MP-IST-209-1760.pdf — page 2

the technological advances, in the 1990s, military interest was
flagged with the end of the Cold War. However, optimism
about robotics continued to grow in the new millennium, with
interest in equipping the AF with smaller, cheaper, and more
resistant UGVs. Counter-insurgency operations in Iraq and
Afghanistan boosted the use of UGVs, mainly to deal with
improvised explosive devices [7].
The ongoing war in Ukraine has had a profound impact
on the development of UGVs in Russia. Both sides are
increasingly deploying UAVs and UGVs for various tasks such
as combat, logistics, and medical evacuation. This conflict
has underscored the importance of UGVs in reducing soldier
casualties in hazardous situations [8].
A. Civilian UGV applications
The civilian applications of UGVs are wide. They can in-
clude power line testing, surveillance systems, mine detection,
data collection, agriculture, ocean exploration, and scientific
exploration in space as the main [9]. In much the same way
as they are used in the military, UGVs can also be used by the
police for surveillance and intervention operations in hostile
scenarios [10].
UGVs offer advantages over human operators, as they can
be used more often and consistently, potentially providing
substantial cost savings. Autonomous systems can also be
operated without safety measures or the equipment needed by
humans [5].
B. Military UGV applications
In the military context, UGVs are operated remotely, us-
ing wireless communication systems such as Radiofrequency
(RF), which enable real-time video transmission. Advanced
image processing techniques are used for automatic target
detection.
The dismounted mission support system requirements were
first outlined within the framework of the Uniied States Army’s
Future Combat System (FCS) program, which took place
between 2003 and 2009. The support tasks should generally
cover [11]:
• Combat support: involving reconnaissance, surveillance,
target acquisition, and fire support;
• Engineering support: involving mine detection, clearing
paths, destroying obstacles, building light bridges, and
fortifying terrain;
• Logistical support: transporting ammunition, collective
weapons, water, food, and medical evacuation.
C. Video compression and transmission
When piloting an UGV, video transmission becomes an
aspect of utmost importance. The main problem with this
transmission type is the high bandwidth demand, which makes
video compression very important. This action aims to make
video content available at a low bits rate while preserving sat-
isfactory image quality, in this case, for piloting the UGV. This
technique works by identifying and eliminating redundancies
[12].
D. Radio communication technologies applied to Commercial
UGVs
This subsection covers the leading radio communication
technologies in UxVs: Wi-Fi, Cellular Networks, and Tactical
Radios.
1) Wi-Fi: The IEEE 802.11 standard for a Wireless Local
Area Network (WLAN), known commercially as Wi-Fi, has
become essential daily [13]. Wi-Fi most commonly uses the
2.4 GHz Ultra High Frequency (UHF) and 5.8 GHz Super
High Frequency (SHF) radio bands.
Using Wi-Fi to command and control UxVs offers several
advantages that enhance operational efficiency and flexibil-
ity. One primary benefit is the ability to establish a robust
and high-bandwidth communication link, which supports the
transmission of large amounts of data, such as high-resolution
video and complex telemetry, in real-time. This capability
is advantageous in applications requiring detailed situational
awareness and precise control [14].
2) Cellular Network: Cellular networks consist of several
base stations, each dedicated to the wireless transmission and
reception of data in one or more “cells”. In this context, a
cell represents a specific region of the total geographical area
served by the network. In most deployments, one base station
covers three cells using a strategic antenna configuration and
efficient frequency planning [15].
The specific way in which the RF bands are used in mobile
telecommunications is called the wireless standard - the name
given to each generation of mobile telecommunications -
which have replaced each other over the last 30 years: 1G,
2G, 3G, 4G, and 5G. Each generation comprises a different
family of wireless protocols [16].
3) Proprietary communication hardware: There are several
examples of proprietary communication protocols for commu-
nicating with a UxV; this subsection presents some of the most
commonly used hardware.
The SiK Telemetry Radio is an open-source, small, and
lightweight radio platform for establishing telemetry connec-
tions between autopilots and ground stations [17].
The HM30 Full HD Transmission System by SIYI Tech-
nology sends video to the operator [18].
The Herelink system by CubePilot is an advanced remote
control and video transmission system designed for UxVs.
It integrates a remote controller with a built-in screen on a
customised Android operating system. This system supports
popular ground control software like QGroundControl and
Solex [19].
4) MAVLink: MAVLink is a middleware protocol that is
a universal language for autonomous systems. The main
function of this protocol is to ensure that UxVs can easily
talk to each other and Ground Control Station (GCS) by
sharing important data like their positions. Almost everyone
in the autonomous systems world uses MAVLink, even big
companies that do not always use open-source [20]. MAVLink
messages are formatted in binary code with a compact 8-
byte header, which makes them highly efficient. Built-in error
control mechanisms ensure data integrity [21].
The big deal with MAVLink is that it creates one common
way to communicate with UxVs, ground stations, and acces-
Integration of a Commercial 
Unmanned Vehicle into the Army Communications System
STO-MP-IST-209 
1760 - 2