Case Name: STATE of Maine v. Charles B. RABON et al.
Court: Maine Supreme Judicial Court
Jurisdiction: Maine
Decision Date: 2007-08-14
Citations: 930 A.2d 268
Docket Number: 
Parties: STATE of Maine v. Charles B. RABON et al.
Judges: Panel: SAUFLEY, C.J., and CLIFFORD, ALEXANDER, CALKINS, LEVY, and SILVER, JJ.
Reporter: West's Atlantic Reporter, Second Series
Volume: 930
Pages: 268–297

Head Matter:
2007 ME 113
STATE of Maine v. Charles B. RABON et al.
Supreme Judicial Court of Maine.
Argued: May 10, 2006.
Decided: Aug. 14, 2007.
G. Steven Rowe, Attorney General, Donald W. Macomber, Asst. Atty. Gen. (orally), David W. Fisher, Asst. Atty. Gen., Augusta, for State.
James F. Martemucci, Esq. (orally), Martemucci & Topchik, LLC, Portland, Leonard I. Sharon, Esq. (orally), Sharon, Leary & DeTroy, Auburn, for defendants.
Panel: SAUFLEY, C.J., and CLIFFORD, ALEXANDER, CALKINS, LEVY, and SILVER, JJ.
Justice Howard H. Dana Jr. sat at oral argument and participated in the initial conference but retired before this opinion was certified.

Opinion:
Majority: CALKINS, LEVY, and SILVER, JJ.
Concurrence: ALEXANDER, J.
Dissent: SAUFLEY, C.J. and CLIFFORD, J.
LEVY, J.
[¶ 1] Charles B. and Sharon R. Rabón appeal from judgments of conviction entered in the Superior Court (Oxford County, Gorman, J.) on Charles's conditional guilty plea for unlawful furnishing of a scheduled drug (Class C), 17-A M.R.S. § 1106(1-A)(A) (2006) and plea for criminal forfeiture, 15 M.R.S. § 5826 (2006), and on Sharon's conditional guilty plea for unlawful possession of a scheduled drug (Class D), 17-A M.R.S. § 1107-A(1)(C) (2006). The Rabons contend that the court (Humphrey, C.J.) erred when it denied their joint motion to suppress based on its conclusion that an initial warrantless entry into the Rabons' apartment by officers of the Rumford Police Department was unlawful, but that suppression of the evidence was not required based on the inevitable discovery exception to the exclusionary rule. We conclude that because probable cause to search did not exist without the information obtained during the initial warrantless entry, no exception to the warrant requirement or the exclusionary rule applies, and we vacate the convictions.
I. BACKGROUND
[¶2] During the summer of 2004, the Rumford Police Department received information indicating that the Rabons were involved in transporting cocaine from Florida for sale in Maine. The Rumford police, in cooperation with the Maine Drug Enforcement Agency (MDEA), investigat ed the Rabons, and on August 13, 2004, sought and obtained a warrant to search the Rabons' apartment for evidence of drug trafficking.
A. Events Preceding the Issuance of the Search Warrant
[¶ 3] The information concerning the Ra-bons' activities came from a confidential informant who was the subject of a pending criminal charge or charges. The informant requested prosecutorial consideration if any of the information he or she provided proved helpful in a drug trafficking case. The confidential informant claimed that Charles Rabón drives to Florida several times during the year to pick up large amounts of cocaine, brings the cocaine back to the apartment that he shares with his wife Sharon in Rumford, and then distributes most of his cocaine to local dealers for sale at local bars where Charles operates a karaoke business.
[¶ 4] As found by the Superior Court, on August 13, five police officers were sent to the Rabons' apartment to secure the scene in anticipation of the issuance of a search warrant that was to be sought by other officers. The officers arrived at the Ra-bons' apartment at 11:58 A.M. An officer in plain clothes, but wearing a vest that clearly identified him as a police officer, knocked on the closed front door of the apartment. One of the other officers observed a woman peek through the blinds of a window near the door. One of the officers heard the woman say "Oh shit," and observed her run toward the back of the apartment. The officers immediately opened the door and entered the apartment without consent and located both Ra-bons. Charles was found sitting at a desk on which there was a container of white powder and a digital scale. The officers handcuffed the Rabons, conducted a brief safety search of the house for firearms or other inhabitants, took photographs of the inside of the apartment, and made a list of the telephone numbers listed in the Ra-bons' telephone's caller ID. The officers then sat with the Rabons to await the issuance of a search warrant.
[¶ 5] The MDEA agent who participated in the preparation of the warrant request included in paragraphs ten and eleven of his affidavit information concerning the other officers' warrantless entry into the Rabons' apartment. The District Court (Rumford, Lawrence, J.) issued a search warrant at 4:31 P.M. The resulting search of the apartment led to the seizure of cocaine and money.
B. The Warrant Affidavit
[¶ 6] The first paragraph of the warrant affidavit details the agent's training and experience in law enforcement and drug investigations. The second paragraph explains that the agent was seeking the warrant at the request of the Rumford Police Department to search the Rabons' apartment and van "both situated at 73 Plymouth Avenue in Rumford (Oxford County), Maine[,] . for cocaine and other evidence as it pertains to possession, furnishing and/or trafficking of scheduled drugs." The remaining paragraphs detail the initial information provided by the informant in June of 2004, and on August 11 and 13, 2004, and explain the extent to which the police were able to corroborate the same.
[¶ 7] The affidavit reports that the police corroborated that the Rabons' blue van was not at their apartment on August 11 and 12, and that it returned on August 13, a period corresponding to the informant's claim that the Rabons' were returning from a drug run to Florida. In addition, the affidavit reports police corroboration of the Rabons' names, telephone number, address, car, color of their apartment building, the fact that Charles Rabón had received a summons for excessive noise and had not been subject to a search, and that two bars in the Rumford and Mexico area, named by the informant as locations where Charles Rabón trafficked in drugs, were known to the police as places where drugs are trafficked. As already noted, it also contains a description of the entry into the Rabons' apartment by the police earlier that day.
