Case Name: Arthur BREAKSTONE and Beach Enterprises, Ltd., a Florida limited corporation, Petitioner, v. Honorable Mary Ann MacKENZIE, as Judge of the Eleventh Judicial Circuit Court, in and for Dade County, Florida, Respondent. SUPER KIDS BARGAIN STORE, INC., Petitioner, v. Honorable Mary Ann MacKENZIE, as Judge of the Eleventh Judicial Circuit Court, in and for Dade County, Florida, Respondent
Court: Florida District Court of Appeal
Jurisdiction: Florida
Decision Date: 1989-09-14
Citations: 561 So. 2d 1164
Docket Number: Nos. 88-2392, 88-2903
Parties: Arthur BREAKSTONE and Beach Enterprises, Ltd., a Florida limited corporation, Petitioner, v. Honorable Mary Ann MacKENZIE, as Judge of the Eleventh Judicial Circuit Court, in and for Dade County, Florida, Respondent. SUPER KIDS BARGAIN STORE, INC., Petitioner, v. Honorable Mary Ann MacKENZIE, as Judge of the Eleventh Judicial Circuit Court, in and for Dade County, Florida, Respondent.
Judges: Before SCHWARTZ, C.J., and BARKDULL, HUBBART, NESBITT, BASKIN, FERGUSON, JORGENSON, COPE and LEVY, JJ.
Reporter: Southern Reporter, Second Series
Volume: 561
Pages: 1164–1179

Head Matter:
Arthur BREAKSTONE and Beach Enterprises, Ltd., a Florida limited corporation, Petitioner, v. Honorable Mary Ann MacKENZIE, as Judge of the Eleventh Judicial Circuit Court, in and for Dade County, Florida, Respondent. SUPER KIDS BARGAIN STORE, INC., Petitioner, v. Honorable Mary Ann MacKENZIE, as Judge of the Eleventh Judicial Circuit Court, in and for Dade County, Florida, Respondent.
Nos. 88-2392, 88-2903.
District Court of Appeal of Florida, Third District.
Sept. 14, 1989.
William J. Berger, Miami, for petitioners Breakstone and Beach Enterprises, Ltd.
Shapiro and Weil and Murray Weil, Miami Beach, for petitioner Super Kids Bargain Store, Inc.
Robert A. Ginsburg, County Atty., and Roy Wood, Asst. County Atty., for respondent.
Richard C. Milstein, Coral Gables, Tew Jorden Schulte & Beasley and Gregory P. Borgognoni and Osmer D. Batcheller, Miami, for Dade County Bar Ass’n as amicus curiae.
Rutledge R. Liles, Jacksonville, Stephen N. Zack, Miami, John F. Harkness, Jr., Paul F. Hill, Tallahassee, for the Florida Bar as amicus curiae.
Before SCHWARTZ, C.J., and BARKDULL, HUBBART, NESBITT, BASKIN, FERGUSON, JORGENSON, COPE and LEVY, JJ.

Opinion:
ON HEARING AND REHEARING EN BANC
COPE, Judge.
We granted en banc consideration of two petitions for writ of prohibition which present an issue of exceptional importance relating to the disqualification of judges.
See Fla.R.App.P. 9.331(a). The question common to the two petitions is whether disqualification was required where an attorney appearing before the trial judge had made a $500 contribution to the election campaign of the trial judge's husband. We hold that the motions for disqualification should have been granted. A $500 contribution by opposing counsel would, we conclude, cause a reasonable person to fear a bias by the trial judge in favor of the opposing side. We certify to the Florida Supreme Court that the question determined here is one of great public importance, so as to permit further review under article V, section 3(b)(4) of the Florida Constitution.
I.
The two cases under review were consolidated solely for purposes of en banc consideration. They are otherwise unrelated civil actions pending in the trial court.
The first of the motions to disqualify was filed by Breakstone, a defendant in a post-judgment garnishment proceeding. At the time the motion for disqualification was filed, the trial judge's husband was a candidate in a contested election for the office of circuit judge. Counsel for plaintiff below had contributed $500 to the husband's campaign. Petitioner Breakstone moved to disqualify the trial judge, asserting by affidavit that plaintiff's counsel was one of approximately fifteen attorneys who had contributed to the husband's campaign; that the $500 contribution was the second largest amount contributed; and that by reason of the substantial contribution Breakstone feared that he would not receive a fair and impartial trial.
