Case Name: Leo SHEINER, Appellant, v. The STATE of Florida, Appellee
Court: Florida Supreme Court
Jurisdiction: Florida
Decision Date: 1955-07-29
Citations: 82 So. 2d 657
Docket Number: 
Parties: Leo SHEINER, Appellant, v. The STATE of Florida, Appellee.
Judges: DREW, C. J., and SEBRING, J., concur.
Reporter: Southern Reporter, Second Series
Volume: 82
Pages: 657–672

Head Matter:
Leo SHEINER, Appellant, v. The STATE of Florida, Appellee.
Supreme Court of Florida. En Banc.
July 29, 1955.
Rehearing Denied Oct. 3, 1955.
Louis M. Jepeway and Jack Kehoe, Miami, for appellant.
George A. Brautigam, State’s Atty., Miami, Richard W. Ervin, Atty. Gen., and Ellis S. Rubin, Asst. Atty. Gen., for ap-pellee.
Darrey A. Davis, Miami Beach, on behalf of the Florida Bar, Herbert R. O’Conor, Baltimore, Md., Chairman, Committee of American Bar Ass’n, Malcolm P. Sharp, President, Chicago, Ill., Jessica Davidson, Secretary, Osmond K. Fraenkel, New York City, and John M. Coe, Pensacola, for National Lawyers Guild, as amici curiae.

Opinion:
TERRELL, Justice.
This case had its origin in a suggestion seasonably filed in the Circuit Court of D.ade County to which was appended a transcript of certain evidence taken by a Sub-Committee of the United States Senate at New Orleans, March 18, 1954. Appellant testified before this Committee but declined to answer questions relating to his alleged membership in the Communist Party and other subversive organizations. Based on this suggestion, the state attorney filed a motion to disbar appellant as authorized by F.S. Section 39.24 et seq., F.S.A., otherwise F.S. Section 454.24, F. S.A. The pertinent part of the motion to disbar is predicated on "(a) unprofessional acts which .unfit him for association with the fair and honorable, members of the profession, (b) deceit or misconduct in his office of attorney and (c) violating the code of ethics prescribed for members of the bar of the State of Florida," in that he is or has been a member of the Communist Party,. that he refuses to answer questions regarding his membership in groups which advocate and teach the forcible overthrow of constitutional gov ernment of the United States, basing"his refusal to answer on the protection given him against self-incrimination by the First and Fifth Amendments to the Federal Constitution and Sections 12 and 13, Declaration of Rights, F.S.A., Constitution of Florida.
To the motion to disbar issue was tendered by a sworn answer and the cause came on for hearing before the court, who propounded two questions to appellant— Have you ever beén a member of the Communist Party? Are you now a member of the Communist Party? Appellant declined to answer both questions, claiming protection from self-incrimination under provisions of State and Federal Constitutions. Other testimony was taken but it is not material to the issue presented. The order of disbarment was then entered from which this appeal was taken.
Plistorically, the privilege against self-incrimination was raised as early as the twelfth century but was limited to inquisitorial . proceedings of the Star Chamber and the Pligh Commission of England. It was granted ás a protection against religious dissent or other mental convictions, including religious or political heresy. In the colonies the privilege had to do with political inquisitions by prerogative courts. It may, therefore, be reasonably inferred that the inclusion of the privilege against self-incrimination in the fundamental law was to halt unwarranted inquisitions, particularly in cases where political or religious believers were involved. Noonan, "Inferences from the Invocation of the Privilege against Self-Incrimination," 41 Va.Law Rev. 311, 315 (1955). A pertinent reason for the privilege now is 'that one charged with crime should not be required to furnish the state means to convict him. See State ex rel. Feldman v. Kelly, Fla. 1954, 76 So.2d 798.
