Empirical research
The theory states that different situational factors can enhance, neutralize, or substitute for leader behaviors (Avolio, Walumbwa, &amp; Weber, 2009; Den Hartog &amp; Koopman, 2001). It has received criticism for shortcomings due to perceived methodological issues (Dionne, Yammarino, Atwater, &amp; James, 2002; Podsakoff &amp; Mackenzie, 1995). Empirical research has produced mixed results as to its ability to predict subordinate outcomes.