Fair trade
Fair trade certification programs have been criticized on several grounds. Griffiths has challenged the ethics of fair trade labels in the fair trade debate, and, in the Journal of Business Ethics, has pointed out instances in which negative research is not published and academics choose only successful coops or fair trade organizations for study. In the Dominican Republic, Shreck found minimum pricing, and exclusivity of certification worsened socioeconomic disparity within farming communities, and limited access for non-certified farmers to the market. Furthermore, Shrek found that the standards of certification programs prioritized market interests over farmer rights and well-being. Frank has argued that fair trade initiatives do not generally foster an empowering partnership between consumers and farmers.