Case Name: Heather GLASKOX, a Minor, By and Through Her Grandfather, Guardian and Next Friend, Billy H. DENTON v. Luther GLASKOX; Tabatha GLASKOX, a Minor By and Through Her Grandfather, Guardian and Next Friend, Billy H. DENTON v. Luther GLASKOX; Gina Gayle BIGELOW, a Minor, By and Through Her Mother and Next Friend, Carron BIGELOW v. Carron BIGELOW
Court: Mississippi Supreme Court
Jurisdiction: Mississippi
Decision Date: 1992-10-29
Citations: 614 So. 2d 906
Docket Number: Nos. 07-CA-59659, 07-CA-59660 and 89-CA-1316
Parties: Heather GLASKOX, a Minor, By and Through Her Grandfather, Guardian and Next Friend, Billy H. DENTON v. Luther GLASKOX. Tabatha GLASKOX, a Minor By and Through Her Grandfather, Guardian and Next Friend, Billy H. DENTON v. Luther GLASKOX. Gina Gayle BIGELOW, a Minor, By and Through Her Mother and Next Friend, Carron BIGELOW v. Carron BIGELOW.
Judges: PRATHER, SULLIVAN and PITTMAN, JJ., concur.
Reporter: Southern Reporter, Second Series
Volume: 614
Pages: 906–916

Head Matter:
Heather GLASKOX, a Minor, By and Through Her Grandfather, Guardian and Next Friend, Billy H. DENTON v. Luther GLASKOX. Tabatha GLASKOX, a Minor By and Through Her Grandfather, Guardian and Next Friend, Billy H. DENTON v. Luther GLASKOX. Gina Gayle BIGELOW, a Minor, By and Through Her Mother and Next Friend, Carron BIGELOW v. Carron BIGELOW.
Nos. 07-CA-59659, 07-CA-59660 and 89-CA-1316.
Supreme Court of Mississippi.
Oct. 29, 1992.
Rehearing Denied April 8, 1993.
John L. Hunter, David 0. McCormick, Cumbest Cumbest Hunter & McCormick, Pascagoula, for appellant in No. 07-CA-59659.
Ernest R. Schroeder, C.M. Lanford, H. Benjamin Mullen, Bryan Nelson Schroeder Backstrom Castigliola & Banahan, Raymond L. Brown, Brown & Watt, Pascagou-la, for appellee in No. 07-CA-59659.
Charles G. Copeland, Copeland Cook Taylor & Bush, Jackson, for amicus curiae in No. 07-CA-59659.
John L. Hunter, Cumbest Cumbest Hunter & McCormick, Pascagoula, for appellant in No. 07-CA-59660.
Ernest R. Schroeder, Bryan Nelson Schroeder Backstrom Castigliola & Bana-han, Pascagoula, for appellee in No. 07-CA-59660.
Dempsey M. Levi, Levi & Denham, Ocean Springs, for appellant in No. 89-CA-1316.
John A. Banahan, Bryan Nelson Schroeder Backstrom Castigliola & Banahan, Pas-cagoula, for appellee in No. 89-CA-1316.

Opinion:
BANKS, Justice, for the Court:
This appeal represents the consolidation of three cases wherein we are asked to revisit and overrule our decision in Hewlett v. George, 68 Miss. 703, 9 So. 885 (Miss. 1891), adopting the doctrine of parental immunity for negligent injury to children. We accept the invitation, abolish the doctrine and, consequently reverse the judgments entered in favor of defendants.
I.
Heather Glaskox (Heather), minor, by and through her grandfather, Billy H. Den-ton, filed a complaint in negligence against Mississippi Export Railroad Company (Railroad) and Luther Glaskox (Glaskox), her father, in the Circuit Court of Jackson County, Mississippi. Heather alleged that on April 11, 1985, at approximately 3:30 p.m., she was injured when a truck being driven by her father, in which she was a passenger, was negligently struck by a train being operated by the railroad. The direct and proximate result of the defendants' negligence was "severe, permanent, painful and disabling personal injuries" to Heather's body. She demanded judgment against the defendants in the amount of $8.00,000.00.