The trial judge denied the motion as legally insufficient and stated in part:
I cannot address your motion as far as the truth or misinformation that you may have or not have or anything like that.
But I will state for the record that I kept absolutely clear of my husband's campaign, had nothing to do with it whatsoever. Couldn't go to a judicial luncheon — I went to one and it was followed all over by The Miami Herald, and that's the last time I went to anything. And who donated to his campaign and who did not donate to his campaign, I don't know. I have not looked at his records. So in no way could I be prejudiced.
Later in the hearing, the trial judge commented about her "frustration for not being in my husband's campaign.... In fact, if I had been in it, he would have won, and that's for real." A renewed motion for disqualification was made on the ground that the trial judge had impermissibly commented on the merits of the disqualification motion. The renewed motion to disqualify was likewise denied.
On petition for writ of prohibition, a panel of our court held that the trial judge should have disqualified herself. Breakstone v. MacKenzie, 561 So.2d 1163 (Fla. 3d DCA 1988). The panel concluded that the substantial financial contribution by plaintiff's counsel constituted legally sufficient grounds for disqualification.
In the second of the two consolidated cases, the same $500 contributor represent ed the plaintiff. • The defendant, Super Kids Bargain Store, Inc., moved to disqualify the trial judge on the basis of the same $500 contribution, and this court's panel opinion in Breakstone. At the hearing on the motion to disqualify, plaintiffs counsel announced he would withdraw from the case and made an ore tenus motion for substitution of counsel. The trial judge opined that the motion for disqualification was legally sufficient. She then granted the ore tenus motion for substitution and denied the motion for disqualification. Super Kids' petition for writ of prohibition was consolidated with Breakstone for purposes of en banc consideration.
II.
While the procedure for disqualification of judges in civil cases is governed by Rule 1.432, Florida Rules of Civil Procedure, the substantive standards for disqualification are found in the Code of Judicial Conduct and in section 38.10, Florida Statutes (1987). The Code of Judicial Conduct provides, in part, "that '[a] judge should disqualify himself in a proceeding in which his impartiality might reasonably be questioned....'" Livingston v. State, 441 So.2d 1083, 1086 (Fla.1983) (quoting Canon 3 C(l), Fla.Bar Code Jud.Conduct). The disqualification statute provides:
Whenever a party . files an affidavit stating that he fears he will not receive a fair trial . on account of the prejudice of the judge . against the applicant or in favor of the adverse party, the judge shall proceed no further, but another judge shall be designated....
§ 38.10, Fla.Stat. (1987). It is settled that "the prejudice of the judge . against the applicant or in favor of the adverse party," id., includes prejudice against counsel for the applicant, or in favor of counsel for the adverse party. Livingston v. State, 441 So.2d at 1087.
The standards for disqualification "were established to ensure public confidence in the integrity of the judicial system...." Id. at 1086. The Florida Supreme Court has said:
"Prejudice of a judge is a delicate question to raise but when raised as a bar to the trial of a cause, if predicated on grounds with a modicum of reason, the judge against whom raised should be prompt to recuse himself. No judge under any circumstances is warranted in sitting in the trial of a cause whose neutrality is shadowed or even questioned.
. It is a matter of no concern what judge presides in a particular cause, but it is a matter of grave concern that justice be administered with dispatch, without fear or favor or the suspicion of such attributes. The outstanding big factor in every lawsuit is the truth of the controversy. Judges, counsel, and rules of procedure are secondary factors designed by the law as instrumentalities to work out and arrive at the truth of the controversy-
The judiciary cannot be too circumspect, neither should it be reluctant to retire from a cause under circumstances that would shake the confidence of litigants in a fair and impartial adjudication of the issues raised."
Id. at 1085-86 (quoting Dickenson v. Parks, 104 Fla. 577, 582-84, 140 So. 459, 462 (1932) (emphasis added)).