Time and circumstances have wrought many exceptions to the rule. In Brown v. Walker, 161 U.S. 591, 16 S.Ct. 644, 40 L.Ed. 819, the court held that the privilege against self-incrimination relates solely to testimony which might lead to defendant's prosecution for 'crime. It can not be invoked to protect one'from removal from office under an act that forbids political activity. Pfitzinger v. U. S. Civil Service Commission, D.C.N.J. 1951, 96 F.Supp. 1. The "setting" of the question -has much to do with determining the danger of self-incrimination. Hoffman v. United States, 341 U.S. 479, 71 S.Ct. 814, 95 L.Ed. 1118. The discharge of teachers for refusing to testify -as to communist activities has been upheld on the ground that they were unfit to teach. Daniman v. Board of Education of City of New York, 306 N.Y. 532, 119 N.E.2d 373; Faxon v. School Committee of Boston, 1954, 331 Mass. 771, 120 N.E.2d 772; Board of Education of City of Los Angeles v. Wilkinson, 125 Cal.App.2d 100, 270 P.2d 82. The courts have sanctioned the dismissal of police officers for exercising the constitutional privilege of refusing to testify before a grand jury investigating crime. Christal v. Police Commission of City and County of San Francisco, 33 Cal.App.2d 564, 92 P.2d 416; see also Drury v. Hurley, 339 Ill.App. 33, 88 N.E.2d 728; Scholl v. Bell, 125 Ky. 750, 795-797, 102 S.W. 248; Canteline v. McClellan, 282 N.Y. 166, 25 N.E.2d 972.
These cases proceed on the theory that whereas the officers have a constitutional right to refuse to answer under the circumstances they have no constitutional right to remain police officers in the face of clear violation of the duty imposed upon them to prevent and expose crime and to disclose all information known to them which may lead to the lawbreakers' apprehension and punishment. The Supreme Court of California invoked a similar rule against one applying for admission to the bar. Minutes of Supreme Court of California, 43 A.C. No. 17, page 2. Our attention is also called to an advisory opinion of the Supreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts, Opinion of the Justices, 126 N.E.2d 100, addressed to the House of Representatives, dated April 13, 1955, holding that a proposed act of that state providing for the discharge of certain teachers in any public or private university, college or school who refuse to answer questions relative to their membership in the Communist Party would be unconstitutional. Legions of cases hold that one can not be required to testify to that which may lead to his prosecution for crime. The point with which we are concerned here is whether or not immunity against self-incrimination is available to a member of the bar in a proceeding brought to disbar him. In other words, does it warrant him in refusing to answer questions relating to his membership in the Communist Party or other subversive organizations. Must the rules governing due process be accorded him in proving subversive charges against an attorney?
Refusal to answer the two questions propounded to . appellant account . of the protection- against self-incrimination guaranteed by the State and Federal Constitutions, in addition to evidence taken before the Congressional Committee at New Orleans with reference to his activities in connection with the Communist Party and kindred subversive organizations, was the sole basis for the order of disbarment. The trial court proceeded on the theory that the practice of law is not a right but a privilege, that the state may grant or withhold it,, or may withdraw it when the holder violates the trust imposed in him and being so, the right of protection against self-incrimination - was not available to him.
The order of disbarment was supported by the following cases: Martin v. Law Society of British Columbia, 3 Dominion Law Reports 173; Cohen v. Wright, 22 Cal. 293; In re Margolis, 269 Pa. 206, 112 A. 478, 12 A.L.R. 1186; In re Smith, 133 Wash. 145, 233 P. 288, 43 A.L.R. 102; In re Taylor, 309 Ky. 388, 217 S.W.2d 954; In re Keenan, 310 Mass. 166, 37 N.E.2d 516, 137 A.L.R. 766; Lambdin v. State, 150 Fla. 814, 9 So.2d 192, and Welanko's Case, 99 N.H. 413, 112 A.2d 50. From the cases above and others, it is contended that there is an important distinction between one's status as an individual and his status as an attorney, that bar membership is a privilege, that it is not -a right and that it is controlled by the courts unless regulated by the State or Federal Constitution. As to some of those who were called and refused to testify in said cases, the inference of guilt was indulged. The trial court followed that rule in this case for which we think he was in- error.
