to the Egyptologist Wallis Budge, the Arabic word \"al-kīmiyaʾ\" actually means \"the Egyptian [science]\", borrowing from the Coptic word for \"Egypt\", \"kēme\" (or its equivalent in the Mediaeval Bohairic dialect of Coptic, \"khēme\"). This Coptic word derives from Demotic \"kmỉ\", itself from ancient Egyptian \"kmt\". The ancient Egyptian word referred to both the country and the colour \"black\" (Egypt was the \"Black Land\", by contrast with the \"Red Land\", the surrounding desert); so this etymology could also explain the nickname \"Egyptian black arts\". However, according to Mahn, this theory may be an example of folk etymology. Assuming an Egyptian origin, chemistry is defined as follows:\n", "Thus, according to Budge and others, chemistry derives from an Egyptian word \"khemein\" or \"khēmia\", \"preparation of black powder\", ultimately derived from the name \"khem\", Egypt. A decree of Diocletian, written about 300 AD in Greek, speaks against \"the ancient writings of the Egyptians, which treat of the \"khēmia\" transmutation of gold and silver\".\n", "The Medieval Latin form was influenced by Greek \"chymeia\" (χυμεία) meaning 'mixture' and referring to pharmaceutical chemistry.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Alchemy is several philosophical traditions spanning some four millennia and three continents. These traditions' general penchant for cryptic and symbolic language makes it hard to trace their mutual influences and \"genetic\" relationships. One can distinguish at least three major strands, which appear to be largely independent, at least in their earlier stages: Chinese alchemy, centered in China and its zone of cultural influence; Indian alchemy, centered on the Indian subcontinent; and Western alchemy, which occurred around the Mediterranean and whose center has shifted over the millennia from Greco-Roman Egypt, to the Islamic world, and finally medieval Europe. Chinese alchemy was closely connected to Taoism and Indian alchemy with the Dharmic faiths, whereas Western alchemy developed its own philosophical system that was largely independent of, but influenced by, various Western religions. It is still an open question whether these three strands share a common origin, or to what extent they influenced each other.\n", "Section::::History.:Hellenistic Egypt.\n", "The start of Western alchemy may generally be traced to ancient and Hellenistic Egypt, where the city of Alexandria was a center of alchemical knowledge, and retained its pre-eminence through most of the Greek and Roman periods. Here, elements of technology, religion, mythology, and Hellenistic philosophy, each with their own much longer histories, combined to form the earliest known records of alchemy in the West. Zosimos of Panopolis wrote the oldest known books on alchemy, while Mary the Jewess is credited as being the first non-fictitious Western alchemist. They wrote in Greek and lived in Egypt under Roman rule.\n", "Mythology – Zosimos of Panopolis asserted that alchemy dated back to Pharaonic Egypt where it was the domain of the priestly class, though there is little to no evidence for his assertion. Alchemical writers used Classical figures from Greek, Roman, and Egyptian mythology to illuminate their works and allegorize alchemical transmutation. These included the pantheon of gods related to the Classical planets, Isis, Osiris, Jason, and many others.\n", "The central figure in the mythology of alchemy is Hermes Trismegistus (or Thrice-Great Hermes). His name is derived from the god Thoth and his Greek counterpart Hermes. Hermes and his caduceus or serpent-staff, were among alchemy's principal symbols. According to Clement of Alexandria, he wrote what were called the \"forty-two books of Hermes\", covering all fields of knowledge. The \"Hermetica\" of Thrice-Great Hermes is generally understood to form the basis for Western alchemical philosophy and practice, called the hermetic philosophy by its early practitioners. These writings were collected in the first centuries of the common era.\n", "Technology – The dawn of Western alchemy is sometimes associated with that of metallurgy, extending back to 3500 . Many writings were lost when the emperor Diocletian ordered the burning of alchemical books after suppressing a revolt in Alexandria ( 292). Few original Egyptian documents on alchemy have survived, most notable among them the Stockholm papyrus and the Leyden papyrus X. Dating from  250-300, they contained recipes for dyeing and making artificial gemstones, cleaning and fabricating pearls, and manufacturing of imitation gold and silver.These writings lack the mystical, philosophical elements of alchemy, but do contain the works of Bolus of Mendes (or Pseudo-Democritus), which aligned these recipes with theoretical knowledge of astrology and the classical elements. Between the time of Bolus and Zosimos, the change took place that transformed this metallurgy into a Hermetic art.\n", "Philosophy – Alexandria acted as a melting pot for philosophies of Pythagoreanism, Platonism, Stoicism and Gnosticism which formed the origin of alchemy's character. An important example of alchemy's roots in Greek philosophy, originated by Empedocles and developed by Aristotle, was that all things in the universe were formed from only four elements: earth, air, water, and fire. According to Aristotle, each element had a sphere to which it belonged and to which it would return if left undisturbed. The four elements of the Greek were mostly qualitative aspects of matter, not quantitative, as our modern elements are; \"...True alchemy never regarded earth, air, water, and fire as corporeal or chemical substances in the present-day sense of the word. The four elements are simply the primary, and most general, qualities by means of which the amorphous and purely quantitative substance of all bodies first reveals itself in differentiated form.\" Later alchemists extensively developed the mystical aspects of this concept.\n", "Alchemy coexisted alongside emerging Christianity. Lactantius believed Hermes Trismegistus had prophesied its birth. St Augustine later affirmed this in the 4th & 5th centuries, but also condemned Trismegistus for idolatry. Examples of Pagan, Christian, and Jewish alchemists can be found during this period.\n", "Most of the Greco-Roman alchemists preceding Zosimos are known only by pseudonyms, such as Moses, Isis, Cleopatra, Democritus, and Ostanes. Others authors such as Komarios, and Chymes, we only know through fragments of text. After  400, Greek alchemical writers occupied themselves solely in commenting on the works of these predecessors. By the middle of the 7th century alchemy was almost an entirely mystical discipline. It was at that time that Khalid Ibn Yazid sparked its migration from Alexandria to the Islamic world, facilitating the translation and preservation of Greek alchemical texts in the 8th and 9th centuries.\n", "Section::::History.:India.\n", "The 2nd millennium BCE text Vedas describe a connection between eternal life and gold. The use of Mercury for alchemy is first documented in the 3rd- or 4th-century BCE text \"Arthashastra\". Buddhist texts from the 2nd to 5th centuries mention the transmutation of base metals to gold. Greek alchemy may have been introduced to Ancient India through the invasions of Alexander the Great in 325 , and kingdoms that were culturally influenced by the Greeks like Gandhāra, although hard evidence for this is lacking.\n", "The 11th-century Persian chemist and physician Abū Rayhān Bīrūnī, who visited Gujarat as part of the court of Mahmud of Ghazni, reported that they\n", "The goals of alchemy in India included the creation of a divine body (Sanskrit \"divya-deham\") and immortality while still embodied (Sanskrit \"jīvan-mukti\"). Sanskrit alchemical texts include much material on the manipulation of mercury and sulphur, that are homologized with the semen of the god Śiva and the menstrual blood of the goddess Devī.\n", "Some early alchemical writings seem to have their origins in the Kaula tantric schools associated to the teachings of the personality of Matsyendranath. Other early writings are found in the Jaina medical treatise \"Kalyāṇakārakam\" of Ugrāditya, written in South India in the early 9th century.\n", "Two famous early Indian alchemical authors were Nāgārjuna Siddha and Nityanātha Siddha. Nāgārjuna Siddha was a Buddhist monk. His book, \"Rasendramangalam\", is an example of Indian alchemy and medicine. Nityanātha Siddha wrote \"Rasaratnākara\", also a highly influential work. In Sanskrit, \"rasa\" translates to \"mercury\", and Nāgārjuna Siddha was said to have developed a method of converting mercury into gold.\n", "Scholarship on Indian alchemy is in the publication of \"The Alchemical Body\" by David Gordon White. \n", "A modern bibliography on Indian alchemical studies has been written by White.\n", "The contents of 39 Sanskrit alchemical treatises have been analysed in detail in G. Jan Meulenbeld's \"History of Indian Medical Literature\". The discussion of these works in HIML gives a summary of the contents of each work, their special features, and where possible the evidence concerning their dating. Chapter 13 of HIML, \"Various works on rasaśāstra and ratnaśāstra\" (or \"Various works on alchemy and gems\") gives brief details of a further 655 (six hundred and fifty-five) treatises. In some cases Meulenbeld gives notes on the contents and authorship of these works; in other cases references are made only to the unpublished manuscripts of these titles.\n", "A great deal remains to be discovered about Indian alchemical literature. The content of the Sanskrit alchemical corpus has not yet (2014) been adequately integrated into the wider general history of alchemy.\n", "Section::::History.:Islamic world.\n", "After the fall of the Roman Empire, the focus of alchemical development moved to the Islamic World. Much more is known about Islamic alchemy because it was better documented: indeed, most of the earlier writings that have come down through the years were preserved as Arabic translations. The word \"alchemy\" itself was derived from the Arabic word \"al-kīmiyā\" (الكيمياء). The early Islamic world was a melting pot for alchemy. Platonic and Aristotelian thought, which had already been somewhat appropriated into hermetical science, continued to be assimilated during the late 7th and early 8th centuries through Syriac translations and scholarship.\n", "In the late 8th century, Jābir ibn Hayyān (Latinized as \"Geber\" or \"Geberus\") introduced a new approach to alchemy, based on scientific methodology and controlled experimentation in the laboratory, in contrast to the ancient Greek and Egyptian alchemists whose works were often allegorical and unintelligible, with very little concern for laboratory work. Jabir is thus \"considered by many to be the father of chemistry\", albeit others reserve that title for Robert Boyle or Antoine Lavoisier. The science historian, Paul Kraus, wrote:\n", "Jabir himself clearly recognized and proclaimed the importance of experimentation:\n", "Early Islamic chemists such as Jabir Ibn Hayyan, Al-Kindi (\"Alkindus\") and Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (\"Rasis\" or \"Rhazes\") contributed a number of key chemical discoveries, such as the muriatic (hydrochloric acid), sulfuric and nitric acids, and more. The discovery that aqua regia, a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids, could dissolve the noblest metal, gold, was to fuel the imagination of alchemists for the next millennium.\n", "Islamic philosophers also made great contributions to alchemical hermeticism. The most influential author in this regard was arguably Jabir. Jabir's ultimate goal was \"Takwin\", the artificial creation of life in the alchemical laboratory, up to, and including, human life. He analyzed each Aristotelian element in terms of four basic qualities of \"hotness\", \"coldness\", \"dryness\", and \"moistness\". According to Jabir, in each metal two of these qualities were interior and two were exterior. For example, lead was externally cold and dry, while gold was hot and moist. Thus, Jabir theorized, by rearranging the qualities of one metal, a different metal would result. By this reasoning, the search for the philosopher's stone was introduced to Western alchemy. Jabir developed an elaborate numerology whereby the root letters of a substance's name in Arabic, when treated with various transformations, held correspondences to the element's physical properties.\n", "The elemental system used in medieval alchemy also originated with Jabir. His original system consisted of seven elements, which included the five classical elements (aether, air, earth, fire, and water) in addition to two chemical elements representing the metals: sulphur, \"the stone which burns\", which characterized the principle of combustibility, and mercury, which contained the idealized principle of metallic properties. Shortly thereafter, this evolved into eight elements, with the Arabic concept of the three metallic principles: sulphur giving flammability or combustion, mercury giving volatility and stability, and salt giving solidity. The atomic theory of corpuscularianism, where all physical bodies possess an inner and outer layer of minute particles or corpuscles, also has its origins in the work of Jabir.\n", "From the 9th to 14th centuries, alchemical theories faced criticism from a variety of practical Muslim chemists, including Alkindus, Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, Avicenna and Ibn Khaldun. In particular, they wrote refutations against the idea of the transmutation of metals.\n", "Section::::History.:East Asia.\n", "Whereas European alchemy eventually centered on the transmutation of base metals into noble metals, Chinese alchemy had a more obvious connection to medicine. The philosopher's stone of European alchemists can be compared to the Grand Elixir of Immortality sought by Chinese alchemists. However, in the hermetic view, these two goals were not unconnected, and the philosopher's stone was often equated with the universal panacea; therefore, the two traditions may have had more in common than initially appears.\n", "Black powder may have been an important invention of Chinese alchemists. As previously stated above, Chinese alchemy was more related to medicine. It is said that the Chinese invented gunpowder while trying to find a potion for eternal life. Described in 9th-century texts and used in fireworks in China by the 10th century, it was used in cannons by 1290. From China, the use of gunpowder spread to Japan, the Mongols, the Muslim world, and Europe. Gunpowder was used by the Mongols against the Hungarians in 1241, and in Europe by the 14th century.\n", "Chinese alchemy was closely connected to Taoist forms of traditional Chinese medicine, such as Acupuncture and Moxibustion.In the early Song dynasty, followers of this Taoist idea (chiefly the elite and upper class) would ingest mercuric sulfide, which, though tolerable in low levels, led many to suicide. Thinking that this consequential death would lead to freedom and access to the Taoist heavens, the ensuing deaths encouraged people to eschew this method of alchemy in favor of external sources (the aforementioned Tai Chi Chuan, mastering of the qi, etc.)\n", "Section::::History.:Medieval Europe.\n", "The introduction of alchemy to Latin Europe may be dated to 11 February 1144, with the completion of Robert of Chester's translation of the Arabic \"Book of the Composition of Alchemy\". Although European craftsmen and technicians preexisted, Robert notes in his preface that alchemy was unknown in Latin Europe at the time of his writing. The translation of Arabic texts concerning numerous disciplines including alchemy flourished in 12th-century Toledo, Spain, through contributors like Gerard of Cremona and Adelard of Bath. Translations of the time included the Turba Philosophorum, and the works of Avicenna and al-Razi. These brought with them many new words to the European vocabulary for which there was no previous Latin equivalent. Alcohol, carboy, elixir, and athanor are examples.\n", "Meanwhile, theologian contemporaries of the translators made strides towards the reconciliation of faith and experimental rationalism, thereby priming Europe for the influx of alchemical thought. The 11th-century St Anselm put forth the opinion that faith and rationalism were compatible and encouraged rationalism in a Christian context. In the early 12th century, Peter Abelard followed Anselm's work, laying down the foundation for acceptance of Aristotelian thought before the first works of Aristotle had reached the West. In the early 13th century, Robert Grosseteste used Abelard's methods of analysis and added the use of observation, experimentation, and conclusions when conducting scientific investigations. Grosseteste also did much work to reconcile Platonic and Aristotelian thinking.\n", "Through much of the 12th and 13th centuries, alchemical knowledge in Europe remained centered on translations, and new Latin contributions were not made. The efforts of the translators were succeeded by that of the encyclopaedists. In the 13th century, Albertus Magnus and Roger Bacon were the most notable of these, their work summarizing and explaining the newly imported alchemical knowledge in Aristotelian terms. Albertus Magnus, a Dominican friar, is known to have written works such as the \"Book of Minerals\" where he observed and commented on the operations and theories of alchemical authorities like Hermes and Democritus and unnamed alchemists of his time. Albertus critically compared these to the writings of Aristotle and Avicenna, where they concerned the transmutation of metals. From the time shortly after his death through to the 15th century, more than 28 alchemical tracts were misattributed to him, a common practice giving rise to his reputation as an accomplished alchemist. Likewise, alchemical texts have been attributed to Albert's student Thomas Aquinas.\n", "Roger Bacon, a Franciscan friar who wrote on a wide variety of topics including optics, comparative linguistics, and medicine, composed his \"Great Work\" () for as part of a project towards rebuilding the medieval university curriculum to include the new learning of his time. While alchemy was not more important to him than other sciences and he did not produce allegorical works on the topic, he did consider it and astrology to be important parts of both natural philosophy and theology and his contributions advanced alchemy's connections to soteriology and Christian theology. Bacon's writings integrated morality, salvation, alchemy, and the prolongation of life. His correspondence with Clement highlighted this, noting the importance of alchemy to the papacy. Like the Greeks before him, Bacon acknowledged the division of alchemy into practical and theoretical spheres. He noted that the theoretical lay outside the scope of Aristotle, the natural philosophers, and all Latin writers of his time. The practical, however, confirmed the theoretical thought experiment, and Bacon advocated its uses in natural science and medicine. In later European legend, however, Bacon became an archmage. In particular, along with Albertus Magnus, he was credited with the forging of a brazen head capable of answering its owner's questions.\n", "Soon after Bacon, the influential work of Pseudo-Geber (sometimes identified as Paul of Taranto) appeared. His \"Summa Perfectionis\" remained a staple summary of alchemical practice and theory through the medieval and renaissance periods. It was notable for its inclusion of practical chemical operations alongside sulphur-mercury theory, and the unusual clarity with which they were described. By the end of the 13th century, alchemy had developed into a fairly structured system of belief. Adepts believed in the macrocosm-microcosm theories of Hermes, that is to say, they believed that processes that affect minerals and other substances could have an effect on the human body (for example, if one could learn the secret of purifying gold, one could use the technique to purify the human soul). They believed in the four elements and the four qualities as described above, and they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written ideas in a labyrinth of coded jargon set with traps to mislead the uninitiated. Finally, the alchemists practiced their art: they actively experimented with chemicals and made observations and theories about how the universe operated. Their entire philosophy revolved around their belief that man's soul was divided within himself after the fall of Adam. By purifying the two parts of man's soul, man could be reunited with God.\n", "In the 14th century, alchemy became more accessible to Europeans outside the confines of Latin speaking churchmen and scholars. Alchemical discourse shifted from scholarly philosophical debate to an exposed social commentary on the alchemists themselves. Dante, Piers Plowman, and Chaucer all painted unflattering pictures of alchemists as thieves and liars. Pope John XXII's 1317 edict, \"Spondent quas non exhibent\" forbade the false promises of transmutation made by pseudo-alchemists. In 1403, Henry IV of England banned the practice of multiplying metals (although it was possible to buy a licence to attempt to make gold alchemically, and a number were granted by Henry VI and Edward IV). These critiques and regulations centered more around pseudo-alchemical charlatanism than the actual study of alchemy, which continued with an increasingly Christian tone. The 14th century saw the Christian imagery of death and resurrection employed in the alchemical texts of Petrus Bonus, John of Rupescissa, and in works written in the name of Raymond Lull and Arnold of Villanova.\n", "Nicolas Flamel is a well-known alchemist, but a good example of pseudepigraphy, the practice of giving your works the name of someone else, usually more famous. Although the historical Flamel existed, the writings and legends assigned to him only appeared in 1612. Flamel was not a religious scholar as were many of his predecessors, and his entire interest in the subject revolved around the pursuit of the philosopher's stone. His work spends a great deal of time describing the processes and reactions, but never actually gives the formula for carrying out the transmutations. Most of 'his' work was aimed at gathering alchemical knowledge that had existed before him, especially as regarded the philosopher's stone. Through the 14th and 15th centuries, alchemists were much like Flamel: they concentrated on looking for the philosophers' stone. Bernard Trevisan and George Ripley made similar contributions. Their cryptic allusions and symbolism led to wide variations in interpretation of the art.\n", "Section::::History.:Renaissance and early modern Europe.\n", "During the Renaissance, Hermetic and Platonic foundations were restored to European alchemy. The dawn of medical, pharmaceutical, occult, and entrepreneurial branches of alchemy followed.\n", "In the late 15th century, Marsilo Ficino translated the Corpus Hermeticum and the works of Plato into Latin. These were previously unavailable to Europeans who for the first time had a full picture of the alchemical theory that Bacon had declared absent. Renaissance Humanism and Renaissance Neoplatonism guided alchemists away from physics to refocus on mankind as the alchemical vessel.\n", "Esoteric systems developed that blended alchemy into a broader occult Hermeticism, fusing it with magic, astrology, and Christian cabala. A key figure in this development was German Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa (1486–1535), who received his Hermetic education in Italy in the schools of the humanists. In his \"De Occulta Philosophia\", he attempted to merge Kabbalah, Hermeticism, and alchemy. He was instrumental in spreading this new blend of Hermeticism outside the borders of Italy.\n", "Philippus Aureolus Paracelsus, (Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, 1493–1541) cast alchemy into a new form, rejecting some of Agrippa's occultism and moving away from chrysopoeia. Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine and wrote, \"Many have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of gold and silver. For me such is not the aim, but to consider only what virtue and power may lie in medicines.\"\n", "His hermetical views were that sickness and health in the body relied on the harmony of man the microcosm and Nature the macrocosm. He took an approach different from those before him, using this analogy not in the manner of soul-purification but in the manner that humans must have certain balances of minerals in their bodies, and that certain illnesses of the body had chemical remedies that could cure them. Paracelsian practical alchemy, especially herbal medicine and plant remedies has since been named spagyric (a synonym for alchemy from the Greek words meaning \"to separate\" and \"to join together\", based on the Latin alchemic maxim: \"solve et coagula\"). Iatrochemistry also refers to the pharmaceutical applications of alchemy championed by Paracelsus.\n", "John Dee (13 July 1527 – December, 1608) followed Agrippa's occult tradition. Although better known for angel summoning, divination, and his role as astrologer, cryptographer, and consultant to Queen Elizabeth I, Dee's alchemical \"Monas Hieroglyphica\", written in 1564 was his most popular and influential work. His writing portrayed alchemy as a sort of terrestrial astronomy in line with the Hermetic axiom \"As above so below\". During the 17th century, a short-lived \"supernatural\" interpretation of alchemy became popular, including support by fellows of the Royal Society: Robert Boyle and Elias Ashmole. Proponents of the supernatural interpretation of alchemy believed that the philosopher's stone might be used to summon and communicate with angels.\n", "Entrepreneurial opportunities were common for the alchemists of Renaissance Europe. Alchemists were contracted by the elite for practical purposes related to mining, medical services, and the production of chemicals, medicines, metals, and gemstones. Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor, in the late 16th century, famously received and sponsored various alchemists at his court in Prague, including Dee and his associate Edward Kelley. King James IV of Scotland, Julius, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, Henry V, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, Augustus, Elector of Saxony, Julius Echter von Mespelbrunn, and Maurice, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel all contracted alchemists. John's son Arthur Dee worked as a court physician to Michael I of Russia and Charles I of England but also compiled the alchemical book \"Fasciculus Chemicus\".\n", "Although most of these appointments were legitimate, the trend of pseudo-alchemical fraud continued through the Renaissance. \"Betrüger\" would use sleight of hand, or claims of secret knowledge to make money or secure patronage. Legitimate mystical and medical alchemists such as Michael Maier and Heinrich Khunrath wrote about fraudulent transmutations, distinguishing themselves from the con artists. False alchemists were sometimes prosecuted for fraud.\n", "The terms \"chemia\" and \"alchemia\" were used as synonyms in the early modern period, and the differences between alchemy, chemistry and small-scale assaying and metallurgy were not as neat as in the present day. There were important overlaps between practitioners, and trying to classify them into alchemists, chemists and craftsmen is anachronistic. For example, Tycho Brahe (1546–1601), an alchemist better known for his astronomical and astrological investigations, had a laboratory built at his Uraniborg observatory/research institute. Michael Sendivogius (\"Michał Sędziwój\", 1566–1636), a Polish alchemist, philosopher, medical doctor and pioneer of chemistry wrote mystical works but is also credited with distilling oxygen in a lab sometime around 1600. Sendivogious taught his technique to Cornelius Drebbel who, in 1621, applied this in a submarine. Isaac Newton devoted considerably more of his writing to the study of alchemy (see Isaac Newton's occult studies) than he did to either optics or physics. Other early modern alchemists who were eminent in their other studies include Robert Boyle, and Jan Baptist van Helmont. Their Hermeticism complemented rather than precluded their practical achievements in medicine and science.\n", "Section::::History.:Late modern period.\n", "The decline of European alchemy was brought about by the rise of modern science with its emphasis on rigorous quantitative experimentation and its disdain for \"ancient wisdom\". Although the seeds of these events were planted as early as the 17th century, alchemy still flourished for some two hundred years, and in fact may have reached its peak in the 18th century. As late as 1781 James Price claimed to have produced a powder that could transmute mercury into silver or gold. Early modern European alchemy continued to exhibit a diversity of theories, practices, and purposes: \"Scholastic and anti-Aristotelian, Paracelsian and anti-Paracelsian, Hermetic, Neoplatonic, mechanistic, vitalistic, and more—plus virtually every combination and compromise thereof.\"\n", "Robert Boyle (1627–1691) pioneered the scientific method in chemical investigations. He assumed nothing in his experiments and compiled every piece of relevant data. Boyle would note the place in which the experiment was carried out, the wind characteristics, the position of the Sun and Moon, and the barometer reading, all just in case they proved to be relevant. This approach eventually led to the founding of modern chemistry in the 18th and 19th centuries, based on revolutionary discoveries of Lavoisier and John Dalton.\n", "Beginning around 1720, a rigid distinction was drawn between \"alchemy\" and \"chemistry\" for the first time. By the 1740s, \"alchemy\" was now restricted to the realm of gold making, leading to the popular belief that alchemists were charlatans, and the tradition itself nothing more than a fraud. In order to protect the developing science of modern chemistry from the negative censure of which alchemy was being subjected, academic writers during the scientific Enlightenment attempted, for the sake of survival, to divorce and separate the \"new\" chemistry from the \"old\" practices of alchemy. This move was mostly successful, and the consequences of this continued into the 19th and 20th centuries, and even to the present day.\n", "During the occult revival of the early 19th century, alchemy received new attention as an occult science. The esoteric or occultist school, which arose during the 19th century, held (and continues to hold) the view that the substances and operations mentioned in alchemical literature are to be interpreted in a spiritual sense, and it downplays the role of the alchemy as a practical tradition or protoscience. This interpretation further forwarded the view that alchemy is an art primarily concerned with spiritual enlightenment or illumination, as opposed to the physical manipulation of apparatus and chemicals, and claims that the obscure language of the alchemical texts were an allegorical guise for spiritual, moral or mystical processes.\n", "In the 19th-century revival of alchemy, the two most seminal figures were Mary Anne Atwood and Ethan Allen Hitchcock, who independently published similar works regarding spiritual alchemy. Both forwarded a completely esoteric view of alchemy, as Atwood claimed: \"No modern art or chemistry, notwithstanding all its surreptitious claims, has any thing in common with Alchemy.\" Atwood's work influenced subsequent authors of the occult revival including Eliphas Levi, Arthur Edward Waite, and Rudolf Steiner. Hitchcock, in his \"Remarks Upon Alchymists\" (1855) attempted to make a case for his spiritual interpretation with his claim that the alchemists wrote about a spiritual discipline under a materialistic guise in order to avoid accusations of blasphemy from the church and state. In 1845, Baron Carl Reichenbach, published his studies on Odic force, a concept with some similarities to alchemy, but his research did not enter the mainstream of scientific discussion.\n", "In 1946, Louis Cattiaux published the Message Retrouvé, a work that was at once philosophical, mystical and highly influenced by alchemy. In his lineage, many researchers, including Emmanuel and Charles d'Hooghvorst, are updating alchemical studies in France and Belgium.\n", "Section::::History.:Women in alchemy.\n", "Several women appear in the earliest history of alchemy. Michael Maier names Mary the Jewess, Cleopatra the Alchemist and Taphnutia as the four women who knew how to make the philosopher's stone. Zosimos' sister Theosebia (later known as Euthica the Arab) and Isis the Prophetess also played a role in early alchemical texts.\n", "The first alchemist whose name we know is said to have been Mary the Jewess (c. 200 A.D.). Early sources claim that Mary (or Maria) devised a number of improvements to alchemical equipment and tools as well as novel techniques in chemistry. Her best known advances were in heating and distillation processes. The laboratory water-bath, known eponymously (especially in France) as the bain-marie, is said to have been invented or at least improved by her. Essentially a double-boiler, it was (and is) used in chemistry for processes that require gentle heating. The tribikos (a modified distillation apparatus) and the kerotakis (a more intricate apparatus used especially for sublimations) are two other advancements in the process of distillation that are credited to her. The occasional claim that Mary was the first to discover hydrochloric acid is not accepted by most authorities. Although we have no writing from Mary herself, she is known from the early-fourth-century writings of Zosimos of Panopolis.\n", "Due to the proliferation of pseudepigrapha and anonymous works, it is difficult to know which of the alchemists were actually women. After the Greco-Roman period, women's names appear less frequently in the alchemical literature. Women vacate the history of alchemy during the medieval and renaissance periods, aside from the fictitious account of Perenelle Flamel. Mary Anne Atwood's \"A Suggestive Inquiry into the Hermetic Mystery\" (1850) marks their return during the nineteenth-century occult revival.\n", "Section::::History.:Modern historical research.\n", "The history of alchemy has become a significant and recognized subject of academic study. As the language of the alchemists is analyzed, historians are becoming more aware of the intellectual connections between that discipline and other facets of Western cultural history, such as the evolution of science and philosophy, the sociology and psychology of the intellectual communities, kabbalism, spiritualism, Rosicrucianism, and other mystic movements. Institutions involved in this research include The Chymistry of Isaac Newton project at Indiana University, the University of Exeter Centre for the Study of Esotericism (EXESESO), the European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism (ESSWE), and the University of Amsterdam's Sub-department for the History of Hermetic Philosophy and Related Currents. A large collection of books on alchemy is kept in the Bibliotheca Philosophica Hermetica in Amsterdam. A recipe found in a mid-19th-century kabbalah based book features step by step instructions on turning copper into gold. The author attributed this recipe to an ancient manuscript he located.\n", "Journals which publish regularly on the topic of Alchemy include 'Ambix', published by the Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry, and 'Isis', published by The History of Science Society.\n", "Section::::Core concepts.\n", "Western alchemical theory corresponds to the worldview of late antiquity in which it was born. Concepts were imported from Neoplatonism and earlier Greek cosmology. As such, the Classical elements appear in alchemical writings, as do the seven Classical planets and the corresponding seven metals of antiquity. Similarly, the gods of the Roman pantheon who are associated with these luminaries are discussed in alchemical literature. The concepts of prima materia and anima mundi are central to the theory of the philosopher's stone.\n", "Section::::Core concepts.:Hermeticism.\n", "In the eyes of a variety of esoteric and Hermetic practitioners, alchemy is fundamentally spiritual. Transmutation of lead into gold is presented as an analogy for personal transmutation, purification, and perfection. The writings attributed to Hermes Trismegistus are a primary source of alchemical theory. He is named \"alchemy's founder and chief patron, authority, inspiration and guide\".\n", "Early alchemists, such as Zosimos of Panopolis (c. AD 300), highlight the spiritual nature of the alchemical quest, symbolic of a religious regeneration of the human soul. This approach continued in the Middle Ages, as metaphysical aspects, substances, physical states, and material processes were used as metaphors for spiritual entities, spiritual states, and, ultimately, transformation. In this sense, the literal meanings of 'Alchemical Formulas' were a blind, hiding their true spiritual philosophy. Practitioners and patrons such as Melchior Cibinensis and Pope Innocent VIII existed within the ranks of the church, while Martin Luther applauded alchemy for its consistency with Christian teachings. Both the transmutation of common metals into gold and the universal panacea symbolized evolution from an imperfect, diseased, corruptible, and ephemeral state toward a perfect, healthy, incorruptible, and everlasting state, so the philosopher's stone then represented a mystic key that would make this evolution possible. Applied to the alchemist himself, the twin goal symbolized his evolution from ignorance to enlightenment, and the stone represented a hidden spiritual truth or power that would lead to that goal. In texts that are written according to this view, the cryptic alchemical symbols, diagrams, and textual imagery of late alchemical works typically contain multiple layers of meanings, allegories, and references to other equally cryptic works; and must be laboriously decoded to discover their true meaning.\n", "In his 1766 \"Alchemical Catechism\", Théodore Henri de Tschudi denotes that the usage of the metals was merely symbolic:\n", "Section::::Core concepts.:Magnum opus.\n", "The Great Work of Alchemy is often described as a series of four stages represented by colors.\n", "BULLET::::- \"nigredo\", a blackening or melanosis\n", "BULLET::::- \"albedo\", a whitening or leucosis\n", "BULLET::::- \"citrinitas\", a yellowing or xanthosis\n", "BULLET::::- \"rubedo\", a reddening, purpling, or iosis\n", "Section::::Modern alchemy.\n", "Due to the complexity and obscurity of alchemical literature, and the 18th-century disappearance of remaining alchemical practitioners into the area of chemistry; the general understanding of alchemy has been strongly influenced by several distinct and radically different interpretations. Those focusing on the exoteric, such as historians of science Lawrence M. Principe and William R. Newman, have interpreted the 'decknamen' (or code words) of alchemy as physical substances. These scholars have reconstructed physicochemical experiments that they say are described in medieval and early modern texts. At the opposite end of the spectrum, focusing on the esoteric, scholars, such as George Calian and Anna Marie Roos, who question the reading of Principe and Newman, interpret these same decknamen as spiritual, religious, or psychological concepts.\n", "Today new interpretations of alchemy are still perpetuated, sometimes merging in concepts from New Age or radical environmentalism movements. Groups like the Rosicrucians and Freemasons have a continued interest in alchemy and its symbolism. Since the Victorian revival of alchemy, \"occultists reinterpreted alchemy as a spiritual practice, involving the self-transformation of the practitioner and only incidentally or not at all the transformation of laboratory substances\", which has contributed to a merger of magic and alchemy in popular thought.\n", "Section::::Modern alchemy.:Traditional medicine.\n", "Traditional medicine can use the concept of the transmutation of natural substances, using pharmacological or a combination of pharmacological and spiritual techniques. In Ayurveda, the samskaras are claimed to transform heavy metals and toxic herbs in a way that removes their toxicity. These processes are actively used to the present day.\n", "Spagyrists of the 20th century, Albert Richard Riedel and Jean Dubuis, merged Paracelsian alchemy with occultism, teaching laboratory pharmaceutical methods. The schools they founded, \"Les Philosophes de la Nature\" and \"The Paracelsus Research Society\", popularized modern spagyrics including the manufacture of herbal tinctures and products. The courses, books, organizations, and conferences generated by their students continue to influence popular applications of alchemy as a New Age medicinal practice.\n", "Section::::Modern alchemy.:Psychology.\n", "Alchemical symbolism has been important in depth and analytical psychology and was revived and popularized from near extinction by the Swiss psychologist Carl Gustav Jung. Initially confounded and at odds with alchemy and its images, after being given a copy of the translation of \"The Secret of the Golden Flower\", a Chinese alchemical text, by his friend Richard Wilhelm, Jung discovered a direct correlation or parallels between the symbolic images in the alchemical drawings and the inner, symbolic images coming up in dreams, visions or imaginations during the psychic processes of transformation occurring in his patients. A process, which he called \"process of individuation\". He regarded the alchemical images as symbols expressing aspects of this \"process of individuation\" of which the creation of the gold or lapis within were symbols for its origin and goal. Together with his alchemical \"mystica soror\", Jungian Swiss analyst Marie-Louise von Franz, Jung began collecting all the old alchemical texts available, compiled a lexicon of key phrases with cross-references and pored over them. The volumes of work he wrote brought new light into understanding the art of transubstantiation and renewed alchemy's popularity as a symbolic process of coming into wholeness as a human being where opposites brought into contact and inner and outer, spirit and matter are reunited in the \"hieros gamos\" or divine marriage. His writings are influential in psychology and for persons who have an interest in understanding the importance of dreams, symbols and the unconscious archetypal forces (archetypes) that influence all of life.\n", "Both von Franz and Jung have contributed greatly to the subject and work of alchemy and its continued presence in psychology as well as contemporary culture. Jung wrote volumes on alchemy and his magnum opus is Volume 14 of his Collected Works, \"Mysterium Conuinctionis. Ralph Metzner, speaking to CG Jung Society of Seattle, 2014, sees the historical emergence of psychedelics in the work of alchemists.\" \n", "Section::::Modern alchemy.:Literature.\n", "Alchemy has had a long-standing relationship with art, seen both in alchemical texts and in mainstream entertainment. \"Literary alchemy\" appears throughout the history of English literature from Shakespeare to J. K. Rowling, and also the popular Japanese manga \"Full Metal Alchemist\". Here, characters or plot structure follow an alchemical magnum opus. In the 14th century, Chaucer began a trend of alchemical satire that can still be seen in recent fantasy works like those of Terry Pratchett.\n", "Visual artists had a similar relationship with alchemy. While some of them used alchemy as a source of satire, others worked with the alchemists themselves or integrated alchemical thought or symbols in their work. Music was also present in the works of alchemists and continues to influence popular performers. In the last hundred years, alchemists have been portrayed in a magical and spagyric role in fantasy fiction, film, television, novels, comics and video games.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Biological transmutation in Corentin Louis Kervran\n", "BULLET::::- Cupellation\n", "BULLET::::- Historicism\n", "BULLET::::- History of chemistry\n", "BULLET::::- List of alchemists\n", "BULLET::::- List of topics characterized as pseudoscience\n", "BULLET::::- Nuclear transmutation\n", "BULLET::::- Outline of alchemy\n", "BULLET::::- Porta Alchemica\n", "BULLET::::- Superseded theories in science\n", "BULLET::::- Synthesis of precious metals\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- Principe, Lawrence. \"The Secrets of Alchemy\". University of Chicago Press, 2013.\n", "BULLET::::- Principe, Lawrence and William Newman. \"Alchemy Tried in the Fire: Starkey, Boyle, and the Fate of Helmontian Chymistry\". University of Chicago Press, 2002.\n", "BULLET::::- Lindsay, Jack. \"The Origins of Alchemy in Greco-Roman Egypt\". Barnes & Noble, 1970.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- SHAC: Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry\n", "BULLET::::- ESSWE: European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism\n", "BULLET::::- Association for the Study of Esotericism\n", "BULLET::::- The Alchemy Website. – Adam McLean's online collections and academic discussion.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Dictionary of the History of Ideas\": Alchemy\n", "BULLET::::- Book of Secrets: Alchemy and the European Imagination, 1500–2000 – A digital exhibition from the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University\n", "BULLET::::- Othmer MS 2 Alchemical Miscellany at OPenn\n", "BULLET::::- Alchemy featured topic page on Science History Institute Digital Collections featuring selected manuscripts, rare books, paintings, and ephemera relating to alchemical topics and experimentation.\n" ] }

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Hitchcock (general)", "A. E. Waite", "Rudolf Steiner", "Carl Reichenbach", "Odic force", "Louis Cattiaux", "Michael Maier", "Mary the Jewess", "Cleopatra the Alchemist", "Paphnutia the Virgin", "Bain-marie", "Zosimos of Panopolis", "Pseudepigrapha", "Perenelle Flamel", "Mary Anne Atwood", "Philosophy", "Kabbalah", "Spiritualism", "Rosicrucianism", "Indiana University", "University of Exeter", "European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism", "University of Amsterdam", "Bibliotheca Philosophica Hermetica", "Ambix", "Isis (journal)", "Neoplatonism", "Cosmology", "Classical element", "Metals of antiquity", "Prima materia", "Anima mundi", "Philosopher's stone", "Hermeticism", "Hermes Trismegistus", "Zosimos of Panopolis", "Spirit", "Spiritual philosophy", "Melchior Cibinensis", "Pope Innocent VIII", "Martin Luther", "Alchemical symbol", "Nigredo", "Albedo (alchemy)", "Citrinitas", "Rubedo", "Lawrence M. Principe", "William R. 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Rowling", "Corentin Louis Kervran", "Cupellation", "Historicism", "History of chemistry", "List of alchemists", "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience", "Nuclear transmutation", "Outline of alchemy", "Porta Alchemica", "Superseded theories in science", "Synthesis of precious metals", "Adam McLean", "Science History Institute" ], "wikipedia_id": [ "803", "382251", "13692155", "24241", "496519", "7133952", "418809", "17747", "161291", "12240", "729695", "398628", "37431", "54176", "28297", "29346432", "455379", "12922", "152176", "1947455", "926011", "27280889", "3225161", "5553121", "267542", "32555744", "657083", "1416046", "14194", "252905", "520066", "180786", "48489", "24698694", "25414", "407695", "495185", "9383089", "641200", "1416046", "14194", "495185", "1573230", "28387", "171171", "10236490", "19826352", "32169048", "320082", "898044", "803", "10512429", "48203", "29346432", "46918", "48473", "46918", "15943331", "912426", "8580", "7133952", "1947455", "926011", "20611562", "2454408", "496519", "191429", "18836", "30365", "14605", "3080", "10649725", "2099084", "1882623", "11887", "8087628", "25507", "874", "37753", "22763", "15885", "68928", "45087159", "69035", "14410", "79373", "7342", "193965", "180786", "19722", "219117", "8580", "31696709", "21623770", "19826352", "6313", "291170", "2221011", "19224834", "12471", "9553", "6317", "6315", "6316", "6314", "5211", "18385", "2030", "49996643", "32151943", "19826352", "2281137", "49943088", "1527181", "18617142", "613818", "3267529", "783", "27280889", "2106879", "651860", "13504122", "3728845", "5255042", "6037917", "22954", "308", "59412", "26833", "59861", "173351", "5180", "50237", "1822", "63140", "272065", "19916686", "29247", "21655", "62929", "1158652", "152176", "21137", "6313", "1949268", "6315", "6317", "6314", "6316", "5659", "27127", "18617142", "27558", "2844", "4145906", "272065", "1130", "199169", "152176", "1468466", "729695", "12737", "5405", "251994", "59493", "7053", "12737", "18984", "30365", "5992", "1537", "401926", "56978", "53464", "25217", "4369305", "31360", "231112", "85563", "3044007", "1130", "13943405", "21492554", "37464286", "94721", "1573", "25879", "8973", "21490957", "64176", "22483", "931814", "3151251", "86344", "17005961", "8314357", "656329", "24888846", "28297", "49607", "22649", "30746", "8169", "175416", "12787", "37670", "8755659", "9009919", "204975", "152176", "2287895", "4172053", "10223504", "37673", "25532", "193965", "290237", "22939", "198827", "16905", "152487", "7133952", "9990022", "2419633", "8457942", "2122", "10128", "496064", "50237", "407483", "26054", "210019", "50556", "4053556", "8124481", "4307267", "7275736", "5425267", "248062", "23738514", "7426", "462819", "1274346", "2465061", "96637", "30027", "2122", "243449", "22936", "22303", "14627", "283849", "50237", "334591", "769274", "50237", "1822", "44112", "10238461", "4020222", "61396", "26104", "2055641", "2054502", "60941884", "1274346", "1882623", "32151943", "51612016", "4990", "2099084", "503214", "2593434", "10238461", "13692155", "16905", "200732", "49972", "23487663", "33719893", "32305214", "546160", "7106708", "30417307", "2248337", "23385833", "1864889", "6313", "14503907", "2055481", "1279037", "152176", "180786", "68928", "2099084", "1638128", "5646829", "8987811", "24643", "7567080", "615845", "1900731", "7023718", "6969110", "6548981", "32169048", "35989591", "21742", "49972", "11227", "48489", "236674", "46659847", "2060173", "42031", "162797", "641200", "927025", "11083126", "7476847", "32897", "16027", "309460", "1608469", "14329", "1416046", "657083", "267014", "27739443", "28283580", "30544176", "485405", "1230653", "3983336", "19891472" ] }

