Case Name: Frederick WILLIAMS, Appellant, v. The STATE of Florida, Appellee
Court: Florida District Court of Appeal
Jurisdiction: Florida
Decision Date: 1998-03-18
Citations: 710 So. 2d 24
Docket Number: No. 95-2476
Parties: Frederick WILLIAMS, Appellant, v. The STATE of Florida, Appellee.
Judges: Before COPE, GERSTEN and SHEVIN, JJ.
Reporter: Southern Reporter, Second Series
Volume: 710
Pages: 24–50

Head Matter:
Frederick WILLIAMS, Appellant, v. The STATE of Florida, Appellee.
No. 95-2476.
District Court of Appeal of Florida, Third District.
March 18, 1998.
Rehearing Denied June 10, 1998.
Bennett H. Brummer, Public Defender, and Craig J. Trocino, Special Assistant Public Defender, for appellant.
The Florida Association of Criminal Defense Lawyers, Miami Chapter, and Robert S. Reiff, and H. Scott Fingerhut, Miami, Amicus Curiae for appellant.
Robert A. Butterworth, Attorney General, and Paulette R. Taylor, Assistant Attorney General; Katherine Fernandez Rundle, State Attorney, and Brenda Mezick, and Stephen Talpins, Assistant State Attorneys, for appel-lee.
Before COPE, GERSTEN and SHEVIN, JJ.

Opinion:
GERSTEN, Judge.
Charged with driving under the influence of a controlled substance, defendant Frederick Williams appeals an order admitting into evidence drug recognition expert opinion testimony and evidence based upon a twelve step drug influence examination protocol. Notwithstanding the many twists and turns along the DUI enforcement road, we affirm, concluding that the drug recognition protocol does not constitute an • apotheosis of drug impairment prosecutions.
I. FACTS
Frederick Williams (the "defendant") was stopped at a field sobriety checkpoint. After failing a series of field sobriety tests, he was given a breath test which registered an alcohol level of 0.07, just below the legal limit of 0.08. Two police officers trained as drug recognition experts then asked the defendant to take a Drug Influence Evaluation test ("DIE"), because the breath test result was not consistent with their observations of the degree of impairment. Based on the results of the DIE, the officers concluded the defendant was under the influence of alcohol, a central nervous system stimulant, and cannabis. The officers then arrested the defendant for driving under the influence. The defendant's urine sample tested positive for marijuana metabolite and cocaine.
Prior to trial, the State filed a motion in limine seeking to introduce the results obtained from the DIE. The defendant moved to exclude the evidence under Frye v. United States, 293 F. 1013 (D.C.Cir.1923). The Frye test for the admissibility of seienti-fic evidence requires that novel scientific evidence be generally accepted in the relevant scientific community as accurate and reliable.
At the hearing on the motion, the State presented testimony which explained that a certified drug recognition expert ("DRE") receives specialized instruction to learn the twelve step evaluation for conducting the DIE. The DIE basically consists of the usual DUI investigation, including the standard field sobriety tests, with the addition of a physical examination. The physical examination includes measuring pupil size and ob serving pupil reaction to light, taking blood pressure and pulse rate, examining the nose and mouth for evidence of drug use, and touching the arm to determine muscle tone. The information obtained by the physical exam is then recorded on a symptomatology matrix (grid chart). The various symptoms of drug use, such as an increased pulse, are matched by a process of elimination to the corresponding drug category. This grid helps to narrow the type of drugs a suspect may have in their system. Subsets of the DRE protocol include the Horizontal Gaze Nystagmus test ("HGN"), Vertical Gaze Nys-tagmus test("VGN"), and the Lack of Convergence test ("LOC"). The State submitted numerous studies and articles, including testimony from several doctors, supporting the reliability of the DIE protocol.
In opposition to the motion, several doctors testified on behalf of the defendant that the protocol was flawed, and that police officers were not capable of accurately recognizing or categorizing impairment. The defendant argued that admitting the DRE scientific testimony of a minimally trained officer referred to as a "drug recognition expert" misleads the jury and prejudices DUI defendants.
The trial court allowed the police officer to testify that he concluded the defendant was impaired by specific categories of drugs based on the officers' application of the DIE protocol and matrix. The order granting the motion to admit the DRE testimony held that Frye's general acceptance standard did not apply to the DRE protocol because the "tests, signs and symptoms are well within the common understanding of the average layman." Alternatively, the trial court found Frye inapplicable to the DIE tests, because they are not new or novel scientific evidence.
With regard to the HGN, VGN, and LOC tests, the trial court found Frye inapplicable because these tests are not new or novel. The trial court further ruled that the State could prove blood alcohol content based upon the officers' use of the HGN test if the State laid a proper predicate establishing the testing officer's qualifications pursuant to State v. Bender, 382 So.2d 697 (Fla.1980). Finally, the trial court's order certified the following questions as of great public importance:
1. Is the Frye general acceptance standard applicable to the DRE protocol?
2. Assuming the Frye general acceptance standard is inapplicable, is DRE testimony and evidence admissible under the relevancy standard?
3. Is DRE testimony and evidence admissible if the Frye general acceptance standard is applicable?
4. May the State prove that a subject had an unlawful breath or blood alcohol level based on HGN test results alone under Bender?
The defendant accepted a negotiated plea reserving his right to appeal the order granting the motion in limine. The defendant appeals the order admitting into evidence the DRE opinion testimony, the standardized field sobriety test, and the HGN test.
II. APPLICABILITY OF FRYE TO DRE TESTIMONY AND EVIDENCE
The defendant contends that the trial court erred in admitting the DRE testimony and evidence because the State failed to establish the reliability of the DRE protocol at the hearing. According to the defendant, the DRE protocol constitutes a scientific test, and fails to meet the Frye standard as generally accepted by the relevant scientific community. We disagree and affirm the trial court's order granting the State's motion to admit the DRE testimony and evidence, including the standardized field sobriety and horizontal gaze nystagmus tests. In order to accurately address the issues as framed by the trial court, we must first distinguish between the general portion of the DRE protocol and its subsets, the HGN, VGN, and LOC.
A. General DRE Protocol Excluding HGN, VGN, and LOC
First, regarding the general portion of the DRE protocol, the Frye standard does not apply because the protocol is not scientific. The protocol essentially consists of a twelve step systematic assessment of the defendant's vital signs and physical appearance, which in fact is the usual DUI investigation, including the standard field sobriety tests, plus a physical examination. The physical examination incorporates a narrow application of techniques borrowed from the medical field, and includes measuring pupil size and observing pupil reaction to light, taking blood pressure and pulse rate, inspecting the oral and nasal cavities, and touching the arm to determine muscle tone.