On July 27, 1988, the defendants filed a "Motion for Protective Order" seeking refuge from having to complete discovery. The defense theory was that such protection should be afforded, pending decision on its "Motion to Dismiss", for failure to state a claim given that the Heather's case against her father was barred by the doctrine of parental immunity.
On the same date, Glaskox, filed a "Separate Answer" to the complaint filed against him. He denied all material allegations of the complaint and claimed that the injuries sustained by Heather were caused by "the negligence of others." He affirmatively alleged that the "sole proximate cause of the accident and injuries complained of by the Plaintiff was the negligence and lack of due care of the Defendant, Mississippi Export Railroad Company...."
By Order dated August 31, 1988, the court found that there were serious questions regarding the state law "as it might apply to parental immunity from a suit filed by a child in view of the most recent Supreme Court decision of Burns v. Burns, 518 So.2d 1205 (Miss.1988), which abrogated interspousal immunity in tort suits." It found further that "although serious questions are raised regarding the status of the law in Mississippi, in view of Burns v. Burns, that the doctrine of parental tort immunity for an unemancipated child suing its parent has not been overruled, and the Court is thereby bound by the doctrine of stare decisi [sic] to dismiss this cause of action and hereby grants a dismissal." Finally, the court stayed and terminated all proceedings against the railroad "until a determination is made from the ruling of This Court by a decision from the Supreme Court regarding the issues of parental tort immunity, as the ruling is likely to dispose of the case on its merits and would create judicial economy and efficiency and would not create any prejudice or any undue burden on the parties to await a ruling from the Supreme Court regarding the issues of parental tort immunity." Pursuant to Rule 54(b) of the Mississippi Rules of Civil Procedure, the judgment entered against Glaskox was final and rendered the Court's Order appealable.
From the order of dismissal, Heather filed a Notice of Appeal to the Supreme Court on September 16, 1988.
Tabatha Glaskox
Tabatha Glaskox, (Tabatha), with the aid of her grandfather, filed a complaint in negligence against her father, Luther Glas-kox . She alleged that Glaskox was negligent in some, if not all, of the following: (1) failure to keep a reasonable and proper look-out for a train; (2) failure to control his vehicle; (3) driving at an unsafe speed; (4) failure to yield the right-of-way to the train. She demanded $800,000.00 judgment against her father. The record in Tabatha's case was identical to Heather's in all other respects.
Gina Gayle Bigelow
Gina Bigelow (Gina), by and through her mother, Carrón Bigelow (Bigelow), filed a complaint in which she alleged that her mother's negligent operation of a car resulted in painful and disabling physical and mental injuries and suffering. She demanded a judgment of $300,000.
Bigelow filed an "Answer" on November 8, 1989, denying all the material allegations of the complaint and alleging, affirmatively, that the complaint failed to state a cause of action as she was immune from suit. On the same date, Bigelow filed a Motion to Dismiss averring that the law in Mississippi on parental immunity did not afford Gina any relief. Gina filed an Answer to Motion to Dismiss on November 16, 1989, denying all the allegations in Bige-low's motion. Additionally, in her Brief in Support of Answer to Motion to Dismiss, Gina argued that parental immunity to a tort suit from an unemancipated minor should be abolished as was the concept of interspousal immunity in Burns v. Burns, 518 So.2d 1205 (Miss.1988). She contended that the allowance of such suit in no way interferes with or strains the relationship between parent and child; instead it provides a means for compensation to the injured child and insures equal treatment for children.
On August 26, 1988, a hearing was had on the motions to dismiss filed by Glaskox. During the hearing, defense counsel contended that the cases involved questions of law more appropriate for the legislature or Supreme Court and the Burns decision on which plaintiffs relied was a five-four decision with a strong dissent.
Plaintiffs counsel responded that Mississippi got on the wrong track a hundred years ago and without precedent recognized parental immunity from suits brought by unemancipated minors. He stated further that disallowing the suit filed by Heather and Tabatha denies them equal protection and due process of law; additionally, article 3, section 24 of the Mississippi Constitution (1890) which provides for open courts, applies to minors.
The court ruled that pursuant to stare decisis it was obliged to follow the doctrine of parental immunity since such immunity had not been abrogated by the Supreme Court. It held that if the law is to be changed, then it is the decision of the Supreme Court or the legislature and until changed, the court was obliged to follow and apply the doctrine of parental immunity and bar these cases.