{ "description": "philosophical and protoscientific tradition", "enwikiquote_title": "Alchemy", "wikidata_id": "Q39689", "wikidata_label": "alchemy", "wikipedia_title": "Alchemy", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 573, "parentid": 907193271, "revid": 907236235, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-21T13:56:49Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alchemy&oldid=907236235" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Alabama\n", "Alabama () is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered by Tennessee to the north, Georgia to the east, Florida and the Gulf of Mexico to the south, and Mississippi to the west. Alabama is the 30th largest by area and the 24th-most populous of the U.S. states. With a total of of inland waterways, Alabama has among the most of any state.\n", "Alabama is nicknamed the \"Yellowhammer State\", after the state bird. Alabama is also known as the \"Heart of Dixie\" and the \"Cotton State\". The state tree is the longleaf pine, and the state flower is the camellia. Alabama's capital is Montgomery. The largest city by population is Birmingham, which has long been the most industrialized city; the largest city by land area is Huntsville. The oldest city is Mobile, founded by French colonists in 1702 as the capital of French Louisiana.\n", "From the American Civil War until World War II, Alabama, like many states in the southern U.S., suffered economic hardship, in part because of its continued dependence on agriculture. Similar to other former slave states, Alabamian legislators employed Jim Crow laws to disenfranchise and otherwise discriminate against African Americans from the end of the Reconstruction Era up until at least the 1970s. Despite the growth of major industries and urban centers, white rural interests dominated the state legislature from 1901 to the 1960s. During this time, urban interests and African Americans were markedly under-represented. Following World War II, Alabama grew as the state's economy changed from one primarily based on agriculture to one with diversified interests. The state's economy in the 21st century is based on management, automotive, finance, manufacturing, aerospace, mineral extraction, healthcare, education, retail, and technology.\n", "Section::::Etymology.\n", "The European-American naming of the Alabama River and state was derived from the Alabama people, a Muskogean-speaking tribe whose members lived just below the confluence of the Coosa and Tallapoosa rivers on the upper reaches of the river. In the Alabama language, the word for a person of Alabama lineage is \"Albaamo\" (or variously \"Albaama\" or \"Albàamo\" in different dialects; the plural form is \"Albaamaha\"). The suggestion that \"Alabama\" was borrowed from the Choctaw language is unlikely. The word's spelling varies significantly among historical sources. The first usage appears in three accounts of the Hernando de Soto expedition of 1540: Garcilaso de la Vega used \"Alibamo\", while the Knight of Elvas and Rodrigo Ranjel wrote \"Alibamu\" and \"Limamu\", respectively, in transliterations of the term. As early as 1702, the French called the tribe the \"Alibamon\", with French maps identifying the river as \"Rivière des Alibamons\". Other spellings of the name have included \"Alibamu\", \"Alabamo\", \"Albama\", \"Alebamon\", \"Alibama\", \"Alibamou\", \"Alabamu\", \"Allibamou\".\n", "Sources disagree on the word's meaning. Some scholars suggest the word comes from the Choctaw \"alba\" (meaning \"plants\" or \"weeds\") and \"amo\" (meaning \"to cut\", \"to trim\", or \"to gather\"). The meaning may have been \"clearers of the thicket\" or \"herb gatherers\", referring to clearing land for cultivation or collecting medicinal plants. The state has numerous place names of Native American origin. However, there are no correspondingly similar words in the Alabama language.\n", "An 1842 article in the \"Jacksonville Republican\" proposed it meant \"Here We Rest.\" This notion was popularized in the 1850s through the writings of Alexander Beaufort Meek. Experts in the Muskogean languages have not found any evidence to support such a translation.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Section::::History.:Pre-European settlement.\n", "Indigenous peoples of varying cultures lived in the area for thousands of years before the advent of European colonization. Trade with the northeastern tribes by the Ohio River began during the Burial Mound Period (1000 BC–AD 700) and continued until European contact.\n", "The agrarian Mississippian culture covered most of the state from 1000 to 1600 AD, with one of its major centers built at what is now the Moundville Archaeological Site in Moundville, Alabama. This is the second-largest complex of the classic Middle Mississippian era, after Cahokia in present-day Illinois, which was the center of the culture. Analysis of artifacts from archaeological excavations at Moundville were the basis of scholars' formulating the characteristics of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex (SECC). Contrary to popular belief, the SECC appears to have no direct links to Mesoamerican culture, but developed independently. The Ceremonial Complex represents a major component of the religion of the Mississippian peoples; it is one of the primary means by which their religion is understood.\n", "Among the historical tribes of Native American people living in present-day Alabama at the time of European contact were the Cherokee, an Iroquoian language people; and the Muskogean-speaking Alabama (\"Alibamu\"), Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Koasati. While part of the same large language family, the Muskogee tribes developed distinct cultures and languages.\n", "Section::::History.:European settlement.\n", "With exploration in the 16th century, the Spanish were the first Europeans to reach Alabama. The expedition of Hernando de Soto passed through Mabila and other parts of the state in 1540. More than 160 years later, the French founded the region's first European settlement at Old Mobile in 1702. The city was moved to the current site of Mobile in 1711. This area was claimed by the French from 1702 to 1763 as part of La Louisiane.\n", "After the French lost to the British in the Seven Years' War, it became part of British West Florida from 1763 to 1783. After the United States victory in the American Revolutionary War, the territory was divided between the United States and Spain. The latter retained control of this western territory from 1783 until the surrender of the Spanish garrison at Mobile to U.S. forces on April 13, 1813.\n", "Thomas Bassett, a loyalist to the British monarchy during the Revolutionary era, was one of the earliest white settlers in the state outside Mobile. He settled in the Tombigbee District during the early 1770s. The district's boundaries were roughly limited to the area within a few miles of the Tombigbee River and included portions of what is today southern Clarke County, northernmost Mobile County, and most of Washington County.\n", "What is now the counties of Baldwin and Mobile became part of Spanish West Florida in 1783, part of the independent Republic of West Florida in 1810, and was finally added to the Mississippi Territory in 1812. Most of what is now the northern two-thirds of Alabama was known as the Yazoo lands beginning during the British colonial period. It was claimed by the Province of Georgia from 1767 onwards. Following the Revolutionary War, it remained a part of Georgia, although heavily disputed.\n", "With the exception of the area around Mobile and the Yazoo lands, what is now the lower one-third Alabama was made part of the Mississippi Territory when it was organized in 1798. The Yazoo lands were added to the territory in 1804, following the Yazoo land scandal. Spain kept a claim on its former Spanish West Florida territory in what would become the coastal counties until the Adams–Onís Treaty officially ceded it to the United States in 1819.\n", "Section::::History.:Early 19th century.\n", "Before Mississippi's admission to statehood on December 10, 1817, the more sparsely settled eastern half of the territory was separated and named the Alabama Territory. The United States Congress created the Alabama Territory on March 3, 1817. St. Stephens, now abandoned, served as the territorial capital from 1817 to 1819.\n", "Alabama was admitted as the 22nd state on December 14, 1819, with Congress selecting Huntsville as the site for the first Constitutional Convention. From July 5 to August 2, 1819, delegates met to prepare the new state constitution. Huntsville served as temporary capital from 1819 to 1820, when the seat of government moved to Cahaba in Dallas County.\n", "Cahaba, now a ghost town, was the first permanent state capital from 1820 to 1825. The Alabama Fever land rush was underway when the state was admitted to the Union, with settlers and land speculators pouring into the state to take advantage of fertile land suitable for cotton cultivation. Part of the frontier in the 1820s and 1830s, its constitution provided for universal suffrage for white men.\n", "Southeastern planters and traders from the Upper South brought slaves with them as the cotton plantations in Alabama expanded. The economy of the central Black Belt (named for its dark, productive soil) was built around large cotton plantations whose owners' wealth grew mainly from slave labor. The area also drew many poor, disfranchised people who became subsistence farmers. Alabama had an estimated population of under 10,000 people in 1810, but it increased to more than 300,000 people by 1830. Most Native American tribes were completely removed from the state within a few years of the passage of the Indian Removal Act by Congress in 1830.\n", "From 1826 to 1846, Tuscaloosa served as Alabama's capital. On January 30, 1846, the Alabama legislature announced it had voted to move the capital city from Tuscaloosa to Montgomery. The first legislative session in the new capital met in December 1847. A new capitol building was erected under the direction of Stephen Decatur Button of Philadelphia. The first structure burned down in 1849, but was rebuilt on the same site in 1851. This second capitol building in Montgomery remains to the present day. It was designed by Barachias Holt of Exeter, Maine.\n", "Section::::History.:Early 19th century.:Civil War and Reconstruction.\n", "By 1860, the population had increased to 964,201 people, of which nearly half, 435,080, were enslaved African Americans, and 2,690 were free people of color. On January 11, 1861, Alabama declared its secession from the Union. After remaining an independent republic for a few days, it joined the Confederate States of America. The Confederacy's capital was initially at Montgomery. Alabama was heavily involved in the American Civil War. Although comparatively few battles were fought in the state, Alabama contributed about 120,000 soldiers to the war effort.\n", "A company of cavalry soldiers from Huntsville, Alabama, joined Nathan Bedford Forrest's battalion in Hopkinsville, Kentucky. The company wore new uniforms with yellow trim on the sleeves, collar and coat tails. This led to them being greeted with \"Yellowhammer\", and the name later was applied to all Alabama troops in the Confederate Army.\n", "Alabama's slaves were freed by the 13th Amendment in 1865. Alabama was under military rule from the end of the war in May 1865 until its official restoration to the Union in 1868. From 1867 to 1874, with most white citizens barred temporarily from voting and freedmen enfranchised, many African Americans emerged as political leaders in the state. Alabama was represented in Congress during this period by three African-American congressmen: Jeremiah Haralson, Benjamin S. Turner, and James T. Rapier.\n", "Following the war, the state remained chiefly agricultural, with an economy tied to cotton. During Reconstruction, state legislators ratified a new state constitution in 1868 that created the state's first public school system and expanded women's rights. Legislators funded numerous public road and railroad projects, although these were plagued with allegations of fraud and misappropriation. Organized insurgent, resistance groups tried to suppress the freedmen and Republicans. Besides the short-lived original Ku Klux Klan, these included the Pale Faces, Knights of the White Camellia, Red Shirts, and the White League.\n", "Reconstruction in Alabama ended in 1874, when the Democrats regained control of the legislature and governor's office through an election dominated by fraud and violence. They wrote another constitution in 1875, and the legislature passed the Blaine Amendment, prohibiting public money from being used to finance religious-affiliated schools. The same year, legislation was approved that called for racially segregated schools. Railroad passenger cars were segregated in 1891. After disfranchising most African Americans and many poor whites in the 1901 constitution, the Alabama legislature passed more Jim Crow laws at the beginning of the 20th century to impose segregation in everyday life.\n", "Section::::History.:20th century.\n", "The new 1901 Constitution of Alabama included provisions for voter registration that effectively disenfranchised large portions of the population, including nearly all African Americans and Native Americans, and tens of thousands of poor whites, through making voter registration difficult, requiring a poll tax and literacy test. The 1901 constitution required racial segregation of public schools. By 1903, only 2,980 African Americans were registered in Alabama, although at least 74,000 were literate. This compared to more than 181,000 African Americans eligible to vote in 1900. The numbers dropped even more in later decades. The state legislature passed additional racial segregation laws related to public facilities into the 1950s: jails were segregated in 1911; hospitals in 1915; toilets, hotels, and restaurants in 1928; and bus stop waiting rooms in 1945.\n", "While the planter class had persuaded poor whites to vote for this legislative effort to suppress black voting, the new restrictions resulted in their disenfranchisement as well, due mostly to the imposition of a cumulative poll tax. By 1941, whites constituted a slight majority of those disenfranchised by these laws: 600,000 whites vs. 520,000 African-Americans. Nearly all African Americans had lost the ability to vote. Despite numerous legal challenges that succeeded in overturning certain provisions, the state legislature would create new ones to maintain disenfranchisement. The exclusion of blacks from the political system persisted until after passage of federal civil rights legislation in 1965 to enforce their constitutional rights as citizens.\n", "The rural-dominated Alabama legislature consistently underfunded schools and services for the disenfranchised African Americans, but it did not relieve them of paying taxes. Partially as a response to chronic underfunding of education for African Americans in the South, the Rosenwald Fund began funding the construction of what came to be known as Rosenwald Schools. In Alabama these schools were designed and the construction partially financed with Rosenwald funds, which paid one-third of the construction costs. The fund required the local community and state to raise matching funds to pay the rest. Black residents effectively taxed themselves twice, by raising additional monies to supply matching funds for such schools, which were built in many rural areas. They often donated land and labor as well.\n", "Beginning in 1913, the first 80 Rosenwald Schools were built in Alabama for African-American children. A total of 387 schools, seven teachers' houses, and several vocational buildings were completed by 1937 in the state. Several of the surviving school buildings in the state are now listed on the National Register of Historic Places.\n", "Continued racial discrimination and lynchings, agricultural depression, and the failure of the cotton crops due to boll weevil infestation led tens of thousands of African Americans from rural Alabama and other states to seek opportunities in northern and midwestern cities during the early decades of the 20th century as part of the Great Migration out of the South. Reflecting this emigration, the population growth rate in Alabama (see \"historical populations\" table below) dropped by nearly half from 1910 to 1920.\n", "At the same time, many rural people migrated to the city of Birmingham to work in new industrial jobs. Birmingham experienced such rapid growth that it was called the \"Magic City\". By 1920, Birmingham was the 36th-largest city in the United States. Heavy industry and mining were the basis of its economy. Its residents were under-represented for decades in the state legislature, which refused to redistrict after each decennial census according to population changes, as it was required by the state constitution. This did not change until the late 1960s following a lawsuit and court order.\n", "Industrial development related to the demands of World War II brought a level of prosperity to the state not seen since before the civil war. Rural workers poured into the largest cities in the state for better jobs and a higher standard of living. One example of this massive influx of workers occurred in Mobile. Between 1940 and 1943, more than 89,000 people moved into the city to work for war-related industries. Cotton and other cash crops faded in importance as the state developed a manufacturing and service base.\n", "Despite massive population changes in the state from 1901 to 1961, the rural-dominated legislature refused to reapportion House and Senate seats based on population, as required by the state constitution to follow the results of decennial censuses. They held on to old representation to maintain political and economic power in agricultural areas. One result was that Jefferson County, containing Birmingham's industrial and economic powerhouse, contributed more than one-third of all tax revenue to the state, but did not receive a proportional amount in services. Urban interests were consistently underrepresented in the legislature. A 1960 study noted that because of rural domination, \"a minority of about 25 per cent of the total state population is in majority control of the Alabama legislature.\"\n", "In the United States Supreme Court cases of \"Baker v. Carr\" (1962) and \"Reynolds v. Sims\" (1964), the court ruled ruled that the principle of \"one man, one vote\" needed to be the basis of both houses of state legislatures as well, and that their districts had to be based on population, rather than geographic counties, as Alabama had used for its senate.\n", "In 1972, for the first time since 1901, the legislature completed the congressional redistricting based on the decennial census. This benefited the urban areas that had developed, as well as all in the population who had been underrepresented for more than 60 years. Other changes were made to implement representative state house and senate districts.\n", "African Americans continued to press in the 1950s and 1960s to end disenfranchisement and segregation in the state through the civil rights movement, including legal challenges. In 1954, the US Supreme Court ruled in \"Brown v. Board of Education\" that public schools had to be desegregated, but Alabama was slow to comply. During the 1960s, under Governor George Wallace, Alabama resisted compliance with federal demands for desegregation. The civil rights movement had notable events in Alabama, including the Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955–56), Freedom Rides in 1961, and 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches. These contributed to Congressional passage and enactment of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965 by the U.S. Congress.\n", "Legal segregation ended in the states in 1964, but Jim Crow customs often continued until specifically challenged in court. According to \"The New York Times\", by 2017, many of Alabama's African-Americans were living in Alabama's cities such as Birmingham and Montgomery. Also, the Black Belt region across central Alabama \"is home to largely poor counties that are predominantly African-American. These counties include Dallas, Lowndes, Marengo and Perry.\"\n", "Alabama has made some changes since the late 20th century and has used new types of voting to increase representation. In the 1980s, an omnibus redistricting case, \"Dillard v. Crenshaw County\", challenged the at-large voting for representative seats of 180 Alabama jurisdictions, including counties and school boards. At-large voting had diluted the votes of any minority in a county, as the majority tended to take all seats. Despite African Americans making up a significant minority in the state, they had been unable to elect any representatives in most of the at-large jurisdictions.\n", "As part of settlement of this case, five Alabama cities and counties, including Chilton County, adopted a system of cumulative voting for election of representatives in multi-seat jurisdictions. This has resulted in more proportional representation for voters. In another form of proportional representation, 23 jurisdictions use limited voting, as in Conecuh County. In 1982, limited voting was first tested in Conecuh County. Together use of these systems has increased the number of African Americans and women being elected to local offices, resulting in governments that are more representative of their citizens.\n", "Section::::Geography.\n", "Alabama is the thirtieth-largest state in the United States with of total area: 3.2% of the area is water, making Alabama 23rd in the amount of surface water, also giving it the second-largest inland waterway system in the United States. About three-fifths of the land area is a gentle plain with a general descent towards the Mississippi River and the Gulf of Mexico. The North Alabama region is mostly mountainous, with the Tennessee River cutting a large valley and creating numerous creeks, streams, rivers, mountains, and lakes.\n", "Alabama is bordered by the states of Tennessee to the north, Georgia to the east, Florida to the south, and Mississippi to the west. Alabama has coastline at the Gulf of Mexico, in the extreme southern edge of the state. The state ranges in elevation from sea level at Mobile Bay to over 1,800 feet (550 m) in the Appalachian Mountains in the northeast.\n", "The highest point is Mount Cheaha, at a height of . Alabama's land consists of of forest or 67% of total land area. Suburban Baldwin County, along the Gulf Coast, is the largest county in the state in both land area and water area.\n", "Areas in Alabama administered by the National Park Service include Horseshoe Bend National Military Park near Alexander City; Little River Canyon National Preserve near Fort Payne; Russell Cave National Monument in Bridgeport; Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site in Tuskegee; and Tuskegee Institute National Historic Site near Tuskegee. Additionally, Alabama has four National Forests: Conecuh, Talladega, Tuskegee, and William B. Bankhead. Alabama also contains the Natchez Trace Parkway, the Selma To Montgomery National Historic Trail, and the Trail of Tears National Historic Trail.\n", "Notable natural wonders include: the \"Natural Bridge\" rock, the longest natural bridge east of the Rockies, located just south of Haleyville; Cathedral Caverns in Marshall County, named for its cathedral-like appearance, features one of the largest cave entrances and stalagmites in the world; Ecor Rouge in Fairhope, the highest coastline point between Maine and Mexico; DeSoto Caverns in Childersburg, the first officially recorded cave in the United States; Noccalula Falls in Gadsden features a 90 foot waterfall; Dismals Canyon near Phil Campbell, home to two waterfalls, six natural bridges and allegedly served as a hideout for legendary outlaw Jesse James; Stephens Gap Cave in Jackson County boasts a 143 foot pit, two waterfalls and is one of the most photographed wild cave scenes in America; Little River Canyon near Fort Payne, one of the nation's longest mountaintop rivers; Rickwood Caverns near Warrior features an underground pool, blind cave fish and 260 million year old limestone formations; and the Walls of Jericho canyon on the Alabama-Tennessee state line.\n", "A -wide meteorite impact crater is located in Elmore County, just north of Montgomery. This is the Wetumpka crater, the site of \"Alabama's greatest natural disaster.\" A -wide meteorite hit the area about 80 million years ago. The hills just east of downtown Wetumpka showcase the eroded remains of the impact crater that was blasted into the bedrock, with the area labeled the Wetumpka crater or astrobleme (\"star-wound\") because of the concentric rings of fractures and zones of shattered rock that can be found beneath the surface. In 2002, Christian Koeberl with the Institute of Geochemistry University of Vienna published evidence and established the site as the 157th recognized impact crater on Earth.\n", "Section::::Geography.:Climate.\n", "The state is classified as humid subtropical (\"Cfa\") under the Koppen Climate Classification. The average annual temperature is 64 °F (18 °C). Temperatures tend to be warmer in the southern part of the state with its proximity to the Gulf of Mexico, while the northern parts of the state, especially in the Appalachian Mountains in the northeast, tend to be slightly cooler. Generally, Alabama has very hot summers and mild winters with copious precipitation throughout the year. Alabama receives an average of of rainfall annually and enjoys a lengthy growing season of up to 300 days in the southern part of the state.\n", "Summers in Alabama are among the hottest in the U.S., with high temperatures averaging over throughout the summer in some parts of the state. Alabama is also prone to tropical storms and even hurricanes. Areas of the state far away from the Gulf are not immune to the effects of the storms, which often dump tremendous amounts of rain as they move inland and weaken.\n", "South Alabama reports many thunderstorms. The Gulf Coast, around Mobile Bay, averages between 70 and 80 days per year with thunder reported. This activity decreases somewhat further north in the state, but even the far north of the state reports thunder on about 60 days per year. Occasionally, thunderstorms are severe with frequent lightning and large hail; the central and northern parts of the state are most vulnerable to this type of storm. Alabama ranks ninth in the number of deaths from lightning and tenth in the number of deaths from lightning strikes per capita.\n", "Alabama, along with Oklahoma and Iowa, has the most confirmed F5 and EF5 tornadoes of any state, according to statistics from the National Climatic Data Center for the period January 1, 1950, to June 2013. Several long-tracked F5/EF5 tornadoes have contributed to Alabama reporting more tornado fatalities since 1950 than any other state. The state was affected by the 1974 Super Outbreak and was devastated tremendously by the 2011 Super Outbreak. The 2011 Super Outbreak produced a record amount of tornadoes in the state. The tally reached 62.\n", "The peak season for tornadoes varies from the northern to southern parts of the state. Alabama is one of the few places in the world that has a secondary tornado season in November and December, along with the spring severe weather season. The northern part of the state—along the Tennessee Valley—is one of the areas in the U.S. most vulnerable to violent tornadoes. The area of Alabama and Mississippi most affected by tornadoes is sometimes referred to as Dixie Alley, as distinct from the Tornado Alley of the Southern Plains.\n", "Winters are generally mild in Alabama, as they are throughout most of the Southeastern United States, with average January low temperatures around in Mobile and around in Birmingham. Although snow is a rare event in much of Alabama, areas of the state north of Montgomery may receive a dusting of snow a few times every winter, with an occasional moderately heavy snowfall every few years. Historic snowfall events include New Year's Eve 1963 snowstorm and the 1993 Storm of the Century. The annual average snowfall for the Birmingham area is per year. In the southern Gulf coast, snowfall is less frequent, sometimes going several years without any snowfall.\n", "Alabama's highest temperature of was recorded on September 5, 1925, in the unincorporated community of Centerville. The record low of occurred on January 30, 1966, in New Market.\n", "Section::::Geography.:Flora and fauna.\n", "Alabama is home to a diverse array of flora and fauna, due largely to a variety of habitats that range from the Tennessee Valley, Appalachian Plateau, and Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians of the north to the Piedmont, Canebrake, and Black Belt of the central region to the Gulf Coastal Plain and beaches along the Gulf of Mexico in the south. The state is usually ranked among the top in nation for its range of overall biodiversity.\n", "Alabama is in the subtropical coniferous forest biome and once boasted huge expanses of pine forest, which still form the largest proportion of forests in the state. It currently ranks fifth in the nation for the diversity of its flora. It is home to nearly 4,000 pteridophyte and spermatophyte plant species.\n", "Indigenous animal species in the state include 62 mammal species, 93 reptile species, 73 amphibian species, roughly 307 native freshwater fish species, and 420 bird species that spend at least part of their year within the state. Invertebrates include 97 crayfish species and 383 mollusk species. 113 of these mollusk species have never been collected outside the state.\n", "Section::::Demographics.\n", "The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Alabama was 4,887,871 on July 1, 2018, which represents an increase of 108,135 or 2.26%, since the 2010 Census. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 121,054 people (that is 502,457 births minus 381,403 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 104,991 people into the state.\n", "Immigration from outside the U.S. resulted in a net increase of 31,180 people, and migration within the country produced a net gain of 73,811 people. The state had 108,000 foreign-born (2.4% of the state population), of which an estimated 22.2% were undocumented (24,000).\n", "The center of population of Alabama is located in Chilton County, outside the town of Jemison.\n", "Section::::Demographics.:Ancestry.\n", "According to the 2010 Census, Alabama had a population of 4,779,736. The racial composition of the state was 68.5% White (67.0% Non-Hispanic White and 1.5% Hispanic White), 26.2% Black or African American, 3.9% Hispanic or Latino of any race, 1.1% Asian, 0.6% American Indian and Alaska Native, 0.1% Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, 2.0% from Some Other Race, and 1.5% from Two or More Races. In 2011, 46.6% of Alabama's population younger than age 1 were minorities.\n", "The largest reported ancestry groups in Alabama are: African (26.2%), English (23.6%), Irish (7.7%), German (5.7%), and Scots-Irish (2.0%). Those citing \"American\" ancestry in Alabama are generally of English or British ancestry; many Anglo-Americans identify as having American ancestry because their roots have been in North America for so long, in some cases since the 1600s. Demographers estimate that a minimum of 20–23% of people in Alabama are of predominantly English ancestry and that the figure is likely higher. In the 1980 census, 41% of the people in Alabama identified as being of English ancestry, making them the largest ethnic group at the time.\n", "Based on historic migration and settlement patterns in the southern colonies and states, demographers estimated there are more people in Alabama of Scots-Irish origins than self-reported. Many people in Alabama claim Irish ancestry because of the term Scots-Irish but, based on historic immigration and settlement, their ancestors were more likely Protestant Scots-Irish coming from northern Ireland, where they had been for a few generations as part of the English colonization. The Scots-Irish were the largest non-English immigrant group from the British Isles before the American Revolution, and many settled in the South, later moving into the Deep South as it was developed.\n", "In 1984, under the Davis–Strong Act, the state legislature established the Alabama Indian Affairs Commission. Native American groups within the state had increasingly been demanding recognition as ethnic groups and seeking an end to discrimination. Given the long history of slavery and associated racial segregation, the Native American peoples, who have sometimes been of mixed race, have insisted on having their cultural identification respected. In the past, their self-identification was often overlooked as the state tried to impose a binary breakdown of society into white and black.\n", "The state has officially recognized nine American Indian tribes in the state, descended mostly from the Five Civilized Tribes of the American Southeast. These are:\n", "BULLET::::- Poarch Band of Creek Indians (who also have federal recognition),\n", "BULLET::::- MOWA Band of Choctaw Indians,\n", "BULLET::::- Star Clan of Muscogee Creeks,\n", "BULLET::::- Echota Cherokee Tribe of Alabama,\n", "BULLET::::- Cherokee Tribe of Northeast Alabama,\n", "BULLET::::- Cher-O-Creek Intra Tribal Indians,\n", "BULLET::::- \"Ma-Chis\" Lower Creek Indian Tribe,\n", "BULLET::::- \"Piqua\" Shawnee Tribe, and\n", "BULLET::::- \"Ani-Yun-Wiya\" Nation.\n", "The state government has promoted recognition of Native American contributions to the state, including the designation in 2000 for Columbus Day to be jointly celebrated as American Indian Heritage Day.\n", "Section::::Demographics.:Language.\n", "95.1% of all Alabama residents five years old or older spoke only English at home in 2010, a minor decrease from 96.1% in 2000. Alabama English is predominantly Southern, and is related to South Midland speech which was taken across the border from Tennessee. In the major Southern speech region, there is the decreasing loss of the final /r/, for example the /boyd/ pronunciation of 'bird'. In the northern third of the state, there is a South Midland 'arm' and 'barb' rhyming with 'form' and 'orb'. Unique words in Alabama English include: redworm (earthworm), peckerwood (woodpecker), snake doctor and snake feeder (dragonfly), tow sack (burlap bag), plum peach (clingstone), French harp (harmonica), and dog irons (andirons).\n", "Section::::Demographics.:Religion.\n", "In the 2008 American Religious Identification Survey, 86% of Alabama respondents reported their religion as Christian, including 6% Catholic, with 11% as having no religion. The composition of other traditions is 0.5% Mormon, 0.5% Jewish, 0.5% Muslim, 0.5% Buddhist, and 0.5% Hindu.\n", "Alabama is located in the middle of the Bible Belt, a region of numerous Protestant Christians. Alabama has been identified as one of the most religious states in the United States, with about 58% of the population attending church regularly. A majority of people in the state identify as Evangelical Protestant. , the three largest denominational groups in Alabama are the Southern Baptist Convention, The United Methodist Church, and non-denominational Evangelical Protestant.\n", "In Alabama, the Southern Baptist Convention has the highest number of adherents with 1,380,121; this is followed by the United Methodist Church with 327,734 adherents, non-denominational Evangelical Protestant with 220,938 adherents, and the Catholic Church with 150,647 adherents. Many Baptist and Methodist congregations became established in the Great Awakening of the early 19th century, when preachers proselytized across the South. The Assemblies of God had almost 60,000 members, the Churches of Christ had nearly 120,000 members. The Presbyterian churches, strongly associated with Scots-Irish immigrants of the 18th century and their descendants, had a combined membership around 75,000 (PCA – 28,009 members in 108 congregations, PC(USA) – 26,247 members in 147 congregations, the Cumberland Presbyterian Church – 6,000 members in 59 congregations, the Cumberland Presbyterian Church in America – 5,000 members and 50 congregations plus the EPC and Associate Reformed Presbyterians with 230 members and 9 congregations).\n", "In a 2007 survey, nearly 70% of respondents could name all four of the Christian Gospels. Of those who indicated a religious preference, 59% said they possessed a \"full understanding\" of their faith and needed no further learning. In a 2007 poll, 92% of Alabamians reported having at least some confidence in churches in the state.\n", "Although in much smaller numbers, many other religious faiths are represented in the state as well, including Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, the Bahá'í Faith, and Unitarian Universalism.\n", "Jews have been present in what is now Alabama since 1763, during the colonial era of Mobile, when Sephardic Jews immigrated from London. The oldest Jewish congregation in the state is Congregation Sha'arai Shomayim in Mobile. It was formally recognized by the state legislature on January 25, 1844. Later immigrants in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries tended to be Ashkenazi Jews from eastern Europe. Jewish denominations in the state include two Orthodox, four Conservative, ten Reform, and one Humanistic synagogue.\n", "Muslims have been increasing in Alabama, with 31 mosques built by 2011, many by African-American converts.\n", "Several Hindu temples and cultural centers in the state have been founded by Indian immigrants and their descendants, the best-known being the Shri Swaminarayan Mandir in Birmingham, the Hindu Temple and Cultural Center of Birmingham in Pelham, the Hindu Cultural Center of North Alabama in Capshaw, and the Hindu Mandir and Cultural Center in Tuscaloosa.\n", "There are six Dharma centers and organizations for Theravada Buddhists. Most monastic Buddhist temples are concentrated in southern Mobile County, near Bayou La Batre. This area has attracted an influx of refugees from Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam during the 1970s and thereafter. The four temples within a ten-mile radius of Bayou La Batre, include Chua Chanh Giac, Wat Buddharaksa, and Wat Lao Phoutthavihan.\n", "The first community of adherents of the Bahá'í Faith in Alabama was founded in 1896 by Paul K. Dealy, who moved from Chicago to Fairhope. Bahá'í centers in Alabama exist in Birmingham, Huntsville, and Florence.\n", "Section::::Demographics.:Health.\n", "A Centers for Disease Control and Prevention study in 2008 showed that obesity in Alabama was a problem, with most counties having over 29% of adults obese, except for ten which had a rate between 26% and 29%. Residents of the state, along with those in five other states, were least likely in the nation to be physically active during leisure time. Alabama, and the southeastern U.S. in general, has one of the highest incidences of adult onset diabetes in the country, exceeding 10% of adults.\n", "On May 14, 2019, Alabama passed the most restrictive anti-abortion laws in the country, banning the procedure at any stage of pregnancy unless there is a \"serious health risk\", with no exceptions for rape and incest. Doctors who perform abortions may receive 10 to 99 years imprisonment.\n", "Section::::Economy.\n", "The state has invested in aerospace, education, health care, banking, and various heavy industries, including automobile manufacturing, mineral extraction, steel production and fabrication. By 2006, crop and animal production in Alabama was valued at $1.5 billion. In contrast to the primarily agricultural economy of the previous century, this was only about 1% of the state's gross domestic product. The number of private farms has declined at a steady rate since the 1960s, as land has been sold to developers, timber companies, and large farming conglomerates.\n", "Non-agricultural employment in 2008 was 121,800 in management occupations; 71,750 in business and financial operations; 36,790 in computer-related and mathematical occupation; 44,200 in architecture and engineering; 12,410 in life, physical, and social sciences; 32,260 in community and social services; 12,770 in legal occupations; 116,250 in education, training, and library services; 27,840 in art, design and media occupations; 121,110 in healthcare; 44,750 in fire fighting, law enforcement, and security; 154,040 in food preparation and serving; 76,650 in building and grounds cleaning and maintenance; 53,230 in personal care and services; 244,510 in sales; 338,760 in office and administration support; 20,510 in farming, fishing, and forestry; 120,155 in construction and mining, gas, and oil extraction; 106,280 in installation, maintenance, and repair; 224,110 in production; and 167,160 in transportation and material moving.\n", "According to the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, the 2008 total gross state product was $170 billion, or $29,411 per capita. Alabama's 2012 GDP increased 1.2% from the previous year. The single largest increase came in the area of information. In 2010, per capita income for the state was $22,984.\n", "The state's seasonally adjusted unemployment rate was 5.8% in April 2015. This compared to a nationwide seasonally adjusted rate of 5.4%.\n", "Alabama has no state minimum wage and uses the federal minimum wage of $7.25. In February 2016, the state passed legislation that prevents Alabama municipalities from raising the minimum wage in their locality. The legislation voids a Birmingham city ordinance that was to raise the city's minimum wage to $10.10.\n", ", Alabama has the sixth highest poverty rate among states in the U.S. In 2017, United Nations Special Rapporteur Philip Alston toured parts of rural Alabama and observed environmental conditions that he said were poorer than anywhere he had seen in the developed world.\n", "Section::::Economy.:Largest employers.\n", "The five employers that employed the most employees in Alabama in April 2011 were:\n", "The next twenty largest employers, , included:\n", "Section::::Economy.:Agriculture.\n", "Alabama's agricultural outputs include poultry and eggs, cattle, fish, plant nursery items, peanuts, cotton, grains such as corn and sorghum, vegetables, milk, soybeans, and peaches. Although known as \"The Cotton State\", Alabama ranks between eighth and tenth in national cotton production, according to various reports, with Texas, Georgia and Mississippi comprising the top three.\n", "Section::::Economy.:Industry.\n", "Alabama's industrial outputs include iron and steel products (including cast-iron and steel pipe); paper, lumber, and wood products; mining (mostly coal); plastic products; cars and trucks; and apparel. In addition, Alabama produces aerospace and electronic products, mostly in the Huntsville area, the location of NASA's George C. Marshall Space Flight Center and the U.S. Army Materiel Command, headquartered at Redstone Arsenal.\n", "A great deal of Alabama's economic growth since the 1990s has been due to the state's expanding automotive manufacturing industry. Located in the state are Honda Manufacturing of Alabama, Hyundai Motor Manufacturing Alabama, Mercedes-Benz U.S. International, and Toyota Motor Manufacturing Alabama, as well as their various suppliers. Since 1993, the automobile industry has generated more than 67,800 new jobs in the state. Alabama currently ranks 4th in the nation for vehicle exports.\n", "Automakers accounted for approximately a third of the industrial expansion in the state in 2012. The eight models produced at the state's auto factories totaled combined sales of 74,335 vehicles for 2012. The strongest model sales during this period were the Hyundai Elantra compact car, the Mercedes-Benz GL-Class sport utility vehicle and the Honda Ridgeline sport utility truck.\n", "Steel producers Outokumpu, Nucor, SSAB, ThyssenKrupp, and U.S. Steel have facilities in Alabama and employ over 10,000 people. In May 2007, German steelmaker ThyssenKrupp selected Calvert in Mobile County for a 4.65 billion combined stainless and carbon steel processing facility. ThyssenKrupp's stainless steel division, Inoxum, including the stainless portion of the Calvert plant, was sold to Finnish stainless steel company Outokumpu in 2012. The remaining portion of the ThyssenKrupp plant had final bids submitted by ArcelorMittal and Nippon Steel for $1.6 billion in March 2013. Companhia Siderúrgica Nacional submitted a combined bid for the mill at Calvert, plus a majority stake in the ThyssenKrupp mill in Brazil, for $3.8 billion. In July 2013, the plant was sold to ArcelorMittal and Nippon Steel.\n", "The Hunt Refining Company, a subsidiary of Hunt Consolidated, Inc., is based in Tuscaloosa and operates a refinery there. The company also operates terminals in Mobile, Melvin, and Moundville. JVC America, Inc. operates an optical disc replication and packaging plant in Tuscaloosa.\n", "The Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company operates a large plant in Gadsden that employs about 1,400 people. It has been in operation since 1929.\n", "Construction of an Airbus A320 family aircraft assembly plant in Mobile was formally announced by Airbus CEO Fabrice Brégier from the Mobile Convention Center on July 2, 2012. The plans include a $600 million factory at the Brookley Aeroplex for the assembly of the A319, A320 and A321 aircraft. Construction began in 2013, with plans for it to become operable by 2015 and produce up to 50 aircraft per year by 2017. The assembly plant is the company's first factory to be built within the United States. It was announced on February 1, 2013, that Airbus had hired Alabama-based Hoar Construction to oversee construction of the facility.\n", "Section::::Economy.:Tourism and entertainment.\n", "Tourism is a strong industry in the state. According to Business Insider, Alabama ranked 14th in most popular states to visit in 2014. An estimated 26 million tourists visited the state in 2018. Over 100,000 of these are from other countries, including from Canada, the United Kingdom, Germany and Japan. In 2006, 22.3 million travellers spent $8.3 billion providing an estimated 162,000 jobs in the state.\n", "The state is home to various attractions, natural features, parks and events that attract visitors from around the globe, notably the annual Hangout Music Festival, held on the public beaches of Gulf Shores; the Alabama Shakespeare Festival, one of the ten largest Shakespeare festivals in the world; the Robert Trent Jones Golf Trail, a collection of championship caliber golf courses distributed across the state; casinos such as Victoryland; amusement parks such as Alabama Splash Adventure; the Riverchase Galleria, one of the largest shopping centers in the southeast; Guntersville Lake, voted the best lake in Alabama by Southern Living Magazine readers; and the Alabama Museum of Natural History, the oldest museum in the state.\n", "Mobile is known for having the oldest organized Mardi Gras celebration in the United States, beginning in 1703. It was also host to the first formally organized Mardi Gras parade in the United States in 1830, a tradition that continues to this day. Mardi Gras is an official state holiday in Mobile and Baldwin counties.\n", "In 2018, Mobile's Mardi Gras parade was the state's top event that produced the most tourists with an attendance of 892,811. The top attraction was the U.S. Space & Rocket Center in Huntsville with an attendance of 849,981 followed by the Birmingham Zoo with 543,090 visitors. Of the parks and natural destinations, Alabama's Gulf Coast topped the list with 6,700,000 visitors. \n", "Alabama has historically been a popular region for film shoots due to its diverse landscapes and contrast of environments. Movies filmed in Alabama include: Close Encounters of the Third Kind, Get Out, 42, Selma, Big Fish, The Final Destination, Due Date, Need For Speed and many more. \n", "Section::::Economy.:Healthcare.\n", "UAB Hospital is the only Level I trauma center in Alabama. UAB is the largest state government employer in Alabama, with a workforce of about 18,000. A 2017 study found that Alabama had the least competitive health insurance market in the country, with Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Alabama having a market share of 84% followed by UnitedHealth Group at 7%.\n", "Section::::Economy.:Banking.\n", "Regions Financial Corporation and BBVA USA Bank are the largest banks headquartered in Alabama. Birmingham-based Compass Banchshares was acquired by Spanish-based BBVA in September 2007 with the headquarters of BBVA USA remaining in Birmingham. In November 2006, Regions Financial acquired AmSouth Bancorporation, which was also headquartered in Birmingham. SouthTrust Corporation, another large bank headquartered in Birmingham, was acquired by Wachovia in 2004.\n", "Wells Fargo has a regional headquarters, an operations center campus, and a $400 million data center in Birmingham. Many smaller banks are also headquartered in the Birmingham area, including ServisFirst and New South Federal Savings Bank. Birmingham also serves as the headquarters for several large investment management companies, including Harbert Management Corporation.\n", "Section::::Economy.:Electronics and communications.\n", "Telecommunications provider AT&T, formerly BellSouth, has a major presence in Alabama with several large offices in Birmingham.\n", "Many commercial technology companies are headquartered in Huntsville, such as network access company ADTRAN, computer graphics company Intergraph, and IT infrastructure company Avocent. Cinram manufactures and distributes 20th Century Fox DVDs and Blu-ray Discs out of its Huntsville plant.\n", "Section::::Economy.:Construction.\n", "Rust International has grown to include Brasfield & Gorrie, BE&K, Hoar Construction, and B.L. Harbert International, which all routinely are included in the Engineering News-Record lists of top design, international construction, and engineering firms. (Rust International was acquired in 2000 by Washington Group International, which was in turn acquired by San-Francisco based URS Corporation in 2007.)\n", "Section::::Law and government.\n", "Section::::Law and government.:State government.\n", "The foundational document for Alabama's government is the Alabama Constitution, which was ratified in 1901. At almost 800 amendments and 310,000 words, it is by some accounts the world's longest constitution and is roughly forty times the length of the United States Constitution.\n", "There has been a significant movement to rewrite and modernize Alabama's constitution. Critics argue that Alabama's constitution maintains highly centralized power with the state legislature, leaving practically no power in local hands. Most counties do not have home rule. Any policy changes proposed in different areas of the state must be approved by the entire Alabama legislature and, frequently, by state referendum. One criticism of the current constitution claims that its complexity and length intentionally codify segregation and racism.\n", "Alabama's government is divided into three coequal branches. The legislative branch is the Alabama Legislature, a bicameral assembly composed of the Alabama House of Representatives, with 105 members, and the Alabama Senate, with 35 members. The Legislature is responsible for writing, debating, passing, or defeating state legislation. The Republican Party currently holds a majority in both houses of the Legislature. The Legislature has the power to override a gubernatorial veto by a simple majority (most state Legislatures require a two-thirds majority to override a veto).\n", "Until 1964, the state elected state senators on a geographic basis by county, with one per county. It had not redistricted congressional districts since passage of its constitution in 1901; as a result, urbanized areas were grossly underrepresented. It had not changed legislative districts to reflect the decennial censuses, either. In \"Reynolds v. Sims\" (1964), the US Supreme Court implemented the principle of \"one man, one vote\", ruling that congressional districts had to be reapportioned based on censuses (as the state already included in its constitution but had not implemented.) Further, the court ruled that both houses of bicameral state legislatures had to be apportioned by population, as there was no constitutional basis for states to have geographically based systems.\n", "At that time, Alabama and many other states had to change their legislative districting, as many across the country had systems that underrepresented urban areas and districts. This had caused decades of underinvestment in such areas. For instance, Birmingham and Jefferson County taxes had supplied one-third of the state budget, but Jefferson County received only 1/67th of state services in funding. Through the legislative delegations, the Alabama legislature kept control of county governments.\n", "The executive branch is responsible for the execution and oversight of laws. It is headed by the governor of Alabama. Other members of executive branch include the cabinet, the lieutenant governor of Alabama, the attorney general of Alabama, the Alabama secretary of state, the Alabama state treasurer, and the state auditor of Alabama. The current governor of the state is Republican Kay Ivey.\n", "The members of the Legislature take office immediately after the November elections. Statewide officials, such as the governor, lieutenant governor, attorney general, and other constitutional officers, take office the following January.\n", "The judicial branch is responsible for interpreting the state's Constitution and applying the law in state criminal and civil cases. The state's highest court is the Supreme Court of Alabama. Alabama uses partisan elections to select judges. Since the 1980s judicial campaigns have become increasingly politicized. The current chief justice of the Alabama Supreme Court is Republican Tom Parker. All sitting justices on the Alabama Supreme Court are members of the Republican Party. There are two intermediate appellate courts, the Court of Civil Appeals and the Court of Criminal Appeals, and four trial courts: the circuit court (trial court of general jurisdiction), and the district, probate, and municipal courts.\n", "Some critics believe that the election of judges has contributed to an exceedingly high rate of executions. Alabama has the highest per capita death penalty rate in the country. In some years, it imposes more death sentences than does Texas, a state which has a population five times larger. Some of its cases have been highly controversial; the Supreme Court has overturned 24 convictions in death penalty cases. It was the only state to allow judges to override jury decisions in whether or not to use a death sentence; in 10 cases judges overturned sentences of life imprisonment without parole (LWOP) that were voted unanimously by juries. This judicial authority was removed in April 2017.\n", "Section::::Law and government.:Taxes.\n", "Alabama levies a 2, 4, or 5 percent personal income tax, depending upon the amount earned and filing status. Taxpayers are allowed to deduct their federal income tax from their Alabama state tax, and can do so even if taking the standard deduction. Taxpayers who file itemized deductions are also allowed to deduct the Federal Insurance Contributions Act tax (Social Security and Medicare tax).\n", "The state's general sales tax rate is 4%. Sales tax rates for cities and counties are also added to purchases. For example, the total sales tax rate in Mobile is 10% and there is an additional restaurant tax of 1%, which means that a diner in Mobile would pay an 11% tax on a meal. , sales and excise taxes in Alabama account for 51% of all state and local revenue, compared with an average of about 36% nationwide. Alabama is one of seven states that levy a tax on food at the same rate as other goods, and one of two states (the other being neighboring Mississippi) which fully taxes groceries without any offsetting relief for low-income families. (Most states exempt groceries from sales tax or apply a lower tax rate.)\n", "Alabama's income tax on poor working families is among the highest in the United States. Alabama is the only state that levies income tax on a family of four with income as low as $4,600, which is barely one-quarter of the federal poverty line. Alabama's threshold is the lowest among the 41 states and the District of Columbia with income taxes.\n", "The corporate income tax rate is currently 6.5%. The overall federal, state, and local tax burden in Alabama ranks the state as the second least tax-burdened state in the country. Property taxes are the lowest in the U.S. The current state constitution requires a voter referendum to raise property taxes.\n", "Since Alabama's tax structure largely depends on consumer spending, it is subject to high variable budget structure. For example, in 2003, Alabama had an annual budget deficit as high as $670 million.\n", "Section::::Law and government.:County and local governments.\n", "Alabama has 67 counties. Each county has its own elected legislative branch, usually called the county commission. It also has limited executive authority in the county. Because of the constraints of the Alabama Constitution, which centralizes power in the state legislature, only seven counties (Jefferson, Lee, Mobile, Madison, Montgomery, Shelby, and Tuscaloosa) in the state have limited home rule. Instead, most counties in the state must lobby the Local Legislation Committee of the state legislature to get simple local policies approved, ranging from waste disposal to land use zoning.\n", "The state legislature has retained power over local governments by refusing to pass a constitutional amendment establishing home rule for counties, as recommended by the 1973 Alabama Constitutional Commission. Legislative delegations retain certain powers over each county. United States Supreme Court decisions in \"Baker v. Carr\" (1964) required that both houses have districts established on the basis of population, and redistricted after each census, in order to implement the principle of \"one man, one vote\". Before that, each county was represented by one state senator, leading to under-representation in the state senate for more urbanized, populous counties. The rural bias of the state legislature, which had also failed to redistrict seats in the state house, affected politics well into the 20th century, failing to recognize the rise of industrial cities and urbanized areas.\n", "\"The lack of home rule for counties in Alabama has resulted in the proliferation of local legislation permitting counties to do things not authorized by the state constitution. Alabama's constitution has been amended more than 700 times, and almost one-third of the amendments are local in nature, applying to only one county or city. A significant part of each legislative session is spent on local legislation, taking away time and attention of legislators from issues of statewide importance.\"\n", "Alabama is an alcoholic beverage control state, meaning that the state government holds a monopoly on the sale of alcohol. The Alabama Alcoholic Beverage Control Board controls the sale and distribution of alcoholic beverages in the state. Twenty-five of the 67 counties are \"dry counties\" which ban the sale of alcohol, and there are many dry municipalities even in counties which permit alcohol sales.\n", "Section::::Law and government.:Politics.\n", "During Reconstruction following the American Civil War, Alabama was occupied by federal troops of the Third Military District under General John Pope. In 1874, the political coalition of white Democrats known as the Redeemers took control of the state government from the Republicans, in part by suppressing the black vote through violence, fraud and intimidation.\n", "After 1890, a coalition of White Democratic politicians passed laws to segregate and disenfranchise African American residents, a process completed in provisions of the 1901 constitution. Provisions which disenfranchised blacks resulted in excluding many poor Whites. By 1941 more Whites than Blacks had been disenfranchised: 600,000 to 520,000. The total effects were greater on the black community, as almost all of its citizens were disfranchised and relegated to separate and unequal treatment under the law.\n", "From 1901 through the 1960s, the state did not redraw election districts as population grew and shifted within the state during urbanization and industrialization of certain areas. As counties were the basis of election districts, the result was a rural minority that dominated state politics through nearly three-quarters of the century, until a series of federal court cases required redistricting in 1972 to meet equal representation.\n", "Alabama state politics gained nationwide and international attention in the 1950s and 1960s during the civil rights movement, when whites bureaucratically, and at times violently, resisted protests for electoral and social reform. Governor George Wallace, the state's only four-term governor, was a controversial figure who vowed to maintain segregation. Only after passage of the federal Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965 did African Americans regain the ability to exercise suffrage, among other civil rights. In many jurisdictions, they continued to be excluded from representation by at-large electoral systems, which allowed the majority of the population to dominate elections. Some changes at the county level have occurred following court challenges to establish single-member districts that enable a more diverse representation among county boards.\n", "In 2007, the Alabama Legislature passed, and Republican governor Bob Riley signed a resolution expressing \"profound regret\" over slavery and its lingering impact. In a symbolic ceremony, the bill was signed in the Alabama State Capitol, which housed Congress of the Confederate States of America.\n", "In 2010, Republicans won control of both houses of the legislature for the first time in 136 years.\n", ", there are a total of 3,326,812 registered voters, with 2,979,576 active, and the others inactive in the state.\n", "Section::::Law and government.:Elections.\n", "Section::::Law and government.:Elections.:State elections.\n", "With the disfranchisement of Blacks in 1901, the state became part of the \"Solid South\", a system in which the Democratic Party operated as effectively the only viable political party in every Southern state. For nearly 100 years, local and state elections in Alabama were decided in the Democratic Party primary, with generally only token Republican challengers running in the General Election. Since the mid to late 20th century, however, there has been a realignment among the two major political parties, and white conservatives started shifting to the Republican Party. In Alabama, majority-white districts are now expected to regularly elect Republican candidates to federal, state and local office.\n", "Members of the nine seats on the Supreme Court of Alabama and all ten seats on the state appellate courts are elected to office. Until 1994, no Republicans held any of the court seats. In that general election, the then-incumbent chief justice, Ernest C. Hornsby, refused to leave office after losing the election by approximately 3,000 votes to Republican Perry O. Hooper, Sr.. Hornsby sued Alabama and defiantly remained in office for nearly a year before finally giving up the seat after losing in court. This ultimately led to a collapse of support for Democrats at the ballot box in the next three or four election cycles. The Democrats lost the last of the nineteen court seats in August 2011 with the resignation of the last Democrat on the bench.\n", "In the early 21st century, Republicans hold all seven of the statewide elected executive branch offices. Republicans hold six of the eight elected seats on the Alabama State Board of Education. In 2010, Republicans took large majorities of both chambers of the state legislature, giving them control of that body for the first time in 136 years. The last remaining statewide Democrat, who served on the Alabama Public Service Commission was defeated in 2012.\n", "Only three Republican lieutenant governors have been elected since the end of Reconstruction, when Republicans generally represented Reconstruction government, including the newly emancipated freedmen who had gained the franchise. The three GOP lieutenant governors are Steve Windom (1999–2003), Kay Ivey (2011–2017), and Will Ainsworth (2019–present).\n", "Section::::Law and government.:Elections.:Local elections.\n", "Many local offices (county commissioners, boards of education, tax assessors, tax collectors, etc.) in the state are still held by Democrats. Many rural counties have voters who are majority Democrats, resulting in local elections being decided in the Democratic primary. Similarly many metropolitan and suburban counties are majority-Republican and elections are effectively decided in the Republican Primary, although there are exceptions.\n", "Alabama's 67 county sheriffs are elected in partisan, at-large races, and Democrats still retain the narrow majority of those posts. The current split is 35 Democrats, 31 Republicans, and one Independent Fayette. However, most of the Democratic sheriffs preside over rural and less populated counties. The majority of Republican sheriffs have been elected in the more urban/suburban and heavily populated counties. , the state of Alabama has one female sheriff, in Morgan County, Alabama, and ten African-American sheriffs.\n", "Section::::Law and government.:Elections.:Federal elections.\n", "The state's two U.S. senators are Republican Richard C. Shelby and Democrat Doug Jones. Shelby was originally elected to the Senate as a Democrat in 1986 and re-elected in 1992, but switched parties immediately following the November 1994 general election.\n", "In the U.S. House of Representatives, the state is represented by seven members, six of whom are Republicans: (Bradley Byrne, Mike D. Rogers, Robert Aderholt, Morris J. Brooks, Martha Roby, and Gary Palmer) and one Democrat: Terri Sewell who represents the Black Belt as well as most of the predominantly black portions of Birmingham, Tuscaloosa and Montgomery.\n", "Section::::Education.\n", "Section::::Education.:Primary and secondary education.\n", "Public primary and secondary education in Alabama is under the purview of the Alabama State Board of Education as well as local oversight by 67 county school boards and 60 city boards of education. Together, 1,496 individual schools provide education for 744,637 elementary and secondary students.\n", "Public school funding is appropriated through the Alabama Legislature through the Education Trust Fund. In FY 2006–2007, Alabama appropriated $3,775,163,578 for primary and secondary education. That represented an increase of $444,736,387 over the previous fiscal year. In 2007, over 82 percent of schools made adequate yearly progress (AYP) toward student proficiency under the National No Child Left Behind law, using measures determined by the state of Alabama.\n", "While Alabama's public education system has improved in recent decades, it lags behind in achievement compared to other states. According to U.S. Census data (2000), Alabama's high school graduation rate (75%) is the fourth lowest in the U.S. (after Kentucky, Louisiana and Mississippi). The largest educational gains were among people with some college education but without degrees.\n", "Although unusual in the West, school corporal punishment is not uncommon in Alabama, with 27,260 public school students paddled at least one time, according to government data for the 2011–2012 school year. The rate of school corporal punishment in Alabama is surpassed only by Mississippi and Arkansas.\n", "Section::::Education.:Colleges and universities.\n", "Alabama's programs of higher education include 14 four-year public universities, two-year community colleges, and 17 private, undergraduate and graduate universities. In the state are four medical schools (as of fall 2015) (University of Alabama School of Medicine, University of South Alabama and Alabama College of Osteopathic Medicine and The Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine – Auburn Campus), two veterinary colleges (Auburn University and Tuskegee University), a dental school (University of Alabama School of Dentistry), an optometry college (University of Alabama at Birmingham), two pharmacy schools (Auburn University and Samford University), and five law schools (University of Alabama School of Law, Birmingham School of Law, Cumberland School of Law, Miles Law School, and the Thomas Goode Jones School of Law). Public, post-secondary education in Alabama is overseen by the Alabama Commission on Higher Education and the Alabama Department of Postsecondary Education. Colleges and universities in Alabama offer degree programs from two-year associate degrees to a multitude of doctoral level programs.\n", "The largest single campus is the University of Alabama, located in Tuscaloosa, with 37,665 enrolled for fall 2016. Troy University was the largest institution in the state in 2010, with an enrollment of 29,689 students across four Alabama campuses (Troy, Dothan, Montgomery, and Phenix City), as well as sixty learning sites in seventeen other states and eleven other countries. The oldest institutions are the public University of North Alabama in Florence and the Catholic Church-affiliated Spring Hill College in Mobile, both founded in 1830.\n", "Accreditation of academic programs is through the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS) as well as other subject-focused national and international accreditation agencies such as the Association for Biblical Higher Education (ABHE), the Council on Occupational Education (COE), and the Accrediting Council for Independent Colleges and Schools (ACICS).\n", "According to the 2011 \"U.S. News & World Report\", Alabama had three universities ranked in the top 100 Public Schools in America (University of Alabama at 31, Auburn University at 36, and University of Alabama at Birmingham at 73).\n", "According to the 2012 \"U.S. News & World Report\", Alabama had four tier 1 universities (University of Alabama, Auburn University, University of Alabama at Birmingham and University of Alabama in Huntsville).\n", "Section::::Media.\n", "Major newspapers include \"Birmingham News\", Mobile \"Press-Register\", and \"Montgomery Advertiser\".\n", "Major television network affiliates in Alabama include:\n", "BULLET::::- ABC\n", "BULLET::::- WGWW 40.2 ABC, Anniston\n", "BULLET::::- WBMA 58/WABM 68.2 ABC, Birmingham\n", "BULLET::::- WDHN 18 ABC, Dothan\n", "BULLET::::- WAAY 31 ABC, Huntsville\n", "BULLET::::- WEAR 3 ABC Pensacola, FL/Mobile\n", "BULLET::::- WNCF 32 ABC, Montgomery\n", "BULLET::::- WDBB 17.2 ABC, Tuscaloosa\n", "BULLET::::- CBS\n", "BULLET::::- WIAT 42 CBS, Birmingham\n", "BULLET::::- WTVY 4 CBS, Dothan\n", "BULLET::::- WHNT 19 CBS, Huntsville\n", "BULLET::::- WKRG 5 CBS, Mobile\n", "BULLET::::- WAKA 8 CBS, Selma/Montgomery\n", "BULLET::::- Fox\n", "BULLET::::- WBRC 6 FOX, Birmingham\n", "BULLET::::- WZDX 54 FOX, Huntsville\n", "BULLET::::- WALA 10 FOX, Mobile\n", "BULLET::::- WCOV 20 FOX, Montgomery\n", "BULLET::::- WDFX 34 FOX, Ozark/Dothan\n", "BULLET::::- NBC\n", "BULLET::::- WVTM 13 NBC, Birmingham\n", "BULLET::::- WRGX 23 NBC, Dothan\n", "BULLET::::- WAFF 48 NBC, Huntsville\n", "BULLET::::- WPMI 15 NBC, Mobile\n", "BULLET::::- WSFA 12 NBC, Montgomery\n", "BULLET::::- PBS/Alabama Public Television\n", "BULLET::::- WBIQ 10 PBS, Birmingham\n", "BULLET::::- WIIQ 41 PBS, Demopolis\n", "BULLET::::- WDIQ 2 PBS, Dozier\n", "BULLET::::- WFIQ 36 PBS, Florence\n", "BULLET::::- WHIQ 25 PBS, Huntsville\n", "BULLET::::- WGIQ 43 PBS, Louisville\n", "BULLET::::- WEIQ 42 PBS, Mobile\n", "BULLET::::- WAIQ 26 PBS, Montgomery\n", "BULLET::::- WCIQ 7 PBS, Mount Cheaha\n", "BULLET::::- The CW\n", "BULLET::::- WTTO 21, Homewood/Birmingham\n", "BULLET::::- WTVY 4.3, Dothan\n", "BULLET::::- WHDF 15, Florence/Huntsville\n", "BULLET::::- WFNA 55, Gulf Shores/Mobile/Pensacola, FL\n", "BULLET::::- WDBB 17, Tuscaloosa\n", "BULLET::::- WBMM 22, Tuskegee/Montgomery\n", "Section::::Culture.\n", "Section::::Culture.:Sports.\n", "Section::::Culture.:Sports.:College sports.\n", "College football is extremely popular in Alabama, particularly the University of Alabama Crimson Tide and Auburn University Tigers, rivals in the Southeastern Conference. In the 2013 season, Alabama averaged over 100,000 fans per game and Auburn averaged over 80,000 fans, both numbers among the top 20 in the nation in average attendance. Bryant–Denny Stadium is the home of the Alabama football team, and has a seating capacity of 101,821, and is the fifth largest stadium in America. Jordan-Hare Stadium is the home field of the Auburn football team and seats up to 87,451.\n", "Legion Field is home for the UAB Blazers football program and the Birmingham Bowl. It seats 71,594. Ladd–Peebles Stadium in Mobile is the home of the University of South Alabama football team, and serves as the home of the NCAA Senior Bowl, Dollar General Bowl (formerly GoDaddy.com Bowl), and Alabama-Mississippi All Star Classic; the stadium seats 40,646. In 2009, Bryant–Denny Stadium and Jordan-Hare Stadium became the homes of the Alabama High School Athletic Association state football championship games, after previously being held at Legion Field in Birmingham.\n", "Section::::Culture.:Sports.:Professional sports.\n", "Alabama has several professional and semi-professional sports teams, including three minor league baseball teams.\n", "BULLET::::- Notes\n", "The Talladega Superspeedway motorsports complex hosts a series of NASCAR events. It has a seating capacity of 143,000 and is the thirteenth largest stadium in the world and sixth largest stadium in America. Also, the Barber Motorsports Park has hosted IndyCar Series and Rolex Sports Car Series races.\n", "The ATP Birmingham was a World Championship Tennis tournament held from 1973 to 1980.\n", "Alabama has hosted several professional golf tournaments, such as the 1984 and 1990 PGA Championship at Shoal Creek, the Barbasol Championship (PGA Tour), the Mobile LPGA Tournament of Champions, Airbus LPGA Classic, and Yokohama Tire LPGA Classic (LPGA Tour), and The Tradition (Champions Tour).\n", "Section::::Transportation.\n", "Section::::Transportation.:Aviation.\n", "Major airports with sustained commercial operations in Alabama include Birmingham-Shuttlesworth International Airport (BHM), Huntsville International Airport (HSV), Dothan Regional Airport (DHN), Mobile Regional Airport (MOB), Montgomery Regional Airport (MGM), and Muscle Shoals – Northwest Alabama Regional Airport (MSL).\n", "Section::::Transportation.:Rail.\n", "For rail transport, Amtrak schedules the \"Crescent\", a daily passenger train, running from New York to New Orleans with station stops at Anniston, Birmingham, and Tuscaloosa.\n", "Section::::Transportation.:Roads.\n", "Alabama has six major interstate roads that cross the state: Interstate 65 (I-65) travels north–south roughly through the middle of the state; I-20/I-59 travel from the central west Mississippi state line to Birmingham, where I-59 continues to the north-east corner of the state and I-20 continues east towards Atlanta; I-85 originates in Montgomery and travels east-northeast to the Georgia state line, providing a main thoroughfare to Atlanta; and I-10 traverses the southernmost portion of the state, traveling from west to east through Mobile. I-22 enters the state from Mississippi and connects Birmingham with Memphis, Tennessee. In addition, there are currently five auxiliary interstate routes in the state: I-165 in Mobile, I-359 in Tuscaloosa, I-459 around Birmingham, I-565 in Decatur and Huntsville, and I-759 in Gadsden. A sixth route, I-685, will be formed when I-85 is rerouted along a new southern bypass of Montgomery. A proposed northern bypass of Birmingham will be designated as I-422. Since a direct connection from I-22 to I-422 will not be possible, I-222 has been proposed, as well.\n", "Several U.S. Highways also pass through the state, such as U.S. Route 11 (US-11), US-29, US-31, US-43, US-45, US-72, US-78, US-80, US-82, US-84, US-90, US-98, US-231, US-278, US-280, US-331, US-411, and US-431.\n", "There are four toll roads in the state: Montgomery Expressway in Montgomery; Tuscaloosa Bypass in Tuscaloosa; Emerald Mountain Expressway in Wetumpka; and Beach Express in Orange Beach.\n", "Section::::Transportation.:Ports.\n", "The Port of Mobile, Alabama's only saltwater port, is a large seaport on the Gulf of Mexico with inland waterway access to the Midwest by way of the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway. The Port of Mobile was ranked 12th by tons of traffic in the United States during 2009. The newly expanded container terminal at the Port of Mobile was ranked as the 25th busiest for container traffic in the nation during 2011. The state's other ports are on rivers with access to the Gulf of Mexico.\n", "Water ports of Alabama, listed from north to south:\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Outline of Alabama – organized list of topics about Alabama\n", "BULLET::::- Index of Alabama-related articles\n", "BULLET::::- Sweet Home Alabama: a Lynyrd Skynyrd song about the state\n", "Section::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Alabama – History and Culture.\" Adventure Tourism – Experiential Travel Guides. Accessed: March 31, 2017.\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- Atkins, Leah Rawls, Wayne Flynt, William Warren Rogers, and David Ward. \"Alabama: The History of a Deep South State\" (1994)\n", "BULLET::::- Flynt, Wayne. \"Alabama in the Twentieth Century\" (2004)\n", "BULLET::::- Owen Thomas M. \"History of Alabama and Dictionary of Alabama Biography\" 4 vols. 1921.\n", "BULLET::::- Jackson, Harvey H. \"Inside Alabama: A Personal History of My State\" (2004)\n", "BULLET::::- Mohl, Raymond A. \"Latinization in the Heart of Dixie: Hispanics in Late-twentieth-century Alabama\" \"Alabama Review\" 2002 55(4): 243–274.\n", "BULLET::::- Peirce, Neal R. \"The Deep South States of America: People, Politics, and Power in the Seven Deep South States\" (1974). Information on politics and economics 1960–72.\n", "BULLET::::- Williams, Benjamin Buford. \"A Literary History of Alabama: The Nineteenth Century\" 1979.\n", "BULLET::::- WPA. \"Guide to Alabama\" (1939)\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Alabama State Guide, from the Library of Congress\n", "BULLET::::- All About Alabama, at the Alabama Department of Archives and History\n", "BULLET::::- Code of Alabama 1975 – at the Alabama Legislature site\n", "BULLET::::- USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Alabama\n", "BULLET::::- Alabama QuickFacts from the U.S. Census Bureau\n", "BULLET::::- Alabama State Fact Sheet from the U.S. Department of Agriculture\n" ] }

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{ "description": "state of the United States of America", "enwikiquote_title": "Alabama", "wikidata_id": "Q173", "wikidata_label": "Alabama", "wikipedia_title": "Alabama", "aliases": { "alias": [ "State of Alabama", "AL", "Heart of Dixie", "The Yellowhammer State" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Battle of Montereau\n", "The Battle of Montereau (18 February 1814) was fought during the War of the Sixth Coalition between an Imperial French army led by Emperor Napoleon and a corps of Austrians and Württembergers commanded by Crown Prince Frederick William of Württemberg. While Napoleon's army mauled an Allied army under Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher, the main Allied army commanded by Karl Philipp, Prince of Schwarzenberg advanced to a position dangerously close to Paris. Gathering up his outnumbered forces, Napoleon rushed his soldiers south to deal with Schwarzenberg. Hearing of the approach of the French emperor, the Allied commander ordered a withdrawal, but 17 February saw his rear guards overrun or brushed aside.\n", "Ordered to hold Montereau until nightfall on the 18th, the Crown Prince of Württemberg posted a strong force on the north bank of the Seine River. All morning and past noon, the Allies stoutly held off a series of French attacks. However, under increasing French pressure, the Crown Prince's lines buckled in the afternoon and his troops ran for the single bridge to their rear. Brilliantly led by Pierre Claude Pajol, the French cavalry got among the fugitives, captured the spans over both the Seine and Yonne Rivers and seized Montereau. The Allied force suffered heavy losses and the defeat confirmed Schwarzenberg's decision to continue the retreat to Troyes.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "Section::::Background.:Allied advance.\n", "On 10 February, the Army of Bohemia under Karl Philipp, Prince of Schwarzenberg began advancing from Troyes. On the right, Peter Wittgenstein and Karl Philipp von Wrede headed for Nogent and Bray on the Seine River supported by the Guards and Reserves. On the left, Crown Prince Frederick William of Württemberg moved on Sens with the I Corps of Frederick Bianchi, Duke of Casalanza on his left. The left flank forces were backed by Ignaz Gyulai's corps. The Allies were briefly checked at Nogent on the 10th by 1,000 French troops under Louis-Auguste-Victor, Count de Ghaisnes de Bourmont. Sens was taken on the 11th after a skirmish between the Crown Prince and Jacques-Alexandre-François Allix de Vaux.\n", "Tasked with the defense of the Seine, Marshal Claude Perrin Victor held Nogent and Marshal Nicolas Oudinot defended Montereau. On the 12th the Allies captured Bray from a weak force of French National Guards as well as the bridge at Pont-sur-Seine near Montereau. Afraid of being surrounded, Victor evacuated Nogent and fell back. The appearance of troops under Marshal Jacques MacDonald did not stop the retreat and by 15 February the French were moving back to the Yerres River only from Paris. Alexander Nikitich Seslavin led a scouting force of three Russian hussar squadrons and one Cossack regiment well to the south to seize Montargis and threaten Orléans. Auxerre was stormed and its garrison wiped out. Cossacks roamed freely in the Forest and Palace of Fontainebleau. When Victor's wagon train appeared at Charenton-le-Pont the Parisians were thrown into panic. Meanwhile, fleeing peasants reported that Paris would soon be attacked by 200,000 Cossacks.\n", "Section::::Background.:French counteroffensive.\n", "Following his successes in the Six Days' Campaign on 10–14 February 1814, Emperor Napoleon headed southward towards the Seine to stop Schwarzenberg's threat to Paris. Forces under Marshals Édouard Mortier and Auguste Marmont were left behind to keep Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher's Army of Silesia under observation. Giving up his plans to finish off Blücher, Napoleon left Montmirail on 15 February with the Imperial Guard and Emmanuel Grouchy's cavalry. In an epic march, with some infantry traveling in carts and wagons, Napoleon's leading forces reached Guignes at 3:00 pm on the 16th after moving in 36 hours. Another authority stated that some troops marched in 36 hours.\n", "Hearing of Blücher's defeat and the approach of Napoleon, the cautious Schwarzenberg scrambled to put the Seine between his army and the French emperor. On 17 February, he ordered Wittgenstein to retreat to Provins while Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly massed the Russian and Prussian Guards near Nogent. He instructed Wrede to fall back to Donnemarie while leaving an advanced guard at Nangis. Württemberg and Bianchi were posted near Montereau while Gyulai held Pont-sur-Yonne and the Austrian Reserve was at Sens. If the Army of Bohemia needed to retreat farther, it was important to hold the position at Montereau. Matvei Platov was to the west at Nemours where his 2,100 Cossacks captured 600 men of an Imperial Guard depot battalion on the 16th.\n", "Early on 17 February, Napoleon's leading elements under Etienne Maurice Gérard enveloped a Russian force led by Peter Petrovich Pahlen. In the Battle of Mormant, Pahlen's 2,500 infantry and 1,250 cavalry were overwhelmed by the French, suffering 3,114 killed, wounded or captured. A nearby Austrian force led by Anton von Hardegg remained largely inert while its allies were being cut to pieces. Finally, Hardegg allowed 550 troopers from the Schwarzenberg Uhlan Regiment Nr. 2 to assist the Russians. The Reval and Selenginsk Infantry Regiments suffered such heavy losses that they were withdrawn from the campaign. Next, the French struck Wrede's advance guard at Nangis and threw it back to Villeneuve-le-Comte.\n", "At Nangis Napoleon split his army into three columns. The right column including Victor's II Corps, Gerard's Reserve of Paris and cavalry under Samuel-François Lhéritier and Étienne Tardif de Pommeroux de Bordesoulle took the road south toward Montereau. The center column consisted of MacDonald's XI Corps, two cavalry divisions and the Imperial Guard. This force headed for Bray. The left column, made up of Oudinot's VII Corps and François Étienne de Kellermann's cavalry, pursued Wittgenstein east toward Provins. Pierre Claude Pajol's cavalry and Michel-Marie Pacthod's National Guards set out from Melun and advanced southeast toward Montereau. The divisions of Allix and Henri François Marie Charpentier moved south from Melun to Fontainebleau. MacDonald and Oudinot pressed Hardegg's rear guard back, capturing some wagons. Victor came across one of Wrede's divisions drawn up on the heights of Valjouan near Villeneuve. Victor sent Gérard to attack the Bavarians in front while Bordesoulle circled to take them from behind. Soon the Bavarians were retreating in disorder and Lhéritier missed a chance to deliver the \"coup de grace\" with his cavalry. Nevertheless, Wrede's corps sustained 2,500 casualties during the day. Victor's soldiers were exhausted, so he called a halt. Napoleon was furious that Victor disobeyed his orders to press on to Montereau during the night and asked his chief of staff Louis-Alexandre Berthier to write him a harsh reprimand.\n", "Section::::Battle.\n", "Section::::Battle.:Forces.\n", "The Crown Prince's IV Corps consisted of an infantry division led by Christian Johann Gottgetreu von Koch and a cavalry division under Prince Adam von Württemberg. Ludwig Stockmeyer's brigade consisted of two battalions of King Frederick Jäger Regiment Nr. 9 and one battalion of Light Infantry Regiment Nr. 10. Christoph Friedrich David Döring's brigade was made up of two battalions each of Infantry Regiments Duke Wilhelm Nr. 2, Nr. 3 and Nr. 7. Prince Karl von Hohenlohe-Kirchberg's brigade included two battalions each of Infantry Regiments Nr. 4 and Crown Prince Nr. 6. Walsleben's cavalry brigade comprised four squadrons each of Duke Louis Jäger zu Pferde Regiment Nr. 2 and Crown Prince Dragoon Regiment Nr. 3. Karl August Maximillian Jett's cavalry brigade had four squadrons of Prince Adam Jäger zu Pferde Regiment Nr. 4. Attached to each cavalry brigade was one horse artillery battery while Döring's and Hohenlohe's brigades each had a foot artillery battery. All four batteries were armed with four 6-pound cannons and two howitzers.\n", "Attached to the IV Corps was Joseph Schäffer's Austrian brigade. This unit consisted of two battalions each of Infantry Regiments Gyulai Nr. 21, Esterhazy Nr. 32 and Josef Colloredo Nr. 57, three battalions of Infantry Regiment Zach Nr. 15, six squadrons of Archduke Ferdinand Hussar Regiment Nr. 3 and two-foot artillery batteries. Altogether there were 11,000 Württembergers and 4,000 Austrians present. A second source credited the Allies with 18,000 troops in Montereau.\n", "Victor's II Corps had the divisions of Louis Huguet-Chateau and Guillaume Philibert Duhesme. Chateau's 1st Division was made up of 1st Battalions of the 11th and 24th Light and the 2nd, 19th, 37th and 56th Line Infantry Regiments. Duhesme's 2nd Division included 1st and 2nd Battalions of the 4th, 18th and 46th Line and 1st Battalions of the 72nd and 93rd Line and 26th Light. Chateau's division numbered only 1,536 officers and men, since all units except the 477-strong 19th were sadly understrength, while Duhesme had 2,442 effectives. The 1st Division was supported by five 6-pound cannons and one howitzer while the 2nd Division counted eight 6-pound cannons and four howitzers. With 475 gunners and 135 sappers, Victor's total strength was 4,588 soldiers. Gérard's Reserve of Paris included the divisions of Georges Joseph Dufour and Jacques Félix Jan de La Hamelinaye. The 1st Division was made up of one battalion each of the 5th, 12th, 15th and 29th Light and the 32nd, 58th and 135th Line. The 2nd Division comprised the 26th, 82nd, 86th, 121st, 122nd and 142nd Line. Gérard's force had 214 artillerists from three companies attached.\n", "Pajol led a provisional cavalry corps consisting of three small brigades, 460 Chasseurs à Cheval under Jacques-Antoine-Adrien Delort, 476 Dragoons under François Grouvel and 400 Hussars under Charles Yves César Du Coetlosquet. Pacthod commanded 3,000 National Guards and there were 800 gendarmes (military police) with this column. MacDonald's XI Corps counted three divisions led by Joseph Jean Baptiste Albert, François Pierre Joseph Amey and Michel Sylvestre Brayer. Lhéritier commanded the V Cavalry Corps which was formed from three mounted divisions. Hippolyte Piré's 3rd Light Cavalry Division included the 14th, 26th and 27th Chasseurs à Cheval and the 3rd Hussars, André Louis Briche's 3rd Heavy Cavalry Division the 2nd, 6th, 11th, 13th and 15th Dragoons and Lhéritier's 4th Cavalry Division the 18th, 19th, 20th, 22nd and 25th Dragoons. Bordesoulle's detachment numbered 500 horsemen from depot squadrons.\n", "The Imperial Guard consisted of the Old Guard Division of Louis Friant, the 1st Young Guard Division of Claude Marie Meunier, the 2nd Young Guard Division of Philibert Jean-Baptiste Curial, and the 2nd and 3rd Guard Cavalry Divisions. Marshal Michel Ney led the two Young Guard divisions while Étienne Marie Antoine Champion de Nansouty led the Guard cavalry divisions. The 2nd Guard Cavalry was made up of the 1st Polish Guard Lancer, Empress Dragoon and Polish and 3rd Éclaireur Regiments. The 3rd Guard Cavalry Division had the Guard Horse Grenadier and Guard Chasseurs à Cheval Regiments. According to one authority, units that fought in the battle included most of the regiments from the corps of Victor and Gérard, the Guard artillery, Guard Chasseurs à Cheval and 2nd Guard Lancers, 3rd Hussars from Jacques Gervais, baron Subervie's brigade, 18th Dragoons of Auguste Lamotte's brigade, 25th Dragoons from Jean Antoine de Collaert's brigade, 9th Lancers and 22nd Chasseurs à Cheval from Kellermann's VI Cavalry Corps and the 7th Lancers, 9th Chasseurs à Cheval and 7th Hussars from unidentified corps. MacDonald's corps and the Guard infantry were not engaged.\n", "Section::::Battle.:Action.\n", "After issuing conflicting orders concerning the defense of Montereau, Schwarzenberg finally directed the Crown Prince to hold the town until the evening of 18 February. Meanwhile, Oudinot's leading troops found that Wittgenstein had withdrawn across the Seine at Nogent while Wrede was across at Bray. At both places, the Allies broke the bridges. While Montereau on the south bank is in flat terrain, the north bank is crowned by a height with a steep slope next to the river and a gentler slope on the north side. Atop the ridge, Surville chateau overlooks the bridges and town of Montereau, which was surrounded by vineyards and meadows to the south and east. The Paris road approached Montereau from the northwest where there was a forest. The road from Salins came from the northeast and ran alongside the river from Courbeton chateau to the bridge. The hamlet of Les Ormeaux was a short distance east of the Paris road. The roads from the north join at the bridge which crosses the Seine to the eastern suburb, then immediately crosses the Yonne into Montereau. The Seine bridge was the site of the Assassination of John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy in 1419.\n", "The Crown Prince deployed 8,500-foot soldiers, 1,000 horsemen and 26 field guns on the north bank of the Seine. A second authority counted 12,000 defenders. The left flank was anchored in Les Ormeaux, the center incorporated the Surville chateau and park while the right flank included the Courbeton chateau and blocked the road from Salins. Two Austrian batteries from Bianchi's corps were positioned on the south bank, one covering each flank. There was also a IV Corps brigade on the south bank near the eastern suburb at the Motteux Farm. Schäffer's Austrians held the Surville park in the center. The Allies were supported by a total of 40 field pieces.\n", "Napoleon ordered Victor to be at Montereau at 6:00 am but the first French forces to arrive were Pajol's cavalry and Pacthod's National Guards at 8:00 am. Aside from numbering no more than 4,500 men, the horsemen had almost no training while the National Guards were ill-equipped and ill-trained. They made no impression on the Crown Prince's defenders. Victor leading elements arrived at 9:00 am and their initial attack was repulsed. When the divisions of Chateau and Duhesme reached the field they were thrown into an attack on Les Ormeaux. This was beaten back and Chateau, who was Victor's son-in-law, was fatally wounded. The Württemberg cavalry charged and drove the French horsemen back into the forest. Unable to make any progress by 11:00 am, Victor awaited the coming of Gérard's corps. Angry at the marshal's slowness, Napoleon replaced Victor and placed command of the II Corps in Gérard's hands.\n", "Gérard led his troops up the heights but the Allied artillery was well-served and threw back assault after assault. In the afternoon, the Imperial Guard artillery arrived and 40 more guns were brought into action. At 3:00 pm, Napoleon hurled three attack columns at Les Ormeaux and Surville and another one against the Allied right flank along the Seine. While the Guard remained in reserve, the French artillery unleashed a barrage at Surville chateau. The French finally overran Les Ormeaux, causing the Crown Prince to order Schäffer's Austrians to cover the retreat. As the Württembergers began pulling back, Pajol launched a cavalry charge down the Paris highway against the Allied left flank. At this time, French infantry rushed the Surville chateau and made its garrison prisoners. There were now 30,000 French troops on the field supported by 70 or 80 field pieces.\n", "At first the withdrawal was conducted in good order, but the Allied soldiers became more disorganized as they tried to negotiate the steep slope. They fell into complete confusion upon encountering a sunken road. Soon, every Allied soldier was running for the Seine bridge. The Crown Prince tried to rally his men and was nearly captured by the French cavalry. The French emperor ordered 60 guns onto the Surville heights where they unlimbered and fired their missiles into the fleeing mob of Allies crowding the bridges. When Napoleon personally sighted one of the cannons, his guardsmen begged him to leave. He refused saying, \"Courage my friends, the bullet which is to kill me is not yet cast\".\n", "Pajol's horsemen charged into the fleeing mass of soldiers and managed to seize first the Seine bridge and then the Yonne bridge before either could be blown up, though they were rigged for demolition. Duhesme's division rapidly crossed after the cavalry and helped clear Montereau of the Allies. The beaten Allies joined Hohenlohe's brigade and began a disorderly retreat toward Le Tombe, a village on the road to Bray. The movement was covered by Jett's cavalry brigade. Napoleon sent Marshal François Joseph Lefebvre and his own cavalry escort in pursuit toward Bray. An eyewitness wrote that Lefebvre foamed at the mouth and struck at Allied soldiers with his saber.\n", "Section::::Results.\n", "According to Digby Smith, the Allies had losses of 1,400 killed and wounded, of which the Württembergers lost 92 killed and 714 wounded; Prince Hohenlohe was killed. The French captured 3,600 men, two cannons and two ammunition wagons. Of these totals, the Austrians had about 2,000 casualties and Schäffer became a French prisoner. The French lost 2,000 killed and wounded. A source quoted by Smith gave 4,895 Allied casualties and 15 guns lost. Francis Loraine Petre asserted that the Allies lost nearly 5,000 men and 15 field pieces. David G. Chandler stated that the Allies suffered 6,000 casualties and lost 15 cannons; the French lost 2,500 casualties. Another authority wrote that both the French and Allies lost 3,000 killed and wounded, while the French took 2,000 men, six guns and four colors. Chateau died from his wounds on 8 May 1814.\n", "The victory failed to live up to Napoleon's expectations. He lamented, \"The foe has enjoyed a stroke of rare good fortune, the heavy frosts permitted him to move over the fields – otherwise at least half his guns and transport would have been taken.\" In his disappointment he turned on his generals. After the battle when Victor complained to the emperor about losing his command, Napoleon unleashed a storm of abuse on his hapless subordinate. He also raged against Victor's wife who he accused of snubbing Empress Marie Louise. Victor managed to blunt his sovereign's fury by recalling their military exploits in Italy and by reminding Napoleon that his son-in-law Chateau lay dying. Finally, Napoleon relented and gave him the two Young Guard divisions of Charpentier and Joseph Boyer de Rebeval. Other generals who felt Napoleon's wrath at this time were Lhéritier for failing to charge at Valjouan, Jean François Aimé Dejean for not providing enough artillery ammunition and Claude-Étienne Guyot for losing some cannons.\n", "Even before the battle started, Schwarzenberg ordered a general withdrawal to Troyes. He ordered Wrede to hold Bray until nightfall on 19 February and sent a dispatch to Blücher asking him to support his right flank at Méry-sur-Seine on 21 February. The Prussian replied that he would be at the rendezvous with 53,000 troops and 300 guns. With Montereau in French hands, the position of the Austrians on the left flank along the Loing River became precarious. Under the guise of negotiations with Allix, they retreated to join the wreckage of Schäffer's brigade at Saint-Sérotin. Seslavin was ordered to relinquish his far left flank position and take a position on the opposite flank. Napoleon's pursuit was hampered by a lack of bridges and the Allies got a two-day head start in the march to Troyes. The next action between the two armies was at Méry-sur-Seine on 22 February.\n", "Section::::Battlefield Today.\n", "Currently, part of this historic battle site near the village of Montereau-Fault-Yonne is being developed as a theme park celebrating the life of French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte. The park, Napoleonland, is set for completion in 2017.\n" ] }

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Chandler", "Jean François Aimé Dejean", "Claude-Étienne Guyot", "Méry-sur-Seine", "Loing", "Saint-Sérotin", "Montereau-Fault-Yonne", "Napoleonland" ], "href": [ "War%20of%20the%20Sixth%20Coalition", "First%20French%20Empire", "Napoleon", "Austrian%20Empire", "W%C3%BCrttemberg", "William%20I%20of%20W%C3%BCrttemberg", "Gebhard%20Leberecht%20von%20Bl%C3%BCcher", "Karl%20Philipp%2C%20Prince%20of%20Schwarzenberg", "Paris", "Montereau-Fault-Yonne", "Seine", "Pierre%20Claude%20Pajol", "Yonne%20%28river%29", "Troyes", "Karl%20Philipp%2C%20Prince%20of%20Schwarzenberg", "Troyes", "Peter%20Wittgenstein", "Karl%20Philipp%20von%20Wrede", "Nogent-sur-Seine", "Bray-sur-Seine", "Seine", "William%20I%20of%20W%C3%BCrttemberg", "Sens", "Frederick%20Bianchi%2C%20Duke%20of%20Casalanza", "Ignaz%20Gyulai", "Louis-Auguste-Victor%2C%20Count%20de%20Ghaisnes%20de%20Bourmont", "Marshal%20of%20France", "Claude%20Perrin%20Victor", "Nicolas%20Oudinot", "Montereau-Fault-Yonne", "National%20Guard%20%28France%29", 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"David%20G.%20Chandler", "Jean%20Fran%C3%A7ois%20Aim%C3%A9%20Dejean", "Claude-%C3%89tienne%20Guyot", "M%C3%A9ry-sur-Seine", "Loing", "Saint-S%C3%A9rotin", "Montereau-Fault-Yonne", "Napoleonland" ], "wikipedia_title": [ "War of the Sixth Coalition", "First French Empire", "Napoleon", "Austrian Empire", "Württemberg", "William I of Württemberg", "Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher", "Karl Philipp, Prince of Schwarzenberg", "Paris", "Montereau-Fault-Yonne", "Seine", "Pierre Claude Pajol", "Yonne (river)", "Troyes", "Karl Philipp, Prince of Schwarzenberg", "Troyes", "Peter Wittgenstein", "Karl Philipp von Wrede", "Nogent-sur-Seine", "Bray-sur-Seine", "Seine", "William I of Württemberg", "Sens", "Frederick Bianchi, Duke of Casalanza", "Ignác Gyulay", "Louis-Auguste-Victor, Count de Ghaisnes de Bourmont", "List of Marshals of France", "Claude Victor-Perrin, Duc de Belluno", "Nicolas Oudinot", "Montereau-Fault-Yonne", "National Guard (France)", "Pont-sur-Seine", "Montereau-Fault-Yonne", "Jacques MacDonald", "Paris", "Montargis", "Orléans", "Auxerre", "Forest of Fontainebleau", "Palace of Fontainebleau", "Charenton-le-Pont", "Six Days' Campaign", "Napoleon", "Auguste de Marmont", "Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher", "Montmirail, Marne", "Imperial Guard (Napoleon I)", "Emmanuel de Grouchy, marquis de Grouchy", "Guignes", "Provins", "Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly", "Donnemarie-Dontilly", "Nangis", "Pont-sur-Yonne", "Matvei Platov", "Nemours", "Battle of Mormant", "Villeneuve-le-Comte", "II Corps (Grande Armée)", "Samuel-François Lhéritier", "Étienne Tardif de Pommeroux de Bordesoulle", "XI Corps (Grande Armée)", "VII Corps (Grande Armée)", "François Étienne de Kellermann", "Pierre Claude Pajol", "Michel-Marie Pacthod", "Melun", "Henri François Marie Charpentier", "Fontainebleau", "Louis-Alexandre Berthier", "Horse artillery", "Guillaume Philibert Duhesme", "Georges Joseph Dufour", "Jacques-Antoine-Adrien Delort", "François Pierre Joseph Amey", "V Cavalry Corps (Grande Armée)", 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{ "description": "battle", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q976655", "wikidata_label": "Battle of Montereau", "wikipedia_title": "Battle of Montereau", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 157682, "parentid": 883859437, "revid": 883859613, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-02-18T02:21:18Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Montereau&oldid=883859613" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Fulk, King of Jerusalem\n", "Fulk (, or \"Foulques\"; c. 1089/92 – 13 November 1143), also known as Fulk the Younger, was the Count of Anjou (as Fulk V) from 1109 to 1129 and the King of Jerusalem from 1131 to his death. During his reign, the Kingdom of Jerusalem reached its largest territorial extent.\n", "Section::::Biography.\n", "Section::::Biography.:Count of Anjou.\n", "Fulk was born at Angers, between 1089 and 1092, the son of Count Fulk IV of Anjou and Bertrade de Montfort. In 1092, Bertrade deserted her husband and bigamously married King Philip I of France.\n", "He became count of Anjou upon his father's death in 1109. In the next year, he married Ermengarde of Maine, cementing Angevin control over the County of Maine.\n", "He was originally an opponent of King Henry I of England and a supporter of King Louis VI of France, but in 1118 or 1119 he had allied with Henry when he arranged for his daughter Matilda to marry Henry's son and heir, William Adelin. Fulk went on crusade in 1119 or 1120, and became attached to the Knights Templar (Orderic Vitalis). He returned, late in 1121, after which he began to subsidize the Templars, maintaining two knights in the Holy Land for a year. Much later, Henry arranged for his daughter Matilda to marry Fulk's son Geoffrey of Anjou, which she did in 1127 or 1128.\n", "Section::::Biography.:Crusader and King.\n", "By 1127 Fulk was preparing to return to Anjou when he received an embassy from King Baldwin II of Jerusalem. Baldwin II had no male heirs but had already designated his daughter Melisende to succeed him. Baldwin II wanted to safeguard his daughter's inheritance by marrying her to a powerful lord. Fulk was a wealthy crusader and experienced military commander, and a widower. His experience in the field would prove invaluable in a frontier state always in the grip of war.\n", "However, Fulk held out for better terms than mere consort of the Queen; he wanted to be king alongside Melisende. Baldwin II, reflecting on Fulk's fortune and military exploits, acquiesced. Fulk abdicated his county seat of Anjou to his son Geoffrey and left for Jerusalem, where he married Melisende on 2 June 1129. Later Baldwin II bolstered Melisende's position in the kingdom by making her sole guardian of her son by Fulk, Baldwin III, born in 1130.\n", "Fulk and Melisende became joint rulers of Jerusalem in 1131 with Baldwin II's death. From the start Fulk assumed sole control of the government, excluding Melisende altogether. He favored fellow countrymen from Anjou to the native nobility. The other crusader states to the north feared that Fulk would attempt to impose the suzerainty of Jerusalem over them, as Baldwin II had done; but as Fulk was far less powerful than his deceased father-in-law, the northern states rejected his authority. Melisende's sister Alice of Antioch, exiled from the Principality by Baldwin II, took control of Antioch once more after the death of her father. She allied with Pons of Tripoli and Joscelin II of Edessa to prevent Fulk from marching north in 1132; Fulk and Pons fought a brief battle before peace was made and Alice was exiled again.\n", "In Jerusalem as well, Fulk was resented by the second generation of Jerusalem Christians who had grown up there since the First Crusade. These \"natives\" focused on Melisende's cousin, the popular Hugh II of Le Puiset, count of Jaffa, who was devotedly loyal to the Queen. Fulk saw Hugh as a rival, and it did not help matters when Hugh's own stepson accused him of disloyalty. In 1134, in order to expose Hugh, Fulk accused him of infidelity with Melisende. Hugh rebelled in protest. Hugh secured himself to Jaffa, and allied himself with the Muslims of Ascalon. He was able to defeat the army set against him by Fulk, but this situation could not hold. The Patriarch interceded in the conflict, perhaps at the behest of Melisende. Fulk agreed to peace and Hugh was exiled from the kingdom for three years, a lenient sentence.\n", "However, an assassination attempt was made against Hugh. Fulk, or his supporters, were commonly believed responsible, though direct proof never surfaced. The scandal was all that was needed for the queen's party to take over the government in what amounted to a palace coup. Author and historian wrote that Fulk's supporters \"went in terror of their lives\" in the palace. Contemporary author and historian William of Tyre wrote of Fulk \"he never attempted to take the initiative, even in trivial matters, without (Melisende's) consent\". The result was that Melisende held direct and unquestioned control over the government from 1136 onwards. Sometime before 1136 Fulk reconciled with his wife, and a second son, Amalric was born.\n", "Section::::Biography.:Securing the borders.\n", "Jerusalem's northern border was of great concern. Fulk had been appointed regent of the Principality of Antioch by Baldwin II. As regent he had Raymond of Poitou marry the infant Constance of Antioch, daughter of Bohemund II and Alice of Antioch, and niece to Melisende. However, the greatest concern during Fulk's reign was the rise of Atabeg Zengi of Mosul.\n", "In 1137 Fulk was defeated in battle near Baarin but allied with Mu'in ad-Din Unur, the vizier of Damascus. Damascus was also threatened by Zengi. Fulk captured the fort of Banias, to the north of Lake Tiberias and thus secured the northern frontier.\n", "Fulk also strengthened the kingdom's southern border. His butler Paganus built the fortress of Kerak to the east of the Dead Sea, and to help give the kingdom access to the Red Sea, Fulk had Blanchegarde, Ibelin, and other forts built in the south-west to overpower the Egyptian fortress at Ascalon. This city was a base from which the Egyptian Fatimids launched frequent raids on the Kingdom of Jerusalem and Fulk sought to neutralise this threat.\n", "In 1137 and 1142, Byzantine emperor John II Comnenus arrived in Syria attempting to impose Byzantine control over the crusader states. John's intention of making a pilgrimage, accompanied by his impressive army, to Jerusalem alarmed Fulk, who wrote to John pointing out that his kingdom was poor and could not support the passage of a large army. This lukewarm response dissuaded John from carrying through his intention, and he postponed his pilgrimage. John died before he could make good his proposed journey to Jerusalem.\n", "Section::::Biography.:Death.\n", "In 1143, while the king and queen were in Acre, Fulk was killed in a hunting accident. His horse stumbled, fell, and Fulk's skull was crushed by the saddle, \"and his brains gushed forth from both ears and nostrils\", as William of Tyre describes. He was carried back to Acre, where he lay unconscious for three days before he died. He was buried in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. Though their marriage started in conflict, Melisende mourned for him privately as well as publicly. Fulk was survived by his son Geoffrey of Anjou by his first wife, and Baldwin III and Amalric I by Melisende.\n", "Section::::Legacy.\n", "Section::::Legacy.:Depictions.\n", "According to William, Fulk was \"\"a ruddy man, like David... faithful and gentle, affable and kind... an experienced warrior full of patience and wisdom in military affairs\".\" His chief fault was an inability to remember names and faces.\n", "William of Tyre described Fulk as a capable soldier and able politician, but observed that Fulk did not adequately attend to the defense of the crusader states to the north. Ibn al-Qalanisi (who calls him \"al-Kund Anjur\", an Arabic rendering of \"Count of Anjou\") says that \"he was not sound in his judgment nor was he successful in his administration.\" The Zengids continued their march on the crusader states, culminating in the fall of the County of Edessa in 1144, which led to the Second Crusade (see Siege of Edessa).\n", "Section::::Legacy.:Family.\n", "In 1110, Fulk married Ermengarde of Maine (died 1126), the daughter of Elias I of Maine. Their four children were:\n", "BULLET::::1. Geoffrey V of Anjou (1113–1151, father of Henry II of England.\n", "BULLET::::2. Sibylla of Anjou (1112–1165, Bethlehem), married in 1123 William Clito (div. 1124), married in 1134 Thierry, Count of Flanders.\n", "BULLET::::3. Matilda of Anjou (1106–1154, Fontevrault), married William Adelin; after his death in the White Ship disaster of 1120, she became a nun and later Abbess of Fontevrault.\n", "BULLET::::4. Elias II of Maine (died 1151)\n", "His second wife was Melisende, Queen of Jerusalem\n", "BULLET::::1. Baldwin III of Jerusalem\n", "BULLET::::2. Amalric I of Jerusalem\n", "Section::::Sources.\n", "BULLET::::- Orderic Vitalis\n", "BULLET::::- Robert of Torigny\n", "BULLET::::- William of Tyre\n", "BULLET::::- Runciman, Steven (1952) \"A History of the Crusades, Vol. II: The Kingdom of Jerusalem,\" Cambridge University Press.\n", "BULLET::::- Medieval Women, edited by Derek Baker, the Ecclesiastical History Society, 1978\n", "BULLET::::- Payne, Robert. \"The Dream and the Tomb\", 1984\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Damascus Chronicle of Crusades\", trans. H.A.R. Gibb, 1932.\n" ] }

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{ "description": "King of Jerusalem", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q312904", "wikidata_label": "Fulk, King of Jerusalem", "wikipedia_title": "Fulk, King of Jerusalem", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Hemiola\n", "In music, hemiola (also hemiolia) is the ratio 3:2. The equivalent Latin term is sesquialtera. In pitch, \"hemiola\" refers to the interval of a perfect fifth. In rhythm, \"hemiola\" refers to three beats of equal value in the time normally occupied by two beats.\n", "Section::::Etymology.\n", "The word \"hemiola\" comes from the Greek adjective ἡμιόλιος, \"hemiolios\", meaning \"containing one and a half,\" \"half as much again,\" \"in the ratio of one and a half to one (3:2), as in musical sounds.\" The words \"hemiola\" and \"sesquialtera\" both signify the ratio 3:2, and in music were first used to describe relations of pitch. Dividing the string of a monochord in this ratio produces the interval of a perfect fifth. Beginning in the 15th century, both words were also used to describe rhythmic relationships, specifically the substitution (usually through the use of coloration—red notes in place of black ones, or black in place of \"white\", hollow noteheads) of three imperfect notes (divided into two parts) for two perfect ones (divided into three parts) in \"tempus perfectum\" or in \"prolatio maior\".\n", "Section::::Pitch.\n", "Section::::Pitch.:The perfect fifth.\n", "\"Hemiola\" can be used to describe the ratio of the lengths of two strings as three-to-two (3:2), that together sound a perfect fifth. The early Pythagoreans, such as Hippasus and Philolaus, used this term in a music-theoretic context to mean a perfect fifth.\n", "The justly tuned pitch ratio of a perfect fifth means that the upper note makes three vibrations in the same amount of time that the lower note makes two. In the cent system of pitch measurement, the 3:2 ratio corresponds to approximately 702 cents, or 2% of a semitone wider than seven semitones. The just perfect fifth can be heard when a violin is tuned: if adjacent strings are adjusted to the exact ratio of 3:2, the result is a smooth and consonant sound, and the violin sounds \"in tune\". Just perfect fifths are the basis of Pythagorean tuning, and are employed together with other just intervals in just intonation. The 3:2 just perfect fifth arises in the justly tuned C major scale between C and G. \n", "Section::::Pitch.:Other intervals.\n", "Later Greek authors such as Aristoxenus and Ptolemy use the word to describe smaller intervals as well, such as the hemiolic chromatic \"pyknon\", which is one-and-a-half times the size of the semitone comprising the enharmonic \"pyknon\".\n", "Section::::Rhythm.\n", "In rhythm, \"hemiola\" refers to three beats of equal value in the time normally occupied by two beats.\n", "Section::::Rhythm.:Vertical hemiola: sesquialtera.\n", "\"The Oxford Dictionary of Music\" illustrates hemiola with a superimposition of three notes in the time of two and vice versa.\n", "One textbook states that, although the word \"hemiola\" is commonly used for both simultaneous and successive durational values, describing a simultaneous combination of three against two is less accurate than for successive values and the \"preferred term for a vertical two against three … is \"sesquialtera\".\" \"The New Harvard Dictionary of Music\" states that in some contexts, a sesquialtera is equivalent to a hemiola. \"Grove's Dictionary\", on the other hand, has maintained from the first edition of 1880 down to the most recent edition of 2001 that the Greek and Latin terms are equivalent and interchangeable, both in the realms of pitch and rhythm, although David Hiley, E. Thomas Stanford, and Paul R. Laird hold that, though similar in effect, hemiola properly applies to a momentary occurrence of three duple values in place of two triple ones, whereas sesquialtera represents a proportional metric change between successive sections.\n", "Section::::Rhythm.:Vertical hemiola: sesquialtera.:Sub-Saharan African music.\n", "A repeating vertical hemiola is known as polyrhythm, or more specifically, cross-rhythm. The most basic rhythmic cell of sub-Saharan Africa is the 3:2 cross-rhythm. Novotney observes: \"The 3:2 relationship (and [its] permutations) is the foundation of most typical polyrhythmic textures found in West African musics.\" Agawu states: \"[The] resultant [3:2] rhythm holds the key to understanding ... there is no independence here, because 2 and 3 belong to a single Gestalt.\"\n", "In the following example, a Ghanaian gyil plays a hemiola as the basis of an ostinato melody. The left hand (lower notes) sounds the two main beats, while the right hand (upper notes) sounds the three cross-beats.\n", "Section::::Rhythm.:Vertical hemiola: sesquialtera.:European music.\n", "In compound time ( or ). Where a regular pattern of two beats to a measure is established at the start of a phrase. This changes to a pattern of three beats at the end of the phrase.\n", "The minuet from J. S. Bach's keyboard Partita No. 5 in G major articulates groups of 2 times 3 quavers that are really in time, despite the metre stated in the initial time-signature . The latter time is restored only at the cadences (bars 4 and 11–12):\n", "Later in the same piece, Bach creates a conflict between the two metres ( against ):\n", "Hemiola is found in many Renaissance pieces in triple rhythm. One composer who exploited this characteristic was the 16th-century French composer Claude Le Jeune, a leading exponent of musique mesurée à l'antique. One of his best-known chansons is \"Revoici venir du printemps\" , where the alternation of compound-duple and simple-triple metres with a common counting unit for the beat subdivisions can be clearly heard:\n", "The hemiola was commonly used in baroque music, particularly in dances, such as the courante and minuet. Other composers who have used the device extensively include Corelli, Handel, Weber and Beethoven. A spectacular example from Beethoven comes in the scherzo from his String Quartet No. 6. As Philip puts it, \"The constant cross-rhythms shifting between and , commoner at certain earlier and later periods, were far from usual in 1800, and here they are made to sound especially eccentric owing to frequent sforzandi on the last quaver of the bar... it looks ahead to later works and must have sounded very disconcerting to contemporary audiences.\"\n", "Later in the nineteenth century, Tchaikovsky frequently used hemiolas in his waltzes, as did Richard Strauss in the waltzes from \"Der Rosenkavalier\", and the third movement of Robert Schumann's Piano Concerto is noted for the ambiguity of its rhythm. John Daverio says that the movement's \"fanciful hemiolas... serve to legitimize the dance-like material as a vehicle for symphonic elaboration.\" Johannes Brahms was particularly famous for exploiting the hemiola's potential for large-scale thematic development. Writing about the rhythm and meter of Brahms's Symphony No. 3, says \"Perhaps in no other first movement by Brahms does the development of these elements play so critical a role. The first movement of the third is cast in meter that is also open, through internal recasting as (a so-called hemiola). Metrical ambiguity arises in the very first appearance of the motto [opening theme].\"\n", "At the beginning of the second movement, , of his String Quartet (1903), Ravel \"uses the \"pizzicato\" as a vehicle for rhythmic interplay between and .\"\n", "Section::::Rhythm.:Horizontal hemiola.\n", "Peter Manuel, in the context of an analysis of the Flamenco soleá song form, refers to the following figure as a \"horizontal hemiola\" or \"sesquialtera\" (which he translates as if it were Spanish rather than Latin: \"six that alters\"). It is \"a cliché of various Spanish and Latin American musics ... well established in Spain since the sixteenth century\", a twelve-beat scheme with internal accents, consisting of a bar followed by one in , for a 3 + 3 + 2 + 2 + 2 pattern.\n", "This figure is a common African bell pattern, used by the Hausa people of Nigeria, in Haitian Vodou drumming, Cuban palo, and many other drumming systems. The figure is also used in many sub-varieties of the Flamenco genre (bulerías, for example), and in various popular Latin American musics.. It is also a fundamental feature of the Czech furiant dance form, familiar from the two examples in Dvořák's Slavonic Dances Op. 48. The horizontal hemiola suggests metric modulation ( changing to ). This interpretational switch has been exploited, for example, by Leonard Bernstein, in the song \"America\" from \"West Side Story\", as can be heard in the prominent motif (suggesting a duple beat scheme, followed by a triple beat scheme):\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Syncopation\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- Brandel, Rose (1959). \"The African Hemiola Style\", \"Ethnomusicology\", 3(3):106–17, correction, 4(1):iv.\n", "BULLET::::- Károlyi, Ottó (1998). \"Traditional African & Oriental Music\", Penguin Books. .\n" ] }