The court was also of the view that when appellant was confronted with the charges against him, he should have explained fully his connection with the Communist Party and other subversive fronts, if any he had, instead of taking refuge in the Fifth Amendment. The following cases support this view: In re Wellcome, 23 Mont. 450, 59 P. 445; Fish v. State Bar of California, 214 Cal. 215, 222, 4 P.2d 937; In re Fenn, 235 Mo.App. 24, 128 S.W.2d 657; In re Anastaplo, 3 Ill.2d 471, 121 N.E.2d 826. These cases have been examined and the factual background is different from that in the case at bar. The charges were clearly proven as to some of them; as to others they were admitted or not controverted, or there was no showing why the order made was improper.
In this case the Circuit Court held in effect that as an individual appellant may seek shelter under the Fifth Amendment, but if he does and refuses to answer whether or not he is now or has ever been a member of the Communist Party, or other subversive organizations, the privilege to practice law may be withdrawn from him and his name stricken from the roll of attorneys. The -Code of Ethics, 145 Fla. 763, 31 F.S.A. 420, Section 1, Oath of Admission; Petition of Florida State Bar Ass'n, 134 Fla. 851, 186 So. 280; Petition of Florida State Bar Ass'n, Fla. 1949, 40 So.2d 902; Lambdin v. State, supra, and Joopanenko v. Gavagan, Fla.1953, 67 So.2d 434, are relied on to support this holding.
We agree that no lawyer trained and educated in the democratic tradition can, become a member of the Communist Party or other subversive organization without forfeiting his privilege to practice law. To subscribe to the oath required for admission to the bar and then affiliate with an organization whose avowed purpose is to overthrow all free governments by force is so-inconsistent that the two philosophies can not exist under the same skin. The Communist Decalogue among other pronounce- merits contains the following: "Remember that if thou be not a devoted atheist, thou canst not be a faithful Communist or even a firm Soviet citizen in whom our state can rely. Atheism and Communism are of one bond and these ideals are the foundation of Soviet power." ' It would be as con-' sistent for one schooled under a credo of atheism and the destruction of free government by force to contend that he is qualified to be an American lawyer by constitutional standards as it would be for him to contend that he is qualified to be a deacon in the Baptist Church or a steward in the Methodist Church. Indeed the metaphor might be extended to an allegory.
Appellant's answer to the motion to disbar disavowed any present connection with the Communist Party or its affiliates, or that he "ever committed any act of any kind that would be subversive or treasonable or in any way did I do anything that any member of this United States couldn't be proud of." Other portions of the answer'were denied unequivocally, while as to others, strict proof was required. "True, the answer was ambiguous in some aspects, as was the motion to disbar, but it was submitted under oath and made an issue on which evidence should have been taken. Appellant moved for summary judgment which was denied and the judgment of disbarment from which the appeal was taken was entered without direct proof or explanation of the issues made.
If any court can hold that appellant's refusal to answer the query, whether he is now or was ever a member of the Communist Party, supported by nothing more than the evidence taken by the Congressional Committee at New Orleans March 18, 1954, and inferences therefrom, is sufficient to disbar him, then one's privilege to practice law may be made to depend on a very tenuous thread. It is true that copy of the evidence before the Congressional Committee was attached to the suggestion to disbar, but it was not filed in evidence. Appellant testified before this Committee but invoked the protection of the ' Fifth Amendment. As to that part of the evidence elicited from the witness Crouch, he was denied the right of confrontation and. cross-examination. He was also brought before the grand jury where he invoked protection of the Fifth Amendment. Under fair trial procedure, this evidence was incompetent and should not have been introduced. Standing alone, the evidence before the Congressional Committee may be said to point to communist activities on the part of appellant prior to .1947, but subsequent to that time it shows nothing, to support the charges against him.