These tests are clearly within the common experience and understanding of the average person. For example, the average person has had his or her blood pressure, pulse rate, and temperature taken. Similarly, the fact that pupils become larger or smaller in different lighting conditions is well within the average person's common experience, as is examining someone's nose or mouth.
Because the tests, signs and symptoms of the protocol are within the common understanding of the average layman, the general portion of the protocol is not "scientific" within the meaning of Frye. The fact that some of the examinations in the protocol are borrowed from the medical profession, does not elevate the protocol to scientific status.
Police officers and lay witnesses have long been permitted to testify as to their observations of a defendant's acts, conduct, and appearance, and also to give an opinion on the defendant's state of impairment based on those observations. See, e.g., Cannon v. State, 91 Fla. 214, 107 So. 360 (1926); City of Orlando v. Newell, 232 So.2d 413 (Fla. 4th DCA 1970). Objective observations based on observable signs and conditions are not clas sified as "scientific" and thus constitute admissible testimony.
For example, in State v. Meador, 674 So.2d 826 (Fla. 4th DCA), review denied, 686 So.2d 580 (Fla.1996), the court held that a police officer was allowed to testify about the defendant's performance on a standard field sobriety test. In drawing a distinction between the psyehomotor portion of the test and the HGN portion of the test, the court noted that the psychomotor portion consisted of objective components which are commonly understood, and therefore did not require expert interpretation. Thus, the officer was permitted to testify as to his observations of the psychomotor portion of test which were found to be in the "same category as other commonly understood signs of impairment such as glassy or blood-shot eyes, slurred speech, staggering, flushed face, labile emotions, [and the] odor of alcohol." State v. Meador, 674 So.2d at 832.
Here, the general portion of the DRE protocol consists of nothing more than objective observations and simple tests which are easily performed and commonly understood. Contrary to the defendant's assertion, the DRE's opinion is not derived from the symp-tomology matrix and does not constitute a medical diagnosis. The general DRE protocol is just a "list of the things a prudent, trained and experienced officer should consider before formulation or expressing an opinion whether the subject is under the influence of some controlled substance," and thus does not constitute a scientific test. State v. Klawitter, 518 N.W.2d 577, 584 (Minn.1994). Accordingly, Frye does not apply to this portion of the test.
B. DRE Protocol Subsets: HGN, VGN and LOC
Second, regarding the HGN, VGN, and LOC (hereafter collectively referred to as "HGN"), we find no error in the trial court's determination that Frye is inapplicable. The trial court found that the protocol subsets are "scientific" within the meaning of Frye, but that Frye does not apply because none of the tests are "new or novel."
The Frye test is used in Florida to guarantee the reliability of "new or novel scientific evidence." See Brim v. State, 695 So.2d 268 (Fla.1997). What exactly constitutes "new or novel scientific evidence" is often difficult to ascertain. Several courts do not even consider the HGN test to be a "scientific" test necessitating a Frye analysis. See, e.g., State v. Sullivan, 310 S.C. 311, 426 S.E.2d 766 (1993); State v. Murphy, 451 N.W.2d 154 (Iowa 1990); State v. Clark, 234 Mont. 222, 762 P.2d 853 (1988). Those courts finding the HGN test to be scientific, generally have held that it passes admissibility requirements. See, e.g., State v. Meador, 674 So.2d at 833; State v. O'Key, 321 Or. 285, 899 P.2d 663 (1995). Cf. State v. Witte, 251 Kan. 313, 836 P.2d 1110 (1992).
Although clothed in scientific garb, we recognize the HGN does not involve any particular "scientific" skill or equipment and for that reason courts have struggled with its classification. Nevertheless, the HGN is premised on the asserted scientific proposition that the automatic tracking mechanisms of the eyes are affected by drug consumption. Thus, while we are not convinced that the HGN is truly "scientific," because its application is dependent on a scientific proposition and requires a particular expertise outside the realm of common knowledge of the average person, we conclude the HGN is "quasi-scientific" evidence. We are now faced with the "novel" circumstance of whether the Frye test nonetheless must apply to a scientific principle which does not encompass new, novel or emerging scientific techniques.
We hold that where a scientific principle has been established and generally accepted in the relevant scientific community, and has also been Frye tested in the legal community, it is no longer "new or novel" and there is simply no need to reapply a Frye analysis. See State v. Meador, 674 So.2d at 826; Bostic v. State, 772 P.2d 1089 (Alaska Ct.App.1989), reversed on other grounds, 805 P.2d 344 (Alaska 1991); Whitson v. State, 314 Ark. 458, 863 S.W.2d 794 (1993); State v. Klawitter, 518 N.W.2d at 577; State v. Jones, 71 Wash.App. 798, 863 P.2d 85 (1993), review denied, 124 Wash.2d 1018, 881 P.2d 254 (1994).
This is not to say that "new or novel" is necessarily a threshold requirement for Frye, and we do not suggest that particular areas or principles should be immunized from such an analysis on the basis of longevity. Rather these descriptive terms of art are helpful in identifying when a particular scientific technique can be excluded from an unnecessary Frye analysis, thereby avoiding needless waste of judicial resources on sufficiently established principles.
Turning to the HGN, while the admissibility of evidence based on the horizontal and vertical nystagmus and for convergence testing have not previously been addressed by this court, the HGN has been nationally used for many years and its admissibility has been scrutinized by many other courts in numerous states. See People v. Joehnk, 35 Cal.App.4th 1488, 42 Cal.Rptr.2d 6 (1995); State v. Garrett, 119 Idaho 878, 811 P.2d 488 (1991); State v. Klawitter, 518 N.W.2d at 584; City of Fargo v. McLaughlin, 512 N.W.2d at 700.
The seminal HGN admissibility case is State v. Superior Court In and For Cochise County, 718 P.2d at 171, which was decided in 1986. In holding that the HGN test satis-fled Frye, the Supreme Court of Arizona stated:
The evidence demonstrates that the following proposition has gained general acceptance in the relevant scientific community: (1) HGN occurs in conjunction with alcohol consumption; (2) its onset and distinctness are correlated, to BAC; (3) BAC in excess of .10 percent can be estimated with reasonable accuracy from the combination of the eyes' tracking ability, the angle of onset of nystagmus and the degree of nystagmus at maximum deviation; and (4) officers can be trained to observe these phenomena sufficient to estimate accurately whether BAC is above or below .10 percent.
