juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Hierarchy

A **hierarchy** (in ; this comes from **'-hieros, sacred, and **'-arkho, rule) is a way of ranking and organizing things or people. Beneath the top of the hierarchy, each part of it is below some other part. This turns out to be like a pyramid. It is a system to decide who can make decisions, and who is forced to comply with those decisions.

An example with people would be the structure of a company. There is the top manager, and there are a few levels of middle and lower management. At the bottom are the common workers. Another example would be an army that might have a general, followed by colonels, corporals, and sergeants, then privates.

In democracy this is done by educating people in the issues and then voting - in an election to choose leaders, or a referendum to actually choose one option from several. Competing power networks each form a political party and each offers only one leader or one option to the public, to simplify the issues to make decisions possible. After the decision, they typically do not fight it to the point of civil war, but wait for the next election.

In dictatorship this is done by asking one powerful person to make the decision and then agreeing to force everyone to follow it. Any who will not are exiled, imprisoned, or killed, even if the decision is not very important, since the refusal to follow is taken as a challenge to the power structure itself. There is only one power network and all others are forced to become part of it, or fight it. Civil war is much more common in a dictatorship than in a democracy.

In these examples, people who are higher up have more authority and power than people below them.

## Related pages

- Anarchism
- Social class
Sultan

**Sultan** is a title of Arabic origin for Islamic rulers who are monarchs. The title often corresponds to that of a king.

The word _sultan_ comes from the Arabic language. It means "strength", "authority", or "rulership". Later, it came to be used as the title of certain Muslim rulers who claimed full sovereignty. They did not have to take orders from any higher monarch, without claiming the overall caliphate. There is no specific word for a sultan's wife in Arabic. The word, _sultana_ began to be used (as the feminine version of the Italian word for _sultano_) in the 16th century in Italy, to describe the  wife, mother, daughter, or concubine of a sultan. The Italian word also passed to other European languages.

The dynasty and lands ruled by the Sultan is called a sultanate, which corresponds to a kingdom. During the 20th century, several Sultans in the Arab world changed their title to "Malik", which means "king" in Arabic.
States and union territories of India

The Republic of India is divided into twenty-eight States and eight union territories, including the National Capital Territory.

## States and capitals

|Sl. No.|States|Capitals|Code|
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|1|Andhra Pradesh|Amaravati|AP|
|2|Arunachal Pradesh|Itanagar|AR|
|3|Assam|Dispur|AS|
|4|Bihar|Patna|BR|
|5|Chhattisgarh|Naya Raipur|CT|
|6|Goa|Panaji/Poviram|GA|
|7|Gujarat|Gandhi Nagar|GJ|
|8|Haryana|Chandigarh|HR|
|9|Himachal Pradesh|Shimla/Dharmashala|HP|
|10|Jharkhand|Ranchi|JH|
|11|Karnataka|Bengaluru|KA|
|12|Kerala|Thiruvananthapuram|KL|
|13|Madhya Pradesh|Bhopal|MP|
|14|Maharashtra|Mumbai/Nagpur|MH|
|15|Manipur|Imphal|MN|
|16|Meghalaya|Shillong|ML|
|17|Mizoram|Aizawl|MZ|
|18|Nagaland|Kohima|NL|
|19|Odisha|Bhubaneswar|OD|
|20|Punjab|Chandigarh|PB|
|21|Rajasthan|Jaipur|RJ|
|22|Sikkim|Gangtok|SK|
|23|Tamil Nadu|Chennai|TN|
|24|Telangana|Hyderabad|TS|
|25|Tripura|Agartala|TR|
|26|Uttar Pradesh|Lucknow|UP|
|27|Uttarakhand|Dehra Dun/Gairsain|UA/UK|
|28|West Bengal|Kolkata|WB|

## Union territories and capitals

|Region indicated in the map|Union territory|Capital|Code|
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|A|Andaman and Nicobar Islands|Port Blair|AN|
|B|Chandigarh|Chandigarh|CH|
|C|Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu|Daman|DD|
|D|Jammu & Kashmir|Srinagar and Jammu|JK|
|E|Ladakh|Leh and Kargil|LA|
|G|Delhi|New Delhi|DL|
|F|Lakshadweep|Kavaratti|LD|
|H|Puducherry|Puducherry|PY|

## Related pages

- List of states and union territories of India by area
- List of state and union territory capitals in India
Madness

**Madness** (or **Insanity**)  is a word that can have different meanings:
- Up to about the 19th century someone who acted _strangely_, or outside the socially accepted norms was called _mad_ or _insane_. This could range from having weird  ideas to someone having delusions or hallucinations, as they are common in some mental illnesses, such as psychosis.
- Today, those having delusions or hallucinations (or other mental illnesses) are sometimes called _mad_ or _insane_ by people who are not doctors. Doctors say they have "mental disorders"
- Certain diseases, such as rabies, lead to a major change in behaviour.  An animal that suffers from rabies is sometimes called _rabid_ or _mad_.

Being able to tell right from wrong is the base of a working society and of law; for this reason, the law treats those people differently who are not able to make this distinction. In the law, when people who can’t understand that their crimes are crimes it’s called the insanity defense.

## Related pages

- Lunatic
- Psychiatry
- Insanity defense
Tirana

**Tirana** ( or _Tirana_) is the capital and largest city of Albania. It is located in the centre of the country, enclosed by mountains and hills with Dajti rising to the east and a slight valley to the northwest overlooking the Adriatic Sea in the distance. It is among the wettest and sunniest cities in Europe, with 2,544 hours of sun per year.

