juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Cicero

**Marcus Tullius Cicero** (3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, consul, lawyer, political theorist and philosopher. He is often thought to be one of Rome's greatest orators and prose stylists.

His Latin is thought to be the model of Classical Latin. He introduced Greek philosophy to the Romans.

Cicero was heavily involved in the politics of the Roman Republic. After Julius Caesar's death, Cicero became an enemy of Mark Antony. In the power struggle, Cicero attacked Antony in a series of speeches. Cicero was proscribed as an enemy of the state by the Second Triumvirate. He was executed in 43 BC by soldiers working for the Triumvirate.

## References

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</div>

## Sources

- Everitt, Anthony 2001, _Cicero: the life and times of Rome's greatest politician_, Random House, hardback, 359 pages,
- Haskell, H.J.: (1946) _This was Cicero_,  Fawcett publications, Inc. Greenwich, Conn. USA
- Rawson, Elizabeth (1975) _Cicero, A portrait_, Allen Lane, London
- Taylor, H. (1918). _Cicero: A sketch of his life and works._ Chicago: A. C. McClurg & Co.

### General

- Links to Cicero resources
    - University of Texas Cicero Homepage
    - The Internet Encyclopædia of Philosophy

### Works by Cicero

- Perseus Project (Latin and English): Classics Collection (see: M. Tullius Cicero)
    - The Latin Library (Latin): Works of Cicero
    - UAH (Latin, with translation notes): Cicero Page
    - _De Officiis_, translated by Walter Miller
    - Cicero's works: text, concordances and frequency list
- Biographies and descriptions of Cicero's time:
    - At Project Gutenberg
        - Plutarch's biography of Cicero contained in the _Parallel Lives_
        - _Life of Cicero_ by Anthony Trollope, Volume I – Volume II
        - _Cicero_ by Rev. W. Lucas Collins (_Ancient Classics for English Readers_)
        - _Roman life in the days of Cicero_ by Rev. Alfred J. Church
        - _Social life at Rome in the Age of Cicero_ by W. Warde Fowler
    - At Heraklia website
    - Dryden's translation of _Cicero_ from Plutarch's _Parallel Lives_
    - At Middlebury College website
    - Prætor Brutus
- News article on a museum-guide robot named after him

## Infobox (writer)

- **name**: Marcus Tullius Cicero
- **image**: M-T-Cicero.jpg
- **image size**: 200px
- **caption**: Marcus Tullius Cicero
- **birth date**: 3 January 106 BC
- **birth place**: Arpinum, Italy
- **death date**: 7 December 43 BC
- **death place**: Formia, Italy
- **occupation**: Politician, lawyer, orator and philosopher
- **nationality**: Ancient Rome, Ancient Roman
- **subject**: politics, law, philosophy, oratory
- **movement**: Classical Latin#Golden Age Latin, Golden Age Latin
- **notableworks**: **Politics:** _:s:For Publius Quinctius, Pro Quinctio_
**Philosophy:** _De Inventione_
Heavyweight

In boxing, the term **heavyweight** is used for a specific group of people based on weight. Usually a heavyweight is a boxer who weighs more than 200 lbs (91kg). Below 200 is cruiserweight. A few organizations classify differently. In the late 20th century boxing organizations created many divisions so that fighters could fight people of the same size. This allows making more champions thus more profit. Most divisions only separate each other by few lbs. Before the 1960s there were 8 divisions.

The first heavyweight champion under modern rules was John L. Sullivan. Famous heavyweight champions have included Jack Dempsey, Joe Louis, Rocky Marciano, Muhammad Ali, Larry Holmes, Mike Tyson, Evander Holyfield, Vitali Klitshko, Tyson Fury and Lennox Lewis.
Genealogy

**Genealogy** is the study of family history. It is the study of family relationships and ancestry (parents, grandparents, great-grandparents, etc.). It is a popular hobby in the United States and in many other countries.

Some people show their family history using a family tree. A family tree is a diagram of the members of a family. With a family tree you use lines to show how people are related, for example, people who are married or have children.