State v. Superior Court, 718 P.2d at 181.
Since State v. Superior Court was decided, several other states have also applied Frye to HGN test evidence and held such evidence admissible. See State v. Garrett, 811 P.2d at 491 (recognizing other state courts finding HGN satisfies Frye, including Alaska, Arizona, Iowa, Louisiana, Montana, Ohio, and Texas). See also Schultz v. State, 106 Md.App. 145, 664 A.2d 60 (1995); State v. Klawitter, 518 N.W.2d at 577; People v. Quinn, 153 Misc.2d 139, 580 N.Y.S.2d 818, 826 (N.Y.Dist.Ct.1991), rev'd on other grounds, 158 Misc.2d 1015, 607 N.Y.S.2d 534 (Sup.App. Term Ct.1993); Emerson v. State, 880 S.W.2d 759 (Tex.Crim.App.), cert. denied, 513 U.S. 931, 115 S.Ct. 323, 130 L.Ed.2d 284 (1994).
Here, numerous medical experts testified that the individual subsets of the protocol are not new or novel, and that the procedures used in the categorization process were derived from neurological and physiological examinations relied upon by the medical profession for many years. In other words, the principles underlying the protocol are a "compilation of tried and true procedures utilized by medical science and the law enforcement community in similar contexts for many years." See People v. Quinn, 580 N.Y.S.2d at 826.
The record evidence that HGN is generally accepted in the relevant scientific community and the fact that HGN has met the Frye test in other legal jurisdictions, obviated the need for the trial court to reapply a Frye analysis. We take judicial notice that HGN test results are generally accepted as reliable and thus are admissible into evidence once a proper foundation has been laid that the test was correctly administered by a qualified DRE. See Hayes v. State, 660 So.2d 257, 264 (Fla.1995)(court takes judicial notice that DNA test results are generally accepted as reliable in scientific community); People v. Berger, 217 Mich.App. 213, 551 N.W.2d 421 (1996)(court judicially notices scientific acceptability and reliability of HGN in concluding trial court did not err in failing to hold a Davis-Frye hearing); see also State v. Taylor, 694 A.2d 907 (Me.1997)(court judicially notices scientific conclusion that HGN is reliable and admissible evidence in driving under the influence cases); Schultz v. State, 664 A.2d at 60(court judicially notices HGN reliability and acceptance in the relevant scientific and medical communities). The record reflects the HGN test was properly administered by a qualified DRE and thus there was no abuse of discretion in the trial court's admission of the evidence. See Jordan v. State, 707 So.2d 816 (Fla. 5th DCA 1998)(tes-timony sufficient to establish admissibility of HGN as generally reliable and accepted in medical community).
C. Inapplicability of Frye
We recognize the importance of the Frye standard in ensuring the admission of valid and reliable evidence based upon new scientific principles. Disputes over the validity of experimental or novel scientific techniques are best left to the scientific community — not the legal community. However, such concerns are not present here because the general portion of the DRE protocol is not scientific, and because use of the HGN test to establish the presence of alcohol has already gained general acceptance in the scientific community and has satisfied the requirements of Frye. Thus under the circumstances of this case, Frye is inapplicable.
Accordingly, because we find the Frye general acceptance standard is not applicable to the DRE protocol, we answer the first certified question in the negative. This finding requires that we next address the second certified question, and renders the third certified question moot.
III. ADMISSIBILITY UNDER THE RELEVANCY STANDARD
Having determined the Frye general acceptance standard is inapplicable, we next address the relevancy and admissibility of the protocol under Chapter 90, Florida Evidence Code, Florida Statutes (1997). Section 90.401, Florida Statutes (1997), defines rele vant evidence as "evidence tending to prove or disprove a material fact."
All relevant evidence is admissible unless the party seeking to exclude the evidence can show its exclusion is required on grounds of prejudice or confusion. § 90.408, Fla. Stat. (1997). If the evidence has any logical tendency to prove or disprove a fact, it is relevant and admissible, except as provided by law. State v. Taylor, 648 So.2d 701 (Fla.1995); State v. Meador, 674 So.2d at 826.
Here, the bulk of the scientific research and the weight of the experts' testimony establish the relevancy of the DRE evidence in determining impairment. See State v. Ruthardt, 680 A.2d at 360. While we acknowledge the potential concerns with the physical application of the HGN test portion of the test in the field, and the risk of misdiagnosis due to other causes of nystag-mus, common sense mandates DRE testimony is relevant in a prosecution for driving under the influence of a controlled substance, because it shows a probability that a person was impaired by alcohol and/or drugs. See State v. Nagel, 30 Ohio App.3d 80, 506 N.E.2d 285 (1986)(objective manifestations of insobriety based on personal observations of officer held always relevant where the defendant's physical condition is at issue).
The fact remains that most studies indicate a reliability factor of between 80% to 90%. See supra note 14. Moreover, we note that there are several safeguards inherent in the DRE process and intrinsic to the prosecution of DUI cases, which adequately protect a suspect's rights. The innate possibility of error in a test, does not provide a sound basis for rejecting the test results as evidence. See Reid v. State, 267 Ind. 555, 372 N.E.2d 1149 (1978). Any discrepancies in the precise method used goes to the weight, rather than to the admissibility of such evidence. Troedel v. State, 462 So.2d 392 (Fla.1985). See also State v. Johnson, 717 S.W.2d 298 (Tenn.Crim.App.1986)(objection as to lack of unanimity in medical profession regarding breath-alcohol testing devices goes to weight of testimony not its admissibility); People v. Bobczyk, 343 Ill.App. 504, 99 N.E.2d 567 (1951)(witness may testify as to opinion regarding objective symptoms commonly associated with alcohol impairment even though medical science recognizes many other pathological conditions that produce similar impairment).
The persuasiveness of such evidence is a matter for the jury. See Hayes v. State, 660 So.2d at 262. A defendant's rights are adequately protected by the ability to subject witnesses to cross examination and to attack the scientific basis and methods used in administering a test. See Martinez v. State, 549 So.2d 694 (Fla. 5th DCA 1989); Troedel v. State, 462 So.2d at 396; State v. O'Key, 899 P.2d at 689. We see no reason to reject evidence derived from a testing procedure simply because it is subject to error, since the burden is still on the State to provide a proper foundation by demonstrating the test was reliably administered by a qualified technician. See Zimmerman v. State, 693 A.2d 311 (Del.1997).