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{ "description": "", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q1430673", "wikidata_label": "Hemiola", "wikipedia_title": "Hemiola", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Moment of inertia\n", "The moment of inertia, otherwise known as the angular mass or rotational inertia, of a rigid body is a quantity that determines the torque needed for a desired angular acceleration about a rotational axis; similar to how mass determines the force needed for a desired acceleration. It depends on the body's mass distribution and the axis chosen, with larger moments requiring more torque to change the body's rotation rate. It is an extensive (additive) property: for a point mass the moment of inertia is just the mass times the square of the perpendicular distance to the rotation axis. The moment of inertia of a rigid composite system is the sum of the moments of inertia of its component subsystems (all taken about the same axis). Its simplest definition is the second moment of mass with respect to distance from an axis. For bodies constrained to rotate in a plane, only their moment of inertia about an axis perpendicular to the plane, a scalar value, matters. For bodies free to rotate in three dimensions, their moments can be described by a symmetric 3 × 3 matrix, with a set of mutually perpendicular principal axes for which this matrix is diagonal and torques around the axes act independently of each other.\n", "Section::::Introduction.\n", "When a body is free to rotate around an axis, torque must be applied to change its angular momentum. The amount of torque needed to cause any given angular acceleration (the rate of change in angular velocity) is proportional to the moment of inertia of the body. Moment of inertia may be expressed in units of kilogram meter squared (kg·m) in SI units and pound-foot-second squared (lbf·ft·s) in imperial or US units.\n", "Moment of inertia plays the role in rotational kinetics that mass (inertia) plays in linear kinetics - both characterize the resistance of a body to changes in its motion. The moment of inertia depends on how mass is distributed around an axis of rotation, and will vary depending on the chosen axis. For a point-like mass, the moment of inertia about some axis is given by formula_1, where formula_2 is the distance of the point from the axis, and formula_3 is the mass. For an extended rigid body, the moment of inertia is just the sum of all the small pieces of mass multiplied by the square of their distances from the axis in question. For an extended body of a regular shape and uniform density, this summation sometimes produces a simple expression that depends on the dimensions, shape and total mass of the object.\n", "In 1673 Christiaan Huygens introduced this parameter in his study of the oscillation of a body hanging from a pivot, known as a compound pendulum. The term \"moment of inertia\" was introduced by Leonhard Euler in his book \"Theoria motus corporum solidorum seu rigidorum\" in 1765, and it is incorporated into Euler's second law.\n", "The natural frequency of oscillation of a compound pendulum is obtained from the ratio of the torque imposed by gravity on the mass of the pendulum to the resistance to acceleration defined by the moment of inertia. Comparison of this natural frequency to that of a simple pendulum consisting of a single point of mass provides a mathematical formulation for moment of inertia of an extended body.\n", "Moment of inertia also appears in momentum, kinetic energy, and in Newton's laws of motion for a rigid body as a physical parameter that combines its shape and mass. There is an interesting difference in the way moment of inertia appears in planar and spatial movement. Planar movement has a single scalar that defines the moment of inertia, while for spatial movement the same calculations yield a 3 × 3 matrix of moments of inertia, called the inertia matrix or inertia tensor.\n", "The moment of inertia of a rotating flywheel is used in a machine to resist variations in applied torque to smooth its rotational output. The moment of inertia of an airplane about its longitudinal, horizontal and vertical axis determines how steering forces on the control surfaces of its wings, elevators and tail affect the plane in roll, pitch and yaw.\n", "Section::::Definition.\n", "Moment of inertia formula_4 is defined as the ratio of the net angular momentum formula_5 of a system to its angular velocity formula_6 around a principal axis, that is\n", "If the angular momentum of a system is constant, then as the moment of inertia gets smaller, the angular velocity must increase. This occurs when spinning figure skaters pull in their outstretched arms or divers curl their bodies into a tuck position during a dive, to spin faster.\n", "If the shape of the body does not change, then its moment of inertia appears in Newton's law of motion as the ratio of an applied torque formula_8 on a body to the angular acceleration formula_9 around a principal axis, that is\n", "For a simple pendulum, this definition yields a formula for the moment of inertia formula_4 in terms of the mass formula_3 of the pendulum and its distance formula_2 from the pivot point as,\n", "Thus, moment of inertia depends on both the mass formula_3 of a body and its geometry, or shape, as defined by the distance formula_2 to the axis of rotation.\n", "This simple formula generalizes to define moment of inertia for an arbitrarily shaped body as the sum of all the elemental point masses formula_17 each multiplied by the square of its perpendicular distance formula_2 to an axis formula_19.\n", "In general, given an object of mass formula_3, an effective radius formula_19 can be defined for an axis through its center of mass, with such a value that its moment of inertia is\n", "where formula_19 is known as the radius of gyration.\n", "Section::::Examples.\n", "Section::::Examples.:Simple pendulum.\n", "Moment of inertia can be measured using a simple pendulum, because it is the resistance to the rotation caused by gravity. Mathematically, the moment of inertia of the pendulum is the ratio of the torque due to gravity about the pivot of a pendulum to its angular acceleration about that pivot point. For a simple pendulum this is found to be the product of the mass of the particle formula_3 with the square of its distance formula_2 to the pivot, that is\n", "This can be shown as follows: The force of gravity on the mass of a simple pendulum generates a torque formula_27 around the axis perpendicular to the plane of the pendulum movement. Here formula_28 is the distance vector perpendicular to and from the force to the torque axis, and formula_29 is the net force on the mass. Associated with this torque is an angular acceleration, formula_30, of the string and mass around this axis. Since the mass is constrained to a circle the tangential acceleration of the mass is formula_31. Since formula_32 the torque equation becomes:\n", "where formula_34 is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of the pendulum. (The second to last step uses the vector triple product expansion with the perpendicularity of formula_30 and formula_28.) The quantity formula_37 is the \"moment of inertia\" of this single mass around the pivot point.\n", "The quantity formula_37 also appears in the angular momentum of a simple pendulum, which is calculated from the velocity formula_39 of the pendulum mass around the pivot, where formula_40 is the angular velocity of the mass about the pivot point. This angular momentum is given by\n", "using a similar derivation to the previous equation.\n", "Similarly, the kinetic energy of the pendulum mass is defined by the velocity of the pendulum around the pivot to yield\n", "This shows that the quantity formula_37 is how mass combines with the shape of a body to define rotational inertia. The moment of inertia of an arbitrarily shaped body is the sum of the values formula_1 for all of the elements of mass in the body.\n", "Section::::Examples.:Compound pendulum.\n", "A compound pendulum is a body formed from an assembly of particles of continuous shape that rotates rigidly around a pivot. Its moment of inertia is the sum of the moments of inertia of each of the particles that it is composed of. The natural frequency (formula_45) of a compound pendulum depends on its moment of inertia, formula_46,\n", "where formula_3 is the mass of the object, formula_49 is local acceleration of gravity, and formula_2 is the distance from the pivot point to the center of mass of the object. Measuring this frequency of oscillation over small angular displacements provides an effective way of measuring moment of inertia of a body.\n", "Thus, to determine the moment of inertia of the body, simply suspend it from a convenient pivot point formula_51 so that it swings freely in a plane perpendicular to the direction of the desired moment of inertia, then measure its natural frequency or period of oscillation (formula_52), to obtain\n", "where formula_52 is the period (duration) of oscillation (usually averaged over multiple periods).\n", "The moment of inertia of the body about its center of mass, formula_55, is then calculated using the parallel axis theorem to be\n", "where formula_3 is the mass of the body and formula_2 is the distance from the pivot point formula_51 to the center of mass formula_60.\n", "Moment of inertia of a body is often defined in terms of its \"radius of gyration\", which is the radius of a ring of equal mass around the center of mass of a body that has the same moment of inertia. The radius of gyration formula_19 is calculated from the body's moment of inertia formula_55 and mass formula_3 as the length\n", "Section::::Examples.:Compound pendulum.:Center of oscillation.\n", "A simple pendulum that has the same natural frequency as a compound pendulum defines the length formula_5 from the pivot to a point called the center of oscillation of the compound pendulum. This point also corresponds to the center of percussion. The length formula_5 is determined from the formula,\n", "or\n", "The seconds pendulum, which provides the \"tick\" and \"tock\" of a grandfather clock, takes one second to swing from side-to-side. This is a period of two seconds, or a natural frequency of formula_69 for the pendulum. In this case, the distance to the center of oscillation, formula_5, can be computed to be\n", "Notice that the distance to the center of oscillation of the seconds pendulum must be adjusted to accommodate different values for the local acceleration of gravity. Kater's pendulum is a compound pendulum that uses this property to measure the local acceleration of gravity, and is called a gravimeter.\n", "Section::::Measuring moment of inertia.\n", "The moment of inertia of a complex system such as a vehicle or airplane around its vertical axis can be measured by suspending the system from three points to form a trifilar pendulum. A trifilar pendulum is a platform supported by three wires designed to oscillate in torsion around its vertical centroidal axis. The period of oscillation of the trifilar pendulum yields the moment of inertia of the system.\n", "Section::::Motion in a fixed plane.\n", "Section::::Motion in a fixed plane.:Point mass.\n", "The moment of inertia about an axis of a body is calculated by summing formula_1 for every particle in the body, where formula_2 is the perpendicular distance to the specified axis. To see how moment of inertia arises in the study of the movement of an extended body, it is convenient to consider a rigid assembly of point masses. (This equation can be used for axes that are not principal axes provided that it is understood that this does not fully describe the moment of inertia.)\n", "Consider the kinetic energy of an assembly of formula_74 masses formula_75 that lie at the distances formula_76 from the pivot point formula_51, which is the nearest point on the axis of rotation. It is the sum of the kinetic energy of the individual masses,\n", "This shows that the moment of inertia of the body is the sum of each of the formula_1 terms, that is\n", "Thus, moment of inertia is a physical property that combines the mass and distribution of the particles around the rotation axis. Notice that rotation about different axes of the same body yield different moments of inertia.\n", "The moment of inertia of a continuous body rotating about a specified axis is calculated in the same way, except with infinitely many point particles. Thus the limits of summation are removed, and the sum is written as follows:\n", "Another expression replaces the summation with an integral,\n", "Here, the function formula_83 gives the mass density at each point formula_84, formula_28 is a vector perpendicular to the axis of rotation and extending from a point on the rotation axis to a point formula_84 in the solid, and the integration is evaluated over the volume formula_87 of the body formula_88. The moment of inertia of a flat surface is similar with the mass density being replaced by its areal mass density with the integral evaluated over its area.\n", "Note on second moment of area: The moment of inertia of a body moving in a plane and the second moment of area of a beam's cross-section are often confused. The moment of inertia of a body with the shape of the cross-section is the second moment of this area about the formula_89-axis perpendicular to the cross-section, weighted by its density. This is also called the \"polar moment of the area\", and is the sum of the second moments about the formula_90- and formula_91-axes. The stresses in a beam are calculated using the second moment of the cross-sectional area around either the formula_90-axis or formula_91-axis depending on the load.\n", "Section::::Motion in a fixed plane.:Point mass.:Examples.\n", "The moment of inertia of a compound pendulum constructed from a thin disc mounted at the end of a thin rod that oscillates around a pivot at the other end of the rod, begins with the calculation of the moment of inertia of the thin rod and thin disc about their respective centers of mass.\n", "/math\n", "where formula_94 is the mass of the rod.\n", "where formula_101 is its mass.\n", "where formula_5 is the length of the pendulum. Notice that the parallel axis theorem is used to shift the moment of inertia from the center of mass to the pivot point of the pendulum.\n", "A list of moments of inertia formulas for standard body shapes provides a way to obtain the moment of inertia of a complex body as an assembly of simpler shaped bodies. The parallel axis theorem is used to shift the reference point of the individual bodies to the reference point of the assembly.\n", "As one more example, consider the moment of inertia of a solid sphere of constant density about an axis through its center of mass. This is determined by summing the moments of inertia of the thin discs that form the sphere. If the surface of the ball is defined by the equation\n", "then the radius formula_2 of the disc at the cross-section formula_89 along the formula_89-axis is\n", "Therefore, the moment of inertia of the ball is the sum of the moments of inertia of the discs along the formula_89-axis,\n", "where formula_112 is the mass of the sphere.\n", "Section::::Motion in a fixed plane.:Rigid body.\n", "If a mechanical system is constrained to move parallel to a fixed plane, then the rotation of a body in the system occurs around an axis formula_34 perpendicular to this plane. In this case, the moment of inertia of the mass in this system is a scalar known as the \"polar moment of inertia\". The definition of the polar moment of inertia can be obtained by considering momentum, kinetic energy and Newton's laws for the planar movement of a rigid system of particles.\n", "If a system of formula_114 particles, formula_115, are assembled into a rigid body, then the momentum of the system can be written in terms of positions relative to a reference point formula_116, and absolute velocities formula_117:\n", "where formula_40 is the angular velocity of the system and formula_120 is the velocity of formula_116.\n", "For planar movement the angular velocity vector is directed along the unit vector formula_122 which is perpendicular to the plane of movement. Introduce the unit vectors formula_123 from the reference point formula_116 to a point formula_125, and the unit vector formula_126, so\n", "This defines the relative position vector and the velocity vector for the rigid system of the particles moving in a plane.\n", "Note on the cross product: When a body moves parallel to a ground plane, the trajectories of all the points in the body lie in planes parallel to this ground plane. This means that any rotation that the body undergoes must be around an axis perpendicular to this plane. Planar movement is often presented as projected onto this ground plane so that the axis of rotation appears as a point. In this case, the angular velocity and angular acceleration of the body are scalars and the fact that they are vectors along the rotation axis is ignored. This is usually preferred for introductions to the topic. But in the case of moment of inertia, the combination of mass and geometry benefits from the geometric properties of the cross product. For this reason, in this section on planar movement the angular velocity and accelerations of the body are vectors perpendicular to the ground plane, and the cross product operations are the same as used for the study of spatial rigid body movement.\n", "Section::::Motion in a fixed plane.:Rigid body.:Angular momentum.\n", "The angular momentum vector for the planar movement of a rigid system of particles is given by\n", "Use the center of mass formula_129 as the reference point so\n", "and define the moment of inertia relative to the center of mass formula_131 as\n", "then the equation for angular momentum simplifies to\n", "The moment of inertia formula_131 about an axis perpendicular to the movement of the rigid system and through the center of mass is known as the \"polar moment of inertia\". Specifically, it is the second moment of mass with respect to the orthogonal distance from an axis (or pole).\n", "For a given amount of angular momentum, a decrease in the moment of inertia results in an increase in the angular velocity. Figure skaters can change their moment of inertia by pulling in their arms. Thus, the angular velocity achieved by a skater with outstretched arms results in a greater angular velocity when the arms are pulled in, because of the reduced moment of inertia. A figure skater is not, however, a rigid body.\n", "Section::::Motion in a fixed plane.:Rigid body.:Kinetic energy.\n", "The kinetic energy of a rigid system of particles moving in the plane is given by\n", "Let the reference point be the center of mass formula_129 of the system so the second term becomes zero, and introduce the moment of inertia formula_131 so the kinetic energy is given by\n", "The moment of inertia formula_131 is the \"polar moment of inertia\" of the body.\n", "Section::::Motion in a fixed plane.:Rigid body.:Newton's laws.\n", "Newton's laws for a rigid system of formula_114 particles, formula_115, can be written in terms of a resultant force and torque at a reference point formula_116, to yield\n", "where formula_125 denotes the trajectory of each particle.\n", "The kinematics of a rigid body yields the formula for the acceleration of the particle formula_145 in terms of the position formula_116 and acceleration formula_147 of the reference particle as well as the angular velocity vector formula_40 and angular acceleration vector formula_30 of the rigid system of particles as,\n", "For systems that are constrained to planar movement, the angular velocity and angular acceleration vectors are directed along formula_34 perpendicular to the plane of movement, which simplifies this acceleration equation. In this case, the acceleration vectors can be simplified by introducing the unit vectors formula_152 from the reference point formula_116 to a point formula_125 and the unit vectors formula_126, so\n", "This yields the resultant torque on the system as\n", "where formula_158, and formula_159 is the unit vector perpendicular to the plane for all of the particles formula_145.\n", "Use the center of mass formula_129 as the reference point and define the moment of inertia relative to the center of mass formula_131, then the equation for the resultant torque simplifies to\n", "Section::::Motion in space of a rigid body, and the inertia matrix.\n", "The scalar moments of inertia appear as elements in a matrix when a system of particles is assembled into a rigid body that moves in three-dimensional space. This inertia matrix appears in the calculation of the angular momentum, kinetic energy and resultant torque of the rigid system of particles.\n", "Let the system of formula_114 particles, formula_115 be located at the coordinates formula_125 with velocities formula_117 relative to a fixed reference frame. For a (possibly moving) reference point formula_116, the relative positions are\n", "and the (absolute) velocities are\n", "where formula_40 is the angular velocity of the system, and formula_172 is the velocity of formula_116.\n", "Section::::Motion in space of a rigid body, and the inertia matrix.:Angular momentum.\n", "Note that the cross product can be equivalently written as matrix multiplication by combining the first operand and the operator into a, skew-symmetric, matrix, formula_174, constructed from the components of formula_175:\n", "The inertia matrix is constructed by considering the angular momentum, with the reference point formula_116 of the body chosen to be the center of mass formula_129:\n", "where the terms containing formula_172 (formula_181) sum to zero by the definition of center of mass.\n", "Then, the skew-symmetric matrix formula_182 obtained from the relative position vector formula_183, can be used to define,\n", "where formula_185 defined by\n", "is the symmetric inertia matrix of the rigid system of particles measured relative to the center of mass formula_129.\n", "Section::::Motion in space of a rigid body, and the inertia matrix.:Kinetic energy.\n", "The kinetic energy of a rigid system of particles can be formulated in terms of the center of mass and a matrix of mass moments of inertia of the system. Let the system of formula_114 particles formula_115 be located at the coordinates formula_125 with velocities formula_117, then the kinetic energy is\n", "where formula_183 is the position vector of a particle relative to the center of mass.\n", "This equation expands to yield three terms\n", "The second term in this equation is zero because formula_129 is the center of mass. Introduce the skew-symmetric matrix formula_182 so the kinetic energy becomes\n", "Thus, the kinetic energy of the rigid system of particles is given by\n", "where formula_185 is the inertia matrix relative to the center of mass and formula_200 is the total mass.\n", "Section::::Motion in space of a rigid body, and the inertia matrix.:Resultant torque.\n", "The inertia matrix appears in the application of Newton's second law to a rigid assembly of particles. The resultant torque on this system is,\n", "where formula_202 is the acceleration of the particle formula_145. The kinematics of a rigid body yields the formula for the acceleration of the particle formula_145 in terms of the position formula_116 and acceleration formula_206 of the reference point, as well as the angular velocity vector formula_40 and angular acceleration vector formula_30 of the rigid system as,\n", "Use the center of mass formula_129 as the reference point, and introduce the skew-symmetric matrix formula_211 to represent the cross product formula_212, to obtain\n", "The calculation uses the identity\n", "obtained from the Jacobi identity for the triple cross product as shown in the proof below:\n", "Thus, the resultant torque on the rigid system of particles is given by\n", "where formula_185 is the inertia matrix relative to the center of mass.\n", "Section::::Motion in space of a rigid body, and the inertia matrix.:Parallel axis theorem.\n", "The inertia matrix of a body depends on the choice of the reference point. There is a useful relationship between the inertia matrix relative to the center of mass formula_129 and the inertia matrix relative to another point formula_116. This relationship is called the parallel axis theorem.\n", "Consider the inertia matrix formula_219 obtained for a rigid system of particles measured relative to a reference point formula_116, given by\n", "Let formula_129 be the center of mass of the rigid system, then\n", "where formula_224 is the vector from the center of mass formula_129 to the reference point formula_116. Use this equation to compute the inertia matrix,\n", "Distribute over the cross product to obtain\n", "The first term is the inertia matrix formula_185 relative to the center of mass. The second and third terms are zero by definition of the center of mass formula_129. And the last term is the total mass of the system multiplied by the square of the skew-symmetric matrix formula_231 constructed from formula_224.\n", "The result is the parallel axis theorem,\n", "where formula_224 is the vector from the center of mass formula_129 to the reference point formula_116.\n", "Note on the minus sign: By using the skew symmetric matrix of position vectors relative to the reference point, the inertia matrix of each particle has the form formula_237, which is similar to the formula_1 that appears in planar movement. However, to make this to work out correctly a minus sign is needed. This minus sign can be absorbed into the term formula_239, if desired, by using the skew-symmetry property of formula_240.\n", "Section::::Motion in space of a rigid body, and the inertia matrix.:Scalar moment of inertia in a plane.\n", "The scalar moment of inertia, formula_241, of a body about a specified axis whose direction is specified by the unit vector formula_34 and passes through the body at a point formula_116 is as follows:\n", "where formula_219 is the moment of inertia matrix of the system relative to the reference point formula_116, and formula_182 is the skew symmetric matrix obtained from the vector formula_169.\n", "This is derived as follows. Let a rigid assembly of formula_114 particles, formula_115, have coordinates formula_125. Choose formula_116 as a reference point and compute the moment of inertia around a line L defined by the unit vector formula_34 through the reference point formula_116, formula_255. The perpendicular vector from this line to the particle formula_145 is obtained from formula_257 by removing the component that projects onto formula_34.\n", "where formula_260 is the identity matrix, so as to avoid confusion with the inertia matrix, and formula_261 is the outer product matrix formed from the unit vector formula_34 along the line formula_5.\n", "To relate this scalar moment of inertia to the inertia matrix of the body, introduce the skew-symmetric matrix formula_264 such that formula_265, then we have the identity\n", "noting that formula_34 is a unit vector.\n", "The magnitude squared of the perpendicular vector is\n", "The simplification of this equation uses the triple scalar product identity\n", "where the dot and the cross products have been interchanged. Exchanging products, and simplifying by noting that formula_257 and formula_34 are orthogonal:\n", "Thus, the moment of inertia around the line formula_5 through formula_116 in the direction formula_34 is obtained from the calculation\n", "where formula_219 is the moment of inertia matrix of the system relative to the reference point formula_116.\n", "This shows that the inertia matrix can be used to calculate the moment of inertia of a body around any specified rotation axis in the body.\n", "Section::::Inertia tensor.\n", "The inertia matrix is often described as the inertia tensor, which consists of the same moments of inertia and products of inertia about the three coordinate axes. The inertia tensor is constructed from the nine component tensors, (the symbol formula_279 is the tensor product)\n", "where formula_281 are the three orthogonal unit vectors defining the inertial frame in which the body moves. Using this basis the inertia tensor is given by\n", "This tensor is of degree two because the component tensors are each constructed from two basis vectors. In this form the inertia tensor is also called the \"inertia binor\".\n", "For a rigid system of particles formula_283 each of mass formula_284 with position coordinates formula_285, the inertia tensor is given by\n", "where formula_260 is the identity tensor\n", "In this case, the components of the inertia tensor are given by\n", "The inertia tensor for a continuous body is given by\n", "where formula_28 defines the coordinates of a point in the body and formula_292 is the mass density at that point. The integral is taken over the volume formula_87 of the body. The inertia tensor is symmetric because formula_294.\n", "Alternatively it can also be written in terms of the angular momentum operator formula_295:\n", "The inertia tensor can be used in the same way as the inertia matrix to compute the scalar moment of inertia about an arbitrary axis in the direction formula_297,\n", "where the dot product is taken with the corresponding elements in the component tensors. A product of inertia term such as formula_299 is obtained by the computation\n", "and can be interpreted as the moment of inertia around the formula_90-axis when the object rotates around the formula_91-axis.\n", "The components of tensors of degree two can be assembled into a matrix. For the inertia tensor this matrix is given by,\n", "It is common in rigid body mechanics to use notation that explicitly identifies the formula_90, formula_91, and formula_89-axes, such as formula_307 and formula_308, for the components of the inertia tensor.\n", "Section::::Inertia matrix in different reference frames.\n", "The use of the inertia matrix in Newton's second law assumes its components are computed relative to axes parallel to the inertial frame and not relative to a body-fixed reference frame. This means that as the body moves the components of the inertia matrix change with time. In contrast, the components of the inertia matrix measured in a body-fixed frame are constant.\n", "Section::::Inertia matrix in different reference frames.:Body frame.\n", "Let the body frame inertia matrix relative to the center of mass be denoted formula_309, and define the orientation of the body frame relative to the inertial frame by the rotation matrix formula_147, such that,\n", "where vectors formula_312 in the body fixed coordinate frame have coordinates formula_313 in the inertial frame. Then, the inertia matrix of the body measured in the inertial frame is given by\n", "Notice that formula_147 changes as the body moves, while formula_309 remains constant.\n", "Section::::Inertia matrix in different reference frames.:Principal axes.\n", "Measured in the body frame the inertia matrix is a constant real symmetric matrix. A real symmetric matrix has the eigendecomposition into the product of a rotation matrix formula_317 and a diagonal matrix formula_318, given by\n", "where\n", "The columns of the rotation matrix formula_317 define the directions of the principal axes of the body, and the constants formula_322, formula_323, and formula_324 are called the principal moments of inertia. This result was first shown by J. J. Sylvester (1852), and is a form of Sylvester's law of inertia.\n", "For bodies with constant density an axis of rotational symmetry is a principal axis.\n", "Section::::Inertia matrix in different reference frames.:Ellipsoid.\n", "The moment of inertia matrix in body-frame coordinates is a quadratic form that defines a surface in the body called Poinsot's ellipsoid. Let formula_318 be the inertia matrix relative to the center of mass aligned with the principal axes, then the surface\n", "or\n", "defines an ellipsoid in the body frame. Write this equation in the form,\n", "to see that the semi-principal diameters of this ellipsoid are given by\n", "Let a point formula_313 on this ellipsoid be defined in terms of its magnitude and direction, formula_331, where formula_297 is a unit vector. Then the relationship presented above, between the inertia matrix and the scalar moment of inertia formula_333 around an axis in the direction formula_297, yields\n", "Thus, the magnitude of a point formula_313 in the direction formula_297 on the inertia ellipsoid is\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Central moment\n", "BULLET::::- List of moments of inertia\n", "BULLET::::- Rotational energy\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Angular momentum and rigid-body rotation in two and three dimensions\n", "BULLET::::- Lecture notes on rigid-body rotation and moments of inertia\n", "BULLET::::- The moment of inertia tensor\n", "BULLET::::- An introductory lesson on moment of inertia: keeping a vertical pole not falling down (Java simulation)\n", "BULLET::::- Tutorial on finding moments of inertia, with problems and solutions on various basic shapes\n", "BULLET::::- Notes on mechanics of manipulation: the angular inertia tensor\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Battle of Rivoli\n", "The Battle of Rivoli (14–15 January 1797) was a key victory in the French campaign in Italy against Austria. Napoleon Bonaparte's 23,000 Frenchmen defeated an attack of 28,000 Austrians under General of the Artillery Jozsef Alvinczi, ending Austria's fourth and final attempt to relieve the Siege of Mantua. Rivoli further demonstrated Napoleon's brilliance as a military commander and led to French occupation of northern Italy.\n", "Section::::Forces.\n", "See Rivoli 1797 Campaign Order of Battle.\n", "Section::::Prelude.\n", "Alvinczi's plan was to rush and overwhelm Barthélemy Joubert in the mountains east of Lake Garda by concentrating 28,000 men in five separate columns, and thereby gain access to the open country north of Mantua where Austrian superior numbers would be able to defeat Bonaparte's smaller Army of Italy. Alvinczi attacked Joubert's 10,000 men on January 12. However Joubert held him off and was subsequently joined by Louis-Alexandre Berthier and, at 2 a.m. on January 14, by Bonaparte, who brought up elements of André Masséna's division to support Joubert's efforts to form a defensive line on favorable ground just north of Rivoli on the Trambasore Heights. The battle would be a contest between Alvinczi's efforts to concentrate his dispersed columns versus the arrival of French reinforcements.\n", "Section::::Battle.\n", "The morning of Saturday January 14, found Alvinczi engaging the division of Joubert. He had united three Austrian columns between Caprino on the right and the chapel of San Marco on the left; the brigade of Franz Josef de Lusignan was advancing to the north of Monte Baldo; and the troops of Peter Vitus von Quosdanovich and Josef Philipp Vukassovich were pouring down the roads on either side of the Adige. Before daybreak as the French were moving on the road from Rivoli to Incanale Joubert attacked and drove the Austrians from the chapel of San Marco.\n", "At 9 a.m., the Austrian brigades of Samuel Koblos and Anton Lipthay counterattacked the French forces on the Trambasore Heights. Another column under Prince Heinrich of Reuss-Plauen attempted to turn the French right via the Rivoli gorge. Meanwhile, on the French right flank, Vukassovich had advanced down the east bank of the Adige and had established batteries opposite Osteria. The fire of his guns and the pressure from Quosdanovich forced the French out of the village of Osteria and onto the Rivoli plateau. By about 11 a.m. the position of Bonaparte was becoming desperate: an Austrian column under Lusignan was cutting off his retreat south of Rivoli. To reopen his line of retreat Bonaparte turned to Massena's 18th Demi-brigade (\"the Brave\"), newly arrived from Lake Garda. Meanwhile, Alvinczi was on the Trambasore Heights urging his victorious battalions forward, though they were unformed by combat and rough terrain.\n", "With the 18th dispatched to check Lusignan, Bonaparte turned all his attention to Quosdanovich. He understood the defeat of this column was the key to the battle. Unfortunately the French had very few reserves left and mostly had to accomplish this with troops already at hand. Making the best of interior lines and his advantage in artillery, Bonaparte thinned out Joubert's lines facing the Austrians frontally at the Trambasore Heights as much as possible and concentrated them before the gorge. A battery of 15 French guns were massed and poured canister shot at point blank range into the advancing Austrian column that was emerging from the gorge. This devastating firepower struck first on the advancing Austrian dragoons who broke and stampeded through their own infantry causing mass chaos. At this juncture the brigade of Charles Leclerc assaulted the column frontally while Joubert laid down heavy flanking fire from San Marco. Here Antoine Charles de Lasalle with just 26 horseman of the 22nd Horse Chasseurs charged into the melee. Lasalle's men captured a whole Austrian battalion and seized 5 enemy flags.\n", "In the centre the battle was not yet won; Joseph Ocskay renewed his attack from San Marco and drove back the brigade of Honoré Vial. But at midday French cavalry under Joachim Murat charged the flanks of Ocskay's troops, which were driven back to the positions they occupied in the morning.\n", "Quosdanovich realized he could not force the defile and ordered his troops to fall back out of artillery range. Meanwhile, while Lusignan was being engaged frontally by the brigade of Guillaume Brune, the division of Gabriel Rey, coming up from Castelnuovo and the brigade of Claude Victor (reserve) began to arrive. They crushed the Austrian column of Lusignan who fled west with less than 2,000 men remaining.\n", "The French lost 3,200 killed and wounded and 1,000 captured, while the Austrians suffered 4,000 killed and wounded, plus 8,000 men and 40 guns captured. One authority gives the French 5,000 and the Austrians 14,000 total losses.\n", "Section::::Aftermath.\n", "The next day Joubert and Ray began a successful pursuit of Alvinczi, all but destroying his columns, the remnants of which fled north up into the Adige Valley in confusion. The Battle of Rivoli was Bonaparte's greatest victory at the time. After that he turned his attention to Giovanni di Provera. On January 13, his corps (9,000 men) had crossed north of Legnano and driven straight for the relief of Mantua which was besieged by French forces under Jean Sérurier. At night on January 15, Provera sent a message to Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser to break out in a concerted attack. On January 16, when Wurmser attacked he was driven back into Mantua by Sérurier. The Austrians were attacked from the front by Masséna (who had force marched from Rivoli) and from the rear by the division of Pierre Augereau, and were thus forced to surrender the entire force. The Austrian army in North Italy had ceased to exist. On February 2, Mantua surrendered with its garrison of 16,000 men, all that remained of an army of 30,000. The troops marched out with the 'honours of war', and laid down their arms. Wurmser with his staff and an escort were allowed to go free. The remainder were sent to Austria after swearing an oath to not serve against the French for a year, 1,500 guns were found in the fortress. On February 18, Bonaparte proceeded with 8,000 men to Rome, determined to come to a settlement with the Papal States, which had shown covert hostility so long as the campaign had proceeded with uncertainty as to the fate of Italy. But with the fall of Mantua the Austrians were finally driven from Italian soil, and Pope Pius VI agreed to an armistice dictated by Bonaparte in Tolentino. Snow had closed the Alpine passes, but Austria still refused Bonaparte terms of a peace agreement. He prepared one last campaign to the east, into the heartland of Austria to the gates of Vienna itself.\n", "Section::::Aftermath.:Legacy.\n", "The Rue de Rivoli, a street in central Paris, is named after the battle.\n", "Section::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- Boycott-Brown, Martin. \"The Road to Rivoli.\" Cassell; New Ed edition, 2002.\n", "BULLET::::- Chandler, David. \"Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars.\" New York: Macmillan, 1979.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Photographs of the battlefield of Rivoli\n" ] }

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{ "description": "battle", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q1069936", "wikidata_label": "Battle of Rivoli", "wikipedia_title": "Battle of Rivoli", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 157726, "parentid": 894965824, "revid": 906020485, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-13T02:24:03Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Rivoli&oldid=906020485" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Battle of Novi (1799)\n", "The Battle of Novi (15 August 1799) saw a combined army of Habsburg Austrians and Imperial Russians under Field Marshal Alexander Suvorov attack a Republican French army under General Barthélemy Catherine Joubert. After a prolonged and bloody struggle, the Austro-Russians broke through the French defenses and drove their enemies into a disorderly retreat. Joubert was killed while French division commanders Catherine-Dominique de Pérignon and Emmanuel Grouchy were captured. Novi Ligure is in the province of Piedmont in Italy a distance of north of Genoa. The battle occurred during the War of the Second Coalition which was part of the French Revolutionary Wars.\n", "In 1799, Russian and Austrian forces swept across the Po River valley, recapturing lands taken by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1796. The French troops in Italy were badly defeated at the major battles of Magnano, Cassano and the Trebbia. Subsequently, French and Cisalpine Italian troops retreated into Genoa and the Ligurian Republic. A new French government placed Joubert in command of the reformed \"Army of Italy\" and ordered him to take the offensive. Accordingly, the French army moved north across the mountain crests and assembled on high ground at Novi Ligure on 14 August. To Joubert's dismay, it was clear that large Coalition forces were nearby. The next morning Paul Kray's Austrian corps assaulted the French left flank and the battle was on. After a delay, Suvorov committed a Russian corps to attack the center and Michael von Melas' Austrian corps to attack the French right flank. Kray's troops suffered heavy losses but by evening the French army was badly beaten and the French hold on the Italian Riviera was gravely weakened. However, the Coalition planners proceeded to throw away their advantage by sending Suvorov's Russians to Switzerland, a change of strategy that ended badly.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "The 1799 campaign in Italy began with the Battle of Verona, a series of costly but indecisive clashes around Verona on 26 March. At the Battle of Magnano on 5 April, the Habsburg Austrian army of Paul Kray triumphed over the Republican French army of Barthélemy Louis Joseph Schérer. While suffering losses of 4,000 killed and wounded and 2,000 captured, Kray's Austrians inflicted casualties of 3,500 killed and wounded and captured 4,500 men, 18 artillery pieces and seven colors from the French. Two days later, a distraught Schérer begged to be relieved of command. Michael von Melas arrived to take command of the Austrian army from Kray on 9 April. Hearing that 12,000 Austrians were approaching from the Tyrol to the north, Schérer abandoned the line of the Mincio River on 12 April. Leaving 12,000 troops in the fortress of Mantua and 1,600 more in Peschiera del Garda, the demoralized French commander ordered his crippled army to withdraw. As the soldiers fell back, the skies opened up and turned the retreat into a sodden nightmare.\n", "On 15 April 1799, the veteran Russian field marshal Alexander Suvorov formally took command of the combined Austro-Russian army in Italy. On 27 April Suvorov defeated the French, now under Jean Victor Marie Moreau, at the Battle of Cassano. The Allies suffered 2,000 casualties while the French sustained losses of 2,500 killed and wounded plus 5,000 soldiers, 27 guns and three colors captured. The next day a 3,000-man French division was trapped and surrendered at Verderio Superiore. The next major action was the Battle of Trebbia from 17 to 20 June where Suvorov's 37,000-strong Austro-Russian army mauled Jacques MacDonald's 33,000-man French army. The Allies suffered 5,500 casualties while inflicting 16,500 on the French including the taking of 7,000 prisoners. Meanwhile, Coalition forces successfully besieged a number of key fortresses. Peschiera fell on 6 May, Milan was captured on 24 May and Turin fell on 20 June after a nine-day siege. Suvorov and his Austrian allies had evicted the French from almost all of Italy, while Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen beat André Masséna's French army at the First Battle of Zurich on 4–6 June.\n", "A day after defeating MacDonald at the Trebbia, the Allies captured the 17th Light Demi Brigade, 1,099 men, six guns and three colors. On 22 June Suvorov halted pursuit by his army, exhausted by continuous marching and fighting. At first a division was allowed to follow the French, but this was soon reduced to an Austrian advanced guard under Johann von Klenau which went on to clear the Grand Duchy of Tuscany of enemy forces. On 20 June, Moreau and 14,000 French troops left the security of the mountains to defeat Count Heinrich von Bellegarde and 11,000 Austrians in the Second Battle of Marengo. Bellegarde withdrew to the west after suffering 2,260 casualties but Moreau soon scampered back to the safety of the Apennines after hearing news of the Trebbia. French casualties numbered 1,000 killed and wounded in this encounter.\n", "By 27 June, Suvorov moved his main army west to cover the sieges of Alessandria and Tortona while Kray was still reducing Mantua. Suvorov and his Austrian chief of staff Johann Gabriel Chasteler de Courcelles planned to evict the weakened and battered French forces from Genoa and the Italian Riviera. However, instructions soon arrived from Vienna squelching any notion of offensive operations. Emperor Francis and his foreign minister Johann Amadeus Francis de Paula, Baron of Thugut insisted that the Italian fortresses must first be captured. In fact the emperor and Thugut were suspicious of Russian designs on Genoa and Tuscany, areas which they considered to be in Austria's sphere of influence. For his part, Suvorov was annoyed with Viennese officials for trying to direct the war from long distance.\n", "Repeated military defeats shook the public's faith in the French Directory. The Coup of 30 Prairial VII occurred on 18 June which pushed Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès and Paul Barras into leading roles and elevated Jean Baptiste Bernadotte to the post of Minister of War. There were two major forces in Italy, the 19,000-strong \"Army of the Alps\" under Jean Étienne Championnet and 40,713 men of the \"Army of Italy\". The French government placed its hopes on Barthélemy Catherine Joubert to retrieve the situation as the new commander of the \"Army of Italy\". Not only was Joubert a talented general, but he was believed to be lacking political ambitions and thus not a threat to the government. When Joubert arrived in the theater on 4 August, Moreau gracefully stepped aside and offered his assistance.\n", "The Allies successfully wrapped up the siege of Alessandria on 21 July and the Siege of Mantua on 30 July. These important events released 30,000 Coalition troops for field operations. Suvarov placed Konrad Valentin von Kaim with 14,000 Austrians to guard the west of Piedmont and Karl Joseph Hadik von Futak with 11,000 more to observe the alpine passes into Switzerland to the north. Klenau with 5,000 troops at Sarzana was watching the southeast side of Genoa. Kray was ordered to join the main army as quickly as possible. The rest of Suvorov's army was deployed in the area of Alessandria and Tortona. In the meantime, Chasteler was seriously wounded by a canister shot on 17 July during the siege of Alessandria and replaced by another Austrian, Anton von Zach. Despite the pain of his injury, Chasteler produced a new plan for ousting the French from the Ligurian mountains. This plan was put on indefinite hold when the news of the impending French offensive became known.\n", "The \"Army of Italy\" was fortunate in having capable generals. Catherine-Dominique de Pérignon led the left wing while Laurent Gouvion Saint-Cyr directed the right wing. Both became Marshals of France under Napoleon along with Joubert's chief of staff Louis Gabriel Suchet and division commander Emmanuel Grouchy. Joubert's generals wished to wait for Championnet's army to come up on their left around 20 August before advancing. However, Joubert believed that his orders to attack from the Directory were imperative and refused to delay. Saint-Cyr's wing moved north through the Bocchetta Pass and Gavi. At Serravalle Scrivia they besieged a castle held by four companies of Austrians. This position had been captured by Pyotr Bagration's 2,100-man Russian advance guard as recently as 9 August. Pérignon's wing had farther to march. This French column pushed some of Bellegarde's troops out of Terzo then swung east through Acqui Terme, Rivalta Bormida and Capriata d'Orba. Saint-Cyr arrived alone at Novi Ligure on 13 August, but Suvorov declined to attack, hoping to lure the French into the plains where his superior cavalry and artillery might prove decisive. That same day contact was established with Pérignon's approaching troops.\n", "Kray's troops reached Alessandria on 12 June and Suvorov planned to launch them into an attack on Pérignon's wing early on the 14th. This proved to be impossible, but Kray managed to join Bellegarde's force and he promised to attack on 15 August. Meanwhile, the division of François Watrin moved down from the hills in the direction of Tortona, giving every indication that the French offensive was still in full swing. Joubert had hoped that he was facing only 8,000 enemies. But he was stunned to see that he was facing at least 36,000 enemies including Kray's corps in the plains below. Both Pérignon and Saint-Cyr counseled retreat, but Joubert put off a final decision until the next day. Meanwhile, Suvorov assumed that the French army would soon descend into the plains. When the French came forward, Kray and 27,000 soldiers would cut into their left flank while Bagration's 5,700-man Russian advance guard would turn their right flank. With luck the two forces would link hands behind the French. Once the turning movements were well developed, Wilhelm Derfelden's 9,850 Russians and Melas' 8,800 Austrians would join the battle. Farther north, Johann Baptist Alcaini's 5,260-strong force besieged Tortona, covered by Andrei Grigorevich Rosenberg's 8,270 Russians.\n", "Section::::Forces.\n", "Kray's corps was divided into two Austrian divisions under Bellegarde and Peter Karl Ott von Bátorkéz. The brigade commanders were Friedrich Joseph Anton von Bellegarde, Friedrich Heinrich von Gottesheim, Ferdinand Minckwitz and Alexander Friedrich von Seckendorff. Except for the last-named, it is not clear in which division the brigadiers served. Ott's left division included three battalions each of the \"Deutschmeister\" Nr. 4, \"Terzy\" Nr. 16 and \"Mittrowsky\" Nr. 40 Infantry Regiments, two battalions of the \"Vukassovich\" Nr. 48 Infantry Regiment, one battalion of the \"Szluiner\" Grenz Infantry Regiment Nr. 4, and six squadrons of the \"Archduke John\" Dragoon Regiment Nr. 3. Ott commanded 9,979 infantry and 906 cavalry for a total of 10,885.\n", "Bellegarde's division consisted of three battalions each of the \"Sztáray\" Nr. 33 and \"Nádasdy\" Nr. 39 Infantry Regiments, two battalions each of the \"Huff\" Nr. 8, \"Kheul\" Nr. 10, \"Gyulai\" Nr. 32 and \"Lattermann\" Nr. 45 Infantry Regiments, six squadrons of the \"Kaiser\" Dragoon Regiment Nr. 1 and eight squadrons of the \"Archduke Joseph\" Hussar Regiment Nr. 2. This force numbered 11,796 foot and 1,724 horse or a strength of 13,520 troops. To Bellegarde's right was a screening force under Seckendorff which was made up of two battalions of the \"Oranien\" Nr. 15 Infantry Regiment, one battalion of the \"Szluiner\" Grenz and three squadrons of the Hussar Regiment Nr. 5. The screening force counted 2,491 infantry and 524 cavalry or a total of 3,015 soldiers. Kray wielded a total of 27,420 troops in his large corps.\n", "On the Allied left, Melas commanded Michael von Fröhlich's 8,575-strong Austrian division. The division consisted of more than 3,660 grenadiers in nine battalions, six squadrons each of the \"Lobkowitz\" Nr. 10 and \"Levenehr\" Nr. 14 Dragoon Regiments, 1,258 sabers, three battalions of the \"Fürstenberg\" Infantry Regiment Nr. 36, 2,081 men, and two battalions of the \"Stuart\" Infantry Regiment Nr. 18, 1,576 troops. One brigadier was Johann I Joseph, Prince of Liechtenstein, though the troops under his command are not given. Franz Joseph, Marquis de Lusignan led the \"Fürstenberg\", \"Morzin\", \"Paar\", \"Pertusi\" and \"Weber\" Grenadier Battalions and Johann Ludwig Alexius von Loudon commanded the \"Hohenfeld\", \"Goeschen\", \"Schiaffinatti\" and \"Weissenwolff\" Grenadier Battalions. Anton Ferdinand Mittrowsky directed two of the \"Fürstenberg\" infantry battalions and two squadrons of the \"Lobkowitz\" Dragoons while Johann Benedikt Nobili led the two \"Stuart\" infantry battalions and two more squadrons of the \"Lobkowitz\" Regiment.\n", "Derfelden's 15,552-man Russian corps was divided into a division under Derfelden himself, a second division led by Mikhail Miloradovich and an Advance Guard led by Bagration. The Advance Guard consisted of two battalions each of the \"Bagration\" and \"Miller\" Jäger Regiments, 1,189 foot, the \"Dendrygin\", \"Lomonosov\", \"Sanaev\" and \"Kalemin\" Combined Grenadier Battalions, 1,728 foot, the \"Denisov\", \"Sychov\", \"Grekov\" and \"Semernikov\" Cossack Regiments, 1,948 horse, and six squadrons of the Austrian \"Karaczay\" Dragoon Regiment Nr. 4, 840 horse. Altogether, the 5,705-man Advance Guard counted 2,917 infantry and 2,788 cavalry. Derfelden's 6,127-strong infantry division included two battalions each of the \"Schveikovsky\", \"Förster\", \"Tyrtov\" and \"Baranovsky\" Musketeer Regiments and two battalions of the \"Rosenberg\" Grenadier Regiment. Miloradovich's 3,720-man infantry division had two battalions each of the \"Jung-Baden\", \"Dalheim\" and \"Miloradovich\" Musketeer Regiments. The strength of Suvorov's Austro-Russian army was 44,347 foot and 7,200 horse, a total of 51,547 soldiers, not counting gunners and sappers.\n", "According to one authority Joubert's army numbered 32,843 infantry and 2,087 cavalry for a total of 34,930 men. Saint-Cyr stated the army was 34,000-strong but in another place gave a strength of 35,487 foot and 1,765 horse, or a total of 37,252 men not counting artillery. According to Spencer C. Tucker, the total French force amounted 35,000. The French supply arrangements had collapsed and the troops were tired, thirsty and starving. Some soldiers were reduced to eating grass and leaves. Pérignon's wing consisted of the infantry divisions of Grouchy and Louis Lemoine plus a two-brigade infantry reserve and Antoine Richepanse's cavalry reserve. All demi brigades had two battalions each except where otherwise noted. Grouchy's 5,620-man division had a first brigade under Charles Louis Dieudonné Grandjean made up of the 39th and 92nd Line Infantry Demi Brigades and one battalion of the 26th Light Infantry Demi Brigade. The second brigade of Henri François Marie Charpentier consisted of the 93rd and 99th Line Demi Brigades. Lemoine's 6,410-strong division included a first brigade under Louis Gareau with the 26th Line and 80th Line and one battalion of the 5th Light and a second brigade under Jean Mathieu Seras counting the 20th Light and 34th Line. The three squadron strong 1st Hussar Regiment was attached to Lemoine. The 4,875-man reserve included Bertrand Clausel's brigade with the 29th Light and 74th Line and Louis Partouneaux's brigade with the 105th Line and one battalion of the 26th Light. Richepanse commanded 1,002 sabers in the 2nd Chasseurs à Cheval, 12th Dragoon, and the 1st, 3rd and 18th Cavalry Regiments. Each regiment counted two squadrons.\n", "Saint-Cyr's wing comprised the infantry divisions of Pierre Garnier de Laboissière, François Watrin and Jean Henri Dombrowski, a strong independent brigade under Louis Léonard Colli-Ricci, plus infantry and cavalry reserves. Laboissière's division numbered between 3,645 and 3,976 men in six battalions and had the three squadron strong 6th Hussar Regiment attached. François Jean Baptiste Quesnel's brigade included the 17th Light and 63rd Line Demi Brigades while Gaspard Amédée Gardanne's brigade counted the 18th Light and 21st Line Demi Brigades. Watrin's division had between 4,535 and 6,040 soldiers in 10 battalions including the attached 25th Chasseurs à Cheval of two squadron strength. André Calvin's advanced guard counted the 8th, 15th and 27th Light and 2nd Line, Antoine Arnaud's brigade consisted of the 12th and 30th Light and Pierre Étienne Petitot's brigade had the 62nd and 78th Line. Dombrowski's division counted between 2,130 and 2,340 troops in seven battalions. Dombrowski's units were the 17th and 55th Line, the Polish Legion including a cavalry squadron and two battalions of the 1st (Italian) Cisalpine. Colli commanded from 3,878 to 4,260 men consisting of two battalions each of the 14th, 24th and 68th Line plus a battalion of Poles. The infantry reserve had 2,420 soldiers in four battalions of the 3rd and 106th Line. François Guérin d'Etoquigny's cavalry reserve numbered 425 sabers in five squadrons of the 16th and 19th Dragoons and 19th Chasseurs à Cheval.\n", "Section::::Battle.\n", "Joubert did not plan on fighting at Novi Ligure, but the position that his troops held was well-suited for a defensive battle. Facing north, the French held an arc of high ground from Serravalle on the right to Pasturana on the left. In the center, Novi was surrounded by a wall and ditch dating to the Middle Ages. One weakness of the position was that the deep ravines of the Riasco and Braghena streams cut across the rear, obstructing any retreat. Kray had the Allied right wing in movement before dawn with Bellegarde on the right and Ott on the left. Seckendorf on the far right aimed for the place where the Riasco stream emerged from its ravine. The crackle of muskets began at 3:20 am as the Austrian columns bumped into French picket lines. This provoked a great racket in the French camps as their surprised troops rushed into formation. At first light, the Allies saw that the heights were crowned by the blue lines of French infantry. Instead of striking the flank of an enemy army on the move, the Austrians of the right wing were making a frontal attack on a strong position.\n", "On the extreme French right, Dombrowski's division blockaded the Austrians in Serravalle Castle. Next in line was Watrin's division which was still deployed in the low ground to the east of Novi. Gardanne's brigade held Novi while the rest of Laboissière's division lined the heights behind the town. Farther to the left was Lemoine's division and then Grouchy's division on the far left. The left was braced by the reserves of Clausel, Partouneaux and Richepanse.\n", "At the foot of the plateau, Ott and Bellegarde deployed from marching columns into lines. At first their assault enjoyed some success against their sleep-groggy opponents. However, the slopes were steep and obstructed by vineyards, forcing the Austrians to redeploy into column. Pérignon brought Clausel and Partouneaux to the assistance of Grouchy, while Saint-Cyr sent Colli's brigade from the right wing to help Lemoine. Moreau took charge of the French center in the contest against Ott. In this phase of the battle Joubert was fatally hit while leading a counterattack by the 26th Light Demi Brigade. Despite mounting losses, the Austrian infantry bravely and repeatedly struggled forward in columns. As they reached the top of the slope and tried to redeploy into line, they were struck by French counterattacks and forced back. At last, Ott's columns were overthrown by the 26th Light and 105th Line and Kray's entire wing fell back to the bottom of the heights to reform.\n", "By 9:00 am Kray and his officers managed to reorganize their troops when an order arrived from Suvorov to renew the attack. Once more the Austrians attacked the heights and once more they were defeated with loss. While Clausel and Richepanse helped repulse Bellegarde's division, Partouneaux counterattacked Ott. Encouraged by his success, Partouneaux unwisely charged down into the plain where his troops were scattered by four squadrons of the \"Archduke Joseph\" Hussars and \"Kaiser\" Dragoons. Partouneaux was among those captured. After the repulse of his second attack, Kray massed a 40-gun battery with which he bombarded any French troops who dared to line the crest. But the Austrian general refused to launch more attacks until the rest of the army joined the fight. Suvorov had planned to encircle a French army in motion. The unexpected circumstances threw the Allied plan out of gear.\n", "Suvorov realized that every man must be thrown into the battle. Bagration's command belatedly attacked Novi at 10:00 am. As the Russians moved forward they were subjected to an intense artillery barrage. Bagration's troops were able to press back the French skirmish lines but were foiled when they encountered Novi's city wall. Moving to their right, they ran into Quesnel's brigade of Laboissière's division defending the heights. As the Russians pushed forward they were attacked in flank by Gardanne's men from Novi and even by Watrin's troops from the French right flank. Miloradovich's division was sent into the fray but every Russian assault on the French center came to grief. Bagration's Cossacks found employment by luring French skirmishers into the plain and then killing or capturing them.\n", "In due course, Derfelden's division arrived at the front and was hurled into a new attack near Novi. Kray's wing attacked once more and his attack stalled. Around 11:30 am Suvarov directed the Allied left wing under Melas to advance. However, Melas declined to attack Novi as ordered. Instead, he carefully reconnoitered the ground and decided to assault the French right flank. The Austrian sent Nobili's two battalions and two squadrons south along the east bank of the Scrivia River toward Serravalle to guard against any French threat from that direction. The remainder of the left wing moved down the west bank of the river with Mittrowsky's brigade on the left and the grenadier brigades on the right. Melas instructed Lusignan's brigade to attack to the east of Novi while Loudon's brigade made a wider sweep to the east.\n", "Around 3:00 pm the most recent Austro-Russian attack was repulsed from the line of heights. By this time Watrin had positioned his division on the heights to the east of Novi. Lusignan's grenadiers made three frontal attacks on Watrin without breaking through. Meanwhile, Loudon's grenadiers approached Watrin's right flank and Mittrowsky's command threatened an even deeper envelopment. In the face of the new attacks, Watrin's division crumbled. Saint-Cyr threw the 106th Line Demi Brigade into a counterattack which stopped the Austrians and captured Lusignan, who was wounded. By 5:00 pm, Watrin and the 106th were finally beaten by superior numbers and retreated. On the opposite flank Kray attacked again between 3:00 and 4:00 pm.\n", "Around 5:30 pm the entire French position started to disintegrate. The \"Paar\" Grenadier Battalion drove Colli's 68th Line from the crest near Novi. The troops of Derfelden and Melas broke into Novi at about the same time, driving out most of Gardanne's men. Laboissière's division managed to follow Watrin's men in their escape. But at about this time the French army split into two halves which were not reunited until three days later. As the French left started to pull back, the Allies closed in for the kill, unleashing their cavalry. Earlier, Bellegarde had posted a battalion and four squadrons near Pasturana on the far right. Now, as the French retreated they had to negotiate the streets of Pasturana, the Braghena Gorge immediately to the south and Bellegarde's small force.\n", "The entire French left wing had to squeeze through the blockage. The Russians took no prisoners, killing every Frenchman that they caught. If a French soldier survived as a prisoner, it was because he was taken by Kray's Austrians. In the melee Grouchy tried to rally his men but was cut down and captured. Pérignon was also taken prisoner after suffering three wounds including a deep saber cut above his left eye. Colli and at least 2,000 other French soldiers and 21 artillery pieces were captured, mostly in the bottleneck at Pasturana. As night fell, the French army streamed away and the exhausted Allies stopped. Near midnight, some of Gardanne's men were discovered hiding out in Novi and the Russians went through the town again. Having accomplished their purpose, they began looting and Suvorov ordered his drummers to beat assembly to stop the pillage.\n", "Section::::Results.\n", "Historian Digby Smith called Novi, \"one of the bloodiest battles of the era\" and the casualties bear this out. Smith claimed that the Allies sustained about 900 killed, 4,200 wounded and 1,400 captured or missing, plus three guns. Russian generals Aleksey Gorchakov, Tyrtoff and Tschubaroff were wounded. The French lost 1,500 killed, 5,500 wounded and 4,500 prisoners. The Allies also captured 37 guns, 40 munition wagons and eight colors. Christopher Duffy stated that one Austrian account admitted a sum of 799 killed, 3,670 wounded and 1,259 missing, though this add up to less than the 5,754 reported total. Kray's wing alone had 710 killed, 3,260 wounded and 1,175 missing. The Russians suffered 2,496 casualties. The two sets of figures add up to a total Allied loss of 8,250. Duffy gave French losses as 6,500 to 6,643; evidently this is only the killed and wounded. Gunther E. Rothenberg asserted that both sides lost 7,000 killed and wounded, while the Allies had 2,000 missing and the French had 4,000 prisoners or missing plus 37 guns. David G. Chandler rounded the casualties to 8,000 Allied and 11,000 French. According to Spencer C. Tucker, 11,000 were killed on the French side, and 9,000 on the Allied side. while Bagration was awarded the Order of Alexander Nevsky while Derfelden earned the Order of St. Andrew.\n", "Once the soldiers of the French left wing got clear of the Braghena Gorge, they quickly left the battlefeld far behind. The right wing, however, was in a difficult spot because it was unable to withdraw through Gavi and Nobili's command blocked its escape route via Arquata Scrivia. Saint-Cyr was unable to dislodge the Austrians with Dombrowski's men and finally shoved Nobili out of the way by using Watrin's division. Suvorov brought up Rosenberg's corps to the battlefield but did not launch a pursuit. The Russian commander in chief still planned to evict the French from Genoa and the Italian Riviera, but orders soon arrived sending troops elsewhere. Klenau's command to the southeast of Genoa was diverted to secure Austrian control of Tuscany. A French offensive seized Valais in southwest Switzerland, routing some of Hadik's troops. Suvorov detached Kray to the north with 10,000 Austrians to help.\n", "On 25 August, Suvorov's hopes to conquer Liguria were dashed forever when fresh instructions from Emperor Francis reached him. A new strategy put forward by the British and approved by Czar Paul and the Austrians directed Suvorov to take command of a new Russian army assembling in Switzerland. This army would be formed by joining the Russian troops in Italy to another Russian army in Germany under Alexander Korsakov. The army was to invade France through the Jura Mountains. When Korsakov arrived in Switzerland, Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen immediately moved north into Germany with the main Austrian army. The strategy's timing failed. Charles left Switzerland too early and Suvorov reached Switzerland too late. André Masséna wrecked the Allied plan when he defeated Korsakov at the Second Battle of Zurich on 26 September 1799.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- The map of the battle of Novi. Aug. 15, 1799\n" ] }

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Tucker", "Louis Lemoine", "Antoine Richepanse", "Charles Louis Dieudonné Grandjean", "Jean Mathieu Seras", "Louis Partouneaux", "Pierre Garnier de Laboissière", "François Watrin", "François Jean Baptiste Quesnel", "Gaspard Amédée Gardanne", "Polish Legion", "Pasturana", "Scrivia", "Digby Smith", "Aleksey Gorchakov", "Christopher Duffy", "Gunther E. Rothenberg", "David G. Chandler", "Spencer C. Tucker", "Order of Alexander Nevsky", "Order of St. Andrew", "Arquata Scrivia", "Valais", "Czar Paul", "Alexander Korsakov", "Jura Mountains", "Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen", "André Masséna", "Second Battle of Zurich" ], "href": [ "Russian%20Empire", "Field%20Marshal", "Alexander%20Suvorov", "First%20French%20Republic", "Barth%C3%A9lemy%20Catherine%20Joubert", "Catherine-Dominique%20de%20P%C3%A9rignon", "Emmanuel%20Grouchy", "Novi%20Ligure", "Piedmont", "Italy", "Genoa", "War%20of%20the%20Second%20Coalition", "French%20Revolutionary%20Wars", "Po%20%28river%29", "Napoleon%20Bonaparte", "Battle%20of%20Magnano", "Battle%20of%20Cassano%20%281799%29", "Battle%20of%20Trebbia%20%281799%29", "Cisalpine%20Republic", "Genoa", "Ligurian%20Republic", "Army%20of%20Italy%20%28France%29", "Paul%20Kray", "Michael%20von%20Melas", "Italian%20Riviera", "Battle%20of%20Verona%20%281799%29", "Verona", "Battle%20of%20Magnano", "Paul%20Kray", "First%20French%20Republic", 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"J%C3%A4ger%20%28military%29", "Cossack", "Spencer%20C.%20Tucker", "Louis%20Lemoine", "Antoine%20Richepanse", "Charles%20Louis%20Dieudonn%C3%A9%20Grandjean", "Jean%20Mathieu%20Seras", "Louis%20Partouneaux", "Pierre%20Garnier%20de%20Laboissi%C3%A8re", "Fran%C3%A7ois%20Watrin", "Fran%C3%A7ois%20Jean%20Baptiste%20Quesnel", "Gaspard%20Am%C3%A9d%C3%A9e%20Gardanne", "Polish%20Legions%20%28Napoleonic%20period%29", "Pasturana", "Scrivia", "Digby%20Smith", "Aleksey%20Gorchakov", "Christopher%20Duffy", "Gunther%20E.%20Rothenberg", "David%20G.%20Chandler", "Spencer%20C.%20Tucker", "Order%20of%20Alexander%20Nevsky", "Order%20of%20St.%20Andrew", "Arquata%20Scrivia", "Valais", "Paul%20I%20of%20Russia", "Alexander%20Korsakov", "Jura%20Mountains", "Archduke%20Charles%2C%20Duke%20of%20Teschen", "Andr%C3%A9%20Mass%C3%A9na", "Second%20Battle%20of%20Zurich" ], "wikipedia_title": [ "Russian Empire", "Field marshal", "Alexander Suvorov", "French First Republic", "Barthélemy Catherine Joubert", 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Prince of Liechtenstein", "Franz Joseph, Marquis de Lusignan", "Johann Ludwig Alexius von Loudon", "Anton Ferdinand Mittrowsky", "Mikhail Miloradovich", "Jäger (infantry)", "Cossacks", "Spencer C. Tucker", "Louis Lemoine", "Antoine Richepanse", "Charles Louis Dieudonné Grandjean", "Jean Mathieu Seras", "Louis Partouneaux", "Pierre Garnier de Laboissière", "François Watrin", "François Jean Baptiste Quesnel", "Gaspard Amédée Gardanne", "Polish Legions (Napoleonic period)", "Pasturana", "Scrivia", "Digby Smith", "Aleksey Gorchakov", "Christopher Duffy", "Gunther E. Rothenberg", "David G. Chandler", "Spencer C. Tucker", "Order of Alexander Nevsky", "Order of St. Andrew", "Arquata Scrivia", "Canton of Valais", "Paul I of Russia", "Alexander Korsakov", "Jura Mountains", "Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen", "André Masséna", "Second Battle of Zurich" ], "wikipedia_id": [ "20611504", "200360", "339963", "62243", "161132", "761812", "450897", "2976560", "25061", "14532", "47332321", "408741", "233039", "40126791", "69880", "24249920", "2400697", "157757", "352685", "47332321", "1523664", "17095049", "2226160", "9810546", "66460", "35361643", "263991", "24249920", "2226160", "62243", "1038094", "9810546", "6493681", "2402009", "50187", "1169472", "339963", "330417", "2400697", "6826032", "157757", "330232", "36511", "19450529", "2875", "158641", "662583", "23738141", "679153", "57536866", "453172", "2170997", "462640", "28708366", "47332321", "66460", "55866", "11551", "172180", "6205814", "199977", "160181", "38585", "17094817", "193005", "17095049", "161132", "453172", "17844175", "28786227", "28785990", "2975914", "1191481", "28876378", "761812", "330159", "310824", "69880", "160725", "450897", "18957366", "6560292", "6561141", "142996", "6561272", "2623130", "6560987", "6559651", "2976560", "28772868", "59092232", "21431819", "28788305", "13430330", "38792743", "774105", "24476503", "37268104", "24882493", "1430440", "254406", "58145", "35891760", "42819266", "14173535", "49074050", "38591578", "38893437", "43170805", "28772868", "37712121", "28608749", "3373687", "6560787", "9487027", "26163137", "8844617", "18591791", "27546457", "17290843", "35891760", "2607179", "430928", "6559376", "198789", "148206", "9582141", "185842", "2875", "158641", "653208" ] }

