Matengenezo ya Kiprotestanti

Question: Je,nini kilisababisha kifo cha Martin Luther?


Matengenezo ya Kiprotestanti ni muda wa mifululizo ya matukio ambayo yalitokea katika karne ya 16 katika Ukristo, hasa miaka 1517-1555, yaani kuanzia uenezi wa hoja 95 za Martin Luther hadi amani ya Augsburg. 
Kati yake chanzo, yaani mabishano ya Kikanisa yaliyosababishwa na teolojia ya Luther, yalichanganyikana mapema na siasa, uchumi na utamaduni, kutokana na hali halisi ya wakati huo, mbali kuliko mwenyewe alivyofikiri. 
Mizizi
Tangu karne za nyuma Wakristo wengi wa kila ngazi, kama vile watakatifu na Erasmus wa Rotterdam, waliona uhitaji wa kurekebisha hali ya Kanisa Katoliki huko Ulaya, lakini hoja na juhudi zao hazikutosha. 
Kati ya ukosoaji muhimu kuna haya yafuatayo:
Kanisa lilionekana kuuza misamaha ya dhambi ili kupata fedha za kujengea Basilika la Mt. Petro huko Vatikani. Hili lilitazamwa kama kwamba matajiri wangeweza kununua tiketi za kuenda peponi wakati maskini wasingeweza - kinyume kabisa na Biblia inavyosema.
Watu wengi walikuwa hawaelewi ibada kwa sababu zilikuwa zikifuata vitabu vilivyoandikwa kwa lugha ya Kilatini, ambayo haikutumiwa tena katika maisha ya kawaida. Wachungaji tofauti walieleza mambo tofauti.
Baadhi ya mambo hayo yana uhusiano na yale yaliyoandikwa katika Biblia (kitabu kitakatifu cha Kikristo). Wachungaji peke yao ndio waliokuwa wanaweza kukisoma, kwa hiyo watu wa kawaida hawakujua mambo mengi kuhusu dini yao.
Maana ya matengenezo
Hapo kale neno hilo (kwa Kilatini reformatio) lilihusu badiliko la hali mbaya iliyopo ili kurudia hali nzuri zaidi ya awali. Katika Karne za Kati lilitumika mara nyingi kwa marekebisho ya umonaki. Katika karne ya 15 haja ya urekebisho ilionekana wazi si tu kwa mashirika ya kitawa bali kwa Kanisa lote. Hasa Mtaguso wa Konstanz (1414-1418) ulidai kabisa ufanyike «katika kichwa na katika viungo». Lakini kwa jumla mitaguso yote ya Karne za Kati na mikutano mingi ya Bunge la Dola la Ujerumani ililenga urekebisho wa Kanisa.
Kwa kweli Karne za Kati zilikuwa na mchanganyiko wa mambo yaliyopingana: ibada za nje tu na za dhati kabisa; teolojia iliyoelekeza kutenda kwa msingi wa nipe nikupe na hakika ya kwamba binadamu anategemea kabisa neema ya Mungu; kutojali wajibu hata upande wa viongozi wa Kanisa na marekebisho safi ya mashirika ya kitawa.
Karne ya 15 ilikuwa kipindi cha umotomoto wa pekee katika Kanisa, ambapo walei wengi zaidi na zaidi walipata elimu nzuri, hivyo walitamani hotuba bora na mafundisho ya kuwasaidia kuishi Kikristo zaidi. Luther aliitikia haja hizo zilizomgusa sana kama mtu wa wakati wake.
Luther alitumia kwa nadra neno matengenezo, lakini likaja kuwa jina la kawaida la matukio yale mengi ya miaka 1517 - 1555.
Matukio
Watu kama Martin Luther, halafu John Calvin na wengineo, waliyaona hayo, wakawa wanayapinga, lakini pia walibadilisha mafundisho mengi ya Kanisa, kila mmoja namna yake, na kupelekea kuligawanya katika idadi kubwa ya madhehebu ya Kiprotestanti.
Kutokana na hayo tena yalizuka vita vingi Ulaya kwa muda mrefu ambavyo viliishia kufanya watu wachukie dini. Pia utaifa na hamu ya watawala kujitwalia mali ya Kanisa vilichangia sana.
Martin Luther alikuwa mtu wa kwanza kutafsiri Biblia kwa Kijerumani. Aliweza hata kuchapisha baadhi ya nakala, kwa sababu miaka ya nyuma Johannes Gutenberg alikuwa amebuni uchapishaji. Hivyo alitoa idadi ndogo ya nakala (imekisiwa kuwa 50-100) kwa kiasi kidogo kabisa. 
Matengenezo ya Kiprotestanti yaliwachoma sana Wakatoliki na kupelekea kuongeza juhudi za urekebisho wa Kanisa lao, zikiwa ni pamoja na kurudisha wengi ndani yake.
Hatimaye Ulaya Magharibi ilibaki imegawanyika: upande wa Kusini wakazi waliendelea kuwa Wakatoliki, kumbe Kaskazini wengi wakawa Waprotestanti. Mahusiano hayakuwa mazuri hadi karne ya 20 ilipoanza ekumeni.
Tathmini
Umoja halisi wa Kanisa unaweza kupatikana tu katika ukweli wa Injili ya Yesu Kristo. Ni habari mbaya kwamba katika karne ya 16 kuupigania ukweli huo kulivunja umoja wa Ukristo wa magharibi. Haiwezekani kushangilia mafarakano ya wafuasi wa Yesu.
Yale ya karne hiyo yalitokana na kuelewa tofauti kweli za imani ya Kikristo na yalikuwa na ukali kwa sababu pande zote zilisadiki kwamba kushikilia kwa usahihi ufunuo wa Mungu ni suala la wokovu wa milele. Kwa mfano, Martin Luther aliandika,«Sikubali mafundisho yangu yahukumiwe na yeyote, hata kama ni malaika. Asiyekubali mafundisho yangu hawezi kufikia wokovu».[1]
Pamoja na hayo, mambo mengi yalichangia farakano, si teolojia tu, bali siasa, uchumi, jamii na utamaduni. Wakati huo mara nyingi hoja za imani na malengo ya kisiasa vilichanganyikana: wanasiasa wengi walitumia hoja hizo ili kufikia malengo ya kiutawala, na vilevile wanateolojia walitumia siasa kutetea mafundisho yao ili kuvuta watu. Ndiyo sababu Luther alichorwa kama shujaa wa taifa la Ujerumani.
Mara nyingi pande zote zilipotosha maana ya wapinzani na kuwachora vibaya wakivunja amri ya nane inayokataza uongo dhidi ya jirani. Hata waliojitahidi kusema ukweli tu juu ya wengine kwa kawaida hawakujitahidi vya kutosha kuelewa msimamo wao na kuona kwamba pengine si mbaya zaidi. Kila mmoja alitaka ushindi akachangia ugomvi uliorithishwa kwa vizazi vilivyofuata.
Hivyo, kilichosababisha zaidi farakano si masuala ya imani yaliyojadiliwa na Waprotestanti, bali lawama zao dhidi ya hali mbaya ya Kanisa la wakati huo iliyokuwa inakera wengi na kuwaelekeza kuunga mkono urekebisho.
Tanbihi

