Augustan History
She has been the subject of romantic and ideologically-driven biographies by ancient and modern writers. The "Augustan History" is the clearest example of an ideological account of Zenobia's life, and its author acknowledged that it was written to criticize the emperor Gallienus. According to the "Augustan History", Gallienus was weak because he allowed a woman to rule part of the empire and Zenobia was a more able sovereign than the emperor. The narrative changed as the "Augustan History" moved on to the life of Claudius Gothicus, a lauded and victorious emperor, with the author characterizing Zenobia's protection of the eastern frontier as a wise delegation of power by Claudius. When the "Augustan History" reached the biography of Aurelian, the author's view of Zenobia changed dramatically; the queen is depicted as a guilty, insolent, proud coward; her wisdom was discredited and her actions deemed the result of manipulation by advisers.