{ "description": "battle", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q1194172", "wikidata_label": "Battle of Novi", "wikipedia_title": "Battle of Novi (1799)", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 157707, "parentid": 884185855, "revid": 897343358, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-05-16T12:05:59Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Novi%20(1799)&oldid=897343358" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Anti-Flag\n", "Anti-Flag is an American punk rock band from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States. The band is well known for politically charged lyrics and activism, focusing on anti-war activism, anti-imperialism, class struggle, human rights, and various sociopolitical sentiments. The line-up includes singer/guitarist Justin Sane and drummer Pat Thetic, who founded the band; later members are guitarist Chris Head, and singer/bassist Chris Barker (#2) who replaced Jamie \"Cock\" Towns, who had replaced original bassist Andy Flag in 1997 following his departure one year prior. Anti-Flag is known also for their advocacy of progressive political action groups such as Greenpeace and Amnesty International. Most recently, the band has declared solidarity with the global Occupy Together movement.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Section::::History.:Early years (1988/1992–1996).\n", "Anti-Flag was formed in 1988 by singer/guitarist Justin Sane and drummer Pat Thetic. During the band's early years, various guitarists and bassists moved in and out of the band, including\n", "Justin's sister, Lucy Fester formerly of Chicago band Toothpaste. The band failed to solidify, and it fell apart after playing just one show.\n", "In 1992, Justin and Pat reformed the band with Andy Flag on bass. A 17-song demo album called 17 Songs was released the same year.\n", "Section::::History.:First three albums (1996–1999).\n", "In 1996, the band released their first album, \"Die For the Government\", on New Red Archives. Andy Flag left the band in the summer of 1996 because of personal disputes between himself and Justin. For a brief time after Andy's departure in 1996, Sean Whelan of Pittsburgh band the Bad Genes filled in on bass. It was during this time that Sean was also playing in another band (57 Defective) with guitarist Chris Head, whom he introduced to the band.\n", "In early 1997, Pittsburgh guitarist Chris Head began filling in on bass. In late 1997, Jamie Cock took over as the new bassist, moving Chris Head over to second guitar, which he preferred. The current line-up finalized in 1999 when Chris Barker, also known as Chris No. 2, replaced Jamie Cock on bass.\n", "In 1998, the band released their second full-length release, \"Their System Doesn't Work For You\". The album contained all nine Anti-Flag songs from the 1996 Anti-Flag/d.b.s. split album \"North America Sucks\", as well as 10 new unreleased songs. The band decided to release the album independently, and \"Their System Doesn't Work For You\" became the debut release for the band's own A-F Records.\n", "In 1999, Anti-Flag released the album \"A New Kind of Army\" on Go-Kart Records/A-F Records. The album addressed topics such as abortion, political corruption, racism, fascism, troubled youth, police brutality, and unity within the American youth. The cover art page unfolded into a poster featuring the phrase \"Too smart to fight. Too smart to kill. Join now. A new kind of army.\" In addition to this, the band had a disclaimer at the bottom of its album cover saying,\"Anti-Flag does not mean Anti-American. Anti-Flag means anti-war. Anti-Flag means unity.\"\n", "Section::::History.:Fat Wreck Chords (2000–2004).\n", "In 2000, Anti-Flag was invited to participate in Vans Warped Tour. During this time, the members of Anti-Flag met NOFX's Fat Mike, owner of the Fat Wreck Chords record label. This meeting spawned a friendship that would lead to Anti-Flag's release of two albums on the label.\n", "In 2001, Anti-Flag teamed with punk music producer Mass Giorgini to record the album \"Underground Network\", released on Fat Wreck Chords. The release of the album is arguably the band's breakout from the hardcore underground to a more mainstream spotlight. The album continued to address the issues of fascism (specifically neo-Nazis infiltrating the \"hardcore scene\") and the United States' foreign policy. The album was the first to contain the now-commonplace booklet filled with essays from historians and political commentators, most notably Professor Howard Zinn.\n", "In February 2002, Anti-Flag released the album \"Mobilize\" on A-F Records. The album featured eight new studio tracks as well as eight live tracks of songs from other albums. In the wake of the September 11th terrorist attacks on the United States, Anti-Flag spoke out against the push for war with the album's title track \"911 for peace\". During this time, many music stores pulled Anti-Flag's records from shelves, as their music was labelled as \"anti-American.\"\n", "In 2003, Anti-Flag released the album \"The Terror State\" on Fat Wreck Chords. The album primarily focused on criticizing the Bush Administration's handling of the War on Terrorism. Again, the album contained a booklet full of essays from the band as well as other political commentators. The album contains a song whose lyrics were originally written by Woody Guthrie entitled \"Post-War Breakout.\" The track's music was arranged by the members of Anti-Flag, as Guthrie had never committed the arrangements to paper.\n", "On October 8, 2004, U.S. Representative Jim McDermott gave a speech in the House of Representatives, praising Anti-Flag for their work in encouraging young people to register and vote.\n", "Section::::History.:RCA (2005–2009).\n", "In 2005, Anti-Flag signed a two-album record contract with major label RCA. In an interview with British newspaper \"The Guardian\", Justin Sane explained the band's move to a major label:\n", "The first of these two albums, \"For Blood and Empire\", was released on March 21, 2006. The album's main focus is the band's criticism of the mishandling of the War on Terrorism by the United States Government. The song 'This Is The End (For You My Friend)' from the album \"For Blood and Empire\" is featured in the video game Madden NFL 07 and on NHL 07, and strays from the theme of war and back towards troubled youth. They finished their huge \"War Sucks, Let's Party\" United States headlining tour in April and work on some side projects like African Well Fund and Start to Finish MS now.\n", "Throughout Anti-Flag's career, many other bands have been added to the roster of the band's own label, A-F Records. These bands include The Code, Pipedown, Much the Same, The Vacancy, The Unseen, Modey Lemon, Thought Riot, Tabula Rasa, and more.\n", "On November 25, Anti-Flag revealed on their homepage that their newest album was titled \"The Bright Lights of America\". Produced by Tony Visconti (of David Bowie, T. Rex (band) and Morrissey fame), it was released on April 1, 2008. The single \"The Bright Lights Of America\" was released exclusively on iTunes on February 12, 2008. A video of the song was released some weeks later.\n", "In 2008, on tour with Canadian band Billy Talent in Europe, Justin Sane and Chris#2 joined Billy Talent singer Ben Kowalewicz and guitarist Ian D'Sa, singing their new song \"Turn Your Back\" from their upcoming unreleased album. The two also play on the single version of the song.\n", "In March 2009, Anti-Flag were forced to cancel a series of tour dates after Justin Sane broke his collar bone landing awkwardly whilst jumping off the stage at the UEA LCR in Norwich to stop a fan of another act throwing objects at the band./ref\n", "Section::::History.:SideOneDummy (2009–2014).\n", "Beginning on September 30, 2008, Chris#2 began to post on his blog, at nowarwithoutwarriors.blogspot.com , that the band had begun to work on their seventh studio album. On December 2, Anti-Flag began to record their record, starting with \"The Economy is Suffering... Let It Die\".\n", "On March 31, 2009, Anti-Flag announced that their next CD, \"The People or the Gun\", would be released on SideOneDummy on June 9, 2009. The band recorded the album in a home studio they built themselves. On Anti-Flag.com, the first track of the album \"Sodom, Gomorrah, and Washington DC (Sheep in Shepherd's Clothing)\" can be listened to. On May 1, 2009, the band performed a full set of The Clash covers at Hoodwink in East Rutherford, New Jersey.\n", "In September 2009, Anti-Flag was slated to play a show during a G-20 protest that was taking place in their home town of Pittsburgh, but the promoter canceled the show due to severe parking restrictions and police presence in the immediate vicinity of the venue. However the band continued to personally take part in the protests.\n", "In November 2009, Anti-Flag showed their support to the protesting students in Vienna. They gave a speech at the main building of the Vienna University that the students had taken over and also had one of the student representatives speak at their two shows in Vienna.\n", "In January 2010, Anti-Flag completed a full US tour supported by Aiden and Cancer Bats with various bands filling another supporting slot and local bands opening as many of the shows as possible. The tour was sponsored by Amnesty International, Peta 2, Greenpeace and Innes Clothing (who supported a clothing drive for local homeless and youth shelters). The band followed the US tour, with an Australian tour, playing the Soundwave Festival dates in February 2010, with bands such as AFI, Paramore, Escape the Fate, A Day to Remember, HIM and more, as well as playing two headlining dates supported by Alexisonfire and Comeback Kid.\n", "Throughout the summer of 2010, the band playing various festivals such as Ruisrock and Woodstock en Beauce, as well as playing the few last dates of the Vans Warped Tour in August. September 2010 saw the band headlining a Canadian tour with support from the Menzingers, which was followed by the European Vans Off the Wall Music Tour in October, with supporting acts The Swellers and Pulled Apart by Horses.\n", "The band made their live comeback in March 2011, while headlining a South American tour with This Is a Standoff, and then supporting My Chemical Romance on two dates in the US in April. In May–June 2011, the band returned to Europe to play the Slam Dunk Festival dates, as well as supporting System of a Down on June 2 in Milan, Italy.\n", "On June 21, 2011, frontman Justin Sane announced that Anti-Flag is working on material for a new album, which they hoped would be to released that fall, with working title of \"Magnum\". Sane has also announced plans to record a new solo album in the coming future, as he's been working on some folk oriented solo material as well.\n", "The band released the album, \"The General Strike\" on March 20, 2012. The General Strike was recorded and Produced by Anti-Flag at their home studio. The band will be going on The General Strike Record Release Tour with The Flatliners and the Have Nots. They have released a lyric video for the song \"1915\" which is about Joe Hill.\n", "In June 2014 it was announced that Anti-Flag were to release a new album titled \"\". The album, a compilation of their releases from 1993–2013, would be released on Fat Wreck Chords, the band's first release with the label since \"The Terror State\" in 2003. The album was released on July 21, 2014.\n", "Section::::History.:\"American Spring\" and \"American Fall\" (2015–present).\n", "On January 16, 2015, the band announced they would release their ninth studio album titled \"American Spring\", via Spinefarm Records. The album was released on May 26, 2015. Later in 2015 Anti-Flag released a compilation album called \"Cease Fires\" which contains two previously unreleased songs from their \"American Spring\" recording sessions and twelve songs taken from their \"20 Years of Hell\" EP series. It was released on December 18, 2015. On August 14, 2017, in reaction to the events of the 2017 Unite the Right Rally, the band released a song titled \"Racists\" to the Spinefarm Records YouTube channel. On August 18, 2017 the band announced a new album titled \"American Fall\" would be released on Spinefarm Records on November 3, 2017 by premiering a song titled \"American Attraction\" from the upcoming album on the bands YouTube channel.\n", "In Early 2018, the ensemble toured with Stray from the Path, The White Noise and Sharptooth.\n", "From July–September 2018 Anti-Flag played with AFI and Rise Against in the \"Mourning in Amerika\" Tour.\n", "Section::::Name and criticism.\n", "Anti-Flag explained their name on the artwork for their 1999 release, \"A New Kind of Army\", saying \"Anti-Flag does not mean Anti-American. Anti-Flag means anti-war. Anti-Flag means the common people of the world are better off living in unity and peace. Anti-Flag means to stand against corporate greed that hurts millions while benefiting a handful of extremely rich. Anti-Flag means to fight against mindless nationalism. Anti-Flag means unity.\"\n", "Anti-Flag's anti-capitalism stance drew criticism towards them when they signed to major label RCA Records. Due to their signing to RCA Records, Anti-Flag were called \"sell-outs\" and people claimed the band would lose their passion and voice. Anti-Flag defended themselves from the criticism by saying that signing to the record label was for bringing their message to more people. Anti-Flag didn't tone down any of their messages with their major label debut \n", "Section::::Studio projects.\n", "Chris No. 2 and Chris Head are in a band called White Wives. They have released the Situationists EP on February 15, 2011, and released Happeners on June 28, 2011. The band and name was based off the Provo (movement) and The White Plans.\n", "Wharf Rats, the new musical partnership between Chris No. 2 of Anti-Flag, Alexisonfire guitarist and Gallows frontman Wade MacNeil, \"The A.K.A.'s\" Chachi Darin and Minneapolis rapper P.O.S, was conceived on Warped Tour and recorded in the festival's traveling recording studio. Two songs emerged from those sessions: \"Oh No!\" and \"Capital Gains\". Both were pressed on a limited edition 7-inch single and released on May 31 via No Sleep Records.\n", "Section::::ANTIFest.\n", "ANTIFest is Anti-Flag's own hosted festival. It took place on May 3, 2012, at The Forum at the University of Hertfordshire. The festival was the first self-established festival hosted by the band, who seek to maintain it as an annual event. On top of headlining the festival, the band personally chose all of the bands who appeared, some of which included other punk bands such as The Bouncing Souls, The Menzingers, Red City Radio, The Computers, and The Skints. The event also had volunteers from organizations including Amnesty International, PETA, and Emmaus providing information and a forum for debate and discussion.br\n", "ANTIFest 2013 took place at Backstage Werk in Munich on July 14 with support from ZSK, Strike Anywhere, The Computers and Apologies, I Have None.\n", "Section::::Activism.\n", "Anti-Flag have been involved with activism throughout their musical career. This has included starting the activism groups The Underground Action Alliance, Military Free Zone (a group to protest a clause in the No Child Left Behind Act, which gave military recruiters automatic access to students' personal details) and The Bright Lights.\n", "They have been involved in performing at multiple protests, including two in support of Rage Against The Machine.\n", "They performed outside the Republican National Convention in 2008. They were supposed to be the last band to play, but when officials found out that Rage Against The Machine were going to perform after them, they shut down the stage's power and Rage Against The Machine performed two songs using megaphones.\n", "Most recently, the band played an acoustic set at the Occupy Wall Street demonstration in New York City on October 8, 2011.\n", "They also regularly support organizations which include:\n", "BULLET::::- \"Democracy Now!\", the latest headlines from which can be found on the band's homepage,.\n", "BULLET::::- \"PETA\", who were one of the sponsors of their 2010 'The Economy Sucks Let's Party' tour.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Amnesty International\", to which the band donated money from the sale of \"The People and the Gun\", have supported for a long time and who were one of the sponsors of their 2010 'The Economy Sucks Let's Party Tour'.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Greenpeace\", with whom the band worked in order to persuade world leaders to attend the climate conference in Copenhagen and who were one of the sponsors of their 'The Economy Sucks Let's Party Tour'.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Useless\", with whom they sold screen-printed limited-edition T-shirts to raise money for The Kandorwahun project, while raising awareness and visibility for \"Useless\".\n", "The band also showed their disapproval of fracking in October 2013, supporting the Clean Water Mob.\n", "The band's song \"Die for Your Government\" was sung by anti-war protesters who briefly blocked a road to prevent U.S. troops from deploying to Iraq in August 2010.\n", "They have appeared in the 2010 music documentary \"Sounds Like A Revolution\", about new protest music in America.\n", "Section::::Symbol.\n", "The \"Gun Star\" is the symbol for the band Anti-Flag, designed by Anti-Flag guitarist Chris Head. It was first used on the cover of the album \"Mobilize\". It was later used on merchandise. It is made up of a number of broken M16 rifles in the form of a star shape. Also, they used the O & X superposed symbols on \"Die for the Government\" LP frequently.\n", "Section::::Band members.\n", "Current members\n", "BULLET::::- Justin Sane – lead vocals, lead guitar\n", "BULLET::::- Chris#2 (Chris Barker) – bass guitar, backing and lead vocals\n", "BULLET::::- Chris Head – bass guitar , rhythm guitar, backing vocals\n", "BULLET::::- Pat Thetic – drums, percussion\n", "Former members\n", "BULLET::::- Lucy Fester – bass guitar\n", "BULLET::::- Andy Flag – bass guitar, backing vocals, occasional lead vocals\n", "BULLET::::- Jamie \"Cock\" Towns – bass guitar\n", "Touring members\n", "BULLET::::- Erik Pitluga - drums\n", "BULLET::::- Steve LaRussa - backing vocals, bass guitar\n", "BULLET::::- Brian Curran\n", "BULLET::::- Sean Whealen\n", "Timeline\n", "Section::::Discography.\n", "BULLET::::- Studio albums\n", "BULLET::::- \"Die for the Government\" (1996)\n", "BULLET::::- \"A New Kind of Army\" (1999)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Underground Network\" (2001)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mobilize\" (2002)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Terror State\" (2003)\n", "BULLET::::- \"For Blood and Empire\" (2006)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Bright Lights of America\" (2008)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The People or the Gun\" (2009)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The General Strike\" (2012)\n", "BULLET::::- \"American Spring\" (2015)\n", "BULLET::::- \"American Fall\" (2017)\n", "Section::::Videography.\n", "BULLET::::- \"This is the End (For You My Friend)\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Broken Bones\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Economy is Suffering... Let It Die\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Press Corpse\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"This is the New Sound\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Bright Lights of America\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Close My Eyes/The Ghosts of Alexandria (Punks in Vegas Session)\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"When All the Lights Go Out\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Brandenburg Gate\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"All of the Poison, All of the Pain\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Turncoat\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"American Attraction\"\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Anti-Flag's/Chris No. 2's Blog\n", "BULLET::::- Eastpak Antidote Tour Live review\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Battle of Neresheim\n", "The Battle of Neresheim (11 August 1796) saw a victory of Republican French army under Jean Victor Marie Moreau over the Habsburg Austrian army of Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen. Pursued by Moreau's \"Army of Rhin-et-Moselle\", Charles launched an attack against the French. While the Austrian left wing saw some success, the battle degenerated into a stalemate and the archduke withdrew further into the Electorate of Bavaria. Neresheim is located in the state of Baden-Württemberg in Germany a distance of northeast of Ulm. The action took place during the War of the First Coalition, part of a larger conflict called the French Revolutionary Wars.\n", "In the Rhine Campaign of 1796, two French armies successfully breached the Rhine River to invade Germany, Moreau's army in the south and Jean-Baptiste Jourdan's \"Army of Sambre-et-Meuse\" in the north. The French armies operated independently while Charles commanded both Maximilian Anton Karl, Count Baillet de Latour's \"Army of the Upper Rhine\" in the south and Wilhelm von Wartensleben's \"Army of the Lower Rhine\" in the north. Charles hoped to concentrate superior strength against one of the two French armies. To keep his enemies separated, the archduke wished to lure Moreau south of the Danube River by crossing to the south bank. To allow his columns to cross the river safely, Charles attacked the French, hoping to push them back. Though he failed to defeat the French, the battle gave the archduke enough space to get his troops over the Danube without interference. Though he had a chance to join his army to Jourdan's in the north, Moreau soon crossed to the south bank in pursuit.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "On 8 June 1796, the \"Army of Rhin-et-Moselle\" commanded by Jean Victor Marie Moreau numbered 71,581 foot soldiers and 6,515 cavalry, not counting artillerists. The army was formed into a Right Wing under Pierre Marie Barthélemy Ferino, a Center led by Louis Desaix and a Left Wing directed by Laurent Gouvion Saint-Cyr. Ferino's three divisions were led by François Antoine Louis Bourcier, 9,281 infantry and 690 cavalry, Henri François Delaborde, 8,300 infantry and 174 cavalry and Augustin Tuncq, 7,437 infantry and 432 cavalry. Desaix's three divisions were commanded by Michel de Beaupuy, 14,565 infantry and 1,266 cavalry, Antoine Guillaume Delmas, 7,898 infantry and 865 cavalry, and Charles Antoine Xaintrailles, 4,828 infantry and 962 cavalry. Saint-Cyr's two divisions were under Guillaume Philibert Duhesme, 7,438 infantry and 895 cavalry, and Alexandre Camille Taponier, 11,823 infantry and 1,231 cavalry. With artillerymen, Moreau's host counted a total of 79,592 soldiers.\n", "Originally, the \"Army of Rhin-et-Moselle\" was opposed by 82,776 Austrians and allies under Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser. But 25,330 Austrians were soon transferred to Italy and Wurmser went with this force on 18 June. Maximilian Anton Karl, Count Baillet de Latour was appointed the new commander of the \"Army of the Upper Rhine\". The former leader of the \"Army of the Lower Rhine\", Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen was replaced by Wilhelm von Wartensleben so he could take overall command of both Austrian armies.\n", "On 24 June 1796, the \"Army of Rhin-et-Moselle\" mounted a successful assault crossing of the Rhine River in the Battle of Kehl. The French sustained losses of 150 killed, wounded and missing out of 10,065 engaged. The Swabian Regional Contingent defenders numbered 7,000 soldiers in eight foot battalions, eight horse squadrons and two artillery batteries. The Swabians suffered over 700 casualties and lost 14 guns and 22 munition wagons. Moreau's forces inflicted a second defeat on a force of 9,000 Swabians and their Austrian allies under Anton Sztáray at Renchen on 28 June. This time the French reported only 200 casualties while inflicting 550 killed and wounded on their enemies. In addition, the French captured 850 soldiers, seven guns and two munition wagons. During this period of maneuvering, Moreau switched the positions of two of his wings. Ferino still commanded the Right Wing, but Desaix now commanded the Left Wing while Saint-Cyr led the Center.\n", "On 30 June, Latour's \"Army of the Upper Rhine\" was divided into a Left Wing under Michael von Fröhlich, a Center led by Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg and a Right Wing that Latour personally controlled. Fröhlich's wing was made up of eight battalions and 12 squadrons of Austrians organized in two brigades. Fürstenberg's command consisted of 17 battalions, five companies and 10 squadrons, including Swabians and Bavarians, organized into five brigades. Latour's wing had 25 battalions and 58 squadrons organized into five divisions under Prince von Fürstemberg, Johann Mészáros von Szoboszló, Johann Sigismund Riesch, Karl von Riese, and Sztáray. There were an additional six battalions and six squadrons holding Mannheim and one battalion garrisoning Philippsburg. Archduke Charles was approaching with an Austrian division under Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze and a Saxon division under General von Lindt. Hotze directed 16 battalions and 20 squadrons in three brigades while Lindt commanded nine battalions and 19 squadrons in five brigades.\n", "With Desaix on the left and Saint-Cyr on the right, Moreau pressed north up the east bank of the Rhine to the Murg River. The French thrust severed Austrians under Fröhlich and French Royalists under Louis Joseph, Prince of Condé from the remainder of Latour's army. Ferino's wing pursued Fröhlich and Condé to the southeast and seized the region around Freiburg im Breisgau. On the Murg, Desaix won a minor victory over Latour in the Battle of Rastatt. By this time, Archduke Charles arrived from the north with 20,000 reinforcements. The archduke planned to attack on 10 July, but Moreau preempted him by one day. In the Battle of Ettlingen on the 9th, both commanders tried to hold with their left wings and attack with their right. On Moreau's right, Saint-Cyr was successful in driving back Konrad Valentin von Kaim's Austrians near Frauenalb while Taponier's division pushed back Lindt's Saxons near Neuenbürg. On the French left, Desaix captured Malsch twice but was ultimately driven out. Despite having won the battle on his right flank, Charles feared Saint-Cyr's advance might cut him off from his supply base at Heilbronn so the archduke ordered a retreat to the east.\n", "Archduke Charles stopped long enough at Pforzheim to transfer his military stores to the army's wagon train. Moreau was surprised by his foe's decision to disengage and took several days to digest this information. The French commander planned to attack Pforzheim on 15 July, but by that date Charles was retreating farther to the east. On 21 July, there was a skirmish at Cannstadt near Stuttgart. There were 8,000 Austrians in nine battalions and eight squadrons involved in the clash. From Cannstadt, Charles retreated toward Schwäbisch Gmünd with Moreau following his enemies at a leisurely pace. Meanwhile, the isolated Austrian left wing withdrew through Villingen with Ferino in pursuit. The Swabians and Bavarian began negotiations with the French to quit the war while the Saxons marched away to the north to join Wartensleben's army. When Charles left the banks of the Rhine he left behind 30,000 troops in garrisons at Mannheim, Philippsburg, Mainz, Königstein im Taunus and Ehrenbreitstein Fortress. On 29 July at Biberach an der Riss, the Swabian Regional Contingent was disarmed by Fröhlich on the instructions of Charles. These subtractions left Charles with only three-quarters of the strength of Moreau. On 2 August, Moreau's troops bumped into the Austrians at Geislingen an der Steige and for a week afterward there was constant skirmishing with Charles' rear guard. Saint-Cyr occupied the city of Ulm on 8 August 1796. Two days later, Charles was joined by his left wing. At this time Ferino was at Memmingen to the south of the Danube.\n", "Section::::Battle.\n", "On 13 July in Desaix's Left Wing, the division of Delmas consisted of the 50th and 97th Line and 16th Light Infantry Demi-Brigades and four squadrons each of the 7th Hussar and 10th and 17th Dragoon Regiments. Delmas' brigade commanders were Jean Marie Rodolph Eickemayer, who had been recruited from Mainz, and Maurice Frimont. The division of Beaupuy was made up of the 10th, 62nd and 103rd Line and the 10th Light Demi-Brigades, 4th and 8th Chasseurs à Cheval and the 6th Dragoons. Beaupuy's brigadiers were Gilles Joseph Martin Brunteau Saint-Suzanne and Dominique Joba. Bourcier's Reserve division comprised the 93rd and 109th Line, the 1st and 2nd Carabiniers and the 2nd, 3rd, 9th, 14th and 15th Cavalry Regiments. All demi-brigades had three battalions, all Cavalry regiments had three squadrons, while the Carabiniers, Chasseurs, Dragoons and Hussars had four squadrons.\n", "A report from 7 August 1796 showed that Saint-Cyr shuffled the brigades in the Center so that Duhesme's division had only one while Taponier had the other three. In Duhesme's division, Dominique Vandamme's brigade was made up of the 17th and 100th Line Infantry Demi-brigades, two squadrons of the 20th Chasseurs à Cheval and a detachment of the 11th Hussars, a total of 5,272 infantry and 292 cavalry. Taponier's division included the brigades of Antoine Laroche Dubouscat, Claude Lecourbe and Henri François Lambert. Laroche directed 5,124 soldiers of the 21st Light and 31st Line Infantry, Lecourbe commanded 5,878 men of the 84th and 106th Line and Lambert controlled 5,888 troops of the 93rd and 109th Line. Two squadrons of 240 sabers from the 2nd Chasseurs à Cheval were attached to Lecourbe's brigade. Altogether, there were 22,162 foot soldiers, 532 horsemen and 433 gunners in Saint-Cyr's command. In addition to the other units, the 9th Hussars were normally attached to Taponier's division.\n", "Archduke Charles wished to prevent the army of Moreau from joining with his colleague Jean-Baptiste Jourdan and the \"Army of Sambre-et-Meuse\". The Austrian commander hoped to withdraw to the south bank of the Danube but the \"Army of Rhin-et-Moselle\" was following too closely. By attacking Moreau, the archduke hoped to push the French back in order to prevent their two armies from merging and to give his own troops enough room to cross the Danube safely. Also, he wanted to lure Moreau into crossing the Danube and separating himself from Jourdan. Moreau's army was extended across a front wide. Charles drew up plans to attack on 11 August. He sent one column to cross to the north bank of the Danube at Günzburg to get behind the French right flank. His troops were ready to move at midnight, but heavy rains slowed several of his assault columns. On the 10th Saint-Cyr with Taponier's division, drove the Austrians in his front out of the village of Eglingen. Urged on by Moreau, Saint-Cyr balked because he believed that the enemy were in strength nearby. Before anything more could be done, the heavy rain began and made it impossible to fire the cannons on both sides. Moreau refused to let his subordinate withdraw to a more defensible position or to order Duhesme's division to move closer. The only concession Moreau would make was to send up one regiment of Carabiniers to patrol in front of Taponier. To be on the safe side, Saint-Cyr stationed Lecourbe and one demi brigade at Dischingen where there was a bridge over the Egau River. Meanwhile, Duhesme stayed well to the south at Medlingen in the Danube valley.\n", "The Austrian archduke commanded 43,000 men while Moreau led 44,737 troops. Charles massed his main strength against Saint-Cyr, who commanded 30,426 soldiers if the nearby Reserve was included. On the right flank, Johann I Joseph, Prince of Liechtenstein led the Advance Guard while Sztáray led the Reserve. They would operate against Bopfingen and seize the Neresheim-Nördlingen road. Charles personally led 5,000 infantry and 1,500 cavalry on Dunstelkingen in the center. To Charles' immediate right, Hotze directed 7,500 foot and 1,800 horse toward Kösingen and Schweindorf. To Charles' immediate left, Latour's 5,500 troops would clear Eglingen and Dischingen. On the left flank, Fröhlich was in charge of the force that would cross the Danube behind the French right flank. He would cooperate with Riese's troops. The outnumbered Duhesme was to be assailed by 7,000 infantry and 2,400 cavalry. Once they crushed the French right flank, 3,000 men under Karl Mercandin were to attack Dischingen while the rest were supposed to circle behind Moreau's army and keep it from escaping.\n", "The sudden Austrian advance at dawn caused the 150-strong regiment of Carabiniers to retreat at the gallop. Saint-Cyr's light cavalry, led by Étienne Marie Antoine Champion de Nansouty, lost heart at seeing the heavy cavalry fleeing and fell back, leaving the French infantry at Eglingen without support. The Austrian horse fell on the flank of Lambert's brigade, routing its six battalions. This left Taponier's division with 12 battalions to face Charles' assault. At this moment Moreau arrived at Saint-Cyr's headquarters. Before riding off to consult with Desaix, the French army commander placed Bourcier's division in support nearby and agreed to have the Left Wing attack the Austrian right flank. Saint-Cyr deployed nine battalions at Dunstelkingen while keeping Lecourbe's three battalions to protect his right rear at Dischingen. At 9:00 AM the Austrians attacked this position but were beaten back. Their artillery set Dunstelkingen on fire but this actually helped prevent the Austrians from advancing. Moreau then returned from his meeting with Desaix to inform Saint-Cyr that the Left Wing's attack would be delayed until Delmas' division could be recalled from the extreme left.\n", "Hotze seized Kösingen but found himself facing a new French line on high ground between him and Neresheim. He attacked this position but was repulsed by Desaix. On Hotze's right, Honoré Théodore Maxime Gazan drove the Austrians back to Schweindorf. The Austrians took Bopfingen but found that the French were moving south to assist the center. The clash at Bopfingen was fought by the \"Duke Albert\" Carabinier Regiment Nr. 5 and the \"Siebenburger\" Hussar Regiment Nr. 47. Desaix had little trouble fending off these advances. But a message came from the far right that said Duhesme's division was in trouble. Riese attacked Duhesme at Medlingen, forcing him to retreat. A large force of Austrian cavalry reached Giengen to block the French retreat, but Duhesme escaped to the northwest. Mercandin ended the day short of Dischingen and Riese moved west to Heidenheim an der Brenz rather than making a sweep into the French rear. Fröhlich's column only got as far as Albeck, north of Ulm. Duhesme's division lost some cannons and was not able to rejoin Saint-Cyr for three days. The Center's artillery park at Heidenheim hurriedly displaced north to Aalen. This left Saint-Cyr's troops with no reserve artillery ammunition and dependent on supply from Bourcier's small artillery park. Moreau appeared a third time at Saint-Cyr's headquarters promising that Desaix would soon attack the Austrian right flank. Though Saint-Cyr was in a tight spot, in fact, Charles became anxious about Moreau's commitment of the French Reserve.\n", "The Austrians declined to launch any more serious assaults on Taponier's division and by 1:00 PM the contest degenerated into an artillery duel. Part of Lambert's brigade was rallied and reoccupied Heidenheim. The Austrians threatening the French right flank began withdrawing to Dillingen an der Donau. For the fourth time that day Moreau came to see Saint-Cyr, this time accompanied by Desaix. They informed their colleague that Delmas' division was not available yet and it was too late to attack the Austrian right that day. Everything would be ready the next day. Charles hoped that Moreau might concede defeat, but the morning of 12 August found the French army still in position. Charles then gave the order to fall back. Worried about the artillery ammunition shortage, Moreau did not attack Charles' right, but neither did he panic and retreat. Instead he held his position all day on the 12th waiting for confirmation that the Austrians were withdrawing across the Danube.\n", "Besides the two cavalry regiments that fought at Bopfingen, the Austrian units that came into action were four battalions of Infantry Regiments \"Reisky\" Nr. 13 and \"Slavonier\" Grenz, three battalions each of Infantry Regiments \"Manfredini\" Nr. 12, \"Nádasdy\" Nr. 39 and \"Kinsky\" Nr. 47, two battalions of Infantry Regiment \"Schröder\" Nr. 7, one battalion each of Infantry regiments \"Archduke Charles\" Nr. 3, \"Alton\" Nr. 15 and \"Ligne\" Nr. 30, the \"Apfaltrern\", \"Candiani\", \"Pietsch\" and \"Retz\" Grenadier Battalions, elements of \"Archduke Ferdinand\" Hussar Regiment Nr. 32 and four squadrons of the \"Archduke Franz\" Cuirassier Regiment Nr. 29.\n", "Section::::Results.\n", "According to one source that called the battle a French victory, the Austrians lost 1,100 killed and wounded plus 500 captured while the French suffered 1,200 killed and wounded plus 1,200 captured. Another authority characterized the action as a \"drawn battle\" and stated that casualties numbered 3,000 on each side. The Austrian retreat was not molested by the French, which was one of the reasons why Charles fought the battle. The Austrian army crossed the Danube at Dillingen and Donauwörth, destroying all the bridges behind them. Furious with Duhesme for retreating, Moreau removed him from command of his division. Saint-Cyr persuaded him to rescind the order a few days later.\n", "Moreau deserved criticism for spreading his forces too widely but he can be credited for keeping his composure despite the defeat of Duhesme. But Moreau now fell into a fatal strategic error. Charles entertained a desire to combine forces with Wartensleben at the earliest opportunity in order to defeat Jourdan's army. When Charles withdrew to the south bank of the Danube, he left Moreau free to stay on the north bank and join with Jourdan. Charles hoped to lure his opponent onto the south bank which would take Moreau farther away from Jourdan. In fact, Moreau did not begin to advance until 14 August and then he headed for the Danube crossings. Meanwhile, Charles retreated rapidly, increasing the distance between his army and Moreau, but also giving himself more room to maneuver. On 18 and 19 August Moreau's army finally crossed to the south bank of the Danube. But on the 17th the archduke made a crucial strategic move. Leaving Latour with 30,288 troops plus Condé's 5,000-6,000 men, Charles and 28,000 troops recrossed to the north bank, heading for a rendezvous with Wartensleben. Ignoring this move, Moreau moved steadily to the east on the south bank of the Danube. Napoleon later wrote of Moreau, \"One would have said that he was ignorant that a French army existed on his left\". The next actions were the Battle of Amberg and the Battle of Friedberg, both on 24 August 1796.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Pope, Stephen. \"The Cassell Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars\", Cassell (1999)\n" ] }

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"Dominique Vandamme", "Chasseurs à Cheval", "Claude Lecourbe", "Jean-Baptiste Jourdan", "Günzburg", "Dischingen", "Egau", "Medlingen", "Johann I Joseph, Prince of Liechtenstein", "Bopfingen", "Étienne Marie Antoine Champion de Nansouty", "Honoré Théodore Maxime Gazan", "Giengen", "Heidenheim an der Brenz", "Aalen", "Dillingen an der Donau", "Grenz", "Cuirassier", "Donauwörth", "Napoleon", "Battle of Amberg" ], "href": [ "First%20French%20Republic", "Jean%20Victor%20Marie%20Moreau", "Archduke%20Charles%2C%20Duke%20of%20Teschen", "Army%20of%20Rhin-et-Moselle", "Electorate%20of%20Bavaria", "Neresheim", "Baden-W%C3%BCrttemberg", "Germany", "Ulm", "War%20of%20the%20First%20Coalition", "French%20Revolutionary%20Wars", "Rhine%20Campaign%20of%201796", "Rhine%20River", "Jean-Baptiste%20Jourdan", "Maximilian%20Anton%20Karl%2C%20Count%20Baillet%20de%20Latour", "Wilhelm%20von%20Wartensleben", "Danube", "Army%20of%20Rhin-et-Moselle", "Jean%20Victor%20Marie%20Moreau", 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"Louis%20Joseph%2C%20Prince%20of%20Cond%C3%A9", "Freiburg%20im%20Breisgau", "Battle%20of%20Rastatt%20%281796%29", "Battle%20of%20Ettlingen", "Konrad%20Valentin%20von%20Kaim", "Frauenalb", "Neuenb%C3%BCrg", "Malsch", "Heilbronn", "Pforzheim", "Stuttgart", "Schw%C3%A4bisch%20Gm%C3%BCnd", "Villingen-Schwenningen", "Mainz", "K%C3%B6nigstein%20im%20Taunus", "Ehrenbreitstein%20Fortress", "Biberach%20an%20der%20Riss", "Geislingen%20an%20der%20Steige", "rear%20guard", "Ulm", "Memmingen", "Danube", "Hussar", "Dragoon", "Maurice%20Frimont", "Chasseurs%20%C3%A0%20Cheval", "Dominique%20Vandamme", "Chasseurs%20%C3%A0%20Cheval", "Claude%20Lecourbe", "Jean-Baptiste%20Jourdan", "G%C3%BCnzburg", "Dischingen", "Egau", "Medlingen", "Johann%20I%20Joseph%2C%20Prince%20of%20Liechtenstein", "Bopfingen", "%C3%89tienne%20Marie%20Antoine%20Champion%20de%20Nansouty", "Honor%C3%A9%20Th%C3%A9odore%20Maxime%20Gazan%20de%20la%20Peyri%C3%A8re", "Giengen", "Heidenheim%20an%20der%20Brenz", "Aalen", "Dillingen%20an%20der%20Donau", "Grenz%20infantry", "Cuirassier", "Donauw%C3%B6rth", "Napoleon", "Battle%20of%20Amberg" ], "wikipedia_title": [ "French First Republic", "Jean Victor Marie Moreau", "Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen", "Army of the Rhine and Moselle", "Electorate of Bavaria", "Neresheim", "Baden-Württemberg", "Germany", "Ulm", "War of the First Coalition", "French Revolutionary Wars", "Rhine Campaign of 1796", "Rhine", "Jean-Baptiste Jourdan", "Maximilian Anton Karl, Count Baillet de Latour", "Wilhelm von Wartensleben", "Danube", "Army of the Rhine and Moselle", "Jean Victor Marie Moreau", "Pierre Marie Barthélemy Ferino", "Louis Desaix", "Laurent de Gouvion Saint-Cyr", "François Antoine Louis Bourcier", "Henri François Delaborde", "Augustin Tuncq", "Michel de Beaupuy", "Antoine Guillaume Delmas", "Charles Antoine Xaintrailles", "Guillaume Philibert Duhesme", "Alexandre Camille Taponier", "Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser", "Maximilian Anton Karl, Count Baillet de Latour", "Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen", "Wilhelm von Wartensleben", "Rhine", "Battle of Kehl (1796)", "Swabian Circle", "Anton Sztáray", "Renchen", "Michael von Fröhlich", "Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg", "Electorate of Bavaria", "Johann Mészáros von Szoboszló", "Johann Sigismund Riesch", "Mannheim", "Philippsburg", "Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze", "Electorate of Saxony", "Murg (Northern Black Forest)", "Louis Joseph, Prince of Condé", "Freiburg im Breisgau", "Battle of Rastatt (1796)", "Battle of Ettlingen", "Konrad Valentin von Kaim", "Marxzell", "Neuenbürg", "Malsch", "Heilbronn", "Pforzheim", "Stuttgart", "Schwäbisch Gmünd", "Villingen-Schwenningen", "Mainz", "Königstein im Taunus", "Ehrenbreitstein Fortress", "Biberach an der Riss", "Geislingen an der Steige", "Rearguard", "Ulm", "Memmingen", "Danube", "Hussar", "Dragoon", "Maurice Frimont", "Chasseur", "Dominique Vandamme", "Chasseur", "Claude Lecourbe", "Jean-Baptiste Jourdan", "Günzburg", "Dischingen", "Egau", "Medlingen", "Johann I Joseph, Prince of Liechtenstein", "Bopfingen", "Étienne Marie Antoine Champion de Nansouty", "Honoré Théodore Maxime Gazan de la Peyrière", "Giengen", "Heidenheim an der Brenz", "Aalen", "Dillingen an der Donau", "Grenz infantry", "Cuirassier", "Donauwörth", "Napoleon", "Battle of Amberg" ], "wikipedia_id": [ "62243", "330417", "2875", "22197466", "8984250", "5947109", "66401", "11867", "189455", "176739", "233039", "42595708", "25845", "244263", "26429545", "27476563", "21209639", "22197466", "330417", "24618771", "7025663", "330159", "26804130", "1507707", "45495445", "25382190", "38675478", "44744945", "2701569", "42240595", "2659526", "26429545", "2875", "27476563", "25845", "44026978", "2911844", "27580394", "3837989", "38792743", "24613618", "8984250", "21949332", "26169590", "99627", "704096", "24704420", "6488945", "1053113", "703468", "101832", "157722", "26431899", "28786227", "10038325", "5947263", "5503076", "306485", "549161", "28565", "1152693", "378366", "20537", 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{ "description": "battle", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q1217073", "wikidata_label": "Battle of Neresheim", "wikipedia_title": "Battle of Neresheim", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Battle of Sant Llorenç de la Muga\n", "The Battle of Sant Llorenç de la Muga (in Catalan, in ) was fought on 13 August 1794 between an attacking Spanish–Portuguese army led by the Conde de la Unión and a French army commanded by Jacques François Dugommier. The local French defenders headed by Pierre Augereau and Dominique Pérignon repulsed the allies. The Spanish garrison of Fort de Bellegarde surrendered a month later.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "In 1793 the Spanish army defeated the ill-trained French armies where the Franco-Spanish border touches the Mediterranean Sea. The Siege of Bellegarde resulted in the surrender of the fort to the Spanish army on 24 June. The Spanish army won the Battle of Truillas and several other actions, and seized the port of Collioure in December. In January 1794, the Army of the Eastern Pyrenees received a new commander in General of Division Jacques François Dugommier. Fresh from his triumph at the Siege of Toulon, the new leader reorganized the army. Dugommier set up supply depots, established hospitals, and improved local roads. By the time the French assumed the offensive in April 1794, their army numbered 28,000 regular soldiers, 20,000 garrison troops, and 9,000 hastily trained volunteers.\n", "Dugommier organized the infantry divisions of Generals of Division Pérignon, Augereau, and Sauret, backed by a cavalry reserve under MG André de La Barre. The French defeated their adversaries at the Battle of Boulou on 1 May. Immediately after their victory, they pushed the Allied army south of the Pyrenees and invested both Collioure and the Fort de Bellegarde. Collioure fell on 29 May, but Bellegarde proved to be much more difficult to capture. In a combat at La Junquera on 7 June, Pérignon repulsed a Spanish attempt to relieve Bellegarde, though La Barre was killed while leading his troopers.\n", "Section::::Battle.\n", "Anxious about the beleaguered garrison of Bellegarde, de la Union assembled an army of 45,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry. He emerged from his fortified lines covering the Alto Ampurdán to attack Augereau's division on the western flank. The fighting took place near Sant Llorenç de la Muga, the site of a cannon ammunition foundry. The Spanish assault, carried out by 14,000 regular infantry and 6,000 provincial militia, failed to break the French defenders, who received some help from Pérignon's division in the center. Sauret's defenses, on the eastern flank, were not threatened.\n", "General John Forbes covered the retreat with a Portuguese division consisting of one battalion each of the 1st, 2nd, \"Olivença\", \"Cascais\", \"Peniche\", and \"Freire de Andrade\" Infantry Regiments. The French counted 800 casualties, including General of Brigade Guillaume Mirabel killed. The Spanish suffered losses of 1,400 soldiers killed, wounded, and missing.\n", "Section::::Aftermath.\n", "The Marquis of Val-Santaro surrendered Bellegarde to Pérignon on 17 September. The 1,000 starving survivors of the garrison became prisoners, while 68 cannon and 40,000 rounds of cannon shot fell into French hands. French losses during the blockade were light. The next action was the Battle of the Black Mountain in November 1794.\n", "Section::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- fortified-places.com \"Bellegarde\" by Dominic Goode\n", "BULLET::::- Ostermann, Georges. \"Pérignon: The Unknown Marshal\". Chandler, David, ed. \"Napoleon's Marshals.\" New York: Macmillan, 1987.\n", "BULLET::::- Smith, Digby. \"The Napoleonic Wars Data Book.\" London: Greenhill, 1998.\n" ] }

{ "paragraph_id": [ 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 6, 6, 7, 7, 9, 9, 12, 13 ], "start": [ 42, 141, 165, 190, 255, 339, 108, 131, 246, 315, 359, 416, 436, 494, 67, 77, 91, 266, 413, 47, 240, 240, 285, 65, 12 ], "end": [ 49, 158, 171, 216, 270, 357, 125, 150, 264, 324, 387, 435, 462, 509, 75, 85, 97, 289, 420, 57, 258, 248, 313, 80, 24 ], "text": [ "Catalan", "Conde de la Unión", "French", "Jacques François Dugommier", "Pierre Augereau", "Fort de Bellegarde", "Mediterranean Sea", "Siege of Bellegarde", "Battle of Truillas", "Collioure", "Army of the Eastern Pyrenees", "General of Division", "Jacques François Dugommier", "Siege of Toulon", "Pérignon", "Augereau", "Sauret", "Sant Llorenç de la Muga", "militia", "Portuguese", "General of Brigade", "blockade", "Battle of the Black Mountain", "Chandler, David", "Smith, Digby" ], "href": [ "Catalan%20language", "Luis%20Firm%C3%ADn%20de%20Carvajal%2C%20Conde%20de%20la%20Uni%C3%B3n", "First%20French%20Republic", "Jacques%20Fran%C3%A7ois%20Dugommier", "Pierre%20Augereau", "Fort%20de%20Bellegarde", "Mediterranean%20Sea", "Siege%20of%20Bellegarde%20%281793%29", "Battle%20of%20Truillas", "Collioure", "Army%20of%20the%20Eastern%20Pyrenees", "General%20of%20Division", "Jacques%20Fran%C3%A7ois%20Dugommier", "Siege%20of%20Toulon%20%281793%29", "Catherine-Dominique%20de%20P%C3%A9rignon", "Pierre%20Augereau", "Pierre%20Fran%C3%A7ois%20Sauret", "Sant%20Lloren%C3%A7%20de%20la%20Muga", "militia", "Kingdom%20of%20Portugal", "General%20of%20Brigade", "blockade", "Battle%20of%20the%20Black%20Mountain", "David%20G.%20Chandler", "Digby%20Smith" ], "wikipedia_title": [ "Catalan language", "Luis Firmín de Carvajal, Conde de la Unión", "French First Republic", "Jacques François Dugommier", "Pierre Augereau", "Fort de Bellegarde", "Mediterranean Sea", "Siege of Bellegarde (1793)", "Battle of Truillas", "Collioure", "Army of the Eastern Pyrenees", "Divisional general", "Jacques François Dugommier", "Siege of Toulon", "Catherine-Dominique de Pérignon", "Pierre Augereau", "Pierre François Sauret", "Sant Llorenç de la Muga", "Militia", "Kingdom of Portugal", "Brigadier general", "Blockade", "Battle of the Black Mountain", "David G. Chandler", "Digby Smith" ], "wikipedia_id": [ "5282", "7056970", "62243", "2863093", "250497", "6689640", "19006", "27085819", "8664947", "2110010", "17176922", "6058066", "2863093", "1964536", "761812", "250497", "22029873", "3144064", "20622", "9352542", "206220", "293054", "26889242", "17290843", "26163137" ] }

{ "description": "", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q2399716", "wikidata_label": "Battle of San Lorenzo de la Muga", "wikipedia_title": "Battle of Sant Llorenç de la Muga", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Raynald of Châtillon\n", "Raynald of Châtillon, also known as Reynald or Reginald of Châtillon (; 1125 – 4 July 1187), was Prince of Antioch from 1153 to 1160 or 1161, and Lord of Oultrejordain from 1175 until his death. He was born as his father's second son into a French noble family. After losing a part of his patrimony, he joined the Second Crusade in 1147. He settled in the Kingdom of Jerusalem and served in the royal army as a mercenary.\n", "Raynald married Constance, the reigning Princess of Antioch, in 1153, in spite of her subjects' opposition. He was always in need of funds. He captured and tortured Aimery of Limoges, Latin Patriarch of Antioch, because Aimery had refused to pay a subsidy to him. Raynald launched a plundering raid in Cyprus in 1155, causing great destruction. Four years later, the Byzantine Emperor, Manuel I Komnenos, came to Antioch at the head of a large army, forcing Raynald to beg for his mercy. Raynald made a raid in the valley of the river Euphrates at Marash to seize booty from the local peasants in 1160 or 1161, but he was captured by the governor of Aleppo.\n", "Raynald was held in prison until 1176. After his release for a large ransom, he did not return to Antioch, because his wife had meanwhile died. He married Stephanie of Milly, the wealthy heiress of Oultrejordain. Since Baldwin IV of Jerusalem also granted Hebron to him, Raynald was one of the wealthiest barons of the realm. He controlled the caravan routes between Egypt and Syria. Baldwin, who suffered from leprosy, made him regent in 1177. Raynald led the crusader army that defeated Saladin at the Battle of Montgisard. He was the only Christian leader to pursue an offensive policy against Saladin, making plundering raids against the caravans travelling near his domains. He built a fleet of five ships which plundered the coast of the Red Sea, threatening the route of the Muslim pilgrims towards Mecca in early 1183. Saladin pledged that he would never forgive Raynald.\n", "Raynald was a firm supporter of Baldwin IV's sister, Sybilla, and her husband, Guy of Lusignan, during conflicts regarding the succession of the king. Sibylla and Guy were able to seize the throne in 1186 due to Raynald's co-operation with her uncle, Joscelin III of Courtenay. Raynald attacked a caravan travelling from Egypt to Syria in late 1186 or early 1187, claiming that the truce between Saladin and the Kingdom of Jerusalem did not bind him. After Raynald refused to pay a compensation, Saladin invaded the kingdom and annihilated the crusader army in the Battle of Hattin. Raynald was captured in the battlefield. Saladin personally beheaded him after he refused to convert to Islam. Most historians have regarded Raynald as an irresponsible adventurer whose lust for booty caused the fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. On the other hand, Bernard Hamilton says that he was the only crusader leader who tried to prevent Saladin from unifying the nearby Muslim states.\n", "Section::::Early years.\n", "Raynald was the younger son of Hervé II, Lord of Donzy. In older historiography, Raynald was described as the son of Geoffrey, Count of Gien, but in 1989 Jean Richard demonstrated Raynald's kinship with the Lords of Donzy. They were influential noblemen in the Duchy of Burgundy, claiming the Palladii (a family of Roman senators) as their ancestors.\n", "Raynald was born around 1123. He received Châtillon-sur-Loire, but a part of his patrimony was \"violently and unjustly confiscated\", according to one of his letters. He came to the Kingdom of Jerusalem before 1153 when he was mentioned as a mercenary fighting in the army of Baldwin III of Jerusalem. According to modern historians, he had joined the crusade of Louis VII of France. Louis departed from France in June 1147. The 12th-century historian William of Tyre, who was Raynald's opponent, claimed that Raynald was \"almost a common soldier\". LouisVII left the Holy Land for France in the summer of 1149, but Raynald stayed behind in Palestine.\n", "Raymond, Prince of Antioch, and thousands of his soldiers fell in the Battle of Inab on 28June 1148, leaving the principality almost undefended. BaldwinIII of Jerusalem (who was the cousin of Raymond's widow, Constance, the ruling Princess of Antioch) came to Antioch at the head of his army at least three times during the following years. To secure the defence of the principality, Baldwin tried to persuade her to remarry, but she did not accept his candidates. She also refused John Roger, whom the Byzantine Emperor, Manuel I Komnenos, proposed for her husband.\n", "Raynald accompanied Baldwin to Antioch in 1151 and settled in the principality, according to Steven Runciman. It is certain that Raynald fought in Baldwin's army during the Siege of Ascalon in early 1153. He may have already been engaged to Constance of Antioch (as Runciman suggests), or their betrothal took place during Raynald's visit to the principality before the end of the siege (as Malcolm Barber proposes). They kept their betrothal a secret until Baldwin gave his permission to their marriage.\n", "Section::::Prince of Antioch.\n", "After Baldwin granted his consent, Constance married Raynald. He was installed prince in or shortly before May 1153. In that month, he confirmed the privileges of the Venetian merchants. William of Tyre recorded that his subjects were astonished that their \"famous, powerful and well-born\" princess condescended to \"marry a kind of mercenary knight\". The wealthy Latin Patriarch of Antioch, Aimery of Limoges, was Raynald's principal opponent. He even refused to pay a subsidy to him. In retaliation, Raynald captured and tortured Aimery, forcing him to sit naked and covered with honey in the sun, before imprisoning him. Aimery was only released on BaldwinIII's demand, but he soon left his see for Jerusalem.\n", "Emperor Manuel sent his envoys to Antioch, proposing to recognize Raynald as the new prince if he launched a campaign against the Armenians of Cilicia, who had risen up against Byzantine rule. Manuel also promised that he would compensate Raynald for the expenses of the campaign. After Raynald defeated the Armenians at Alexandretta in 1155, the Knights Templar seized the region of the Syrian Gates that the Armenians had recently captured. Although the sources are unclear, Runciman and Barber agree that it was Raynald who granted the territory to them.\n", "Always in need of funds, Raynald urged Manuel to send the promised subsidy to him, but Manuel failed to pay the money. Raynald made an alliance with Thoros II of Cilicia. They attacked Cyprus, subjecting the Byzantine island to a three-week orgy of violence in early 1156. They only left Cyprus on the rumour of an imperial fleet approaching the island, but only after they had forced all Cypriots to ransom themselves, with the exception of the wealthiest individuals (including Emperor Manuel's nephew, John Doukas Komnenos), whom they carried off to Antioch. Cyprus would never entirely recover from the devastation that Raynald's and Thoros's marauding raid caused.\n", "Taking advantage of the presence of Thierry, Count of Flanders, and his army in the Holy Land and an earthquake that destroyed most towns of Northern Syria, BaldwinIII of Jerusalem invaded the Muslim territories in the valley of the Orontes River in the autumn of 1157. Raynald joined the royal army, and they laid siege to Shaizar. Shaizar was held by a band of Assassins, but it had been ruled by the Munqidhites who paid an annual tribute to Raynald. Before the capitulation of the garrison, Baldwin decided to grant the fortress to Thierry of Flanders, but Raynald demanded that the count should pay homage to him for the town. After Thierry sharply refused to swear fealty to an upstart, the crusaders abandoned the siege. They marched on Harenc (present-day Harem, Syria), which had been an Antiochene fortress before Nur ad-Din, atabeg of Aleppo, captured it in 1150. After the crusaders captured Harenc in February 1158, Raynald granted it to the Flemish Raynald of Saint-Valery.\n", "Emperor Manuel unexpectedly invaded Cilicia, forcing ThorosII to seek refuge in the mountains in December 1158. Raynald hurried to Mamistra to voluntarily make his submission to the emperor. On Manuel's demand, he and his retainers walked barefoot and bareheaded through the streets of the town to the imperial tent where he prostrated himself, begging for mercy. William of Tyre stated that \"the glory of the Latin world was put to shame\" on this occasion, because envoys from the nearby Muslim and Christian rulers were also present at Raynald's humiliation. Manuel only forgave him after Raynald agreed to accept a Greek Patriarch in Antioch. Raynald also had to promise that he would allow a Byzantine garrison to stay in the citadel whenever it was required and would send a troop to fight in the Byzantine army. Before long, BaldwinIII of Jerusalem persuaded Manuel to consent to the return of the Latin patriarch, Aimery, to Antioch, instead of installing a Greek patriarch. When the emperor entered Antioch with much pomp and ceremony on 12April 1159, Reginald held the bridle of Manuel's horse. Manuel left the town eight days later.\n", "Raynald made a plundering raid in the valley of the river Euphrates at Marash to seize cattle, horses and camels from the local peasants in November 1160 or 1161. Majd al-Din, governor of Aleppo, attacked Raynald and his retinue on the way back to Antioch. Raynald fought bravely, but the Muslim warriors unhorsed and captured him. He was sent to Aleppo where he was put in jail.\n", "Section::::Captivity and release.\n", "Almost nothing is known about Raynald's life while he was kept in jail for fifteen years. He shared his prison with Joscelin III of Courtenay, who had been captured a couple of months before. In Raynald's absence, Constance wanted to rule alone, but BaldwinIII of Jerusalem made Patriarch Aimery regent for her fifteen-year-old son (Raynald's stepson), Bohemond III of Antioch. Constance died around 1163, shortly after her son reached the age of majority. Her death deprived Raynald of his claim to Antioch. However, he had become an important personality, with prominent family connections. His stepdaughter, Maria of Antioch, married ManuelI Komnenos in 1161. Raynald's own daughter, Agnes, became the wife of Béla III of Hungary.\n", "When Gümüshtekin, governor of Aleppo, one of the last independent Muslim rulers in Syria after Saladin, had conquered almost all neighboring states, he released Raynald, along with Joscelin of Courtenay and all other Christians prisoners in 1176. Raynald's ransom, fixed at 120,000 gold dinars, reflected his prestige. It was most probably paid by ManuelI Komnenos, according to Barber and Bernard Hamilton.\n", "Raynald came to Jerusalem with Joscelin before 1September 1176 where he became a close ally of Joscelin's sister, Agnes of Courtenay. She was the mother of the young Baldwin IV of Jerusalem, who suffered from leprosy. Hugo Etherianis, who lived in Constantinople after around 1165, mentioned in the preface of his \"About the Procession of the Holy Spirit\" that he had asked \"Prince Raynald\" to deliver a copy of the work to Aimery of Limoges. According to historian Bernard Hamilton, these words suggest that Raynald led the embassy that BaldwinIV sent to Constantinople to confirm an alliance between Jerusalem and the Byzantine Empire against Egypt.\n", "Section::::Lord of Oultrejordain.\n", "Section::::Lord of Oultrejordain.:First years.\n", "Raynald married Stephanie of Milly, the lady of Oultrejordain, and BaldwinIV also granted him Hebron. The first extant charter styling Raynald as \"Lord of Hebron and Montréal\" was issued in November 1177. He owed service of 60 knights to the Crown, showing that he had become one of the wealthiest barons of the realm. From his castles at Kerak and Montréal, he controlled the routes between the two main parts of Saladin's empire, Syria and Egypt. Raynald and BaldwinIV's brother-in-law, William of Montferrat, jointly granted large estates to Rodrigo Álvarez, the founder of the Order of Mountjoy, to strengthen the defence of the southern and eastern frontier of the kingdom. After William of Montferrat died in June 1177, the king made Raynald regent.\n", "Baldwin IV's cousin, Philip I, Count of Flanders, came to the Holy Land at the head of a crusader army in early August 1177. The king offered him the regency, but Philip refused the offer, saying that he did not want to stay in the kingdom. Philip declared that he was \"willing to take orders\" from anybody, but he protested when Baldwin confirmed Raynald's position as \"regent of the kingdom and of the armies\". Philip left the kingdom a month after his arrival.\n", "Saladin invaded the region of Ascalon, but the royal army launched an attack on him in the Battle of Montgisard on 25November, leading to his defeat. William of Tyre and Ernoul attributed the victory to the king, but Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad and other Muslim authors recorded that Raynald was the supreme commander. Saladin himself referred to the battle as a \"major defeat which God mended with the famous battle of Hattin\", according to Baha ad-Din.\n", "Raynald was the first among the witnesses to sign most royal charters between 1177 and 1180, showing that he was the king's most influential official during this period. Raynald became one of the principal supporters of Guy of Lusignan, who married the king's elder sister, Sybilla, in early 1180, although many barons of the realm had opposed the marriage. The king's half sister, Isabella (whose stepfather, Balian of Ibelin was Guy of Lusignan's opponent) was engaged to Raynald's stepson, Humphrey IV of Toron, in autumn 1180. BaldwinIV dispatched Raynald, along with Heraclius, Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem, to mediate a reconciliation between Bohemond III of Antioch and Patriarch Aimery in early 1181. Roupen III, Lord of Cilician Armenia, married Raynald's stepdaughter, Isabella of Toron.\n", "Section::::Lord of Oultrejordain.:Fights against Saladin.\n", "Raynald was the only Christian leader who fought against Saladin in the 1180s. The contemporaneous Ernoul mentioned two raids that Raynald made against caravans travelling between Egypt and Syria, breaking the truce. Modern historians debate whether Raynald's desire for booty inspired these military actions, or were deliberate maneuvers to prevent Saladin from annexing new territories. Saladin tried to seize Aleppo after As-Salih Ismail al-Malik, the Zengid emir of the town, died on 18November 1181. Raynald stormed into Saladin's territory, reaching as far as Tabuk on the route between Damascus and Mecca in late 1181. Saladin's nephew, Farrukh Shah, invaded Oultrejourdain instead of attacking Aleppo to compel Raynald to return from the Arabian desert. Before long, Raynald seized a caravan and imprisoned its members. On Saladin's protest, BaldwinIV ordered Raynald to free them, but Raynald did not obey him. His defiance annoyed the king, enabling Raymond III of Tripoli's partisans to reconcile him with the monarch. Raymond's return to the royal court put an end to his paramount position. He accepted the new situation and cooperated with the king and Raymond during the fights against Saladin in summer 1182.\n", "Saladin revived the Egyptian naval force and tried to capture Beirut, but his ships were forced to retreat. Raynald ordered the building of five ships which were carried to the Gulf of Aqaba at the northern end of the Red Sea in February 1183. Raynald laid siege to the Egyptian fortress on Ile de Graye. Part of his fleet made a plundering raid along the coasts, threatening the security of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. Raynald left Ile de Graye, but his fleet continued the siege. Saladin's brother, Al-Adil, the governor of Egypt, dispatched a fleet to the Red Sea. The Egyptians relieved Ile de Graye and destroyed the Christian fleet. Raynald's soldiers were executed, and Saladin took an oath that he would never forgive him. Though Raynald's naval expedition \"showed a remarkable degree of initiative\", according to historian Bernard Hamilton, most modern historians agree that it contributed to the unification of Syria and Egypt under Saladin's rule. Saladin captured Aleppo in June 1183, completing the encirclement of the crusader states.\n", "Baldwin IV, who had become seriously ill, made Guy of Lusignan \"bailli\" (or regent) in October 1183. Within a month, Baldwin dismissed Guy, and had Guy's five-year-old stepson, Baldwin V, crowned king. Raynald was not present at the child's coronation, because he attended the wedding of his stepson, Humphrey, and BaldwinIV's sister, Isabella, in Kerak. Saladin unexpectedly invaded Oultrejordain, forcing the local inhabitants to seek refuge in Kerak. After Saladin broke into the town, Raynald only managed to escape to the fortress because one of his retainers had hindered the attackers from seizing the bridge between the town and the castle. Saladin laid siege to Kerak. According to Ernoul, Raynald's wife sent dishes from the wedding to Saladin, persuading him to stop bombarding the tower where her son and his wife stayed. After envoys from Kerak informed BaldwinIV of the siege, the royal army left Jerusalem for Kerak under the command of the king and RaymondIII of Tripoli. Saladin abandoned the siege before their arrival on 4December. On Saladin's order, Izz al-Din Usama had a fortress built at Ajloun, near the northern border of Raynald's domains.\n", "Section::::Lord of Oultrejordain.:Kingmaker.\n", "Baldwin IV died in early 1185. His successor, the child BaldwinV died in late summer 1186. The High Court of Jerusalem had ruled that neither BaldwinV's mother, Sybilla (who was Guy of Lusignan's wife), nor her sister, Isabella (who was the wife of Raynald's stepson), could be crowned without the decision of the pope, the Holy Roman Emperor, and the kings of France and England about BaldwinV's lawful successor. However, Sybilla's uncle, JoscelinIII of Courtenay, took control of Jerusalem with the support of Raynald and other influential prelates and royal officials. Raynald urged the townspeople to accept Sybilla as the lawful monarch, according to the \"Estoire de Eracles\". The \"bailli\", RaymondIII of Tripoli, and his supporters tried to prevent her coronation and reminded her partisans of the decision of the High Court. Ignoring their protest, Raynald and Gerard of Ridefort, Grand Master of the Knights Templar, accompanied Sybilla to the Holy Sepulchre, where she was crowned. She also arranged the coronation of her husband, although he was unpopular even among her supporters. Her opponents tried to persuade Raynald's stepson, Humphrey, to claim the crown on his wife's behalf, but Humphrey deserted them and swore fealty to Sybilla and Guy. Raynald headed the list of secular witnesses in four royal charters issued between 21October 1186 and 7March 1187, showing that he had become a principal figure in the new king's court.\n", "Ali ibn al-Athir and other Muslim historians recorded that Raynald made a truce with Saladin in 1186. This \"seems unlikely to be true\", according to historian Bernard Hamilton, because the truce between the Kingdom of Jerusalem and Saladin covered Raynald's domains. In late 1186 or early 1187, a rich caravan travelled through Oultrejordain from Egypt to Syria. Ali ibn al-Athir mentioned that a group of armed men accompanied the caravan. Raynald seized the caravan, possibly because he regarded the presence of soldiers as a breach of the truce, according to Hamilton. He took all the merchants and their families prisoner, seized a large amount of booty, and refused to receive envoys from Saladin demanding compensation. Saladin sent his envoys to Guy of Lusignan, who accepted his demands. However, Raynald refused to obey the king, stating that \"he was lord of his land, just as Guy was lord of his, and he had no truces with the Saracens\". Saladin proclaimed a \"jihad\" (or holy war) against the kingdom, taking an oath that he would personally kill Raynald for breaking the truce.\n", "Section::::Capture and execution.\n", "The \"Estoire de Eracles\" wrongly claimed that Saladin's sister was also among the prisoners taken by Raynald when he seized the caravan. Actually, she returned from Mecca to Damascus in a subsequent pilgrim-caravan in March 1187. To protect her against an attack by Raynald, Saladin escorted the pilgrims while they were travelling near Oultrejordain. Saladin stormed into Oultrejordain on 26April and pillaged Raynald's domains for a month. Thereafter, Saladin marched to Ashtara, where the troops coming from all parts of his realm assembled.\n", "The Christian forces assembled at Sepphoris. Raynald and Gerard of Ridefort convinced Guy of Lusignan to take the initiative and attack Saladin's army, although RaymondIII of Tripoli had tried to persuade the king to avoid a direct fight with it. During the debate, Raynald accused Raymond of Tripoli of co-operating with the enemy. Saladin inflicted a crushing defeat on the crusaders in the Battle of Hattin on 4July. Most commanders of the Christian army were captured in the battlefield.\n", "Guy of Lusignan and Raynald were among the prisoners who were brought before Saladin. Saladin handed a cup of iced rose water to Guy. After drinking from the cup, the king handed it to Raynald. Imad ad-Din al-Isfahani (who was present) recorded that Raynald drank from the cup. Since customary law prescribed that a man who gave food or drink to a prisoner could not murder him, Saladin stated that it was Guy who had given the cup to Raynald. Saladin called Raynald to his tent. He accused him of many crimes (including brigandage and blasphemy), offering him to choose between conversion to Islam or death, according to Imad ad-Din and Ibn al-Athir. After Raynald flatly refused to convert, Saladin took a sword and struck Raynald with it. As Raynald fell to the ground, Saladin beheaded him. The reliability of the reports of Saladin's offer to Raynald is subject to a scholarly debate, because the Muslim authors who recorded them may have only wanted to improve Saladin's image. Ernoul's chronicle and the \"Estoire de Eracles\" recounted the events ending with Raynald's execution in almost the same language as the Muslim authors. However, according to Ernoul's chronicle, Raynald refused to drink from the cup that Guy of Lusignan handed to him. According to Ernoul, Raynald's head was struck off by Saladin's mamluks and it was brought to Damascus to be \"dragged along the ground to show the Saracens, whom the prince had wronged, that vengeance had been exacted\". Baha ad-Din also wrote that Raynald's fate shocked Guy of Lusignan, but Saladin soon comforted him, stating that \"A king does not kill a king, but that man's perfidy and insolence went too far\".\n", "Section::::Family.\n", "Raynald's first wife, Constance of Antioch (born in 1128), was the only daughter of Bohemond II of Antioch and Alice of Jerusalem. Constance succeeded her father in Antioch in 1130. She was given in marriage to Raymond of Poitiers in 1136. Years after his death, Raynald married the widowed Constance and seized Antioch.\n", "Their daughter, Agnes, moved to Constantinople in early 1170 to marry \"Kaisar\" Alexios-Béla, the younger brother of Stephen III of Hungary, who lived in the Byzantine Empire. Agnes was renamed Anna in Constantinople. Her husband succeeded his brother as BélaIII of Hungary in 1172. She followed her husband to Hungary, where she gave birth to seven children before she died around 1184. Raynald and Constance's second daughter, Alice, became the third wife of Azzo VI of Este in 1204. Raynald also had a son, Baldwin, from Constance, according to historian Bernard Hamilton, but Runciman says that Baldwin was Constance's son from her first husband. Baldwin moved to Constantinople in the early 1160s. He died fighting at the head of a Byzantine cavalry regiment in the Battle of Myriokephalon on 17September 1176.\n", "Raynald's second wife, Stephanie of Milly, was the younger daughter of Philip of Milly, Lord of Nablus, and Isabella of Oultrejourdain. She was born around 1145. Her first husband, HumphreyIII of Toron, died around 1173. She inherited Oultrejourdain from her niece, Beatrice Brisbarre, shortly before she married Miles of Plancy in early 1174. Miles of Plancy was murdered in October 1174.\n", "Section::::Legacy.\n", "Most information on Raynald's life was recorded by Muslim authors who were hostile to him. Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad described him as a \"monstrous infidel and terrible oppressor\" in his biography of Saladin. Saladin compared Raynald with the king of Ethiopia, who had tried to destroy Mecca in 570 and was mentioned as the \"Elephant\" in the Surah CV of the Quran.\n", "Most Christian authors who wrote of Raynald in the 12th and 13th centuries were influenced by Raynald's political opponent, William of Tyre. The author of the \"Estoire of Eracles\" stated that Raynald's attack against a caravan at the turn of 1186 and 1187 was the \"reason of the loss of the Kingdom of Jerusalem\". Modern historians have usually also treated Raynald as a \"maverick who did more harm to the Christian than to the [Muslim] cause\". Runciman describes him as a marauder who could not resist the temptation presented by the rich caravans passing through Oultrejordain. Runciman argues that Raynald attacked a caravan during the 1180 truce because he \"could not understand a policy that ran counter to his wishes\". According to Barber, Raynald's behavior during the reign of Guy of Lusignan shows that the kingdom had broken up into \"a collection of semi-autonomous fiefdoms\" by that time.\n", "Some Christian authors regarded Raynald as a martyr for the faith. Peter of Blois dedicated a book (entitled \"Passion of Prince Raynald of Antioch\") to him shortly after his death. Among modern historians, Bernard Hamilton describes Raynald as \"an experienced and responsible crusader leader\" who made several attempts to prevent Saladin from uniting the Muslim realms along the borders of the crusader states.\n", "Raynald is portrayed by Brendan Gleeson in the \"Kingdom of Heaven\" movie. He is also a character in the first episode of season 6 of \"Horrible Histories\".\n", "Section::::Sources.\n", "Section::::Sources.:Primary sources.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Rare and Excellent History of Saladin or \"al-Nawādir al-Sultaniyya wa'l-Maḥāsin al-Yūsufiyya\" by Bahā' ad-Dīn Yusuf ibn Rafi ibn Shaddād\" (Translated by D. S. Richards) (2001). Ashgate. .\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Chronicle of Ibn Al-Athir for the Crusading Period from\" Al-Kamil Fi'l-Ta'rikh \"(Part 2: The Years 541-582/1146-1193: The Age of Nur ad-Din and Saladin)\" (Translated by D. S. Richards) (2007). Ashgate. .\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n" ] }

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"Kahramanmaraş", "Bohemond III of Antioch", "Maria of Antioch", "Agnes of Antioch", "Béla III of Hungary", "Saladin", "Agnes of Courtenay", "Baldwin IV of Jerusalem", "Hugo Etherianis", "Constantinople", "Stephanie of Milly", "Oultrejordain", "Hebron", "Kerak Castle", "Montreal (Crusader castle)", "William of Montferrat, Count of Jaffa and Ascalon", "Rodrigo Álvarez", "Order of Mountjoy", "Philip I, Count of Flanders", "Ashkelon", "Battle of Montgisard", "Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad", "Guy of Lusignan", "Sibylla, Queen of Jerusalem", "Isabella I of Jerusalem", "Balian of Ibelin", "Humphrey IV of Toron", "Patriarch Heraclius of Jerusalem", "Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem", "Ruben III, Prince of Armenia", "Isabella of Toron", "Aleppo", "As-Salih Ismail al-Malik", "Zengid dynasty", "Tabuk, Saudi Arabia", "Damascus", "Mecca", "Farrukh Shah", "Raymond III, Count of Tripoli", "Gulf of Aqaba", "Red Sea", "Al-Adil I", "Regent", "Baldwin V of Jerusalem", "Siege of Kerak", "Izz al-Din Usama", "Ajloun", "Church of the Holy Sepulchre", "Ali ibn al-Athir", "Jihad", "Sepphoris", "Battle of Hattin", "Rose water", "Imad ad-Din al-Isfahani", "Mamluk", "Constance of Antioch", "Bohemond II of Antioch", "Alice of Antioch", "Raymond of Poitiers", "Agnes of Antioch", "Constantinople", "Béla III of Hungary", "Stephen III of Hungary", "Azzo VI of Este", "Baldwin of Antioch", "Battle of Myriokephalon", "Stephanie of Milly", "Philip of Milly", "Miles of Plancy", "Al-Fil", "Quran", "Peter of Blois", "Brendan Gleeson", "Kingdom of Heaven (film)", "Horrible Histories (2015 TV series)" ], "wikipedia_id": [ "1283453", "771035", "2650181", "106130", "16822", "531202", "19034126", "750525", "5593", "4016", "44833", "10221", "2731392", "159244", "768183", "144682", "38577", "44700", "26983", "643071", "21021", "308792", "145432", "194908", "13406879", "441671", "16685964", "15810884", "16822", "144680", "106130", "48436", "44755", "157660", "1283453", "643258", "531202", "30871927", "44833", 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{ "description": "French crusader", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q316831", "wikidata_label": "Raynald of Châtillon", "wikipedia_title": "Raynald of Châtillon", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Raynald of Chatillon" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Samuel West\n", "Samuel Alexander Joseph West (born 19 June 1966) is an English actor, theatre director and voice actor. He has directed on stage and radio, and worked as an actor across theatre, film, television and radio. He often appears as reciter with orchestras and performed at the Last Night of the Proms in 2002. He has narrated several documentary series, including five for the BBC centred on events related to the Second World War.\n", "Section::::Early life and education.\n", "West was born in London, the elder son of actors Prunella Scales and Timothy West, and the grandson of the actor Lockwood West. He has one brother. He was educated at Alleyn's School and Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford, where he studied English Literature and was president of the Experimental Theatre Club.\n", "Section::::Career.\n", "Section::::Career.:Stage.\n", "West made his London stage debut in February 1989 at the Orange Tree Theatre, playing Michael in Cocteau's \"Les Parents Terribles\", of which critic John Thaxter wrote: \"He invests the role with a warmth and validity that silences sniggers that could so easily greet a lesser performance of this difficult role, and he lets us share the tumbling emotions of a juvenile torn between romantic first love and filial duty.\" Since then, West has appeared frequently on stage; he played Valentine in the first ever production of Tom Stoppard's \"Arcadia\" at the National Theatre in 1993 and later spent two seasons with the Royal Shakespeare Company playing the title roles in \"Richard II\" and \"Hamlet\", both directed by Steven Pimlott.\n", "In 2002, West made his stage directorial debut with \"The Lady's Not for Burning\" at the Minerva Theatre, Chichester. He succeeded Michael Grandage as artistic director of Sheffield Theatres from 2005-2007. During his time as artistic director West revived the controversial \"The Romans in Britain\" and also directed \"As You Like It\" as part of the RSC's Complete Works Festival. West left Sheffield when the theatre closed for refurbishment in 2007 and made his West End directorial debut with the first major revival of \"Dealer's Choice\" following its transferral to the Trafalgar Studios. He also continued his acting career: in 2007 he appeared alongside Toby Stephens and Dervla Kirwan in \"Betrayal\" at the Donmar Warehouse, in November 2008 he played Harry in the Donmar revival of T. S. Eliot's \"Family Reunion\" and in 2009 he starred as Jeffrey Skilling in \"Enron\" by Lucy Prebble. His 2008 production of \"Waste\" at the Almeida Theatre was chosen by \"The Times\" as one of its \"Productions of the Decade\". From November 2012 to January 2013 he appeared as Astrov in a production of \"Uncle Vanya\" at the Vaudeville Theatre. He played Ivanov and Trigorin in the Chichester Festival Theatre's Young Chekhov Season from September 2015, alongside Nina Sosanya, Anna Chancellor, and James McArdle.\n", "Section::::Career.:Film.\n", "In 1991, West played the lower-middle-class clerk Leonard Bast in the Merchant Ivory film adaptation of E. M. Forster's novel \"Howards End\" (released 1992) opposite Emma Thompson, Helena Bonham Carter and Anthony Hopkins. For this role, he was nominated for best supporting actor at the 1993 BAFTA Film Awards. Two years later he again appeared with Thompson in the film \"Carrington\". His film career has continued with roles in a number of well known films, such as Franco Zeffirelli's \"Jane Eyre\", \"Notting Hill\", \"Iris\" and \"Van Helsing\". In 2004, he appeared in the year's highest rated mini-series on German television, \"Die Nibelungen\", which was released in the United States in 2006 as \"\". In 2012, he played King George VI in \"Hyde Park on Hudson\".\n", "Section::::Career.:Television.\n", "He is a familiar face on television appearing in many long-running series: \"Midsomer Murders\", \"Waking the Dead\" and \"Poirot\" as well as one-off dramas. He played Anthony Blunt in \"Cambridge Spies\", a BBC production about the four British spies, starring alongside Toby Stephens (Philby), Tom Hollander (Burgess) and Rupert Penry-Jones (Maclean). In 2006, he took the lead role in a BBC production of \"Random Quest\" adapted from the short story by John Wyndham and the next year played Edward Heath in \"Margaret Thatcher - The Long Walk to Finchley\", also for the BBC. In 2010 he played Peter Scabius in the televised adaptation of William Boyd's novel \"Any Human Heart\", while in 2011 he starred as Zak Gist in the ITV series \"Eternal Law\". In addition, he appeared in the BBC series \"As Time Goes By\" episode \"We'll Always Have Paris\" (1994) as the character Terry.\n", "He plays Frank Edwards in the ITV drama \"Mr Selfridge\", and Sir Walter Pole in the 2015 BBC adaptation of \"Jonathan Strange and Mr Norrell\".\n", "Section::::Career.:Radio.\n", "West is regularly heard on radio as a reader or reciter and has performed in many radio dramas, including \"Otherkin\" by Laura Wade, \"Present Laughter\" by Noël Coward, Len Deighton's \"Bomber\", \"Life and Fate\" by Vasily Grossman, Michael Frayn's \"Here\" and \"The Homecoming\" as Lenny to Harold Pinter's Max.\n", "In 2011, he made his radio directing debut with a production of \"Money\" by Edward Bulwer-Lytton on BBC Radio 3.\n", "Section::::Personal life.\n", "West has appeared alongside his actor parents on several occasions; with his mother Prunella Scales in \"Howards End\" and \"Stiff Upper Lips\", and with his father Timothy West on stage in \"A Number\", \"Henry IV, Part 1\" and \"Part 2\". In two films (\"Iris\" in 2001 and the 1996 television film \"Over Here\"), Sam and his father have played the same character at different ages. In \"Edward the Seventh\", he and his brother Joseph played young sons of the title character, who was played by their father. In 2002 all three family members performed in Stravinsky's \"The Soldiers Tale\" at the St Magnus Festival on Orkney and in 2006 they gave a rehearsed reading of the Harold Pinter play \"Family Voices\" as part of the Sheffield Theatres Pinter season.\n", "West became the patron of Sheffield Philharmonic Chorus in February 2008, having been the narrator for a concert of theirs in February 2002. He is also a patron of London children's charity Scene & Heard, Eastside Educational Trust and Mousetrap Theatre projects.\n", "While at university, West was a member of the Socialist Workers Party and later briefly the Socialist Alliance. West has been politically active for many years; he was a critic of the New Labour government of Tony Blair and their involvement in the Iraq War. On 26 March 2011, he spoke at the TUC March for the Alternative.\n", "West has written essays on \"Richard II\" for the Cambridge University Press series \"Players of Shakespeare\", on \"Hamlet\" for Michael Dobson's CUP study \"Performing Shakespeare's Tragedies Today\" and on Shakespeare and Love and Voice and Radio for BBC Radio 3.\n", "He has also published articles on Harold Pinter, on Caryl Churchill and on the Shipping Forecast. He frequently writes and speaks in public about arts funding. West has collected stamps since childhood and owns more than 200 Two Shilling Blues.\n", "In 2013, he was one of the judges for the Forward Prizes for Poetry. In December 2014, he appeared on two programmes for \"Christmas University Challenge\", as part of a team of alumni from Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford.\n", "West is an Associate Artist of the Royal Shakespeare Company, Chair of the National Campaign for the Arts, and was a member of the council of the British Actors' Union Equity from 1996–2000 and 2008–2014. He is a keen birdwatcher.\n", "In 2007, West moved in with playwright Laura Wade, but in 2011 the couple temporarily split up. In 2013, West was cast in a minor role in \"The Riot Club\", the film version of Wade’s successful play, \"Posh\" and in 2014 the couple had a daughter. In August 2017, the couple had a second daughter.\n", "Section::::Television.\n", "He also narrated five BBC documentary series for producer Laurence Rees centered on the Second World War:\n", "BULLET::::- \"\" 1997\n", "BULLET::::- \"War of the Century: When Hitler Fought Stalin\" 1999\n", "BULLET::::- \"Horror in the East\" 2001\n", "BULLET::::- \"\" 2005\n", "BULLET::::- \"\" 2008\n", "In addition, he narrated the Yorkshire Television documentary \"The SS in Britain\" for director Julian Hendy in 1999, and considering his role in the ITV drama series \"Mr Selfridge\", he was the voiceover for \"Secrets of Selfridges\" (PBS) in 2014.\n", "Section::::Theatre.\n", "Section::::Theatre.:Acting.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Writer\" by Ella Hickson, directed by Blanche McIntyre, at the Almeida Theatre, London (April 2018)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Browning Version\" - directed by Clive Perry, (Birmingham Repertory Theatre)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Les Parents terribles\": Michael (February 1989) - directed by Derek Goldby, (Orange Tree Theatre)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Bread-Winner\" (1989) - directed by Kevin Billington, (Theatre Royal, Windsor and touring)\n", "BULLET::::- \"A Life in the Theatre\" (October 1989-February 1990) - directed by Bill Bryden, (Theatre Royal Haymarket, transferred to Strand Theatre)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Hidden Laughter\": Nigel (June 1990) - directed by Simon Gray, (Vaudeville Theatre)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Sea\": Willy Carson (1991) - directed by Sam Mendes, (Royal National Theatre)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Cain\" (1992) - directed by Edward Hall (Minerva Theatre)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mr. Cinders\" A Musical Comedy: Jim Lancaster (December 1992-February 1993) - directed by Martin Connor (King's Head Theatre)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Arcadia\": Valentine (April–November 1993) - directed by Trevor Nunn, (Royal National Theatre)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Importance of Being Earnest\": Algernon - directed by James Maxwell, (Royal Exchange Theatre)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Henry IV Part 1\" and Part 2: Hal (1996–1997) - directed by Stephen Unwin (English Touring Theatre)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Journey's End\": Captain Stanhope (January–February 1998) - directed by David Evans-Rees (King's Head Theatre)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Antony and Cleopatra\": Octavius Caesar (1998) - directed by Sean Mathias, (Royal National Theatre)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Richard II\": Richard II (2000) - directed by Steven Pimlott, (RSC)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Hamlet\": Hamlet (2001) - directed by Steven Pimlott, (RSC)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Master and Margarita\": The Master (2004) - directed by Steven Pimlott, (Chichester Festival Theatre)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Doctor Faustus\": Faustus (2004) - directed by Steven Pimlott, Martin Duncan and Edward Kemp, (Minerva Theatre)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Much Ado About Nothing\": Benedick (2005) - directed by Josie Rourke, (Crucible Theatre)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Exonerated\": Kerry Max Cook (2006) - directed by Bob Balaban, (Riverside Studios)\n", "BULLET::::- \"A Number\": B1/B2/Michael Black (2006) - directed by Jonathan Munby, (Studio Theatre (Sheffield) and Minerva Theatre)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Betrayal\": Robert (2007) - directed by Roger Michell, (Donmar Warehouse)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Drunk Enough to Say I Love You?\": Guy (2008) - directed by James McDonald, (Public Theater, New York)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Family Reunion\": Harry (2008) - directed by Jeremy Herrin, (Donmar Warehouse)\n", "BULLET::::- \"ENRON\": Jeffrey Skilling (2009) - directed by Rupert Goold, (Minerva Theatre, Royal Court Theatre, Noël Coward Theatre)\n", "BULLET::::- \"A Number\" (revival): B1/B2/Michael Black (2010) - directed by Jonathan Munby, (Menier Chocolate Factory)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Kreutzer vs. Kreutzer\": Man (2010) - directed by Sarah Giles, (Australian Chamber Orchestra - on tour and at the Sydney Opera House)\n", "BULLET::::- \"A Number\" (revival): B1/B2/Michael Black (2011) - directed by Jonathan Munby, (Fugard Theatre, Cape Town)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Uncle Vanya\": Astrov (2012) - directed by Lindsay Posner, (Vaudeville Theatre)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Young Chekhov\": Ivanov in Ivanov and Trigorin in The Seagull (2015) - directed by Jonathan Kent, (Chichester Festival Theatre)\n", "Section::::Theatre.:Directing.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Lady's Not for Burning\" (2002), Minerva Theatre\n", "BULLET::::- \"Les Liaisons Dangereuses\" (2003), Bristol Old Vic\n", "BULLET::::- \"Cosi Fan Tutte\" (2003), English National Opera at Barbican Theatre\n", "BULLET::::- \"Three Women and a Piano Tuner\" (2004), Minerva Theatre and Hampstead Theatre (2005)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Insignificance\" (2005), Lyceum Theatre (Sheffield)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Romans in Britain\" (2006), Crucible Theatre\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Clean House\" (2006), Studio Theatre (Sheffield)\n", "BULLET::::- \"As You Like It\" (2007), Crucible Theatre and Swan Theatre (Stratford)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Dealer's Choice\" (2007), Menier Chocolate Factory and Trafalgar Studios\n", "BULLET::::- \"Waste\" (2008), Almeida Theatre\n", "BULLET::::- \"Close the Coalhouse Door\" (2012), Northern Stage\n", "BULLET::::- \"After Electra\" (2015), Theatre Royal, Plymouth and Tricycle Theatre\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Watsons\" (2018 Minerva Theatre, Chichester)\n", "Section::::Radio.\n", "Section::::Radio.:Directing.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Money\" (2011), BBC Radio 3\n", "BULLET::::- \"Close the Coalhouse Door\" (2012), BBC Radio 4\n", "Section::::Audiobooks, reciting and work with musicians.\n", "West has recorded over fifty audiobooks, among which are the Shakespeare plays \"All's Well That Ends Well\", \"Coriolanus\", \"Henry V\", \"The Merchant of Venice\", \"A Midsummer Night's Dream,\" \"Much Ado About Nothing\", \"Richard II\" and \"Macbeth\" (directed by Steven Berkoff), the Wind on Fire trilogy by William Nicholson (\"The Wind Singer\", \"Slaves of the Mastery\" and \"Firesong\"), the Arthur trilogy by Kevin Crossley-Holland (\"The Seeing Stone\", \"At the Crossing Places\" and\" King of the Middle March\"), five books by Sebastian Faulks (\"Charlotte Gray\", \"Birdsong\", \"The Girl at the Lion d'Or\", \"Human Traces\" and \"A Possible Life\"), four by Michael Ridpath (\"Trading Reality\", \"Final Venture\", \"Free to Trade\", and \"The Marketmaker\"), two by George Orwell (\"Nineteen Eighty-Four\" and \"Homage to Catalonia\"), two by Mary Wesley (\"An Imaginative Experience\" and \"Part of the Furniture\"), two by Robert Goddard (\"Closed Circle\" and \"In Pale Battalions\") and several compilations of poetry \"(Realms of Gold: Letters and Poems of John Keats\", \"Bright Star\", \"The Collected Works of Shelley\", \"Seven Ages\", \"Great Narrative Poems of the Romantic Age\" and \"A Shropshire Lad)\". Also \"Faust\", \"Bomber\", \"Doctor Who: The Vengeance of Morbius\", \"Empire of the Sun\", \"Brighton Rock\", \"Fair Stood the Wind for France\", \"Fluke\", \"Great Speeches in History\", \"How Proust Can Change Your Life\", \"Lady Windermere's Fan\", \"Peter Pan\", \"The Alchemist\", \"The Day of the Triffids\", \"The Hairy Hands\", \"The Lives of Christopher Chant\", \"The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous\", \"The Queen's Man\", \"The Solitaire Mystery\", \"The Swimming Pool Library\", \"The Two Destinies\", \"The Velveteen Rabbit\", \"The Way I Found Her\", \"The Way to Dusty Death\", \"The Woodlanders\", \"Under the Net\", \"Wuthering Heights\" and Philip Pullman's \"Grimm Tales for Young and Old\".\n", "In June 2012, West recorded an English narration of \"The Book about Moomin, Mymble and Little My\" by Tove Jansson for an interactive audiobook developed by Spinfy and published by Sort of Books.\n", "In May 2015, West's reading of \"Brighton Rock\" was chosen as one of 'The 20 best audiobooks of all time' by Carole Mansur of the Daily Telegraph.\n", "As a reciter West has worked with all the major British orchestras, as well as the Strasbourg Philharmonic Orchestra, Dallas Symphony Orchestra and the National Symphony Orchestra in Washington, D.C.. Works include Stravinsky's \"Oedipus Rex\" and \"The Soldier's Tale\", Prokofiev's \"Eugene Onegin\", Beethoven's \"Egmont\", Schoenburg's \"Ode To Napoleon\", Strauss' \"Enoch Arden\", Saint-Saëns’ \"Carnival of the Animals\", Bernstein's \"Kaddish\", Walton's \"Façade\" and \"Henry V\", \"Night Mail\" and \"The Way to the Sea\" by Britten and Auden, the world premieres of \"Concrete\" by Judith Weir at the Barbican and Howard Goodall’s \"Jason and the Argonauts\" at the Royal Albert Hall and the UK premiere of Jonathan Harvey's final piece \"Weltethos\" at the Symphony Hall, Birmingham. In 2007 West made his New York recital debut in the first performance of \"Little Red Violin\" by Anne Dudley and Steven Isserlis. In November 2010, West performed a new English translation of Grieg's complete incidental music to Ibsen’s play \"Peer Gynt\" with the Southampton Philharmonic Choir at Southampton Guildhall. He has performed at the Proms six times, including the suite version of \"Henry V\" at the 2002 Last Night of the Proms.\n", "He has also appeared with the Nash Ensemble, the Raphael Ensemble, The Hebrides Ensemble, Ensemble 360 and the Lindsay, Dante and Endellion Quartets at the Wigmore Hall, London. Recordings include Prokofief's \"Eugene Onegin\" with Sinfonia 21 and Edward Downes, \"Salad Days\" and Walton's \"Henry V\" with the BBC Symphony Orchestra and Leonard Slatkin.\n", "As a choral singer, West has participated in three Choir of London tours to Palestine: in May 2006, when he also gave poetry readings as part of the concert programme; in April 2007 when he directed \"The Magic Flute\". and in September 2013 (see below).\n", "In 2013, the centenary year of Benjamin Britten, West narrated the Britten/Auden film score \"Night Mail\" with the Nash Ensemble at the Wigmore Hall and later added \"Coal Face, God’s Chillun, The Peace of Britain, The Way to the Sea\" and \"The King's Stamp\" with the Aurora Orchestra at the Queen Elizabeth and Fairfield Halls. In June he played God in Britten’s \"Noye’s Fludde\" in Harrogate. In July he appeared in a Proms Plus broadcast discussing Britten’s setting of poetry. In September he toured Palestine with the Choir of London as staff director of a new opera based on Britten’s \"Hymn to St Cecilia\" and sang in Britten’s \"St Nicolas\". In October, he narrated the concert world premiere of \"Britten in America\" for the Hallé orchestra, which was released on CD together with West’s recordings of speeches to Britten’s incidental music for Auden and Isherwood’s play \"The Ascent of F6\" (the disc, \"Britten to America\", was later nominated for a 2014 Grammy Award for Best Classical Compendium). He also toured a program of Britten cabaret songs and Auden poems across the UK with Ruthie Culver and the UtterJazz Quartet.\n", "In June 2013 he appeared in the video for \"Handyman Blues\" by Billy Bragg, directed by Johnny Vegas.\n", "On 14 July 2017, one month after the tragic fire at Grenfell Tower, BBC's Newshour programme invited West to read out an excerpt from a letter written by an anonymous firefighter giving a personal account of the fire scene and his inner thoughts on duty that night.\n", "Section::::Awards and nominations.\n", "As actor\n", "BULLET::::- 1993 - Nominated BAFTA Award for Best Supporting Actor for \"Howards End\"\n", "BULLET::::- 1999 - Nominated Genie Award for Best Actor for \"Rupert's Land\"\n", "BULLET::::- 2001 - Won London Critics' Circle Theatre Award for Best Shakespearean Performance for \"Hamlet\"\n", "BULLET::::- 2001 - Won Whatsonstage Theatregoers' Choice Award Best Actor for \"Hamlet\"\n", "BULLET::::- 2008 - Nominated Whatsonstage Theatregoers' Choice Award for Best Ensemble Performance for \"Betrayal\"\n", "BULLET::::- 2009 - Nominated TMA Award for Best Performance in a Play for \"ENRON\"\n", "BULLET::::- 2009 - Nominated Evening Standard Award Best Actor for \"ENRON\"\n", "BULLET::::- 2010 - Nominated Whatsonstage Theatregoers' Choice Award for Best Actor for \"ENRON\"\n", "BULLET::::- 2010 - Nominated Olivier Award Best Actor for \"ENRON\"\n", "As reader\n", "BULLET::::- 1999 - Won Talkie award for \"Charlotte Gray\" by Sebastian Faulks\n", "BULLET::::- 2000 - Won Audie award for \"Realms of Gold: Letters and Poems of John Keats\"\n", "BULLET::::- 2001 - Won Spoken Word award (Silver) for \"The Seeing Stone\" by Kevin Crossley-Holland\n", "BULLET::::- 2001 - Won Spoken Word award (Gold) for \"Birdsong\" by Sebastian Faulks\n", "Samuel West has received nine AudioFile Earphones Awards for his narration: \"The Day of the Triffids\" by John Wyndham (1996), \"Peter Pan\" by J.M.Barrie (1997), \"Charlotte Gray\" by Sebastian Faulks (1999), \"The Way I Found Her\" by Rose Tremain (2000), \"The Swimming Pool Library\" by Alan Hollinghurst (2007), \"Faust\" by Goethe (2011), \"A Shropshire Lad\" by A. E. Housman (2011), \"A Possible Life\" by Sebastian Faulks (2012) and Philip Pullman's \"Grimm Tales for Young and Old\" (2013) \n", "As director\n", "BULLET::::- 2004 - Nominated Olivier Award for Best Opera Revival for \"Cosi Fan Tutte\"\n", "BULLET::::- 2008 - Nominated Olivier Award for Best Revival for \"Dealer's Choice\"\n", "BULLET::::- 2009 - Nominated Theatregoers' Choice Award for Best Director for \"Waste\" and \"Dealer's Choice\"\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Samuel West – acting CV at United Agents\n", "BULLET::::- Samuel West – directing CV at United Agents\n", "BULLET::::- Samuel West speeches about arts funding and culture\n", "BULLET::::- Samuel West speech at the TUC \"March for the Alternative\", 26 March 2011 (video)\n" ] }