Some people keep track of their family history data in a genealogy database on their computer. Examples of data that a person would save are dates and places of births, marriages, and deaths. Other information that might be saved are records of military service, census records which show where ancestors lived at a certain time, immigration data, education, occupations, and even photos of the ancestors. The person building the database can usually decide to save many kinds of data—news articles, stories that were told in the family (oral history), information on religious ceremonies, wills or inheritances, information from family letters, customs, or how world or local events affected the family. The advantages of using a genealogy database are that it helps to keep the data organized, especially when relationships change; it can generate several types of charts or tables with the data filled in; it may make it easier to share data with others; and it takes up less room than paper and notebooks.

People study genealogy (family history) for many reasons.
- They may want to help someone be reunited with their family after war, natural disasters, foster care, or adoption, or find living relatives.
- They may have an interest in history and want to know how and where their family lived during interesting times of history. (dynasty in case of royal familty)
- They may want to track hereditary diseases that may be passed from parents to their children. (This would overlap with the study of genetics.)
- The Mormons believe that they can give baptisms and other religious rites to their ancestors to help them in the afterlife.  This belief drives them to find as many of their ancestors as they can, and they have collected many genealogy records from around the world.
- Some people use genealogy to keep track of money, land and power so that they can inherit what belongs to their family. These people use genealogy to help it stay in the family and prevent false claims to the wealth, land or power.

## Related pages

- Phylogeny
Niels Bohr

**Niels Bohr** (7 October 1885  18 November 1962) was a Danish physicist who helped discover quantum physics, the structure of the atom, and the atomic bomb. Bohr was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1922 for discovering the quantization of atomic energy levels. He worked on the Manhattan Project. He married Margrethe Nørlund in 1912. One of his sons was Aage Bohr, who was also an important physicist. Aage won in 1975 his own Nobel prize. Niels Bohr worked also with Albert Einstein. He is also considered one of the most important physicists of the 20th century.

## Biography

Niels Henrik David Bohr, or Niels Bohr was born in Copenhagen, Denmark,1885 as the son of Christian Bohr, who was also professor of physiology at the University of Copenhagen. Bohr's mother was Ellen Adler Bohr and was Jewish with a rich family of bankers and politicians. Niels was also the brother of Harald Bohr. Bohr was a mathematician, a physicist, and a football player of the national team.

In 1903 Bohr began studies of philosophy and mathematics at the Copenhagen University.

In 1905 the Royal Danish Academy of Science organized a competition. Niels Bohr participated with some experiments in surface tension. He used the laboratory of his father in the university, because he knew it since he was a boy.

His work won the prize. For this reason, he decided to stop the studies of philosophy and mathematics and changed to physics.

He received his doctorate in 1911.

Bohr did experiments in the Trinity College in Cambridge under the direction of J.J. Thomson. After it, he went to the University of Manchester under the direction of Ernest Rutherford. On the basis of the theories of Rutherford, he published his theory of electrons. He introduces the theory of electrons traveling in orbits around the nucleus of the atom in 1913 and the chemical properties of the orbit.

He introduced the idea that an electron can drop from a higher energy orbit to a lower one. Then it can emit a photon of discrete energy. This is the basis of quantum theory.

Niels Bohr and his wife Margrethe Nørlund Bohr had four sons. Their oldest died in a tragic boating accident and another died from childhood meningitis. The others went on to lead successful lives, including Aage Bohr, who became a very successful physicist and, like his father, won a Nobel Prize in physics, in 1975.

British actor Kenneth Branagh played Bohr in the 2023 Christopher Nolan movie _Oppenheimer_.
Świnoujście

**Świnoujście**  () is a town in Pomerania, northwestern Poland, with about 42,000 people (). It is on the Swina river, which flows into the Baltic Sea. In Świnoujście is the largest and longest beach in Poland. Świnoujście is also a health resort and has a modern harbour.

The port can handle of dry bulk and general cargo (especially coal, ore and chemical materials).

The ferry terminal (run by the Polish Baltic Shipping Company) provides ferry berths and facilities for passenger services to Sweden and Denmark. There are lines to Malmo in Sweden, Copenhagen and Ronne (Bornholm) in Denmark.

There are also facilities for deep-sea fishing, fish processing, and ship repair services.