Marejeo




, popular and well-illustrated


Marejeo ya kitaalamu
Kwa mpangilio wa kitarehe
 Catholic view.



Elton, G.R., ed. New Cambridge Modern History Volume II The Reformation 1520-59 (1958), 684pp
Swanson, Guy E. Religion and Regime: a Sociological Account of the Reformation. Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Press, 1967. x, 295 p.
 (focuses on religious teachings)
Gonzales, Justo. The Story of Christianity, Vol. 2: The Reformation to the Present Day. San Francisco: Harper, 1985. ISBN 0-06-063316-6.
Spitz, Lewis W. The Renaissance and Reformation Movements: Volume I, The Renaissance. Revised Edition. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1987. ISBN 0-570-03818-9; The Renaissance and Reformation Movements: Volume II, The Reformation. (2nd ed. Concordia Publishing House, 1987). ISBN 0-570-03819-7.
Braaten, Carl E. and Robert W. Jenson. The Catholicity of the Reformation. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996. ISBN 0-8028-4220-8.
Hillerbrand, Hans J., et al. eds. The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation (1996) vol. 1:296 pp., vol. 2:506 pp., vol. 3: 491 pp., vol. 4:484 pp., ISBN 0-19-506493-3
Elton, Geoffrey R. and Andrew Pettegree, eds. Reformation Europe: 1517-1559 (1999) 
Spitz, Lewis William. The Protestant Reformation: 1517-1559 (2003)
MacCulloch, Diarmaid. The Reformation: A History. New York: Penguin 2003; 864pp. influential recent synthesis
Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years (2011), pp 604–714, shorter version
Hendrix, Scott H. Recultivating the Vineyard: The Reformation Agendas of Christianization (Westminster John Knox Press, 2004). 
Bagchi, David, and David C. Steinmetz, eds. The Cambridge Companion to Reformation Theology (2004) 289 pp.
Hsia, R. Po-chia, ed. A Companion to the Reformation World (2006) 
Collinson, Patrick. The Reformation: A History (2006) 