In sum, contrary to the defendant's implication, conclusive test results and opinions are not required in order to admit probative evidence in a criminal proceeding. See Mills v. State, 476 So.2d 172, 177 (Fla.1985)(Neutron Activation Residue test results held admissible despite inherent inconclusiveness "because it shows a probability that the subject did or did not fire a gun and its probative value is for the jury to determine"), cert. denied, 475 U.S. 1031, 106 S.Ct. 1241, 89 L.Ed.2d 349 (1986); People v. Rogers, 86 Misc.2d 868, 385 N.Y.S.2d 228 (N.Y.Sup.Ct.l976)(recognizing blood alcohol tests are - not conclusive of intoxication but are commonly admissible and numerous state statutes have established presumptions of impairment based on certain blood alcohol levels). Accordingly, finding no abuse of discretion in the trial court's determination that DRE testimony and evidence is probative as tending to prove the defendant's condition at the time of arrest, we answer the second certified question in the affirmative. See Sims v. Brown, 574 So.2d 131 (Fla.1991).
IV. USE OF THE HGN TEST TO PROVE A SPECIFIC BLOOD ALCOHOL LEVEL
The trial court's fourth certified question asks whether the state may prove that a subject had an unlawful breath or blood alcohol level based on HGN results alone under Bender. HGN is used as indicator of blood alcohol content and drug impairment. The three most important components of the test used to identify alcohol induced nystagmus are: (1) the ability of the eye to track a moving object smoothly, (2) the distinctness of the jerking movement at the extreme lateral gaze, and (3) the angle of onset of nys-tagmus.
We recognize that experts do not universally agree about the reliability and acceptability of the HGN. However, in addition to supportive ease law from other jurisdictions and numerous testifying witnesses, the State filed over two thousand pages of medical literature and studies relating to the effects of alcohol and drugs on the body, which demonstrate the accuracy and reliability of the HGN test. In spite of the potential causes of error and the fact that other causes for nystagmus cannot be ruled out, the HGN test when properly administered is a reliable indicator for establishing the presence of alcohol in the blood.
The question remaining to be answered is whether the HGN is admissible as the sole evidence to establish a precise blood-alcohol content. We think not in the absence of a statutory mandate authorizing use of the HGN test as direct evidence to establish an unlawful BAC.
Under Section 316.193(1), Florida Statutes (1993), a person is guilty of DUI if the facts reflect that the person was in control of a vehicle and:
(a) The person is under the influence of alcoholic beverages, any chemical substance set forth in s. 877.111, or any substance controlled under chapter 893, when affected to the extent that the person's normal faculties are impaired;
(b) The person has a blood-alcohol level of 0.08 or more grams of alcohol per 100 milliliters of blood; or
(c) The person has a breath-alcohol level of 0.08 or more grams of alcohol per 210 liters of breath.
Section 316.1934(2), Florida Statutes (1993), specifically provides that impairment is pre sumed where a chemical analysis of blood or physical test of breath shows a BAC of 0.08 or higher.
It is apparent that while the legislature may have left the door open to admit other types of testing methods as evidence of impairment, the legislature clearly intended that a presumption as to whether a person was or was not under the influence of alcoholic beverages to the extent of legal impairment, can only arise based upon chemical analysis of blood or breath testing.
It is the legislature's role to determine which tests may be used to establish a presumption of impairment. Where the legislature has prescribed specific tests for a specific purpose, it is not this court's role to add others. Therefore, we must answer the fourth certified question in the negative.
Accordingly, we hold that HGN test results alone, in the absence of a chemical analysis of blood, breath, or urine, are inadmissible to trigger the presumption provided by Section 316.1934, and may not be used to establish a BAC of 0.08 percent or more. See State v. O'Key, 899 P.2d at 681; State v. Bresson, 554 N.E.2d at 1336. However, HGN test results are admissible independently of other evidence as proof that a defendant was impaired under Section 316.193(l)(a). See State ex rel. Hamilton v. City Court of City of Mesa, 165 Ariz. 514, 799 P.2d 855, 857 (1990)(HGN test administered by properly trained officer admissible as to the issues of probable cause to arrest and whether driver was operating vehicle while under the influence of alcohol); State v. Bresson, 554 N.E.2d at 1336 (same); State v. Webber, No. CA97-03-059, 1998 WL 15892 (Ohio Ct.App. Jan. 20, 1998)(same).
V. CONCLUSION
The real issue here is not the admissibility of the evidence, but the weight it should receive. As properly recognized by the trial court, this is a matter for the jury to decide. The mere fact that DRE testimony is admitted, does not automatically translate to a guilty verdict. The State is still required to prove beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant is impaired by a chemical or controlled substances. § 316.193, Fla. Stat. (1997). Moreover, the existence of any conflicting studies or scientific articles can always be introduced by the defense to challenge the weight of the DRE testimony.
The magnitude of problems caused by drug-impaired drivers cannot be underestimated. Yet prior to DIE implementation, drivers suspected of drug-impairment far too often escaped detection or prosecution. We are convinced that the DIE program and the DRE's play a critical role in accurately identifying and removing impaired drivers from our streets and highways. Accordingly, we affirm the order below.
Affirmed.
SHEVIN, J., concurs.
. The DIE is a standardized, systematic test which was developed by law enforcement to assist trained officers in identifying drug-impaired drivers. For a discussion of the Drug Evaluation and Classification Program which utilizes the DIE, see infra note 5.
. Under Frye, it must be shown that a scientific principle or test is "sufficiently established to have gained general acceptance in the particular field in which it belongs." Frye, 293 F. at 1014. This ensures a jury will not be misled by experimental scientific methods which may ultimately prove to be unsound. See Stokes v. State, 548 So.2d 188 (Fla.1989)("[A] courtroom is not a laboratory, and as such it is not the place to conduct scientific experiments. ' If the scientific community considers a procedure or process unreliable for its own purposes, then the procedure must be considered less reliable for courtroom use.")
. DRE's are certified by the International Association of Chiefs of Police ("IACP") with the endorsement of at least two training instructors. Training materials are provided by the federal government through the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration and are standardized nationwide.