On November 17, 1989, the court held a hearing on Bigelow's motion to dismiss suit filed by her daughter, Gina. For the same reasons that it stated in Glaskox v. Glas-kox, the court granted the motion.
II
The principle of parental immunity bars an unemancipated minor from suing her parent for injuries caused by the negligence of the parent. Hewlett v. George, 68 Miss. 703, 9 So. 885 (Miss.1891); Durham v. Durham, 227 Miss. 76, 85 So.2d 807 (1956). Parental immunity did not originate in the English common law; instead, it was a creation of our predecessors. See, Durham, 227 Miss, at 82, 85 So.2d 807. In 1891, in the seminal ease of Hewlett v. George, this Court, without relying on any precedent, established a rule of law that would be followed in jurisdictions throughout our land and not be abrogated until some seventy years later .
After its introduction in Hewlett, the rule began to spread quite rapidly. The Hewlett Court premised its opinion, and consequently the rule of parental immunity, on the obligations of parents to care for, guide, and control children and the children's duty to obey their parents. Emerging from these reciprocal obligations was the preservation of domestic tranquility.
The peace of society, and of the families composing society, and a sound public policy, designed to sub-serve the repose of families and the best interests of society, forbid to the minor child a right to appear in court in the assertion of a claim to civil redress for personal injuries suffered at the hands of the parent. The state, through its criminal laws will give the minor child protection from parental violence and wrong-doing, and this is all the child can be heard to demand.
Hewlett, 9 So. at 887.
The rule, however, has not been without its critics. Legal writers have almost universally condemned the doctrine, and the trend judicially is toward a steady erosion of the rule by "exception and repudiation." Williams v. Williams, 369 A.2d 669, 673 (Del.1976). Prosser, Law of Torts, indicates that the doctrine has no foundation in English common law. Courts in Canada and Scotland permit actions by children for personal torts resulting from parental negligence. Id. § 122 (4th Ed.1971); accord, Harper and James, Law of Torts, Vol. 1, § 8.11 (1956).
Beginning in the early 1960's the rule fell into disfavor in American courts. In 1963, the Wisconsin Supreme Court reversed the process begun by our Court . Stating that suits brought by minors which sounded in property or contract were not prohibited, the Wisconsin Court held that the rule should be abolished except in two situations: (1) where the negligent act involves exercise of parental control or (2) parental authority. Goller v. White, 20 Wis.2d 402, 122 N.W.2d 193 (Wis.1963).
Other jurisdictions followed suit and began limiting or abolishing the doctrine nearly as fast as it was adopted. Today most jurisdictions have limited the applica tion of the doctrine, especially in the area of personal injury actions which presently concerns the Court . The great majority of states recognize exceptions to the parent-child tort immunity doctrine. More than half of the states have taken the position that a parent may be liable to her child for injuries caused by the parent's negligence.
Ill
Plaintiffs rely upon this Court's decision in Burns v. Burns 518 So.2d 1205 (Miss. 1988), which abrogated spousal immunity. They maintain that the eradication of spousal immunity should lead this Court to abolish, or at least limit, parental immunity in the area of tort suits premised on negligence.
Defendants respond that Bums, inasmuch as it concerns spousal immunity, has no application to the area of parental immunity. Moreover, Bums dealt with an intentional tort, not negligence as the instant case. They also contend that the decision in Bums was premised on the constitution and statutes which gave married women the same and full legal rights of unmarried women. See Bums, 518 So.2d at 1206-09.
We find Bums, as well as the decisions of jurisdictions abrogating the doctrine of parental immunity, persuasive and join the majority of other jurisdictions which abolish the principle of parental immunity where a minor is injured as a result of her parents' negligent operation of a motor vehicle. There is no justification for barring children from enjoying the same rights of legal redress for wrongs done to them that others enjoy. Lee v. Comer, 159 W.Va. 585, 224 S.E.2d 721, 723 (1976). Additionally, to "hold that a child's pains must be endured for the peace and welfare of the family is something of a mockery." Id. at 723. The authorities which favor eradication state the proper approach given modern conditions and conceptions about what is good public policy. Transamerica Ins. Co. v. Royle, 202 Mont. 173, 656 P.2d 820, 824 (1983).
