中国科学院生物物理研究所
graduated from gymnasium (German high school) at Göttingen in distinction in 1934. He continued to study mathematics, physics, and engineering in Göttingen, and then biophysics in Frankfurt. He received Ph.D. degrees in physics and biophysics in 1940 and 1946 from the University of Frankfurt-am-Main. He was with the Max Planck Institute of Biophysics in Frankfurt from 1937 to 1947. In 1947 he emigrated to America, where he joined the University of Pennsylvania's School of Medicine.