C. The Motion to Suppress
[¶ 8] Following their arrest, the Rabons were each charged with aggravated trafficking of scheduled drugs (Class A) pursuant to 17-A M.R.S. § 1105 — A(1)(C—1)(1) (2006), and a count seeking criminal forfeiture pursuant to 15 M.R.S. § 5826. The Rabons filed a joint motion to suppress all of the evidence obtained from their apartment. They contended that the police had, without probable cause, conducted a war-rantless search when they initially entered the apartment and had then used the information illegally obtained through the search to establish probable cause in a warrant affidavit. The Rabons contended that the resulting search warrant was based upon wrongfully obtained information and was, therefore, unlawful, in violation of the United States and Maine Constitutions.
[¶ 9] The Superior Court denied the motion to suppress. The court found that the initial warrantless entry into the Rabons' apartment was illegal and not justified by the exigent circumstances exception to the warrant requirement. The court reasoned that the police had created the exigency by knocking on the apartment's door. Nonetheless, the court concluded that suppression of the evidence obtained as a result of the initial and post-warrant searches of the Rabons' apartment was not required. The court applied the inevitable discovery exception to the exclusionary rule, and concluded that "the warrant was truly independent from the [initial] illegal entry[,] and discovery of the physical evidence by that lawful means was truly inevitable."
[¶ 10] After the denial of the joint motion to suppress, Sharon Rabón entered a conditional guilty plea to unlawful possession of a scheduled drug (Class D), 17-A M.R.S. § 1107-A(1)(C), and, pursuant to a plea agreement, the aggravated trafficking and criminal forfeiture counts of the indictment were dismissed by the State. Charles Rabón entered a conditional guilty plea to unlawful furnishing of a scheduled drug (Class C), 17-A M.R.S. § 1106(1-A)(A), and as a result of this and his plea to criminal forfeiture, the State dismissed the aggravated trafficking count. The Superior Court approved the Rabons' conditional guilty pleas, thereby preserving their right to appeal from the court's denial of their motion to suppress. This appeal followed.
II. DISCUSSION
[¶ 11] "It is beyond question that a person's home, and the rights of an individual within that home, have a special place in our jurisprudence." State v. Bollard, 488 A.2d 1380, 1388 (Me.1985). The United States and Maine Constitutions guarantee the right to be secure in one's home from unreasonable searches and sei zures. A warrantless search of a home is, as a matter of law, unreasonable unless: (1) "it is supported by probable cause" and "exigent circumstances exist requiring a prompt search, without the delay occasioned by the need for a warrant"; or (2) "the search is pursuant to another recognized exception to the warrant requirement." State v. Leonard, 2002 ME 125, ¶ 12, 802 A.2d 991, 994 (quotation marks omitted).
[¶ 12] The Rabons' central contention is that because the officers lacked probable cause to search the apartment prior to the warrantless entry, no evidence gathered from the initial warrantless entry into the apartment or from the subsequent search of the apartment pursuant to the warrant can be admitted against them. The State contends that the contested evidence was lawfully seized because the officers' initial warrantless entry into the apartment was justified by the exigent circumstances exception to the warrant requirement; was nonetheless justified as a reasonable, temporary seizure in order to secure the premises and preserve any evidence within it pending the issuance of a search warrant; or because, as the Superior Court concluded, the inevitable discovery exception permits the admission of the evidence seized from the Rabons.
[¶ 13] The parties' contentions cause us to consider: (A) the exigent circumstances exception to the warrant requirement; (B) a temporary seizure of the premises to secure the scene pending the issuance of a warrant as an exception to the warrant requirement; (C) the independent source exception to the exclusionary rule; and (D) the inevitable discovery exception to the exclusionary rule. As will be further explained, for any of these exceptions to apply, the officers must have had probable cause to search the Rabons' apartment at the time that they made their initial warrantless entry into the apartment. We begin by identifying and explaining these exceptions and how each is dependent on probable cause in this case. We conclude by addressing whether, under the totality of the circumstances, there was probable cause to search the Rabons' apartment prior to the officers' warrantless entry into the apartment.
A. Exigent Circumstances
[¶ 14] The exigent circumstances justification for warrantless searches applies when "there is a compelling need to conduct a search and insufficient time in which to secure a warrant." State v. Dube, 655 A.2d 338, 340 (Me.1996). However, probable cause is a prerequisite for the exigent circumstances justification to apply. See Leonard, 2002 ME 125, 1112, 802 A.2d at 994. Accordingly, the exigent circumstances exception to the warrant requirement authorizes the warrantless entry in this case only if the officers had probable cause to search the Rabons' apartment at the time they made the decision to enter the Rabons' apartment.
B. Temporary Seizure of the Premises to Secure the Scene
[¶ 15] The temporary seizure of a residence for the purpose of preserving evidence pending the issuance of a warrant is another recognized exception to the warrant requirement. Such a seizure is constitutionally sound under certain circumstances, but only if the officers have probable cause to search at the time they entered the residence. See Illinois v. McArthur, 531 U.S. 326, 331, 121 S.Ct. 946, 148 L.Ed.2d 838 (2001); Segura v. United States, 468 U.S. 796, 798, 104 S.Ct. 3380, 82 L.Ed.2d 599 (1984). As applied here, if the officers did not have probable cause to search the premises at the time they entered the residence, then this exception is inapplicable and cannot support the denial of the motion to suppress.