Leaving aside issues of form and timeliness, the principal issue presented in a motion for disqualification is that of legal sufficiency. See id. at 1086. The trial judge cannot pass upon the truth or falsity of the facts contained in the affidavit, nor adjudicate whether in reality prejudice exists. The facts set forth in the affidavit are taken as true, and if legally sufficient, the trial judge must withdraw.
Legal sufficiency is governed by a reasonable person standard. The affidavit must recite "facts and circumstances that would lead any normal human being in the position of [the movant] to 'fear' that he would not receive a fair trial_" Dickenson v. Parks, 104 Fla. at 582, 140 So. at 462; accord Fischer v. Knuck, 497 So.2d at 242; Livingston v. State, 441 So.2d at 1087. " 'If the attested facts supporting the suggestion are reasonably sufficient to create such a fear, it is not for the trial judge to say that it is not there.' " Livingston v. State, 441 So.2d at 1087 (quoting State ex rel. Davis v. Parks, 141 Fla. 516, 518, 194 So. 613, 614 (1939)). So long as the allegations " 'are not frivolous or fanciful, they are sufficient to support a motion to disqualify....'" Hayslip v. Douglas, 400 So.2d 553, 556 (Fla. 4th DCA 1981) (quoting State ex rel. Brown v. Dewell, 131 Fla. 566, 573, 179 So. 695, 697-98 (1938)).
The standards set forth can, of course, be a matter of frustration for a trial judge. Although the trial judge may strongly disagree with the factual matters set forth in the affidavit, the trial judge must accept the affidavit as true and consider solely the issue of legal sufficiency. Fla.R.Civ.P. 1.432; § 38.10, Fla.Stat. (1987). For that reason an order of disqualification should not be interpreted as a determination of the actual existence of prejudice, for in any such proceeding the matter asserted in the affidavits is assumed to be true, although not proven. The disqualification procedure is designed to assure the appearance and reality of impartial adjudication while avoiding the undesirable situation which could be presented by inquiry into the existence of an actual prejudice on the part of the trial judge.
In the present case the grounds set forth by movants are legally sufficient for disqualification. The movants swore that they had a fear of prejudice on account of opposing counsel's $500 contribution to the election campaign of the judge's spouse. The relevant benchmark, while imprecise, is determined on a case by case basis. A $500 contribution is a substantial one by any standard. Certainly the ordinary litigant does not make, or have the financial capacity to make, a $500 contribution. Where the opposing litigant or opposing counsel has made such a contribution, a reasonable person in the position of mov-ants would fear that he would not receive a fair trial. The concern, from the standpoint of a reasonable person, is neither frivolous nor fanciful.
The amount and nature of campaign contributions has been a matter of public concern in this state dating from at least the time of adoption of Florida's "Who Gave It — Who Got It" campaign contribu-' tion law in 1951. Writing in the context of campaign contributions to judicial elections, the Florida Supreme Court has articulated two reasons for legitimate concern about campaign contributions: " '1. The tendency or possibility to create a quid pro quo relationship, and 2. the creation of an appearance of influence [or] corruption.' " Richman v. Shevin, 354 So.2d 1200, 1203 (Fla.1977) (citation omitted), cert. denied, 439 U.S. 953, 99 S.Ct. 348, 58 L.Ed.2d 343 (1978). Indeed, " 'the prevention of corruption and the appearance of corruption spawned by the real or imagined coercive influence of large financial contributions on candidates' positions and on their actions if elected to office' " id. at 1205 (citation omitted), constitutes a compelling state interest which permits abridgement of fundamental first amendment associational rights by the imposition of aggregate contribution limits. Id. at 1204-05; cf. Buckley v. Valeo, 424 U.S. 1, 22, 96 S.Ct. 612, 636, 46 L.Ed.2d 659, 689 (1976) ("Making a contribution . serves to affiliate a person with a candidate").