## Other websites

- Official website of Świnoujście
- Tourist Information for Swinemünde

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Świnoujście
- **image skyline**: Swinoujscie CIMG2195.jpg
- **imagesize**: 270px
- **image caption**: City panorama
- **image flag**: POL Świnoujście flag2.svg
- **image shield**: POL Świnoujście COA 1.svg
- **image map**: 800px-Wolin mapa Swinoujsci.png
- **pushpin map**: Poland
- **pushpin label position**: right
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision type1**: Voivodeships of Poland, Voivodeship
- **subdivision name1**: West Pomeranian Voivodeship, West Pomeranian
- **subdivision type2**: Powiat, County
- **subdivision name2**: _City County_
- **leader title**: Mayor
- **leader name**: Joanna Agatowska
- **established title**: Established
- **established date**: 12th century
- **established title3**: Town rights
- **established date3**: 1765
- **area total km2**: 197.23
- **population as of**: 2012
- **population total**: 41516
- **population density km2**: auto
- **timezone**: Central European Time, CET
- **utc offset**: +1
- **timezone dst**: Central European Summer Time, CEST
- **utc offset dst**: +2
- **elevation m**: 5
- **postal code type**: Postal code
- **postal code**: 72-600 to 72-612
- **area code**: +48 091
- **blank name**: Polish car number plates, Car plates
- **blank info**: ZSW
- **blank1 name**: Köppen climate classification, Climate
- **blank1 info**: Oceanic climate, Cfb
- **website**: http://www.swinoujscie.pl/
Sky Odyssey

**Sky Odyssey** (or ***The Sky Odyssey*** in Japan) is an action/adventure flight simulator (or flight videogame) for the SonyPlayStation 2.  It was made by Cross, published by Activision and was sold in store’s in the year 2000.

The games story is a Indiana Jones-like adventure in which the person playing the game flies an airplane in a fictional (or not real) world collecting very old objects as well as pieces of a map.

The game's music was made by Kō Ōtani, who also made the music for _Shadow of the Colossus_, different types of _Gamera_ films, and many other anime.

It is one of the few videogames that you can fly the Japanese Shinden and Shinden Kai, the Shinden is the airplane shown on the game's box.

## Other websites

- Official website
Landform

A **landform** is a word that describes a form of land. Each type of landform is defined by its size, shape, location, and what it is made of. The scientific study of landform is called geomorphology.

### Slope landforms

- alas
- bluff
- cliff
- cuesta
- dale
- dell
- escarpment (scarp)
- glen
- gully
- hill
- knoll
- mountain
- plain
- plateau
- ravine
- ridge
- rock shelter
- terrace & terracettes
- vale
- valley
- valley shoulder

### Coastal and oceanic landforms

- abyssal fan
- abyssal plain
- arch
- archipelago
- atoll
- confluence
- barrier island
- bay & gulf
- baymouth bar
- headwaters
- beach & raised beach
- beach ridge
- bight
- boondock
- cape
- cave
- cliff
- coast
- coral reef
- cove
- delta
- dune system
- estuary
- fjord
- headland
- isthmus
- island, islet, island arc, archipelago & atoll
- lagoon
- machair
- meadow
- notch
- ocean
- Ocean ridge & oceanic trench
- peninsula
- ria
- salt marsh
- sea
- shoal
- sound
- spit
- stack & stump
- tombolo
- cut landform
- Wave cut platform

### Fluvial landforms

Landforms that are related to flowing water.
- ait
- anabranch
- arroyo
- bar
- bayou
- Carolina Bay
- basin
- beach
- cave
- cliff
- gully
- island
- lake
- levee
- marsh
- meander
- oasis
- ox-bow lake
- pond
- pool
- riffle
- river
- spring
- stream
- stream terrace
- swamp
- valley and vale
- waterfall
- watershed

### Mountain and glacial landforms

- arête
- cirque
- crevasse
- corrie or cwm
- dirt cone
- drumlin
- drumlin field
- esker
- fjord
- U-shaped valley
- glacial horn
- glacier
- hanging valley
- inselberg
- kame
- kame delta
- kettle
- moraine
- mountain & mountain range
- outwash fan and outwash plain
- pingo
- stream terrace
- summit
- tunnel valley
- valley

### Volcanic landforms

- Butte
- Caldera
- Cinder cone
- Geyser
- lava dome
- lava flow & lava plain
- mesa
- Mid-ocean ridge
- Oceanic trench
- Vent
- Volcanic island
- Volcano, shield volcano &  composite volcano (or stratovolcano)

### Erosion landforms

Landforms made by erosion and weathering usually occur in coastal or fluvial areas, and many are listed under those headings.  Some other erosion landforms that are not listed in those categories include:
- canyon
- cave
- lavaka
- limestone pavement
- rock formations
- tea table

- Deposition landform -- landforms produced by deposition of load or sediment (usually coastal or fluvial).
- Eolian landform - landforms produced by wind weathering.