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{ "description": "English actor and director", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q1389078", "wikidata_label": "Samuel West", "wikipedia_title": "Samuel West", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 157663, "parentid": 904420459, "revid": 905575283, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-10T00:17:44Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Samuel%20West&oldid=905575283" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Timothy West\n", "Timothy Lancaster West, CBE (born 20 October 1934) is an English film, stage and television actor, with more than fifty years of varied work in the business. As well as many classical theatre performances, he has appeared frequently on television, including spells in both \"Coronation Street\" as Eric Babbage and Stan Carter in \"EastEnders\", and also in \" Not Going Out\", as the original Geoffrey Adams. He is married to the actress Prunella Scales; since 2014 they have been seen travelling together on British and overseas canals in the Channel 4 series \"Great Canal Journeys\".\n", "Section::::Early life and education.\n", "West was born in Bradford, Yorkshire, the only son of Olive (née Carleton-Crowe) and actor Lockwood West (1905-1989). He was educated at the John Lyon School, Harrow on the Hill, at Bristol Grammar School, where he was a classmate of Julian Glover, and at Regent Street Polytechnic (now the University of Westminster). He has a sister named Patricia who is 5 years younger than himself.\n", "Section::::Career.\n", "West worked as an office furniture salesman and as a recording technician, before becoming an assistant stage manager at the Wimbledon Theatre in 1956. In 1959, he wrote and produced a short audio play, \"This Gun That I Have in My Right Hand Is Loaded\", satirising typical mistakes of radio drama, including over-explanatory dialogue and misuse of sound cues.\n", "Section::::Career.:Stage.\n", "West played repertory seasons in Newquay, Hull, Northampton, Worthing and Salisbury before making his London debut at the Piccadilly Theatre in 1959 in the farce \"Caught Napping\". He was a member of the Royal Shakespeare Company for three seasons: the 1962 Arts Theatre Experimental season (\"Nil Carborundum\" and \"Afore Night Come\"), the 1964 'Dirty Plays' season (\"Victor\", the premiere production of \"Marat/Sade\" and the revival of \"Afore Night Come\") and the 1965 season at Stratford and later at the Aldwych Theatre appearing in \"The Comedy of Errors\", \"Timon of Athens\", \"The Jew of Malta\", \"Love's Labour's Lost\" and Peter Hall's production of \"The Government Inspector\", in a company which included Paul Scofield, Eric Porter, Janet Suzman, Paul Rogers, Ian Richardson, Glenda Jackson and Peter McEnery.\n", "West has played Macbeth twice, Uncle Vanya twice, Solness in \"The Master Builder\" twice and King Lear four times: in 1971 (aged 36) for Prospect Theatre Company at the Edinburgh Festival; on a worldwide tour in 1991 in Dublin for Second Age; in 2003 for English Touring Theatre, on tour in the UK and at the Old Vic; and in 2016 at the Bristol Old Vic.\n", "Section::::Career.:Screen.\n", "Having spent years as a familiar face who never quite became a household name, West's big break came with the major television series, \"Edward the Seventh\" (1975), in which he played the title role from the age of twenty-three until the King's death; his real-life sons, Samuel and Joseph, played the sons of King Edward VII as children. Other screen appearances have included \"Nicholas and Alexandra\" (1971), \"The Day of the Jackal\" (1973), \"The Thirty Nine Steps\" (1978), \"Masada\" (1981), \"Cry Freedom\" (1987) and Luc Besson's \"\" (1999). In Richard Eyre's \"Iris\" (2001) he plays Maurice and his son Samuel West plays Maurice as a young man.\n", "West starred as patriarch Bradley Hardacre in Granada TV's satirical Northern super-soap \"Brass\" over three seasons (1982–1990). West appeared in the series Miss Marple in 1985 (in \"A Pocket Full of Rye\" as the notorious Rex Fortescue), and made a memorable appearance as Professor Furie in \"A Very Peculiar Practice\" in 1986. In 1997, he played Gloucester in the BBC television production of \"King Lear\", with Ian Holm as Lear. From 2001 to 2003, he played the grumpy and frequently volatile Andrew in the BBC drama series \"Bedtime\". \n", "At Christmas 2007, he joined \"Not Going Out\" as Geoffrey Adams. He reprised this role in two episodes of series three; Geoffrey Whitehead played the role in later seasons. In 2011, he appeared alongside John Simm and Jim Broadbent in BBC series \"Exile\", written by BAFTA-winning Danny Brocklehurst.\n", "In February 2013, West joined the cast of ITV soap \"Coronation Street\", playing Eric Babbage. He joined the cast of \"EastEnders\" in 2013, playing Stan Carter from January 2014. He filmed his final scenes for \"EastEnders\" in February 2015.\n", "Section::::Career.:Directing.\n", "He was Artistic Director of the Forum Theatre, Billingham in 1973, where he directed \"We Bombed in New Haven\" by Joseph Heller, \"The Oz Obscenity Trial\" by David Livingstone and \"The National Health\" by Peter Nichols. He was co-artistic director of the Old Vic Theatre from 1980–81, where he directed \"Trelawny of the 'Wells'\" and \"The Merchant of Venice\". He was Director-in-Residence at the University of Western Australia in 1982.\n", "In 2004, he toured Australia with the Carl Rosa Opera Company as Director of the production of \"H.M.S. Pinafore\", also singing the role of Sir Joseph Porter. He was replaced in the singing role by Dennis Olsen for the Perth and Brisbane performances.\n", "Section::::Personal life.\n", "West was married to actress Jacqueline Boyer from 1956 to 1961 and has a daughter Juliet. In 1963 he married actress Prunella Scales, with whom he has two sons. One, Samuel West, is an actor of note. Their younger son Joseph (Joe) participated in two episodes of Great Canal Journeys filmed in France, where Joe (a teacher and translator) lives with his French wife and their children. After the broadcast of the French canal episodes, Joe was interviewed in several newspapers. \n", "\"The Guardian\" crossword setter \"Biggles\" referred to West's 50th wedding anniversary in its prize crossword puzzle (number 26,089) on 26 October 2013.\n", "West and Scales are patrons of the Lace Market Theatre in Nottingham, The Kings Theatre in Gloucester and of the Conway Hall Sunday Concerts programme, the longest running series of chamber music concerts in Europe. West is an Ambassador of SOS Children's Villages, an international orphan charity providing homes and mothers for orphaned and abandoned children. He currently supports the charity's annual World Orphan Week campaign which takes place each February.\n", "West is patron of the National Piers Society, a charity dedicated to preserving and promoting seaside piers. He and Prunella Scales are patrons of Avon Navigation Trust, the charity that runs the River Avon from Stratford-upon-Avon to Tewkesbury. They both support ANT by attending the Stratford River Festival every year. West supports Cancer Research UK.\n", "West is a supporter of the Talyllyn Railway, the first preserved railway in the world. He has visited on a number of occasions, the last being the summer of 2015 to attend the Railway's 150th anniversary. He is also a keen supporter of the Inland Waterways Association, and since 2014 has featured together with his wife in the \"Great Canal Journeys\" series for Channel 4.\n", "West was president of the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art (being succeeded by Benedict Cumberbatch in January 2018) and is President of the Society for Theatre Research. He is also patron of London-based drama school, The Associated Studios.\n", "Section::::Honours.\n", "In 1984, he was appointed CBE for his services to drama.\n", "Section::::Selected theatre.\n", "BULLET::::- \"King Lear\", as Lear, Dir Tom Morris, Bristol Old Vic, 2016\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Vote\" by James Graham, Donmar Warehouse and More4, 2015\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Handyman\" by Ronald Harwood, as Romka, Dir Joe Harmston, UK tour, 2012\n", "BULLET::::- \"Uncle Vanya\", as Sererbryakov, Dir Jeremy Herrin, Chichester Festival Theatre, 2012\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Winslow Boy\", as Arthur Winslow, Dir Stephen Unwin, Rose Theatre, Kingston and UK tour, 2009\n", "BULLET::::- \"Romany Wood\", as Narrator, Theatre Severn, Shropshire, 2009\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Lover/The Collection\", Dir Jamie Lloyd, Comedy Theatre, London, 2008\n", "BULLET::::- Opening of St Pancras International, as William Henry Barlow, Tuesday 6 November 2007\n", "BULLET::::- \"Coriolanus\" as Menenius, Dir Gregory Doran, RSC, Stratford-upon-Avon, Newcastle, Spain and USA, 2007\n", "BULLET::::- \"A Number\" by Caryl Churchill as Salter, with Samuel West as B1/B2/Michael Black, Dir Jonathan Munby, Crucible Theatre Studio, 2006. Revived in 2010 at the Chocolate Factory and 2011 at the Fugard Theatre, Cape Town.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Old Country\" by Alan Bennett, Dir Stephen Unwin, Trafalgar Studios, 2006\n", "BULLET::::- \"King Lear\", as Lear, Dir Stephen Unwin, UK tour with English Touring Theatre, 2002\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Master Builder\", as Solness, Dir Stephen Unwin, UK tour, 1999\n", "BULLET::::- \"King Lear\", as Gloucester, Dir Richard Eyre, Greece, Turkey and the National Theatre, 1997\n", "BULLET::::- \"Henry IV Part One\" and \"Part Two\", as Falstaff, with Samuel West as Hal, Dir Stephen Unwin, UK tour and the Old Vic Theatre, 1996\n", "BULLET::::- \"Twelve Angry Men\", Dir Harold Pinter, Bristol Old Vic and Comedy Theatre, 1996\n", "BULLET::::- \"Macbeth\", as Macbeth, Dir Helena Kaut-Howson, Theatr Clwyd, 1994\n", "BULLET::::- \"Death of a Salesman\", as Willy Loman, Dir Janet Suzman, Theatr Clwyd, 1993\n", "BULLET::::- \"King Lear\" as Lear, Dir Alan Stanford, Tivoli Theatre, Dublin, 1992\n", "BULLET::::- \"Long Day's Journey into Night\", with Prunella Scales, Dir Howard Davies, Bristol Old Vic, UK Tour and the National Theatre, 1991\n", "BULLET::::- \"Uncle Vanya\", as Vanya, Dir Paul Unwin, Bristol Old Vic, 1990\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Master Builder\", as Solness, Dir Paul Unwin, Bristol Old Vic, 1989\n", "BULLET::::- \"When We Are Married\", with Prunella Scales, Dir Ronald Eyre, Whitehall Theatre, 1985\n", "BULLET::::- \"Masterclass\" by David Pownall, as Stalin, Dir Justin Greene, Leicester Haymarket and the Old Vic Theatre, 1984\n", "BULLET::::- \"Uncle Vanya\", as Vanya, Dir Prunella Scales, Playhouse, Perth, Western Australia, 1982\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Merchant of Venice\" as Shylock, International tour in association with the British Council and at the Old Vic Theatre, 1980\n", "BULLET::::- \"Beecham\", by Caryl Brahms and Ned Sherrin, as Thomas Beecham, Apollo Theatre, London, 1980\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Homecoming\", as Max, Garrick Theatre, Dir Kevin Billington, 1978.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Hamlet\", as Claudius, with Derek Jacobi as Hamlet, Dir Toby Robertson, Edinburgh Festival, International tour and the Old Vic Theatre, 1977\n", "BULLET::::- \"Othello\", as Iago, Dir Richard Eyre, Nottingham Playhouse, 1976\n", "BULLET::::- \"Hedda Gabler\", as Judge Brack, Dir Trevor Nunn, with Glenda Jackson, RSC, international tour and Aldwych Theatre, 1975\n", "BULLET::::- \"Macbeth\", as Macbeth, Gardner Centre, Brighton, Dir John David, 1974\n", "BULLET::::- \"Love's Labour's Lost\", as Holofernes, Aldwych Theatre, London, McBain/Archer, Prospect Theatre Company, June 1972\n", "BULLET::::- \"King Lear\" as Lear, Prospect Theatre Company, Dir Toby Robertson, Edinburgh Festival and UK tour, 1971. The production visited Australia in 1972\n", "BULLET::::- \"Exiles\", Dir Harold Pinter. Mermaid Theatre, 1970\n", "BULLET::::- \"Richard II\" and \"Edward II\", as Bolingbroke and Young Mortimer, with Ian McKellen as the kings, Prospect Theatre Company, Edinburgh Festival, International tour and Piccadilly Theatre, Dir Richard Cottrell/Toby Robertson, 1969\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Tempest\", as Prospero, Prospect Productions, Dir Toby Robertson, 1966\n", "BULLET::::- \"\"Madam\", said Dr Johnson\", Prospect Productions, Dir Toby Robertson, 1966\n", "BULLET::::- \"Marat/Sade\", RSC, Dir Peter Brook, 1964\n", "BULLET::::- \"Afore Night Come\", RSC, Arts Theatre, 1962. Revived at the Aldwych Theatre, 1964\n", "BULLET::::- \"Gentle Jack\", Theatre Royal, Brighton and the Queen's Theatre, London, 1963\n", "BULLET::::- \"Caught Napping\", Piccadilly Theatre, 1959\n", "Section::::Selected radio.\n", "Timothy West was a member of the BBC Radio Drama Repertory Company in 1962 and has taken part in over 500 radio broadcasts.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Cabin Pressure\" by John Finnemore, as Gordon Shappey, BBC Radio 4, 2011\n", "BULLET::::- \"Seasons\" by Gareth Parker, as Harold. Independent drama by the Wireless Theatre Company, 2010\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Man on the Heath: Johnson and Boswell Investigate\" by David Noakes, as Doctor Johnson, Saturday Play on BBC Radio 4, 2005\n", "BULLET::::- \"Lorna Doone\" by R.D. Blackmore, as Narrator, 2004\n", "BULLET::::- \"Rumpole of the Bailey\", as Rumpole, in sixteen 45-minute plays, 2003–2012. In this series his wife in real life played his fictional wife.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Hecuba\" by Euripides, as Polymestor, 2001\n", "BULLET::::- \"Groupie\" by Arnold Wesker, 2001\n", "BULLET::::- \"Dorothy, a Manager's Wife\" by Peter Tinniswood, 2000\n", "BULLET::::- \"Death of a Salesman\" by Arthur Miller, as Willy Loman, 1993\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Gibson\" by Bruce Bedford, 1992\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Expedition of Humphry Clinker\" by Tobias Smollett, Classic Serial on BBC Radio 4, 1992\n", "BULLET::::- \"Crisp and Even Brightly\" by Alick Rowe, as 'Generally well-intentioned King Wenceslas', Saturday Night Theatre, BBC Radio 4, 1987\n", "BULLET::::- \"I, Claudius\" and \"Claudius the God\" by Robert Graves, as Claudius, produced by Glyn Dearman, 1985\n", "BULLET::::- \"With a Whimper to the Grave\" by Wally K. Daly, as 642, 1984\n", "BULLET::::- \"Actors, or Playing for Real\" by Lope de Vega, as Emperor Diocletian, BBC Radio 3, 1983\n", "BULLET::::- \"Lady Windermere's Fan\" by Oscar Wilde, Saturday Night Theatre, BBC Radio 4, 1982\n", "BULLET::::- \"Operation Lightning Pegasus\" by Alick Rowe, as Agammemnon, Saturday Night Theatre, BBC Radio 4, 1981\n", "BULLET::::- \"Sherlock Holmes v. Dracula\" by Loren D. Estleman, as Doctor Watson, dramatised and directed by Glyn Dearman, Saturday Night Theatre, BBC Radio 4, 1981\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Monument\" by David Cregan, as Dr. James Short, BBC Radio 3, 1978\n", "BULLET::::- \"Where Are They Now?\" by Tom Stoppard, as an Old Boy, 1971\n", "BULLET::::- \"If You're Glad, I'll be Frank\" by Tom Stoppard, as Frank, 1966\n", "BULLET::::- \"Macbeth\", as the Porter, BBC Third Programme, 1966. Repeated on BBC Radio 4 in 1967 and BBC 7 in 2007\n", "Section::::Audiobooks.\n", "Timothy West has read many unabridged audiobooks, including the complete Barchester Chronicles and the complete Palliser novels by Anthony Trollope, and seven of George MacDonald Fraser's \"The Flashman Papers\" books. He has received four AudioFile Earphones Awards for his narration.\n", "Section::::Books.\n", "BULLET::::- \"I'm Here I Think, Where Are You? Letters from a Touring Actor\", 1994, .\n", "BULLET::::- \"A Moment Towards the End of the Play\" (autobiography), 2001, .\n", "BULLET::::- \"So You Want To Be an Actor\" (with Prunella Scales), 2005, .\n", "BULLET::::- \"Great Canal Journeys: A Lifetime of Memories on Britain's Most Beautiful Waterways\", 2017, .\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- LAMDA Biography\n", "BULLET::::- Timothy West at Gavin Barker Associates (agent)\n" ] }

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{ "description": "English film, stage, and television actor", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q1362474", "wikidata_label": "Timothy West", "wikipedia_title": "Timothy West", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Timothy Lancaster West" ] } }

{ "pageid": 157721, "parentid": 907407307, "revid": 907432343, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-22T21:14:34Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Timothy%20West&oldid=907432343" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Battle of St-Dizier\n", "The first Battle of St-Dizier was fought on January 26, 1814, and resulted the victory of French under Napoleon Bonaparte against Russians under General Lanskoy. Napoleon and his troops had left Ligny the day before; Lanskoy held St-Dizier with 800 dragoons, and he left the town to join Blücher.\n", "The second battle occurred on March 26, 1814 and resulted the victory of French under Napoleon Bonaparte against Russians under General Ferdinand Wintzingerode. This was Napoleon's penultimate victory. Coming up on the right bank of the Aube River, Napoleon was informed by MacDonald that a large part of the Allied army was advancing on his rear guard. Napoleon chose to present his whole army for battle at St Dizier, but MacDonald's information was incorrect; Napoleon found only a body of cavalry under the command of General Wintzingerode, whom Napoleon's troops quickly put to flight.\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- Lamartine, Alphonse de (1872). \"The History of the Restoration of the Monarchy in France\". Captain Rafter, translator. London: Bell and Daldy.\n", "BULLET::::- Gneisenau, August (1815). \"The Life and Campaigns of Field-marshal Prince Blücher of Wahlstatt\". J. E. Marston, translator. London: Sherwood.\n", "BULLET::::- Lockhart, J. G. (1830). \"The History of Napoleon Buonaparte\". New York: Harpers.\n", "BULLET::::- Talleyrand, Charled Maurice (1891). \"Memoirs of the Prince de Talleyrand\". Raphael de Beaufort, trans. Five volumes. New York: Putnam.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Gazetteer Entry\n" ] }

{ "paragraph_id": [ 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7 ], "start": [ 103, 130, 195, 249, 288, 274, 12, 12, 12, 12 ], "end": [ 121, 136, 200, 257, 295, 283, 34, 29, 27, 39 ], "text": [ "Napoleon Bonaparte", "Russia", "Ligny", "dragoons", "Blücher", "MacDonald", "Lamartine, Alphonse de", "Gneisenau, August", "Lockhart, J. G.", "Talleyrand, Charled Maurice" ], "href": [ "Napoleon%20Bonaparte", "Russia", "Ligny", "dragoons", "Gebhard%20Leberecht%20von%20Bl%C3%BCcher", "%C3%89tienne-Jacques-Joseph-Alexandre%20MacDonald", "Lamartine", "August%20Neidhardt%20von%20Gneisenau", "John%20Gibson%20Lockhart", "Charles%20Maurice%20de%20Talleyrand-P%C3%A9rigord" ], "wikipedia_title": [ "Napoleon", "Russia", "Ligny", "Dragoon", "Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher", "Jacques MacDonald", "Alphonse de Lamartine", "August Neidhardt von Gneisenau", "John Gibson Lockhart", "Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord" ], "wikipedia_id": [ "69880", "25391", "2444728", "8767", "178312", "330232", "170759", "417393", "206413", "48542" ] }

{ "description": "", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q4872425", "wikidata_label": "Battle of St-Dizier", "wikipedia_title": "Battle of St-Dizier", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Stokesay Castle\n", "Stokesay Castle is one of the finest surviving fortified manor houses in England, and situated at Stokesay in Shropshire. It was largely built in its present form in the late 13th century by Laurence de Ludlow, on the earlier castle (some of which still survives) founded by its original owners the de Lacy family, from whom it passed to their de Verdun heirs, who retained feudal overlordship of Stokesay until at least 1317. Laurence 'of' Ludlow was one of the leading wool merchants in England, who intended it to form a secure private house and generate income as a commercial estate. Laurence's descendants continued to own the castle until the 16th century, when it passed through various private owners. By the time of the outbreak of the English Civil War in 1641, Stokesay was owned by William Craven, the first Earl of Craven and a supporter of King Charles I. After the Royalist war effort collapsed in 1645, Parliamentary forces besieged the castle in June and quickly forced its garrison to surrender. Parliament ordered the property to be slighted, but only minor damage was done to the walls, allowing Stokesay to continue to be used as a house by the Baldwyn family until the end of the 17th century.\n", "In the 18th century the Baldwyns rented the castle out for a range of agricultural and manufacturing purposes. It fell into disrepair, and the antiquarian John Britton noted during his visit in 1813 that it had been \"abandoned to neglect, and rapidly advancing to ruin\". Restoration work was carried out in the 1830s and 1850s by William Craven, the second Earl of Craven. In 1869 the Craven estate, now heavily in debt, was sold to the wealthy industrialist John Derby Allcroft who paid for another round of extensive restoration during the 1870s. Both of these owners attempted to limit any alterations to the existing buildings during their conservation work, which was unusual for this period. The castle became a popular location for tourists and artists, and was formally opened to paying visitors in 1908.\n", "Allcroft's descendants fell into financial difficulties during the early 20th century, however, and it became increasingly difficult for them to cover the costs of maintaining Stokesay. In 1986 Jewell Magnus-Allcroft finally agreed to place Stokesay Castle into the guardianship of English Heritage, and the castle was left to the organisation on her death in 1992. English Heritage carried out extensive restoration of the castle in the late 1980s. In the 21st century, Stokesay Castle continues to be operated as a tourist attraction, receiving 39,218 visitors in 2010.\n", "Architecturally, Stokesay Castle is \"one of the best-preserved medieval fortified manor houses in England\", according to historian Henry Summerson. The castle comprises a walled, moated enclosure, with an entrance way through a 17th-century timber and plaster gatehouse. Inside, the courtyard faces a stone hall and solar block, protected by two stone towers. The hall features a 13th-century wooden-beamed ceiling, and 17th-century carved figures ornament the gatehouse and the solar. The castle was never intended to be a serious military fortification, but its style was intended to echo the much larger castles being built by Edward I in North Wales. Originally designed as a prestigious, secure, comfortable home, the castle has changed very little since the 13th century, and is a rare, surviving example of a near complete set of medieval buildings. English Heritage has minimised the amount of interpretative material displayed at the property and kept the castle largely unfurnished.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Section::::History.:13th–15th centuries.\n", "Stokesay Castle was largely built in its present form during the 1280s and 1290s in the village of Stokesay by Laurence of Ludlow, a very wealthy wool merchant. Stokesay took its name from the Anglo-Saxon word \"stoches\", meaning cattle farm, and the surname of the de Says family, who had held the land from the beginning of the 12th century onwards. \n", "Stokesay was originally owned by the de Lacy family, who had built the first Ludlow Castle within their manor of Stanton Lacy. In Domesday Book, \"Roger de Laci\" is recorded as holding \"Stoches\" of the King in capite. The manor was later held under the de Lacys by members of the de Say family, whose name attached to 'Stoke' created the name - Stokesay - by which it is still known today. In 1241, the then lord of Stokesay, Walter de Lacy, Lord of Meath, died. His son Gilbert had predeceased him, so his extensive estates were divided among Walter's granddaughters. One of these, Margery, had married Sir John de Verdun of Alton Castle in Staffordshire, son of the heiress Roesia de Verdun and Theobald le Botiller. Margery's share of her grandfather's estates included Stokesay and a moiety of nearby Ludlow, which thereafter were held by the de Verduns. On 1st September 1270, to raise money to pay for going on the Eighth Crusade with Prince Edward, John de Verdun conveyed a tenancy of his manor of Stokesay to Philip de Whichecote for a term of 3 years, which was later extended for the term of Philip's life, when it would revert to John de Verdun. However, John died in 1274 and Stokesay was inherited by his son Theobald I de Verdun. The Inquisition Post Mortem following John's death revealed that the de Verduns' feofee at Stokesay at the time was Reginald de Grey. In the feodaries of 1284, Laurence de Ludlow is said to \"hold the Vill of Stokesay for one knight's-fee under John de Grey, which John held it under Theobald de Verdun, who held of the King\". \n", "It appears that in 1317, Stokesay was still being held by the Ludlows under the de Verduns. This is shown by the Inquest Post Mortem of Theobald II de Verdun (son of Theobald I de Verdun), taken in March of that year, which \"gives the Heirs of Sir William de Lodlowe as holding of the deceased a knight's-fee in Southstoke\" ('north Stoke' was one of the de Verdun's other manors in Shropshire, Stoke-on-Tern). It was only sometime after this date that Stokesay finally passed entirely into the possession of the Ludlow family. \n", "By chance there may have been earlier connections between Laurence de Ludlow and the de Verduns, which may add to the context within which he become their tenant. Laurence de Ludlow's wife was Agnes de Audley, daughter of James de Audley, Justicier of Ireland and Sheriff of Staffordshire & Shropshire. James de Audley's family had been tenants and close associates of the de Verdons of Alton. James's father, Henry de Audley had married Petronilla de Gresley, one of the de Stafford family - her great great grandfather was Robert de Stafford. Petronilla's sister Hawise de Gresley had married Henry de Verdun, son of Bertram III de Verdun. This means that Laurence de Ludlow was related by marriage to cousins of his feudal lord Theobald de Verdun. Laurence's mother-in-law Ela de Audley was the daughter of William II Longespée, whose father William I Longespée, Earl of Salisbury was the illegitimate son of Henry II by Ida de Tosny, who became the wife of Roger Bigod, Earl of Norfolk. John de Verdun's grandfather, Nicholas de Verdun had been brought up at the court of Ida and Roger Bigod. \n", "Laurence bought the tenancy of Stokesay from Philip de Whichecote in 1281, possibly for around £266, which he could easily have afforded, as he had made a fortune from the wool trade. Laurence exported wool from the Welsh Marches, travelling across Europe to negotiate sales, and maintaining offices in Shrewsbury and London. He had become the most important wool merchant in England, helping to set government trade policies and lending money to the major nobility. Stokesay Castle would form a secure personal home for Laurence, well-positioned close to his other business operations in the region. It was also intended to be used as a commercial estate, as it was worth around £26 a year, with of agricultural land, of meadows, an expanse of woodland, along with watermills and a dovecot.\n", "Work began on the castle at some point after 1285, and Laurence moved into his new property in the early 1290s. The castle was, as Nigel Pounds describes it, \"both pretentious and comfortable\", initially comprising living accommodation and a tower to the north. In 1291 Laurence received permission from the King to fortify his castle - a document called a licence to crenellate - and he may have used this authority to construct the southern tower, which had a particularly martial appearance and was added onto the castle shortly afterwards.\n", "In November 1294 Laurence was drowned at sea off the south of England, and his son, William, may have finished some of the final work on Stokesay. His descendants, who took the Ludlow surname, continued to control Stokesay Castle until the end of the 15th century, when it passed into the Vernon family by marriage.\n", "Section::::History.:16th–17th centuries.\n", "Stokesay Castle was passed by Thomas Vernon to his grandson Henry Vernon in 1563. The family had hopes of becoming members of the peerage and, possibly as a consequence, the property began to be regularly called a \"castle\" for the first time during this period. Henry divided his time between London and Stokesay, probably staying in the north tower. Henry stood surety for an associate's debts and when they defaulted, he was pursued for this money, resulting in a period of imprisonment in Fleet Prison; by 1598 he sold the castle for £6,000 to pay off his own substantial debts. The new owner, Sir George Mainwaring, sold the property on again in 1620, via a consortium of investors, to the wealthy widow and former Mayoress of London, Dame Elizabeth Craven for £13,500. The estates around Stokesay were now valuable, bringing in over £300 a year in income.\n", "Elizabeth's son, William, spent little time at Stokesay and by the 1640s had leased it out to Charles Baldwyn, and his son Samuel. He rebuilt the gatehouse during 1640 and 1641, however, at a cost of around £533. In 1643 the English Civil War broke out between the supporters of King Charles I and Parliament. A Royalist supporter, William spent the war years at Elizabeth Stuart's court at the Hague, and gave large sums of money to the King's war effort. William installed a garrison in the castle, where the Baldwins were also strong Royalists, and, as the conflict progressed, the county of Shropshire became increasingly Royalist in sympathies. Despite this, by late 1644 bands of vigilante clubmen had risen up in Shropshire, complaining about the activities of Royalist forces in the region, and demanding, among other things, the removal of the garrison from Stokesay Castle.\n", "By early 1645 the war had turned decisively against the King, and in February, Parliamentary forces seized the county town of Shrewsbury. This exposed the rest of the region to attack, and in June a force of 800 Parliamentary soldiers pushed south towards Ludlow, attacking Stokesay en route. The Royalist garrison, led by Captain Daurett, was heavily outnumbered and it would have been impossible for them to effectively defend the new gatehouse, which was essentially ornamental. Nonetheless, both sides complied with the protocols of warfare at the time, resulting in a bloodless victory for the Parliamentary force: the besiegers demanded that the garrison surrender, the garrison refused, the attackers demanded a surrender for a second time, and this time the garrison were able to give up the castle with dignity.\n", "Shortly afterwards on 9 June, a Royalist force led by Sir Michael Woodhouse attempted to recapture the castle, now garrisoned by Parliament. The counter-attack was unsuccessful, ending in the rout of the Royalist forces in a skirmish at the nearby village of Wistanstow.\n", "Unlike many castles in England which were deliberately seriously damaged, or slighted, to put them beyond military use, Stokesay escaped substantial harm after the war. Parliament sequestrated the property from William and ordered the slighting of the castle in 1647, but only pulled down the castle's curtain wall, leaving the rest of the complex intact. Samuel returned in 1649 to continue to rent the castle during the years of the Commonwealth, and put in wood panelling and new windows into parts of the property. With the restoration of Charles II to the throne in 1660, William's lands were returned to him, and the Baldwyns continued to lease Stokesay Castle from him.\n", "Section::::History.:18th–19th centuries.\n", "During the 18th century, Stokesay Castle continued to be leased by the Baldwyn family, although they sublet the property to a range of tenants; after this point it ceased to be used as a domestic dwelling. Two wood and plaster buildings, built against the side of the hall, were demolished around 1800, and by the early 19th century the castle was being used for storing grain and manufacturing, including barrel-making, coining and a smithy.\n", "The castle began to deteriorate, and the antiquarian John Britton noted during his visit in 1813 that it had been \"abandoned to neglect, and rapidly advancing to ruin: the glass is destroyed, the ceilings and floors are falling, and the rains streams through the opening roof on the damp and mouldering walls\". The smithy in the basement of the south tower resulted in a fire in 1830, which caused considerable damage to the castle, gutting the south tower. Extensive decay in the bases of the cruck tresses in the castle's roof posed a particular threat to the hall, as the decaying roof began to push the walls apart.\n", "Restoration work was carried out in the 1830s by William Craven, the Earl of Craven. This was a deliberate attempt at conserving the existing building, rather than rebuilding it, and was a very unusual approach at this time. By 1845, stone buttresses and pillars had been added to support parts of the hall and its roof. Research by Thomas Turner was published in 1851, outlining the history of the castle. Frances Stackhouse Acton, a local landowner, took a particular interest in the castle, and in 1853 convinced William to carry out further repair work on the castle, under her supervision, at a cost of £103.\n", "In 1869 the Craven estate, in size but by now heavily mortgaged, were purchased by John Derby Allcroft for £215,000. Allcroft was the head of Dents, a major glove manufacturer, through which he had become extremely wealthy. The estate included Stokesay Castle, where from around 1875 onwards Allcroft undertook extensive restoration work over several years. Stokesay was in serious need of repairs: the visiting writer Henry James noted in 1877 that the property was in \"a state of extreme decay\".\n", "Allcroft attempted what the archaeologist Gill Chitty has described as a \"simple and unaffected\" programme of work, which generally attempted to avoid excessive intervention. He may have been influenced by the contemporary writings of the local vicar, the Reverend James La Touche, who took a somewhat romanticised approach to the analysis of the castle's history and architecture. The castle had become a popular sight for tourists and artists by the 1870s and the gatehouse was fitted out to form a house for a caretaker to oversee the property. Following the work, the castle was in good condition once again by the late 1880s.\n", "Section::::History.:20th–21st centuries.\n", "Further repairs to Stokesay Castle were required in 1902, carried out by Allcroft's heir, Herbert, with help from the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings. The Allcroft family faced increasing financial difficulty in the 20th century and the castle was formally opened for visitors in 1908, with much of the revenue reinvested in the property, but funds for repairs remained in short supply. By the 1930s the Allcroft estate was in serious financial difficulties, and the payment of two sets of death duties in 1946 and 1950 added to the family's problems.\n", "Despite receiving considerable numbers of visitors - over 16,000 in 1955 - it was becoming increasingly impractical to maintain the castle, and calls were made for the State to take over the property. For several decades the owners, Philip and Jewell Magnus-Allcroft, declined these proposals and continued to run the castle privately. In 1986 Jewell finally agreed to place Stokesay Castle into the guardianship of English Heritage, and the castle was left to the organisation on her death in 1992.\n", "The castle was passed to English Heritage largely unfurnished, with minimal interpretative material in place, and it needed fresh restoration. There were various options for taking forward the work, including restoring the castle to resemble a particular period in its history; using interactive approaches such as \"living history\" to communicate the context to visitors; or using the site to demonstrate restoration techniques appropriate to different periods. These were rejected in favour of a policy of minimising any physical intervention during the restoration and preserving the building in the condition it was passed to English Heritage, including its unfurnished interior. The archaeologist Gill Chitty has described this as encouraging visitors to undergo a \"personal discovery of a sense of historical relationship and event\" around the castle. Against this background, an extensive programme of restoration work was carried out between August 1986 and December 1989.\n", "In the 21st century, Stokesay Castle continues to be operated by English Heritage as a tourist attraction, receiving 39,218 visitors in 2010. British Airways, in conjunction with English Heritage, named their last Boeing 757 aircraft \"Stokesay Castle\" in 2010 for its final month of flying. The castle is protected under UK law as a Grade I listed building and as a scheduled monument.\n", "Section::::Architecture.\n", "Section::::Architecture.:Structure.\n", "Stokesay Castle was built on a patch of slightly rising ground in the basin of the River Onny. It took the form of a solar block and hall attached to a northern and southern tower; this combination of hall and tower was not uncommon in England in the 13th century, particularly in northern England. A crenellated curtain wall, destroyed in the 17th century, enclosed a courtyard, with a gatehouse - probably originally constructed from stone, rebuilt in timber and plaster around 1640 - controlling the entrance. The wall would have reached high measured from the base of the moat. The courtyard, around by , contained additional buildings during the castle's history, probably including a kitchen, bakehouse and storerooms, which were pulled down around 1800.\n", "The castle was surrounded by a moat, between and across, although it is uncertain whether this was originally a dry moat, as it is in the 21st century, or water-filled from the pond and nearby stream. The spoil from digging out the moat was used to raise the height of the courtyard. Beyond the moat were a lake and ponds that were probably intended to be viewed from the south tower. The parish church of St John the Baptist, of Norman origins but largely rebuilt in the middle of the 17th century, lies just alongside the castle.\n", "Stokesay Castle forms what archaeologist Gill Chitty describes as \"a comparatively complete ensemble\" of medieval buildings, and their survival, almost unchanged, is extremely unusual. Historian Henry Summerson considers it \"one of the best-preserved medieval fortified manor houses in England\".\n", "Section::::Architecture.:Buildings.\n", "The gatehouse is a two-storied, 17th century building with exposed timber and plasterwork, constructed in a distinctively local Shropshire style. It features elaborate wooden carvings on the exterior and interior doorways, including angels, the biblical characters of Adam, Eve and the serpent from the Garden of Eden, as well as dragons and other nude figures. It was designed as essentially an ornamental building, with little defensive value.\n", "The south tower forms an unequal pentagon in shape, and has three storeys with thick walls. The walls were built to contain the stairs and garderobes, the unevenly positioned empty spaces weakening the structure, and this meant that two large buttresses had to be added to the tower during its construction to support the walls. The current floors are Victorian in origin, having been built after the fire of 1830, but the tower remains unglazed, as in the 13th century, with shutters at the windows providing protection in winter. The basement was originally only accessible from the first floor, and would have provided a secure area for storage, in addition to also containing a well. The first floor, which formed the original entrance to the tower, contains a 17th-century fireplace, reusing the original 13th-century chimney. The second floor has been subdivided in the past, but has been restored to form a single chamber, as it would have been when first built.\n", "The roof of the south tower provides views of the surrounding landscape; in the 13th-century protective wooden mantlets would have been fitted into the gaps of the merlons along the battlements, and during the English Civil War it was equipped with additional wooden defences to protect the garrison.\n", "The hall and solar block are adjacent to the south tower, and were designed to be symmetrical when seen from the courtyard, although the addition of the additional stone buttresses in the 19th century has altered this appearance. The hall is long and wide, with has three large, wooden 13th-century arches supporting the roof, unusually, given its size, using lateral wooden collars, but no vertical king-posts. The roof's cruck joists now rest on 19th-century stone supports, but would have originally reached down to the ground. The roof is considered by the historian Henry Summerson to be a \"rare survival for the period\". In the medieval period a wooden screen would have cut off the north end, providing a more secluded dining area.\n", "The solar block has two storeys and a cellar, and would have probably acted as the living space for Laurence of Ludlow when he first moved into the castle. The solar room itself is on the first floor, and is reached by external steps. The wood panelling and carved wooden fireplace are of 17th-century origin, probably from around 1640. This woodwork would have originally been brightly painted, and included spy-holes so that the hall could be observed from the solar.\n", "The three-storey north tower is reached by a 13th-century staircase in the hall, which leads onto the first floor. The first floor was divided into two separate rooms shortly after the construction of the tower, and contain various decorative tiles, probably from Laurence's house in Ludlow. The walls of the second floor are mostly half-timbered, jettying out above the stone walls beneath them; the tower has its original 13th-century fireplace, although the wooden roof is 19th-century, modeled on the 13th-century original, and the windows are 17th-century insertions. The details and the carpenters' personal marks on the woodwork show that the hall, solar and north tower were all constructed under the direction of the same carpenter in the late 1280s and early 1290s.\n", "Section::::Architecture.:Interpretation.\n", "Stokesay Castle was never intended to be a serious military fortification. As long ago as 1787, the antiquarian Francis Grose observed that it was \"a castellated mansion rather than a castle of strength\", and more recently the historian Nigel Pounds has described the castle as forming \"a lightly fortified home\", providing security but not intended to resist a military attack. The historian Henry Summerson describes its military features as \"superficial\", and Oliver Creighton characterises Stokesay as being more of a \"picturesque residence\" than a fortification.\n", "Among its weaknesses were the positioning of its gatehouse, on the wrong side of the castle, facing away from the road, and the huge windows in the hall, reaching down to the ground and making access relatively easy to any intruder. Indeed, this vulnerability may have been intentional. Its builder Laurence was a newly-moneyed member of the upper class, and he may not have wanted to erect a fortification that would have threatened the established Marcher Lords in the region.\n", "Nonetheless, Stokesay Castle was intended to have a dramatic, military appearance, echoing the castles then being built by Edward I in North Wales. Visitors would have approached the castle across a causeway, with an excellent view of the south tower, potentially framed by and reflected in the water-filled moat. The south tower was probably intended to resemble the gatehouses of contemporary castles such as Caernarfon and Denbigh, and would probably have originally shared the former's \"banded\" stonework. Cordingley describes the south tower as \"adding prestige rather than security\". Visitors would then have passed by the impressive outside of the main hall block, before entering the castle itself, which Robert Liddiard notes might have been an \"anticlimax from the point of view of the medieval visitor\".\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Castles in Great Britain and Ireland\n", "BULLET::::- List of castles in England\n", "BULLET::::- Listed buildings in Craven Arms\n", "BULLET::::- Stokesay Court, built by John Derby Allcroft\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- English Heritage visitor information\n" ] }

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{ "description": "Grade I listed historic house museum in Shropshire, United Kingdom", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q7618555", "wikidata_label": "Stokesay Castle", "wikipedia_title": "Stokesay Castle", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Battle of Toulouse\n", "Battle of Toulouse may refer to:\n", "BULLET::::- Battle of Toulouse (439) between the Visigoths and the Western Roman Empire\n", "BULLET::::- Battle of Toulouse (458) between the Visigoths and the Western Roman Empire\n", "BULLET::::- Battle of Toulouse (844) during the Carolingian civil war\n", "BULLET::::- Battle of Toulouse (1814) during the Napoleonic Wars\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Yao Wenyuan\n", "Yao Wenyuan (January 12, 1931 – December 23, 2005) was a Chinese literary critic, a politician, and a member of the Gang of Four during China's Cultural Revolution.\n", "Section::::Biography.\n", "Yao Wenyuan was born in Zhuji, Zhejiang, to an intellectual family. His father, Yao Pengzi (姚蓬子) was a writer, translator and art critic.\n", "He began his career in Shanghai as a literary critic, where he became known for his sharp attacks against colleagues, such as in June 1957 against the newspaper \"Wenhuibao\". Since that time, he began to closely collaborate with leftist Shanghai politicians, including the head of the city's Propaganda Department, Zhang Chunqiao. His article \"On the New Historical Beijing Opera 'Hai Rui Dismissed from Office'\", published in \"Wenhuibao\" on November 10, 1965, launched the Cultural Revolution.\n", "The article was about a popular opera by Wu Han, who was deputy mayor of Beijing. Zhang Chunqiao and Jiang Qing feared the play could be counter-revolutionary because parallels could be drawn between the characters in the play and officials in the communist government. In the play, Hai Rui, a government official, speaks for the peasants against the imperial government, criticizing officials for hypocritically oppressing the masses while pretending to be virtuous men. Hai Rui is dismissed because of this. Yao claimed it was a coded attack on Mao for dismissing in 1959 then-minister of defense Peng Dehuai, a critic of Mao’s disastrous Great Leap Forward.\n", "Confused by this unexpected attack, Beijing's party leadership tried to protect Wu Han, providing Mao the pretext for a full-scale \"struggle\" against them in the following year. Yao was soon promoted to the Cultural Revolution Group.\n", "Yao Wenyuan was an ideal candidate for the criticism for such an opera because of his consistent socialist background. In April 1969 he joined the Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, working on official propaganda. A member of \"Proletarian writers for purity\" he was the editor of \"Liberation Daily\" Shanghai's main newspaper. He joined the state's efforts to rid China's writers union of the famous writer Hu Feng.\n", "In October 1976, he was arrested for his participation in the Cultural Revolution and sentenced to 20 years imprisonment. He was released on October 23, 1996, and spent the remainder of his life writing a book and studying Chinese history. He lived in his hometown of Shanghai and became the last surviving member of the Gang of Four after Zhang Chunqiao died in April 2005. According to China's official Xinhua news agency, he died of diabetes on December 23, 2005, aged 74.\n", "Section::::Publications.\n", "BULLET::::- Yao Wen-yuan: \"On the Social Basis Of The Lin Piao Antiparty Clique.\" Foreign Languages Press, Peking 1975.\n" ] }

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{ "pageid": 157741, "parentid": 896823327, "revid": 900222224, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-06-04T07:01:47Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yao%20Wenyuan&oldid=900222224" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Zhang Chunqiao\n", "Zhang Chunqiao (; 1 February 1917 – 21 April 2005) was a prominent Chinese political theorist, writer, and politician. He came to the national spotlight during the late stages of the Cultural Revolution, and was a member of the ultra-Maoist group dubbed the \"Gang of Four\".\n", "Section::::Biography.\n", "Born in Juye County, Shandong, Zhang worked as a writer in Shanghai in the 1930s and became closely associated with the city. After the Yan'an conference in 1938, he joined the Communist Party of China. With the creation of the People's Republic of China, he became a prominent journalist in Shanghai in charge of the \"Liberation Daily\" newspaper. He met Jiang Qing in Shanghai and helped to launch the Cultural Revolution.\n", "Zhang first came to prominence as the result of his October 1958 \"Jiefang\" (\"Liberation\") magazine entitled “Destroy the Ideas of Bourgeois Legal Ownership.” Mao Zedong ordered the reproduction of the article in \"People’s Daily\", and personally wrote an accompanying “Editor’s Note” giving the article his own mild approval. He was seen as one of Mao Zedong's full supporters as Mao became involved in an ideological struggle with rival leader Liu Shaoqi.\n", "In November 1966, at the outset of the Cultural Revolution, Zhang arrived in Shanghai representing the Central Cultural Revolution Group to stop Cao Diqiu's attempt to disperse workers in Anting. He signed the Five-point Petition of workers and then organized the Shanghai Commune along with Wang Hongwen and Yao Wenyuan in February 1967, essentially overthrowing the local government and party organization and becoming chairman of the city's Revolutionary Committee, which combined both the former posts of mayor and party secretary, until the latter post was restored in 1971. Zhang also initially served as one of the leaders of the Cultural Revolution Group, in charge of carrying out the Cultural Revolution around China. He spent much of the Cultural Revolution shuttling between Beijing and Shanghai. \n", "In April 1969 he joined the Politburo of the Communist Party of China and in 1973 he was promoted to the Politburo Standing Committee, a council of top Communist leaders. In January 1975 Zhang became the second-ranked Vice Premier and he wrote \"On Exercising All-Round Dictatorship Over the Bourgeoisie\" to promote the movement of studying the theory of the dictatorship of the proletariat; Deng Xiaoping was the first-ranked Vice Premier at the time, but Deng was out of office again in 1976. \n", "He was arrested along with the other members of the Gang of Four in October 1976, as part of a conspiracy by Ye Jianying, Li Xiannian and newly anointed party leader Hua Guofeng. Zhang was sentenced to death with a two-year reprieve, together with Jiang Qing, in 1984, but his sentence was later commuted to life imprisonment, and in December 1997 the sentence was further reduced to eighteen years.\n", "In 1998, Zhang was released from prison to undergo medical treatment. He then lived in obscurity in Shanghai for the remainder of his life. Zhang died from pancreatic cancer in April 2005.\n", "Section::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- Zhang Chunqiao Reference Archive\n", "BULLET::::- \"On Exercising All-Round Dictatorship over the Bourgeoisie\"\n" ] }

{ "paragraph_id": [ 1, 1, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 6, 6, 6, 7, 7, 7, 7 ], "start": [ 183, 259, 8, 21, 59, 136, 177, 228, 355, 403, 158, 347, 444, 111, 145, 264, 292, 309, 444, 637, 28, 105, 391, 109, 122, 166, 248 ], "end": [ 202, 271, 19, 29, 67, 142, 201, 254, 365, 422, 168, 357, 454, 136, 154, 280, 304, 320, 467, 662, 69, 133, 404, 120, 133, 177, 258 ], "text": [ "Cultural Revolution", "Gang of Four", "Juye County", "Shandong", "Shanghai", "Yan'an", "Communist Party of China", "People's Republic of China", "Jiang Qing", "Cultural Revolution", "Mao Zedong", "Mao Zedong", "Liu Shaoqi", "Cultural Revolution Group", "Cao Diqiu", "Shanghai Commune", "Wang Hongwen", "Yao Wenyuan", "Revolutionary Committee", "Cultural Revolution Group", "Politburo of the Communist Party of China", "Politburo Standing Committee", "Deng Xiaoping", "Ye Jianying", "Li Xiannian", "Hua Guofeng", "Jiang Qing" ], "href": [ "Cultural%20Revolution", "Gang%20of%20Four%20%28China%29", "Juye%20County", "Shandong", "Shanghai", "Yan%27an", "Communist%20Party%20of%20China", "People%27s%20Republic%20of%20China", "Jiang%20Qing", "Cultural%20Revolution", "Mao%20Zedong", "Mao%20Zedong", "Liu%20Shaoqi", "Cultural%20Revolution%20Group", "Cao%20Diqiu", "Shanghai%20People%27s%20Commune", "Wang%20Hongwen", "Yao%20Wenyuan", "Revolutionary%20committee%20%28China%29", "Cultural%20Revolution%20Group", "Politburo%20of%20the%20Communist%20Party%20of%20China", "Politburo%20Standing%20Committee", "Deng%20Xiaoping", "Ye%20Jianying", "Li%20Xiannian", "Hua%20Guofeng", "Jiang%20Qing" ], "wikipedia_title": [ "Cultural Revolution", "Gang of Four", "Juye County", "Shandong", "Shanghai", "Yan'an", "Communist Party of China", "China", "Jiang Qing", "Cultural Revolution", "Mao Zedong", "Mao Zedong", "Liu Shaoqi", "Cultural Revolution Group", "Cao Diqiu", "Shanghai People's Commune", "Wang Hongwen", "Yao Wenyuan", "Revolutionary committee (China)", "Cultural Revolution Group", "Politburo of the Communist Party of China", "Politburo Standing Committee of the Communist Party of China", "Deng Xiaoping", "Ye Jianying", "Li Xiannian", "Hua Guofeng", "Jiang Qing" ], "wikipedia_id": [ "45311", "50441", "7504039", "105032", "27643", "340901", "7175", "5405", "65378", "45311", "19527", "19527", "43472976", "8188604", "48458470", "5274312", "157742", "157741", "21655893", "8188604", "51851", "146743", "8205", "599302", "364831", "100434", "65378" ] }

{ "description": "Member of the Gang of Four", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q197170", "wikidata_label": "Zhang Chunqiao", "wikipedia_title": "Zhang Chunqiao", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 157740, "parentid": 879904156, "revid": 886619477, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-03-07T12:17:54Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zhang%20Chunqiao&oldid=886619477" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Wang Hongwen\n", "Wang Hongwen (December, 1935 – August 3, 1992) was a Chinese labour activist and politician who spent most of his career in Shanghai. He was an important political figure during the Cultural Revolution (1966–76). He was the youngest member of the far-left political clique called the \"Gang of Four.\" During the Cultural Revolution, Wang rose from a member of the working class to become one of the foremost members of national leadership of the Communist Party of China.\n", "At the pinnacle of his power he was the second Vice-Chairman of the CCP, and ranked third in the Communist Party's hierarchy. Following Mao's death in 1976, Wang was arrested and charged with \"counterrevolutionary activity,\" then sentenced to life imprisonment in 1981.\n", "Section::::Biography.\n", "Wang was born in a village in the outskirts of Changchun, Jilin province. In the early 1950s he took part in the Korean War. He joined the Communist Party of China in 1953. After the war, he was sent to Shanghai to work in Shanghai No. 17 Cotton Textile Mill as the head of its security guards regiment, where he met Zhang Chunqiao and became involved in a Red Guards group. He organized the Shanghai Commune in January 1967, and was catapulted to national prominence as a daring rebel leader. \n", "At the 9th National Congress of the Communist Party of China, Wang was elected a member of the Central Committee. Following the Lin Biao incident, Wang was put in charge of the investigation into the case in the Shanghai area, reporting directly to Mao. At the 10th National Congress of the CCP in 1973, Wang Hongwen was elevated to second ranking Vice Chairman in the Central Committee, and a member of the Politburo Standing Committee, making him the third-highest-ranking member of the CCP, behind Chairman Mao Zedong and Premier Zhou Enlai. All signs pointed to Wang being trained as Mao's successor.\n", "Wang was rumored to be slated to become Premier after then-Premier Zhou Enlai's death in January 1976. However, Hua Guofeng, a more moderate figure, was chosen to succeed Zhou instead. Wang was an important player during and after the death of Mao, and served as the masters of ceremonies for his funeral service on national radio on September 18, 1976. He was arrested in what was essentially a coup planned by Hua and General Ye Jianying for his participation in the Gang of Four during the Cultural Revolution in October 1976. Wang was tried and sentenced to life imprisonment in 1981. He died of liver cancer in a Beijing hospital on August 3, 1992 at the age of 56.\n", "Wang was one of the youngest members of the Politburo Standing Committee in the post-revolution Communist Party, having joined the body at a mere 37 years of age. In fact, he was the same age as some standing committee members who took office even after the turn of the century, such as Luo Gan (served on the PSC between 2002 and 2007), who was also born in 1935.\n" ] }

{ "paragraph_id": [ 1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 7 ], "start": [ 124, 182, 285, 445, 47, 115, 47, 58, 113, 139, 203, 317, 357, 392, 7, 348, 369, 408, 510, 533, 67, 112, 469, 493, 600, 618, 287 ], "end": [ 132, 201, 297, 469, 60, 124, 56, 63, 123, 163, 211, 331, 367, 408, 60, 361, 386, 436, 520, 543, 77, 123, 481, 512, 612, 625, 294 ], "text": [ "Shanghai", "Cultural Revolution", "Gang of Four", "Communist Party of China", "Vice-Chairman", "hierarchy", "Changchun", "Jilin", "Korean War", "Communist Party of China", "Shanghai", "Zhang Chunqiao", "Red Guards", "Shanghai Commune", "9th National Congress of the Communist Party of China", "Vice Chairman", "Central Committee", "Politburo Standing Committee", "Mao Zedong", "Zhou Enlai", "Zhou Enlai", "Hua Guofeng", "Gang of Four", "Cultural Revolution", "liver cancer", "Beijing", "Luo Gan" ], "href": [ "Shanghai", "Cultural%20Revolution", "Gang%20of%20Four%20%28China%29", "Communist%20Party%20of%20China", "Vice%20Chairman%20of%20the%20Communist%20Party%20of%20China", "Political%20position%20ranking%20of%20the%20People%27s%20Republic%20of%20China", "Changchun", "Jilin", "Korean%20War", "Communist%20Party%20of%20China", "Shanghai", "Zhang%20Chunqiao", "Red%20Guards%20%28China%29", "Shanghai%20People%27s%20Commune", "9th%20National%20Congress%20of%20the%20Communist%20Party%20of%20China", "Vice%20Chairman%20of%20the%20Communist%20Party%20of%20China", "Central%20Committee", "Politburo%20Standing%20Committee", "Mao%20Zedong", "Zhou%20Enlai", "Zhou%20Enlai", "Hua%20Guofeng", "Gang%20of%20Four", "Cultural%20Revolution", "liver%20cancer", "Beijing", "Luo%20Gan" ], "wikipedia_title": [ "Shanghai", "Cultural Revolution", "Gang of Four", "Communist Party of China", "Vice Chairman of the Communist Party of China", "Orders of precedence in China", "Changchun", "Jilin", "Korean War", "Communist Party of China", "Shanghai", "Zhang Chunqiao", "Red Guards", "Shanghai People's Commune", "9th National Congress of the Communist Party of China", "Vice Chairman of the Communist Party of China", "Central Committee", "Politburo Standing Committee of the Communist Party of China", "Mao Zedong", "Zhou Enlai", "Zhou Enlai", "Hua Guofeng", "Gang of Four", "Cultural Revolution", "Liver cancer", "Beijing", "Luo Gan" ], "wikipedia_id": [ "27643", "45311", "50441", "7175", "31057764", "256825", "250126", "173797", "16772", "7175", "27643", "157740", "1169199", "5274312", "31881332", "31057764", "38280862", "146743", "19527", "50444", "50444", "100434", "50441", "45311", "12284396", "18603746", "262915" ] }

{ "description": "Chinese politician", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q455583", "wikidata_label": "Wang Hongwen", "wikipedia_title": "Wang Hongwen", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 157742, "parentid": 894235599, "revid": 901764483, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-06-14T03:44:32Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wang%20Hongwen&oldid=901764483" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Battle of the Chernaya\n", "The Battle of the Chernaya (also Tchernaïa; Russian: Сражение у Черной речки, Сражение у реки Черной, literally: Battle of the Black River) was a battle by the Chornaya River fought during the Crimean War on August 16, 1855. The battle was fought between Russian troops and a coalition of French, Sardinian and Ottoman troops. The Chornaya River is on the outskirts of Sevastopol. The battle ended in a Russian retreat and a victory for the French, Sardinians and Turks.\n", "Section::::Planning.\n", "The battle was planned as an offensive by the Russians with the aim of forcing the Allied forces (French, British, Sardinian, and Ottoman) to retreat and abandon their siege of Sevastopol. Czar Alexander II had ordered his commander in chief in the Crimea, Prince Michael Gorchakov to attack the besieging forces before they were reinforced further. The Czar hoped that by gaining a victory, he could force a more favorable resolution to the conflict. Gorchakov didn’t think that an attack would be successful but believed the greatest chance of success to be near the French and Sardinian positions on the Chornaya River. The Czar ordered the hesitating Gorchakov to hold a war council to plan the attack. The attack was planned for the morning of August 16 in the hope to surprise the French and Sardinians as they had just celebrated the Feast day of the Emperor (France) and Assumption Day (Sardinians). The Russians hoped that because of these feasts the enemy would be tired and less attentive to the Russians.\n", "Section::::The battle.\n", "58,000 Russian troops in two army corps under Prince Michael Gorchakov fought against 28,000 French and Sardinian troops under French General Aimable Pélissier and Italian General Alfonso Ferrero La Marmora. Although the British correspondents were amazed at the courageousness and impetuosity of their attack, the assault of the Russian army was handicapped by poor organization and lack of experienced soldiers which, due to Sevastopol, forced their corps to consist mostly of militia.\n", "In the cover of the morning fog, the Russians advanced on Traktirburg with 47,000 infantry, 10,000 cavalry and 270 cannon under command of General Pavel Liprandi on the left and General N. A. Read on the right. The two generals had been ordered by Gorchakov not to cross the river until given explicit orders. Annoyed that things weren’t happening fast enough, Gorchakov sent a note to his generals with the words \"\"Let's start it.\"\" By this, Gorchakov only meant that the Russians should start to deploy their forces. Unfortunately his generals interpreted his words as his order to attack and they acted accordingly, although reserve forces were still en route to the battlefield. The attacking Russians immediately met stiff resistance from the French and Sardinians. Read's forces crossed the river near Traktirburg but without cavalry and artillery support, they were easily stopped by the French on the Fedyukhin Heights (Федюхины высоты). Read then ordered his reserve formation, the 5th Infantry Division, to attack the Heights but instead of launching a coordinated assault, he fed them piecemeal in to the fray. Going in regiment by regiment, the assaulting reserve troops accomplished nothing. Seeing this Gorchakov ordered Read to deploy the entire division against the French. This forced the French back up the hill but the Russians could not capture the Heights. In the following retreat General Read was killed. Upon the death of Read, Gorchakov took personal command of the right and ordered 8 battalions of Liprandi's left wing to reinforce the right wing. These forces came under fire from the Sardinians and were driven back. At 10 o’clock in the morning, Gorchakov concluded that the situation was hopeless and ordered a general retreat.\n", "The bravery of Sardinian troops and the French soldiers of the 50th, 82nd, 95th, 97th of the line; the 19th Foot Chasseurs; and the 2nd and 3rd Zouaves was especially noted. The Italian troops' valiant effort at the battle was a contributing factor to their inclusion at the negotiation tables at the end of the war; It was there that the Kingdom of Sardinia began looking for the aide of other European nations in the Unification of Italy.\n", "Section::::Tolstoy.\n", "Russian Count Leo Tolstoy was a participant in the Battle of the Chernaya River. He witnessed as the Russians crossed the river and started up the hillside in the morning sunlight. Tolstoy saw Russian soldiers being killed in clusters as shells exploded around them. Before the morning was over, the Russians were forced to retreat. They left thousands of their dead comrades behind. Tolstoy was depressed and angered by the slaughter. He believed much of it was due to incompetent generals and staff. Tolstoy vented his anger by composing a , an approximate translation of which reads:\n", "\"The toppest brass\n", "Sat down to meet\n", "And pondered long;\n", "Topographers\n", "Lined paper black\n", "But all forgot\n", "The deep ravine\n", "They had to cross!\" \n", "This humorous song soon gained widespread popularity among the Russian soldiers, and is the only piece of verse Tolstoy is known to have written.\n", "The stanza from Tolstoy's song \"Гладко вписано в бумаге, Да забыли про овраги\" (\"It was smoothly written into the papers / But it was forgotten about the ravines\") entered as a catch phrase, in a slightly modified form \"Гладко было на бумаге... \" (\"It was smooth on the paper, ...\").\n" ] }

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{ "description": "", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q2342758", "wikidata_label": "Battle of the Chernaya", "wikipedia_title": "Battle of the Chernaya", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 157747, "parentid": 858453802, "revid": 864159939, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2018-10-15T13:48:14Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20the%20Chernaya&oldid=864159939" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Local councils of Malta\n", "Since June 30, 1993, Malta has been subdivided into 68 localities, governed by local councils, , meaning municipalities or borough. These form the most basic form of local government and there are no intermediate levels between it and the national level. The levels of the 6 districts (5 on the main island) and of the 3 regions (2 on the main island) serve statistical purposes.\n", "According to the Local Councils Act (Chapter 363 of the Laws of Malta), Art. 3:\n", "(1) Every locality shall have a Council which shall have all such functions as are granted to it by this Act\n", "(5) Each locality shall be referred to by the name as designated in the Second Schedule and any reference to that locality shall be by the name so designated.\n", "Section::::List of Maltese local communities councils.\n", "These local community committees are going to operate from the beginning of July 2010, the Maltese Elections of Committees for Communities 2010 was held on Saturday March 27, in these hamlets:\n", "BULLET::::- Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv ta' Bubaqra in Iż-Żurrieq\n", "BULLET::::- Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv ta' Fleur-de-Lys in Birkirkara\n", "BULLET::::- Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv tal-Kappara in San Ġwann\n", "BULLET::::- Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv tal-Madliena in Is-Swieqi\n", "BULLET::::- Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv ta' Marsalforn in Iż-Żebbuġ\n", "BULLET::::- Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv ta' Paceville in San Ġiljan\n", "BULLET::::- Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv ta' Santa Luċija, Għawdex in Ta' Kerċem\n", "BULLET::::- Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv tax-Xlendi in Il-Munxar\n", "In June 2010 were held also the elections for the local community committees, in these hamlets:\n", "BULLET::::- Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv ta' Gwardmanġa in Tal-Pietà, Malta\n", "BULLET::::- Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv tas-Swatar in Birkirkara and L-Imsida\n", "BULLET::::- Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv tal-Baħrija in Ir-Rabat, Malta\n", "BULLET::::- Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv ta' Baħar iċ-Ċagħaq in In-Naxxar\n", "BULLET::::- Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv ta' San Pietru in Ħaż-Żabbar\n", "BULLET::::- Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv ta' Burmarrad u l-Wardija in San Pawl il-Baħar\n", "BULLET::::- Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv ta' Tal-Virtù in Ir-Rabat\n", "BULLET::::- Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv ta' Ħal Farruġ in Ħal Luqa\n", "All elections in these hamlets took place on the same day in the 2014 hamlet elections.\n", "Section::::List of Maltese local communities councils.:Other recognised hamlets without a local community committee.\n", "BULLET::::- Albert Town in Il-Marsa, Malta\n", "BULLET::::- Bengħisa in Birżebbuġa\n", "BULLET::::- Il-Bidnija in Il-Mosta/L-Imġarr\n", "BULLET::::- Bir id-Deheb in Iż-Żejtun/Ħal Għaxaq\n", "BULLET::::- Il-Blata l-Bajda in Il-Ħamrun/Il-Marsa, Malta\n", "BULLET::::- Tal-Blata l-Għolja in Il-Mosta\n", "BULLET::::- Buġibba in San Pawl il-Baħar\n", "BULLET::::- Bulebel iż-Żgħir in Ħaż-Żabbar\n", "BULLET::::- Il-Buskett in Dingli/Is-Siġġiewi\n", "BULLET::::- Ġebel San Martin in Iż-Żejtun\n", "BULLET::::- L-Għadira in Il-Mellieħa\n", "BULLET::::- Tal-Ibraġ in Is-Swieqi\n", "BULLET::::- Il-Magħtab in In-Naxxar\n", "BULLET::::- Il-Manikata in Il-Mellieħa\n", "BULLET::::- Il-Pwales in San Pawl il-Baħar\n", "BULLET::::- Il-Qajjenza in Birżebbuġa\n", "BULLET::::- Il-Qawra in San Pawl il-Baħar\n", "BULLET::::- Tar-Rabbat in Il-Ħamrun\n", "BULLET::::- Salina in In-Naxxar\n", "BULLET::::- San Martin in San Pawl il-Baħar\n", "BULLET::::- Santa Margerita in Mosta\n", "BULLET::::- Santa Maria Estate in Il-Mellieħa\n", "BULLET::::- Ta' Ganza in Iż-Żejtun\n", "BULLET::::- Ta' Giorni in San Ġiljan\n", "BULLET::::- Ta' Kassja in Gozo\n", "BULLET::::- Ta' Taħt iċ-Ċint in Iż-Żurrieq\n", "BULLET::::- Tal-Barmil in Gozo\n", "BULLET::::- Tal-Bebbux in Iż-Żurrieq\n", "BULLET::::- Tal-Ħawli in Il-Birgu\n", "BULLET::::- Tal-Millieri in Ħal Għaxaq\n", "BULLET::::- Tal-Plier in Ħaż-Żabbar\n", "BULLET::::- Tal-Qattus (Birkirkara) in Birkirkara\n", "BULLET::::- Tal-Qattus (Għaxaq) in Ħal Għaxaq\n", "BULLET::::- Tas-Salib in Il-Mellieħa\n", "BULLET::::- Ta' Żwejt in San Ġwann\n", "BULLET::::- Victoria Gardens in Is-Swieqi\n", "BULLET::::- Wied iż-Żurrieq in Il-Qrendi\n", "BULLET::::- Ix-Xemxija in San Pawl il-Baħar\n", "BULLET::::- Ix-Xwieki in Ħal Għargħur\n", "BULLET::::- Iż-Żebbiegħ in L-Imġarr\n", "BULLET::::- Ta' Żokkrija in Il-Mosta\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- 2005 Maltese local council elections\n", "BULLET::::- 2006 Maltese local council elections\n", "BULLET::::- 2007 Maltese local council elections\n", "BULLET::::- 2008 Maltese local council elections\n", "BULLET::::- 2009 Maltese local council elections\n", "BULLET::::- Maltese local council elections, 2010\n", "BULLET::::- 2012 Maltese local council elections\n", "BULLET::::- 2015 Maltese local council elections\n", "BULLET::::- List of cities in Malta\n", "BULLET::::- List of mayors of Malta\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Local Councils Act and amendments\n", "BULLET::::- CityMayors.com article\n", "BULLET::::- Local Councils' Association\n" ] }