The concern voiced by the movants' affidavits is directed, of course, to a contribution made to the campaign of the trial judge's spouse, and not that of the trial judge herself. The reasonableness of mov-ants' concern is not diminished by that fact. See Roudner v. MacKenzie, 536 So.2d 299 (Fla. 3d DCA 1988) (disqualification required for reasons related to spouse's political campaign). The trial judge's own comments in this case substantiate that the political campaign of one's own spouse naturally calls forth feelings of interest, loyalty, and concern. A reasonable person would assume that a judge is likely to be aware of the affairs of a member of his or her immediate household. Indeed, Canon 5 C(5) of the Code of Judicial Conduct requires that a judge "make a reasonable effort to inform himself about the personal financial interests of members of his family residing in his household," and requires the reporting of "any gift, bequest, favor, or loan received thereby of which he has knowledge and which tends to reflect adversely on his impartiality_" The Canons thus acknowledge the commonsense proposition that material financial transactions of members of a judge's household can impair, or appear to impair, the judge's impartiality. The movants' affidavits are " 'reasonably sufficient' to create a 'well-founded fear' in the mind of a party that he or she will not receive a fair trial." Fischer v. Knuck, 497 So.2d at 242 (citations omitted).
The respondent trial judge argues, however, that the result we reach here contravenes existing Florida law. She urges that political support of a trial judge is never sufficient to compel disqualification under Florida law. We disagree.
Among the decisions respondent cites is Ervin v. Collins, 85 So.2d 833 (Fla.1956). In that case, a motion was made to disqualify three justices of the Florida Supreme Court. One of the justices was said to be disqualified because the justice and then Governor LeRoy Collins were "close, intimate, and personal friends." The disqualification of the other two justices was sought on the ground that each was appointed by Governor Collins, "and each is a strong personal and political friend of the Governor." Id. at 833. The movant conceded that the suggestions for disqualification were "not legally sufficient to constitute a basis for the disqualification of the Justices . but on the contrary are addressed to the conscience of the respective Justices[,]" id. at 834, with which the Court agreed. Ervin does not deal with the issue of campaign contributions, and the opinion is generally cited for the proposition that friendship, without more, is not a basis for disqualification. See In Re Estate of Carlton, 378 So.2d 1212, 1217-20 (Fla.1979) (Overton, J., on denial of request for recusal), cert. denied, sub nom Hayes v. Rogers, 447 U.S. 922, 100 S.Ct. 3013, 65 L.Ed.2d 1114 (1980). We do not read Er-vin as having created an exception to the disqualification principles announced by the Florida Supreme Court in such decisions as Livingston, Fischer, and Dickenson. Cf. State ex rel. La Russa v. Himes, 144 Fla. 145, 147-48, 197 So. 762, 763 (1940) (campaign statements by elected trial judge can constitute grounds for post-election disqualification).
Much closer in spirit to the position advanced by the trial judge is the second district's decision in Raybon v. Burnette, 135 So.2d 228 (Fla. 2d DCA 1961). In that case the law partner of plaintiffs counsel had run unsuccessfully against the sitting trial judge. Both the plaintiff and plaintiffs counsel had supported the losing candidate, while defense counsel had supported, and financially contributed to, the successful campaign of the sitting judge. These facts were held insufficient to constitute grounds for disqualification. It is evident the second district perceived the facts of the case to fall within the rubric of "personal and political friendship," for the court concluded that denial of the motion was mandated by the Florida Supreme Court's decision in Ervin v. Collins.
Raybon deals with campaign contributions only in passing, and sheds no light on the problem before us. If Raybon is read as holding that campaign support and contributions can never give rise to circumstances which call for disqualification, then we disagree, as did the fourth district in Caleffe v. Vitale, 488 So.2d 627, 629 (Fla. 4th DCA 1986) ("[Pjerceptions of professional legal ethics in the conflict of interest realm have undergone much evolution since 1961, and we have some doubt as to whether Raybon would be decided the same way today."). We do, of course, agree with Raybon's observation that members of the bar should play an active part in judicial elections. 135 So.2d at 230. The responsibility to play an active part does not, however, translate into an immunity from disqualification when the facts presented otherwise warrant it.