The DRE training consists of two days of preparatory school, seven days at a DRE school, and then a certification training period during which trainees conduct evaluations on actual DUI suspects. Physicians, psychologists, toxicologists and nurses, routinely teach at the DRE schools and mandatory recertification classes. Officer trainees are instructed on the significance of the vital signs, how to take blood pressure, pulse, and temperature, and attend classes on the physiology of the body, including the major organs and systems of the body and how they are affected by various drugs. For a comprehensive discussion and overview of the IACP program, see International Association of Chiefs of Police, Drug Evaluation and Classification Program (visited March 9, 1998) <http://www.theiacp.org/highway/brief/ paper.html>.
.The drug evaluation and classification consists of the following twelve steps:
1. Breath Alcohol Test. A breath alcohol test is administered to rule out alcohol intoxication. The drug influence evaluation will not be conducted if the breath test result is consistent with the degree or type of impairment.
2. Interview With Arresting Officer. The arresting officer interviews the defendant to ascertain whether the defendant gave any statement and to ascertain whether any drugs or drug paraphernalia were found in the defendant's possession.
3. Preliminary Examination. The defendant is questioned about his or her medical history and examined for signs of illness or injury. The defendant's eyes and pupils are checked for serious trauma and to see if the eyes are bloodshot or retracted. At this time, the first of three pulse rates is taken.
4. Eye Examination. The following te?ts are administered: the Horizontal Gaze Nystagmus test ("HGN") (rapid involuntary horizontal oscillation of the eyes when attempting to follow a target moved from side to side); the Vertical Gaze Nystagmus test ("VGN")(inability to smoothly track the up-and-down progress of a stimulus); and the Lack of Convergence test ("LOC")(inability to cross eyes to focus on a target directly before the eyes).
5. Field Sobriety Test. A second field sobriety-test is conducted which includes the Romberg Balance Test, walk and turn test, one leg stand, the finger to nose test, and the HGN test.
6. Vital Signs. Blood pressure, temperature, and a second pulse rate are taken using the standard sphygmomanometer, stethoscope, and thermometer.
7. Darkroom Examination. The defendant's pupil size is measured in four different lighting conditions using a pupilometer. Oral and nasal cavities are also examined for signs of ingestion.
8. Physical Examination. The defendant's muscle tone is examined for signs of flaccidity or rigidity which could indicate use of alcohol or certain drugs.
9. Injection Sites Check. Arms, wrists, ankles, etc... are checked for signs of injection indicating possible drug abuse. A third pulse rate is also taken at this stage.
10. Post Miranda Interrogation. Once the evaluator reaches this stage and determines that the defendant is under the influence, the defendant is questioned about any history of surgery or other medical condition.
11. DRE Opinion. The evaluator forms an opinion as to whether the defendant is under the influence of a certain category of drugs.
12. Toxicological Examination. A toxicological examination is administered to confirm the presence of the drug.
. The drug symptomatology matrix chart lists seven common categories of drugs across the top, and then lists the eight observable symptoms associated with those drugs along the left side. The drugs are categorized according to their observable signs and symptoms on the central nervous system ("CNS"). The seven categories are: 1) CNS depressants, e.g., alcohol; 2) inhalants, e.g., solvents and nitric oxide; 3) angel dust (PCP); 4) cannabis (marijuana); 5) CNS stimulants, e.g., cocaine, 6) hallucinogens, e.g., LSD; and 7) narcotic analgesics, e.g., morphine. The eight observable signs are horizontal gaze nystagmus (HGN), vertical gaze nystagmus (VGN), lack of convergence (LOC), pupil size, pupil reaction to light, pulse rate blood pressure, and body temperature.
. The Drug Evaluation and Classification Program was developed in the 1970's by the Los Angeles Police Department to confront the problem of the state's inability to prosecute impaired drivers where the impairment was not alcohol related. See generally E.V. Adler and M. Bums, Drug Recognition Expert (DRE) Validation Study, Final Report to Governor's Office of Highway Safety, State of Arizona (1994). Thereafter in 1984, the National Highway and Traffic Safety Administration ("NHSTA") coordinated a study by the National Institute of Drug Abuse to evaluate the reliability and effectiveness of the Los Angeles DRE program. See Richard P. Compton, Field Evaluation of the Los Angeles Police Department Drug Detection Program, U.S. D.O.T. H.S. 807 012 (1986). This report, known as the "Compton" study, compared the DRE opinions with the toxological analysis of blood samples of 173 subjects. The Compton study found the DRE's were 94% accurate in making the call and had an overall accuracy rate of 87% in identifying at least one drag where multiple drugs were used. Id. As a result of the Compton study, NHSTA became instrumental in the funding, development, standardization, and dissemination of the DRE training program.
A subsequent study sponsored by NHSTA was conducted in 1992 by the Preusser Research Group. See D.F. Preusser, et. al., Evaluation of the Impact of the Drug Evaluation and Classification Program on Enforcement and Adjudication, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, U.S. D.O.T. H.S. 808 058 (1992). The Preusser study evaluated the accuracy of the program by comparing the DRE's conclusion with laboratory test results. The study found an overall confirmation rate of 84.1 percent. Id.
As pointed out by the State, hundreds of law enforcement agencies employ similar DRE programs. Moreover, the DRE program is endorsed by the Dade County Medical Association, the Broward County Medical Association, the Bro-ward County Psychiatric Society, the American Bar Association, the American Civil Liberties Union, the International Association of Chiefs of Police and the United States Department of Transportation. The American Optometric Association has further endorsed the use of HGN as a field sobriety test. See 64 J. Am. Optometric Assoc. 663 (Sept. 1993).
. Of the three subset tests, HGN, VGN, and LOC, the HGN is the most heavily relied upon in the protocol. Nystagmus is an involuntary jerking of the eyeball that can be aggravated by drugs or alcohol. As explained by one court:
In the HGN test the driver is asked to cover one eye and focus the other on an object (usually a pen) held by the officer at the driver's eye level. As the officer moves the object gradually out of the driver's field of vision toward his ear, he watches the driver's eyeball to detect involuntary jerking. The test is repeated with the other eye. By observing (1) the inability of each eye to track movement smoothly, (2) pronounced nystagmus at maximum deviation and (3) onset of the nystagmus at an angle less than 45 degrees in relation to the center point, the officer can estimate whether the driver's blood alcohol content (BAC) exceeds the legal limit of .10 percent.
State v. Superior Court In and For Cochise County, 149 Ariz. 269, 718 P.2d 171, 173 (1986).