The origin of the city name is unknown. According to one of the versions, its name comes from Tyrkanos Castle, which was near the current location of Tirana.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Tirana
- **other name**: Tiranë
- **settlement type**: Capital city and Municipalities of Albania, municipality
- **image alt**: Photomontage of Tirana
- **image flag**: Flag of Tirana.svg
- **flag alt**: Flag of Tirana
- **image shield**:
- **seal alt**: Seal of Tirana
- **pushpin map**: Albania#Europe
- **pushpin relief**: 1
- **pushpin mapsize**: 290
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision name**: Albania
- **subdivision type1**: Regions of Albania, Region
- **subdivision name1**: Central Albania
- **subdivision type2**: Counties of Albania, County
- **subdivision name2**: Tirana County, Tirana
- **subdivision type3**: Municipalities of Albania, Municipality
- **subdivision name3**: Tirana
- **established title**: Settled
- **established date**: 1614
- **government type**: Mayor–council government, Mayor–council
- **leader party**: Socialist Party of Albania, PS
- **leader title**: Mayor of Tirana, Mayor
- **leader name**: Erion Veliaj
- **leader title1**: Council
- **leader name1**: Tirana Municipal Council
- **leader title2**: Chairman
- **leader name2**: Toni Gogu
- **area total km2**: 1,110
- **area metro km2**: 1,652
- **area blank2 title**: Unit
- **area blank2 km2**: 41.8
- **elevation m**: 110
- **population as of**: 2011
- **population blank1 title**: Municipality
- **population blank1**: 598176
- **population density blank1 km2**: 502
- **population blank2 title**: Unit
- **population blank2**: 389323
- **population metro**: 800986
- **population demonym**: Albanian language, Albanian: Tiranas(e)
Tirana dialect: Tirons(e)
- **demographics1 title1**: City
- **demographics1 info1**: €15.1 billion (2023)
- **demographics1 title2**: Per capita
- **demographics1 info2**: €8.642
- **timezone**: Central European Time, CET
- **utc offset**: +1
- **timezone dst**: Central European Summer Time, CEST
- **utc offset dst**: +2
- **postal code type**: Postal code(s)
- **postal code**: 1000-1054
- **area code type**: Area code(s)
- **area code**: +355 (0) 4
- **blank name**: Airport
- **blank info**: Tirana International Airport Nënë Tereza, Tirana International Airport
- **blank1 name**: Motorways
- **blank1 info**:
- **blank1 name sec2**: Highways
- **blank1 info sec2**:
- **blank2 name sec2**: Vehicle registration plates of Albania, Vehicle registration
- **blank2 info sec2**: TR
John Forbes Nash Jr.

**John Forbes Nash Jr.** (June 13, 1928 – May 23, 2015) was an American mathematician who worked in game theory and differential geometry. He was born in Bluefield, West Virginia. He shared the 1994 Memorial Prize in Economics with two other game theorists, Reinhard Selten and John Harsanyi.

## Early life

Nash was born on June 13, 1928, in Bluefield, West Virginia. He studied at Princeton University and at Carnegie Institute of Technology.

## Career

The winner of a Westinghouse scholarship, he attended the Carnegie Institute of Technology, where he received both his bachelor's degree and his master's degree in 1948. From Pittsburgh he went to Princeton University where he worked on his equilibrium theory. He received a Ph.D. in 1950 with a dissertation on non-cooperative games. The thesis, which was written under the supervision of Albert W. Tucker, contained the definition and properties of what would later be called the Nash equilibrium. His studies on this subject led to three articles:
- "Equilibrium Points in N-person Games", published in the _Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences_ (USA) (1950);
- "The Bargaining Problem" (April 1950) in _Econometrica_, and
- "Two-person Cooperative Games" (January 1953), also in _Econometrica_.

Nash also did important work in the area of manifolds (complex spatial structures):
- "Real algebraic manifolds", (1952) _Ann. Math._ 56 (1952), 405 – 421. (See also _Proc. Internat. Congr. Math._, 1950, (AMS, 1952), pp. 516 – 517.)

This work led to _Nash embedding theorem_: "Two real algebraic manifolds are equivalent if and only if they are analytically homeomorphic." http://mathworld.wolfram.com/NashsEmbeddingTheorem.html

## Personal life

He is best known in popular culture as the subject of the Hollywood movie, _A Beautiful Mind_, about his mathematical genius and his struggles with schizophrenia, with which he was diagnosed.

Nash married Alicia Lopez-Harrison de Lardé in 1957. They had one son. Nash had a first son out of wedlock to Elenor Stier.. In 1963, the couple divorced. They later remarried in 2001. Nash lived in West Windsor Township, New Jersey for a long time.

## Death

On May 23, 2015, Nash and his wife Alicia were killed in a car accident near Monroe Township, New Jersey. A taxi that they were riding in was struck by another vehicle and the pair was ejected from the taxi. Nash was 86 years old.

## Other websites

- Autobiography at the Nobel Prize website
- Nash's home page at Princeton
- John Forbes Nash Jr Information
- Nash FAQ  from Princeton's Mudd Library, including a copy of his dissertation in PDF format
- Beautiful mind, unconventional matter , a 2001 _Daily Princetonian_ interview
- PBS documentary
- John Nash speaks out about alleged bisexuality
John Nash

**John Nash** may mean

- John Forbes Nash, Jr. (1928 – 2015), American mathematician and economist. Was awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics for his work in game theory in 1994.
- John Nash (architect) (1752–1835) British architect.
Calisthenics

**Calisthenics** is a  series of exercises used to develop strength, power and balance or a repeated rhythmical exercise that uses the weight of the body as resistance or the systematic exercises for attaining strength-gracefulness or the practice of calisthenic exercises.

The name calisthenics is Greek in origin, a combination of the words 'beauty' and 'strength'.

Calisthenics is recommended for general good health, light exercises designed to promote general physical fitness.

## Related pages

- Equilibrioception
- Flexibility training
- Jogging
- Training
- Weight training
Muteness

**Muteness** means not being able to speak. A person that cannot speak is called a **mute**. A mute keeps the ability to hear the speech of others. If not, the person would be a deaf mute.