Respondent likewise relies on McDermott v. Grossman, 429 So.2d 393 (Fla. 3d DCA 1983), and Marexcelso Compania Naviera, S.A. v. Florida National Bank, 533 So.2d 805 (Fla. 4th DCA 1988), both of which are inapplicable here. In McDermott, 429 So.2d at 393-94, an attorney opposed the election of a judge, who delivered a "tirade" against the attorney for having done so. We held that disqualification was required. In Marexcelso a trial judge's campaign committee solicited defense counsel for an endorsement and contribution, but did not solicit plaintiff's counsel. Those facts were held not to constitute good grounds for disqualification. 533 So.2d at 807.
Respondent next suggests that this court follow the approach recommended by one commentator and establish an arbitrary contribution level to be used in disqualification proceedings of this type. Above the benchmark level, the trial judge would be subject to disqualification; below the benchmark, the judge would not. See Note, 40 Stan.L.Rev. at 482. Respondent suggests, as did the commentator, that the benchmark be $1,000. Since Florida law establishes a maximum limit of $1,000 per election for trial judges, § 106.08(1)(e), Fla. Stat. (1987), respondent suggests that disqualification would never be required for a legal contribution to a judge's own campaign. It therefore follows, according to respondent, that no disqualification is required where, as here, the contribution is made to the spouse's campaign.
Amicus curiae Dade County Bar Association joins in respondent's suggestion, but for somewhat different reasons. Ami-cus urges that the $1,000 limit represents a legislative determination of reasonableness. The implication is that if the legislature has allowed contributions up to the $1,000 level, then the legislature has presumptively concluded that no bias or prejudice could result from such a contribution. We reject that view.
The approach taken by respondent and amicus misconceives the structure and function of the campaign contribution laws. Under our election laws, all contributions must be disclosed, without exception. The purpose of the disclosure requirement is to allow the electorate to know who made what contributions in what amounts, precisely so that they may draw their own conclusions, including conclusions about any potential or actual conflicts of interest. Note, Florida's Campaign Finance Law: A Restoration of the Public's Confidence?, 28 U.Fla.L.Rev. 458, 464 (1976); see Ferre v. State ex rel. Reno, 478 So.2d 1077, 1080 (Fla. 3d DCA 1985), aff'd, 494 So.2d 214 (Fla.1986), cert. denied, 481 U.S. 1037, 107 S.Ct. 1973, 95 L.Ed.2d 814 (1987). Far from supporting respondent's position, disclosure laws indicate a legislative recognition that a contribution within legal limits can create a "real or imagined coercive influence." Richman v. Shevin, 354 So.2d at 1205. It is one thing to assign aggregate contribution limits for election campaigns; it is another to make a determination of impartiality for the adjudication of a specific case involving a large contributor. Since the decisional law requires that motions for disqualification be considered on a case-by-case basis, we decline the invitation to establish a "benchmark" figure to be used in disqualification proceedings. Instead, we only conclude that the $500 contribution at issue here is of sufficient magnitude to create a reasonable fear of prejudice, and express no opinion as to the appropriate disposition of any motion involving lesser contribution amounts.
Respondent also contends that it would be unwise to order disqualification based on the facts of the present case. She urges that adherence to the position of the panel will create a chilling effect on the ability of judicial candidates to raise funds for contested elections. Respondent, joined by amici curiae, reasons that a disqualification in this case (involving a contribution to a spouse) would necessitate a disqualification where a trial judge receives an equivalent contribution to his or her own election campaign. It follows, they argue, that practicing attorneys will cease to make contributions of $500 to judicial campaigns, and indeed, may refuse to contribute altogether.
The inquiry here is not one of policy, but rather the fundamental right to a fair trial in a fair tribunal. Under the statute, the Code of Judicial Conduct, and the decisional law, the sole issue before us is whether the litigant has articulated a well-founded, non-frivolous fear that he will not receive a fair trial. Where, as here, the movant has made the necessary showing (in this case predicated on the $500 contribution), he is entitled to relief. We are not at liberty to ignore an otherwise well-founded fear, based upon possible collateral consequences of our ruling. The overriding priority, reflected in the substantive law, is to assure that our courts are impartial, and that they have the appearance of impartiality. On that the credibility of the judiciary depends.