C. The Independent Source Exception
[¶ 16] The independent source exception to the exclusionary rule permits the use of evidence that has been obtained in violation of the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution and article I, section 5 of the Maine Constitution when that evidence "was gained through an independent source as well as the tainted source." State v. Storer, 583 A.2d 1016, 1019 (Me.1990) (quoting United States v. Silvestri, 787 F.2d 736, 740 (1st Cir.1986)). An independent source exception analysis is appropriate in circumstances where a search warrant was issued, but some of the information used to establish probable cause is determined to have been illegally obtained. See Storer, 583 A.2d at 1019. If the magistrate would still have had probable cause to issue the warrant without the allegedly unlawfully obtained information, the independent source exception allows the admission of the evidence, and suppression is not justified. Id.
[¶ 17] In the present case, most of the evidence sought to be suppressed was discovered during the search of the Rabons' apartment following the issuance of a search warrant. If we conclude that the warrantless entry of the apartment was neither justified under the exigent circumstances exception to the warrant requirement nor as a temporary seizure of the premises, an independent source exception analysis is justified. To determine whether the independent source exception will permit admission of the evidence obtained pursuant to the warrant in this case, we: (1) "excisef ] from the affidavit used to obtain the warrant all the information . believed [to have] been illegally obtained," and then (2) determine whether the judge or magistrate "would have had probable cause to issue the warrant relying solely on the remaining information." Id.
[¶ 18] As to the first step, the information in paragraphs ten and eleven of the affidavit detailing the initial warrantless entry and consequent observations of the police must be excised from the affidavit. Turning to the second step, we review the redacted affidavit without paragraphs ten and eleven to see if a magistrate nonetheless could have found probable cause to issue the warrant. Because there is no magistrate determination regarding the warrant affidavit with paragraphs ten and eleven excised, we review de novo whether the evidence in the redacted affidavit, read positively, is sufficient to establish probable cause. See United States v. Barajas-Avalos, 377 F.3d 1040, 1058 (9th Cir.2004) ("We review de novo the question whether probable cause exists after allegedly tainted information has been redacted from an affidavit."). If the redacted affidavit does not support probable cause to search the apartment, then the independent source exception will not permit the admission of the contested evidence.
D. The Inevitable Discovery Exception
[¶ 19] The inevitable discovery exception is an additional analytical framework for considering the suppression of the evidence if we conclude that the initial warrantless entry into the Rabons' apartment prior to the issuance of the search warrant was unlawful because there was no probable cause. The inevitable discovery exception to the exclusionary rule permits the use of evidence that has been obtained in violation of the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution and article I, section. 5 of the Maine Constitution when that evidence "inevitably would have been discovered by lawful means." Storer, 583 A.2d at 1020 (quoting Nix v. Williams, 467 U.S. 431, 444, 104 S.Ct. 2501, 81 L.Ed.2d 377 (1984)). The specific question presented here is whether the evidence discovered by the police when they initially entered the Rabons' apartment with the intent of securing it would have been inevitably discovered through lawful means.
[¶ 20] If a warrant would not have issued without the information resulting from the initial warrantless entry reported in paragraphs ten and eleven of the affidavit, there would not be a lawful means to enter the apartment, and it would not be inevitable that the police would have lawfully discovered the evidence they discovered during their initial warrantless entry. See Storer, 583 A.2d at 1020. Accordingly, for the inevitable discovery exception to apply in this case, it requires that the police had probable cause at the time they entered the Rabons' apartment.
E. Probable Cause
[¶ 21] All of the above exceptions to the warrant requirement and the exclusionary rule require the existence of probable cause at the time of the initial warrantless entry into the Rabons' apartment. The parties do not contend that the probable cause analysis differs depending on whether we focus on the existence of probable cause to search at the time the police made their warrantless entry, or on whether the redacted warrant affidavit shows probable cause.
1. The Probable Cause Standard
[¶ 22] To determine probable cause, a magistrate must apply the "totality-of-the-circumstances approach" articulated in Illinois v. Gates, 462 U.S. 213, 230, 103 S.Ct. 2317, 76 L.Ed.2d 527 (1983). Probable cause is established when, "given all the circumstances set forth in the affidavit before [the magistrate], including the veracity and basis of knowledge of persons supplying hearsay information, there is a fair probability that contraband or evidence of a crime will be found in a particular place." State v. Wright, 2006 ME 13, ¶ 8, 890 A.2d 703, 705 (quotation marks omitted). "Courts must give the affidavit a positive reading and review the affidavit with all reasonable inferences that may be drawn to support the magistrate's determi nation." State v. Higgins, 2002 ME 77, ¶ 20, 796 A.2d 50, 56 (quotation marks and alteration omitted).
[¶ 23] When a warrant affidavit reports information provided by an informant, the veracity and basis of knowledge of the informant are considerations that:
should [not] be understood as entirely separate and independent requirements to be rigidly exacted in every case.... Rather, . they should be understood simply as closely intertwined issues that may usefully illuminate the commonsense, practical question whether there is "probable cause" to believe that contraband or evidence is located in a particular place.
State v. Knowlton, 489 A.2d 529, 531 (Me.1985) (quoting Gates, 462 U.S. at 230, 103 S.Ct. 2317). Gates emphasized that the totality-of-the-circumstanees approach "permits a balanced assessment of the relative weights of all the various indicia of reliability (and unreliability) attending an informant's tip." 462 U.S. at 234, 103 S.Ct. 2317. Probable cause may be established despite an affidavit's deficiency in discrete areas.