Defendants advance numerous arguments in support of their position that the proscription of children's tort suits against their parents reflects sound public policy. They contend that the maintenance of such suits is wholly inconsistent with the parent-child relationship.
The defendants' arguments are without merit. First, it must be remembered that the general rule provides that where an injury results from negligence, liability follows. "For negligent or tortious conduct, liability is the rule. Immunity is the exception." President and Directors of Georgetown College v. Hughes, 130 F.2d 810 (D.C.App.1942). The doctrine also loses force when it is recalled that both English and American common-law permit an unemancipated minor to maintain property actions against a parent. As indicated by one court, some of the most bitter disputes arise over property. Lee, 224 S.E.2d at 723. Despite this fact, no jurisdictions prohibit such suits by minors. Further, where a child sues a parent in contract, the family unit is not any less close, and the child less dependent on the parent. No sound justification appears for the fact that the law protects a minor's contract or property rights, but offers no redress to the child for injury to his person. Streenz v. Streenz, 106 Ariz. 86, 471 P.2d 282 (1970).
Family tranquility which serves as a basis for the public policy on which parental immunity is founded is not a proper justification to deprive a minor child of the right to sue for injuries to his person. Moreover, domestic peace and harmony may be more threatened by denying the cause of action than by permitting one, especially where there is insurance.
The cost of making the injured [child] whole would necessarily come out of the family coffers, yet a tortfeasor [parent] surely anticipates that he will be covered in the event that his negligence causes his [child] injuries. This unexpected drain on the family's financial resources could likely lead to an interference with the normal family life. And it is doubtful that this void in insurance coverage would comport with the reasonable expectations of the insured that this Court has so often sought to protect.
Smith v. Kauffman, 183 S.E.2d 190, 194 (Va.1971)
In the area of automobile accident cases, the almost universal existence of liability insurance cannot be ignored. Where liability insurance exists, the domestic tranquility argument is no longer valid; in fact it is quite hollow, for in reality the sought after litigation is between the child and the parent's insurance carrier; not the child the parent. Schleier v. Alter, 159 Ariz. 397, 767 P.2d 1187, 1189 (1989); Lee, 224 S.E.2d at 723 citing numerous decisions in support. Quite to the contrary of the fears of the defendants, where insurance is available to compensate the child for injuries, the possibility of disruption of the family unit is negligible. Schleier, 767 P.2d at 1189 .
It is also worthy of mention that when an action is brought against a parent, frequently it will be brought at the instance, or with the approval, of the parent with an eye toward recovery from the parent's already purchased liability insurance. When there is no coverage it is unlikely that suit will be brought against the parent. In rare eases where the action is truly adversarial, judicial formulation of an obstacle to the suit cannot contribute to family harmony or restore the proper relations among the members. Sorensen v. Sorensen, 369 Mass. 350, 339 N.E.2d 907 (1975); Schleier, 767 P.2d at 1189; Lee, 224 S.E.2d at 724; Streenz, 471 P.2d at 284.
Finally,
the immunity rule has not been applied to property rights, contract rights, an emancipated child, wrongful death actions, suits between brothers and sisters, a stepfather, an adoptive parent, or a grandparent, to cases where the child is injured in the course of a business rather than a personal activity, and in suits involving willful, wanton, intentional or criminal conduct. If harmony and unity in the family is the public policy protecting the rule, it would seem to be present in these areas. . From these observations, it is easy to conclude that the justification for the rule based on harmony, cooperation and family affection and its preservation is an excuse rather than a solid foundation for the rule.
Stallman v. Youngquist, 129 Ill.App.3d 859, 863, 85 Ill.Dec. 32, 35, 473 N.E.2d 400, 403 (1984).