We would also suggest that the just mentioned contention of respondent and amici seriously underestimates the strength of character of Florida attorneys, and misconceives the crucial role that the disqualification process plays in upholding the integrity and impartiality of the judicial system. In a system of judicial elections, attorney contributions are given for many reasons. See generally Note, 40 Stan.L. Rev. at 480-81. Among those are, presumably, the belief that the supported candidate is the best-qualified person in the race; recognition of the historic obligation of the Bar to support well-qualified candidates; and personal ties emanating from friendship, family relationships and past personal or professional affiliation. To suggest that a candidate's friends and supporters will fail to assist at a substantial level through fear of possible disqualification of the judge on motion in future cases (thus running the risk that the opposition will instead be elected), defies both logic and experience. Far from heralding the demise of the election system, an even-handed application of the disqualification rule is the only way that such a system can maintain its credibility.
III.
We turn briefly to secondary issues presented by the pending cases. In Breakstone, the petitioner filed a second motion for disqualification, arguing that in the course of denying the first motion for disqualification, the trial judge had impermis-sibly passed on the truth of the facts alleged, thus providing additional grounds for disqualification. We agree. See Fla.R.Civ.P. 1.432(d); Bundy v. Rudd, 366 So.2d 440, 442 (Fla.1978); Stimpson Computing Scale Co. v. Knuck, 508 So.2d 482, 484 (Fla. 3d DCA 1987); State ex rel. Allen v. Testa, 414 So.2d 38, 39 (Fla. 3d DCA 1982); Management Corp. of America v. Grossman, 396 So.2d 1169 (Fla. 3d DCA 1981). The second motion for disqualification, like the first, should have been granted.
In the companion case, petitioner Super Kids called up its motion for disqualification for hearing in the trial court. The trial judge conceded, in light of the panel opinion in Breakstone, that the motion was legally sufficient. Nonetheless, she first entertained a motion for substitution of counsel, as a result of which counsel who had made the campaign contribution withdrew. The trial judge then denied the motion for disqualification.
It is well settled that "[a] judge faced with a motion for recusal should first resolve that motion before making additional rulings in a case.... [A] recusal motion must be heard first." Stimpson Computing Scale Co. v. Knuck, 508 So.2d at 484. Not only is the procedure well established, but the approach taken here creates, rather than dissipates, a perception that the trial judge attempted to retain the case as an accommodation to withdrawing counsel. See Livingston v. State, 441 So.2d at 1085- 86 (" 'It is a matter of no concern what judge presides in a particular cause, but it is a matter of grave concern that justice be administered with dispatch, without fear or favor or the suspicion of such attributes' ") (citation omitted). Super Kids' motion for disqualification should have been the first matter to be considered, and as it was legally sufficient, the motion should have been granted.
In response to a concern raised by amicus, we note that the issue presented by this ease is whether disqualification was required when presented by motion of a party. We do not say that the trial judge must disqualify herself sua sponte in the circumstances present here. If, as not uncommonly happens, litigants elect not to pursue an available ground for disqualification, the trial judge is entitled to proceed. Of course, even when no motion is made, voluntary recusal is permissible where the trial judge feels that he or she should not sit. E.g., Ball v. Yates, 158 Fla. 521, 532-33, 29 So.2d 729, 735, cert. denied, 332 U.S. 774, 68 S.Ct. 66, 92 L.Ed. 359 (1947); In Re Estate of Carlton, 378 So.2d at 1220 (opinion of Overton, J.); Department of Revenue v. Golder, 322 So.2d 1, 6-7 (Fla.1975) (opinion of England, J.); Pistorino v. Ferguson, 386 So.2d 65, 67 (Fla. 3d DCA 1980). Amici curiae also say that the result we reach here would mandate vicarious disqualification of law firms where a single member of the firm made a campaign contribution. No such issue is presented here.
IV.
We conclude that on this record the motions for disqualification should have been granted. In so ruling we confine ourselves to the facts presented, and do not reach any issue involving lesser contribution amounts, vicarious disqualification, or contributions which are remote in time.
We grant the petitions for writ of prohibition but, as we are confident that the trial judge will enter an order of recusal in accordance with the views expressed herein, we withhold formal issuance of the writs.