Muteness is a type of speech  disorder. A person who chooses not to speak is said to be _silent_ rather than mute. Slang for this (British English) is "keeping mum".

Originally, the common word **dumb** or _dumbness_ used to mean "unable to speak," though was taken over to mean "_unwilling_ to speak" or "unintelligent". So, people now prefer the term "muteness". "Dumb" is a much more common word, and might be used if it would not be misunderstood.

## Cause (eteliology)

In general, someone who is mute may be mute for one of several different reasons: genetics, psychological, or trauma.

For children, a lack of speech may be developmental, neurological, psychological, or due to a physical disability or a communication disorder.

Adults who previously had speech and then became unable to speak: this may be due to disease, injury, damage or surgery affecting areas of the brain needed for speech. Loss of speech in adults may occur, but rarely, for psychological reasons. Damage (however caused) to the parts of the brain needed for speech is called **aphasia**.

## Action

Treatment or management of muteness depends on what has caused the absence of speech. A speech assessment may  decide cause and treatment. Treatment of absence of speech is possible in a variety of cases. If the absence of speech is a permanent condition, a range of communication devices are available to help communication.

Speech-generating devices help people with speech deficiencies.

## Related pages

- Deaf-mute
- Aphasia
- Aphonia
- Autism
- Deafness
- Dysarthria
- Selective mutism
Wooden spoon

A **wooden spoon** is a spoon made from wood. Wooden spoons are used for mixing food.  Wooden spoon is also a  term for last place in a sporting contest.

## Other websites

- Stuart King's collection of carved wooden spoons
Ping Pong

**Ping Pong** may refer to:

- table tennis: A kind of exercise.
- Ping Pong (manga): a Japanese cartoon of table tennis.
Nayarit

**Nayarit** is a middle sized Mexican state. It is on the West coast of Mexico (on the Pacific Ocean shore).
Native people from Nayarit are called Nayaritas (singular: Nayarita).

The Nayarit capital is Tepic.
Filipino

**Filipino** might mean:

- Anything related to the Philippines
- Filipino language, a form of the Tagalog language
- Filipinos, a group of people from the Philippines
Phylum

A **phylum** (plural: **phyla**) is the third highest rank used in the biological taxonomy of all organisms. The second rank is kingdom and the highest is domain. Usually biologists count about 32 phyla of animal<nowiki/>s, about 14 of plant<nowiki/>s, and about 8 phyla of fungus, but definitions vary.

With genome analysis, groups of phyla have been put together based on evolutionary relationships. These are informal, not part of the standard classification.

Botanists usually prefer the word _division_ instead of _phylum_.

## Related pages

- List of animal phyla
Knuckle

A **knuckle**, in anatomy, is where two bones join in the hands or feet. When talking about humans, knuckles most often refer to the joints in the fingers.

Animal knuckles, such as _pig knuckles_ are sometimes sold as food.
Conduction

**Conduction** in physics is about forms of energy, namely heat or electricity.

- Heat conduction takes place between two objects in contact with each other.  Heat energy moves from one to the other.  In heat conduction, the heat energy travels from the hot point to a cold point.  Eventually, the two materials will even out in temperature as the heat keeps on transferring until the temperatures are the same.  This is equilibrium.  For example, a pan of hot soup is taken off the oven and put on a table.  The area of the table under the pot gets hot.  Heat from the pot moved to the table top by conduction.

- Electrical conduction is usually done through wires or cables. Something that electrons can easily move through is a good electrical conductor.  Metals are mostly  good conductors.  An insulator like rubber is a poor conductor.  Plastics are insulators.  Some materials, such as glass, are conductors for heat but not electricity.

Besides conduction, the other major ways of moving energy are by radiation and convection.

## Related pages

- electrical conductor
- heat conduction
- fiber optics
Royal family

A **royal family** is the family of a monarch (king or queen of a country). Or, it is someone who is related to a queen, king or a monarch. A royal family may be called "House of" something, as in "House of Habsburg". Some royal families such as the British Royal Family participate in various ceremonies and royal duties. As of 2021, there are 26 royal families in the world.

## Related pages

- Dynasty
General election

A **general election** is an election in which all or most members of a given political body are chosen. The term is usually used to mean the elections held for a nation's primary legislative body. This is different from primary elections, by-elections or local elections. In the United Kingdom when Parliament is dissolved every seat in the House of Commons becomes vacant and a general election is held.
Dover (disambiguation)

**Dover** is a port town in Kent, in South East England.

**Dover** may also mean:
- Dover, Delaware, the capital of Delaware
- Dover, Arkansas, a city in Arkansas
- Dover, Idaho, a city in Idaho
- Dover, Kentucky, a city in Kentucky
- Dover, New Hampshire, a city in New Hampshire
- Dover, New York, a city in New York
- Dover, Pennsylvania, a city in Pennsylvania
- Dover-Foxcroft, Maine, a city in Maine
Flash memory

**Flash memory** is a memory storage device for computers and electronics. It is most often used in devices like digital cameras, USB flash drives, and video games. It was developed in the 1980s from the earlier and similar EEPROM.

Flash memory is different from RAM because RAM is volatile (not permanent). When power is turned off, RAM loses all its data. Flash can keep its data intact with no power at all. A hard drive is also permanent (non-volatile) storage, but it is bulky and fragile. Flash memory is one kind of non-volatile random-access memory. It is slower than RAM but faster than hard drives. It is often used in small electronics because of its small size and lack of moving parts.

The main weakness of flash memory is that it is more expensive than hard drives for the same amount of storage.  Another weakness is the number of times that data can be written to it. Data can be read from flash as many times as desired, but after a certain number of "write" operations, "write cycles", it will stop working. Most flash devices are designed for about 100,000 - 1,000,000 write cycles.