In Dennis v. United States, 341 U.S. 494, 71 S.Ct. 857, 95 L.Ed. 1137, decided June 4, 1951, the scope of the Smith Act was defined and the "clear and present danger rule" was first applied to communist party activities. See also Chapter 20216, General Acts of 1941, and Chapter 28221, General Acts of 1953, making membership in subversive organizations a felony in Florida. Chapter 20216 carried punishment for other subversive offenses committed priorto this time, but they are not pertinent to this cause. The Federal Act, Smith Act, 18 U.S.C.A. § 2385, carried penalties for those convicted of knowingly or willfully advocating the overthrow of the UnitedStates government or that of any state. Account of the " 'link in the chain' " of evidence discussed in the cases cited in State ex rel. Feldman v. Kelly, supra [76 So.2d 802], appellant may have been within his right as an individual to invoke the protection of the Fifth Amendment. In this holding we do not overlook the contention of the state that there is a distinction between the right of the individual and the right of the lawyer as such to invoke protection of the Fifth Amendment; that while he may invoke such protection as an individual if he does so as a' lawyer he forfeits the privilege to practice law.. We know of no warrant for any such distinction and can not see that it has any place in this case.
The real controversy here is whether or not due process was accorded appellant in taking from him the privilege to practice law. Did the state prove the charge against appellant by conclusive evidence? The case is infinitely more than a security risk such as was involved in Peters v. Hobby, 349 U.S. 331, 75 S.Ct. 790. To deprive one of the privilege to practice law should never be done by "faceless informers," such as was involved in the Peters case where only an employment was involved. Depriving one of the right to practice law is the--superlative stain that may be stamped on his character and when a square issue on that point is made by the pleadings, the state should come forward with proof adequate to support the charge.Some of the court (not a majority) held in the Peters case that confrontation and cross-examination under oath are essential to due process. While a proceeding to disbar an attorney is generally considered disciplinary rather than criminal, the seriousness of it does not remove the right of the accused to due process. See also Matters of Murchison, 349 U.S. 133, 75 S.Ct. 623, where the essentials of due' process are stressed.
The last cited case and the Peters case are pertinent here for the emphasis they place on confrontation, cross-examination and fair trial as ingredients of due process. Confrontation and cross-examination under oath are essential to due process because it is the means recognized by which we test the probity of the evidence and eliminate that which is trumped up or of doubtful veracity. The "faceless informer" theory of proof should never be substituted for confrontation and cross-examination in a trial where the end result is to deprive the accused of one of his most precious assets — the privilege to practice law.
There is another important factor that enters into the determination of this case. It is shown that appellant had been admitted to the bar of the State of New York, the bar of the District of Columbia and the bar of the State of Florida; that no charge of unprofessional conduct had ever been lodged against him, that he had a good professional reputation and that the practice of law is the only means at his command to support himself and family. This recitation does nothing more than emphasize the right to fair trial under traditional rules of procedure.- That has been, the procedure followed-under all-other disbarment proceedings. I- do not- think the' state can abandon proof of charges against an-attorney for unprofessional conduct and disbar him on grounds that he challenges and that are not proven. It will be noted that some of the charges against appellant were at the time-this nation was making obeisance to the Soviet' Union because we thought we needed their manpower to conclude World War II. Some of the so-called "high ups" were proclaiming loudly the virtues of Uncle Joe. Under such pressure, pragmatic European statesmen extracted many concessions -from us and many citizens, from waterboy for the order of "hack politicians" to the high cockalorum of the "eggheads," are alleged to have been caught,, in the communist net or to have espoused some aspect .of the communist cause. While this does not excuse appellant from the charge against him, it does make it plain that he should have had a trial and a chance to refute or explain the serious charge lodged against him. He had a right to take refuge under the Fifth Amendment if his answer would tend to incriminate him, but he should have been candid with the court.
In Association of Bar of City of New York v. Sacher, 2 Cir., 1953, 206 F.2d 358, 360, the court held that "the purpose of striking an attorney from the rolls of a court is not to punish him but to protect the court itself and relieve the public of a member of the legal profession, who is unfit to serve as such." In extreme cases it was said to be essential in order to maintain the respect due the court by insuring that attorneys, who are " 'officers of the court,' " are of good professional character. See also 347 U.S. 388, 74 S.Ct. 569, 98 L.Ed. 790, where this case was reversed but not for the reasons pertinent to the case at bar. The philosophy of this case is enlarged on in the case of In re Rouss, 221 N.Y. 81, 116 N.E. 782. It is an interesting case on other phases of the matter of disbarment.