We certify to the Florida Supreme Court the following question of great public importance:
IS A TRIAL JUDGE REQUIRED TO DISQUALIFY HERSELF ON MOTION WHERE COUNSEL FOR A LITIGANT HAS GIVEN A $500 CAMPAIGN CONTRIBUTION TO THE POLITICAL CAMPAIGN OF THE TRIAL JUDGE'S SPOUSE?
HUBBART, BASKIN, FERGUSON and JORGENSON, JJ., concur.
. We express our appreciation to The Florida Bar and the Dade County Bar Association for responding to our invitation to submit briefs as amici curiae.
. Although not a factor in our analysis, Break-stone states that while his counsel and opposing counsel were in the trial judge's anteroom awaiting a hearing in the instant case, the husband visited the trial judge in chambers. Counsel were admitted to the trial judge's chambers on the husband's departure. The suggestion is that there was a specific opportunity for the husband to mention the $500 contribution by the plaintiff's counsel sitting in the anteroom, and that such information, however innocently imparted, would inevitably create a favorable bias toward the $500 contributor.
Breakstone's counsel became aware of the $500 contribution two days after the hearing and promptly moved to disqualify the trial judge. The motion was therefore timely. Fla.R.Civ.P. 1.432(c); Fischer v. Knuck, 497 So.2d 240, 243 (Fla.1986) ("motion to disqualify [must] be made within a reasonable time after discovering the facts upon which the motion is based").
.By the time the motion for disqualification was heard, the election was over. The husband's candidacy was unsuccessful.
. The first district has recently certified to the Florida Supreme Court the question whether a different legal standard applies where there is a second motion to disqualify filed by the same litigant. St. George Island, Ltd. v. Rudd, 547 So.2d 958, 960-61 (Fla. 1st DCA 1989).
. See Roady, Ten Years of Florida's "Who Gave It — Who Got It" Law, 27 Law & Contemp.Probs. 434, 434-37 (1962); ch. 26819, 26870, Laws of Fla. (1951). Florida imposed contribution limits after the Kefauver Committee disclosed that three individuals had each contributed more than $ 150,000 to Florida's successful 1948 gubernatorial candidate. Roady, supra, at 436 n. 9. See generally Smith v. Ervin, 64 So.2d 166, 169-70 (Fla.1953).
.Commentators, judges, and attorneys have repeatedly noted the potential for bias, or the appearance of bias, when contributions are drawn from those who appear before a judge. E.g., Alfini & Brooks, Ethical Constraints on Judicial Election Campaigns: A Review and Critique of Canon 7, 77 Ky.L.J. 671 (1988-89); Anderson, Ethical Problems of Lawyers and Judges in Election Campaigns, 50 A.B.A.J. 819 (1964); Baum, Should Judges Know Who Gave to Their Campaigns?, 60 Judicature 258 (1977); Johnson, Lawyer Judicial Campaign Contributions Revisited, 50 Clev.B.J. 2 (Nov. 1978), 50 Clev.B.J. 58 (Jan. 1979); Liles, The Case for Merit Selection/Retention of Trial Judges, Vol. LXIII, No. 3 Fla.B.J. 5 (Mar. 1989); Richman, A New Solution to an Old Problem: The Dade Judicial Trust Fund, 50 Fla.B.J. 478 (1976); Schotland, Elective Judges' Campaign Financing: Are State Judges' Robes the Emperor's Clothes of American Democracy?, 2 J.L. & Pol. 57 (1985); Utter, Selection and Retention—A Judge's Perspective, 48 Wash.L.Rev. 839 (1973); Note, The Ethical Dilemma of Campaigning for Judicial Office: A Proposed Solution, 14 Ford. Urb.L.J. 353 (1986); Note, Safeguarding the Litigant's Constitutional Right to a Fair and Impartial Forum: A Due Process Approach to Improprieties Arising from Judicial Campaign Contributions from Lawyers, 86 Mich.L.Rev. 382 (1987); Note, Recusal of Judges for Reasons of Bias or Prejudice: A Survey of Florida Law— Proposal for Reform, 11 Nova L.J. 201 (1986); Note, Disqualifying Elected Judges from Cases Involving Campaign Contributors, 40 Stan.L. Rev. 449 (1988); Address by Justice Ben F. Overton, Trial Judges and Political Elections: A Time for Reexamination, University of Florida, April 3, 1989.