EEPROM has the same limitation that flash does: ones made in the 20th century could only survive about 100,000 write cycles, later increased to about a million. It is more expensive than flash, so it is rarely used for storage greater than 128kB. The main difference between EEPROM and flash memory is that most EEPROM devices can erase any byte of memory at any time. Flash memory can only erase an entire chunk, or "sector", of memory at a time. Both EEPROM and flash are subject to the limitation that only bytes in an 'erased' state can be written, which means that if the user wants to change only one byte of flash, the entire sector must be erased and re-written. This means that flash memory can wear out faster than EEPROM.  Some flash memory can store hundreds of gigabytes, or even terabyte<nowiki/>s.  Many are in the form of a pen drive.

Flash memory is used in USB Drives, solid-state drives, computer RAM (occasionally), hybrid drives (small SSD + hard drive), graphics cards, and memory cards.

## Related pages

- USB flash drive
Bottrop

**Bottrop** is a city in west central Germany, on the Rhine-Herne Canal, in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia (Nordrhein-Westfalen). Bottrop is in the Ruhr industrial area, It is next to Essen, Oberhausen, Gladbeck and Dorsten. The city had been a coal-mining and rail center. There are factories producing coal-tar derivatives, chemicals, textiles, and machinery. The population is currently 119,655. Bottrop grew as a mining center beginning in the 1860s and was chartered as a city in 1921. In 1975 it was put together with the unification with the neighbor communities of Gladbeck and Kirchhellen, but Gladbeck left in 1976.

## History

The place is first heard of in 1150, as _Borthorpe_. This name means _village on the hillside_. In the year 1423, Bottrop is awarded the status of a market town. In 1786 the first cotton mill opens. Coal mining starts in 1856. The city gets town privileges in 1919. In 1953, the population passed 100.000 people for the first time.

## Popular persons

- Josef Albers (1888–1976), artist and educator
- August Everding (1928–1999), opera director and administrator
- Theo Jörgensmann (1948–2025), jazz clarinet player and composer

## Other websites

- Official city website

## Infobox (german location)

- **art**: City
- **image caption**: Church St. Peter and Paul in Bochum.
- **wappen**: DEU_Bottrop_COA.svg
- **image flag**: Flagge der Stadt Bottrop.svg
- **bundesland**: Nordrhein-Westfalen
- **regierungsbezirk**: Münster Government Region, Münster
- **gemeindeschlüssel**: 05512000
- **kreis**: Urban District
- **höhe**: 60
- **fläche**: 100.7
- **einwohner**: 118975
- **stand**: 2006-12-31
- **pop ref**: [http://www.lds.nrw.de/statistik/datenangebot/Regionen/amtlichebevoelkerungszahlen/rp5_dez06.html Landesamt für Statistik]
- **plz**: 46236 – 46244
- **vorwahl**: 02041, 02045
- **kfz**: BOT
- **bürgermeister**: Matthias Buschfeld
- **leader term**: 2025–30
- **partei**: SPD
Puducherry (union territory)

**Puducherry**, which used to be called **Pondicherry** is a Union territory of India. Pondicherry is divided into four separate parts: Puducherry district, Karaikal district, Yanam district, and Mahe district. These four areas are under one name because they were all once ruled by the French. Chandranagore, the fifth former French colony 30 kilometers north of Kolkata, in West Bengal, India, is now outside this unconnected territory.

When India took control of them, they took them in as one territory. Pondicherry is going through a name change to Puducherry, which means "new village" in the local language. It covers an area of 183 mi² or 474 km²; it is bigger than Andorra but smaller than Saint Lucia.

Its a very nice tourist attraction. Its has many heritage buildings with old French architecture. The Boulevard is ellipse-shaped with two clock towers of the Small Market and the Big Market. The area of boulevards close to the Beach is called White Town. This was the area where initial French settlements were made. That's why it is called White town area.
New York Yankees

The **New York Yankees** are a professional baseball team based in the Bronx, a borough of New York City, New York. They compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as part of the American League (AL) east division.

The Yankees are one of two MLB teams based in New York City. The other is the National League's New York Mets.

The team has won 27 World Series championships, more than any other team in the Major Leagues. Legendary Yankees include Babe Ruth, Joe DiMaggio, Casey Stengel, Mickey Mantle, Yogi Berra, Reggie Jackson,  Don Mattingly, Bernie Williams, Darryl Strawberry, Alex Rodriguez, Alfonso Soriano, Gary Sheffield and Derek Jeter.

## History

From 1923 to 2008, the team's home was Yankee Stadium. Currently, they are playing at their new Yankee Stadium.

In 1921, the Yankees won their first pennant (the American League championships).

### Name

"Yankee" is slang for "American". As with the more common use of the term "Yankee", the team is more often called "the Yanks".

Their most commonly used "unofficial" nickname is "the Bronx Bombers", or simply "the Bombers". This nickname was given to them by the press a long time ago. It referred to their ability to hit a lot of home runs (a home run is sometimes called a "bomb").

A less used nickname is "the Pinstripers", for their well-known uniform style.

## Today

As of December 21, 2022, team's captain is Aaron Judge. Derek Jeter was the previous team captain; he retired after the 2014 season.

The Yankees have a historic rivalry with the Boston Red Sox.

Currently, the Yankees' team manager is Aaron Boone, and its General Manager is Brian Cashman. The team's ace pitcher is Geritt Cole.

The official fight song for the Yankees is "Here Come the Yankees".

After every home game, they play Frank Sinatra's "New York, New York".

## Titles & honors

The Yankees have retired the numbers of 22 players, more than any other teams in MLB. (This is a sign of honor and means that no team member will ever use those numbers again.) Among those 22 players are baseball legends like Babe Ruth, Joe DiMaggio, Casey Stengel, Mickey Mantle, Yogi Berra, and Derek Jeter.