{ "paragraph_id": [ 1, 1, 1, 6, 7, 7, 8, 8, 9, 9, 10, 10, 11, 11, 12, 12, 13, 13, 14, 14, 16, 16, 17, 17, 17, 18, 18, 19, 19, 20, 20, 21, 21, 22, 22, 23, 23, 26, 26, 27, 27, 28, 28, 28, 29, 29, 29, 30, 30, 30, 31, 31, 32, 32, 33, 33, 34, 34, 34, 35, 35, 36, 36, 37, 37, 38, 38, 39, 39, 40, 40, 41, 41, 42, 42, 43, 43, 44, 44, 45, 45, 46, 46, 47, 47, 48, 48, 49, 49, 50, 50, 51, 51, 52, 52, 53, 53, 54, 54, 55, 55, 56, 56, 57, 57, 58, 58, 59, 59, 60, 60, 61, 61, 62, 62, 63, 63, 64, 64, 65, 65, 66, 66, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 79, 80, 81 ], "start": [ 21, 105, 123, 91, 12, 53, 12, 58, 12, 53, 12, 54, 12, 56, 12, 55, 12, 67, 12, 52, 12, 56, 12, 52, 67, 12, 53, 12, 61, 12, 56, 12, 67, 12, 55, 12, 56, 12, 27, 12, 24, 12, 26, 35, 12, 28, 38, 12, 32, 42, 12, 34, 12, 23, 12, 32, 12, 26, 33, 12, 32, 12, 25, 12, 25, 12, 26, 12, 27, 12, 25, 12, 27, 12, 24, 12, 26, 12, 22, 12, 26, 12, 31, 12, 34, 12, 25, 12, 26, 12, 26, 12, 32, 12, 26, 12, 26, 12, 25, 12, 28, 12, 25, 12, 39, 12, 35, 12, 25, 12, 25, 12, 32, 12, 31, 12, 26, 12, 25, 12, 27, 12, 28, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12 ], "end": [ 26, 119, 130, 143, 49, 63, 54, 68, 49, 62, 50, 63, 52, 65, 51, 65, 63, 77, 48, 61, 52, 72, 48, 62, 75, 49, 68, 57, 70, 52, 66, 63, 84, 51, 63, 52, 64, 23, 42, 20, 34, 22, 34, 43, 24, 37, 48, 28, 41, 57, 30, 42, 19, 40, 28, 42, 22, 32, 44, 28, 41, 21, 36, 21, 34, 22, 35, 23, 38, 21, 42, 23, 37, 20, 41, 22, 35, 18, 31, 22, 43, 27, 36, 30, 45, 21, 34, 22, 36, 22, 30, 28, 42, 22, 30, 22, 36, 21, 33, 24, 38, 21, 35, 35, 49, 31, 45, 21, 36, 21, 34, 28, 41, 27, 40, 22, 43, 21, 37, 23, 35, 24, 36, 48, 48, 48, 48, 48, 49, 48, 48, 35, 35, 45, 34, 39 ], "text": [ "Malta", "municipalities", "borough", "Maltese Elections of Committees for Communities 2010", "Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv ta' Bubaqra", "Iż-Żurrieq", "Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv ta' Fleur-de-Lys", "Birkirkara", "Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv tal-Kappara", "San Ġwann", "Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv tal-Madliena", "Is-Swieqi", "Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv ta' Marsalforn", "Iż-Żebbuġ", "Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv ta' Paceville", "San Ġiljan", "Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv ta' Santa Luċija, Għawdex", "Ta' Kerċem", "Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv tax-Xlendi", "Il-Munxar", "Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv ta' Gwardmanġa", "Tal-Pietà, Malta", "Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv tas-Swatar", "Birkirkara", "L-Imsida", "Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv tal-Baħrija", "Ir-Rabat, Malta", "Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv ta' Baħar iċ-Ċagħaq", "In-Naxxar", "Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv ta' San Pietru", "Ħaż-Żabbar", "Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv ta' Burmarrad u l-Wardija", "San Pawl il-Baħar", "Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv ta' Tal-Virtù", "Ir-Rabat", "Il-Kumitat Amministrattiv ta' Ħal Farruġ", "Ħal Luqa", "Albert Town", "Il-Marsa, Malta", "Bengħisa", "Birżebbuġa", "Il-Bidnija", "Il-Mosta", "L-Imġarr", "Bir id-Deheb", "Iż-Żejtun", "Ħal Għaxaq", "Il-Blata l-Bajda", "Il-Ħamrun", "Il-Marsa, Malta", "Tal-Blata l-Għolja", "Il-Mosta", "Buġibba", "San Pawl il-Baħar", "Bulebel iż-Żgħir", "Ħaż-Żabbar", "Il-Buskett", "Dingli", "Is-Siġġiewi", "Ġebel San Martin", "Iż-Żejtun", "L-Għadira", "Il-Mellieħa", "Tal-Ibraġ", "Is-Swieqi", "Il-Magħtab", "In-Naxxar", "Il-Manikata", "Il-Mellieħa", "Il-Pwales", "San Pawl il-Baħar", "Il-Qajjenza", "Birżebbuġa", "Il-Qawra", "San Pawl il-Baħar", "Tar-Rabbat", "Il-Ħamrun", "Salina", "In-Naxxar", "San Martin", "San Pawl il-Baħar", "Santa Margerita", "Mosta", "Santa Maria Estate", "Il-Mellieħa", "Ta' Ganza", "Iż-Żejtun", "Ta' Giorni", "San Ġiljan", "Ta' Kassja", "Gozo", "Ta' Taħt iċ-Ċint", "Iż-Żurrieq", "Tal-Barmil", "Gozo", "Tal-Bebbux", "Iż-Żurrieq", "Tal-Ħawli", "Il-Birgu", "Tal-Millieri", "Ħal Għaxaq", "Tal-Plier", "Ħaż-Żabbar", "Tal-Qattus (Birkirkara)", "Birkirkara", "Tal-Qattus (Għaxaq)", "Ħal Għaxaq", "Tas-Salib", "Il-Mellieħa", "Ta' Żwejt", "San Ġwann", "Victoria Gardens", "Is-Swieqi", "Wied iż-Żurrieq", "Il-Qrendi", "Ix-Xemxija", "San Pawl il-Baħar", "Ix-Xwieki", "Ħal Għargħur", "Iż-Żebbiegħ", "L-Imġarr", "Ta' Żokkrija", "Il-Mosta", "2005 Maltese local council elections", "2006 Maltese local council elections", "2007 Maltese local council elections", "2008 Maltese local council elections", "2009 Maltese local council elections", "Maltese local council elections, 2010", "2012 Maltese local council elections", "2015 Maltese local council elections", "List of cities in Malta", "List of mayors of Malta", "Local Councils Act and amendments", "CityMayors.com article", "Local Councils' Association" ], "href": [ "Malta", "municipalities", "borough", "Maltese%20Elections%20of%20Committees%20for%20Communities%202010", "Bubaqra", "I%C5%BC-%C5%BBurrieq", "Fleur-de-Lys%2C%20Malta", "Birkirkara", "Kappara", "San%20%C4%A0wann", "Madliena", "Is-Swieqi", "Marsalforn", "I%C5%BC-%C5%BBebbu%C4%A1", "Paceville", "San%20%C4%A0iljan", "Santa%20Lu%C4%8Bija%2C%20Gozo", "Ta%27%20Ker%C4%8Bem", "Xlendi", "Il-Munxar", "Guardamangia", "Tal-Piet%C3%A0%2C%20Malta", "Swatar", "Birkirkara", "L-Imsida", "Ba%C4%A7rija", "Ir-Rabat%2C%20Malta", "Ba%C4%A7ar%20i%C4%8B-%C4%8Aag%C4%A7aq", "In-Naxxar", "St%20Peter%27s%2C%20Malta", "%C4%A6a%C5%BC-%C5%BBabbar", "Burmarrad", "San%20Pawl%20il-Ba%C4%A7ar", "Tal-Virt%C3%B9", "Ir-Rabat", "%C4%A6al%20Farru%C4%A1", "%C4%A6al%20Luqa", "Albert%20Town%2C%20Malta", "Il-Marsa%2C%20Malta", "Beng%C4%A7isa", "Bir%C5%BCebbu%C4%A1a", "Bidnija", "Il-Mosta", "L-Im%C4%A1arr", "Bir%20id-Deheb", "I%C5%BC-%C5%BBejtun", "%C4%A6al%20G%C4%A7axaq", "Blata%20l-Bajda", "Il-%C4%A6amrun", "Il-Marsa%2C%20Malta", "Blata%20l-G%C4%A7olja", "Il-Mosta", "Bu%C4%A1ibba", "San%20Pawl%20il-Ba%C4%A7ar", "Bulebel%20i%C5%BC-%C5%BBg%C4%A7ir", "%C4%A6a%C5%BC-%C5%BBabbar", "Buskett", "Dingli", "Is-Si%C4%A1%C4%A1iewi", "%C4%A0ebel%20San%20Martin", "I%C5%BC-%C5%BBejtun", "G%C4%A7adira", "Il-Mellie%C4%A7a", "Tal-Ibra%C4%A1", "Is-Swieqi", "Mag%C4%A7tab", "In-Naxxar", "Manikata", "Il-Mellie%C4%A7a", "Pwales", "San%20Pawl%20il-Ba%C4%A7ar", "Qajjenza", "Bir%C5%BCebbu%C4%A1a", "Qawra", "San%20Pawl%20il-Ba%C4%A7ar", "Tar-Rabbat", "Il-%C4%A6amrun", "Is-Salina%2C%20Malta", "In-Naxxar", "San%20Martin%2C%20Malta", "San%20Pawl%20il-Ba%C4%A7ar", "Santa%20Margerita", "Mosta", "Santa%20Maria%20Estate", "Il-Mellie%C4%A7a", "Ta%27%20Ganza", "I%C5%BC-%C5%BBejtun", "Ta%27%20Giorni", "San%20%C4%A0iljan", "Ta%27%20Kassja", "Gozo", "Ta%27%20Ta%C4%A7t%20i%C4%8B-%C4%8Aint", "I%C5%BC-%C5%BBurrieq", "Tal-Barmil", "Gozo", "Tal-Bebbux", "I%C5%BC-%C5%BBurrieq", "Tal-%C4%A6awli", "Il-Birgu", "Tal-Millieri", "%C4%A6al%20G%C4%A7axaq", "Tal-Plier", "%C4%A6a%C5%BC-%C5%BBabbar", "Tal-Qattus%20%28Birkirkara%29", "Birkirkara", "Tal-Qattus%20%28G%C4%A7axaq%29", "%C4%A6al%20G%C4%A7axaq", "Tas-Salib", "Il-Mellie%C4%A7a", "Ta%27%20%C5%BBwejt", "San%20%C4%A0wann", "Victoria%20Gardens%20%28zone%29", "Is-Swieqi", "Wied%20i%C5%BC-%C5%BBurrieq", "Il-Qrendi", "Xemxija", "San%20Pawl%20il-Ba%C4%A7ar", "Xwieki", "%C4%A6al%20G%C4%A7arg%C4%A7ur", "%C5%BBebbieg%C4%A7", "L-Im%C4%A1arr", "Ta%27%20%C5%BBokkrija", 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{ "description": "subdivision of Malta", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q719592", "wikidata_label": "local council of Malta", "wikipedia_title": "Local councils of Malta", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 157751, "parentid": 881043805, "revid": 902975279, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-06-22T17:35:51Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Local%20councils%20of%20Malta&oldid=902975279" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Battle of Seneffe\n", "The Battle of Seneffe took place on 11 August 1674, during the 1672–1678 Franco-Dutch War near Seneffe in present-day Belgium. It was fought by a French army commanded by Louis II de Bourbon, Prince de Condé and a combined Dutch-Imperial-Spanish force led by William of Orange. While a clear French victory, both sides suffered heavy losses and it had little impact on the outcome of the war in the Low Countries.\n", "Seneffe was one of three battles in the Spanish Netherlands during the Franco-Dutch War and the only one unconnected to a siege, the dominant form of warfare in the late 17th century; Cassel in 1677 was an attempt to relieve Saint-Omer, while Saint-Denis in 1678 was fought to prevent the fall of Mons. \n", "Section::::Background.\n", "In the 1667–1668 War of Devolution, France captured most of the Spanish Netherlands and Franche-Comté but relinquished the bulk of these gains in the 1668 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle with the Triple Alliance of the Dutch Republic, England and Sweden. Angered by what he viewed as ingratitude for previous French support, Louis XIV decided to attack the Dutch; he weakened his opponents by paying Sweden to remain neutral, and signing an alliance with England in the 1670 Treaty of Dover.\n", "In May 1672, French forces invaded the Dutch Republic and initially seemed to have achieved an overwhelming victory but by late July, the Dutch position had stabilised. Concern at French gains led to the August 1673 Treaty of the Hague between the Republic, Brandenburg-Prussia, Emperor Leopold and Charles II of Spain; in early 1674, Denmark joined the Alliance, while England and the Dutch made peace in the Treaty of Westminster.\n", "Forced into another war of attrition and with new fronts opening in Spain, Sicily and the Rhineland, French troops withdrew from the Dutch Republic by the end of 1673, retaining only Grave and Maastricht. Louis now focused on retaking Spanish possessions gained in 1667–1668 but returned at Aix-La-Chappelle, a decision simplified by Spain's entry into the war. \n", "In early May, the French took the offensive in Franche-Comté, while Condé's army in the Spanish Netherlands remained on the defensive. The Allies besieged Grave in early July, which was too distant to have any realistic chance of being relieved by the French; with the advantage of superior numbers and aware of Louis' plans to capture Mons, the main Allied field army sought to take the initiative by invading French Flanders.\n", "Section::::The battle.\n", "The Spanish Netherlands was a compact area 160 kilometres wide, its highest point being only 100 metres above sea level; until the advent of railways in the 19th century, goods and supplies were largely transported by water and the region's commercial wealth was due to the large numbers of canals and rivers. Campaigning in this theatre largely focused on controlling access points to rivers such as the Lys, the Sambre and Meuse, while the flat terrain made possession of any high ground extremely advantageous. \n", "A Dutch-Spanish force under William of Orange and Count Monterrey, Governor of the Spanish Netherlands, spent June and July unsuccessfully attempting to bring Condé to battle. On 23 July, they were joined near Nivelles by an Imperial army led by a French Huguenot exile, the Comte de Souches, increasing their numbers to about 62,000. After the conclusion of operations in Franche-Comté, many of the troops used there were sent to join Condé, including his son the duc d'Enghien. By early August, his army of 44,200 was entrenched along the line of the Piéton river which joined the Sambre at Charleroi, then occupied by the French.\n", "Concluding these positions were too strong to be attacked from the direction of Nivelles, on 9 August the Allied army established a line between the villages of Arquennes to Roux, on the French left. They hoped to tempt Condé into an attack but he simply shifted his troops and the next day, William proposed moving around Seneffe and into the French rear. This was supported by the Spanish, since it would cut Condé's supply lines and isolate the French garrison in Charleroi (see Map). \n", "At 4:00 am on 11 August, the Allied army set out split into three columns, each marching parallel to the French positions. The vanguard was commanded by the Comte de Souches, the rear by the Marquis d'Assentar, who had just replaced Monterrey as the senior Spanish officer, with William and the bulk of the infantry in the centre. The formation was dictated by the poor roads and resulted in gaps between the columns; recognising this vulnerability, a screening force of 6,000 cavalry under Prince Vaudémont was placed on the extreme left, passing close to Seneffe which the Allied troops would have to pass in order to move behind the French. \n", "Hearing the Allies were on the move, at 5:30 am Condé rode out to observe their dispositions and quickly perceived their intentions. The terrain they were crossing was largely marshy and broken up by numerous hedges, walls and woods, with limited exit points; gambling these factors would negate their superior numbers, Condé decided to attack. He sent 400 light cavalry under Saint Clar to skirmish with the Allied vanguard and slow down their march, while also despatching a cavalry brigade under the Marquis de Rannes to seize the high ground north of Seneffe. \n", "Around 10:00 am, de Rannes came into contact with Vaudémont, who asked William for infantry support; he was sent three battalions, which he placed near the bridge over the Zenne or Senne river that flowed through Seneffe, with his cavalry just behind. Despite gout so severe he was unable to wear boots, Condé himself led the elite Maison du Roi cavalry across the Zenne above Seneffe and scattered Vaudémont's cavalry. Simultaneous assaults by de Rannes and Luxembourg overwhelmed the infantry, who were all either killed or taken prisoner.\n", "By midday, Condé had inflicted significant losses on the Allies and gained a clear, if minor victory. Instead of withdrawing, he continued and the battle became a series of confused and costly firefights, lasting until early evening. After Vaudémont was driven out of Seneffe, William halted his march and formed a defensive line centred on the nearby Priory of St Nicolas, with the Marquis d'Assentar based in the hamlet of Fayt-la-Manage on his left. The Allied horse was once again driven from the field but the French were exhausted; the Dutch infantry remained intact, while the ground in front of their position was in any case unsuitable for cavalry. \n", "Against the advice of his senior officers, Condé committed his troops to a series of bloody frontal assaults, leading one himself, in which he was unhorsed and had to be rescued by his son, the Duc d'Enghien. Luxembourg destroyed much of the Dutch baggage train and despite heavy losses, the French finally over-ran the Allied positions at St Nicolas in the early evening. The two armies remained facing each other for the rest of the night and the next day, William made for Mons to re-equip while the French returned to their original positions on the Piéton.\n", "Casualties on all sides had been enormous, although the Imperial troops in the vanguard saw little combat, apart from minor skirmishing with Saint Clar's cavalry and William later accused de Souches of deliberately refusing to support him. While estimates vary, the consensus is that French losses were between 7,000 to 10,000 killed, wounded or captured, those of the Allies being a wider range of 8,000 – 15,000.\n", "Section::::Aftermath.\n", "Their losses shocked the French, one contemporary writing 'we have lost so much by this victory that without the Te Deum and captured flags at Notre Dame, we would believe we had lost the battle.' The battle had little impact on the war; on 31 August, a large convoy arrived in the Allied camp outside Mons, bringing supplies, a month's pay in advance for the survivors and five new Dutch regiments. This made up for the losses suffered at Seneffe and William proposed they resume the proposed invasion of France. \n", "Neither de Souches or Monterrey agreed to this and so the Allies compromised by besieging Oudenarde. Operations started on 16 September and Condé began marching to its relief on 19th; the Dutch and Spanish redoubled efforts to breach the walls before his arrival but without advising his allies, de Souches sent the Imperial artillery off to Ghent. His troops could not fight a battle without artillery and since the Dutch and Spanish could not face the French on their own, they were forced into a hasty retreat. \n", "After strong protests from the Dutch States General, de Souches was relieved of his command but this did little to solve the reality of diverging objectives in the Low Countries. De Souches' desire to minimise his own losses was driven by Imperial strategy, which was to prevent the French reinforcing Turenne in the Rhineland; the Spanish wanted to recover their losses in the Spanish Netherlands, a secondary objective for the Dutch, who now focused on retaking Grave and Maastricht. On 9 October, William assumed command of the siege operations at Grave, which surrendered on 28th.\n", "Condé received an elaborate state reception at Versailles for Seneffe but his health was failing and the casualties had diminished Louis' trust in his abilities; he temporarily assumed command of French troops in the Rhineland following Turenne's death at Salzbach in July 1675 but retired before the end of the year. In the longer term, Seneffe confirmed Louis' preference for positional warfare, ushering in a period where siege and manoeuvre dominated military tactics.\n", "Section::::Sources.\n", "BULLET::::- ;\n", "BULLET::::- ;\n" ] }

{ "paragraph_id": [ 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 6, 6, 6, 7, 7, 7, 9, 9, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 11, 11, 12, 12, 14, 14, 14, 15, 16, 20, 20, 21, 21, 21, 22 ], "start": [ 73, 95, 118, 171, 223, 229, 238, 259, 399, 40, 184, 225, 243, 297, 17, 64, 88, 150, 190, 213, 241, 319, 469, 258, 279, 299, 335, 410, 90, 183, 193, 68, 336, 411, 405, 414, 210, 255, 275, 465, 553, 593, 174, 323, 127, 491, 172, 260, 332, 425, 194, 90, 342, 31, 164, 302, 256 ], "end": [ 89, 102, 125, 207, 228, 237, 245, 276, 412, 59, 190, 235, 254, 301, 34, 83, 101, 180, 205, 227, 247, 328, 484, 277, 294, 318, 342, 431, 99, 188, 203, 73, 340, 426, 408, 420, 218, 263, 291, 478, 565, 602, 178, 330, 135, 507, 192, 264, 345, 439, 207, 99, 347, 51, 177, 309, 264 ], "text": [ "Franco-Dutch War", "Seneffe", "Belgium", "Louis II de Bourbon, Prince de Condé", "Dutch", "Imperial", "Spanish", "William of Orange", "Low Countries", "Spanish Netherlands", "Cassel", "Saint-Omer", "Saint-Denis", "Mons", "War of Devolution", "Spanish Netherlands", "Franche-Comté", "1668 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle", "Triple Alliance", "Dutch Republic", "Sweden", "Louis XIV", "Treaty of Dover", "Brandenburg-Prussia", "Emperor Leopold", "Charles II of Spain", "Denmark", "Treaty of Westminster", "Rhineland", "Grave", "Maastricht", "Condé", "Mons", "French Flanders", "Lys", "Sambre", "Nivelles", "Huguenot", "Comte de Souches", "duc d'Enghien", "Piéton river", "Charleroi", "Roux", "Seneffe", "vanguard", "Prince Vaudémont", "Zenne or Senne river", "gout", "Maison du Roi", "Fayt-la-Manage", "Duc d'Enghien", "Oudenarde", "Ghent", "Dutch States General", "Low Countries", "Turenne", "Salzbach" ], "href": [ "Franco-Dutch%20War", "Seneffe", "Belgium", "Louis%20II%20de%20Bourbon%2C%20Prince%20de%20Cond%C3%A9", "Dutch%20Republic", "Holy%20Roman%20Empire", "Spain", "William_III_of_England", "Low%20Countries", "Spanish%20Netherlands", "Battle_of_Cassel_%281677%29", "Saint-Omer", "Battle_of_Saint-Denis_%281678%29", "Mons", "War%20of%20Devolution", "Spanish%20Netherlands", "Franche-Comt%C3%A9", "Treaty_of_Aix-la-Chapelle_%281668%29", "Triple%20Alliance%20%281668%29", "Dutch%20Republic", "Sweden", "Louis_XIV_of_France", "Secret_Treaty_of_Dover", "Frederick%20William%2C%20Elector%20of%20Brandenburg", "Leopold%20I%2C%20Holy%20Roman%20Emperor", "Charles%20II%20of%20Spain", "Denmark%E2%80%93Norway", "Treaty%20of%20Westminster%20%281674%29", "Rhineland", "Grave%2C_Netherlands", "Maastricht", "Louis%2C_Grand_Cond%C3%A9", "Mons", "French%20Flanders", "Lys_%28river%29", "Sambre", "Nivelles", "Huguenot", "Jean-Louis_Raduit_de_Souches", "Henri_Jules%2C_Prince_of_Cond%C3%A9", "Pi%C3%A9ton", "Charleroi", "Roux%2C_Belgium", "Seneffe", "vanguard", "Charles_Henri%2C_Prince_of_Commercy", "Zenne", "gout", "Maison_militaire_du_roi_de_France", "Manage%2C_Belgium", "Henri_Jules%2C_Prince_of_Cond%C3%A9", "Oudenarde", "Ghent", "States_General_of_the_Netherlands", "Low%20Countries", "Henri_de_La_Tour_d%27Auvergne%2C_Viscount_of_Turenne", "Battle_of_Salzbach" ], "wikipedia_title": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "" ], "wikipedia_id": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "" ] }

{ "description": "between a French army under the command of Louis II de Bourbon, Prince de Condé and the Dutch-German-Spanish army under the Dutch Stadtholder William III of Orange", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q1783252", "wikidata_label": "Battle of Seneffe", "wikipedia_title": "Battle of Seneffe", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 157737, "parentid": 879514230, "revid": 907218950, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-21T10:48:25Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Seneffe&oldid=907218950" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Battle of Steenkerque\n", "The Battle of Steenkerque (Steenkerque also spelled \"Steenkerke\" or \"Steenkirk\") was fought on 3 August 1692, as a part of the Nine Years' War. It resulted in the victory of the French under Marshal François-Henri de Montmorency, duc de Luxembourg against a joint English-Scottish-Dutch-German army under Prince William of Orange. The battle took place near the village of Steenkerque in the Southern Netherlands, south-west of Brussels. Steenkerque is now part of the Belgian municipality of Braine-le-Comte.\n", "Section::::Prelude.\n", "The French had achieved their immediate object by capturing of Namur. The French, not wishing to fight, took up a strong defensive position in accordance with the strategical methods of the time. The French army lay facing north-west with its right on the Zenne at Steenkerque and its left towards Enghien. Their supposition was that the enemy would not dare to attack it.\n", "William III had replaced Waldeck as supreme allied commander. The allied army was encamped about Halle. Of the 20 British regiments in the Allied army, 8 were Scottish, including the famed Mackay Regiment, who had landed with William at Torbay in 1688. The Allies, who would otherwise probably have done as the French marshal desired, were by the fortune of war afforded the opportunity of surprising a part of the enemy's forces. Accordingly, William set his army in motion before dawn on 3 August and surprised the French right about Steenkerque. He completely misled the enemy by forcing a defected spy to give Luxemburg false news. In the 17th century when the objects of a war were, as far as possible, secured without the loss of valuable lives and general decisive battles were in every way considered undesirable, a brilliant victory over a part, not the whole, of the enemy's forces was the tactical idea of the best generals.\n", "Section::::Battle.\n", "The Allied advanced guard of infantry and pioneers, under the Duke of Wurttemberg, deployed silently around 5:00 a.m. close to the French encampments. Luxembourg was taken by surprise, allegedly because an attack on such a strong position seemed so unlikely; the main body of the French army was farther back and forming up after the passage of some woods. However, the extremely experienced Comte de Montal held off the initial Allied attack long enough to enable Luxembourg to bring up his main force. \n", "The march of the Allies' main body was mismanaged. Valuable time was lost. At 9:00 a.m. Wurttemberg started methodically cannonading the enemy while waiting for support and for the order to advance. The French worked with feverish energy to form a strong and well-covered line of battle at the threatened point. The allied main body had marched in the usual order with one wing of cavalry leading, the infantry following, and the other wing of cavalry at the tail of the column. On arrival at the field they were hastily sorted out into infantry and cavalry, for the ground was only suitable for the former.\n", "Only a few Allied battalions had come up to support the advanced guard when the real attack opened at 12:30. Although the advanced guard had already been under arms for nine hours and the march had been over bad ground, its attack swept the first French line before it. The British and Danes stubbornly advanced and the second and third lines of the French infantry gave ground before them. However, Luxembourg was rapidly massing his whole force to crush them. During this time the confusion in the allied main body had reached its height.\n", "Count Solms ordered the cavalry he commanded forward, but the mounted men, scarcely able to move over the bad roads and heavy ground, only blocked the way for the infantry. Some of the British foot, with curses upon Solms and the Dutch generals, broke out to the front, and Solms, angry and excited, thereupon refused to listen to all appeals for aid from the front. No attempt was made to engage and hold the centre and left of the French army, which hurried, regiment after regiment, to take part in the fighting at Steenkerque. William's counter-order that the infantry was to go forward, the cavalry to halt, was opposed by General Hugh Mackay, who urged an ordered withdrawal, to effect a consolidation of the infantry. When directly ordered by William to advance he reportedly said \"the will of the Lord be done\", and was killed at the head of the Mackay Regiment, men of his own clan, after taking his place, on foot, at their head.\n", "At the crisis Luxembourg had not hesitated to throw the whole of the French and Swiss guards into the fight, led by the princes of the royal house. More and more French troops under command of Boufflers appeared from side of Enghien. During and after this supreme effort the Allies were driven back, contesting every step against the weight of numbers.\n", "The foot and dragoons of the main body which succeeded in reaching the front, served only to cover and to steady the retreat of Wurttemberg's force. The coup having manifestly failed, William ordered a general retreat. The Allies retired as they had come, their rear-guard under the Dutch Marshal Ouwerkerk showing too stubborn a front for the French to attack. The French army, very disordered and suffering heavy casualties, was in no state to pursue.\n", "Section::::Aftermath.\n", "Over 8,000 men out of only about 15,000 engaged on the side of the Allies were killed and wounded. The losses of the French out of a much larger force were at least equal. Contemporary soldiers affirmed that Steenkirk was the hardest battle ever fought by the infantry in that war. Five British regiments were completely destroyed. Their commander, general Hugh Mackay, was also killed. Mackay's division, including the Mackay Regiment, composed of clansmen of his own name, bore the brunt of the day unsupported and the general himself was killed. John Cutts, was one of the few survivors.\n", "The British blamed their great losses on the ineptitude of the Dutch general Count Solms in command of the Allied cavalry.\n", "Section::::Steinkirk cravat.\n", "An article of dress was named after the battle. A \"steinkirk\" (also Steinquerque, Stinquerque in the mémoirs of Abbé de Choisy) was a lace cravat loosely or negligently worn, with long lace ends. According to Voltaire (l'Âge de Louis XIV), it was in fashion after the Battle of Steenkerque, where the French gentlemen had to fight with disarranged cravats on account of the surprise sprung by the Allies.\n" ] }

{ "paragraph_id": [ 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 6, 6, 9, 9, 10, 11, 13, 13, 16, 16, 16 ], "start": [ 127, 178, 199, 312, 373, 392, 428, 469, 493, 63, 256, 298, 25, 97, 62, 392, 0, 636, 193, 297, 357, 549, 51, 112, 139 ], "end": [ 142, 184, 247, 329, 384, 412, 436, 476, 508, 68, 261, 305, 32, 102, 81, 407, 11, 647, 202, 306, 368, 559, 60, 126, 145 ], "text": [ "Nine Years' War", "French", "François-Henri de Montmorency, duc de Luxembourg", "William of Orange", "Steenkerque", "Southern Netherlands", "Brussels", "Belgian", "Braine-le-Comte", "Namur", "Zenne", "Enghien", "Waldeck", "Halle", "Duke of Wurttemberg", "Comte de Montal", "Count Solms", "Hugh Mackay", "Boufflers", "Ouwerkerk", "Hugh Mackay", "John Cutts", "steinkirk", "Abbé de Choisy", "cravat" ], "href": [ "Nine%20Years%27%20War", "France", "Fran%C3%A7ois-Henri%20de%20Montmorency%2C%20duc%20de%20Luxembourg", "William%20III%20of%20England", "Steenkerque", "Southern%20Netherlands", "Brussels", "Belgium", "Braine-le-Comte", "Namur%20%28city%29", "Zenne", "Enghien", "Prince%20Georg%20Friedrich%20of%20Waldeck", "Halle%2C%20Belgium", "Ferdinand%20Willem%2C%20Duke%20of%20Wurttemberg-Teck", "Charles_de_Montsaulnin%2C_Comte_de_Montal", "Hendrik%20Trajectinus%2C%20Count%20of%20Solms", "Hugh%20Mackay%20%28general%29", "Louis%20Fran%C3%A7ois%2C%20duc%20de%20Boufflers", "Hendrik%20Van%20Nassau-Ouwerkerk", "Hugh%20Mackay%20%28general%29", "John%20Cutts%2C%201st%20Baron%20Cutts%20of%20Gowran", "Cravat%23Steinkirk", "Fran%C3%A7ois-Timol%C3%A9on%20de%20Choisy", "cravat" ], "wikipedia_title": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "" ], "wikipedia_id": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "" ] }

{ "description": "battle", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q1636652", "wikidata_label": "Battle of Steenkerque", "wikipedia_title": "Battle of Steenkerque", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 157743, "parentid": 879938107, "revid": 901497274, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-06-12T08:22:51Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Steenkerque&oldid=901497274" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Battle of Rastatt (1796)\n", "The Battle of Rastatt (5 July 1796) saw part of a Republican French army under Jean Victor Marie Moreau clash with elements of a Habsburg Austrian army under Maximilian Anton Karl, Count Baillet de Latour which were defending the line of the Murg River. Leading a wing of Moreau's army, Louis Desaix attacked the Austrians and drove them back to the Alb River in the War of the First Coalition action. Rastatt is a city in the state of Baden-Württemberg in Germany, located south of Mannheim and west of Stuttgart.\n", "In the Rhine Campaign of 1796, Moreau's army made a successful assault crossing of the Rhine River at Kehl on 24 June. Moreau expanded his bridgehead, sending Desaix north, Laurent Gouvion Saint-Cyr east and Pierre Marie Barthélemy Ferino south. The French won a clash over Anton Sztáray at Renchen on the 28th before moving against Latour at Rastatt. Soon afterward, Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen joined Latour with reinforcements from the north. The Battle of Ettlingen on 9 July determined whether Moreau would continue his invasion of Germany.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "The Rhine Campaign of 1795 (April 1795 to January 1796) opened when two Habsburg Austrian armies under the overall command of François Sébastien Charles Joseph de Croix, Count of Clerfayt defeated an attempt by two Republican French armies to cross the Rhine River and capture the Fortress of Mainz. At the start of the campaign the French Army of the Sambre and Meuse led by Jean-Baptiste Jourdan confronted Clerfayt's Army of the Lower Rhine in the north, while the French Army of Rhine and Moselle under Pichegru lay opposite Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser's army in the south. In August, Jourdan crossed and quickly seized Düsseldorf. The Army of the Sambre and Meuse advanced south to the Main River, completely isolating Mainz. Pichegru's army made a surprise capture of Mannheim so that both French armies held significant footholds on the east bank of the Rhine. The French fumbled away the promising start to their offensive. Pichegru bungled at least one opportunity to seize Clerfayt's supply base in the Battle of Handschuhsheim. With Pichegru unexpectedly inactive, Clerfayt massed against Jourdan, beat him at Höchst in October and forced most of the Army of the Sambre and Meuse to retreat to the west bank of the Rhine. About the same time, Wurmser sealed off the French bridgehead at Mannheim. With Jourdan temporarily out of the picture, the Austrians defeated the left wing of the Army of Rhine and Moselle at the Battle of Mainz and moved down the west bank. In November, Clerfayt gave Pichegru a drubbing at Pfeddersheim and successfully wrapped up the Siege of Mannheim. In January 1796, Clerfayt concluded an armistice with the French, allowing the Austrians to retain large portions of the west bank. During the campaign Pichegru had entered into negotiations with French Royalists. It is debatable whether Pichegru's treason or bad generalship was the actual cause of the French failure. which lasted until 20 May 1796, when the Austrians announced that it would end on 31 May. This set the stage for continued action during the campaign months of May through October 1796.\n", "Section::::Background.:Terrain.\n", "The Rhine River flows west along the border between the German states and the Swiss Cantons. The stretch between Rheinfall, by Schaffhausen and Basel, the High Rhine cuts through steep hillsides over a gravel bed; in such places as the former rapids at Laufenburg, it moved in torrents. A few miles north and east of Basel, the terrain flattens. The Rhine makes a wide, northerly turn, in what is called the Rhine knee, and enters the so-called Rhine ditch (\"Rheingraben\"), part of a rift valley bordered by the Black Forest on the east and Vosges Mountains on the west. In 1796, the plain on both sides of the river, some wide, was dotted with villages and farms. At both far edges of the flood plain, especially on the eastern side, the old mountains created dark shadows on the horizon. Tributaries cut through the hilly terrain of the Black Forest, creating deep defiles in the mountains. The tributaries then wind in rivulets through the flood plain to the river.\n", "The Rhine River itself looked different in the 1790s than it does in the twenty-first century; the passage from Basel to Iffezheim was \"corrected\" (straightened) between 1817 and 1875. Between 1927 and 1975, a canal was constructed to control the water level. In the 1790s, the river was wild and unpredictable, in some places four or more times wider than the twenty-first century incarnation of the river, even under regular conditions. Its channels wound through marsh and meadow, and created islands of trees and vegetation that were periodically submerged by floods. It was crossable at Kehl, by Strasbourg, and Hüningen, by Basel, where systems of viaducts and causeways made access reliable.\n", "Section::::Background.:Political complications.\n", "The German-speaking states on the east bank of the Rhine were part of the vast complex of territories in central Europe called the Holy Roman Empire. The considerable number of territories in the Empire included more than 1,000 entities. Their size and influence varied, from the \"Kleinstaaterei\", the little states that covered no more than a few square miles, or included several non-contiguous pieces, to the small and complex territories of the princely Hohenlohe family branches, to such sizable, well-defined territories as the Kingdoms of Bavaria and Prussia. The governance of these many states varied: they included the autonomous free imperial cities, also of different sizes and influence, from the powerful Augsburg to the minuscule Weil der Stadt; ecclesiastical territories, also of varying sizes and influence, such as the wealthy Abbey of Reichenau and the powerful Archbishopric of Cologne; and dynastic states such as Württemberg. When viewed on a map, the Empire resembled a \"patchwork carpet\". Both the Habsburg domains and Hohenzollern Prussia also included territories outside the Empire. There were also territories completely surrounded by France that belonged to Württemberg, the Archbishopric of Trier, and Hesse-Darmstadt. Among the German-speaking states, the Holy Roman Empire's administrative and legal mechanisms provided a venue to resolve disputes between peasants and landlords, between jurisdictions, and within jurisdictions. Through the organization of imperial circles, also called \"Reichskreise\", groups of states consolidated resources and promoted regional and organizational interests, including economic cooperation and military protection.\n", "Section::::Background.:Disposition.\n", "The armies of the First Coalition included the contingents and the infantry and cavalry of the various states, amounted to about 125,000 troops (including the three autonomous corps), a sizable force by eighteenth century standards but a moderate force by the standards of the Revolutionary wars. Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen and brother of the Holy Roman Emperor, served as commander-in-chief. In total, Charles’ troops stretched in a line from Switzerland to the North Sea. Habsburg troops comprised the bulk of the army but the thin white line of Habsburg infantry could not cover the territory from Basel to Frankfurt with sufficient depth to resist the pressure of the opposition. Compared to French coverage, Charles had half the number of troops covering a 211-mile front, stretching from Renchen, near Basel to Bingen. Furthermore, he had concentrated the bulk of his force, commanded by Count Baillet Latour, between Karlsruhe and Darmstadt, where the confluence of the Rhine and the Main made an attack most likely, as it offered a gateway into eastern German states and ultimately to Vienna, with good bridges crossing a relatively well-defined river bank. To the north, Wilhelm von Wartensleben’s autonomous corps stretched in a thin line between Mainz and Giessen.\n", "In spring 1796, drafts from the free imperial cities, and other imperial estates in the Swabian and Franconian Circles augmented the Habsburg force with perhaps 20,000 men at the most. The militias, most of which were Swabian field hands and day laborers drafted for service in the spring of that year, were untrained and unseasoned. As he gathered his army in March and April, it was largely guess work where they should be placed. In particular, Charles did not like to use the militias in any vital location. Consequently, in May and early June, when the French started to mass troops by Mainz and it looked as if the bulk of the French army would cross there—they even engaged the imperial force at Altenkirchen (4 June) and Wetzler and Uckerath (15 June)—Charles felt few qualms placing the 7000-man Swabian militia at the crossing by Kehl.\n", "Section::::French plans.\n", "An assault into the German states was essential, as far as French commanders understood, not only in terms of war aims, but also in practical terms: the French Directory believed that war should pay for itself, and did not budget for the feeding of its troops. The French citizen’s army, created by mass conscription of young men and systematically divested of old men who might have tempered the rash impulses of teenagers and young adults, had already made itself unwelcome throughout France. It was an army entirely dependent for support upon the countryside it occupied for provisions and wages. Until 1796, wages were paid in the worthless \"assignat\" (France's paper currency); after April 1796, although pay was made in metallic value, wages were still in arrears. Throughout that spring and early summer, the French army was in almost constant mutiny: in May 1796, in the border town of Zweibrücken, the 74th Demi-brigade revolted. In June, the 17th Demi-brigade was insubordinate (frequently) and in the 84th Demi-brigade, two companies rebelled.\n", "The French faced a formidable obstacle in addition to the Rhine. The Coalition's Army of the Lower Rhine counted 90,000 troops. The 20,000-man right wing under Duke Ferdinand Frederick Augustus of Württemberg stood on the east bank of the Rhine behind the Sieg River, observing the French bridgehead at Düsseldorf. The garrisons of Mainz Fortress and Ehrenbreitstein Fortress included 10,000 more. The remainder held the west bank behind the Nahe River. Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser, who initially commanded the whole operation, led the 80,000-strong Army of the Upper Rhine. Its right wing occupied Kaiserslautern on the west bank while the left wing under Anton Sztáray, Michael von Fröhlich and Louis Joseph, Prince of Condé guarded the Rhine from Mannheim to Switzerland. The original Austrian strategy was to capture Trier and to use their position on the Rhine's west bank to strike at each of the French armies in turn. However, after news arrived in Vienna of Napoleon Bonaparte's successes in northern Italy, Wurmser was sent to Italy with 25,000 reinforcements; the Aulic Council gave Archduke Charles command over both Austrian armies and ordered him to hold his ground.\n", "On the French side, the 80,000-man Army of Sambre-et-Meuse held the west bank of the Rhine down to the Nahe and then southwest to Sankt Wendel. On this army's left flank, Jean Baptiste Kléber had 22,000 troops entrenched at Düsseldorf. The right wing of the Army of the Rhine and Moselle, under Jean Victor Moreau's command, was positioned east of the Rhine from Hüningen (on the border with the French provinces, Switzerland, and the German states) northward, with its center along the Queich River near Landau and its left wing extended west toward Saarbrücken. Pierre Marie Barthélemy Ferino commanded Moreau's right wing at Hüningen, Louis Desaix commanded the center and Laurent Gouvion Saint-Cyr directed the left wing and included two divisions commanded by Guillaume Philibert Duhesme, and Alexandre Camille Taponier. Ferino's wing included three infantry and cavalry divisions under François Antoine Louis Bourcier, and general of division Augustin Tuncq, and Henri François Delaborde. Desaix's command included three divisions led by Michel de Beaupuy, Antoine Guillaume Delmas and Charles Antoine Xaintrailles.\n", "The French plan called for its two armies to press against the flanks of the Coalition's northern armies in the German states while simultaneously a third army approached Vienna through Italy. Specifically, Jean-Baptiste Jourdan's army would push south from Düsseldorf, hopefully drawing troops and attention toward themselves, which would allow Moreau’s army an easier crossing of the Rhine and Huningen and Kehl. If all went according to plan, Jourdan’s army could feint toward Mannheim, which would force Charles to reapportion his troops. Once Charles moved the mass of his army to the north, Moreau’s army, which early in the year had been stationed by Speyer, would move swiftly south to Strasbourg. From there, they could cross the river at Kehl, which was guarded by 7,000-man inexperienced and lightly trained militia—troops recruited that spring from the Swabian circle polities. In the south, by Basel, Ferino’s column was to move speedily across the river and advanced up the Rhine along the Swiss and German shoreline, toward Lake Constance and spread into the southern end of the Black Forest. Ideally, this would encircle and trap Charles and his army as the left wing of Moreau's army swung behind him, and as Jourdan's force cut off his flank with Wartensleben's autonomous corps.\n", "Section::::Battle.\n", "Section::::Battle.:Preliminary.\n", "Responding to the French feint, Charles committed most of his forces on the middle and northern Rhine, leaving only the Swabian militia at the Kehl-Strasbourg crossing, and a minor force commanded by Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg at Rastatt. In addition, a small force of about 5,000 French royalists under the command of the Louis Joseph, Prince of Condé, supposedly covering the Rhine from Switzerland to Freiburg im Breisgau. Once Charles committed his main army to the mid and northern Rhine, however, Moreau executed an about face, and a forced march with most his army and arrived at Strasburg before Charles realized the French had even left Speyer. To accomplish this march rapidly, Moreau left his artillery behind; infantry and cavalry move more swiftly. On 20 June, his troops assaulted the forward posts between Strasbourg and the river, overwhelming the pickets there; the militia withdrew to Kehl, leaving behind their cannons, which solved part of Moreau's artillery problem.\n", "At Hüningen, near Basel, on the same day that Moreau's advance guard crossed at Kehl, Pierre Marie Barthélemy Ferino executed a full crossing, and advanced unopposed east along the German shore of the Rhine, with the 16th and 50th Demi-brigades, the 68th, 50th and 68th line infantry, and six squadrons of cavalry that included the 3rd and 7th Hussars and the 10th Dragoons. This gave the French the desired pincer effect, with the Army of the Sambre and Meuse approaching from the north, the bulk of the Army of the Rhine and Moselle crossing in the center, and Ferino crossing in the south. \n", "Within a day, Moreau had four divisions across the river, representing a fundamental success of the French plan, and they executed their plan with alacrity. From the south, Ferino pursued Fröhlich and the Condé in a wide sweep east-north-east toward Villingen while Gouvion Saint-Cyr chased the \"Kreistruppen\" into Rastatt. Latour and Sztáray tried to hold the line of the river Murg. The French employed 19,000 foot soldiers and 1,500 horsemen in the divisions of Alexandre Camille Taponier and François Antoine Louis Bourcier. The Austrian brought 6,000 men into action under the command of Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg and Johann Mészáros von Szoboszló. The French captured 200 Austrians and three field pieces.\n", "Section::::Battle.:Battle.\n", "On 5 July 1796, Desaix approached Latour at the Rastat.t \n", "Section::::Battle.:Impact.\n", "By turning both Latour's flanks, Desaix drove his Imperial and Habsburg combined force back to the river Alb. The Habsburg and Imperial armies did not have enough troops to hold off the Army of the Rhine and Moselle and would need reinforcements from Charles, who was occupied in the north keeping Jourdan pinned down on the west bank of the Rhine.\n", "Recognizing the need for reinforcements, and fearing his army would be flanked by Moreau's surprise crossings at Kehl and Hüningen, Charles arrived near Rastatt with additional troops and prepared to advance against Moreau on 10 July. The French surprised him by attacking first, on 9 July. Despite the surprise, in the Battle of Ettlingen, Charles repulsed Desaix's attacks on his right flank, but Saint-Cyr and Taponier gained ground in the hills to the east of the town, and threatened his flank. Moreau lost 2,400 out of 36,000 men while Charles had 2,600 \"hors de combat\" out of 32,000 troops. Anxious about the security of his supply lines, though, Charles began a measured and careful retreat to the east.\n", "Section::::Orders of Battle.\n", "Section::::Orders of Battle.:French.\n", "BULLET::::- Division Commander Antoine Guillaume Delmas\n", "BULLET::::- Division: Michel de Beaupuy\n", "BULLET::::- Division: Charles Antoine Xaintrailles\n", "Section::::Orders of Battle.:Habsburg/Coalition.\n", "The Swabian Circle Contingent:\n", "Section::::References.\n", "Section::::References.:Sources.\n", "BULLET::::- Bertaud, Jean Paul, R.R. Palmer (trans). \"The Army of the French Revolution: From Citizen-Soldiers to Instrument of Power.\" Princeton University Press, 1988. .\n", "BULLET::::- Blanning, Timothy. \"The French Revolutionary Wars.\" New York, Oxford University Press, 1996.\n", "BULLET::::- Clarke, Hewson, \"The History of the War from the Commencement of the French Revolution,\" London, T. Kinnersley, 1816.\n", "BULLET::::- Dodge, Theodore Ayrault, \"Warfare in the Age of Napoleon: The Revolutionary Wars Against the First Coalition in Northern Europe and the Italian Campaign, 1789–1797\", USA, Leonaur, 2011.\n", "BULLET::::- Gates, David, \"The Napoleonic Wars 1803–1815,\" New York, Random House, 2011.\n", "BULLET::::- Graham, Thomas, Baron Lynedoch. \"The History of the Campaign of 1796 in Germany and Italy.\" London, 1797. .\n", "BULLET::::- Hansard, Thomas C (ed.). \"Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, House of Commons, 1803\", Official Report. Vol. 1. London: HMSO, 1803, pp. 249–252\n", "BULLET::::- Haythornthwaite, Philip. \"Austrian Army of the Napoleonic Wars (1): Infantry.\" Oxford, Osprey Publishing, 2012.\n", "BULLET::::- Knepper, Thomas P. \"The Rhine.\" Handbook for Environmental Chemistry Series, Part L. New York: Springer, 2006, .\n", "BULLET::::- Nafziger, George. \"French Troops Destined to Cross the Rhine, 24 June 1796\". US Army Combined Arms Center. Accessed 2 October 2014.\n", "BULLET::::- Philippart, John, \"Memoires etc. of General Moreau\", London, A.J. Valpy, 1814.\n", "BULLET::::- Phipps, Ramsay Weston \"The Armies of the First French Republic: Volume II The Armées du Moselle, du Rhin, de Sambre-et-Meuse, de Rhin-et-Moselle.\" USA, Pickle Partners Publishing, 2011 [1923–1933].\n", "BULLET::::- Rickard, J. \"Combat of Uckerath, 19 June 1796\", History of War, Feb 2009 version, accessed 1 March 2015.\n", "BULLET::::- Rothenberg, Gunther E. \"The Habsburg Army in the Napoleonic Wars (1792–1815).\" \"Military Affairs\", 37:1 (Feb 1973), 1–5.\n", "BULLET::::- Smith, Digby. \"The Napoleonic Wars Data Book\". London, Greenhill, 1998.\n", "BULLET::::- Vann, James Allen. \"The Swabian Kreis: Institutional Growth in the Holy Roman Empire 1648–1715.\" Vol. LII, Studies Presented to International Commission for the History of Representative and Parliamentary Institutions. Bruxelles, 1975.\n", "BULLET::::- Volk, Helmut. \"Landschaftsgeschichte und Natürlichkeit der Baumarten in der Rheinaue.\" \"Waldschutzgebiete Baden-Württemberg\", Band 10, pp. 159–167.\n", "BULLET::::- Walker, Mack. \"German Home Towns: Community, State, and General Estate, 1648–1871.\" Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 1998.\n", "BULLET::::- Whaley, Joachim. \"Germany and the Holy Roman Empire: Volume I: Maximilian I to the Peace of Westphalia, 1493–1648\". Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2012.\n", "BULLET::::- Wilson, Peter Hamish. \"German Armies: War and German Politics 1648–1806.\" London, UCL Press, 1997. .\n" ] }

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{ "description": "", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q4872167", "wikidata_label": "Battle of Rastatt", "wikipedia_title": "Battle of Rastatt (1796)", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 157722, "parentid": 867069145, "revid": 900281454, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-06-04T16:22:41Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Rastatt%20(1796)&oldid=900281454" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Battle of Solferino\n", "The Battle of Solferino (referred to in Italy as the Battle of Solferino and San Martino) on 24 June 1859 resulted in the victory of the allied French Army under Napoleon III and Sardinian Army under Victor Emmanuel II (together known as the Franco-Sardinian Alliance) against the Austrian Army under Emperor Franz Joseph I. It was the last major battle in world history where all the armies were under the personal command of their monarchs. Perhaps 300,000 soldiers fought in the important battle, the largest since the Battle of Leipzig in 1813. There were about 130,000 Austrian troops and a combined total of 140,000 French and allied Piedmontese troops. After the battle, the Austrian Emperor refrained from further direct command of the army.\n", "The battle led the Swiss Jean-Henri Dunant to write his book, \"A Memory of Solferino\". Although he did not witness the battle (his statement is contained in an \"unpublished page\" included in the 1939 English edition published by the American Red Cross), he toured the field following the battle and was greatly moved by what he saw. Horrified by the suffering of wounded soldiers left on the battlefield, Dunant set about a process that led to the Geneva Conventions and the establishment of the International Red Cross.\n", "Section::::Battle.\n", "The Battle of Solferino was a decisive engagement in the Second Italian War of Independence, a crucial step in the Italian Risorgimento. The war's geopolitical context was the nationalist struggle to unify Italy, which had long been divided among France, Austria, Spain and numerous independent Italian states. The battle took place near the villages of Solferino and San Martino, Italy, south of Lake Garda between Milan and Verona.\n", "The confrontation was between the Austrians, on one side, and the French and Piedmontese forces, who opposed their advance. In the morning of 23 June, after the arrival of emperor Franz Joseph, the Austrian army changed direction to counterattack along the river Chiese. At the same time, Napoleon III ordered his troops to advance, causing the battle to occur in an unpredicted location. While the Piedmontese fought the Austrian right wing near San Martino, the French battled to the south of them near Solferino against the main Austrian corps.\n", "Section::::Battle.:Opposing forces.\n", "The Austrian forces were personally led by their militarily inexperienced 29-year-old emperor, Franz Joseph, and were divided into two field armies: 1st Army, containing three corps (III, IX and XI), under Franz von Wimpffen and 2nd Army, containing four corps (I, V, VII and VIII) under Franz von Schlick.\n", "The French army at Solferino, personally led by Napoleon III, was divided in four Corps plus the Imperial Guard. Many of its men and generals were veterans of the French conquest of Algeria and the Crimean War, but its commander-in-chief had no military experience of note. The Sardinian army had four divisions on the field.\n", "Although all three combatants were commanded by their monarchs, each was seconded by professional soldiers. Marshal Jean-Baptiste Philibert Vaillant served as Chief of Staff to Napoleon III, while Victor Emmanuel was accompanied by his Minister of War, Lieutenant General Alfonso Ferrero La Marmora. The Austrian high command was hindered by the rivalry between the Chief of Staff, Heinrich von Heß, and the Emperor's Adjutant General Karl Ludwig von Grünne.\n", "Section::::Battle.:Battle commences.\n", "According to the allied battle plan formulated on 24 June, the Franco-Sardinian army moved east to deploy along the right river banks of the Mincio. The French were to occupy the villages of Solferino, Cavriana, Guidizzolo and Medole with, respectively, the 1st Corps (Baraguey d'Hilliers), 2nd Corps (Mac-Mahon), 3rd Corps (Canrobert), and 4th Corps (Niel). The four Sardinian divisions were to take Pozzolengo. After marching a few kilometers, the allies came into contact with the Austrian troops, who had entrenched themselves in those villages. In the absence of a fixed battle plan, the fighting which took place was uncoordinated, which is why so many casualties occurred, and it fell into three separate engagements, at Medole (south), Solferino (centre) and San Martino (north).\n", "Section::::Battle.:Battle of Medole.\n", "The battle started at Medole around 4 am. Marching towards Guidizzolo, the 4th Corps encountered an Austrian infantry regiment of the Austrian 1st Army. General Niel immediately decided to engage the enemy and deployed his forces east of Medole. This move prevented the three corps (III, IX and XI) of the Austrian 1st Army from aiding their comrades of the 2nd Army near Solferino, where the main French attacks took place.\n", "The French forces were numerically inferior to the Austrians'. The 4th Corps contained three infantry divisions under de Luzy, Vinoy and Failly and a cavalry brigade. Niel, holding a thin line of in length, was able to stop the Austrian assaults on his position by ably warding off attacks and counterattacking at opportune moments. After 15 hours of combat the Austrians retreated, both sides having lost in total nearly 15,000 men.\n", "Section::::Battle.:Battle of Solferino.\n", "Around 4:30 am the advance guard of the 1st Corps (three infantry divisions under Forey, de Ladmirault, and Bazaine, and a cavalry division under Desvaux) came into contact with the Austrian V Corps under Stadion near Castiglione delle Stiviere.\n", "Around 5 am 2nd Corps under Mac-Mahon (two infantry divisions and a cavalry brigade under La Motterouge, Decaen and Gaudin) encountered Hungarian units posted near Ca’Morino (Medole). The Austrian forces were three corps strong (I, V and VII) and positioned on the towns of Solferino, Cavriana and Volta Mantovana. The Austrians were able to hold these positions all day against repeated French attacks.\n", "Near 3 pm the French reserves, formed by Canrobert's 3rd Corps and the Imperial Guard under Regnaud, attacked Cavriana, which was defended by the Austrian I Corps under Clam-Gallas, finally occupying it at 6 pm and thereby breaking through the Austrian center. This breakthrough forced a general retreat of both Austrian armies.\n", "Section::::Battle.:Battle of San Martino.\n", "On the northern side of the battlefield the Sardinians, 4 divisions strong, encountered the Austrians around 7 am. A long battle erupted over control of Pozzolengo, San Martino and Madonna della Scoperta. The Austrian VIII Corps under Benedek had 39,000 men and 80 guns and was repeatedly attacked by a Sardinian force of 22,000 men with 48 guns. The Austrians were able to ward off three Sardinian attacks, inflicting heavy losses upon the attackers; at the end of day Benedek was ordered to retreat with the rest of the Austrian army, but ignored the order and kept resisting. At 20:00 a fourth Sardinian assault finally captured the contested hills, and Benedek withdrew. The main Sardinian contribution in the overall battle consisted in keeping Benedek's corps deeply engaged throughout the day and preventing the sending of two brigades as reinforcement to the force attacked by the French in Solferino.\n", "Section::::Battle.:Results.\n", "The battle was a particularly gruelling one, lasting over nine hours and resulting in over 2,386 Austrian troops killed with 10,807 wounded and 8,638 missing or captured. The Allied armies also suffered a total of 2,492 killed, 12,512 wounded and 2,922 captured or missing. Reports of wounded and dying soldiers being shot or bayonetted on both sides added to the horror. In the end, the Austrian forces were forced to yield their positions, and the Allied French-Piedmontese armies won a tactical, but costly, victory. The Austrians retreated to the four fortresses of the Quadrilateral, and the campaign essentially ended.\n", "Section::::Aftermath.\n", "Napoleon III was moved by the losses, as he had argued back in 1852 \"the French Empire is peace\", and for reasons including the Prussian threat and domestic protests by the Roman Catholics, he decided to put an end to the war with the Armistice of Villafranca on 11 July 1859. The Piedmontese won Lombardy but not Venetia. Camillo Benso, conte di Cavour, resigned. The Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed in 1861.\n", "This battle would have a long-term effect on the future conduct of military actions. Jean-Henri Dunant, who witnessed the aftermath of the battle in person, was motivated by the horrific suffering of wounded soldiers left on the battlefield to begin a campaign that would eventually result in the Geneva Conventions and the establishment of the International Red Cross. The Movement organized the 150th anniversary commemoration of the battle between the 23 and 27 June 2009. The Presidency of the European Union adopted a declaration on the occasion stating that \"This battle was also the grounds on which the international community of States has developed and adopted instruments of International Humanitarian Law, the international law rules relevant in times of armed conflict, in particular the four Geneva Conventions of 1949, the 60th anniversary of which will be celebrated this year.\"\n", "Section::::The battlefield today.\n", "The area contains a number of memorials to the events surrounding the battles.\n", "There is a circular tower, Tower of San Martino della Battaglia, dominating the area, a memorial to Victor Emmanuel II. It is 70 m high and was built in 1893. In the town there is a museum, with uniforms and weapons of the time, and an ossuary chapel.\n", "At Solferino there is also a museum, displaying arms and mementos of the time, and an ossuary, containing the bones of thousands of victims.\n", "Nearby Castiglione delle Stiviere, where many of the wounded were taken after the battle, is the site of the museum of the International Red Cross, focusing on the events that led to the formation of that organization.\n", "Section::::References in popular culture.\n", "Elizabeth Barrett Browning's poem \"The Forced Recruit at Solferino\" commemorates this battle (Last Poems 1862).\n", "Joseph Roth's 1932 novel \"Radetzky March\" opens at the Battle of Solferino. There, the father of the novel's Trotta dynasty is immortalized as the Hero of Solferino.\n", "The Battle of Solferino was depicted also in a 2006 television drama \"Henry Dunant: Du rouge sur la croix\" (English title: \"Henry Dunant: Red on the Cross\"), which tells the story of the signing of the Geneva Conventions and the founding of the Red Cross.\n", "Section::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- Der Feldzug des Kaisers Napoleon 3. in Italien im Jahre 1859 (1865).\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- The French Army 1600–1900\n", "BULLET::::- The Battle of Solferino\n", "BULLET::::- Mikhail Dragomirov. (1861) Battle of Solferino. (With two plans) (Сольферинская битва. (с двумя планами)) at Runivers.ru in DjVu format\n" ] }

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(With two plans)", "Runivers.ru", "DjVu" ], "href": [ "Second%20French%20Empire", "Napoleon%20III%20of%20France", "Kingdom%20of%20Piedmont-Sardinia", "Victor%20Emmanuel%20II%20of%20Italy", "Austrian%20Empire", "Franz%20Joseph%20I%20of%20Austria", "Battle%20of%20Leipzig", "Jean-Henri%20Dunant", "A%20Memory%20of%20Solferino", "Geneva%20Conventions", "International%20Red%20Cross", "Second%20Italian%20War%20of%20Independence", "Risorgimento", "Solferino", "San%20Martino%20della%20Battaglia", "Lake%20Garda", "Milan", "Verona%2C%20Italy", "Chiese", "Franz%20Graf%20von%20Wimpffen", "Franz%20Schlik", "French%20conquest%20of%20Algeria", "Crimean%20War", "Jean-Baptiste%20Philibert%20Vaillant", "Alfonso%20Ferrero%20La%20Marmora", "Heinrich%20von%20He%C3%9F", "Karl%20Ludwig%20von%20Gr%C3%BCnne", "Mincio", "Cavriana", "Guidizzolo", "Medole", "Achille%20Baraguey%20d%27Hilliers", "Patrice%20de%20Mac-Mahon%2C%20Duke%20of%20Magenta", "Fran%C3%A7ois%20Certain%20Canrobert", "Adolphe%20Niel", "Pozzolengo", "Joseph%20Vinoy", "Pierre%20Louis%20Charles%20de%20Failly", "Elie%20Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric%20Forey", "Paul%20de%20Ladmirault", "Fran%C3%A7ois%20Achille%20Bazaine", "Castiglione%20delle%20Stiviere", "Auguste%20Regnaud%20de%20Saint-Jean%20d%27Ang%C3%A9ly", "Eduard%20Clam-Gallas", "Ludwig%20von%20Benedek", "bayonet", "Quadrilatero", "Armistice%20of%20Villafranca", "Venetia%20%28region%29", "Camillo%20Benso%2C%20conte%20di%20Cavour", "Kingdom%20of%20Italy", "Jean-Henri%20Dunant", "Presidency%20of%20the%20Council%20of%20the%20European%20Union", "European%20Union", "Tower%20of%20San%20Martino%20della%20Battaglia", "ossuary", "Castiglione%20delle%20Stiviere", "Elizabeth%20Barrett%20Browning", "Joseph%20Roth", "Radetzky%20March%20%28novel%29", "Henry%20Dunant", "Geneva%20Conventions", "Red%20Cross", "https%3A//books.google.it/books%3Fid%3D1FAgc_KIoBsC%26amp%3Bpg%3DPP6%26amp%3Bdq%3DDer%2BFeldzug%2Bdes%2BKaisers%2BNapoleon%2BIII.%2Bin%2BItalien%2Bim%2BJahre%2B1859%26amp%3Bhl%3Dit%26amp%3Bsa%3DX%26amp%3Bved%3D0ahUKEwirg4_umKLUAhXCJ8AKHVH-DcAQ6AEIMDAB%23v%3Donepage%26amp%3Bq%26amp%3Bf%3Dfalse", "http%3A//napoleonistyka.atspace.com/FRENCH_ARMY.htm", "https%3A//web.archive.org/web/20071012190156/http%3A//battlefieldanomalies.com/solferino/index.htm", "https%3A//archive.today/20130113160242/http%3A//new.runivers.ru/lib/book3328/17023/", "Runivers.ru", "DjVu" ], "wikipedia_title": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "" ], "wikipedia_id": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "" ] }

{ "description": "Major battle of the Second Italian War of Independence", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q324916", "wikidata_label": "Battle of Solferino", "wikipedia_title": "Battle of Solferino", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 157738, "parentid": 904018163, "revid": 904703954, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-03T23:12:22Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Solferino&oldid=904703954" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Battle of Stockach (1800)\n", "The [Second] Battle of Stockach and Engen was fought on 3 May 1800 between the army of the First French Republic under Jean Victor Marie Moreau and the army of Habsburg Austria led by Pál Kray. The fighting near Engen resulted in a stalemate with heavy losses on both sides. However, while the two main armies were engaged at Engen, Claude Lecourbe captured Stockach from its Austrian defenders (the latter commanded by Joseph, Prince of Lorraine-Vaudemont). The loss of his main supply base at Stockach compelled Kray to order a retreat. Stockach is located near the northwestern end of Lake Constance while Engen is west of Stockach. The action occurred during the War of the Second Coalition, part of the French Revolutionary Wars.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "\"See the Messkirch 1800 Order of Battle for details of the French and Austrian armies in the campaign.\"\n", "Section::::Background.:Plans.\n", "At the beginning of 1800 the armies of France and Austria faced each other across the Rhine. Feldzeugmeister Paul Kray led approximately 120,000 troops. Beside his regular Austrian soldiers he led 12,000 men from the Electorate of Bavaria, 6,000 troops from the Duchy of Württemberg, 5,000 soldiers of low quality from the Archbishopric of Mainz and 7,000 militiamen from the County of Tyrol. Of these 25,000 men were deployed east of Lake Constance (Bodensee) to protect the Vorarlberg. Kray posted his main body of 95,000 soldiers in the L-shaped angle, where the Rhine changes direction from a westward flow along the northern border of Switzerland to a northward flow along the eastern border of France. Unwisely, Kray set up his main magazine at Stockach, only a day's march from French-held Switzerland.\n", "Feldmarschall-Leutnant Prince Heinrich XV of Reuss-Plauen commanded the 25,000 troops in the Vorarlberg which included the Tyrolese. The 40,000-man center led by Feldmarschall-Leutnant Friedrich Joseph, Count of Nauendorf was posted from Lake Constance on the east to Villingen on the west, with its forward elements along the Rhine between the lake and Basel. The right wing consisted of the 15,000 troops of Feldmarschall-Leutnant Michael von Kienmayer guarding the passes through the Black Forest, 16,000 soldiers under Feldmarschall-Leutnant Anton Sztáray behind the Rhine from the Rench River north to the Main River and 8,000 men defending Frankfurt. Finally, a 20,000-strong reserve hovered near Stockach. There were garrisons in all the major fortresses and a small naval squadron on Lake Constance. In total, Kray disposed of 110,000 infantry, 25,000 cavalry, 4,000 gunners and 500 artillery pieces. In his rear was a major supply base and an entrenched camp at Ulm. The Austrian general was able to trace one line of supply through Munich to Austria and a second one through Regensburg to Bohemia.\n", "General of Division Jean Victor Marie Moreau commanded a well-equipped army of 137,000 French troops. Of these, 108,000 troops were available for field operations while the other 29,000 watched the Swiss border and held the Rhine fortresses. First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte offered a bold plan of operations based on outflanking the Austrians by a push from Switzerland, but Moreau declined to follow it. Rather, Moreau planned to cross the Rhine near Basel where the river swung to the north. A French column would distract Kray from Moreau's true intentions by crossing the Rhine from the west. Bonaparte wanted General of Division Claude Lecourbe's corps to be detached to Italy after the initial battles, but Moreau had other plans.\n", "Section::::Background.:French Army.\n", "At the beginning of March, Bonaparte ordered Moreau to form his army into all-arms army corps. Accordingly, by 20 March 1800, there were four corps, with the last one serving as an army reserve. The Right Wing was led by Lecourbe and included four divisions led by Generals of Division Dominique Vandamme, Joseph Hélie Désiré Perruquet de Montrichard, Jean Thomas Guillaume Lorge and Étienne Marie Antoine Champion de Nansouty. Vandamme commanded 9,632 infantry and 540 cavalry, Montrichard supervised 6,998 infantry, Lorge had 8,238 infantry and 464 cavalry and Nansouty directed 1,500 grenadiers and 1,280 cavalry. The Center was led by General of Division Laurent Gouvion Saint-Cyr and comprised four divisions under Generals of Division Michel Ney, Louis Baraguey d'Hilliers and Jean Victor Tharreau and General of Brigade Nicolas Ernault des Bruslys. Ney had 7,270 infantry and 569 cavalry, d'Hilliers counted 8,340 infantry and 542 cavalry, Tharreau led 8,326 infantry and 611 cavalry and Bruslys directed 2,474 light infantry and 1,616 cavalry.\n", "The Left Wing was commanded by General of Division Gilles Joseph Martin Brunteau Saint-Suzanne and consisted of four divisions under Generals of Division Claude Sylvestre Colaud, Joseph Souham, Claude Juste Alexandre Legrand and Henri François Delaborde. Colaud led 2,740 infantry and 981 cavalry, Souham had 4,687 infantry and 1,394 cavalry, Legrand counted 5,286 infantry and 1,094 cavalry and Delaborde supervised 2,573 infantry and 286 cavalry. Moreau personally directed the Reserve which was made up of three infantry and one cavalry divisions led by Generals of Division Antoine Guillaume Delmas, Antoine Richepanse, Charles Leclerc and Jean-Joseph Ange d'Hautpoul. Delmas had 8,635 infantry and 1,031 cavalry, Richepanse directed 6,848 infantry and 1,187 cavalry, Leclerc commanded 6,035 infantry and 963 cavalry and d'Hautpoul counted 1,504 heavy cavalry.\n", "There were additional detached troops under Moreau's overall leadership. These included General of Division Louis-Antoine-Choin de Montchoisy's 7,715 infantry and 519 cavalry, detached to hold Switzerland. Fortresses in Alsace and along the Rhine were defended by forces under Generals of Division François Xavier Jacob Freytag, 2,935 infantry, Joseph Gilot, 750 cavalry, Alexandre Paul Guérin de Joyeuse de Chateauneuf-Randon, 3,430 infantry and 485 cavalry, Antoine Laroche Dubouscat, 3,001 infantry and 91 cavalry and Jean François Leval, 5,640 infantry and 426 cavalry.\n" ] }

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{ "description": "battle fought on 3 May 1800", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q840006", "wikidata_label": "Battle of Stockach", "wikipedia_title": "Battle of Stockach (1800)", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 157746, "parentid": 890443409, "revid": 892419279, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-04-14T11:48:52Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Stockach%20(1800)&oldid=892419279" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Fermat primality test\n", "The Fermat primality test is a probabilistic test to determine whether a number is a probable prime.\n", "Section::::Concept.\n", "Fermat's little theorem states that if \"p\" is prime and \"a\" is not divisible by \"p\", then\n", "If we want to test whether \"p\" is prime, then we can pick random integers \"a\" not divisible by \"p\" and see whether the equality holds. If the equality does not hold for a value of \"a\", then \"p\" is composite.\n", "This congruence is unlikely to hold for a random \"a\" if \"p\" is composite.\n", "Therefore, if the equality does hold for one or more values of \"a\", then we say that \"p\" is probably prime.\n", "However, note that for formula_2, the above congruence holds trivially.\n", "It also holds trivially if \"p\" is odd and formula_3.\n", "For this reason, one usually chooses a number \"a\" in the interval formula_4.\n", "Any \"a\" such that \n", "when \"n\" is composite \"a\" is known as a \"Fermat liar\". In this case \"n\" is called Fermat pseudoprime to base \"a\".\n", "If we do pick an \"a\" such that \n", "then \"a\" is known as a \"Fermat witness\" for the compositeness of \"n\".\n", "Section::::Example.\n", "Suppose we wish to determine whether \"n\" = 221 is prime. Randomly pick 1 \"a\" 221, say \"a\" = 38. We check the above equality and find that it holds:\n", "Either 221 is prime, or 38 is a Fermat liar, so we take another \"a\", say 24:\n", "So 221 is composite and 38 was indeed a Fermat liar. Furthermore, 24 is a Fermat witness for the compositeness of 221.\n", "Section::::Algorithm.\n", "The algorithm can be written as follows:\n", "The \"a\" values 1 and \"n\"-1 are not used as the equality holds for all \"n\" and all odd \"n\" respectively, hence testing them adds no value.\n", "Section::::Algorithm.:Complexity.\n", "Using fast algorithms for modular exponentiation and multiprecision multiplication, the running time of this algorithm is , where \"k\" is the number of times we test a random \"a\", and \"n\" is the value we want to test for primality; see Miller–Rabin primality test for details.\n", "Section::::Flaw.\n", "First, there are infinitely many Fermat pseudoprimes.\n", "A more serious flaw is that there are infinitely many Carmichael numbers. These are numbers formula_10 for which all values of formula_11 with formula_12 are Fermat liars. For these numbers, repeated application of the Fermat primality test performs the same as a simple random search for factors. While Carmichael numbers are substantially rarer than prime numbers (Erdös' upper bound for the number of Carmichael numbers is lower than the prime number function n/log(n)) there are enough of them that Fermat's primality test is not often used in the above form. Instead, other more powerful extensions of the Fermat test, such as Baillie–PSW, Miller–Rabin, and Solovay–Strassen are more commonly used.\n", "In general, if formula_10 is a composite number that is not a Carmichael number, then at least half of all\n", "are Fermat witnesses. For proof of this, let formula_11 be a Fermat witness and formula_17, formula_18, ..., formula_19 be Fermat liars. Then\n", "and so all formula_21 for formula_22 are Fermat witnesses.\n", "Section::::Applications.\n", "As mentioned above, most applications use a Miller–Rabin or Baillie–PSW test for primality. Sometimes a Fermat test (along with some trial division by small primes) is performed first to improve performance. GMP since version 3.0 uses a base-210 Fermat test after trial division and before running Miller–Rabin tests. Libgcrypt uses a similar process with base 2 for the Fermat test, but OpenSSL does not.\n", "In practice with most big number libraries such as GMP, the Fermat test is not noticeably faster than a Miller–Rabin test, and can be slower for many inputs.\n", "As an exception, OpenPFGW uses only the Fermat test for probable prime testing. The program is typically used with multi-thousand digit inputs with a goal of maximum speed with very large inputs. Another well known program that relies only on the Fermat test is PGP where it is only used for testing of self-generated large random values (an open source counterpart, GNU Privacy Guard, uses a Fermat pretest followed by Miller–Rabin tests).\n" ] }

{ "paragraph_id": [ 1, 1, 3, 6, 11, 22, 22, 24, 25, 25, 25, 25, 25, 30, 30, 30, 30, 30, 32, 32 ], "start": [ 31, 85, 0, 92, 82, 26, 235, 33, 54, 441, 632, 645, 663, 44, 60, 208, 318, 388, 262, 367 ], "end": [ 44, 99, 23, 106, 100, 48, 262, 51, 71, 471, 643, 657, 679, 56, 71, 211, 327, 395, 265, 384 ], "text": [ "probabilistic", "probable prime", "Fermat's little theorem", "probably prime", "Fermat pseudoprime", "modular exponentiation", "Miller–Rabin primality test", "Fermat pseudoprime", "Carmichael number", "prime number function n/log(n)", "Baillie–PSW", "Miller–Rabin", "Solovay–Strassen", "Miller–Rabin", "Baillie–PSW", "GMP", "Libgcrypt", "OpenSSL", "PGP", "GNU Privacy Guard" ], "href": [ "randomized%20algorithm", "probable%20prime", "Fermat%27s%20little%20theorem", "probable%20prime", "Fermat%20pseudoprime", "modular%20exponentiation", "Miller%E2%80%93Rabin%20primality%20test%23Complexity", "Fermat%20pseudoprime", "Carmichael%20number", "Prime%20number%20theorem", "Baillie%E2%80%93PSW%20primality%20test", "Miller%E2%80%93Rabin%20primality%20test", "Solovay%E2%80%93Strassen%20primality%20test", "Miller%E2%80%93Rabin%20primality%20test", "Baillie%E2%80%93PSW%20primality%20test", "GNU%20Multiple%20Precision%20Arithmetic%20Library", "Libgcrypt", "OpenSSL", "Pretty%20Good%20Privacy", "GNU%20Privacy%20Guard" ], "wikipedia_title": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "" ], "wikipedia_id": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "" ] }

{ "description": "primality test", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q737492", "wikidata_label": "Fermat primality test", "wikipedia_title": "Fermat primality test", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 157755, "parentid": 908795401, "revid": 908795702, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-08-01T01:22:14Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fermat%20primality%20test&oldid=908795702" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Battle of Turckheim\n", "The Battle of Turckheim was a battle during the Franco-Dutch War that occurred on 5 January 1675 between the towns of Colmar and Turckheim in Alsace. The French army, commanded by the Viscount of Turenne, fought against the armies of Austria and Brandenburg, led by Alexander von Bournonville and Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg.\n", "Section::::Prelude.\n", "The aggressive campaign of Louis XIV against the Netherlands, since 1672, had provoked a hostile reaction of other European states like Austria (who controlled the Holy Roman Empire) and Brandenburg. Their intervention had brought the war into the upper Rhine, creating a threat to French territory. In 1674 Marshal Turenne, French commander in that sector, failed to prevent the invasion of Alsace by a part of the imperial army. With the arrival of year's end in 1674, the Imperials went into their winter quarters in the region of Colmar, a few miles south of the French winter barracks, situated in Haguenau.\n", "According to the conventions of war at the time, the military operations should have been halted during the winter until the return of the spring. Turenne, however, decided not to follow this custom. Using the Vosges mountains as a curtain of protection, he moved west and then south, reappearing in Belfort, south of his opponent, on 27 December 1674. Finding no resistance, he reached Mulhouse on the 29th. The highly surprised Imperials hastily fell back on Turckheim.\n", "Section::::Battle.\n", "Turenne with 33,000 troops found the Imperial army very well positioned with 30,000 to 40,000 men under the command of Frederick William, the Elector of Brandenburg-Prussia, on the afternoon of 5 January 1675. However, the Imperial forces had not yet gelled completely so as to be ready for battle. The ensuing battle did not follow the standards of the 17th century. Marshal Turenne feigned an attack from the center and then another from his right. With Imperial eyes riveted on these two parts of the front, Turenne led a third of his army on a march around to his left flank. Their movement skirted the mountains and was hidden from view of the enemy because of the terrain. Turenne captured the small village of Turckheim. Frederick William attempted to retake the town but he was defeated by heavy fire from French guns and an infantry charge. Turenne, then, fell against the extreme right of the enemy. The speed of the attack (which was not preceded by artillery fire) and the numerical superiority concentrated on a single point, disrupted and demoralized the defenders, putting them to flight after suffering 3,400 casualties, retreating to avoid further casualties.\n", "Section::::Aftermath.\n", "Now, with their winter quarters threatened, Frederick William of Brandenburg's army was forced to leave Alsace, and sought the safety of Strasbourg where the army in the following week crossed the Rhine River, back onto the right bank into present-day Germany.\n", "This brief and but famous winter campaign by Marshal Turenne is considered one of the brightest of the 17th century. Here the Vicomte de Turenne, through two indirect maneuvers (one strategic and one tactical) saved France from invasion, suffering only negligible casualties.\n" ] }