. Canon 5 C(5) is cited here by analogy. The commentary to Canon 5 C(4)(c) excludes campaign contributions (regulated by Canon 7) from the definition of gifts (regulated by Canon 5). That exclusion is reasonable here, since the function of Canon 5 C(5) is to produce public disclosure of gifts, but spousal campaign contributions are already the subject of public disclosure by law.
. Given that Raybon was decided in 1961, when the realities of fund-raising for judicial elections were different, the lack of emphasis on the campaign contribution aspect of the case is not surprising.
. Our court has previously followed Caleffe in Roudner v. MacKenzie, 536 So.2d at 299. Cf. Fla.Sup.Ct.Comm. on Standards of Conduct Concerning Judges, Op. 84-12 (judge should disqualify himself or herself in all cases involving an announced opponent); 84-23 (same for defeated opponent until judge's impartiality can no longer reasonably be questioned). Contra Parsons v. Motor Homes of America, 465 So.2d 1285, 1290 (Fla. 1st DCA 1985) (disqualification not required in case involving announced opponent but court suggested judge should have re-cused himself).
. Respondent also relies on Rocha v. Ahmad, 662 S.W.2d 77 (Tex.Ct.App.1983), which contains reasoning contrary to the position we adopt.
The Texas decisions in this area are unpersuasive. According to Rocha, Texas has no counterpart to our section 38.10, Florida Statutes, and confines disqualification to cases of consanguinity or pecuniary interest. 662 S.W.2d at 78-79 n. 2. Canon 3 C of the Code of Judicial Conduct has been narrowly interpreted in Texas, id., and in any event is not deemed to supply grounds for disqualification. Id. at 78; Texaco, Inc. v. Pennzoil Co., 729 S.W.2d 768, 844 (Tex.Ct.App.1987) (error refused n.r.e. Nov. 2, 1987), cert. dismissed, 485 U.S. 994, 108 S.Ct. 1305, 99 L.Ed.2d 686 (1988) ($10,000 contribution by counsel to presiding judge while lawsuit pending). The size and nature of contributions permitted under the Texas standard has been the subject of much criticism. See generally, e.g., Alfini & Brooks, supra note 6, at 671; Schotland, supra note 6, at 61; Note, supra note 6, 86 Mich.L.Rev. at 404-05; Note, supra note 6, 40 Stan.L.Rev. at 449-52, 459-60; Overton, supra note 6, at 16.
. If we were compelled to examine Florida's disclosure laws for an indication of a de minim-is level below which a contribution would be deemed insignificant as a matter of law, the level would be substantially below that involved in the present case. For example, the Code of Judicial Conduct requires judges to publicly disclose all gifts in excess of $100, Fla.Bar Code Jud.Conduct, Canon 5 C(4)(c), and with certain narrow exceptions, all gifts of any size are prohibited if the donor "is . a party or other person whose interests have recently come or may likely come before [the judge]." Id. All other elected officials must disclose gifts or other contributions of $25 or more. § 111.011, Fla.Stat. (1987). More extensive disclosure is required for campaign contributions over $100 than is true for contributions $100 or less. § 106.07(4)(a)(1), Fla.Stat. (1987).
. Respondent and amicus curiae also misconceive the function of the Code of Judicial Conduct and the disqualification statute. The Code and statute ordinarily apply to legal activity. For example, it is legal for a judge to hold shares in a corporation, but the judge is disqualified from hearing matters pertaining to the corporation. Fla.Bar Code Jud.Conduct Canon 3 C(1)(c). Similarly, it is legal to accept a contribution within the statutory limits, but it does not follow that section 38.10 and the Code of Judicial Conduct are inapplicable where the judge is asked to hear a case involving a large contributor. There is a fundamental conceptual flaw in the premise that because an activity is legal, it is exempt from scrutiny under section 38.10 or the Code of Judicial Conduct.
. A 1985 multi-state survey suggests that many judges follow a practice of recusing themselves, or proceeding only with consent of the parties, when contributors are before them. Note, supra note 6, 14 Ford.Urb.L.J. at 402-04.