Capra pyrenaica
In southeastern Spain, reproductive individuals are consumed by many different species of herbivores. Some floral buds do not open because they are galled by flies ("Dasineura" sp., Cecidomyiidae). Several species of sap-suckers (primarily the bugs "Eurydema oleraceae", "E. fieberi", "E. ornata", and "Corimeris denticulatus") feed on the reproductive stalks during flowering and fruiting. In addition, stalks are bored into by a weevil species (presumably "Lixus ochraceus", Curculionidae), which consumes the inner tissues, whereas another weevil species ("Ceutorhynchus chlorophanus", Curculionidae) develops inside the fruits, living on developing seeds and acting as predispersal seed predators. The stalks are browsed by Spanish ibex ("Capra pyrenaica", Bovidae), which consume flowers and mostly green fruits. Dispersed seeds are consumed by woodmice ("Apodemus sylvaticus", Muridae), several species of birds ("Fringilla coelebs", "Serinus serinus", and "Carduelis cannabina" Fringillidae, among others), several species of medium-sized granivorous beetles ("Iberozabrus" sp. Carabidae, among others), and ants ("Lasius niger", "Tetramorium caespitum", "Cataglyphis velox" and "Leptothorax tristis"). These animals feed on the seeds from late August to early April. Seedlings and juveniles are sometime injured by ibex, sheep, wild boars ("Sus scrofa", Suidae), hares ("Lepus granatense", Leporidae), and voles ("Pitimys" spp., Arvicolidae), although most seedlings die due to summer drought and seed quality.