. In State v. Witte, the Supreme Court of Kansas noted its concerns with the HGN test after reviewing several conflicting studies. The court remanded the case for the trial court to conduct a full evidentiary hearing to determine whether Frye had been satisfied. State v. Witte, 836 P.2d at 1110. Two years later the Supreme Court of Oregon specifically disagreed with Witte's suggestion that the HGN test did not satisfy Frye admissibility requirements stating to the contrary:
Our review of the record in this case, the legal and medical literature on the HGN test, including various publications and research studies concerning the HGN test, and our own research lead us to conclude that the scientific disciplines of pharmacology, ophthalmology, and to a lesser extent optometry should be included with behavioral psychology, highway safety, neurology, and criminalistics in the relevant scientific community. Each of those disciplines has been involved in the study of alcohol-induced nystagmus.
Our research also leads us to conclude that the following propositions have gained general acceptance within the relevant scientific community: (1) HGN occurs in conjunction with alcohol consumption; (2) its onset and distinctness are correlated to BAC; (3) in conjunction with other field sobriety tests (e.g., the walk-and-turn test and the one-leg-stand test), the HGN test is a reliable indicator of whether a driver is impaired by alcohol, and (4) officers can be trained to observe these phenomena sufficiently to detect alcohol impairment.
State v. O'Key, 899 P.2d at 686.
. See State v. Bresson, 51 Ohio St.3d 123, 554 N.E.2d 1330, 1336 (1990), where the court recognized:
[T]he HGN test cannot be compared to other scientific tests, such as a polygraph examination, since no special equipment is required in its administration. Thus, the only requirement prior to admission is the officer's knowledge of the test, his training, and his ability to interpret his observations. The admission of the results of the HGN test is no different from any other field sobriety test, such as finger-to-nose, walk- and-turn, or one-leg stand.
Finding that a majority of other appellate courts had admitted HGN testimony, the court also noted:
[Ajppellate courts generally have held that the HGN test is similar to other field sobriety tests and is admissible without expert testimony. See, e.g., State v. Nagel, supra; State v. Welday (Sept. 27, 1989), Medina App. No. 1793, unreported, 1989 WL 111784; State v. Brug, [(Aug. 7, 1987), Lucas App. No. L-86-280, unreported, 1987 WL 15300,] supra; State v. Earley, [(Apr. 5, 1985), Lucas App. No. L-84-377, unreported, 1985 WL 7090,] supra; State v. Hintz, [(Mar. 10, 1986), Clinton App. No. CA85-08-016, unreported, 1986 WL 2998,] supra; State v. Lewis (Apr. 29, 1986), Seneca App. No. 13-84-21, unreported, 1986 WL 5364.
There is a split of opinion in other states concerning this issue. Some jurisdictions have held that the HGN test is a scientific test, which requires expert testimony regarding the test's scientific reliability and acceptance. See, e.g., State v. Barker (W.Va.1988), 179 W.Va. 194, 366 S.E.2d 642; State v. Reed (1987), 83 Or.App. 451, 732 P.2d 66; Commonwealth v. Miller (1987), 367 Pa.Super. 359, 532 A.2d 1186; State v. Borchardt (1986), 224 Neb. 47, 395 N.W.2d 551. Other jurisdictions have held that evidence of a HGN test is admissible so long as a proper foundation is laid as to the techniques used and the officer's ability to use it. See, e.g., State v. Superior Court, supra. See, also, State v. Clark (Mont.1988), 234 Mont. 222, 762 P.2d 853. In a recent Supreme Court of Iowa decision, the court, relying on State v. Nagel, supra, held that some of the uncertainty surrounding the HGN test might stem from its 'pretentiously scientific name.' State v. Murphy (Iowa 1990), 451 N.W.2d 154, 156.
State v. Bresson, 554 N.E.2d at 1334. See also, State v. Ruthardt, 680 A.2d 349, 356 n. 10 (Del.Super. 1996)(listing jurisdictions holding HGN test is scientific); City of Fargo v. McLaughlin, 512 N.W.2d 700 (N.D.1994)(overview of different decisions considering whether HGN test is considered scientific); State v. Murphy, 953 S.W.2d 200, 202 n. 3 (Tenn.1997)(listing other jurisdictions which held that HGN testing is not scientific).
. In concluding that HGN test evidence is "scientific" evidence, one court has observed that:
[Although the function of the HGN test, like other field sobriety tests, is to spot 'observable symptoms' or 'signs' of alcohol impairment, it is different from other field sobriety tests because it rests on a manifestation of alcohol consumption not easily recognized or understood by most people. The relationship between the effects of alcohol on the central nervous system, the nystagmus phenomenon, and the HGN test is not within the realm of common knowledge of the average person. Other field sobriety tests, such as the walk-and-turn test, the one-leg-stand test, and the modified finger-to-nose test, obtain their legitimacy from effects of intoxication based on propositions of common knowledge.
State v. O'Key, 899 P.2d at 675 (citations omitted). See also State v. Murphy, 953 S.W.2d at 200 (HGN testing is scientific because the underlying basis of the test must be explained in order for testimony to make sense to the average juror).
. The fact that a scientific technique has existed for some period of time or even has been admitted into evidence in prior cases does not, in and of itself, demonstrate a basis for admissibility. As noted by the Florida Supreme Court in Brim v. State, 695 So.2d at 274 n. 8: "We recognize, however, that there may be times at which new scientific revelations may actually prove older methods unreliable, as opposed to simply unnecessary. In those isolated contexts, the older methods would not satisfy a Frye test."
. Dr. Bums, a research psychologist specializing in the area of the impact of alcohol and drugs on human performance, specifically testified that none of the protocol's underlying principles or procedures was new or novel. Dr. Prockop, a neurologist, Dr. Zuk, a medical doctor, Dr. Dob-bie, an otolaryngologist, Dr. Peed, a behavioral optometrist, and Dr. Maulion, a psychiatrist and addictionolgist, similarly testified that the DIE tests had been used in the medical profession for many years and were not new or novel to the scientific community. Of course, we recognize that the effectiveness of HGN as an element in determining drag impairment is not universally accepted. However, even the defendant's witnesses conceded the procedures used in the DIE are not new or novel to medicine, and no abuse of discretion has been shown in the trial court's conclusions.
. Although this issue has now been rendered moot, we note that had we reached the third certified question, our review of general acceptance in the scientific community would require application of the de novo standard. See Brim v. State, 695 So.2d at 268; Vargas v. State, 640 So.2d 1139 (Fla. 1st DCA 1994), quashed on other grounds, 667 So.2d 175 (Fla.1995).