{ "paragraph_id": [ 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 8, 8, 8, 8, 9 ], "start": [ 48, 118, 129, 142, 184, 234, 246, 266, 297, 27, 49, 136, 164, 187, 248, 308, 392, 416, 475, 534, 603, 147, 210, 300, 379, 430, 461, 0, 37, 119, 679, 717, 44, 104, 137, 197, 126 ], "end": [ 64, 124, 138, 148, 203, 241, 257, 292, 338, 36, 60, 143, 181, 198, 259, 323, 398, 429, 484, 540, 611, 154, 226, 307, 395, 439, 470, 7, 50, 172, 686, 726, 76, 110, 147, 208, 144 ], "text": [ "Franco-Dutch War", "Colmar", "Turckheim", "Alsace", "Viscount of Turenne", "Austria", "Brandenburg", "Alexander von Bournonville", "Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg", "Louis XIV", "Netherlands", "Austria", "Holy Roman Empire", "Brandenburg", "upper Rhine", "Marshal Turenne", "Alsace", "imperial army", "Imperials", "Colmar", "Haguenau", "Turenne", "Vosges mountains", "Belfort", "reached Mulhouse", "Imperials", "Turckheim", "Turenne", "Imperial army", "Frederick William, the Elector of Brandenburg-Prussia", "Turenne", "Turckheim", "Frederick William of Brandenburg", "Alsace", "Strasbourg", "Rhine River", "Vicomte de Turenne" ], "href": [ "Franco-Dutch%20War", "Colmar", "Turckheim", "Alsace", "Henri%20de%20la%20Tour%20d%27Auvergne%2C%20Vicomte%20de%20Turenne", "Austria", "Brandenburg", "Alexander%20von%20Bournonville", "Frederick%20William%2C%20Elector%20of%20Brandenburg", "Louis%20XIV", "Netherlands", "Austria", "Holy%20Roman%20Empire", "Brandenburg", "upper%20Rhine", "Marshal%20Turenne", "Alsace", "Holy%20Roman%20Empire", "Holy%20Roman%20Empire", "Colmar", "Haguenau", "Turenne", "Vosges%20mountains", "Belfort", "Battle%20of%20Mulhouse%20%281674%29", "Holy%20Roman%20Empire", "Turckheim", "Turenne", "Army%20of%20the%20Holy%20Roman%20Empire", "Frederick%20William%2C%20Elector%20of%20Brandenburg", "Turenne", "Turckheim", "Frederick%20William%20of%20Brandenburg", "Alsace", "Strasbourg", "Rhine%20River", "Vicomte%20de%20Turenne" ], "wikipedia_title": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "" ], "wikipedia_id": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "" ] }

{ "description": "battle", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q1001093", "wikidata_label": "Battle of Turckheim", "wikipedia_title": "Battle of Turckheim", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 157758, "parentid": 818812000, "revid": 865840971, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2018-10-26T14:39:09Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Turckheim&oldid=865840971" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Algeria\n", "Algeria ( ; , ; ), officially the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria (, ), is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. The capital and most populous city is Algiers, located in the far north of the country on the Mediterranean coast. With an area of , Algeria is the tenth-largest country in the world, the world's largest Arab country, and the largest in Africa. Algeria is bordered to the northeast by Tunisia, to the east by Libya, to the west by Morocco, to the southwest by the Western Saharan territory, Mauritania, and Mali, to the southeast by Niger, and to the north by the Mediterranean Sea. The country is a semi-presidential republic consisting of 48 provinces and 1,541 communes (counties). It has the highest human development index of all non-island African countries.\n", "Ancient Algeria has known many empires and dynasties, including ancient Numidians, Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Romans, Vandals, Byzantines, Umayyads, Abbasids, Idrisid, Aghlabid, Rustamid, Fatimids, Zirid, Hammadids, Almoravids, Almohads, Spaniards, Ottomans and the French colonial empire. Berbers are the indigenous inhabitants of Algeria.\n", "Algeria is a regional and middle power. It supplies large amounts of natural gas to Europe, and energy exports are the backbone of the economy. According to OPEC Algeria has the 16th largest oil reserves in the world and the second largest in Africa, while it has the 9th largest reserves of natural gas. Sonatrach, the national oil company, is the largest company in Africa. Algeria has one of the largest militaries in Africa and the largest defence budget on the continent; most of Algeria's weapons are imported from Russia, with whom they are a close ally. Algeria is a member of the African Union, the Arab League, OPEC, the United Nations and is a founding member of the Arab Maghreb Union.\n", "On 2 April 2019, president Abdelaziz Bouteflika resigned after nearly 20 years in power, following pressure from mass protests against a fifth term.\n", "Section::::Etymology.\n", "The country's name derives from the city of Algiers. The city's name in turn derives from the Arabic (, \"The Islands\"), a truncated form of the older (, \"Islands of the Mazghanna Tribe\"), employed by medieval geographers such as al-Idrisi.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Section::::History.:Ancient history.\n", "In the region of Ain Hanech (Saïda Province), early remnants (200,000 BC) of hominid occupation in North Africa were found. Neanderthal tool makers produced hand axes in the Levalloisian and Mousterian styles (43,000 BC) similar to those in the Levant. Algeria was the site of the highest state of development of Middle Paleolithic Flake tool techniques. Tools of this era, starting about 30,000 BC, are called Aterian (after the archeological site of Bir el Ater, south of Tebessa).\n", "The earliest blade industries in North Africa are called Iberomaurusian (located mainly in the Oran region). This industry appears to have spread throughout the coastal regions of the Maghreb between 15,000 and 10,000 BC. Neolithic civilization (animal domestication and agriculture) developed in the Saharan and Mediterranean Maghreb perhaps as early as 11,000 BC or as late as between 6000 and 2000 BC. This life, richly depicted in the Tassili n'Ajjer paintings, predominated in Algeria until the classical period. The mixture of peoples of North Africa coalesced eventually into a distinct native population that came to be called Berbers, who are the indigenous peoples of northern Africa.\n", "From their principal center of power at Carthage, the Carthaginians expanded and established small settlements along the North African coast; by 600 BC, a Phoenician presence existed at Tipasa, east of Cherchell, Hippo Regius (modern Annaba) and Rusicade (modern Skikda). These settlements served as market towns as well as anchorages.\n", "As Carthaginian power grew, its impact on the indigenous population increased dramatically. Berber civilization was already at a stage in which agriculture, manufacturing, trade, and political organization supported several states. Trade links between Carthage and the Berbers in the interior grew, but territorial expansion also resulted in the enslavement or military recruitment of some Berbers and in the extraction of tribute from others.\n", "By the early 4th century BC, Berbers formed the single largest element of the Carthaginian army. In the Revolt of the Mercenaries, Berber soldiers rebelled from 241 to 238 BC after being unpaid following the defeat of Carthage in the First Punic War. They succeeded in obtaining control of much of Carthage's North African territory, and they minted coins bearing the name Libyan, used in Greek to describe natives of North Africa. The Carthaginian state declined because of successive defeats by the Romans in the Punic Wars.\n", "In 146 BC the city of Carthage was destroyed. As Carthaginian power waned, the influence of Berber leaders in the hinterland grew. By the 2nd century BC, several large but loosely administered Berber kingdoms had emerged. Two of them were established in Numidia, behind the coastal areas controlled by Carthage. West of Numidia lay Mauretania, which extended across the Moulouya River in modern-day Morocco to the Atlantic Ocean. The high point of Berber civilization, unequaled until the coming of the Almohads and Almoravids more than a millennium later, was reached during the reign of Masinissa in the 2nd century BC.\n", "After Masinissa's death in 148 BC, the Berber kingdoms were divided and reunited several times. Masinissa's line survived until 24 AD, when the remaining Berber territory was annexed to the Roman Empire.\n", "For several centuries Algeria was ruled by the Romans, who founded many colonies in the region. Like the rest of North Africa, Algeria was one of the breadbaskets of the empire, exporting cereals and other agricultural products. Saint Augustine was the bishop of Hippo Regius (modern-day Algeria), located in the Roman province of Africa. The Germanic Vandals of Geiseric moved into North Africa in 429, and by 435 controlled coastal Numidia. They did not make any significant settlement on the land, as they were harassed by local tribes. In fact, by the time the Byzantines arrived Leptis Magna was abandoned and the Msellata region was occupied by the indigenous Laguatan who had been busy facilitating an Amazigh political, military and cultural revival.\n", "Section::::History.:Middle Ages.\n", "After negligible resistance from the locals, Muslim Arabs of the Umayyad Caliphate conquered Algeria in the early 8th century. Large numbers of the indigenous Berber people converted to Islam. Christians, Berber and Latin speakers remained in the great majority in Tunisia until the end of the 9th century and Muslims only became a vast majority some time in the 10th. After the fall of the Umayyad Caliphate, numerous local dynasties emerged, including the Aghlabids, Almohads, Abdalwadid, Zirids, Rustamids, Hammadids, Almoravids and the Fatimids. The Christians left in three waves: after the initial conquest, in the 10th century and the 11th. The last were evacuated to Sicily by the Normans and the few remaining died out in the 14th century. \n", "During the Middle Ages, North Africa was home to many great scholars, saints and sovereigns including Judah Ibn Quraysh, the first grammarian to mention Semitic and Berber languages, the great Sufi masters Sidi Boumediene (Abu Madyan) and Sidi El Houari, and the Emirs Abd Al Mu'min and Yāghmūrasen. It was during this time that the Fatimids or children of Fatima, daughter of Muhammad, came to the Maghreb. These \"Fatimids\" went on to found a long lasting dynasty stretching across the Maghreb, Hejaz and the Levant, boasting a secular inner government, as well as a powerful army and navy, made up primarily of Arabs and Levantines extending from Algeria to their capital state of Cairo. The Fatimid caliphate began to collapse when its governors the Zirids seceded. In order to punish them the Fatimids sent the Arab Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym against them. The resultant war is recounted in the epic Tāghribāt. In Al-Tāghrībāt the Amazigh Zirid Hero Khālīfā Al-Zānatī asks daily, for duels, to defeat the Hilalan hero Ābu Zayd al-Hilalī and many other Arab knights in a string of victories. The Zirids, however, were ultimately defeated ushering in an adoption of Arab customs and culture. The indigenous Amazigh tribes, however, remained largely independent, and depending on tribe, location and time controlled varying parts of the Maghreb, at times unifying it (as under the Fatimids). The Fatimid Islamic state, also known as Fatimid Caliphate made an Islamic empire that included North Africa, Sicily, Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Egypt, the Red Sea coast of Africa, Tihamah, Hejaz and Yemen. Caliphates from Northern Africa traded with the other empires of their time, as well as forming part of a confederated support and trade network with other Islamic states during the Islamic Era.\n", "The Amazighs historically consisted of several tribes. The two main branches were the Botr and Barnès tribes, who were divided into tribes, and again into sub-tribes. Each region of the Maghreb contained several tribes (for example, Sanhadja, Houara, Zenata, Masmouda, Kutama, Awarba, and Berghwata). All these tribes made independent territorial decisions.\n", "Several Amazigh dynasties emerged during the Middle Ages in the Maghreb and other nearby lands. Ibn Khaldun provides a table summarising the Amazigh dynasties of the Maghreb region, the Zirid, Banu Ifran, Maghrawa, Almoravid, Hammadid, Almohad, Merinid, Abdalwadid, Wattasid, Meknassa and Hafsid dynasties.\n", "There reigned in Ifriqiya, current Tunisia, a Berber family, Zirid, somehow recognising the suzerainty of the Fatimid caliph of Cairo. Probably in 1048, the Zirid ruler or viceroy, el-Mu'izz, decided to end this suzerainty. The Fatimid state was too weak to attempt a punitive expedition; The Viceroy, el-Mu'izz, also found another means of revenge.\n", "Between the Nile and the Red Sea were living Bedouin tribes expelled from Arabia for their disruption and turbulent influence, both Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym among others, whose presence disrupted farmers in the Nile Valley since the nomads would often loot. The then Fatimid vizier devised to relinquish control of the Maghreb and obtained the agreement of his sovereign. This not only prompted the Bedouins to leave, but the Fatimid treasury even gave them a light expatriation cash allowance.\n", "Whole tribes set off with women, children, ancestors, animals and camping equipment. Some stopped on the way, especially in Cyrenaica, where they are still one of the essential elements of the settlement but most arrived in Ifriqiya by the Gabes region. The Zirid ruler tried to stop this rising tide, but with each encounter, the last under the walls of Kairouan, his troops were defeated and the Arabs remained masters of the field.\n", "The flood was still rising, and in 1057, the Arabs spread on the high plains of Constantine where they gradually choked Qalaa of Banu Hammad, as they had done in Kairouan a few decades ago. From there they gradually gained the upper Algiers and Oran plains. Some were forcibly taken by the Almohads in the second half of the 12th century. We can say that in the 13th century the Arabs were in all of North Africa, with the exception of the main mountain ranges and certain coastal regions which remained entirely Berber. The influx of Bedouin tribes was a major factor in the linguistic, cultural Arabization of the Maghreb and in the spread of nomadism in areas where agriculture had previously been dominant. Ibn Khaldun noted that the lands ravaged by Banu Hilal tribes had become completely arid desert.\n", "In the early 16th century, Spain constructed fortified outposts (presidios) on or near the Algerian coast. Spain took control of few coastal towns like Mers el Kebir in 1505; Oran in 1509; and Tlemcen, Mostaganem and Ténès in 1510. In the same year, a few merchants of Algiers ceded one of the rocky islets in their harbour to Spain, which built a fort on it. The presidios in North Africa turned out to be a costly and largely ineffective military endeavour that did not guarantee access for Spain's merchant fleet.\n", "Section::::History.:Ottoman era.\n", "The region of Algeria was partially ruled by Ottomans for three centuries from 1516 to 1830. In 1516 the Turkish privateer brothers Aruj and Hayreddin Barbarossa, who operated successfully under the Hafsids, moved their base of operations to Algiers. They succeeded in conquering Jijel and Algiers from the Spaniards but eventually assumed control over the city and the surrounding region, forcing the previous ruler, Abu Hamo Musa III of the \"Bani Ziyad\" dynasty, to flee. When Aruj was killed in 1518 during his invasion of Tlemcen, Hayreddin succeeded him as military commander of Algiers. The Ottoman sultan gave him the title of beylerbey and a contingent of some 2,000 janissaries. With the aid of this force, Hayreddin conquered the whole area between Constantine and Oran (although the city of Oran remained in Spanish hands until 1792).\n", "The next beylerbey was Hayreddin's son Hasan, who assumed the position in 1544. Until 1587 the area was governed by officers who served terms with no fixed limits. Subsequently, with the institution of a regular Ottoman administration, governors with the title of pasha ruled for three-year terms. The pasha was assisted by janissaries, known in Algeria as the ojaq and led by an agha. Discontent among the ojaq rose in the mid-1600s because they were not paid regularly, and they repeatedly revolted against the pasha. As a result, the agha charged the pasha with corruption and incompetence and seized power in 1659.\n", "Plague had repeatedly struck the cities of North Africa. Algiers lost from 30,000 to 50,000 inhabitants to the plague in 1620–21, and suffered high fatalities in 1654–57, 1665, 1691 and 1740–42.\n", "In 1671, the taifa rebelled, killed the agha, and placed one of its own in power. The new leader received the title of Dey. After 1689, the right to select the dey passed to the divan, a council of some sixty nobles. It was at first dominated by the \"ojaq\"; but by the 18th century, it had become the dey's instrument. In 1710, the dey persuaded the sultan to recognise him and his successors as regent, replacing the pasha in that role, although Algiers remained a part of the Ottoman Empire.\n", "The dey was in effect a constitutional autocrat. The dey was elected for a life term, but in the 159 years (1671–1830) that the system survived, fourteen of the twenty-nine deys were assassinated. Despite usurpation, military coups and occasional mob rule, the day-to-day operation of Ottoman government was remarkably orderly. Although the regency patronised the tribal chieftains, it never had the unanimous allegiance of the countryside, where heavy taxation frequently provoked unrest. Autonomous tribal states were tolerated, and the regency's authority was seldom applied in the Kabylie.\n", "The Barbary pirates preyed on Christian and other non-Islamic shipping in the western Mediterranean Sea. The pirates often took the passengers and crew on the ships and sold them or used them as slaves. They also did a brisk business in ransoming some of the captives. According to Robert Davis, from the 16th to 19th century, pirates captured 1 million to 1.25 million Europeans as slaves. They often made raids, called Razzias, on European coastal towns to capture Christian slaves to sell at slave markets in North Africa and other parts of the Ottoman Empire. In 1544, for example, Hayreddin Barbarossa captured the island of Ischia, taking 4,000 prisoners, and enslaved some 9,000 inhabitants of Lipari, almost the entire population. In 1551, the Ottoman governor of Algiers, Turgut Reis, enslaved the entire population of the Maltese island of Gozo. Barbary pirates often attacked the Balearic Islands. The threat was so severe that residents abandoned the island of Formentera.\n", "Until the 17th century the Barbary pirates used galleys, but a Dutch renegade of the name of Zymen Danseker taught them the advantage of using sailing ships. In July 1627 two pirate ships from Algiers under the command of Dutch pirate Jan Janszoon sailed as far as Iceland, raiding and capturing slaves. Two weeks earlier another pirate ship from Salé in Morocco had also raided in Iceland. Some of the slaves brought to Algiers were later ransomed back to Iceland, but some chose to stay in Algeria. In 1629 pirate ships from Algeria raided the Faroe Islands.\n", "Barbary raids in the Mediterranean continued to attack Spanish merchant shipping, and as a result, the Spanish Navy bombarded Algiers in 1783 and 1784. For the attack in 1784, the Spanish fleet was to be joined by ships from such traditional enemies of Algiers as Naples, Portugal and the Knights of Malta. Over 20,000 cannonballs were fired, much of the city and its fortifications were destroyed and most of the Algerian fleet was sunk.\n", "In the 19th century, the pirates forged affiliations with Caribbean powers, paying a \"licence tax\" in exchange for safe harbour of their vessels.\n", "Piracy on American vessels in the Mediterranean resulted in the United States initiating the First (1801–1805) and Second Barbary Wars (1815). Following those wars, Algeria was weaker and Europeans, with an Anglo-Dutch fleet commanded by the British Lord Exmouth, attacked Algiers. After a nine-hour bombardment, they obtained a treaty from the Dey that reaffirmed the conditions imposed by Captain (later Commodore) Stephen Decatur (U.S. Navy) concerning the demands of tributes. In addition, the Dey agreed to end the practice of enslaving Christians.\n", "Despite being removed from Algeria in the 19th century, Spain retained a presence in Morocco. Algeria consistently opposed Spanish fortresses and control in nearby Morocco through the 20th century.\n", "Section::::History.:French colonization (1830–1962).\n", "Under the pretext of a slight to their consul, the French invaded and captured Algiers in 1830. Historian Ben Kiernan wrote on the French conquest of Algeria: \"By 1875, the French conquest was complete. The war had killed approximately 825,000 indigenous Algerians since 1830.\" French losses from 1831–51 were 92,329 dead in the hospital and only 3,336 killed in action. The population of Algeria, which stood at about 2.9 million in 1872, reached nearly 11 million in 1960. French policy was predicated on \"civilising\" the country. The slave trade and piracy in Algeria ceased following the French conquest. The conquest of Algeria by the French took some time and resulted in considerable bloodshed. A combination of violence and disease epidemics caused the indigenous Algerian population to decline by nearly one-third from 1830 to 1872. During this period, a small but influential French-speaking indigenous elite was formed, made up of Berbers, mostly Kabyles. As a consequence, French government favored the Kabyles. About 80% of Indigenous schools were constructed for Kabyles.\n", "From 1848 until independence, France administered the whole Mediterranean region of Algeria as an integral part and \"département\" of the nation. One of France's longest-held overseas territories, Algeria became a destination for hundreds of thousands of European immigrants, who became known as \"colons\" and later, as \"Pied-Noirs.\" Between 1825 and 1847, 50,000 French people emigrated to Algeria. These settlers benefited from the French government's confiscation of communal land from tribal peoples, and the application of modern agricultural techniques that increased the amount of arable land. Many Europeans settled in Oran and Algiers, and by the early 20th century they formed a majority of the population in both cities.\n", "During the late 19th and early 20th century; the European share was almost a fifth of the population. The French government aimed at making Algeria an assimilated part of France, and this included substantial educational investments especially after 1900. The indigenous cultural and religious resistance heavily opposed this tendency, but in contrast to the other colonised countries' path in central Asia and Caucasus, Algeria kept its individual skills and a relatively human-capital intensive agriculture.\n", "Gradually, dissatisfaction among the Muslim population, which lacked political and economic status in the colonial system, gave rise to demands for greater political autonomy and eventually independence from France. In May 1945, the uprising against the occupying French forces was suppressed through what is now known as the Sétif and Guelma massacre. Tensions between the two population groups came to a head in 1954, when the first violent events of what was later called the Algerian War began. Historians have estimated that between 30,000 and 150,000 Harkis and their dependents were killed by the Front de Libération Nationale (FLN) or by lynch mobs in Algeria. The FLN used hit and run attacks in Algeria and France as part of its war, and the French conducted severe reprisals.\n", "The war led to the death of hundreds of thousands of Algerians and hundreds of thousands of injuries. Historians, like Alistair Horne and Raymond Aron, state that the actual number of Algerian Muslim war dead was far greater than the original FLN and official French estimates but was less than the 1 million deaths claimed by the Algerian government after independence. Horne estimated Algerian casualties during the span of eight years to be around 700,000. The war uprooted more than 2 million Algerians.\n", "The war against French rule concluded in 1962, when Algeria gained complete independence following the March 1962 Evian agreements and the July 1962 self-determination referendum.\n", "Section::::History.:The first three decades of independence (1962–1991).\n", "The number of European \"Pied-Noirs\" who fled Algeria totaled more than 900,000 between 1962 and 1964. The exodus to mainland France accelerated after the Oran massacre of 1962, in which hundreds of militants entered European sections of the city, and began attacking civilians.\n", "Algeria's first president was the Front de Libération Nationale (FLN) leader Ahmed Ben Bella. Morocco's claim to portions of western Algeria led to the Sand War in 1963. Ben Bella was overthrown in 1965 by Houari Boumédiène, his former ally and defence minister. Under Ben Bella, the government had become increasingly socialist and authoritarian; Boumédienne continued this trend. But, he relied much more on the army for his support, and reduced the sole legal party to a symbolic role. He collectivised agriculture and launched a massive industrialization drive. Oil extraction facilities were nationalised. This was especially beneficial to the leadership after the international 1973 oil crisis.\n", "In the 1960s and 1970s under President Houari Boumediene, Algeria pursued a program of industrialization within a state-controlled socialist economy. Boumediene's successor, Chadli Bendjedid, introduced some liberal economic reforms. He promoted a policy of Arabisation in Algerian society and public life. Teachers of Arabic, brought in from other Muslim countries, spread conventional Islamic thought in schools and sowed the seeds of a return to Orthodox Islam.\n", "The Algerian economy became increasingly dependent on oil, leading to hardship when the price collapsed during the 1980s oil glut. Economic recession caused by the crash in world oil prices resulted in Algerian social unrest during the 1980s; by the end of the decade, Bendjedid introduced a multi-party system. Political parties developed, such as the Islamic Salvation Front (FIS), a broad coalition of Muslim groups.\n", "Section::::History.:Civil War (1991–2002) and aftermath.\n", "In December 1991 the Islamic Salvation Front dominated the first of two rounds of legislative elections. Fearing the election of an Islamist government, the authorities intervened on 11 January 1992, cancelling the elections. Bendjedid resigned and a High Council of State was installed to act as the Presidency. It banned the FIS, triggering a civil insurgency between the Front's armed wing, the Armed Islamic Group, and the national armed forces, in which more than 100,000 people are thought to have died. The Islamist militants conducted a violent campaign of civilian massacres. At several points in the conflict, the situation in Algeria became a point of international concern, most notably during the crisis surrounding Air France Flight 8969, a hijacking perpetrated by the Armed Islamic Group. The Armed Islamic Group declared a ceasefire in October 1997.\n", "Algeria held elections in 1999, considered biased by international observers and most opposition groups which were won by President Abdelaziz Bouteflika. He worked to restore political stability to the country and announced a \"Civil Concord\" initiative, approved in a referendum, under which many political prisoners were pardoned, and several thousand members of armed groups were granted exemption from prosecution under a limited amnesty, in force until 13 January 2000. The AIS disbanded and levels of insurgent violence fell rapidly. The Groupe Salafiste pour la Prédication et le Combat (GSPC), a splinter group of the Group Islamic Army, continued a terrorist campaign against the Government.\n", "Bouteflika was re-elected in the April 2004 presidential election after campaigning on a programme of national reconciliation. The programme comprised economic, institutional, political and social reform to modernise the country, raise living standards, and tackle the causes of alienation. It also included a second amnesty initiative, the Charter for Peace and National Reconciliation, which was approved in a referendum in September 2005. It offered amnesty to most guerrillas and Government security forces.\n", "In November 2008, the Algerian Constitution was amended following a vote in Parliament, removing the two-term limit on Presidential incumbents. This change enabled Bouteflika to stand for re-election in the 2009 presidential elections, and he was re-elected in April 2009. During his election campaign and following his re-election, Bouteflika promised to extend the programme of national reconciliation and a $150-billion spending programme to create three million new jobs, the construction of one million new housing units, and to continue public sector and infrastructure modernisation programmes.\n", "A continuing series of protests throughout the country started on 28 December 2010, inspired by similar protests across the Middle East and North Africa. On 24 February 2011, the government lifted Algeria's 19-year-old state of emergency. The government enacted legislation dealing with political parties, the electoral code, and the representation of women in elected bodies. In April 2011, Bouteflika promised further constitutional and political reform. However, elections are routinely criticized by opposition groups as unfair and international human rights groups say that media censorship and harassment of political opponents continue.\n", "On 2 April 2019, Bouteflika resigned from the presidency.\n", "Section::::Geography.\n", "Algeria is the largest country in Africa, and the Mediterranean Basin. Its southern part includes a significant portion of the Sahara. To the north, the Tell Atlas form with the Saharan Atlas, further south, two parallel sets of reliefs in approaching eastbound, and between which are inserted vast plains and highlands. Both Atlas tend to merge in eastern Algeria. The vast mountain ranges of Aures and Nememcha occupy the entire northeastern Algeria and are delineated by the Tunisian border. The highest point is Mount Tahat ( m).\n", "Algeria lies mostly between latitudes 19° and 37°N (a small area is north of 37°N and south of 19°N), and longitudes 9°W and 12°E. Most of the coastal area is hilly, sometimes even mountainous, and there are a few natural harbours. The area from the coast to the Tell Atlas is fertile. South of the Tell Atlas is a steppe landscape ending with the Saharan Atlas; farther south, there is the Sahara desert.\n", "The Hoggar Mountains (), also known as the Hoggar, are a highland region in central Sahara, southern Algeria. They are located about south of the capital, Algiers, and just east of Tamanghasset. Algiers, Oran, Constantine, and Annaba are Algeria's main cities.\n", "Section::::Geography.:Climate and hydrology.\n", "In this region, midday desert temperatures can be hot year round. After sunset, however, the clear, dry air permits rapid loss of heat, and the nights are cool to chilly. Enormous daily ranges in temperature are recorded.\n", "Rainfall is fairly plentiful along the coastal part of the Tell Atlas, ranging from annually, the amount of precipitation increasing from west to east. Precipitation is heaviest in the northern part of eastern Algeria, where it reaches as much as in some years.\n", "Farther inland, the rainfall is less plentiful. Algeria also has ergs, or sand dunes, between mountains. Among these, in the summer time when winds are heavy and gusty, temperatures can get up to .\n", "Section::::Geography.:Fauna and flora.\n", "The varied vegetation of Algeria includes coastal, mountainous and grassy desert-like regions which all support a wide range of wildlife. Many of the creatures comprising the Algerian wildlife live in close proximity to civilization. The most commonly seen animals include the wild boars, jackals, and gazelles, although it is not uncommon to spot fennecs (foxes), and jerboas. Algeria also has a small African leopard and Saharan cheetah population, but these are seldom seen. A species of deer, the Barbary stag, inhabits the dense humid forests in the north-eastern areas.\n", "A variety of bird species makes the country an attraction for bird watchers. The forests are inhabited by boars and jackals. Barbary macaques are the sole native monkey. Snakes, monitor lizards, and numerous other reptiles can be found living among an array of rodents throughout the semi arid regions of Algeria. Many animals are now extinct, including the Barbary lions, Atlas bears and crocodiles.\n", "In the north, some of the native flora includes Macchia scrub, olive trees, oaks, cedars and other conifers. The mountain regions contain large forests of evergreens (Aleppo pine, juniper, and evergreen oak) and some deciduous trees. Fig, eucalyptus, agave, and various palm trees grow in the warmer areas. The grape vine is indigenous to the coast. In the Sahara region, some oases have palm trees. Acacias with wild olives are the predominant flora in the remainder of the Sahara.\n", "Camels are used extensively; the desert also abounds with venomous and nonvenomous snakes, scorpions, and numerous insects.\n", "Section::::Politics.\n", "Elected politicians have relatively little sway over Algeria. Instead, a group of unelected civilian and military \"décideurs\", known as \"le pouvoir\" (\"the power\"), actually rule the country, even deciding who should be president. The most powerful man may be Mohamed Mediène, the head of military intelligence. In recent years, many of these generals have died or retired. After the death of General Larbi Belkheir, Bouteflika put loyalists in key posts, notably at Sonatrach, and secured constitutional amendments that make him re-electable indefinitely.\n", "The head of state is the President of Algeria, who is elected for a five-year term. The president was formerly limited to two five-year terms, but a constitutional amendment passed by the Parliament on 11 November 2008 removed this limitation. The next presidential election was planned to be in April 2019, but widespread protests erupted in February 22 against the president's decision to participate in the election, which resulted in President Bouteflika announcing his resignation on April 3 . Algeria has universal suffrage at 18 years of age. The President is the head of the army, the Council of Ministers and the High Security Council. He appoints the Prime Minister who is also the head of government.\n", "The Algerian parliament is bicameral; the lower house, the People's National Assembly, has 462 members who are directly elected for five-year terms, while the upper house, the Council of the Nation, has 144 members serving six-year terms, of which 96 members are chosen by local assemblies and 48 are appointed by the president. According to the constitution, no political association may be formed if it is \"based on differences in religion, language, race, gender, profession, or region\". In addition, political campaigns must be exempt from the aforementioned subjects.\n", "Parliamentary elections were last held in May 2012, and were judged to be largely free by international monitors, though local groups alleged fraud and irregularities. In the elections, the FLN won 221 seats, the military-backed National Rally for Democracy won 70, and the Islamist Green Algeria Alliance won 47.\n", "Section::::Politics.:Foreign relations.\n", "Algeria is included in the European Union's European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) which aims at bringing the EU and its neighbours closer.\n", "Giving incentives and rewarding best performers, as well as offering funds in a faster and more flexible manner, are the two main principles underlying the European Neighbourhood Instrument (ENI) that came into force in 2014. It has a budget of €15.4 billion and provides the bulk of funding through a number of programmes.\n", "In 2009, the French government agreed to compensate victims of nuclear tests in Algeria. Defense Minister Herve Morin stated that \"It's time for our country to be at peace with itself, at peace thanks to a system of compensation and reparations,\" when presenting the draft law on the payouts. Algerian officials and activists believe that this is a good first step and hope that this move would encourage broader reparation.\n", "Tensions between Algeria and Morocco in relation to the Western Sahara have been an obstacle to tightening the Arab Maghreb Union, nominally established in 1989, but which has carried little practical weight.\n", "Section::::Politics.:Military.\n", "The military of Algeria consists of the People's National Army (ANP), the Algerian National Navy (MRA), and the Algerian Air Force (QJJ), plus the Territorial Air Defence Forces. It is the direct successor of the National Liberation Army (Armée de Libération Nationale or ALN), the armed wing of the nationalist National Liberation Front which fought French colonial occupation during the Algerian War of Independence (1954–62).\n", "Total military personnel include 147,000 active, 150,000 reserve, and 187,000 paramilitary staff (2008 estimate). Service in the military is compulsory for men aged 19–30, for a total of 12 months. The military expenditure was 4.3% of the gross domestic product (GDP) in 2012. Algeria has the second largest military in North Africa with the largest defence budget in Africa ($10 billion).\n", "In 2007, the Algerian Air Force signed a deal with Russia to purchase 49 MiG-29SMT and 6 MiG-29UBT at an estimated cost of $1.9 billion. Russia is also building two 636-type diesel submarines for Algeria.\n", "Section::::Politics.:Human rights.\n", "Algeria has been categorized by Freedom House as \"not free\" since it began publishing such ratings in 1972, with the exception of 1989, 1990, and 1991, when the country was labeled \"partly free.\" In December 2016, the \"Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Monitor\" issued a report regarding violation of media freedom in Algeria. It clarified that the Algerian government imposed restriction on freedom of the press; expression; and right to peaceful demonstration, protest and assembly as well as intensified censorship of the media and websites. Due to the fact that the journalists and activists criticize the ruling government, some media organizations' licenses are canceled.\n", "Independent and autonomous trade unions face routine harassment from the government, with many leaders imprisoned and protests suppressed. In 2016 a number of unions, many of which were involved in the 2010–2012 Algerian Protests, have been deregistered by the government.\n", "Homosexuality is illegal in Algeria. Public homosexual behavior is punishable by up to two years in prison.\n", "Section::::Administrative divisions.\n", "Algeria is divided into 48 provinces (\"wilayas\"), 553 districts (\"daïras\") and 1,541 municipalities (\"baladiyahs\"). Each province, district, and municipality is named after its seat, which is usually the largest city.\n", "The administrative divisions have changed several times since independence. When introducing new provinces, the numbers of old provinces are kept, hence the non-alphabetical order. With their official numbers, currently (since 1983) they are\n", "Section::::Economy.\n", "Algeria is classified as an upper middle income country by the World Bank. Algeria's currency is the dinar (DZD). The economy remains dominated by the state, a legacy of the country's socialist post-independence development model. In recent years, the Algerian government has halted the privatization of state-owned industries and imposed restrictions on imports and foreign involvement in its economy. These restrictions are just starting to be lifted off recently although questions about Algeria's slowly-diversifying economy remain.\n", "Algeria has struggled to develop industries outside hydrocarbons in part because of high costs and an inert state bureaucracy. The government's efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside the energy sector have done little to reduce high youth unemployment rates or to address housing shortages. The country is facing a number of short-term and medium-term problems, including the need to diversify the economy, strengthen political, economic and financial reforms, improve the business climate and reduce inequalities amongst regions.\n", "A wave of economic protests in February and March 2011 prompted the Algerian government to offer more than $23 billion in public grants and retroactive salary and benefit increases. Public spending has increased by 27% annually during the past 5 years. The 2010–14 public-investment programme will cost US$286 billion, 40% of which will go to human development.\n", "The Algerian economy grew by 2.6% in 2011, driven by public spending, in particular in the construction and public-works sector, and by growing internal demand. If hydrocarbons are excluded, growth has been estimated at 4.8%. Growth of 3% is expected in 2012, rising to 4.2% in 2013. The rate of inflation was 4% and the budget deficit 3% of GDP. The current-account surplus is estimated at 9.3% of GDP and at the end of December 2011, official reserves were put at US$182 billion. Inflation, the lowest in the region, has remained stable at 4% on average between 2003 and 2007.\n", "In 2011 Algeria announced a budgetary surplus of $26.9 billion, 62% increase in comparison to 2010 surplus. In general, the country exported $73 billion worth of commodities while it imported $46 billion.\n", "Thanks to strong hydrocarbon revenues, Algeria has a cushion of $173 billion in foreign currency reserves and a large hydrocarbon stabilization fund. In addition, Algeria's external debt is extremely low at about 2% of GDP. The economy remains very dependent on hydrocarbon wealth, and, despite high foreign exchange reserves (US$178 billion, equivalent to three years of imports), current expenditure growth makes Algeria's budget more vulnerable to the risk of prolonged lower hydrocarbon revenues.\n", "In 2011, the agricultural sector and services recorded growth of 10% and 5.3%, respectively. About 14% of the labor force are employed in the agricultural sector. Fiscal policy in 2011 remained expansionist and made it possible to maintain the pace of public investment and to contain the strong demand for jobs and housing.\n", "Algeria has not joined the WTO, despite several years of negotiations.\n", "In March 2006, Russia agreed to erase $4.74 billion of Algeria's Soviet-era debt during a visit by Russian President Vladimir Putin to the country, the first by a Russian leader in half a century. In return, Algerian President Abdelaziz Bouteflika agreed to buy $7.5 billion worth of combat planes, air-defence systems and other arms from Russia, according to the head of Russia's state arms exporter Rosoboronexport.\n", "Dubai-based conglomerate Emarat Dzayer Group said it had signed a joint venture agreement to develop a $1.6 billion steel factory in Algeria.\n", "Section::::Economy.:Hydrocarbons.\n", "Algeria, whose economy is reliant on petroleum, has been an OPEC member since 1969. Its crude oil production stands at around 1.1 million barrels/day, but it is also a major gas producer and exporter, with important links to Europe. Hydrocarbons have long been the backbone of the economy, accounting for roughly 60% of budget revenues, 30% of GDP, and over 95% of export earnings. Algeria has the 10th-largest reserves of natural gas in the world and is the sixth-largest gas exporter. The U.S. Energy Information Administration reported that in 2005, Algeria had of proven natural-gas reserves. It also ranks 16th in oil reserves.\n", "Non-hydrocarbon growth for 2011 was projected at 5%. To cope with social demands, the authorities raised expenditure, especially on basic food support, employment creation, support for SMEs, and higher salaries. High hydrocarbon prices have improved the current account and the already large international reserves position.\n", "Income from oil and gas rose in 2011 as a result of continuing high oil prices, though the trend in production volume is downwards. Production from the oil and gas sector in terms of volume, continues to decline, dropping from 43.2 million tonnes to 32 million tonnes between 2007 and 2011. Nevertheless, the sector accounted for 98% of the total volume of exports in 2011, against 48% in 1962, and 70% of budgetary receipts, or US$71.4 billion.\n", "The Algerian national oil company is Sonatrach, which plays a key role in all aspects of the oil and natural gas sectors in Algeria. All foreign operators must work in partnership with Sonatrach, which usually has majority ownership in production-sharing agreements.\n", "Section::::Economy.:Research and alternative energy sources.\n", "Algeria has invested an estimated 100 billion dinars towards developing research facilities and paying researchers. This development program is meant to advance alternative energy production, especially solar and wind power. Algeria is estimated to have the largest solar energy potential in the Mediterranean, so the government has funded the creation of a solar science park in Hassi R'Mel. Currently, Algeria has 20,000 research professors at various universities and over 780 research labs, with state-set goals to expand to 1,000. Besides solar energy, areas of research in Algeria include space and satellite telecommunications, nuclear power and medical research.\n", "Section::::Economy.:Labour market.\n", "Despite a decline in total unemployment, youth and women unemployment is high. Unemployment particularly affects the young, with a jobless rate of 21.5% among the 15–24 age group.\n", "The overall rate of unemployment was 10% in 2011, but remained higher among young people, with a rate of 21.5% for those aged between 15 and 24. The government strengthened in 2011 the job programmes introduced in 1988, in particular in the framework of the programme to aid those seeking work (Dispositif d'Aide à l'Insertion Professionnelle).\n", "Section::::Economy.:Tourism.\n", "The development of the tourism sector in Algeria had previously been hampered by a lack of facilities, but since 2004 a broad tourism development strategy has been implemented resulting in many hotels of a high modern standard being built.\n", "There are several UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Algeria including Al Qal'a of Beni Hammad, the first capital of the Hammadid empire; Tipasa, a Phoenician and later Roman town; and Djémila and Timgad, both Roman ruins; M'Zab Valley, a limestone valley containing a large urbanized oasis; and the Casbah of Algiers, an important citadel. The only natural World Heritage Site is the Tassili n'Ajjer, a mountain range.\n", "Section::::Economy.:Transport.\n", "The Algerian road network is the densest in Africa; its length is estimated at of highways, with more than 3,756 structures and a paving rate of 85%. This network will be complemented by the East-West Highway, a major infrastructure project currently under construction. It is a 3-way, highway, linking Annaba in the extreme east to the Tlemcen in the far west. Algeria is also crossed by the Trans-Sahara Highway, which is now completely paved. This road is supported by the Algerian government to increase trade between the six countries crossed: Algeria, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Chad, and Tunisia.\n", "Section::::Demographics.\n", "In January 2016 Algeria's population was an estimated 40.4 million, who are mainly Arab-Berber ethnically. At the outset of the 20th century, its population was approximately four million. About 90% of Algerians live in the northern, coastal area; the inhabitants of the Sahara desert are mainly concentrated in oases, although some 1.5 million remain nomadic or partly nomadic. 28.1% of Algerians are under the age of 15.\n", "Women make up 70% of the country's lawyers and 60% of its judges and also dominate the field of medicine. Increasingly, women are contributing more to household income than men. 60% of university students are women, according to university researchers.\n", "Between 90,000 and 165,000 Sahrawis from Western Sahara live in the Sahrawi refugee camps, in the western Algerian Sahara desert. There are also more than 4,000 Palestinian refugees, who are well integrated and have not asked for assistance from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). In 2009, 35,000 Chinese migrant workers lived in Algeria.\n", "The largest concentration of Algerian migrants outside Algeria is in France, which has reportedly over 1.7 million Algerians of up to the second generation.\n", "Section::::Demographics.:Ethnic groups.\n", "Indigenous Berbers as well as Phoenicians, Romans, Byzantine Greeks, Arabs, Turks, various Sub-Saharan Africans, and French have contributed to the history of Algeria. Descendants of Andalusian refugees are also present in the population of Algiers and other cities. Moreover, Spanish was spoken by these Aragonese and Castillian Morisco descendants deep into the 18th century, and even Catalan was spoken at the same time by Catalan Morisco descendants in the small town of Grish El-Oued.\n", "Despite the dominance of the Berber culture and ethnicity in Algeria, the majority of Algerians identify with an Arabic-based identity, especially after the Arab nationalism rising in the 20th century. Berbers and Berber-speaking Algerians are divided into many groups with varying languages. The largest of these are the Kabyles, who live in the Kabylie region east of Algiers, the Chaoui of Northeast Algeria, the Tuaregs in the southern desert and the Shenwa people of North Algeria.\n", "During the colonial period, there was a large (10% in 1960) European population who became known as \"Pied-Noirs\". They were primarily of French, Spanish and Italian origin. Almost all of this population left during the war of independence or immediately after its end.\n", "Section::::Demographics.:Languages.\n", "Modern Standard Arabic and Berber are the official languages. Algerian Arabic (Darja) is the language used by the majority of the population. Colloquial Algerian Arabic is heavily infused with borrowings from French and Berber.\n", "Berber has been recognized as a \"national language\" by the constitutional amendment of 8 May 2002. Kabyle, the predominant Berber language, is taught and is partially co-official (with a few restrictions) in parts of Kabylie. In February 2016, the Algerian constitution passed a resolution that would make Berber an official language alongside Arabic.\n", "Although French has no official status, Algeria is the second-largest Francophone country in the world in terms of speakers, and French is widely used in government, media (newspapers, radio, local television), and both the education system (from primary school onwards) and academia due to Algeria's colonial history. It can be regarded as a lingua franca of Algeria. In 2008, 11.2 million Algerians could read and write in French. An Abassa Institute study in April 2000 found that 60% of households could speak and understand French or 18 million in a population of 30 million then. After an earlier period during which the Algerian government tried to phase out French (which is why it has no official status), in recent decades the government has backtracked and reinforced the study of French and television programs have reinforced use of the language.\n", "Algeria emerged as a bilingual state after 1962. Colloquial Algerian Arabic is spoken by about 72% of the population and Berber by 27–30%.\n", "Section::::Demographics.:Religion.\n", "Islam is the predominant religion in Algeria, with its adherents, mostly Sunnis, accounting for 99% of the population according to a 2012 CIA World Factbook estimate, and 97.9% according to Pew Research in 2010. There are about 150,000 Ibadis in the M'zab Valley in the region of Ghardaia.\n", "Algeria has given the Muslim world a number of prominent thinkers, including Emir Abdelkader, Abdelhamid Ben Badis, Mouloud Kacem Naît Belkacem, Malek Bennabi and Mohamed Arkoun.\n", "Section::::Demographics.:Cities.\n", "Below is a list of the most important Algerian cities:\n", "Section::::Culture.\n", "Modern Algerian literature, split between Arabic, Tamazight and French, has been strongly influenced by the country's recent history. Famous novelists of the 20th century include Mohammed Dib, Albert Camus, Kateb Yacine and Ahlam Mosteghanemi while Assia Djebar is widely translated. Among the important novelists of the 1980s were Rachid Mimouni, later vice-president of Amnesty International, and Tahar Djaout, murdered by an Islamist group in 1993 for his secularist views.\n", "Malek Bennabi and Frantz Fanon are noted for their thoughts on decolonization; Augustine of Hippo was born in Tagaste (modern-day Souk Ahras); and Ibn Khaldun, though born in Tunis, wrote the Muqaddima while staying in Algeria. The works of the Sanusi family in pre-colonial times, and of Emir Abdelkader and Sheikh Ben Badis in colonial times, are widely noted. The Latin author Apuleius was born in Madaurus (Mdaourouch), in what later became Algeria.\n", "Contemporary Algerian cinema is various in terms of genre, exploring a wider range of themes and issues. There has been a transition from cinema which focused on the war of independence to films more concerned with the everyday lives of Algerians.\n", "Section::::Culture.:Art.\n", "Algerian painters, like or Baya, attempted to revive the prestigious Algerian past prior to French colonization, at the same time that they have contributed to the preservation of the authentic values of Algeria. In this line, Mohamed Temam, Abdelkhader Houamel have also returned through this art, scenes from the history of the country, the habits and customs of the past and the country life. Other new artistic currents including the one of M'hamed Issiakhem, Mohammed Khadda and Bachir Yelles, appeared on the scene of Algerian painting, abandoning figurative classical painting to find new pictorial ways, in order to adapt Algerian paintings to the new realities of the country through its struggle and its aspirations. Mohammed Khadda and M'hamed Issiakhem have been notable in recent years.\n", "Section::::Culture.:Literature.\n", "The historic roots of Algerian literature go back to the Numidian and Roman African era, when Apuleius wrote \"The Golden Ass\", the only Latin novel to survive in its entirety. This period had also known Augustine of Hippo, Nonius Marcellus and Martianus Capella, among many others. The Middle Ages have known many Arabic writers who revolutionized the Arab world literature, with authors like Ahmad al-Buni, Ibn Manzur and Ibn Khaldoun, who wrote the Muqaddimah while staying in Algeria, and many others.\n", "Albert Camus was an Algerian-born French Pied-Noir author. In 1957 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in literature.\n", "Today Algeria contains, in its literary landscape, big names having not only marked the Algerian literature, but also the universal literary heritage in Arabic and French.\n", "As a first step, Algerian literature was marked by works whose main concern was the assertion of the Algerian national entity, there is the publication of novels as the \"Algerian trilogy\" of Mohammed Dib, or even \"Nedjma\" of Kateb Yacine novel which is often regarded as a monumental and major work. Other known writers will contribute to the emergence of Algerian literature whom include Mouloud Feraoun, Malek Bennabi, Malek Haddad, Moufdi Zakaria, Abdelhamid Ben Badis, Mohamed Laïd Al-Khalifa, Mouloud Mammeri, Frantz Fanon, and Assia Djebar.\n", "In the aftermath of the independence, several new authors emerged on the Algerian literary scene, they will attempt through their works to expose a number of social problems, among them there are Rachid Boudjedra, Rachid Mimouni, Leila Sebbar, Tahar Djaout and Tahir Wattar.\n", "Currently, a part of Algerian writers tends to be defined in a literature of shocking expression, due to the terrorism that occurred during the 1990s, the other party is defined in a different style of literature who staged an individualistic conception of the human adventure. Among the most noted recent works, there is the writer, \"the swallows of Kabul\" and \"the attack\" of Yasmina Khadra, \"the oath of barbarians\" of Boualem Sansal, \"memory of the flesh\" of Ahlam Mosteghanemi and the last novel by Assia Djebar \"nowhere in my father's House\".\n", "Section::::Culture.:Music.\n", "Chaâbi music is a typically Algerian musical genre characterized by specific rhythms and of Qacidate (popular poems) in Arabic dialect. The undisputed master of this music is El Hadj M'Hamed El Anka. The Constantinois Malouf style is saved by musician from whom Mohamed Tahar Fergani is a performer.\n", "Folk music styles include Bedouin music, characterized by the poetic songs based on long kacida (poems); Kabyle music, based on a rich repertoire that is poetry and old tales passed through generations; Shawiya music, a folklore from diverse areas of the Aurès Mountains. Rahaba music style is unique to the Aures. Souad Massi is a rising Algerian folk singer. Other Algerian singers of the diaspora include Manel Filali in Germany and Kenza Farah in France. Tergui music is sung in Tuareg languages generally, Tinariwen had a worldwide success. Finally, the staïfi music is born in Sétif and remains a unique style of its kind.\n", "Modern music is available in several facets, Raï music is a style typical of western Algeria. Rap, a relatively recent style in Algeria, is experiencing significant growth.\n", "Section::::Culture.:Cinema.\n", "The Algerian state's interest in film-industry activities can be seen in the annual budget of DZD 200 million (EUR 1.8) allocated to production, specific measures and an ambitious programme plan implemented by the Ministry of Culture in order to promote national production, renovate the cinema stock and remedy the weak links in distribution and exploitation.\n", "The financial support provided by the state, through the Fund for the Development of the Arts, Techniques and the Film Industry (FDATIC) and the Algerian Agency for Cultural Influence (AARC), plays a key role in the promotion of national production. Between 2007 and 2013, FDATIC subsidised 98 films (feature films, documentaries and short films). In mid-2013, AARC had already supported a total of 78 films, including 42 feature films, 6 short films and 30 documentaries.\n", "According to the European Audiovisual Observatory's LUMIERE database, 41 Algerian films were distributed in Europe between 1996 and 2013; 21 films in this repertoire were Algerian-French co-productions. \"Days of Glory\" (2006) and \"Outside the Law\" (2010) recorded the highest number of admissions in the European Union, 3,172,612 and 474,722, respectively.\n", "Algeria won the Palme d'Or for \"Chronicle of the Years of Fire\" (1975), two Oscars for \"Z\" (1969), and other awards for the Italian-Algerian movie \"The Battle of Algiers\".\n", "Section::::Culture.:Sports.\n", "Various games have existed in Algeria since antiquity. In the Aures, people played several games such as El Kherba or El khergueba (chess variant). Playing cards, checkers and chess games are part of Algerian culture. Racing (fantasia) and rifle shooting are part of cultural recreation of the Algerians.\n", "The first Algerian and African gold medalist is Boughera El Ouafi in 1928 Olympics of Amsterdam in the Marathon. The second Algerian Medalist was Alain Mimoun in 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne. Several men and women were champions in athletics in the 1990s including Noureddine Morceli, Hassiba Boulmerka, Nouria Merah-Benida, and Taoufik Makhloufi, all specialized in middle-distance running.\n", "Football is the most popular sport in Algeria. Several names are engraved in the history of the sport, including Lakhdar Belloumi, Rachid Mekhloufi, Hassen Lalmas, Rabah Madjer, Salah Assad and Djamel Zidane. The Algeria national football team qualified for the 1982 FIFA World Cup, 1986 FIFA World Cup, 2010 FIFA World Cup and 2014 FIFA World Cup. In addition, several football clubs have won continental and international trophies as the club ES Sétif or JS Kabylia. The Algerian Football Federation is an association of Algeria football clubs organizing national competitions and international matches of the selection of Algeria national football team.\n", "Section::::Culture.:Cuisine.\n", "Algerian cuisine is rich and diverse. The country was considered as the \"granary of Rome\". It offers a component of dishes and varied dishes, depending on the region and according to the seasons. The cuisine uses cereals as the main products, since they are always produced with abundance in the country. There is not a dish where cereals are not present.\n", "Algerian cuisine varies from one region to another, according to seasonal vegetables. It can be prepared using meat, fish and vegetables. Among the dishes known, couscous, chorba, rechta, chakhchoukha, berkoukes, shakshouka, mthewem, chtitha, mderbel, dolma, brik or bourek, garantita, lham'hlou, etc. Merguez sausage is widely used in Algeria, but it differs, depending on the region and on the added spices.\n", "Cakes are marketed and can be found in cities either in Algeria, in Europe or North America. However, traditional cakes are also made at home, following the habits and customs of each family. Among these cakes, there are Tamina, Baklawa, Chrik, Garn logzelles, Griouech, Kalb el-louz, Makroud, Mbardja, Mchewek, Samsa, Tcharak, Baghrir, Khfaf, Zlabia, Aarayech, Ghroubiya and Mghergchette. Algerian pastry also contains Tunisian or French cakes. Marketed and home-made bread products include varieties such as Kessra or Khmira or Harchaya, chopsticks and so-called washers Khoubz dar or Matloue. Other traditional meals sold often as street food include mhadjeb or mahjouba, karantika, doubara, chakhchoukha, hassouna, and t'chicha.\n", "Section::::Health.\n", "In 2002, Algeria had inadequate numbers of physicians (1.13 per 1,000 people), nurses (2.23 per 1,000 people), and dentists (0.31 per 1,000 people). Access to \"improved water sources\" was limited to 92% of the population in urban areas and 80% of the population in the rural areas. Some 99% of Algerians living in urban areas, but only 82% of those living in rural areas, had access to \"improved sanitation\". According to the World Bank, Algeria is making progress toward its goal of \"reducing by half the number of people without sustainable access to improved drinking water and basic sanitation by 2015\". Given Algeria's young population, policy favors preventive health care and clinics over hospitals. In keeping with this policy, the government maintains an immunization program. However, poor sanitation and unclean water still cause tuberculosis, hepatitis, measles, typhoid fever, cholera and dysentery. The poor generally receive health care free of charge.\n", "Health records have been maintained in Algeria since 1882 and began adding Muslims living in the south to their vital record database in 1905 during French rule.\n", "Section::::Education.\n", "Since the 1970s, in a centralized system that was designed to significantly reduce the rate of illiteracy, the Algerian government introduced a decree by which school attendance became compulsory for all children aged between 6 and 15 years who have the ability to track their learning through the 20 facilities built since independence, now the literacy rate is around 78.7%.\n", "Since 1972, Arabic is used as the language of instruction during the first nine years of schooling. From the third year, French is taught and it is also the language of instruction for science classes. The students can also learn English, Italian, Spanish and German. In 2008, new programs at the elementary appeared, therefore the compulsory schooling does not start at the age of six anymore, but at the age of five.\n", "Apart from the 122 private schools, the Universities of the State are free of charge. After nine years of primary school, students can go to the high school or to an educational institution. The school offers two programs: general or technical. At the end of the third year of secondary school, students pass the exam of the baccalaureate, which allows once it is successful to pursue graduate studies in universities and institutes.\n", "Education is officially compulsory for children between the ages of six and 15. In 2008, the illiteracy rate for people over 10 was 22.3%, 15.6% for men and 29.0% for women. The province with the lowest rate of illiteracy was Algiers Province at 11.6%, while the province with the highest rate was Djelfa Province at 35.5%.\n", "Algeria has 26 universities and 67 institutions of higher education, which must accommodate a million Algerians and 80,000 foreign students in 2008. The University of Algiers, founded in 1879, is the oldest, it offers education in various disciplines (law, medicine, science and letters). 25 of these universities and almost all of the institutions of higher education were founded after the independence of the country.\n", "Even if some of them offer instruction in Arabic like areas of law and the economy, most of the other sectors as science and medicine continue to be provided in French and English. Among the most important universities, there are the University of Sciences and Technology Houari Boumediene, the University of Mentouri Constantine, and University of Oran Es-Senia. The University of Abou Bekr Belkaïd in Tlemcen and University of Batna Hadj Lakhdar occupy the 26th and 45th row in Africa.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Index of Algeria-related articles\n", "BULLET::::- Outline of Algeria\n", "Section::::Bibliography.\n", "BULLET::::- Ageron, Charles-Robert (1991). \"Modern Algeria – A History from 1830 to the Present\". Translated from French and edited by Michael Brett. London: Hurst. .\n", "BULLET::::- Aghrout, Ahmed; Bougherira, Redha M. (2004). \"Algeria in Transition – Reforms and Development Prospects\". Routledge. .\n", "BULLET::::- Bennoune, Mahfoud (1988). \"The Making of Contemporary Algeria – Colonial Upheavals and Post-Independence Development, 1830–1987\". Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. .\n", "BULLET::::- Fanon, Frantz (1966; 2005 paperback). \"The Wretched of the Earth\". Grove Press. ASIN B0007FW4AW, .\n", "BULLET::::- Horne, Alistair (1977). \"A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–1962\". Viking Adult. , (2006 reprint)\n", "BULLET::::- Laouisset, Djamel (2009). \"A Retrospective Study of the Algerian Iron and Steel Industry\". New York City: Nova Publishers. .\n", "BULLET::::- Roberts, Hugh (2003). \"The Battlefield – Algeria, 1988–2002. Studies in a Broken Polity\". London: Verso Books. .\n", "BULLET::::- Ruedy, John (1992). \"Modern Algeria – The Origins and Development of a Nation\". Bloomington: Indiana University Press. .\n", "BULLET::::- Stora, Benjamin (2001). \"Algeria, 1830–2000 – A Short History\". Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. .\n", "BULLET::::- Sidaoui, Riadh (2009). \"Islamic Politics and the Military – Algeria 1962–2008\". \"Religion and Politics – Islam and Muslim Civilisation\". Farnham: Ashgate Publishing. .\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- People's Democratic Republic of Algeria \"Official government website\" /\n", "BULLET::::- Portal of the First Ministry \"Portal of the First Ministry\" /\n", "BULLET::::- Algeria profile from the BBC News\n", "BULLET::::- Key Development Forecasts for Algeria from International Futures\n", "BULLET::::- EU Neighbourhood Info Centre: Algeria\n" ] }

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434, 45, 30, 163, 127, 179, 25, 90, 27, 92, 133, 121, 129, 118, 147, 176, 51, 40, 27, 45, 49, 76, 49 ], "text": [ "Maghreb", "North Africa", "Algiers", "Mediterranean coast", "tenth-largest country in the world", "Arab", "Africa", "Tunisia", "Libya", "Morocco", "Western Sahara", "Mauritania", "Mali", "Niger", "Mediterranean Sea", "semi-presidential republic", "human development index", "Numidia", "Phoenicia", "Carthaginians", "Romans", "Vandals", "Byzantines", "Umayyad", "Abbasid", "Idrisid", "Aghlabid", "Rustamid", "Fatimid", "Zirid", "Hammadids", "Almoravids", "Almohads", "Spaniards", "Ottomans", "French colonial empire", "Berbers", "regional", "middle power", "natural gas", "OPEC", "16th largest", "Africa", "9th largest reserves", "natural gas", "Sonatrach", "Russia", "African Union", "Arab League", "OPEC", "United Nations", "Arab Maghreb Union", "Abdelaziz Bouteflika", "Algiers", "al-Idrisi", "Saïda Province", "North Africa", "Levalloisian", "Mousterian", "Levant", "Middle Paleolithic", "Flake tool", "Aterian", "Bir el Ater", "Tebessa", "Iberomaurusian", "Oran", "Maghreb", "Tassili n'Ajjer", "Berbers", "Carthage", "Carthaginians", "Phoenicia", "Tipasa", "Cherchell", "Hippo Regius", "Annaba", "Rusicade", "Skikda", "Revolt of the Mercenaries", "First Punic War", "Punic Wars", "Carthage", "Numidia", "Mauretania", "Moulouya River", "Morocco", "Almohads", "Almoravids", "Masinissa", "Roman Empire", "Saint Augustine", "Hippo Regius", "Africa", "Vandals", "Geiseric", "Leptis Magna", "Laguatan", "Amazigh", "Muslim", "Arabs", "Umayyad Caliphate", "Aghlabids", "Almohads", "Abdalwadid", "Zirids", "Rustamids", "Hammadids", "Almoravids", "Fatimids", "Middle Ages", "Judah Ibn Quraysh", "Sidi Boumediene (Abu Madyan)", "Sidi El Houari", "Abd Al Mu'min", "Yāghmūrasen", "Fatimids", "Arabs", "Levant", "Cairo", "Fatimid caliphate", "Zirids", "Banu Hilal", "Banu Sulaym", "Tāghribāt", "Khālīfā Al-Zānatī", "Ābu Zayd al-Hilalī", "Zirid", "Amazigh", "Fatimid Caliphate", "Palestine", "Jordan", "Lebanon", "Syria", "Egypt", "Red Sea", "Hejaz", "Yemen", "Amazighs", "Sanhadja", "Houara", "Zenata", "Masmouda", "Kutama", "Berghwata", "Amazigh", "Ibn Khaldun", "Zirid", "Banu Ifran", "Maghrawa", "Almoravid", "Hammadid", "Almohad", "Merinid", "Abdalwadid", "Wattasid", "Meknassa", "Hafsid", "Ifriqiya", "Berber", "Zirid", "Fatimid", "Cairo", "Fatimid", "Nile", "Red Sea", "Bedouin", "Arabia", "Banu Hilal", "Banu Sulaym", "Nile Valley", "Fatimid", "Maghreb", "Fatimid", "Cyrenaica", "Ifriqiya", "Gabe", "Zirid", "Kairouan", "Constantine", "Qalaa of Banu Hammad", "Algiers", "Oran", "Almohads", "North Africa", "Bedouin", "Arabization", "nomad", "agriculture", "Ibn Khaldun", "Banu Hilal", "Spain", "presidio", "Spain", "Mers el Kebir", "Oran", "Tlemcen", "Mostaganem", "Ténès", "Ottomans", "Turkish", "Aruj", "Hayreddin Barbarossa", "Hafsids", "Spaniards", "Tlemcen", "Ottoman", "beylerbey", "janissaries", "Hasan", "agha", "Plague", "taifa", "Dey", "divan", "ojaq", "pasha", "Kabylie", "Barbary pirates", "slaves", "Razzias", "slave markets", "Ottoman Empire", "Hayreddin Barbarossa", "Ischia", "Lipari", "Turgut Reis", "Maltese", "Gozo", "Balearic Islands", "Formentera", "Dutch", "Zymen Danseker", "Dutch", "Jan Janszoon", "Iceland", "raiding and capturing slaves", "Salé", "Morocco", "Faroe Islands", "Spanish Navy", "1783", "1784", "Naples", "Portugal", "Knights of Malta", "First", "Second Barbary War", "Lord Exmouth", "attacked Algiers", "Stephen Decatur", "Christians", "Morocco", "captured Algiers", "Ben Kiernan", "conquest of Algeria", "indigenous", "Kabyles", "European", "immigrants", "Pied-Noir", "Oran", "Algiers", "Sétif and Guelma massacre", "Algerian War", "Harki", "Front de Libération Nationale", "lynch", "severe reprisals", "Alistair Horne", "Raymond Aron", "Evian agreements", "self-determination referendum", "Oran massacre of 1962", "FLN", "Ahmed Ben Bella", "portions of western Algeria", "Sand War", "overthrown in 1965", "Houari Boumédiène", "authoritarian", "collectivised", "Oil extraction", "1973 oil crisis", "Chadli Bendjedid", "Arabisation", "1980s oil glut", "Islamic Salvation Front", "Islamic Salvation Front", "legislative elections", "High Council of State", "insurgency", "Armed Islamic Group", "civilian massacres", "Air France Flight 8969", "elections in 1999", "Abdelaziz Bouteflika", "referendum", "Groupe Salafiste pour la Prédication et le Combat", "April 2004 presidential election", "Charter for Peace and National Reconciliation", "referendum in September 2005", "Algerian Constitution", "2009 presidential elections", "protests across the Middle East and North Africa", "state of emergency", "Mediterranean Basin", "Sahara", "Tell Atlas", "Saharan Atlas", "Aures", "Nememcha", "Mount Tahat", "19°", "37°N", "9°W", "12°E", "harbour", "steppe", "Saharan Atlas", "Hoggar Mountains", "Tamanghasset", "Oran", "Constantine", "Annaba", "Precipitation", "ergs", "coastal", "mountainous", "desert", "boar", "jackal", "gazelle", "fennecs", "jerboas", "African leopard", "Saharan cheetah", "Barbary stag", "Barbary macaque", "monitor lizard", "rodent", "semi arid", "Barbary lion", "Atlas bear", "crocodile", "Macchia", "olive trees", "oak", "cedars", "conifers", "Aleppo pine", "juniper", "evergreen oak", "Fig", "eucalyptus", "agave", "palm trees", "grape vine", "Acacia", "olive", "Sahara", "Camel", "scorpion", "Mohamed Mediène", "Larbi Belkheir", "Sonatrach", "President of Algeria", "next presidential election", "widespread protests", "suffrage", "army", "Council of Ministers", "High Security Council", "Prime Minister", "bicameral", "People's National Assembly", "Council of the Nation", "constitution", "May 2012", "FLN", "National Rally for Democracy", "Green Algeria Alliance", "European Neighbourhood Policy", "Western Sahara", "Arab Maghreb Union", "People's National Army", "Algerian National Navy", "Algerian Air Force", "Territorial Air Defence Forces", "National Liberation Army", "occupation", "gross domestic product", "second largest military", "MiG-29", "636-type", "submarines", "Freedom House", "media freedom", "freedom of the press", "media", "Homosexuality", "provinces", "wilaya", "districts", "daïra", "municipalities", "baladiyah", "seat", "World Bank", "dinar", "foreign currency reserves", "external debt", "agricultural sector", "WTO", "Soviet", "Russian President", "Vladimir Putin", "Algerian President", "Abdelaziz Bouteflika", "Rosoboronexport", "OPEC", "10th-largest reserves of natural gas", "sixth-largest gas exporter", "Energy Information Administration", "natural-gas reserves", "16th in oil reserves", "Sonatrach", "unemployment", "UNESCO", "World Heritage Sites", "Al Qal'a of Beni Hammad", "Hammadid", "Tipasa", "Djémila", "Timgad", "Roman", "M'Zab Valley", "oasis", "Casbah", "World Heritage Site", "Tassili n'Ajjer", "East-West Highway", "Annaba", "Tlemcen", "Trans-Sahara Highway", "Mali", "Niger", "Nigeria", "Chad", "Tunisia", "Arab-Berber", "oases", "nomad", "Sahrawis", "Sahrawi refugee camps", "Palestinian refugee", "Chinese", "Berbers", "Phoenicians", "Romans", "Byzantine Greeks", "Arabs", "Turks", "Sub-Saharan Africans", "French", "Andalusian", "Spanish", "Aragon", "Castillian", "Morisco", "Catalan", "Catalan", "Morisco", "Kabylie", "Shenwa people", "European", "Pied-Noir", "Spanish", "Italian", "Modern Standard Arabic", "Berber", "Algerian Arabic", "Berber", "Kabyle", "Kabylie", "French", "Algeria's colonial history", "lingua franca", "Algerian Arabic", "Islam", "Ibadi", "Ghardaia", "Muslim", "Emir Abdelkader", "Abdelhamid Ben Badis", "Mouloud Kacem Naît Belkacem", "Malek Bennabi", "Mohamed Arkoun", "Arabic", "Tamazight", "French", "Famous novelists", "Mohammed Dib", "Albert Camus", "Kateb Yacine", "Ahlam Mosteghanemi", "Assia Djebar", "Rachid Mimouni", "Amnesty International", "Tahar Djaout", "Islamist", "Malek Bennabi", "Frantz Fanon", "decolonization", "Augustine of Hippo", "Tagaste", "Souk Ahras", "Ibn Khaldun", "Tunis", "Muqaddima", "Sanusi", "Emir Abdelkader", "Ben Badis", "Apuleius", "Madaurus", "Algerian cinema", "Mohamed Temam", "Abdelkhader Houamel", "M'hamed Issiakhem", "Mohammed Khadda", "Bachir Yelles", "Mohammed Khadda", "M'hamed Issiakhem", "Numidia", "Roman Africa", "Apuleius", "The Golden Ass", "Augustine of Hippo", "Nonius Marcellus", "Martianus Capella", "Ahmad al-Buni", "Ibn Manzur", "Ibn Khaldoun", "Muqaddimah", "Albert Camus", "Nobel Prize in literature", "Mohammed Dib", "Kateb Yacine", "Mouloud Feraoun", "Malek Bennabi", "Malek Haddad", "Moufdi Zakaria", "Mouloud Mammeri", "Frantz Fanon", "Assia Djebar", "Rachid Boudjedra", "Rachid Mimouni", "Leila Sebbar", "Tahar Djaout", "Tahir Wattar", "Yasmina Khadra", "Boualem Sansal", "Ahlam Mosteghanemi", "Chaâbi music", "El Hadj M'Hamed El Anka", "Malouf", "Mohamed Tahar Fergani", "Bedouin music", "Aurès Mountains", "Souad Massi", "Manel Filali", "Germany", "Kenza Farah", "Tuareg languages", "Tinariwen", "Sétif", "Raï", "Rap", "\"Days of Glory\" (2006)", "\"Outside the Law\" (2010)", "Palme d'Or", "Chronicle of the Years of Fire", "\"Z\" (1969)", "The Battle of Algiers", "Aures", "chess", "checkers", "fantasia", "rifle shooting", "Boughera El Ouafi", "1928 Olympics of Amsterdam", "Marathon", "Alain Mimoun", "1956 Summer Olympics", "Noureddine Morceli", "Hassiba Boulmerka", "Nouria Merah-Benida", "Taoufik Makhloufi", "middle-distance running", "Football", "Lakhdar Belloumi", "Rachid Mekhloufi", "Hassen Lalmas", "Rabah Madjer", "Salah Assad", "Djamel Zidane", "Algeria national football team", "1982 FIFA World Cup", "1986 FIFA World Cup", "2010 FIFA World Cup", "2014 FIFA World Cup", "ES Sétif", "JS Kabylia", "Algerian Football Federation", "couscous", "chorba", "Merguez", "tuberculosis", "hepatitis", "measles", "typhoid fever", "cholera", "dysentery", "Algiers Province", "Djelfa Province", "University of Algiers", "Arabic", "University of Sciences and Technology Houari Boumediene", "University of Mentouri", "University of Oran", "University of Abou Bekr Belkaïd", "University of Batna", "Index of Algeria-related articles", "Outline of Algeria", "Hurst", "Routledge", "Cambridge University Press", "Fanon, Frantz", "Grove Press", "Horne, Alistair", "Viking Adult", "Nova Publishers", "Verso Books", "Indiana University Press", "Cornell University Press", "\"Religion and Politics – Islam and Muslim Civilisation\"", "Ashgate Publishing", "People's Democratic Republic of Algeria", "Portal of the First Ministry", "Algeria profile", "BBC News", "Key Development Forecasts for Algeria", "International Futures", "EU Neighbourhood Info Centre: Algeria" ], "href": [ "Maghreb", "North%20Africa", "Algiers", "Mediterranean%20Sea", "list%20of%20countries%20and%20dependencies%20by%20area", "Arab", "Africa", "Tunisia", "Libya", "Morocco", "Western%20Sahara", "Mauritania", "Mali", "Niger", "Mediterranean%20Sea", "Semi-presidential%20system", "human%20development%20index", "Numidia", "Phoenicia", "Punic", "Ancient%20Rome", "Vandals", "Byzantine%20Empire", "Umayyad", "Abbasid", "Idrisid", "Aghlabid", "Rustamid", "Fatimid", "Zirid", "Hammadids", "Almoravids", "Almohads", "Spanish%20Empire", "Ottoman%20Empire", "French%20colonial%20empire", "Berbers", "regional%20power", "middle%20power", "natural%20gas", "OPEC", "List%20of%20countries%20by%20proven%20oil%20reserves", "Africa", "List%20of%20countries%20by%20natural%20gas%20proven%20reserves", "natural%20gas", "Sonatrach", "Russia", "African%20Union", "Arab%20League", "OPEC", "United%20Nations", "Arab%20Maghreb%20Union", "Abdelaziz%20Bouteflika", "Algiers", "Muhammad%20al-Idrisi", "Sa%C3%AFda%20Province", "North%20Africa", "Levallois%20technique", "Mousterian", "Levant", "Middle%20Paleolithic", "Flake%20tool", "Aterian", "Bir%20el%20Ater", "T%C3%A9bessa", "Iberomaurusian", "Oran", "Maghreb", "Tassili%20n%27Ajjer", "Berber%20people", "Carthage", "Carthaginians", "Phoenicia", "Tipasa", "Cherchell", "Hippo%20Regius", "Annaba", "Rusicade", "Skikda", "Mercenary%20War", "First%20Punic%20War", "Punic%20Wars", "Carthage", "Numidia", "Mauretania", "Moulouya%20River", "Morocco", "Almohads", "Almoravids", "Masinissa", "Roman%20Empire", "Augustine%20of%20Hippo", "Hippo%20Regius", "Africa%20%28Roman%20province%29", "Vandals", "Geiseric", "Leptis%20Magna", "Amazigh", "Amazigh", "Muslims", "Arabs", "Umayyad%20Caliphate", "Aghlabids", "Almohads", "Abdalwadid", "Zirids", "Rustamids", "Hammadids", "Almoravids", "Fatimids", "Middle%20Ages", "Judah%20ibn%20Kuraish", "Abu%20Madyan", "Sidi%20El%20Houari", "Abd%20al-Mu%27min", "Yaghmurasen%20Ibn%20Zyan", "Fatimids", "Arabs", "Levant", "Cairo", "Fatimid%20caliphate", "Zirids", "Banu%20Hilal", "Banu%20Sulaym", "Taghribat%20Bani%20Hilal", "Khalifa%20al-Zanati", "Abu%20Zayd%20al-Hilali", "Zirid", "Berber%20people", "Fatimid%20Caliphate", "Palestine%20%28region%29", "Jordan", "Lebanon", "Syria", "Egypt", "Red%20Sea", "Hejaz", "Yemen", "Berber%20people", "Sanhadja", "Houara", "Zenata", "Masmuda", "Kutama", "Berghwata", "Berber%20people", "Ibn%20Khaldun", "Zirid%20dynasty", "Banu%20Ifran", "Maghrawa", "Almoravid", "Hammadid", "Almohad", "Merinid", "Zayyanid%20dynasty", "Wattasid", "Meknassa", "Hafsid", "Ifriqiya", "Berbers", "Zirid%20dynasty", "Fatimid%20Caliphate", "Cairo", "Fatimid", "Nile", "Red%20Sea", "Bedouin", "Arabia", "Banu%20Hilal", "Banu%20Sulaym", "Nile%20Valley", "Fatimid%20Caliphate", "Maghreb", "Fatimid", "Cyrenaica", "Ifriqiya", "Gab%C3%A8s%20Governorate", "Zirid", "Kairouan", "Constantine%2C%20Algeria", "Beni%20Hammad%20Fort", "Algiers", "Oran", "Almohads", "North%20Africa", "Bedouin", "Arabization", "nomad", "agriculture", "Ibn%20Khaldun", "Banu%20Hilal", "Spain", "presidio", "Spain", "Mers%20el%20Kebir", "Oran", "Tlemcen", "Mostaganem", "T%C3%A9n%C3%A8s", "Ottomans", "Turkish%20people", "Aruj", "Hayreddin%20Barbarossa", "Hafsids", "Spain", "Kingdom%20of%20Tlemcen", "Ottoman%20Empire", "beylerbey", "janissaries", "Hasan%20Pasha%20%28son%20of%20Barbarossa%29", "Agha%20%28Ottoman%20Empire%29", "Plague%20%28disease%29", "taifa", "Dey", "divan", "ojaq", "pasha", "Kabylie", "Barbary%20pirates", "slavery", "Ghazi%20%28warrior%29", "Slavery%20in%20the%20Ottoman%20Empire", "Ottoman%20Empire", "Hayreddin%20Barbarossa", "Ischia", "Lipari", "Turgut%20Reis", "Malta", "Gozo", "Balearic%20Islands", "Formentera", "Dutch%20people", "Zymen%20Danseker", "Dutch%20people", "Jan%20Janszoon", "Iceland", "Turkish%20Abductions", "Sale%2C%20Morocco", "Saadi%20dynasty", "Faroe%20Islands", "Spanish%20Navy", "Bombardment%20of%20Algiers%20%281783%29", "Bombardment%20of%20Algiers%20%281784%29", "Kingdom%20of%20Naples", "Kingdom%20of%20Portugal", "Knights%20Hospitaller", "First%20Barbary%20War", "Second%20Barbary%20War", "Edward%20Pellew%2C%201st%20Viscount%20Exmouth", "Bombardment%20of%20Algiers%20%281816%29", "Stephen%20Decatur", "Christians", "Morocco", "Invasion%20of%20Algiers%20in%201830", "Ben%20Kiernan", "French%20conquest%20of%20Algeria", "indigenous%20peoples", "Kabyle%20People", "European%20ethnic%20groups", "immigrants", "Pied-Noir", "Oran", "Algiers", "S%C3%A9tif%20and%20Guelma%20massacre", "Algerian%20War", "Harki", "National%20Liberation%20Front%20%28Algeria%29", "lynching", "Torture%20during%20the%20Algerian%20War%20of%20Independence", "Alistair%20Horne", "Raymond%20Aron", "Evian%20agreements", "Algerian%20self-determination%20referendum%2C%201962", "Oran%20massacre%20of%201962", "FLN%20%28Algeria%29", "Ahmed%20Ben%20Bella", "Greater%20Morocco", "Sand%20War", "1965%20Algerian%20coup%20d%27%C3%A9tat", "Houari%20Boum%C3%A9di%C3%A8ne", "authoritarianism", "collective%20farming", "Extraction%20of%20petroleum", "1973%20oil%20crisis", "Chadli%20Bendjedid", "Arabisation", "1980s%20oil%20glut", "Islamic%20Salvation%20Front", "Islamic%20Salvation%20Front", "Algerian%20legislative%20election%2C%201991", "High%20Council%20of%20State%20%28Algeria%29", "insurgency", "Armed%20Islamic%20Group%20of%20Algeria", "List%20of%20massacres%20during%20the%20Algerian%20Civil%20War", "Air%20France%20Flight%208969", "Algerian%20presidential%20election%2C%201999", "Abdelaziz%20Bouteflika", "Algerian%20Civil%20Concord%20referendum%2C%201999", "Groupe%20Salafiste%20pour%20la%20Pr%C3%A9dication%20et%20le%20Combat", "Algerian%20presidential%20election%2C%202004", "Charter%20for%20Peace%20and%20National%20Reconciliation", "Algerian%20national%20reconciliation%20referendum%2C%202005", "Algerian%20Constitution", "Algerian%20presidential%20election%2C%202009", "Arab%20Spring", "state%20of%20emergency", "Mediterranean%20Basin", "Sahara", "Tell%20Atlas", "Saharan%20Atlas", "Aures", "T%C3%A9bessa", "Mount%20Tahat", "19th%20parallel%20north", "37th%20parallel%20north", "9th%20meridian%20west", "12th%20meridian%20east", "harbour", "steppe", "Saharan%20Atlas", "Hoggar%20Mountains", "Tamanghasset", "Oran", "Constantine%2C%20Algeria", "Annaba", "Precipitation%20%28meteorology%29", "erg%20%28landform%29", "coastal", "mountainous", "desert", "boar", "jackal", "gazelle", "fennecs", "jerboas", "African%20leopard", "Saharan%20cheetah", "Barbary%20stag", "Barbary%20macaque", "monitor%20lizard", "rodent", "semi%20arid", "Barbary%20lion", "Atlas%20bear", "West%20African%20crocodile", "Macchia", "Olive", "oak", "cedrus", "Pinophyta", "Aleppo%20pine", "juniper", "evergreen%20oak", "Ficus", "eucalyptus", "agave", "Arecaceae", "grape%20vine", "Acacia", "olive", "Sahara", "Camel", "scorpion", "Mohamed%20Medi%C3%A8ne", "Larbi%20Belkheir", "Sonatrach", "President%20of%20Algeria", "2019%20Algerian%20presidential%20election", "2019%20Algerian%20protests", "suffrage", "Algerian%20Army", "Council%20of%20Ministers%20of%20Algeria", "High%20Security%20Council", "Prime%20Minister%20of%20Algeria", "bicameral", "People%27s%20National%20Assembly", "Council%20of%20the%20Nation", "Constitution%20of%20Algeria", "Algerian%20legislative%20election%2C%202012", "National%20Liberation%20Front%20%28Algeria%29", "National%20Rally%20for%20Democracy%20%28Algeria%29", "Green%20Algeria%20Alliance", "European%20Neighbourhood%20Policy", "Western%20Sahara", "Arab%20Maghreb%20Union", "People%27s%20National%20Army", "Algerian%20National%20Navy", "Algerian%20Air%20Force", "Territorial%20Air%20Defence%20Forces", "National%20Liberation%20Army%20%28Algeria%29", "military%20occupation", "gross%20domestic%20product", "List%20of%20countries%20by%20number%20of%20military%20and%20paramilitary%20personnel", "MiG-29", "Kilo%20class%20submarine", "submarines", "Freedom%20House", "media%20freedom", "freedom%20of%20the%20press", "Broadcast%20media", "LGBT%20rights%20in%20Algeria", "provinces%20of%20Algeria", "wilaya", "districts%20of%20Algeria", "da%C3%AFra", "Municipalities%20of%20Algeria", "baladiyah", "Capital%20city", "World%20Bank%20Group", "Algerian%20dinar", "foreign%20currency%20reserves", "List%20of%20countries%20by%20external%20debt", "Agriculture%20in%20Algeria", "WTO", "Soviet%20Union", "President%20of%20Russia", "Vladimir%20Putin", "President%20of%20Algeria", "Abdelaziz%20Bouteflika", "Rosoboronexport", "OPEC", "List%20of%20countries%20by%20natural%20gas%20proven%20reserves", "List%20of%20countries%20by%20natural%20gas%20exports", "Energy%20Information%20Administration", "natural%20gas%20reserves", "List%20of%20countries%20by%20proven%20oil%20reserves", "Sonatrach", "unemployment", "UNESCO", "World%20Heritage%20Sites", "Al%20Qal%27a%20of%20Beni%20Hammad", "Hammadid", "Tipasa", "Dj%C3%A9mila", "Timgad", "Ancient%20Rome", "M%27Zab%20Valley", "oasis", "Casbah", "World%20Heritage%20Site", "Tassili%20n%27Ajjer", "Algeria%20East%E2%80%93West%20Highway", "Annaba", "Tlemcen", "Trans-Sahara%20Highway", "Mali", "Niger", "Nigeria", "Chad", "Tunisia", "Arab-Berber", "oasis", "nomad", "Sahrawi%20people", "Sahrawi%20refugee%20camps", "Palestinian%20refugee", "Overseas%20Chinese", "Berbers", "Phoenicians", "Ancient%20Rome", "Byzantine%20Greeks", "Arab%20people", "Turkish%20people", 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"Augustine%20of%20Hippo", "Tagaste", "Souk%20Ahras", "Ibn%20Khaldun", "Tunis", "Muqaddima", "Senussi", "Emir%20Abdelkader", "Ben%20Badis", "Apuleius", "Madaurus", "Algerian%20cinema", "Mohamed%20Temam", "Abdelkhader%20Houamel", "M%27hamed%20Issiakhem", "Mohammed%20Khadda", "Bachir%20Yelles", "Mohammed%20Khadda", "M%27hamed%20Issiakhem", "Numidia", "Africa%20%28Roman%20province%29", "Apuleius", "The%20Golden%20Ass", "Augustine%20of%20Hippo", "Nonius%20Marcellus", "Martianus%20Capella", "Ahmad%20al-Buni", "Ibn%20Manzur", "Ibn%20Khaldoun", "Muqaddimah", "Albert%20Camus", "Nobel%20Prize%20in%20literature", "Mohammed%20Dib", "Kateb%20Yacine", "Mouloud%20Feraoun", "Malek%20Bennabi", "Malek%20Haddad", "Moufdi%20Zakaria", "Mouloud%20Mammeri", "Frantz%20Fanon", "Assia%20Djebar", "Rachid%20Boudjedra", "Rachid%20Mimouni", "Leila%20Sebbar", "Tahar%20Djaout", "Tahir%20Wattar", "Yasmina%20Khadra", "Boualem%20Sansal", "Ahlam%20Mosteghanemi", "Chaabi%20%28Algeria%29", 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"Algeria%20national%20football%20team", "1982%20FIFA%20World%20Cup", "1986%20FIFA%20World%20Cup", "2010%20FIFA%20World%20Cup", "2014%20FIFA%20World%20Cup", "ES%20S%C3%A9tif", "JS%20Kabylia", "Algerian%20Football%20Federation", "couscous", "chorba", "Merguez", "tuberculosis", "hepatitis", "measles", "typhoid%20fever", "cholera", "dysentery", "Algiers%20Province", "Djelfa%20Province", "University%20of%20Algiers", "Arabic", "University%20of%20Sciences%20and%20Technology%20Houari%20Boumediene", "University%20of%20Mentouri", "University%20of%20Oran", "University%20of%20Abou%20Bekr%20Belka%C3%AFd", "University%20of%20Batna", "Index%20of%20Algeria-related%20articles", "Outline%20of%20Algeria", "C.%20Hurst%20%26amp%3B%20Co", "Routledge", "Cambridge%20University%20Press", "Frantz%20Fanon", "Grove%20Press", "Alistair%20Horne", "Viking%20Adult", "Nova%20Publishers", "Verso%20Books", "Indiana%20University%20Press", "Cornell%20University%20Press", 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{ "description": "country in North Africa", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q262", "wikidata_label": "Algeria", "wikipedia_title": "Algeria", "aliases": { "alias": [ "People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria", "dz", "🇩🇿", "ALG" ] } }