[¶ 24] In Gates, the Court considered an affidavit that contained information derived from a letter written by an anonymous informant. Id. at 225, 103 S.Ct. 2317. The police had no information concerning the informant's reliability or basis of knowledge. Id. at 227, 103 S.Ct. 2317. Because of the absence of direct information about the informant's reliability or basis of knowledge, the Court stated that "something more" than the information provided by the informant was needed "before a magistrate could conclude that there was probable cause." Id. That "something more" was established by police corroboration of the informant's tip as reported in the affidavit. Id. at 244, 103 S.Ct. 2317. The police investigation corroborated the informant's prediction that the suspect had traveled to Florida to purchase drugs by tracking the suspect's trip to Florida and quick return to Illinois. Id. at 244-45, 103 S.Ct. 2317. The Court stated that: "It is enough, for purposes of assessing probable cause, that corroboration through other sources of information reduced the chances of a reckless or prevaricating tale, thus providing a substantial basis for crediting the hearsay." Id. (quotation marks and alteration omitted).
2. The Probable Cause Standard Applied to the Warrant Affidavit for the Search of the Rabons' Apartment
[¶ 25] The warrant affidavit signed by the MDEA agent is based largely on information provided to him by the confidential informant. In viewing the affidavit, as redacted, in its most positive light, we assess the information in the affidavit regarding the informant's: (a) reliability and basis of knowledge; (b) claims regarding the Rabons' criminal activities; and (c) reports of other information concerning the Rabons. We conclude the analysis by applying the totality of the circumstances test.
a. Informant's Reliability and Basis of Knowledge
[¶ 26] The warrant affidavit reveals very little about the informant's background. It reports that the confidential informant contacted the police wishing to share information about drug trafficking occurring in Rumford in order to receive "prosecutorial consideration if any information provided is helpful in a drug trafficking case." The informant is described as not being on probation, but as being on bail for non-drug related offenses; as not receiving any remuneration in exchange for information; and as having provided additional informa tion on other drug trafficking in the area. The affidavit does not provide any details regarding this additional information, or whether it had been found to be accurate.
[If 27] The affidavit fails to explain the basis for the informant's knowledge that the Rabons were engaged in drug trafficking. See State v. Crowley, 1998 ME 187, ¶ 6-7, 714 A.2d 834, 837. The affidavit does not assert that the informant had actually seen firsthand any contraband or criminal activity. The affidavit also does not contain any statement to the effect that the informant has been found or is otherwise believed by the MDEA agent or other law enforcement officials to be a reliable reporter of information. See id. ¶ 6, 714 A.2d at 837.
[¶ 28] The informant is not a disinterested "citizen informant," but is instead a "confidential informant" who "disclose[d] information to the authorities in hopes of lessening his or her own exposure to criminal sanctions." State v. Perrigo, 640 A.2d 1074, 1076 (Me.1994). "Courts are much more concerned with veracity when the source of the information is an informant from the criminal milieu rather than an average citizen who has found himself in the position of a crime victim or witness." 2 WAYNE R. LAFAVE, SEARCH AND SEIZURE § 3.4 at 219 (4th ed.2004). In addition, the affidavit does not report that the informant provided any information against the informant's own penal interests, which is another basis on which to infer the reliability of information provided by an informant. See State v. Dignoti, 682 A.2d 666, 670 (Me.1996).
[¶ 29] In short, the affidavit offers no information of the type commonly presented in search warrant affidavits that would allow a magistrate to form an opinion regarding an anonymous or confidential informant's reliability or basis of knowledge. In all but a few of the warrant affidavits involving confidential or anonymous informants we have considered since Gates, the affidavits included at least a modicum of information that addressed the informant's reliability or basis of knowledge. An affidavit that supplies no information about an informant's reliability or basis of knowledge fails to provide information that is "highly relevant" to the probable cause determination. See Crowley, 1998 ME 187, ¶ 6, 714 A.2d at 837. The absence of such information does not preclude a finding of probable cause, but, as established in Gates, absent that information, "something more" is required. 462 U.S. at 227, 103 S.Ct. 2317.
b. Corroboration of Informant's Claims of Suspicious or Criminal Activity
[¶ 30] Our decisions establish that "something more" is frequently supplied by police corroboration of the informant's reports regarding suspicious or criminal activities by the person suspected of wrongdoing. See, e.g., State v. Thibodeau, 2000 ME 52, ¶ 3, 7, 747 A.2d 596, 598-99 (corroborating informant tip without information about veracity or basis of knowledge by analysis of utility records, and infra-red observation of apartment); State v. Lutz, 553 A.2d 657, 658-59 (Me.1989) (corroborating informant tip by observation of four marijuana gardens with path leading to seasonal camp and partially corroborating information from named informant that defendant resided at seasonal camp); State v. Nason, 498 A.2d 252, 253 (Me.1985) (corroborating informant tip through police observation of suspicious activity at residence for eleven-day period). Indeed, in every search warrant affidavit we have addressed since Gates, the affidavit included information depicting contextually suspicious or overtly criminal activity by a suspect who was observed by someone in addition to or other than an anonymous or confidential informant.
[¶ 31] An affidavit's inclusion of information regarding the observations of a person in addition to an informant is by no means required to establish probable cause under the totality of the circumstances test. As demonstrated in our decisions, however, it is a form of corroboration that is frequently included in warrant affidavits.
[¶ 32] The affidavit in this case reveals that the police corroborated, to a limited degree, the informant's report that Charles and Sharon Rabón had recently left Florida and were en route back to Rumford in their van in possession of cocaine. Specifically, the police observed that the Rabons' van was not parked at their apartment on August 11 and 12, and that the van returned on August 13. This partial corroboration of the informant's information, considered positively, is somewhat supportive of probable cause because it lends support to the reliability of the informant. The absence of the Rabons' van on August 11 and 12, and its return on August 13 was not, however, contextually suspicious.
c. Corroboration of Other Information Concerning the Rabons
[¶ 33] The MDEA agent's affidavit also corroborates other information provided by the informant, such as the Rabons' names, telephone number, address, car, the color of their apartment building, and the fact that Charles Rabón had received a summons for excessive noise and had not been subject to a search. The corroboration of this readily available information reveals that the informant, or the persons providing information to the informant, were familiar with the Rabons. See 2 WAYNE R. LAFAVE, SEARCH AND SEIZURE § 3.3(f) at 179-80 (4th ed.2004). The informant's identification of two bars in the area known to the police as sites where drugs are trafficked establishes that either the informant, or the persons providing information to the informant, were generally familial' with drug activity in the area. The affidavit contains no corroboration of the informant's claim that Charles Rabón has a karaoke business, nor does it contain information that corroborates whether Charles Rabón was ever present at the two bars where the informant alleges the drugs were sold.