Major League Baseball also retired the number 42, which Jackie Robinson wore when he broke the color barrier.

The Yankees were the last team to win back-to-back World Series championships. They won three straight titles from 1998 to 2000.

The Yankees won the American League pennant in 2024, and faced the Los Angeles Dodgers in the World Series.

## Rivalries

In 1919, the Yankees started there the biggest rivalry to date with the Boston Red Sox. The rivalry started after the former pitcher, Babe Ruth, was traded to the Yankees.

## Other websites

- Official website of the New York Yankees
- New York Yankees Home Uniform - American League (AL) - Chris Creamer's Sports Logos Page - SportsLogos.Net

## Further Reading

_Pinstripe Pride_ by Marty Appel
1048

## Events

- The city of Oslo is founded by King Harald Hardrada of Norway.
- Battle of Pasinler – Seljuks defeat a force of Byzantines and Georgians.
- Pope Benedict IX is driven out of Rome, ending his third and final pontificate.

## Births

- May 18 – Omar Khayyam, Persian poet and mathematician (died 1134)
- _date unknown_
    - Michael IX Comneus, Byzantine emperor (died 1088)
    - Pope Paschal II (died 1118)

## Deaths

- Pope Damasus II (born 1000)
Terry Pratchett

Sir **Terry Pratchett** OBE (**Terence David John Pratchett**; 28 April 1948 – 12 March 2015) was an English author. He was known for his fantasy works, including the famous _Discworld_ series. His first novel, _The Carpet People_, was published in 1971. He was the UK's best-selling author of the 1990s. He was born in Beaconsfield, Buckinghamshire, England.

Pratchett died at his home in Broad Chalke, Wiltshire, England on 12 March 2015 from a severe chest infection with final complications from his Alzheimers, aged 66.

## Other websites

- TerryPratchettBooks.com Official US site
- Transworld  Official UK, Europe and Canada site
- TerryPratchettBooks.org Fan site
1218

## Events

- Damietta is besieged by the knights of the Fifth Crusade.
- Livonian Brothers of the Sword begin to conquer Estonia.
- Minamoto no Sanetomo becomes Minister of the Right (_udaijin_) of Japan.
- Alfonso IX of Castile founds a university in Salamanca.
1282

## Events

- March 30 – The Sicilian rebellion known as the Sicilian Vespers begins
- March – Dafydd ap Gruffydd, brother to Prince of Wales Llywelyn the Last, attacks an English castle
- Holy Roman Emperor Rudolph I of Germany makes his sons Albert I of Germany and Rudolph II of Austria as rulers of the of Austria and Styria, thus founding the Habsburg dynasty in those territories.
- Floris V, Count of Holland defeats the Frisians at the battle of Vronen and retrieves the body of his father, who had been dead for 26 years.
Critic

A **critic** is a person who reviews things like movies, books, and food to see if they are any good and if other people would like them.  They write reviews about what they have seen or read.

Critics may write about art, music, theatre, politics, movies, television, books, or anything in which good or bad is a matter of personal opinion.

Roger Ebert, Gene Siskel, Raymond Williams, Susan George, John Ruskin, Rene Ricard, John Amis, Vladimir Vladimirovich Kara-Murza, George Bernard Shaw, Robert Schumann and Pauline Kael are some famous critics of art, music, politics and movies. Most of them are professional.

## Related pages

- Art critic
- Criticism
- Movie criticism
- Music critic
Søren Kierkegaard

**Søren Aabye Kierkegaard** (5 May 1813 – 11 November 1855), was a 19th-century Danish philosopher and theologian, and is usually thought of as the first existentialist philosopher.

He wrote many philosophical books about faith, existence, emotions, and feeling. He disliked people who tried to make Christianity political and people who tried to limit the single individual in favour of groups of many people. Many people have found his works interesting and have said that they were great works of philosophy. Ludwig Wittgenstein, a 20th-century philosopher, thought Kierkegaard was "by far, the most profound thinker of the nineteenth century".

## Life

He was born in Copenhagen, Denmark. He attended Copenhagen University and earned his master's degree in 1841. During this time, he met and fell in love with Regine Olsen in 1837. Although they were engaged for a time, Kierkegaard ended the engagement in 1841.

After breaking up with Regine, he spent much of his time writing book after book, in a highly dramatic yet subtle way. He also wrote some of his works using pen names, or pseudonyms. He died in Copenhagen. Although his works were not very popular during his lifetime, after his death they became influential in the 20th century.

## Works

Books by Kierkegaard. _Either/Or_ and _Fear and Trembling_, both published in 1843, are thought to be especially significant.

- (1841) _The Concept of Irony_ (_Om Begrebet Ironi med stadigt Hensyn til Socrates_)
- (1843) _Either/Or_ (_Enten - Eller_)
- (1843) _Fear and Trembling_ (_Frygt og Bæven_)
- (1843) _Repetition_ (_Gjentagelsen_)
- (1844) _Philosophical Fragments_ (_Philosophiske Smuler_)
- (1844) _The Concept of Dread_ (_Begrebet Angest_)
- (1845) _Stages on Life's Way_ (_Stadier paa Livets Vei_)
- (1846) _Concluding Unscientific Postscript to The Philosophical Fragments_ (_Afsluttende uvidenskabelig Efterskrift_)
- (1847) _Edifying Discourses in Divers Spirits_
- (1847) _Works of Love_ (_Kjerlighedens Gjerninger_)
- (1848) _Christian Discourses_ (_Christelige Taler_)
- (1849) _The Sickness Unto Death_  (_Sygdommen til Døden_)
- (1850) _Training in Christianity_ (_Indøvelse i Christendom_)