In Matter of Ellis, 282 N.Y. 435, 26 N.E.2d 967, the status of lawyers resorting to protection'of the Fifth Amendment is dis cussed and the conclusion reached that generally it provides no basis for discipline. Inferences that may be drawn from taking advantage of the Fifth Amendment and the effect of withdrawing the privilege by the legislature is also discussed in In re Rouss, supra, but these questions are not explored' here because the legislature has not seen fit to withdraw the privilege except as to certain criminal offenses, not pertinent here where the main point is due process. See also In re Grae, 282 N.Y. 428, 26 N.E.2d 963, 127 A.L.R. 1276, where another important aspect of a lawyer's immunity is treated. Also Florida State Board of Architecture v. Seymour, Fla. 1952, 62 So.2d 1.
No lawyer in this country is warranted in affiliating with a communistic activity of any character. He can not do so without being personal. to a conspiracy to destroy the government that guarantees him life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. He can not do it without renouncing his oath to protect liberty and administer justice without fear or favor. In fine, by the terms and preamble of the Smith Act and the Florida Act condemning subversive activities, he can not do so without being guilty of a species of treason. Section 23, Declaration of Rights, Florida Constitution and Section 3, Article III, Federal Constitution, define treason in substantially the same terms. It "consist only in levying war against it [state or United States], adhering to its enemies, or giving them aid and comfort." How can a lawyer affiliate with a conspiracy to destroy the government of the United States, in fact all free governments, without "adhering to its enemies [conspirators], or giving them aid and comfort"? The answer is self-evident.
By training the lawyer is better qualified than the layman to avoid the communist net. If his preparation for the bar did not plant in him an allergy for subversive leanings, it fell' far short of the mark. If he unwittingly gets suciced into a subversive organization and refuses to testify as to his connection with it for reason, of sélf-incrimination, his- claim should be respected if it is properly grounded. Invoking the Fifth Amendment may or may not imply good character; neither does it prove guilt. Some of the commentators say that it may imply subversive associations. Others say . that the one charged may let the matter stand open until the state brings him to book, but as a matter of record those who have made a clean breast of their communist activities as-soon as or before they are charged have fared best at the trial. If he shows penance, that he was. duped or misled and in all other respects has a professional character above reproach under the rule announced in State ex rel. Florida Bar v. Murrell, Fla.1954, 74 So.2d 221, he should not be disbarred. This is true because disbarment is an extreme remedy and should be exercised only as a last resort. No lawyer who has so forgotten his oath and pledge of allegiance as to become involved in subversive activities and who perseveres in them would make a dependable officer or one to be trusted with the multitude of official and trust obligations that may be placed in his hands.
After all is said, we are driven to. the conclusion that appellant was not accorded due process, in that there is no evidence connecting him with communistic activities except the Congressional Committee report and inferences. .that may be drawn from it having to do.with activities that took place seven years before this proceeding was brought and the fact that he invoked the protection of the Fifth Amendment. Before the Congressional Committee appellant was denied the right of confrontation and cross-examination. Doubts as to criminality of mere membership in the Communist Party under the Smith Act were not removed until Dennis v. United States, supra, decided June 4, 1951. It may be that after this decision we did not need Chapter 28221, General Acts of 1953, making membership in the Communist Party a felony in Florida. In re Holland, 377 Ill. 346, 36 N.E.2d 543. His position is not in the class with that of the teacher, the police officer, the security risk or others in public employment. His office of attorney clothes him with a trusteeship that involves an obligation to the state transcending that to his client. See cases cited in fourth paragraph of opinion. It can not be abrogated'by refinement. There may be circumstances under which claiming the privilege against self-incrimination would be cause for discipline or even disbarment, but they should be demonstrated by adequate proof. To do less would amount to the application of totalitarian methods to the enforcement of democratic precepts. It would deny one due process.
The judgment appealed from is accordingly reversed and remanded with directions to proceed to proof of the issues as directed in this opinion.
Reversed and remanded.
DREW, C. J., and SEBRING, J., concur.
FLOYD, Associate Justice, concurs specially in the opinion and judgment of TERRELL, J.,
JONES, Associate Justice, dissents.
HOBSON and THORNAL, JJ., not participating.