[¶ 34] None of the preceding information qualifies as "inside information" that would be uniquely available to an informant with direct knowledge of otherwise uncorroborated criminal activity. See State v. Lafond, 2002 ME 124, ¶ 9-10, 802 A.2d 425, 428-29. An informant's accurate description of readily available information establishes reliability in the "limited sense [that it] will help the police correctly identify the person whom the tipster means to accuse," but it "does not show that the tipster has knowledge of concealed criminal activity." Florida v. J.L., 529 U.S. 266, 272, 120 S.Ct. 1375, 146 L.Ed.2d 254 (2000). Here, the informant's accurate description of readily available information concerning the Rabons establishes that the informant, or the persons supplying information to the informant, were familiar with the Rabons and with drug trafficking in the vicinity.
d. Totality of the Circumstances Analysis
[¶ 35] When the police saw the Rabons' van return on August 13, they were in the middle of a promising investigation. Considered in its totality, however, the warrant affidavit, as redacted, does not contain information that establishes the informant's reliability or basis of knowledge, or corroborate in any significant way the informant's claim that the Ra-bons purchased cocaine in Florida for resale in Maine. The partial corroboration associated with the police observation of the van's absence from, and return to, the Rabons' apartment is not "a strong showing as to . some other indicia of reliability" as contemplated by Gates that would justify a magistrate in crediting the otherwise unsupported claims of criminal activity by the Rabons made by an informant for whom the warrant affidavit provides no information concerning the informant's reliability or basis of knowledge. See Gates, 462 U.S. at 233, 103 S.Ct. 2317. Before the police could enter the Rabons' apartment, "something more" was required. "[G]iven all the circumstances set forth in the affidavit . including the veracity and basis of knowledge of persons supplying hearsay information," the affidavit does not establish that there is a fair probability that contraband or evidence of a crime would be found in the Rabons' apartment. See Wright, 2006 ME 13, ¶ 8, 890 A.2d at 705 (quotation marks omitted).
[¶ 36] Because probable cause did not exist to search the apartment without the information gained from the warrantless entry into the apartment, none of the above discussed exceptions to the warrant requirement or the exclusionary rule apply, and the evidence seized from the Ra-bons' apartment during the initial war-rantless entry and the subsequent search pursuant to the warrant should have been ordered suppressed.
The entry is:
Judgments of conviction vacated and remanded for further proceedings consistent with this opinion.
Appendix A
Affidavit of MDEA agent Tony L. Mil-ligan in search warrant of Rabón apartment and vehicle.
STATEMENT OF SPECIAL AGENT TONY L. MILLIGAN
1. I am presently employed as a Special Agent of the State of Maine Department of Public Safety Drug Enforcement Agency (MDEA) and have been since December 1992. I am the Assistant Supervisor assigned to the Lewiston Task Force Office. Previous to my current assignment, I was a sworn law enforcement officer for the Rumford, Maine Police Department for approximately 5 years where I was assigned to road patrol duties and drug enforcement investigations in conjunction with the Oxford County Drug Task Force. I am a 1989 graduate of the Maine Criminal Justice Academy (MCJA) Municipal Police School and a 1993 graduate of the United States Department of Justice Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) Narcotic Law Enforcement School. I am a certified Instructor for the U.S. Department of Treasury Federal Law Enforcement Training Center trained and authorized to teach drug law enforcement throughout the United States. This certification is recognized both on the Federal level and by the Maine Criminal Justice Academy. I have attended and completed various schools, seminars, and programs related to the investigation and prosecution of drug related criminal offenses, including specialized drug - enforcement/investigation schools, State and Federal law update schools, drug identification schools, and search and seizure schools. I also conduct various seminars where I, and other speakers, instruct Municipal, county, State and Federal Law Enforcement Officers in the United States and in Canada in various drug enforcement investigative techniques, drug identification, preparation of search warrant affidavits, planning and execution of search and arrest warrants, and use of confidential informants. In the course of my experience, I have authored numerous affidavits submitted in support of subsequently issued search warrants for drugs and drug related materials. I have personally conducted numerous undercover drug investigations and assisted in countless others. I have executed numerous successful drug and drug-related search warrants and assisted in the execution of others.
2. I am applying for a search warrant at the request of the Rumford Police Department for the CHARLES and SHARON RABON residence and their blue 1998 Ford Winstar [sic] van bearing Maine Registration T8ROKE, both situated at 73 Plymouth Avenue in Rumford (Oxford County), Maine to search for cocaine and other evidence as it pertains to possession, furnishing and/or trafficking of scheduled drugs.