The most persuasive argument against abrogation of the parent-child immunity doctrine is the possibility of fraud and collusion. While a possibility, this factor does not justify denial of otherwise meritorious claims. As stated by the Montana Supreme Court in Transamerica, 656 P.2d at 820 quoting the Supreme Court of Kansas in Nocktonick v. Nocktonick, 227 Kan. 758, 611 P.2d 135 (1980),
"[t]he possibility of collusion exists to a certain extent in any case. Every day we depend on juries and trial judges to sift evidence in order to determine the facts and arrive at proper verdicts. Experience has shown that the courts are quite adequate for this task. In litigation between parent and child, judges and juries would naturally be mindful of the relationship and would be even more on the alert for improper conduct." 611 P.2d at 142
Accord, Lee, 224 S.E.2d at 725 (through prompt and efficient investigation by the insurance company and active participation by counsel representing both parties, juries and trial courts have constantly performed the function of distinguishing the frivolous from the meritorious). Furthermore, the interest of the child in freedom from personal injury caused by tortious conduct of others is sufficient to outweigh danger of fraud or collusion.
CONCLUSION
We hold that the judicially created doctrine of parental immunity has outlived its purpose and adopt the majority view abrogating the principle as it applies to the negligent operation of a motor' vehicle. We recognize a legislative prerogative to declare a policy this area and fashion such legislation implementing that policy as it sees fit consistent with constitutional limitations. Accordingly, we reverse the judgments entered below and remand these cases to the trial court for further proceedings.
REVERSED AND REMANDED.
PRATHER, SULLIVAN and PITTMAN, JJ., concur.
McRAE, J., concurs in part and dissents in part with separate written opinion.
DAN M. LEE, P.J., dissents with separate written opinion joined by ROY NOBLE LEE, C.J., and HAWKINS, P.J.
ROBERTS, J., not participating according to supreme court internal rules.
. Although Hewlett is cited often as the case which laid the foundation for the modern doctrine of parental immunity for injuries to an unemancipated child as a result of the parent's negligence, the facts of that decision charged the wilful wrong of confinement of a child in an insane asylum, by her mother. The Court held that an action for false imprisonment did not lie against the parent.
. Tabatha's complaint differed from Heather's only with respect to the opposing party — Tabatha only sued her father; she did not sue the railroad. In all other respects, the records were identical.
. Goller v. White, 20 Wis.2d 402, 122 N.W.2d 193 (1963).
. See supra note 2.
. Drickersen v. Drickersen, 546 P.2d 162 (Alak. 1976); Schleier v. Alter, 159 Ariz. 397, 767 P.2d 1187 (1989); Streenz v. Streenz, 106 Ariz. 86, 471 P.2d 282 (1970); Gibson v. Gibson, 3 Cal.3d 914, 92 Cal.Rptr. 288, 479 P.2d 648 (1971) (abolishing immunity altogether); Schlessinger v. Schlessinger, 796 P.2d 1385 (Colo.1990) (not in automobile injury cases); Ooms v. Ooms, 164 Conn. 48, 316 A.2d 783 (Conn.1972) (statutory abrogation of the doctrine in actions for negligence in the operation of a motor vehicle); Williams v. Williams, 369 A.2d 669, 673 (Del. 1976) (abolished rule in area of liability for negligent operation of automobile); Rousey v. Rousey, 528 A.2d 416 (D.C.App.1987) (child not barred from suing parent for negligence, regardless of insurance); Krouse v. Krouse, 489 So.2d 106 (Fla. 1986) (statutory abrogation of doctrine in automobile negligence cases, Fla.Stat.Ann. § 768.