## Related pages

- List of Danish writers
1667

## Events

- January 20 – Poland cedes Kyiv, Smolensk, and eastern Ukraine to Russia in the Treaty of Andrusovo that put a final end to the Deluge, and Poland lost its status as a Central European power.
- April 27 – The blind, impoverished John Milton sells the copyright of _Paradise Lost_ for £10.
- June 12-17 – In the Raid on the Medway, a Dutch fleet under admiral Michiel de Ruyter burns Sheerness, sails up the River Medway, raids Chatham dockyards and escapes with the royal barge _The Royal Charles_.
- June 15 – The first human blood transfusion is administered by Dr. Jean-Baptiste Denys. He transfuses the blood of a sheep to a 15-year-old boy. (Though this operation is a success, a later patient dies from the procedure and Denys is accused of murder).
- June 20 – Dutch troops attack Royal Navy ships in London and Chatham and burn them.
- July 31 – Second Anglo-Dutch War ends: The Treaty of Breda ends the war. The treaty also recognizes Acadia as a French possession.
- October 18 – Brooklyn is chartered under the name **Brueckelen** by Mathias Nicolls, Governor of New Netherland.
- November 25 – Devastating earthquake rocks Caucasia, killing 80,000 people.
- Suleiman I becomes Shah of Persia.
- The Mogul Emperor Aurangzeb buys off the bandit Shivaji by making him a Rajah and allowing him to collect taxes.
- Robert Hooke demonstrates that the alteration of the blood in the lungs is essential for respiration.
- The War of Devolution begins, France invades Flanders and Free County.
- Louis XIV of France abolishes the Livre Parisis (Paris Pound) in favor of the much more widely used Livre Tournois (Tours Pound). He also designates Gabriel-Nicolas de la Reynie as first chief of "police" of Paris.
- French army uses grenadiers.
- Yohannes succeeds his father Fasildos as Emperor of Ethiopia.

## Births

- August 11 - Anna Maria Luisa de' Medici, Tuscan princess
- November 30 - Jonathan Swift, Irish writer
Despotism

**Despotism** is a form of government that is controlled by one person or a small group of people. The person who controls the state is called a _despot_. They have no elections, or the elections are rigged. The despot has complete control of the state, like a dictator or tyrant.

In history, the pharaohs of Egypt were despots in the sense that they ruled Egypt. But their rule was usually passed on to a relative, so that is rather like a monarchy. There is evidence that if they ruled badly, they were opposed or deposed.

The word _despot_ is thought to come from the Ancient Greek word _despotes_, which means "the master". According to Montesquieu, the difference between absolute monarchy and despotism is as follows. In the case of the monarchy, a single person governs with absolute power by fixed and established laws, whereas a despot governs by his or her own will and caprice.

The importance of the idea of despotism is that today it is a very common type of dictatorship or direct rule. Ruling monarchies are today few in number.

Even when there are elections, as there are for the Russian presidency, opposition candidates are at such a disadvantage that they are rarely, if ever, successful.

Despotism has always been associated with Eastern rather than Western states. Of the former Soviet Union, it is only the new states to the west which have attempted, with difficulties, to build genuine democracies (such as Moldova and Ukraine). Former Yugoslavia is an interesting case because its collapse has left several communities which regard themselves as separate, and are indeed ethnically different, yet none is as stable as the former Yugoslavia.
Lakshadweep

**Lakshdweep**, formerly known as the **Laccadive, Minicoy and Aminidivi Islands** are a group of islands in the Arabian Sea. They belong to India. Their capital is Kavaratti. It covers an area of . Eleven of the 36 coral atoll islands of Lakshadweep are inhabited. Lakshadweep is known for its exotic and sun-kissed beaches and lush green landscape. The name Lakshadweep in Malayalam and Sanskrit means 'a hundred thousand islands'.

The islands are the only coral atolls in India. The people living there are Malayalam and Mahl people, who have been influenced by Arab traders. Lakshadweep is a Muslim region just like the neighbouring Maldives, where tourism is strictly regulated. Lakshadweep has the largest percentage of Muslims - 98%, even larger percentage than Jammu and Kashmir and is the only Muslim-majority Indian administrative division entirely within India.

Apart from the emerging tourism, government jobs, fishing and coconut production are the mainstays of the Lakshadweep economy.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Lakshadweep
- **native name**: लक्षद्वीप
 ലക്ഷദ്വീപ്
- **type**: Union Territory
Districts of India, District
- **image caption**: Clock wise from top: Agatti Island, Viringili (Maliku Atoll), Viringili, Kavaratti Island, Bangaram Island
- **blank emblem size**: 100px
- **blank emblem type**: Emblem of Lakshadweep, Emblem
- **image map**: IN-LD.svg
- **pushpin label position**: right
- **pushpin map alt**: India location map 3.png
- **image map1**: File:Map of Lakshadweep-en.svg
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **established title**: Formation
- **established date**: 1 November 1956
- **seat type**: Capital
- **seat**: Kavaratti
- **leader title1**: List of Administrators of Lakshadweep, Administrator
- **leader name1**: Praful Khoda Patel
- **leader title2**: Lakshadweep (Lok Sabha constituency), MP
- **leader name2**: Mohammed Faizal P. P. (Nationalist Congress Party, NCP)
- **unit pref**: Metric
- **area total km2**: 32.62
- **area rank**: List of states and territories of India by area, 36th
- **population total**: 70,365
- **population as of**: 2021 Census
- **population density km2**: auto
- **demographics type1**: Languages
- **demographics1 title1**: Official Languages
- **demographics1 info1**: Malayalam language, Malayalam, English language, English
- **demographics1 title2**: Spoken
- **demographics1 info2**: Jeseri, Maldivian language, Dhivehi
- **demographics type2**: Ethnicity
- **demographics2 title1**: Ethnic groups
- **demographics2 info1**: ≈83% Malayali
≈17% Mahls
- **demographics2 title2**: Year of data
- **timezone1**: Indian Standard Time, IST
- **utc offset1**: +5:30
- **iso code**: ISO 3166-2:IN, IN-LD
- **registration plate**: LD
- **blank1 name sec1**: No. of districts
- **blank1 info sec1**: 1
- **blank2 name sec1**: Largest city
- **blank2 info sec1**: Andrott
- **blank3 name sec1**: HDI
- **blank3 info sec1**:
 0.796
- **blank4 name sec1**: HDI Year
- **blank4 info sec1**: 2005
- **blank5 name sec1**: HDI Category
- **blank6 name sec1**: Literacy
- **blank6 info sec1**: 91.85%
Daman and Diu

**Daman and Diu** was a union territory in India. It covers an area of . The area is bigger than Saint Helena but smaller than Wallis and Futuna. It was made of two districts, Daman and Diu.