B. In June 2004, a cooperating defendant contacted the Rumford Police Department wishing to share information about drug trafficking occurring in Rum-ford. This cooperating defendant, herein referred to as "CD", is not on probation but is on bail now for non-drug related offenses. CD is not receiving any remuneration in exchange for this information but has requested prosecutorial consideration if any information provided is helpful in a drug trafficking case. (Affiant Note: CD provided information on additional drug trafficking activities in the area, but only that information that is relevant to this case is described here). The following is a summary of the information provided:
a. That a white male known as "CHUCK" resides in a blue apartment building on Plymouth Avenue in Rum-ford with his wife SHARON;
b. That CHUCK drives to Florida three or four times per year to pick up a large amount (approximately 2 kilograms) of cocaine and brings it back to his home in Rumford for distribution;
c. When CHUCK returns to Rumford with the cocaine, CHUCK distributes most of his cocaine to local dealers so they can sell for him;
d. That CHUCK owns and operates a karaoke music business at local bars including Jack's Place in Rumford and Tommy Guns' in Mexico. It is at these bars that most of CHUCK'S cocaine is distributed;
4. After receiving this information, Sgt. Tracey Higley and other Rumford Police Officers attempted to corroborate as much of CD's information as possible. The following is what the officers were able to corroborate:
a. That the blue apartment building on Plymouth Avenue in Rumford is situated at 73 Plymouth Avenue. Registration plates on vehicles parked in the vicinity of this address included one on a blue van registered to CHARLES and SHARON RABON. (Affiant Note: This corroborates CD's information described in paragraph 3a);
b. That Jack's Place in Rumford and Tommy Guns' in Mexico are two bars that are well known by the Rumford Police and Maine Drug Enforcement Agency as having cocaine trafficking occurring there on a regular basis. (Affi-ant Note: This partially corroborates CD's information described in paragraph 3d).
5. On August 11, 2004, CD returned to the Rumford Police with new/updated information pertaining to CHUCK and his cocaine trafficking activities. The following is a summary of that information obtained by Sgt. Tracey Higley and Lt. Wayne Gallant of the Rumford Police:
a. That CHUCK's full name is CHARLES RABON and his wife is SHARON RABON. They five together on Plymouth Avenue and their home phone number is (207) 369-9935;
b. Last week, CHARLES and SHARON RABON took their blue van and drove to Florida. They will be coming back to Rumford within one — two weeks with approximately 2 kilograms of cocaine;
c. (Affiant Note: CD also identified one of the individuals that is selling cocaine for CHARLES RABON. The name of this individual is not identified here since premature release of that information will hinder further investigation.);
d. That CHARLES RABON recently got summonsed by Rumford Police for excessive noise and at the time of that violation, CHARLES RABON had approximately 10 packages of cocaine in his possession that he intended on distributing. The cocaine was not seized by the police because there was never a search;
6.After receiving this updated information, Sgt. Higley and other Rumford Police officers attempted to further corroborate the information provided as best as possible. The following is what the officers have been able to corroborate:
a. That CHARLES RABON and SHARON RABON do live at 73 Plymouth Avenue in Rumford and their telephone number is (207) 369-9935. This information was confirmed by law enforcement observations (a prior complaint at this addressed [sic ] for a loud party resulted in the confirmation that CHARLES RABON lives at the suspect address) and by telephone company records provided by AT & T. (Affiant Note: This corroborates CD's information described in paragraph 5a);
b. That CHARLES and SHARON RA-BON own a blue 1998 Ford Winstar [sic] Van bearing Maine Registration plate T8ROKE, confirmed by Maine Bureau of Motor Vehicles. Rumford Police checked the area of CHARLES and SHARON RABON's home everyday since August 11, 2004 and has confirmed that this blue van has not been present. {Affiant Note: This partially corroborates CD's information described in paragraph 5b);
c. That on May 21, 2004, Rumford Police stopped CHARLES RABON in Rumford and summonsed him for Unnecessary Noise. No search was conducted. (Affiant Note: This corroborates CD's information described in paragraph 5d).
7. On August 13, 2004 at approximately 7:20 a.m., CD contacted Sgt. Higley again to provide updated information. The following is a summary of that information:
a. That CHARLES and SHARON RA-BON have recently left Florida and are presently en route back to Rumford in the blue van and are transporting the cocaine. They will be traveling Northbound on Interstate 95 to the Auburn, Maine exit and then traveling to Rum-ford from there. They are due back in Rumford sometime today (August 13, 2004);
8. At approximately 7:30 a.m., Rum-ford Police Officer James Bernard drove past the CHARLES RABON residence again and re-confirmed that the blue van was not present. Sgt. Higley then notified your Affiant and updated me as to the facts and circumstances of the case. We decided that the best course of action was to transmit a teletype to Maine State Police Turnpike units requesting a "be on the lookout" for the suspects and their van traveling Northbound towards Rumford today and request that the vehicle be stopped for a search.
9. At approximately 11:21 a.m., while en route to the Maine Drug Enforcement Agency office in Rumford to send out the alert, I was notified by Rumford Police Sgt. Higley that the suspect vehicle had just arrived at 73 Plymouth Avenue in Rumford. After conferring with Assistant Attorney General David Fisher, we agreed that probable cause existed to justify a search warrant for the vehicle and residence. Based upon that assessment, I asked Rumford Police Officers to go to the CHARLES and SHARON RABON residence to secure the scene pending application of a search warrant.
10. At approximately 11:58 a.m., Sgt. Stacy Carter of the Rumford Police arrived at the front door of CHARLES and SHARON RABON's residence and knocked. SHARON RABON came to the front door and opened it. Immediately upon seeing Sgt. Carter standing there, she turned and ran through the kitchen toward a back room. Fearing that evidence would be destroyed or that SHARON RABON would arm herself with a weapon, Sgt. Carter ran after SHARON RABON into a hallway off the kitchen[.] Upon reaching her, Sgt. Carter noticed in a room off to his side was CHARLES RABON sitting at a desk with a set of drug scales and a large container of white powder that resembles cocaine that he was scooping onto the scale. Sgt. Carter and other officers immediately took CHARLES and SHARON RABON into custody and upon verifying nobody else was in the apartment, secured the scene.
11. Presently, law enforcement officers are standing by at the CHARLES and SHARON RABON residence guarding the apartment and the vehicles in the driveway pending issuance of a search warrant.