-21(5), 6(b)); Petersen v. Honolulu, 51 Haw. 484, 462 P.2d 1007 (1969) (parent-child negligence suits will be permitted regardless of presence or absence of insurance coverage; immunity doctrine will not be adopted by the Hawaii Supreme Court); Farmers Ins. Group v. Reed, 109 Idaho 849, 712 P.2d 550 (1985) (intra-family immunity actions in automobile negligence cases will be maintained only up to limits in the automobile insurance policy; Idaho has a compulsory insurance law); Stallman v. Youngquist, 152 Ill.App.3d 683, 105 Ill.Dec. 635, 504 N.E.2d 920 (1987) (rule limited to acts arising out of the family relationship and directly connected with family purposes and objectives); Turner v. Turner, 304 N.W.2d 786 (Iowa 1981) (abolished parental immunity); Nocktonick v. Nocktonick, 221 Kan. 758, 611 P.2d 135 (1980) (unemanci-pated minor may recover damages in an action brought against parent for personal injuries caused by the negligence of the parent in the operation of a motor vehicle); Rigdon v. Rigdon, 465 S.W.2d 921 (Ken.1970) (abrogated doctrine except in area of parental control or parental authority); Flagg v. Flagg, 458 A.2d 748 (Me. 1983) (child permitted to sue parent for injuries caused by negligence of parent in operating a motor vehicle); Stamboulis v. Stamboul-is, 401 Mass. 762, 519 N.E.2d 1299 (1988) (quoting Sorensen v. Sorensen, 339 N.E.2d 907, which abrogated immunity in motor vehicle tort cases only if insurance coverage was involved); Sweeney v. Sweeney, 402 Mich. 234, 262 N.W.2d 625 (1978) (minor may maintain lawsuit for injuries sustained as a result of ordinary negligence); Silesky v. Kelman, 281 Minn. 431, 161 N.W.2d 631 (1968) (abrogated the parental immunity rule in negligence cases except in certain situations; child permitted to sue for injuries resulting from auto accidents); Transamerica Ins. Co. v. Royle, 202 Mont. 173, 656 P.2d 820 (1983) (in 1979 legislature mandated liability insurance; court held that a parent is not immune from suit brought by his child under the age of emancipation in cases involving parental negligence in the operation of a motor vehicle); Rupert v. Stienne, 90 Nev. 397, 528 P.2d 1013 (1974) (the right of a parent to sue a child in tort is without restriction or limitation); Briere v. Briere, 107 N.H. 432, 224 A.2d 588 (1966) (minor could maintain action against parent for injuries sustained in automobile accident); Foldi v. Jeffries, 93 N.J. 533, 461 A.2d 1145 (1983) (unemanci-pated child may sue parent for injury resulting from negligent operation of a motor vehicle); Gelbman v. Gelbman, 23 N.Y.2d 434, 297 N.Y.S.2d 529, 245 N.E.2d 192 (1969); Carver v. Carver, 310 N.C. 669, 314 S.E.2d 739 (N.C.1984) (statute abrogated doctrine of parental immunity in personal injury and property damage cases arising out of parent's operation of motor vehicle) accord, Lee v. Mowett Sales Co., 316 N.C. 489, 342 S.E.2d 882 (1986) (doctrine will continue to be applied as it exists); Nuelle v. Wells, 154 N.W.2d 364 (N.D.1967); (Clark v. Snapper Power Equipment, Inc., 21 Ohio St.3d 58, 488 N.E.2d 138 (1986) (minor child's complaint in tort may not be dismissed where the dismissal is premised on a theory that the doctrine of parental immunity a complete bar to the action); Winn v. Gilroy, 296 Or. 718, 681 P.2d 776 (1984) (adopted Restatement (Second) of Torts § 895G approach and abolishes immunity except in instances where the act is not tortious or is privileged); Falco v. Pados, 444 Pa. 372, 282 A.2d 351 (1971); Elam v. Elam, 275 S.C. 132, 268 S.E.2d 109 (1980) (abolished parental immunity doctrine); Jilani v. Jilani, 767 S.W.2d 671 (Tex. 1988) (eradicated rule except in instances of reasonable exercise of parental authority or exercise of parental discretion); Smith v. Kauffman, 212 Va. 181, 183 S.E.2d 190 (1971) (abolish rule of parental immunity in motor vehicle accident cases); Lee v. Comer, 159 W.Va. 585, 224 S.E.2d 721 (1976) (unemancipated minor may maintain action against parent for personal injuries sustained in an automobile accident caused by the negligence of said parent); Jenkins v. Snohomish County Public Utility, 105 Wash.2d 99, 713 P.2d 79 (1986) quoting Hoffman v. Tracy, 67 Wash.2d 31, 406 P.2d 323 (1965) (no parental immunity when a child is injured as a result of negligent driving by a parent).
. See supra note 4.
. Many cases discussing the importance of liability insurance, state either explicitly or by necessary inference that suits brought by minors in tort against their parents will be allowed "regardless of the presence or absence of insurance coverage." Lee, 224 S.E.2d at 724.