Hillerbrand, Hans J. The Protestant Reformation (2nd ed. 2009) 
Lindberg, Carter. The European Reformations (2nd ed. 2009) 472pp, comprehensive introduction
Marshall, Peter. The Reformation: A Very Short Introduction (2009) 
Payton Jr. James R. Getting the Reformation Wrong: Correcting Some Misunderstandings (IVP Academic, 2010) 
Appold, Kenneth G. The Reformation: A Brief History (2011) 217pp
Balserak, Jon. John Calvin as Sixteenth-Century Prophet (Oxford University Press, 2014) 
Tafsiri za vyanzo
Fosdick, Harry Emerson, ed. Great Voices of the Reformation [and of other putative reformers before and after it]: an Anthology, ed., with an introd. and commentaries, by Harry Emerson Fosdick. New York: Modern Library, 1952. xxx, 546 p.
Janz, Denis, ed. A Reformation Reader: Primary Texts With Introductions (2008) 
Luther, Martin Luther's Correspondence and Other Contemporary Letters, 2 vols., tr. and ed. by Preserved Smith, Charles Michael Jacobs, The Lutheran Publication Society, Philadelphia, Pa. 1913, 1918.  from Google Books. Reprint of Vol.1, Wipf & Stock Publishers (March 2006). ISBN 1-59752-601-0.
Spitz, Lewis W. The Protestant Reformation: Major Documents. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1997. ISBN 0-570-04993-8
Vitabu vya historia
Bates, Lucy. "The Limits of Possibility in England's Long Reformation," Historical Journal (2010) 53#4 pp 1049–1070.
Bradshaw, Brendan. "The Reformation and the Counter-Reformation," History Today (1983) 33#11 pp 42–45.
Brady, Jr., Thomas A. "People's Religions in Reformation Europe," The Historical Journal (1991) 24#1 pp173–82
De Boer, Wietse. "An Uneasy Reunion The Catholic World in Reformation Studies," Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte (2009), Vol. 100, p366-387.
Dickens, A. G. and John M. Tonkin, eds. The Reformation in Historical Thought (Harvard University Press, 1985)
Dixon,  C. Scott. Contesting the Reformation (2012) 
Fritze, Ronald H. "The English Reformation: Obedience, Destruction and Cultural Adaptation," Journal of Ecclesiastical History (2005) 56#1 pp 107–15.
Haigh, Christopher. "The recent historiography of the English Reformation." The Historical Journal (1982) 25#4 pp 995–1007.
Haigh, Christopher. "The English Reformation: A Premature Birth, a Difficult Labour and a Sickly Child," The Historical Journal (1990) 33#2 pp 449–59
Haigh, Christopher. "Catholicism in Early Modern England: Bossy and Beyond," "Catholicism in Early Modern England: Bossy and Beyond, " 45, no. 2 (2002): 481–94. (2002) 45#2 pp 481–94.
Heininen, Simo / Czaika, Otfried: , European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2010, retrieved: 17 December 2012.
Hsia, R. Po-chia. "Reformation on the Continent: Approaches Old and New," Journal of Religious History (2004) 28#2 pp 162–170.
Hsia, R. Po-Chia. "The Myth of the Commune: Recent Historiography on City and Reformation in Germany." Central European History (1987) 20#3 pp 203–215. 
Karant-Nunn, Susan C. "Changing One's Mind: Transformations in Reformation History from a Germanist's Perspective," Renaissance Quarterly (2005) 58#2 pp 1101–1127. 
MacCulloch, Diarmaid. "The Impact of the English Reformation," The Historical Journal (1995) 38#1 pp 151–53
MacCulloch, Diarmaid; Laven, Mary; Duffy, Eamon. "Recent Trends in the Study of Christianity in Sixteenth-Century Europe," Renaissance Quarterly (2006) 59#3 pp 697–731. 
Marnef, Guido. "Belgian and Dutch Post-war Historiography on the Protestant and Catholic Reformation in the Netherlands," Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte (2009) Vol. 100, pp 271–292.
Marshall, Peter. "(Re)defining the English Reformation," Journal of British Studies (2009) 48#3 pp.564–586 
Menchi, Silvana Seidel. "The Age of Reformation and Counter-Reformation in Italian Historiography, 1939-2009," Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte (2009) Vol. 100, pp 193–217.
Nieden, Marcel: , European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2012, retrieved: 17 December 2012.
Scott, Tom. "The Common People in the German Reformation," The Historical Journal (1991) 24#1 pp 183–92 
Scott, Tom. "The Reformation between Deconstruction and Reconstruction: Reflections on Recent Writings on the German Reformation," German History (2008) 26#3 pp 406–422
Walsham, Alexandra. "The Reformation and 'The Disenchantment of the World' Reassessed." Historical Journal (2008) 51#2 pp 497–528; focus on claims about the Reformation origins of modernity
Wiesner-Hanks, Merry. "Gender and the Reformation," Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte (2009), Vol. 100, pp 350–365.
Viungo vya nje


: Extensive online resources, Tyndale Seminary
 at the Library of Congress
 Tathmini ya pamoja iliyofanywa na Wakatoliki na Walutheri mwaka 2013

Jamii:Historia ya Ulaya
Jamii:Historia ya Kanisa
Matengenezo