12. By virtue of the previously corroborated information provided by CD and today's events, I believe that probable cause exists to justify the issuance of a search warrant for the CHARLES and SHARON RABON residence in Rumford to search for and seize evidence of cocaine trafficking. Since I know that drug traffickers often keep incriminating evidence concealed in vehicles and outbuildings at or near their home, and since I believe that I have probable cause to search CHARLES and SHARON RABON's blue van used to transport cocaine from Florida to Rum-ford, I further request that the search warrant authorize officers to search any and all vehicles, including the blue van, and outbuildings under CHARLES and/or SHARON RABON's control for evidence of cocaine trafficking. Further, I know it to be common for drug traffickers to keep records of drug sales and records of drug debts on computers, books and other record-keeping devices. Based upon this, I request authorization to search for any such records/equipment.
13.WHEREFORE, I, Special Agent Tony L. Milligan, your affiant, pray that a warrant may issue authorizing a search of above-described residence, outbuildings, and vehicles under CHARLES and/or SHARON RABON's control at said residence for the above described property and/or evidence and, that if said property and/or evidence or any part of the same be found there, that it be seized. I hereby swear under oath that the information set forth in this affidavit is true and correct to the best of my knowledge, information, and belief, and that I make this oath under pains and penalties of perjury.
s/s
Tony L. Milligan
Special Agent
Maine Drug Enforcement Agency
Dated: August 13, 2004
. The MDEA agent's affidavit is attached as Appendix A to this opinion.
. Charles Rabón was sentenced to imprisonment for two-and-one-half years, with all but 120 days suspended, and two years of probation, including one hundred hours of public service. Sharon Rabón was sentenced to imprisonment for 364 days, all suspended, and one year of probation.
. The United States Constitution provides, "The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers and effects against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated." U.S. CONST, amend. IV. The Maine Constitution provides, "The people shall be secure in their persons, houses, papers and possessions from all unreasonable searches and seizures." ME. CONST, art. I, § 5.
. Although the State did not file a notice of appeal, it has the right to challenge the Superior Court's determination regarding the issue of exigent circumstances on appeal pursuant to 15 M.R.S. § 2115 — A(3) (2006).
. Although the Rabons and the State disagree as to whether the court properly applied the inevitable discovery exception, they do not challenge the court's use of the inevitable discovery exception as the analytical framework for its conclusion that neither the evidence seized by the police following their initial warrantless entry, nor the evidence seized following the issuance of the search warrant, should be suppressed. For reasons to be more fully addressed, we conclude that the evidence seized following the issuance of the search warrant is more properly analyzed under what is known as the independent source exception. Although the inevitable discovery and independent source exceptions are similar, they are not identical. An independent source exception analysis is appropriate in circumstances where a search warrant was issued, but some of the information used to establish probable cause is determined to have been illegally obtained. See State v. Storer, 583 A.2d 1016, 1019 (Me.1990).
. See State v. Crowley, 1998 ME 187, ¶ 2, 8, 714 A.2d 834, 836-37 (named informant with potentially stale first-hand information and conclusory statements by reliable informants); State v. Dignoti, 682 A.2d 666, 668, 670 (Me.1996) (multiple informants, including citizen informants and one who made statement against penal interest); State v. Allard, 674 A.2d 921, 922 (Me.1996) (monitored purchases by confidential informant and information from concerned citizen informants); State v. Ward, 624 A.2d 485, 487 (Me.1993) (first informant, reliable in past, with report of personal observation of drug activity; second informant with report of first-hand information and attempt at monitored drug purchase); State v. Veglia, 620 A.2d 276, 277 (Me.1993) (two confidential informants, both reliable in past, and one involved in controlled purchases); State v. Van Sickle, 580 A.2d 691, 693-94 (Me.1990) (informant participation in controlled purchases of illegal drugs); State v. Nickerson, 574 A.2d 1355, 1356 (Me.1990) (informant report of personal observation of marijuana plants); State v. Haley, 571 A.2d 831, 833 (Me.1990) (informant participation in controlled purchases of illegal drugs); State v. Gallant, 531 A.2d 1282, 1284 (Me.1987) (informant actions against penal interest); State v. Currier, 521 A.2d 295, 297 (Me.1987) (informant reliable in past and informant signal of drug delivery suggesting personal observation); State v. Salley, 514 A.2d 465, 466 (Me.1986) (informant participation in three controlled purchases of illegal drugs); State v. Knowlton, 489 A.2d 529, 530-31 (Me.1985) (informant statements against penal interest, statements by another police department that informant was reliable, informant's personal observation of drug activity, and informant participation in controlled purchase of cocaine).