The territory used to belong to Portugal. In 1961, Indian soldiers and air fighters took control of the territory. In 2020, it merged with Dadra and Nagar Haveli to make a new union territory, Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu.
Riding helmet

A **riding helmet**, sometimes called a **horse riding helmet**, is a type of helmet made for people who ride horses. It is important to wear a riding helmet when riding. It is easy for a person to fall off a horse and hit his or her head. Riding helmets keep the rider of a horse from being hurt. Horses can accidentally step on a person who has fallen to the ground.

Helmets should be worn by all riders, but are most often worn by English style riders.
Finnish

**Finnish** may mean:
- Anything related to Finland
- Finns, the people of Finland
- The Finnish language
1718

## Events

- July 21 – Treaty of Passarowitz signed
- November 22 – Off the coast of Virginia, English pirate Edward Teach (best known as "Blackbeard") is killed in battle when a British boarding party cornered and then shot and stabbed him more than 25 times.
- November 30 – After the death of Charles XII, Ulrika Eleonora becomes Queen of Sweden.
- December 17 – Austria, Great Britain, and France declare war on Spain, launching the War of the Quadruple Alliance.
- The Funj warrior aristocracy deposes the reigning mek and places one of their own ranks on the throne of Sennar. (History of Sudan (Coming of Islam to the Turkiyah))

## Births

- March 31  -  Mariana Victoria of Spain, queen regent of Portugal (d. 1781)
- November 3  -  John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich, English statesman (d. 1792)

## Deaths

- May 7  -  Mary of Modena, queen of James II of England (b. 1658)
- July 30  -  William Penn, American settler, founder of Pennsylvania (b. 1644)
- November 22  -  Blackbeard, English pirate (b. c. 1680)
- November 30  -  King Charles XII of Sweden (b. 1682)
- December 10  -  Stede Bonnet, the "gentleman pirate"
Dadra and Nagar Haveli

**Dadra and Nagar Haveli** was a union territory in India. It covers an area of 188 mi² or 487 km², it is bigger than Andorra, but smaller than Saint Lucia.

In 2020, it merged with Daman and Diu to make a new union territory, Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu. Dadra and Nagar Haveli is now a district of this territory.
1323

## Events

- Canonization of Saint Thomas Aquinas
- Vilnius becomes capital of Lithuania
- The Treaty of Nöteborg between Sweden and Novgorod (Russia) is signed, deciding on the border for the first time
- Pharos of Alexandria Lighthouse (one of the Seven Wonders of the world) is destroyed by many earthquakes
Danish

**Danish** can mean:
- Something of or about Denmark, a country in Europe
- Danish language
- Danish people, a group of people that is born in Denmark
- Danish pastry, often called just _Danish_
- Danish Taimoor, Pakistani actor
Birthday

A **birthday** is the day when a person was born. In many places, on a person's birthday, he or she celebrates with friends and family at a party, where they eat cake or other foods, and get gifts. It is a common use to offer gifts in packages decorated for the occasion and accompanied by greeting cards.

## Customs

Not everyone celebrates birthdays, including Jehovah's Witnesses.

In much of the English-speaking world people sing the song "Happy Birthday to You" to the person celebrating her or his birthday.  There are similar songs in other languages.

A birthday cake is usually decorated and covered with candles.  Sometimes the number of candles is the same as the age of the birthday person.

## Coming of age

Children usually reach their age of majority on a birthday.

- In the United States of America and also in many other countries a person can vote and become a legal adult at age 18.
- In Judaism, boys have a bar mitzvah around the time they become 13. Girls sometimes have a bat mitzvah around their 12th or 13th birthday.
- In Latin America, a quinceañera party marks a girl's 15th birthday.

## Astrology

A person's astrological sign is based on his or her birthday.

### Birthstones

A birthstone symbolizes the month of birth. In 1912, the Jewelers of America agreed on a list of birthstones:
|Month|Modern Birthstone|Alternate|Traditional Birthstone|
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|January|Garnet|Rose Quartz|Garnet|
|February|Amethyst|Onyx|Amethyst|
|March|Aquamarine|Red Jasper (Bloodstone)|Bloodstone, Jasper|
|April|Diamond|Rock Crystal (Quartz)|Diamond, Sapphire|
|May|Emerald|Chrysoprase|Emerald, Agate|
|June|Pearl (the only non-mineral), Moonstone|Alexandrite|Alexandrite, Emerald|
|July|Ruby|Jade or Carnelian|Ruby, Onyx|
|August|Peridot|Aventurine, Sardonyx, or Sapphire|Sardonyx, Carnelian|
|September|Sapphire|Lapis lazuli|Sapphire, Peridot|
|October|Opal|Pink Tourmaline|Tourmaline, Aquamarine|
|November|Yellow Topaz|Citrine or Turquoise|Citrine, Topaz|
|December|Turquoise, Blue Topaz|Lapis Lazuli or Tanzanite|Zircon, Ruby|
Yi I

**Yi I** (1536 – 1584) was a Korean Confucian scholar. His mother was a famous calligraphist, Shin Saimdang. He was very intelligent as a child, learning to read at three and being very bright at his studies. He was also devoted to his parents: when his mother was sick, he prayed to his ancestors to heal her; and when his father was sick, he cut his own finger with a knife and let his father drink his blood (at that time, people thought human blood was very good medicine).