Once it has been determined that Frye applies, the issue of whether or not novel scientific evidence meets the Frye test requires application of a de novo standard of review by the appellate court. See Hadden v. State, 690 So.2d 573 (Fla.1997). Application of the de novo standard under these circumstances recognizes the need for appellate courts to consider current scientific material and prevents inconsistent treatment of similar cases. See Hadden v. State, 690 So.2d at 573; Brim v. State, 695 So.2d at 268.
However, if it is determined that Frye does not apply, the admissibility of expert testimony lies within the broad discretion of the trial court which will not be reversed on appeal absent a showing of abuse. See Atlantic Coast Line R.R. Co. v. Ganey, 125 So.2d 576 (Fla. 3d DCA 1961). See also Hayes v. State, 660 So.2d at 257; Ramirez v. State, 651 So.2d 1164 (Fla.1995).
. The majority of studies, scientific articles, state court decisions and literature noted throughout this opinion, establish the DIE as a reliable tool in the war against drug-impaired drivers. The dissent's argument to the contrary is premised upon a 1996 research project published in a toxicological journal that reported lower DRE accuracy levels than several previous studies. See Stephen J. Heishman, et al., Laboratory Validation Study of Drug evaluation and Classification Program: Ethanol, Cocaine and Marijuana, 20 Journal of Analytical Toxicology 468 (1996). Significantly, this study did not examine actual field accuracy rates. Thus any reliance upon this study to support the argument that the DRE program is "unreliable" is clearly misplaced.
The primary goal of the study was to determine the validity of the Drug Evaluation and Classification Program variables. The authors concluded that DRE testing variables are highly accurate noting: "17-28 variables of the DEC evaluation predicted the presence or absence of each of the three drugs with a high degree of sensitivity and specificity and low rates of false-positive and false-negative errors." Id. at 475.
The secondaiy goal of the research project was to determine the accuracy of the DRE's in detecting ethanol, cocaine, or marijuana. The authors concluded from a controlled laboratory test that DRE predictions were consistent with toxicology test results in 51% of the cases. Based upon this result, the dissent concludes that: "Obviously, where there is a fifty-percent error rate, the proposed scientific evidence is too unreliable to be introduced at trial." Dissent at 47.
This conclusion misses the point. DRE accuracy cannot be examined in a vacuum. Realistic accuracy rates cannot be derived solely from controlled settings where "an abbreviated DEC evaluation was used that was different from the [actual] standardized test used in the field." Id. at 480. This study cannot realistically predict the scientific reliability of the DIE program because it examined a method that is not used by the DRE's and which does not exist in law enforcement today.
Moreover, substantial differences exist between the controlled laboratory conditions of the study and actual field conditions. Id. at 480-81. Perhaps most critical is the fact that the study administered lower doses of active ingredients as a comparison to substantially higher potency street level doses and evaluated subjects using a repeated measures design where sessions were separated by only 48 hours. Tolerant users who are given low substance dosages and have had multiple exposures to an examination profile, will not present realistic evaluative signs and symptoms for detection. Simply, this study did not replicate actual DRE procedures or field conditions.
By contrast, those studies which did examine actual field DRE prediction rates reflect DRE predictions highly consistent with toxicology tests. For example, in a research project sponsored by NHTSA to study Arizona's DRE program, the DRE's findings were consistent with laboratory findings in 91% of the cases studied. See E.V. Adler and M. Bums, Drug Recognition expert (DRE) Validation Study, Final Report to Governor's Office of Highway Safety, State of Arizona (1994). This comprehensive validation study further noted that data from DRE programs in California, Texas, and Minnesota, demonstrated similarly high identification accuracy rates at 88.2%, 81.3% and 84.5% respectively. Id. at 5. As to the issue of reliability for legal admissibility purposes, we are far more persuaded by actual field studies which confirm DRE accuracy rates, than by a journal article which conducted an isolated study under distinctly different laboratory conditions. See Schultz v. State, 664 A.2d at 172[72] n. 12 (noting most studies indicate a reliability factor of between 85% to 90% when HGN is administered with standard NHTSA field sobriety test); see also Lionel P. Raymon, Bernard W. Steele and H. Chip Walls, Analytical Confirmation Versus DRE Evaluation of Cannabis Use: A Comparative Study, Report at American Academy of Forensic Sciences Annual Meeting (1998)(toxicological studies confirm 79.4% accuracy rate in Dade County DRE evaluations of cannabis intoxication).
. First, as pointed out by the State, the DRE protocol is designed to err in favor of the accused. See People v. Quinn, 580 N.Y.S.2d at 827. If the DRE is unsure that a suspect is impaired, the suspect must be found not under the influence of drugs. Second, DRE test results are recorded in the DRE's evaluation report and thus subject to peer review. Third, toxicological samples are used to confirm or corroborate the use of a particular drug or drugs. Fourth, DRE coordinators and a medical doctor review Dade County DRE opinions. Fifth, DUI cases are assessed by prosecutors with the assistance of laboratory personnel. Finally, if the defendant is impaired by a medical condition, the defendant has ample opportunity to provide medical testimony to refute the DRE's opinion.
. In State v. Bender, 382 So.2d 697 (Fla.1980), the Florida Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the implied consent statutes in Chapter 322 creating procedures for breath and blood testing for alcohol. The Court recognized the overall purpose of Chapter 322 is to assist in implementing Section 316.193 which provides that driving while impaired is unlawful. The Court further noted that the purpose of the implied consent statutes was to insure that approved testing techniques and methods produce "reliable scientific evidence for use in future court proceedings." State v. Bender, 382 So.2d at 699.
. The expected angle of onset for a BAC of .10% is 40.2 degrees for the right eye and 40.1 degrees for the left eye. "Improved Sobriety Testing," National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, DOT-HS-806-512 (1984 NHTSA Study). In State v. Witte, 836 P.2d at 1119, the court noted that according to the NHTSA study, where nys-tagmus is observed at a 45-degree angle, a BAC of .10% can he estimated correctly 78 percent of the time. The court further noted that nystag-mus can be caused by many factors in addition to intoxication and that 50-60 percent of sober individuals will exhibit horizontal gaze nystag-mus when moving their eyes more than 40 degrees to one side that cannot be distinguished from alcohol gaze nystagmus. State v. Witte, 836 P.2d at 1119.