. Such direct observations are most frequently made by law enforcement officers. See State v. Dickinson, 2005 ME 100, ¶ 2-3, 881 A.2d 651, 653-54 (observations of suspicious behavior at place to be searched over several month period); State v. Coffin, 2003 ME 83, ¶ 5, 828 A.2d 208, 209 (observation of marijuana plants with path from plants to defendant's home); Crowley, 1998 ME 187, ¶ 2, 8, 714 A.2d at 836-37 (observation of furtive behavior of defendant's wife at defendant's home in addition to information from named informant and two confidential informants); Dignoti, 682 A.2d at 668, 670 (observation of predicted multiple home visits in short time period by alleged associate of defendant and controlled purchase implicating defendant); Allard, 674 A.2d at 922 (observation of numerous brief suspicious visits to premises and two monitored sales from premises); Ward, 624 A.2d at 487 (monitored conversation); Veglia, 620 A.2d at 277 (informant prediction of defendant's arrival at particular apartment and subsequent observation of known cocaine users entering and exiting the apartment after short period of time); Storer, 583 A.2d at 1017-18 (Me.1990) (police observation of defendant placing bag of marijuana in woods); Van Sickle, 580 A.2d at 693-94 (controlled purchases of illegal drugs); State v. Edwards, 575 A.2d 321, 322-23 (Me.1990) (observation of marijuana plants and path leading directly from plants to defendant's residence); State v. Townsend, 571 A.2d 1206, 1207 (Me.1990) (detection of marijuana odor from driveway of house); Haley, 571 A.2d at 833 (two controlled purchases of illegal drugs); State v. Wing, 559 A.2d 783, 784-85 (Me.1989) (airplane flyover observation of marijuana plants on defendant's property and observation in woods of marijuana plants on defendant's property); Gallant, 531 A.2d at 1284 (controlled purchase and suspicious statement by defendant's dealer); Currier, 521 A.2d at 297 (discovery of marijuana on defendant after pat-down and partial corroboration of predicted drug delivery); Salley, 514 A.2d at 466 (three controlled purchases of illegal drugs); State v. Friel, 508 A.2d 123, 125, 127 (Me.1986) (observation of gun in plain view in defendant's home pursuant to another search warrant); Knowlton, 489 A.2d at 530-31 (controlled purchase). See also State v. Diamond, 628 A.2d 1032, 1033-34 (Me.1993) (probable cause not established by police observations of activities consistent with the possibility of criminal activity without an outside allegation of criminal activity).
Direct observations have also stemmed from police investigation and analysis of evidence. See State v. Higgins, 2002 ME 77, ¶ 21-22, 796 A.2d 50, 57 (officer's investigation of murder scene, including DNA test results matching defendant); Nickerson, 574 A.2d at 1356 (receipt of corroborating photograph); State v. Morse, 563 A.2d 1107, 1108 (Me.1989) (match of logs impaled in victim's truck with logs of defendant's truck); State v. Barczak, 562 A.2d 140, 143 (Me.1989) (match of defendant's gun to gun used in murder, defendant's statements about killings before information released to general public, and defendant's match of eyewitness description of suspected murderer).
When the police themselves have not observed criminal or suspicious activity, observations establishing probable cause for a warrant have come from non-confidential or non-anonymous informants. See State v. Samson, 2007 ME 33, ¶ 17, 916 A.2d 977, 982 (victims); State v. Wright, 2006 ME 13, ¶ 3, 890 A.2d 703, 704 (citizen informant); State v. Basu, 2005 ME 74, ¶ 6-12, 875 A.2d 686, 689-90 (victim's coworker, defendant's friend to whom he confessed, janitor at defendant's place of employment, neighbors who heard gunshots, as well as DNA test results); State v. Wilcox, 2004 ME 7, ¶ 2-4, 840 A.2d 711, 712-13 (victim); State v. Elwell, 2002 ME 60, ¶ 17, 793 A.2d 499, 504 (victim); State v. Lehman, 1999 ME 124, ¶ 2, 736 A.2d 256, 258 (victims); State v. Perrigo, 640 A.2d 1074, 1076 (Me.1994) (citizen informant); State v. Lamson, 640 A.2d 1076, 1081 (Me.1994) (Department of Human Services investigator, various coworkers of defendant, victim, and victim's attorney, as well as review of defendant's bank records); State v. Hamel, 634 A.2d 1272, 1273 (Me.1993) (named cooperating defendant); State v. Candage, 549 A.2d 355, 356-57 (Me.1988) (defendant's former girlfriend, defendant's father, and information from citizen informant); State v. Marquis, 525 A.2d 1041, 1043 (Me.1987) (statement against penal interest by named coworker).
. It is, however, substantially less than the degree of corroboration considered in Gates, where the police corroborated the informant's claim that the suspect had gone to Florida to purchase drugs by actually tracking the suspect's trip to Florida and return to Illinois. 462 U.S. at 243, 103 S.Ct. 2317. The degree to which predictive information was corroborated in this case is more akin to the circumstances considered by the Supreme Court in Alabama v. White, where the police corroborated a tip by observing the suspect traveling in a car in a manner that corresponded to the route to a motel as had been predicted by the informant. 496 U.S. 325, 332, 110 S.Ct. 2412, 110 L.Ed.2d 301 (1990). White, which was described by the Court as a "close case," applied the "reasonable suspicion" standard to support a Terry stop, a standard that is less demanding than the probable cause standard at issue here. See id. at 330, 332, 110 S.Ct. 2412; see also 2 WAYNE R. LAFAVE, SEARCH AND SEIZURE § 3.3(f) at 201-02 & n. 399 (4th ed.2004) (citing cases with facts resembling White that were held to be insufficient for probable cause for arrest or search).
. Contrary to the dissenting opinion, our decision does not stand for the proposition "that probable cause for a search cannot be based on information provided solely through a confidential informant without 'something more.' " See infra ¶ 57. Rather, we conclude under the circumstances presented in this case that probable cause could not be based on a confidential informant about whom little was known concerning the informant's reliability or basis of knowledge, without something more. This is, in fact, what Gates held. In addition, the comparison of this case to Massachusetts v. Upton, 466 U.S. 727, 104 S.Ct. 2085, 80 L.Ed.2d 721 (1984), is striking. In Upton, the warrant affidavit presented information concerning a named informant who was already known by the police to be the defendant's girlfriend, as she claimed, and the informant's first-hand observation of stolen property in the possession of the defendant. Id. at 729, 104 S.Ct. 2085. Thus, the warrant affidavit provided facts from which the magistrate could conclude that the informant had a basis to know what she claimed to know about the defendant's criminal activity. Id. at 733-34, 104 S.Ct. 2085.
. At the suppression hearing, the arresting officers testified that Sharon Rabón had not opened the door after they knocked, but that one officer had spotted a woman peek through the blinds of a window, shout a profanity, and run to the back of the apartment. The motion justice found that this is what happened.