## Works

- Seonghakjipyo (성학집요 聖學輯要)
- Gyeokmongyogyeol (격몽요결 擊蒙要訣)
- Donghomundap (동호문답 東湖問答)
- Gijasilgi (기자실기 箕子實記)
- Gyeongyeonilgi (경연일기 經筵日記)
- Suneon (순언 醇言)
Sunrise (company)

**Sunrise** is a Japanese animation company. The staff uses the name **Hajime Yatate** in all their productions by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, but this is not a real person--it is a name that all the people who work for the studio use for themselves.
Some cartoons made by the company are:
- _Argentosoma_ (also "Argento Soma, and "Argent Soma")
- _(The) Big O_
- _Blue Comet SPT Layzner_
- _Brain Powerd_ (also "Brain Powered")
- _Brave Raideen_ (勇者ライディーン; _Yuusha Raidiin_) (co-production with Tohoku Shinsha)
- _City Hunter_
- _Cowboy Bebop_ (Co-production with Tokyo Movie Shinsha)
- _Cyborg 009 (1979 color series; co-production with Toei Animation)
- _Crest of the Stars_ (星界の紋章; _Seikai no Monshō_)
- _Dirty Pair_
- _Future GPX Cyber Formula_ (新世紀ＧＰＸサイバーフォーミュラ; _Shin Seiki GPX Saibaa Fohmyura_) (literally "New Century GPX Cyber Formula")
- _Gasaraki_
- _ Infinite Ryvius (無限のリヴァイアス; _Mugen no Ryvius_)
- _InuYasha_ (犬夜叉)
- _My-HiME_ (舞-HiME)
- _My-Otome_
- _Mobile Suit Gundam_ (機動戦士ガンダム; _Kidō Senshi Gandamu_) co production with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer
- _Outlaw Star_
- _Overman King Gainer_
- _Planetes_
- _Scryed_
- _The Ultraman_ (co-production with Tsuburaya Productions)
- _The Vision of Escaflowne_ (天空のエスカフローネ; _Tenkuu no Esukaforohne_) (literally "Escaflowne of the Heavens")
- _Witch Hunter Robin_
- _Yakitate!! Japan_ (焼きたて!! ジャぱん)
- _Yoroiden Samurai Troopers_ (鎧伝サムライトールパー) (_Ronin Warriors_)
Romanian

**Romanian** could mean:
- Anything related to the country of Romania
- Romanians, the people of Romania
- The Romanian language
X-ray

X-radiation is a kind of electromagnetic radiation. **X-rays** are waves of X-radiation. They have a shorter wavelength, and therefore more energy, than ultraviolet radiation. X-rays have a much shorter wavelength than visible light (the light that we can see). Radiation with shorter wavelengths (more energy) than the X-ray is called Gamma radiation (γ-rays). These are all parts of the electromagnetic spectrum.

The wavelength of X-rays covers a wide range. Most X-rays have a wavelength in the range of 0.01 to 10 nanometres. This corresponds with frequencies in the range 30 petahertz to 30 exahertz (3×10<sup>16</sup> Hz to 3×10<sup>19</sup> Hz) and energies in the range 100 eV to 100 keV.

X-rays can go through many solid materials. For this reason, taking photograms with X-rays is used in medicine in order to see bones and other things inside the body. Sometimes the term "X-ray" means these pictures instead of the radiation that makes them.

What these images show will depend on three things: Rayleigh scattering,  Compton scattering and photoabsorption. The images show bone because it is dense enough that X-rays are not able to pass through it. Instead, the X-rays are either absorbed or scattered. The images do not show skin and muscle, however, because these tissues are transparent enough for the X-rays to pass through them without being absorbed too much. To detect tumors, other imaging devices are used; such as magnetic resonance imaging. A computed tomography scanner combines an X-ray machine and computer to construct a three dimensional (3D) picture. This has some ability to see other things besides bone.

X-rays are made by hitting metal with fast-moving electrons. They are photons, tiny packets of energy that can move atoms and change chemicals in the body. They are ionizing radiation but the things they do depend on the wavelength of the X-rays (or how much energy they have). X-rays with smaller energies ("soft" x-rays) cause the photoelectric effect. Mid-level energies cause Compton scattering. High-level energies ("hard" X-rays) cause pair production. X-rays used for making pictures of people have low to medium energy. Radiation therapy that treats cancer uses Compton scattering and sometimes Pair production.

There are small amounts of X-rays in the air. Like other energy in the air, X-rays can change living cells. Exposing the human body to high doses of X-rays for a long time is dangerous. It can cause cancer. However, cancer cells are hurt more easily, so X-rays are sometimes used to kill them.

## Related pages

- X-ray crystallography
- Interventional Radiology
- Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
CT scan

A **computed tomography (CT) scanner** is an X-ray machine that takes cross section images. They can help a doctor in diagnosis.
Hanoi

**Hanoi** () is the capital of Vietnam. It is also the second most populated city in the country. In 2023, about 5,253,000 people lived in the city. It has been the capital of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) since 1945 and the capital of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (all of Vietnam) since 1976. Before that, it was the capital of the country now called Vietnam for most of the time from at least the 11th century until 1802. The city is on the right of the Red River, and the city's name translates to English as "inside the river". Things made there include machine tools, plywood, textiles, chemicals and handicrafts. Hanoi is at 21°2' North, 105°51' East, 1,760 km north of Ho Chi Minh City (formerly Saigon). Popular tourist sites in the city include Ho Chi Minh's Mausoleum, Hoa Lo Prison, and the Palace of Literature. Nearby Hanoi is also where pho, Vietnamese beef noodle soup, was first created.