. The main criticism of the HGN is that the angle of onset cannot be accurately measured in the field. The accuracy of the BAC determination is directly related to the accuracy of the measurement of the angle of the onset. If the angle is not measured correctly, the blood alcohol results could be wrong.
. For an overview of case law supporting the admissibility of HGN test results, see People v. Buening, 229 Ill.App.3d 538, 170 Ill.Dec. 542, 592 N.E.2d 1222, appeal denied, 146 Ill.2d 634, 176 Ill.Dec. 806, 602 N.E.2d 460 (1992). A comprehensive discussion of the various NHSTA studies and other articles published on the HGN test can be found in State v. O'Key, 899 P.2d at 663. The court in Schultz v. State, 664 A.2d at 72 n. 12 also refers to several studies which indicate a reliability factor of between 85% and 90% when HGN is administered with standard NHTSA field sobriety tests. See also Emerson v. State, 880 S.W.2d at 759 (noting estimations of accuracy of HGN have ranged as high as 88%).
. According to the United States Department of Transportation Test Manual, the HGN test is the most accurate field test to determine whether a person is alcohol impaired. See United States Department of Transportation, National Highway Safety Administration, Improved Sobriety Testing 4 (1984), as cited to in State v. Bresson, 554 N.E.2d at 1332; People v. Buening, 170 Ill.Dec. 542, 592 N.E.2d at 1227. See also State v. Ruthardt, 680 A.2d at 360 (Del.Super. 1996)(error rate of properly administered HGN test lower than all other field sobriety tests routinely admitted into evidence).
The State presented testimony from several specialists confirming a high correlation between the angle of onset of HGN and blood alcohol content. Dr. Bums, a research psychologist specializing in the area of the impact of alcohol and drugs on human performance, was involved in a research group commissioned by NHTSA to develop a battery of field sobriety tests. The study conducted by the group revealed that BAC can be accurately estimated from the angle of onset of nystagmus. The research group recommended the walk and turn test, the one leg stand and the HGN as being the most reliable indicators of alcohol impairment.
. Section 316.1934 provides in relevant part:
(1) It is unlawful and punishable as provided in chapter 322 and in s. 316.193 for any person who is under the influence of alcoholic beverages or controlled substances, when affected to the extent that the person's normal faculties are impaired or to the extent that the person is deprived of full possession of normal faculties, to drive or be in actual physical control of any motor vehicle within this state .
(2) At the trial of any civil or criminal action or proceeding arising out of acts alleged to have been committed by any person while driving, or in actual physical control of, a vehicle while under the influence of alcoholic beverages or controlled substances, when affected to the extent that the person's normal faculties were impaired or to the extent that he or she was deprived of full possession of his or her normal faculties, the results of any test administered in accordance with s. 316.1932 or s. 316.1933 and this section are admissible into evidence when otherwise admissible, and the amount of alcohol in the person's blood or breath at the time alleged, as shown by chemical analysis of the person's blood, or by chemical or physical test of the person's breath, gives rise to the following presumptions:
(c) If there was at that time a blood-alcohol level or breath-alcohol level of 0.08 or higher, that fact is prima facie evidence that the person was under the influence of alcoholic beverages to the extent that his or her normal faculties were impaired. Moreover, such person who has a blood-alcohol level or breath-alcohol level of 0.08 or higher is guilty of driving, or being in actual physical control of, a motor vehicle, with an unlawful blood-alcohol level or breath-alcohol level.
The presumptions provided in this subsection do not limit the introduction of any other competent evidence bearing upon the question of whether the person was under the influence of alcoholic beverages to the extent that his or her normal faculties were impaired.
. As noted in State v. Bresson, 554 N.E.2d at 1336 (quoting State v. Superior Court, 149 Ariz. at 279, 718 P.2d at 181)(emphasis added):
[A]lthough results on an HGN test may be admissible at trial by a properly trained officer, such an officer may not testify as to what he or she believes a driver's actual or specific BAC level would be, based solely on the HGN test results. " Such a use of HGN test results would raise a number of due process problems different from those associated with the chemical testing of bodily fluids. The arresting officer's 'reading' of the HGN test cannot be verified or duplicated by an independent party. The test's recognized margin of eiror provides problems as to criminal convictions which require proof of guilt beyond a reasonable doubt. The circumstances under which the test is administered at roadside may affect the reliability of the test results. Nystagmus may be caused by conditions other than alcohol intoxication. And finally, the far more accurate chemical testing devices are readily available."
See also, State v. Taylor, 694 A.2d at 912 (HGN may not be used to quantify particular blood alcohol level); Emerson v. State, 880 S.W.2d at 759(same).
. We agree with the trial court that it is somewhat misleading for the State to present, the officers as "Drug Recognition Experts." In the words of the trial court, the "appellation assumes the conclusion. If the officer is an 'Expert,' then, obviously, his or her opinion is admissible pursuant to Fla. R. Evid. 90.702 (1994). Accordingly, the State must lay a proper predicate before referring to a DRE as anything other than a DRE or Drug Recognition Evaluator or Examiner. See also State v. Klawitter, No. C6-93-2092 [518 N.W.2d 577] (Minn. June 30, 1994)(unpublished opinion)."
. As noted in the 1994 Arizona study of 500 drivers examined by DRE's, most of these drivers would have passed a breathalyser test and could not have been arrested without the evidence of impairment obtained from the DRE evaluation. See E.V. Adler and M. Bums, Drug Recognition expert (DRE) Validation Study, Final Report to Governor's Office of Highway Safety, State of Arizona (1994). The 1992 NHTSA study also reveals the impact of the DIE program on increasing detection and prosecution of drug-impaired drivers. See D.F. Preusser, et ah, Evaluation of the Impact of the Drug Evaluation and Classification Program on Enforcement and Adjudication, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, U.S. D.O.T. H.S. 808 058 (1992). The study compared eleven police agencies in five states with DIE programs to similar police agencies without DIE programs. In the DIE sites, arrests for drugged driving and convictions increased, while there was no similar increase in the comparison communities. Drag presence was confirmed by chemical tests for most of the suspects accused of drug use. Id. See also Lionel P. Raymon, Bernard W. Steele and H. Chip Walls, Analytical Confirmation Versus DRE Evaluation of Cannabis Use: A Comparative Study, Report at American Academy of Forensic Sciences Annual Meeting (1998)(toxicological studies confirm 79.4% accuracy rate in Dade County DRE evaluations of cannabis intoxication leading to higher conviction rate for chemically impaired drivers).