{ "pageid": 358, "parentid": 908790773, "revid": 908792201, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-08-01T00:44:55Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algeria&oldid=908792201" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Battle of Tourcoing\n", "The Battle of Tourcoing (18 May 1794) saw a Republican French army directed by General Joseph Souham defend against an attack by an Austrian, British, and Hanoverian Coalition army under Austrian Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld and Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany. The French army was temporarily led by Souham in the absence of its normal commander Jean-Charles Pichegru. Threatened with encirclement, Souham and division commanders Jean Victor Marie Moreau and Jacques Philippe Bonnaud improvised a counterattack which defeated the Coalition's widely separated and badly coordinated columns. The War of the First Coalition action was fought near the town of Tourcoing, just north of Lille in northeastern France.\n", "The Coalition battle plan drawn up by Karl Mack von Leiberich launched six columns that attempted to envelop a part of the French army holding an awkward bulge at Menen (Menin) and Kortrijk (Courtrai). The French were able to hold off François Sébastien Charles Joseph de Croix, Count of Clerfayt's northern column as the southern columns of Franz Joseph, Count Kinsky and Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen made slow progress. Meanwhile, Souham concentrated his main strength on the three center columns against the overall command of Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany and inflicted a costly setback on the Coalition's Habsburg Austrian, British and Hanoverian troops. The action is sometimes referred to as the Battle of Turcoine, a gesture towards the English pronunciation of the town.\n", "Section::::Summary.\n", "Under the temporary leadership of Souham, Maj-Gen Charles Pichegru's Army of the North (\"Armée du Nord\") encountered an Austro-British-German force at Tourcoing. Despite a slight advantage in numbers, the 74,000 Allied troops under Saxe-Coburg were out-led and out-fought by Souham's 70,000 French troops. (However, one authority gives the French total as 82,000.)\n", "Souham devised a strategic pincer movement consisting of his division attacking southwards from Kortrijk (Courtrai) and Maj-Gen Bonnaud's division northeastwards from Lille, thus catching the separated allied columns of Georg Wilhelm von dem Bussche, Rudolf Ritter von Otto and the Duke of York between them. Meanwhile, part of Moreau's command held off the assault of the Count of Clerfayt from the north. It was a sprawling engagement fought out over many square miles of countryside just west of the Scheldt River in Flanders. Together with Maj-Gen Jean-Baptiste Jourdan's victory at the Battle of Fleurus on 16 June, Tourcoing marked the start of the evacuation of the allied forces from Flanders and French supremacy in Western Europe.\n", "Section::::Forces.\n", "The Army of the North included the divisions of Souham (28,000), Moreau (22,000), Jacques Philippe Bonnaud (20,000) and Osten (10,000). Saxe-Coburg's army consisted of three Austrian columns commanded by Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen (18½ battalions, 6 squadrons), the François Sébastien Charles Joseph de Croix, Count of Clerfayt and Franz Joseph, Count Kinsky. Von dem Bussche commanded the Hanoverians (5 bns, 8 sqdns). The Duke of York led the British (8 bns, 6 sqdns), Hessen-Darmstadt (3 bns, 4 sqdns) and Hessen-Kassel (4 bns, 8 sqdns) contingents.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "The Army of the North had thrust eastward so that the divisions of Souham and Moreau, which formed the left (north) flank, stood on the south bank of the Lys River between Courtrai and Aalbeke. Bonnaud held the center with units at Lannoy, Tressin and Sainghin. In addition, Compère's brigade held Tourcoing and Thierry's brigade held Mouscron. Osten's division defended Pont-à-Marcq on the right (south) flank. These dispositions straddle the current French-Belgian border.\n", "Saxe-Coburg's chief-of-staff, General Karl Mack von Leiberich proposed enveloping and annihilating the 50,000-strong mass formed by Souham and Moreau. Clerfayt's detached corps was to march along the north bank of the Lys from Tielt through Menin. At Werwick, Clerfayt would force a crossing to the south bank, placing him well behind the French left flank. The Duke of York's three columns would advance to the northwest from Tournai toward Tourcoing. This force would pin the divisions of Souham and Moreau against the Lys. To the south, Archduke Charles and Kinsky would brush Osten and Bonnaud aside and wheel northwest, linking with Clerfayt and trapping the French left flank. The movement began on 16 May.\n", "Section::::Battle.\n", "On 17 May, Clerfayt found his crossing resisted by Brig-Gen Dominique Vandamme, who had a brigade of Moreau's division. The Duke of York's right column under Bussche captured Mouscron, but it was driven out again and mauled by a French brigade. The center column led by Otto seized Tourcoing. With the British Guards brigade under Henry Fox leading the attack, the Duke of York's left column under Ralph Abercromby, stormed into Lannoy, Willems and Mouvaux. Kinsky's column crossed the Marque River at Bouvines but made little progress beyond there. Archduke Charles' column got a late start and barely made it to Pont-à-Marcq. Only the columns of Abercromby and Otto had reached their assigned positions by evening.\n", "On 18 May, Souham determined to hurl 40,000 men at the Duke of York's three columns, while holding Kinsky, Charles and Clerfayt off with secondary forces. During the night, Clerfayt managed to cross to the south bank of the Lys. His 21,000 men drove back Vandamme's 12,000, but he was unable to advance south beyond Linselles. Shaken by his defeat the day before, Bussche retreated to the Scheldt River. In the south, Charles and Kinsky remained almost completely inert, despite Mack's frantic orders for them to march to Lannoy. Instead, Charles became obsessed with protecting his left flank and rear from French incursions.\n", "At dawn, Brig-Gen Étienne MacDonald's brigade of Souham's division rushed and recaptured Tourcoing from Otto. Malbrancq's brigade Posted between Roncq and Blanc-four, just south of roncq attacked Mouvaux from the north while Bonnaud applied pressure from the west . At first, Otto held firm on a line south of Tourcoing, but he was slowly driven back. At 11:30 am, the command of Abercromby, now isolated and under very heavy attack, nevertheless extricated itself and retreated from Mouvaux toward the southeast, Fox's Guards brigade distinguishing itself during the withdrawal. This ended the battle. The Duke of York, separated from his command, narrowly avoided capture and was obliged to wade a deep brook to escape. Souham immediately faced his tired troops about and prepared to attack Clerfayt. That general, realizing he was now alone, recrossed to the north bank of the Lys and retreated to the northeast.\n", "Section::::Results.\n", "The French suffered 3,000 casualties and lost 7 cannon. There was no pursuit of the defeated Allied main body. The Allies lost 4,000 killed and wounded, with 1,500 men and 60 guns captured. The 1st Hanoverian Infantry Regiment was nearly destroyed. The reasons for the Allied defeat were simple. There was poor staff work, very little cooperation and a failure to bring all their troops into action. Of his 74,000 Allied soldiers, Saxe-Coburg only committed 48,000 to battle.\n", "Section::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- Black, Jeremy. \"Britain as a Military Power, 1688–1815.\" Routledge (UK).\n", "BULLET::::- Smith, Digby. \"The Napoleonic Wars Data Book.\" London: Greenhill, 1998.\n", "BULLET::::- Belloc, Hilaire. \"Tourcoing\" Project Gutenberg eBook \n", "BULLET::::- Napoleon-series.org\n" ] }

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{ "description": "battle", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q303998", "wikidata_label": "Battle of Tourcoing", "wikipedia_title": "Battle of Tourcoing", "aliases": { "alias": [ "The Battle of Tourcoing" ] } }

{ "pageid": 157752, "parentid": 880721230, "revid": 900362912, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-06-05T05:04:00Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Tourcoing&oldid=900362912" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Battle of Vimeiro\n", "In the Battle of Vimeiro (sometimes shown as or \"Vimiera\" or \"Vimeira\" in contemporary British texts) on 21 August 1808, the British under General Arthur Wellesley (who later became the Duke of Wellington) defeated the French under Major-General Jean-Andoche Junot near the village of Vimeiro (), near Lisbon, Portugal during the Peninsular War. This battle put an end to the first French invasion of Portugal.\n", "Four days after the Battle of Roliça, Wellesley's army was attacked by a French army under General Junot near the village of Vimeiro. The battle began as a battle of manoeuvre, with French troops attempting to outflank the British left, but Wellesley was able to redeploy his army to face the assault. Meanwhile, Junot sent in two central columns but these were forced back by sustained volleys from troops in line. Soon afterwards, the flanking attack was beaten off and Junot retreated towards Torres Vedras having lost 2,000 men and 13 cannon, compared to 700 Anglo-Portuguese losses. No pursuit was attempted because Wellesley was superseded by Sir Harry Burrard and then Sir Hew Dalrymple (one having arrived during the battle, the second soon after).\n", "Section::::Prelude.\n", "After Roliça, Wellesley had established a position near Vimeiro. By holding the village, plus some ridges to the west, the British commander covered a beachhead at Maceira Bay a little further to the west. Since most of his reinforcements had arrived by 20 August, Wellesley planned to advance south on Lisbon. Eight independent infantry brigades under Rowland Hill, Ronald Craufurd Ferguson, Miles Nightingall, Barnard Foord Bowes, Catlin Craufurd, Henry Fane, Robert Anstruther and Wroth Acland formed the core of Wellesley's forces. Rounding out his force were 17 cannons, 240 light cavalry led by C. D. Taylor and about 2,000 Portuguese troops under Nicholas Trant, giving a total of 20,000 men.\n", "Junot organised his 14,000-man force into two infantry divisions and a cavalry division under Pierre Margaron. Henri François Delaborde's infantry division contained two brigades under Antoine François Brenier and Jean Guillaume Barthélemy Thomières, while Louis Henri Loison's division included two brigades commanded by Jean-Baptiste Solignac and Hugues Charlot. In addition, François Étienne de Kellermann commanded a 2,100-man reserve made up of four converged grenadier battalions. These units were created by taking the grenadier company from each of Junot's infantry battalions. The French took 23 cannons into battle with them.\n", "Wellesley placed Anstruther's and Fane's brigades in front of Vimeiro, with Acland's men in support. At first, his five remaining brigades held only the western ridge. Junot planned to send Thomières, Solignac and Charlot's infantry brigades to capture Vimeiro, while Brenier's 4,300-man brigade and some dragoons swung in a wide flanking manoeuvre to seize an empty ridge to the northeast of the village. Wellesley detected Brenier's move and switched Nightingall, Ferguson and Bowes to the northeastern ridge. Once Junot realised that British troops occupied the ridge, he sent Solignac's brigade to the right to assist Brenier's attack. The French commander decided to launch his attack on the town immediately, instead of waiting for his flanking move to develop.\n", "Section::::Battle.\n", "All the preliminary moves and countermoves caused a series of uncoordinated French attacks. First, Thomières' 2,100-man brigade approached the British position. Supported by three cannons and screened by skirmishers, the brigade was formed into a column of companies.\n", "The first company of 120 men formed in a three-deep line would have a front rank 40 men wide. All the other companies formed behind the first company, making the entire brigade about 40 files wide and 48 ranks deep. According to French doctrine, as soon as the enemy main position was found, the companies would peel off to the right or left to form a firing line many companies wide and only three files deep. On the other hand, French commanders often pressed home attacks while in column, depending entirely upon their skirmishers and artillery to provide the necessary fire support.\n", "To counter the French skirmishers, Fane detached four companies of riflemen (60th Regiment of Foot & 95th Rifles). These outnumbered and outfought the French skirmishers, who fell back to the sides of the brigade column. Without their skirmishers in front of them, the French column blundered into the 945 men of the 50th Regiment. At , the British, formed into a two-deep line, opened fire. Several companies of the 50th began wheeling inward toward both flanks of the hapless French column. Unable to properly deploy into firing line and unwilling to face the deadly enfilade fire, the French infantry suddenly bolted to the rear, leaving their three cannons to be captured.\n", "Soon after, a similar fate overtook Charlot's brigade. In a very narrow column, it struck one battalion of Anstruther's brigade, which had been hidden behind a crest. Before they could deploy, the French were taken in flank by a second battalion. Unable to effectively reply to the devastating British volley fire, Charlot's men soon ran away. Seeing the battle going against him, Junot committed his grenadier reserve to the attack. The first two battalions attacked the same area as the previous units and were thrown back. Kellermann swung the final two grenadier battalions wide to the right and succeeded in breaking into Vimeiro. But, counterattacked by units from Anstruther and Acland, these Frenchmen also fell back. Colonel Taylor's 20th Light Dragoons pounced on Kellermann's retreating grenadiers and routed them. Excited by their easy success, the British horsemen charged out of control. They soon came up against Margaron's French cavalry division and were routed in their turn. Taylor was killed and the British horsemen lost about one man in four.\n", "As Brenier's men had gotten lost in the hills, Solignac attacked the northeast ridge. This brigade changed tactics deploying in an attack formation with three battalions abreast. Even so, each battalion formed a column one company wide and eight companies deep. If the French intended to form into line once the enemy position was detected, they waited too long. They marched into the kill zone of Nightingall and Ferguson's brigades before they could deploy. Smashed by British volleys, Solignac's men fled.\n", "Brenier's brigade, marching to the sound of battle, came on four battalions abreast. At first they enjoyed success when they surprised and defeated two British battalions. These units had let down their guard after overpowering Solignac. Victorious, the French pressed on in column, but soon ran into the 29th Regiment in line and were stopped. The 29th was joined by the other two units, who had quickly rallied. Together, the volley fire of the three British battalions soon routed Brenier's men. Though Wellesley urged him to pursue, Burrard declined to interfere with the subsequent French retreat.\n", "Section::::Aftermath.\n", "In hindsight, Junot faced very long odds with only 14,000 Frenchmen against 18,000 British and Portuguese led by Wellesley. Junot correctly launched his heaviest attack on the weakest point in the British position, the unoccupied northeastern ridge. However, his attacks suffered by being badly coordinated. Wellesley reacted quickly to counter Junot's flanking move. His forces overcame the French skirmishers by using superior numbers of their own skirmishers. Two of Wellesley's brigades never got into action, but the rest were used economically to defeat each French attack.\n", "After the comprehensive French defeat, Junot offered complete capitulation. Nevertheless, Dalrymple gave the French far more generous terms than they could have hoped for. Under the terms of the \"Convention of Sintra\", the defeated army was transported back to France by the British navy, complete with its guns and equipment and the loot it had taken from Portugal. The Convention of Sintra caused a massive outcry in Britain and, following an official enquiry, both Dalrymple and Burrard were blamed. Wellesley, who had opposed the agreement, was exonerated.\n", "Nevertheless, the dispatch of so many troops to Portugal had ensured that there would be a considerable delay before operations could commence in Spain. There were also serious problems with the Spaniards: inherent in the sudden Spanish interest in British troops, for example, lay the desire not just to receive assistance but also to obtain command over them. Equally a desire was beginning to emerge amongst the British to further their influence in Spain and to impose their own political solutions. With the British army in the hands of an officer who was not only highly ambitious but deeply frustrated, at odds with the ministry, notoriously suspicious of the government's representatives abroad, and possessed of a prickly disposition, trouble was certain, and all the more so given the thunderbolt that was being prepared across the river Ebro.\n", "Section::::Bibliography.\n", "BULLET::::- Weller, Jac, \"Wellington in the Peninsula\", London: Nicholas Vane, 1969.\n", "BULLET::::- Zimmermann, Dick, \"The Battle of Vimeiro,\" Wargamer's Digest, October 1983.\n" ] }

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{ "description": "battle", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q209359", "wikidata_label": "Battle of Vimeiro", "wikipedia_title": "Battle of Vimeiro", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 157765, "parentid": 877230166, "revid": 891183200, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-04-06T06:20:26Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Vimeiro&oldid=891183200" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Battle of Tudela\n", "The Battle of Tudela (23 November 1808) saw an Imperial French army led by Marshal Jean Lannes attack a Spanish army under General Castaños. The battle resulted in the complete victory of the Imperial forces over their adversaries. The combat occurred near Tudela in Navarre, Spain during the Peninsular War, part of a wider conflict known as the Napoleonic Wars.\n", "Spanish casualties were estimated to be about 4,000 dead and 3,000 prisoners out of a total force of 33,000. The French and Poles lost no more than 600 dead and wounded out of a total of 30,000. This is one of the battles whose name was engraved on the Arc de Triomphe in Paris.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "The Dos de Mayo Uprising of 2 May 1808, followed by extensive uprisings throughout Spain, forced the French to pull back from their occupation of Spain to the Ebro River. There was an opportunity for the Spanish to finally expel the French altogether but this was missed due to their failure to appoint a Supreme Commander leaving the individual Spanish forces to operate independently.\n", "These Spanish forces consisted of the army of General Joaquín Blake on the North coast, the army of General Francisco Javier Castaños around Tudela and the army of General José Rebolledo de Palafox around Zaragoza. Blake was active in attacking the French but his offensive near Bilbao was defeated at Pancorbo on 31 October 1808.\n", "Napoleon’s strategy was to make a strong attack towards Burgos splitting off the army of Blake from the others and to outflank them by then swinging both north and south. It was in his interest that the Spanish maintain their exposed advanced positions. The French armies facing them were therefore ordered not to attack. So from October to 21 November 1808, Marshal Bon-Adrien Jeannot de Moncey’s III Corps remained static in front of Castaños's army.\n", "The Spanish armies were however in a constant state of movement to no effect. For much of the time Castaños was ill leaving Palafox to direct operations. Palafox seems to have been indecisive on what course of action to take.\n", "Section::::Battlefield.\n", "The battlefield was the area between Tudela and the neighbouring hills on the left. The Spanish front was deployed on the hills of Santa Barbara, Tudela, Torre Monreal, Santa Quiteria the top of Cabezoe Maya (the hill where the retreat of San Juan de Calchetas was), and the villages of Urzante (now disappeared), Murchante, and Cascante. Separating the Spanish and the French was the Queiles River, a tributary of the Ebro.\n", "The French advanced from the Cierzo hills that were in front of the Spanish lines towards the Spanish troops.\n", "Section::::Chronology of the battle.\n", "Section::::Chronology of the battle.:Preliminaries.\n", "On 21 November 1808 Castaños was around Calahorra on the Ebro between Logrono and Tudela. On this day the French III Corps crossed the Ebro at Logrono and headed east towards Calahorra while at the same time Marshal Michel Ney with the VI Corps reached the Upper Douro Valley and headed towards Tudela.\n", "These movements threatened Castaños with entrapment between these two armies. To avoid this Castaños withdrew to Tudela. He decided to defend a line long stretching west from Tudela along the Ebro, then along the Queiles River to Cascante and finally to Tarazona at the foot of the Moncayo Massif.\n", "Castaños had insufficient men to hold a line of this length so he asked General Juan O'Neylle, who had two divisions at Caparroso on the east bank of the Ebro, for help. As O’Neylle was under the command of Palafox he refused to move without an order from Palafox. This did not arrive until noon on 22 November 1808. O’Neylle moved promptly to the east bank of the Ebro opposite Tudela but decided not to cross the river until the next day.\n", "By nightfall on 22 November 1808 Castaños had almost 45,000 soldiers in the vicinity of Tudela but very few of them actually in position. Castaños placed General Manuel la Peña’s 4th Division of 8,000 men, mostly Andalusians who had participated in the Battle of Bailén, at Cascante and General Grimarest at the head of three divisions totaling 13,000 to 14,000 soldiers at Tarazona. General Roca's division was on the east bank of the Ebro plus the two divisions from Aragon of O’Neylle and Felipe Augusto de Saint-Marcq.\n", "Most of the fighting in the battle of Tudela would involve only the three divisions of Roca, O’Neylle, and Saint-Marcq – totaling about 23,000 infantry.\n", "For the French only the III Corps was involved in the Battle of Tudela. Prior to 22 November 1808 this force had been commanded by Marshal Moncey. However, Napoleon transferred command to Marshal Jean Lannes when the advance began. This corps was just under 34,000 men consisting of four infantry divisions and three cavalry regiments. To this was added General of Division Joseph Lagrange’s infantry division and General of Brigade Pierre David de Colbert-Chabanais’s cavalry brigade from Ney's corps.\n", "On the night of 22 November the French Army camped at Alfaro – 17 kilometres up the Ebro from Tudela.\n", "Section::::Chronology of the battle.:The battle.\n", "On the morning of 23 November 1808 Lagrange's infantry and two cavalry brigades were sent towards Cascante. The rest of the force was sent along the Ebro towards Tudela.\n", "At this time O’Neylle was trying to get his three divisions across the Ebro. Roca's was across first and reached its position on the right of the Spanish line just as the French attacked.\n", "Saint-Marcq's division was second across and also took up position before the attack.\n", "By the time O’Neylle's own division was crossing it had to fight French skirmishers who were at the top of the Cabezo Malla ridge.\n", "The initial French attack was carried out in a piecemeal fashion by the vanguard when it was realised that the Spanish were not in position. Although this attack was repelled it showed the weakness of the Spanish positions, especially the gap between Castaños and La Peña's force at Cascante.\n", "The battle would ultimately be decided by La Peña and Grimarest. By noon on 23 November 1808 they had received orders to move: La Peña to close the gap at Tudela and Grimarest to Cascante. Both men failed to carry out these orders other than La Peña moving two battalions and a detachment of provincial Grenadiers to Urzante. La Peña's lack of initiative allowed the two French cavalry brigades of Colbert and General of Brigade Alexandre, vicomte Digeon to pin him in place.\n", "The second French attack was made with much greater force. On the French left General of Division Antoine Morlot’s division attacked Roca's division on the heights above Tudela. On the French right General of Division Maurice Mathieu’s division made a frontal assault on the smaller O’Neylle division while also making outflanking moves. The attacks on both left and right were successful with both Spanish divisions being pushed off the ridges they occupied.\n", "Then the French cavalry under General of Division Charles Lefebvre-Desnouettes charged the gap between Roca and Saint-Marcq causing the collapse of the Spanish right.\n", "La Peña and Grimarest finally united at Cascante late in the day giving them a total of 21,000 men against Lagrange's division which was 6,000 strong plus Colbert and Digeon. After the defeat of the rest of the Spanish army however La Peña and Grimarest withdrew after dark. Their poor performance was also reflected in the casualties of only 200 on the Spanish left compared to 3,000 on the right plus 1,000 prisoners.\n", "Section::::Chronology of the battle.:Aftermath.\n", "The Spanish armies of the left and right escaped from Tudela in two directions. The Aragonese forces on the right made for Zaragoza where they would assist in the Second Siege of Zaragoza starting on 20 December 1808. The virtually intact Spanish left moved towards Madrid to defend that city.\n", "Napoleon however moved more quickly, and after defeating a small Spanish army at the Battle of Somosierra on 30 November 1808, arrived in Madrid on 1 December 1808.\n", "Napoleon's strategy ultimately ended in total success with Madrid in his hands. He was then able to prepare for the reconquest of Portugal.\n", "Section::::Other Reading.\n", "BULLET::::- \"History of the Peninsular War vol.1: 1807-1809 - From the Treaty of Fontainebleau to the Battle of Corunna\", Sir Charles Oman, 704 pages, paperback, Greenhill Books, New Edition 2004, English,\n", "The first volume of Oman's classic seven volume history of the Peninsular War, this is one of the classic works of military history and provides an invaluable detailed narrative of the fighting in Spain and Portugal. This first volume covers the initial French intervention, the start of the Spanish uprising, the early British involvement in Spain and Portugal and Napoleon's own brief visit to Spain.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Spanish Ulcer, A History of the Peninsular War\", David Gates, Pimlico Nw Edition 2002, 592 pages, Hardcover, English,\n", "An excellent single volume history of the Peninsular War, which, when it was published, was the first really good English language history of the entire war since Oman. This is a well balanced work with detailed coverage of those campaigns conducted entirely by Spanish armies, as well as the better known British intervention in Portugal and Spain.\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Theodore Roethke\n", "Theodore Huebner Roethke ( ; May 25, 1908 – August 1, 1963) was an American poet. Roethke is regarded as one of the most accomplished and influential poets of his generation.\n", "Roethke's work is characterized by its introspection, rhythm and natural imagery. He was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for poetry in 1954 for his book \"The Waking\", and he won the annual National Book Award for Poetry twice, in 1959 for \"Words for the Wind\" and posthumously in 1965 for \"The Far Field\".\n", "In the November 1968 edition of \"The Atlantic Monthly\", former U.S. Poet Laureate and author James Dickey wrote Roethke was \"in my opinion the greatest poet this country has yet produced.\"\n", "Roethke was also a highly regarded poetry teacher. He taught at University of Washington for fifteen years. His students from that period won two Pulitzer Prizes for Poetry and two others were nominated for the award. \"He was probably the best poetry-writing teacher ever,\" said poet Richard Hugo, who studied under Roethke.\n", "Section::::Biography.\n", "Roethke was born in Saginaw, Michigan and grew up on the west side of the Saginaw River. His father, Otto, was a German immigrant, a market-gardener who owned a large local 25-acre greenhouse, along with his brother (Theodore's uncle). Much of Theodore's childhood was spent in this greenhouse, as reflected by the use of natural images in his poetry. In early 1923 when Roethke was 15 years old, his uncle committed suicide and his father died of cancer. Roethke noted that these events affected him deeply and influenced his work.\n", "Roethke attended the University of Michigan, earning a B.A. \"magna cum laude\" and Phi Beta Kappa. He continued on at Michigan to receive a M.A. in English. He briefly attended the University of Michigan School of Law before entering graduate school at Harvard University, where he studied under the poet Robert Hillyer. Abandoning graduate study because of the Great Depression, he taught English at several universities, including Michigan State University, Lafayette College, Pennsylvania State University, and Bennington College.\n", "In 1940, he was expelled from his position at Lafayette and he returned to Michigan. Prior to his return, he had an affair with established poet and critic Louise Bogan, one of his strongest early supporters. While teaching at Michigan State University in East Lansing, he began to suffer from manic depression, which fueled his poetic impetus. His last teaching position was at the University of Washington, leading to an association with the poets of the American Northwest.\n", "Some of his best known students included James Wright, Carolyn Kizer, Tess Gallagher, Jack Gilbert, Richard Hugo, and David Wagoner. The highly introspective nature of Roethke's work greatly influenced the poet Sylvia Plath. So influential was Roethke's poetry on Plath's mature poetry that when she submitted \"Poem for a Birthday\" to \"Poetry\" magazine, it was turned down because it displayed \"too imposing a debt to Roethke.\"\n", "In 1952, Roethke received a Ford Foundation grant to \"expand on his knowledge of philosophy and theology\", and spent most of his time from June 1952 to September 1953 reading primarily existential works. Among the philosophers and theologians he read were Sören Kierkegaard, Evelyn Underhill, Meister Eckhart, Paul Tillich, Jacob Boehme, and Martin Buber.\n", "In 1953, Roethke married Beatrice O'Connell, a former student. Like many other American poets of his generation, Roethke was a heavy drinker and susceptible to bouts of mental illness. He did not initially inform O'Connell of his repeated episodes of mania and depression, yet she remained dedicated to him and his work. She ensured the posthumous publication of his final volume of poetry, \"The Far Field\", as well as a book of his collected children's verse, \"Dirty Dinky and Other Creatures,\" in 1973. From 1955 to 1956 he spent one year in Italy on a scholarship of the U.S.-Italy Fulbright Commission.\n", "In 1961, \"The Return\" was featured on George Abbe's album \"Anthology of Contemporary American Poetry\" on Folkways Records. The following year, Roethke released his own album on the label entitled, \"Words for the Wind: Poems of Theodore Roethke\".\n", "He suffered a heart attack in his friend S. Rasnics' swimming pool in 1963 and died on Bainbridge Island, Washington, aged 55. The pool was later filled in and is now a zen rock garden, which can be viewed by the public at the Bloedel Reserve, a 150-acre (60 hectare) former private estate. There is no sign to indicate that the rock garden was the site of Roethke's death.\n", "There is a sign that commemorates his boyhood home and burial in Saginaw, Michigan. The historical marker notes in part:\n", "Theodore Roethke (1908–1963) wrote of his poetry: The greenhouse \"is my symbol for the whole of life, a womb, a heaven-on-earth.\" Roethke drew inspiration from his childhood experiences of working in his family's Saginaw floral company. Beginning in 1941 with \"Open House\", the distinguished poet and teacher published extensively, receiving a Pulitzer Prize for poetry and two National Book Awards among an array of honors. In 1959 Pennsylvania University awarded him the Bollingen Prize. Roethke taught at Michigan State College, (present-day Michigan State University) and at colleges in Pennsylvania and Vermont, before joining the faculty of the University of Washington at Seattle in 1947. Roethke died in Washington in 1963. His remains are interred in Saginaw's Oakwood Cemetery.\n", "The Friends of Theodore Roethke Foundation maintains his birthplace at 1805 Gratiot in Saginaw as a museum.\n", "Roethke Auditorium (Kane Hall 130) at the University of Washington is named in his honor.\n", "In 1995, the Seattle alley between Seventh and Eighth Avenues N.E. running from N.E. 45th Street to N.E. 47th Street was named Roethke Mews in his honor. It adjoins the Blue Moon Tavern, one of Roethke's haunts.\n", "In 2016, the Theodore Roethke Home museum announce their \"quest to find as many as possible of the 1,000 hand-numbered copies of [...] Roethke's debut collection, \"Open House,\" to celebrate the 75th anniversary of the work's publication.\"\n", "Section::::Critical responses.\n", "Two-time US Poet Laureate Stanley Kunitz said of Roethke, \"The poet of my generation who meant most to me, in his person and in his art, was Theodore Roethke.\"\n", "In a Spring 1976 interview in the \"Paris Review\" (No. 65), James Dickey defended his choice of Roethke as the greatest of all American poets. Dickey states: \"I don't see anyone else that has the kind of deep, gut vitality that Roethke's got. Whitman was a great poet, but he's no competition for Roethke.\"\n", "In his book \"The Western Canon; The Books and School of the Age,\" (1994) Yale literary critic Harold Bloom cites two Roethke books, \"Collected Poems\" and \"Straw for The Fire,\" on his list of essential writers and books. Bloom also groups Roethke with Elizabeth Bishop and Robert Penn Warren as the most accomplished among the \"middle generation\" of American poets.\n", "In her 2006 book, \"Break, Blow, Burn: Forty-three of the World's Best Poems,\" critic Camille Paglia includes three Roethke poems, more than any other 20th-century writer cited in the book.\n", "The Poetry Foundation entry on Roethke notes early reviews of his work and Roethke's response to that early criticism: W. H. Auden called [Roethke's first book] \"Open House\" \"completely successful.\" In another review of the book, Elizabeth Drew felt \"his poems have a controlled grace of movement and his images the utmost precision; while in the expression of a kind of gnomic wisdom which is peculiar to him as he attains an austerity of contemplation and a pared, spare strictness of language very unusual in poets of today.\" Roethke kept both Auden's and Drew's reviews, along with other favorable reactions to his work. As he remained sensitive to how peers and others he respected should view his poetry, so too did he remain sensitive to his introspective drives as the source of his creativity. Understandably, critics picked up on the self as the predominant preoccupation in Roethke's poems.\n", "Roethke's breakthrough book, \"The Lost Son and Other Poems\", also won him considerable praise. For instance, Michael Harrington felt Roethke \"found his own voice and central themes in The Lost Son\" and Stanley Kunitz saw a \"confirmation that he was in full possession of his art and of his vision.\" In \"Against Oblivion\", an examination of forty-five twentieth century poets, the critic Ian Hamilton also praised this book, writing, \"In Roethke's second book, \"The Lost Son\", there are several of these greenhouse poems and they are among the best things he wrote; convincing and exact, and rich in loamy detail.\" Michael O'Sullivan points to the phrase \"uncertain congress of stinks\", from the greenhouse poem \"Root Cellar\", as Roethke's insistence on the ambiguous processes of the animal and vegetable world, processes that cannot be reduced to growth and decay alone.\n", "In addition to the well-known greenhouse poems, the Poetry Foundation notes that Roethke also won praise \"for his love poems which first appeared in \"The Waking\" and earned their own section in the new book and 'were a distinct departure from the painful excavations of the monologues and in some respects a return to the strict stanzaic forms of the earliest work,' [according to the poet] Stanley Kunitz. [The critic] Ralph Mills described 'the amatory verse' as a blend of 'consideration of self with qualities of eroticism and sensuality; but more important, the poems introduce and maintain a fascination with something beyond the self, that is, with the figure of the other, or the beloved woman.'\"\n", "In reviewing his posthumously published \"Collected Poems\" in 1966, Karl Malkoff of \"The Sewanee Review\" wrote: Though not definitive, \"Roethke: Collected Poems\" is a major book of poetry. It reveals the full extent of Roethke's achievement: his ability to perceive reality in terms of the tensions between inner and outer worlds, and to find a meaningful system of metaphor with which to communicate this perception... It also points up his weaknesses: the derivative quality of his less successful verse, the limited areas of concern in even his best poems. The balance, it seems to me, is in Roethke's favor... He is one of our finest poets, a human poet in a world that threatens to turn man into an object.\n", "In 1967 Roethke's \"Collected Poems\" topped the lists of two of the three Pulitzer Prize poetry voters; Phyllis McGinley and Louis Simpson. However the group's chairman, Richard Eberhart, lobbied against Roethke on the grounds that the award should go to a living poet. It would have been Roethke's second Pulitzer Prize.\n", "Section::::Bibliography.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Open House\" (1941)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Lost Son and Other Poems\" (1948)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Praise to the End!\" (1951)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Waking\" (1953)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Words For The Wind\" (1958)\n", "BULLET::::- \"I Am! Says The Lamb\" (1961)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Party at the Zoo\" (1963) (A Modern Masters Book for Children, illustrated by Al Swiller)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Far Field\" (1964)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Dirty Dinky and Other Creatures: Poems for Children\" (1973)\n", "BULLET::::- \"On Poetry and Craft: Selected Prose and Craft of Theodore Roethke\" (Copper Canyon Press, 2001)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Straw for the Fire: From the Notebooks of Theodore Roethke, 1943-63\" (1972; Copper Canyon Press, 2006) (selected and arranged by David Wagoner)\n", "Section::::Film and theatre.\n", "Film\n", "BULLET::::- \"In a Dark Time: A Film About Theodore Roethke\" (1964). Directed by Dan Myers for McGraw-Hill Films. 25:38 min.\n", "BULLET::::- \"I Remember Theodore Roethke\" (2005). Produced and edited by Jean Walkinshaw. SCCtv (Seattle Community Colleges Television). 30 min.\n", "Theatre\n", "BULLET::::- \"First Class\": A Play About Theodore Roethke (2007). Written by David Wagoner.\n", "Section::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- Southworth, James G., \"The Poetry of Theodore Roethke\", \"College English\" (Vol. 21, No. 6) March 1960, pp. 326–330, 335-338.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Friends of Roethke page\n", "BULLET::::- Brief biography at Washington State History\n", "BULLET::::- \"Theodore Roethke Remembered\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Theodore Roethke Michigan's Poet\" by Linda Robinson Walker at \"Michigan Today\" (Summer 2001)\n", "BULLET::::- Roethke at the Modern American Poetry Site\n", "BULLET::::- \"Salvaged Poems of Theodore Roethke: recollected by an old friend\" ArtsEditor.com\n", "BULLET::::- Brief profile at PBS\n", "BULLET::::- Roethke Memorial Poetry Readings at University of Washington\n", "BULLET::::- \"Roethke's Revisions And The Tone Of 'My Papa's Waltz'\"\n", "BULLET::::- Stanley Kunitz on his friend Theodore Roethke\n", "BULLET::::- Theodore Roethke Family Photograph Collection, University of Washington Libraries Digital Collections\n" ] }

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{ "description": "American poet", "enwikiquote_title": "Theodore Roethke", "wikidata_id": "Q1151763", "wikidata_label": "Theodore Roethke", "wikipedia_title": "Theodore Roethke", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 157763, "parentid": 897433308, "revid": 899800230, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-06-01T13:13:16Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Theodore%20Roethke&oldid=899800230" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Battle of Vitoria\n", "At the Battle of Vitoria (21 June 1813) a British, Portuguese and Spanish army under General the Marquess of Wellington broke the French army under King Joseph Bonaparte and Marshal Jean-Baptiste Jourdan near Vitoria in Spain, eventually leading to victory in the Peninsular War.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "In July 1812, after the Battle of Salamanca, the French had evacuated Madrid, which Wellington's army entered on 12 August 1812. Deploying three divisions to guard its southern approaches, Wellington marched north with the rest of his army to lay siege to the fortress of Burgos, away, but he had miscalculated the enemy's strength, and on 21 October he had to abandon the Siege of Burgos and retreat. By 31 October he had abandoned Madrid too, and retreated first to Salamanca then to Ciudad Rodrigo, near the Portuguese frontier, to avoid encirclement by French armies from the north-east and south-east.\n", "Wellington spent the winter reorganizing and reinforcing his forces. By contrast, Napoleon retreated numerous soldiers to reconstruct his main army after his disastrous invasion of Russia. By 20 May 1813 Wellington marched 121,000 troops (53,749 British, 39,608 Spanish and 27,569 Portuguese) from northern Portugal across the mountains of northern Spain and the Esla River to outflank Marshal Jourdan's army of 68,000, strung out between the Douro and the Tagus. The French retreated to Burgos, with Wellington's forces marching hard to cut them off from the road to France. Wellington himself commanded the small central force in a strategic feint, while Sir Thomas Graham conducted the bulk of the army around the French right flank over landscape considered impassable.\n", "Wellington launched his attack with 57,000 British, 16,000 Portuguese and 8,000 Spanish at Vitoria on 21 June, from four directions.\n", "Section::::Background.:Terrain.\n", "The battlefield centres on the Zadorra River, which runs from east to west. As the Zadorra runs west, it loops into a hairpin bend, finally swinging generally to the southwest. On the south of the battlefield are the Heights of La Puebla. To the northwest is the mass of Monte Arrato. Vitoria stands to the east, two miles (3 km) south of the Zadorra. Five roads radiate from Vitoria, north to Bilbao, northeast to Salinas and Bayonne, east to Salvatierra, south to Logroño and west to Burgos on the south side of the Zadorra.\n", "Section::::Background.:Plans.\n", "Jourdan was ill with a fever all day on 20 June. Because of this, few orders were issued and the French forces stood idle. An enormous wagon train of booty clogged the streets of Vitoria. A convoy left during the night, but it had to leave siege artillery behind because there were not enough draft animals to pull the cannons.\n", "Gazan's divisions guarded the narrow western end of the Zadorra valley, deployed south of the river. Maransin's brigade was posted in advance, at the village of Subijana. The divisions were disposed with Leval on the right, Daricau in the centre, Conroux on the left and Villatte in reserve. Only a picket guarded the western extremity of the Heights of La Puebla.\n", "Further back, d'Erlon's force stood in a second line, also south of the river. Darmagnac's division deployed on the right and Cassagne's on the left. D'Erlon failed to destroy three bridges near the river's hairpin bend and posted Avy's weak cavalry division to guard them. Reille's men originally formed a third line, but Sarrut's division was sent north of the river to guard the Bilbao road while Lamartinière's division and the Spanish Royal Guard units held the river bank.\n", "Wellington directed Hill's 20,000-man Right Column to drive the French from the Zadorra defile on the south side of the river. While the French were preoccupied with Hill, Wellington's Right Centre column moved along the north bank of the river and crossed it near the hairpin bend behind the French right flank.\n", "Graham's 20,000-man Left Column was sent around the north side of Monte Arrato. It drove down the Bilbao road, cutting off the bulk of the French army. Dalhousie's Left Centre column cut across Monte Arrato and struck the river east of the hairpin, providing a link between Graham and Wellington.\n", "Section::::Battle.\n", "Wellington's plan split his army into four attacking \"columns\", attacking the French defensive position from south, west and north while the last column cut down across the French rear. Coming up the Burgos road, Hill sent Pablo Morillo's Division to the right on a climb up the Heights of La Puebla. Stewart's 2nd Division began deploying to the left in the narrow plain just south of the river. Seeing these moves, Gazan sent Maransin forward to drive Morillo off the heights. Hill moved Col. Henry Cadogan's brigade of the 2nd Division to assist Morillo. Gazan responded by committing Villatte's reserve division to the battle on the heights.\n", "About this time, Gazan first spotted Wellington's column moving north of the Zadorra to turn his right flank. He asked Jourdan, now recovered from his fever, for reinforcements. Having become obsessed with the safety of his left flank, the marshal refused to help Gazan, instead ordering some of D'Erlon's troops to guard the Logroño road.\n", "Wellington thrust James Kempt's brigade of the Light Division across the Zadorra at the hairpin. At the same time, Stewart took Subijana and was counterattacked by two of Gazan's divisions. On the heights, Cadogan was killed, but the Anglo-Spanish force managed to hang on to its foothold. Wellington suspended his attacks to allow Graham's column time to make an impression and a lull descended on the battlefield.\n", "At noon, Graham's column appeared on the Bilbao road. Jourdan immediately realised he was in danger of envelopment and ordered Gazan to pull back toward Vitoria. Graham drove Sarrut's division back across the river, but could not force his way across the Zadorra despite bitter fighting. Further east, Longa's Spanish troops defeated the Spanish Royal Guards and cut the road to Bayonne.\n", "With some help from Kempt's brigade, Picton's 3rd Division from Dalhousie's column crossed to the south side of the river. According to Picton, the enemy responded by pummelling the 3rd with 40 to 50 cannon and a counter-attack on their right flank, still open because they had captured the bridge so quickly, causing the 3rd to lose 1,800 men (over one third of all Allied losses at the battle) as they held their ground. Cole's 4th Division crossed further west. With Gazan on the left and d'Erlon on the right, the French attempted a stand at the village of Arinez. Formed in a menacing line, the 4th, Light, 3rd and 7th Divisions soon captured this position. The French fell back to the Zuazo ridge, covered by their well-handled and numerous field artillery. This position fell to Wellington's attack when Gazan refused to cooperate with his colleague d'Erlon.\n", "French morale collapsed and the soldiers of Gazan and d'Erlon fled from the field. Artillerists left their guns behind as they fled on the trace horses. Soon the road was jammed with a mass of wagons and carriages. The efforts of Reille's two divisions, holding off Graham, allowed tens of thousands of French troops to escape by the Salvatierra road.\n", "Section::::Aftermath.\n", "The Allied army lost about 5,000 men, with 3,675 British, 921 Portuguese and 562 Spanish casualties. French losses totalled at least 5,200 killed and wounded, plus 2,800 men and 151 cannon captured. By army, the losses were South 4,300, Centre 2,100 and Portugal 1,600. There were no casualty returns from the Royal Guard or the artillery.\n", "French losses were not higher for several reasons. First, the Allied army had already marched that morning and was in no condition to pursue. Second, Reille's men valiantly held off Graham's column. Third, the valley by which the French retreated was narrow and well-covered by the 3rd Hussar and the 15th Dragoon Regiments acting as rearguard. Last, the French left their booty behind.\n", "Many British soldiers turned aside to plunder the abandoned French wagons, containing \"the loot of a kingdom\". It is estimated that more than £1 million of booty (perhaps £100 million in modern equivalent) was seized, but the gross abandonment of discipline caused an enraged Wellington to write in a dispatch to Earl Bathurst, \"We have in the service the scum of the earth as common soldiers\". The British general also vented his fury on a new cavalry regiment, writing, \"The 18th Hussars are a disgrace to the name of soldier, in action as well as elsewhere; and I propose to draft their horses from them and send the men to England if I cannot get the better of them in any other manner.\" (On 8April 1814, the 18th redeemed their reputation in a gallant charge led by Lieutenant-colonel Sir Henry Murray at Croix d'Orade, shortly before the Battle of Toulouse.)\n", "Order was soon restored, and by December, after detachments had seized San Sebastián and Pamplona, Wellington's army was encamped in France.\n", "Section::::Aftermath.:Legacy.\n", "The battle was the inspiration for Beethoven's Opus 91, often called the \"Battle Symphony\" or \"Wellington's Victory\", which portrays the battle as musical drama. \n", "The climax of the movie \"The Firefly\", starring Jeanette MacDonald, occurs with Wellington's attack on the French centre. (The film used music from an opera of the same name by Rudolf Friml, but with a totally different plot.) \n", "The battle and French rout also forms the climax to Bernard Cornwell's book \"Sharpe's Honour\".\n", "Section::::Aftermath.:Reenactment.\n", "Reenactment of the Battle of Vitoria, staged on Armentia fields, Vitoria-Gasteiz,22 June 2013, Bicentenary of the Battle\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- The Cruel War in Spain - Armies, Battles, Skirmishes\n" ] }

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{ "description": "battle", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q276059", "wikidata_label": "Battle of Vitoria", "wikipedia_title": "Battle of Vitoria", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 157766, "parentid": 905520353, "revid": 905552560, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-09T21:11:56Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle%20of%20Vitoria&oldid=905552560" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Richard Briers\n", "Richard David Briers, (14 January 1934 – 17 February 2013) was an English actor. His fifty-year career encompassed television, stage, film and radio.\n", "Briers first came to prominence as George Starling in \"Marriage Lines\" (1961–66), but it was a decade later, when he narrated \"Roobarb\" and \"Noah and Nelly in... SkylArk\" (1974–76) and when he played Tom Good in the BBC sitcom \"The Good Life\" (1975–78), that he became a household name. Later, he starred as Martin in \"Ever Decreasing Circles\" (1984–89), and he had a leading role as Hector in \"Monarch of the Glen\" (2000–05). From the late 1980s, with Kenneth Branagh as director, he performed Shakespearean roles in \"Henry V\" (1989), \"Much Ado About Nothing\" (1993), \"Hamlet\" (1996), and \"As You Like It\" (2006).\n", "Section::::Early life.\n", "Briers was born in Raynes Park, Surrey, the son of Joseph Benjamin Briers and his second wife Morna Phyllis, daughter of Frederick Richardson, of the Indian Civil Service. He was the first cousin once removed of actor Terry-Thomas (Terry-Thomas was his father's cousin). He spent his childhood at Raynes Park in a flat, Number 2 Pepys Court, behind the now demolished Rialto cinema, and later at Guildford. Joseph Briers was the son of a stockbroker, of a family of Middlesex tenant farmers; a gregarious and popular man, he contended with a nervous disposition, and drifted between jobs, spending most of his life as a bookmaker but also working as, amongst other things, an estate agent's clerk and a factory worker for an air filter manufacturer, as well as a gifted amateur singer who attended classes at the Guildhall School of Music and Drama. Morna Briers was a concert pianist and a drama and music teacher, and a member of Equity, who wished for a showbusiness career, having acted in her youth. The couple had met when Joseph Briers asked Morna to stand in for his regular pianist for a performance; by this time his first marriage had collapsed and six months later they had entered a relationship. The family occasionally received money from a wealthy relation, and Briers's maternal grandparents paid for his education, despite not being particularly well-off, and having lived in slightly reduced circumstances in India before returning to England and coming to live at Wimbledon.\n", "Briers attended Rokeby School in Kingston upon Thames, Surrey, and, having failed the examination for King's College School, the Ridgeway School in Wimbledon, which he left at the age of 16 without any formal qualifications.\n", "Section::::Early career.\n", "Briers' first job was a clerical post with a London cable manufacturer, and for a short time he went to evening classes to qualify in electrical engineering, but soon left and became a filing clerk.\n", "At the age of 18, he was called up for two years national service in the RAF, during which he was a filing clerk at RAF Northwood, where he met future \"George and Mildred\" actor Brian Murphy. Murphy introduced Briers, who had been interested in acting since the age of 14, to the Dramatic Society at the Borough Polytechnic Institute, now London South Bank University, where he performed in several productions.\n", "When he left the RAF he studied at RADA, which he attended from 1954 to 1956. Placed in a class with both Peter O'Toole and Albert Finney, Briers later credited academy director John Fernald with nurturing his talent. Graduating from RADA with a Silver Medal, he won a scholarship with the Liverpool Repertory Company, and after 15 months moved to the Belgrade Theatre in Coventry for 6 months. He made his West End debut in the Duke of York's Theatre 1959 production of \"Gilt And Gingerbread\" by Lionel Hale.\n", "Section::::Television career.\n", "In 1961, Briers was cast in the leading role in \"Marriage Lines\" (1961–66) with Prunella Scales playing his wife. In between the pilot and the series itself, Briers appeared in \"Brothers in Law\" (from the book by Henry Cecil) as callow barrister Roger Thursby in 1962. He was cast in this role by adaptors Frank Muir and Denis Norden, who had seen him in the West End.\n", "His other early appearances included \"The Seven Faces of Jim\" (1961) with Jimmy Edwards, \"Dixon of Dock Green\" (1962), a production of Noël Coward's \"Hay Fever\" (1968) and the storyteller in several episodes of \"Jackanory\" (1969). In 1970, he starred in the Ben Travers Farce \"Rookery Nook\", shown on the BBC. In the 1980s he played several Shakespearean roles, including \"Twelfth Night\". Briers was featured twice on the Thames Television show \"This Is Your Life\" in May 1972 and March 1994.\n", "In a role specifically written for him by John Esmonde and Bob Larbey, Briers was cast in the lead role in \"The Good Life\" (1975–78), playing Tom Good, a draughtsman who decides, on his 40th birthday, to give up his job and try his hand at self-sufficiency, with the support of his wife Barbara, played by Felicity Kendal. Briers persuaded the producers to cast his friend Paul Eddington, a fellow council member of Equity, in the role of Jerry. An enormously successful series, the last episode in 1978 was performed in front of Queen Elizabeth II. In 1977, he starred with his \"The Good Life\" co-star Penelope Keith in the televised version of Alan Ayckbourn's trilogy \"The Norman Conquests\". He also starred as Ralph in 13 episodes of \"The Other One\" (1977–79) with Michael Gambon.\n", "During the 1980s and 1990s, Briers had leading roles in several television shows. including \"Goodbye, Mr Kent\" (1982), a rare failure also featuring Hannah Gordon, the lead role of Martin Bryce in \"Ever Decreasing Circles\" (1984–89), and as Godfrey Spry in the BBC comedy drama \"If You See God, Tell Him\" (1993). He also starred in \"All in Good Faith\" (1985), \"Tales of the Unexpected\" (1988), and \"Mr. Bean\" (1990). In 1987, he appeared as the principal villain in the \"Doctor Who\" serial \"Paradise Towers\", a performance which was described by \"Radio Times\" writer Patrick Mulkern as Briers' \"career-low\". In 1995 he played the character Tony Fairfax in the BBC comedy \"Down to Earth\". In the Inspector Morse episode 'Death is Now My Neighbour', he played the evil master of Lonsdale College, Sir Clixby Bream.\n", "In the 2000s Briers was the curmudgeonly and extravagant father Hector MacDonald in the BBC television programme \"Monarch of the Glen\" (2000–05), appearing in series 1, 2, 3 and 7.\n", "Section::::Stage work.\n", "Briers spent much of his career in the theatre, including appearances in plays by Shakespeare and George Bernard Shaw. In 1967, one of his earliest successes was playing alongside Michael Hordern and Celia Johnson in the London production of Alan Ayckbourn's \"Relatively Speaking\".\n", "After a long career in television sitcom, and looking to expand his career, his daughter Lucy took him to Stratford-upon-Avon to watch Kenneth Branagh in \"Henry V\". After meeting Branagh backstage after the performance, Branagh offered Briers the role of Malvolio in the Renaissance Theatre Company production of \"Twelfth Night\". Briers joined the company, and went on to play title parts in \"King Lear\" and \"Uncle Vanya\". Briers also appeared in many of Branagh's films, including \"Henry V\" (1989, as Bardolph), \"Much Ado About Nothing\" (1993, as Signor Leonato) and \"Hamlet\" (1996, as Polonius). The theatre production of \"Twelfth Night\" (1988) was adapted for television, with Briers reprising his role as Malvolio.\n", "In 2010, Briers played in the Royal National Theatre revival of Dion Boucicault's \"London Assurance\", alongside Simon Russell Beale and Fiona Shaw. A performance of this was broadcast live to cinemas round the world as part of the \"NT Live!\" programme. He also played the character of Captain Bluntschli, in Bernard Shaw's play 'Arms and the Man'\n", "Section::::Film.\n", "Briers made his film debut in the British feature film \"Bottoms Up\" (1960). He then took parts in \"Murder She Said\" (1961), \"The Girl on the Boat\" (1962), \"A Matter of WHO\" (1962), \"The V.I.P.s\" (1963); and Raquel Welch's spy spoof \"Fathom\" (1967).\n", "He latterly appeared in Michael Winner's \"A Chorus of Disapproval\" (1988) and the film \"Unconditional Love\" (2002) as well as the Kenneth Branagh adaptation of \"Much Ado About Nothing\" (1998) in which he played the role of Leonato. His last film was \"Cockneys vs Zombies\" (2012).\n", "Section::::Radio and voice work.\n", "He was a familiar voice actor. Briers narrated the animated children's TV programme \"Roobarb\" (1974). Originally shown on BBC1 just before the evening news, each five-minute cartoon was written by Grange Calveley and produced by Bob Godfrey. He was the original narrator and voice actor for all the characters in the \"Noddy\" (1975) TV series based on the Enid Blyton character, and then another series with Godfrey, \"Noah and Nelly in... SkylArk\" (1976). He also provided the voice of Fiver in the animated film adaptation of \"Watership Down\" (1978). In 1990 Briers provided the narration and voiced all the characters in the five minute animated series \"Coconuts\" about a monkey, a king lion and a parrot who lived on a tropical island. The series ran for thirteen episodes and first aired on ITV on 23 April 1990. In the 1990s, he voiced the part of Mouse, opposite Alan Bennett's Mole in the TV series \"Mouse and Mole\", based on books by Joyce Dunbar and James Mayhew. He latterly starred alongside Neil Morrissey in \"Bob the Builder\" (2005) as Bob's Dad, Robert to his credit. He also recorded the four seasonal \"Percy The Park Keeper\" stories for a home audio release based on the books by Nick Butterworth, creating memorable voices for all of the animal characters as well as Percy the Park Keeper himself. Briers also featured in the television series adaptation of \"Watership Down\" (1999–2001), this time voicing a series exclusive character called Captain Broom, and was one of the very few actors who stayed for all three series.\n", "His work in radio included playing Dr. Simon Sparrow in BBC Radio 4's adaptions of Richard Gordon's \"Doctor in the House\" and \"Doctor at Large\" (1968), and a retired thespian in a series of six plays with Stanley Baxter \"\" (2008), and later the play \"Not Talking\", commissioned for BBC Radio 3 by Mike Bartlett. In 1986 he narrated Radio 4's \"Oh, yes it is!\", a history of pantomime written by Gerald Frow. Between 1973 and 1981, Briers played Bertie Wooster in several adaptations of the P. G. Wodehouse novels with Michael Hordern as Jeeves.\n", "Briers narrated numerous commercials. including adverts for the Midland Bank in which he was the voice of the company's Griffin symbol. Between 1984 and 1986 he made a series of commercials for the Ford Sierra done in a sitcom style portraying the Sierra as \"one of the family\". Briers narrated the public information film \"Frances the Firefly\", about the dangers of playing with matches, firstly in the mid 1990s when first made, and then in the early 2000s when re-made by the Government fire safety campaign Fire Kills. He also recorded the voice of a Sat nav specifically designed for senior citizens in the BBC 2’s TV Show \"Top Gear\", Series 19, episode 5, which aired only a week after his death. Presenter Jeremy Clarkson paid a brief tribute to his memory at the end of the episode.\n", "Section::::Later career.\n", "After 1990, he appeared in \"Lovejoy\", \"Inspector Morse\", \"Midsomer Murders\" (the episode \"Death's Shadow\"), \"Doctors\", \"New Tricks\", \"Kingdom\", and \"If You See God, Tell Him\". Richard Briers starred as Hector in the first three series of \"Monarch of the Glen\" from 2000 to 2002 (and as a guest in series 7 in 2005), a role which saw him return to the limelight. He contributed \"Sonnet 55\" to the 2002 compilation album, \"When Love Speaks\", which features famous actors and musicians interpreting Shakespeare's sonnets and play excerpts. In 2005, he appeared alongside Kevin Whately in \"Dad\", a TV Film made by BBC Wales exploring issues of elder abuse. In 2006, he made an appearance in an episode of \"Extras\", and portrayed the servant Adam in Kenneth Branagh's 2006 Shakespeare adaptation, \"As You Like It\". He made a cameo appearance as a dying recluse in the 2008 \"Torchwood\" episode \"A Day in the Death\".\n", "On 17 December 2000, Briers was the guest on BBC Radio 4’s \"Desert Island Discs\". Among his musical choices were \"Di quella pira\" from \"Il Trovatore\" by Giuseppe Verdi, \"I Feel A Song Coming On\" by Al Jolson and \"On The Sunny Side Of The Street\" by Louis Armstrong. His favourite piece was the Organ Concerto in F major \"The Cuckoo and the Nightingale\" by George Frideric Handel.\n", "Section::::Personal life.\n", "Briers met Ann Davies while both were at Liverpool Rep. Davies was employed as a stage manager, and had acted on television and in films from the mid-1950s. Soon after meeting, he borrowed £5 from his mother, bought an engagement ring and they were married within six months. They had two daughters, one of whom, Lucy, is also an actress; Kate (or Katie) has worked in stage management, and is a primary school teacher.\n", "Briers and his friend Paul Eddington shared a similar sense of humour, and knew each other before being cast in \"The Good Life\". After Eddington was diagnosed with skin cancer, Briers accepted a role opposite him in David Storey's play \"Home\" in 1994, agreeing to take on all of the publicity interviews to allow Eddington time for his treatment. At Eddington's memorial service, Briers read both from \"Cymbeline\" and Wodehouse; he later read chapters from Eddington's autobiography on BBC Radio 4.\n", "In 2014, BBC Radio 4 broadcast \"Memories of a Cad\", an affectionate comedy drama by Roy Smiles about the relationship between Terry-Thomas and Briers, played by Martin Jarvis and Alistair McGowan respectively. Set in 1984 when he had suffered from Parkinson's Disease for many years, Terry-Thomas is delighted by the visit to his home in Ibiza of the much younger Briers, who he recognises from television, and who proves to be his first cousin once removed. Briers cheers him up by recalling the career the film-star has long forgotten. It was re-broadcast in 2016.\n", "As a result of Terry-Thomas's Parkinson's, Briers became President of Parkinson's UK. He also helped to launch a Sense-National Deafblind and Rubella Association campaign. Briers was also a non-medical patron of the TOFS (Tracheo-Oesophageal Fistula Support) charity, which supports children and the families of children born unable to swallow.\n", "Interviewed by \"The Daily Telegraph\" in 2008, Briers admitted that, while on holiday, he enjoyed being recognised, saying, \"I’m gregarious by nature, so I love chatting to people. It really cheers me up.\"\n", "Briers was a keen visitor of Britain's historic churches and visited over one hundred for his book \"English Country Churches\" which was published in 1988. From his national service in the RAF, he was a supporter for a national memorial for RAF Bomber Command.\n", "Briers was appointed OBE in 1989, and CBE in 2003.\n", "Section::::Death.\n", "In an interview with the \"Daily Mail\" on 31 January 2013, Briers stated that he had smoked about half a million cigarettes before he quit. According to Lucy Briers, his daughter, he quit in 2001 immediately after a routine chest X-ray suggested he would otherwise soon be in a wheelchair.\n", "He was diagnosed with emphysema in 2007. He died at his home in Bedford Park, London on 17 February 2013 from the effects of a cardiac arrest. His funeral was held at the local church of St Michael and All Angels on 6 March 2013.\n", "Section::::Tributes.\n", "The BBC referred to him as \"one of Britain's best-loved actors\". Sir Kenneth Branagh paid tribute to him, saying, \"He was a national treasure, a great actor and a wonderful man. He was greatly loved and he will be deeply missed.\" \n", "Briers's agent, Christopher Farrar, said: \"Richard was a wonderful man, a consummate professional and an absolute joy to work alongside. Following his recent discussion of his battle with emphysema, I know he was incredibly touched by the strength of support expressed by friends and the public.\"\n", "Fellow television star Penelope Keith said, \"He was always courteous, always generous and always self-deprecating\" adding, \"He was also such a clever actor that he made you feel secure. You believed he was who he was portraying on the screen or on the stage... I just think of Richard and smile.\"\n", "Writing in \"The Guardian\", critic Michael Coveney described Briers as \"always the most modest and self-deprecating of actors, and the sweetest of men,\" and noted: \"Although he excelled in the plays of Alan Ayckbourn, and became a national figure in his television sitcoms of the 1970s and 80s, notably \"The Good Life\", he could mine hidden depths on stage, giving notable performances in Ibsen, Chekhov and, for Kenneth Branagh's Renaissance company, Shakespeare.\"\n", "On 30 March 2013, BBC Two broadcast an hour long review of Briers' life and career, with tributes from many friends and colleagues.\n", "Section::::Tributes.:Ever Increasing Wonder.\n", "On Christmas Day 2013, BBC Radio 4 Extra broadcast a day of tribute to Briers titled \"Ever Increasing Wonder\", with a variety of his BBC Radio recordings, many of them introduced by those who knew him and worked with him.\n", "Guest speakers included:\n", "BULLET::::- Prunella Scales\n", "BULLET::::- Stephen Fry\n", "BULLET::::- Michael Chaplin\n", "BULLET::::- Alan Bennett\n", "BULLET::::- Michael Ball\n", "BULLET::::- Kenneth Branagh\n", "BULLET::::- Ed Harris\n", "BULLET::::- Briers's widow Ann Davies and their daughters\n", "Programmes included:\n", "BULLET::::- \"Brothers in Law\" (radio adaptation of the TV series)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Doctor in the House\" (radio adaptation of the TV series)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Marriage Lines\" (radio adaptation of the TV series)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Largo desolato\" (by Vaclav Havel)\n", "BULLET::::- \"What Ho! Jeeves: Joy in the Morning\" (radio adaptation of the novel by P. G. Wodehouse)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Wind in the Willows\" (by Kenneth Grahame, dramatized by Alan Bennett)\n", "BULLET::::- Aled Jones's interview of Briers\n", "Section::::Selected filmography.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Girls at Sea\" (1958) - 'Popeye' Lewis\n", "BULLET::::- \"Bottoms Up\" (1960) - Colbourne\n", "BULLET::::- \"Murder, She Said\" (1961) - 'Mrs. Binster'\n", "BULLET::::- \"A Matter of WHO\" (1961) - Jamieson\n", "BULLET::::- \"Marriage Lines\" (1961–1966, TV sitcom) - George Starling\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Girl on the Boat\" (1962) - Eustace Hignett\n", "BULLET::::- \"The V.I.P.s\" (1963) - Met. Official (uncredited)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Doctor in Distress\" (1963) - Medical Student (uncredited)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Bargee\" (1964) - Tomkins\n", "BULLET::::- \"A Home of Your Own\" (1965) - The Husband\n", "BULLET::::- \"Fathom\" (1967) - Timothy\n", "BULLET::::- \"Rookery Nook\" (1970, TV drama) - Gerald Popkiss\n", "BULLET::::- \"All the Way Up\" (1970) - Nigel Hadfield\n", "BULLET::::- \"Rentadick\" (1972) - Miles Gannet\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Three Musketeers\" (1973) - King Louis XIII (voice, uncredited)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Roobarb\" (1974) - Louis XIII (voice, uncredited)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Good Life\" (1975–1978, TV sitcom) - Tom Good\n", "BULLET::::- \"Watership Down\" (1978) - Fiver (voice)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Other One\" (1977–1979, TV sitcom) - Ralph Tanner\n", "BULLET::::- \"Goodbye, Mr Kent\" (1982, TV sitcom) - Travis Kent\n", "BULLET::::- \"Ever Decreasing Circles\" (1984–1989, TV sitcom) - Martin Bryce\n", "BULLET::::- \"All in Good Faith\" (1985–1988, TV sitcom) - Reverend Philip Lambe\n", "BULLET::::- \"A Chorus of Disapproval\" (1989) - Ted Washbrook\n", "BULLET::::- \"Henry V\" (1989) - Lieutenant Bardolph\n", "BULLET::::- \"Peter's Friends\" (1992) - Lord Morton\n", "BULLET::::- \"Much Ado About Nothing\" (1993) - Leonato\n", "BULLET::::- \"If You See God, Tell Him\" (1993, TV sitcom) - Godfrey Spry\n", "BULLET::::- \"Frankenstein\" (1994) - Grandfather\n", "BULLET::::- \"A Midwinter's Tale\" (1995) - Henry Wakefield (Claudius, the Ghost, and the Player King)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Hamlet\" (1996) - Polonius\n", "BULLET::::- \"Spice World\" (1997) - Bishop\n", "BULLET::::- \"Love's Labour's Lost\" (2000) - Sir Nathaniel\n", "BULLET::::- \"Monarch of the Glen\" (2000–2005) - Hector MacDonald\n", "BULLET::::- \"Unconditional Love\" (2002) - Barry Moore\n", "BULLET::::- \"Peter Pan\" (2003) - Smee\n", "BULLET::::- \"As You Like It\" (2006) - Adam\n", "BULLET::::- \"National Theatre Live: London Assurance\" (2010) - Mr. Adolphus Spanker\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Only One Who Knows You're Afraid\" (2011) - Narrator\n", "BULLET::::- \"Run for Your Wife\" (2012) - Newspaper Seller\n", "BULLET::::- \"Cockneys vs Zombies\" (2012) - Hamish\n", "BULLET::::- \"Top Gear\" (2013, TV series) - Sat Nav (Voice)\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Richard Briers at BFI ScreenOnline\n", "BULLET::::- Obituary in The Independent by Marcus Williamson\n" ] }

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{ "description": "English actor", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q2734945", "wikidata_label": "Richard Briers", "wikipedia_title": "Richard Briers", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Richard David Briers" ] } }

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