## Other websites

- Landform Design
Piri Reis map

The **Piri Reis map** is a map of the world from the 16th century. It was drawn on a parchment of gazelle skin by Ottoman cartographer Piri Reis (Muhiddin Piri) in 1513. This map was used to support claims for a pre-modern exploration of Antarctica.

Only around one third of the map still exists, and it is located at the Topkapı Palace in Istanbul.
Shadow of the Colossus

***Shadow of the Colossus*** is a Japanese-made action-adventure video game made and sold by Sony Computer Entertainment (SCEI) for the PlayStation 2. The game was sold in North America and Japan in October 2005, and was then sold in Europe and Oceania in February 2006. The game was made by SCEI's International Production Studio 1, the same video game makers that made the game Ico.

The game is about a person called Wander, a young man who must travel across a large area on a horse and destroy sixteen giant creatures called the colossi to bring back the life of a dead girl. The game is not a normal action-adventure type of game because there are no towns or dungeons to explore, no characters to talk to, and no enemies to destroy other than the colossi. Shadow of the Colossus has been described as a puzzle game, because each colossus has a weakness which must be found and somehow used to defeat the colossi.

## Remake

A remake game title _Shadow of the Colossus_ (2018) released for PlayStation 4.
Verbandsgemeinde

A **Verbandsgemeinde** (plural **Verbandsgemeinden**) is an administrative unit unique to the German Bundeslands (federal states) of Rhineland-Palatinate and, since 2009, Saxony-Anhalt.

## Rhineland-Palatinate

There are 163 Verbandsgemeinden in Rhineland-Palatinate, which are grouped into the 24 districts and subdivided into nearly 2200 **Ortsgemeinden**.
Most of these Verbandsgemeinden were established in 1969. Formerly the name of the administrative units was _Amt_.  Most of the functions of municipal government for several villages are consolidated and administered centrally from a larger or more central village among the group, while the individual villages (Ortsgemeinden) still maintain a limited degree of local autonomy.

## Districts

The 24 districts:
Osburg

**Osburg** is a municipality in the Trier-Saarburg district, in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. It is near Trier. As of 31 December 2018, 2,422 people lived there.

## Other websites

- Official website
Farschweiler

**Farschweiler** is a municipality in the Trier-Saarburg district, in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. As of 31 December 2018, 802 people lived there.

## Other websites

- Official website
Principality

A **principality** (sometimes also called **princedom**) is a country or territory which is ruled by a sovereign prince or princess. Principalities were common in the Middle Ages. Principalities tend to have quite a small territory.

## Current principalities

There are currently three countries which are principalities: Andorra, Monaco and Liechtenstein.

- The **Principality of Andorra** is a small country in Western Europe which borders Spain and France. Andorra has two heads of state known as "Co-Princes". The two Co-Princes are Emmanuel Macron (also President of France) and Joan Enric Vives Sicília (who is also Bishop of Urgell).
- The **Principality of Liechtenstein** is a very small country located in the Alps. It was named after the ruling family, the House of Liechtenstein. The principality was once a part of the Holy Roman Empire but eventually became independent. The ruler of Liechtenstein holds the title "_Fürst_", which is usually translated as "Prince".
- The **Principality of Monaco** is the second-smallest country in the world. It borders France. Monaco's ruler is the "Sovereign Prince".

## Sub-national principalities

Many states of the Holy Roman Empire were small principalities with their own royal families.

In modern Europe, there are some cases where the heir to the throne of a country holds the title "Prince of...", followed by the name of a significant region of the country. This mostly has some historical meaning.

- The **Principality of** **Asturias** is one of Spain's autonomous communities. The heir to the throne of Spain has the title "Prince/Princess of Asturias".
- **Wales** is one of the four countries part of the United Kingdom. The heir to the throne of the UK holds the title Prince of Wales. This is because the Principality of Wales formerly existed before Wales and England became a single legal entity.

## Micronations

Some states claim to be principalities but are not recognised by other countries: Sealand (a Sea Fort off the English coast), Seborga (a small town in Italy), the Principality of Hutt River in Australia and the Principality of Minerva in the Pacific. These states are examples of micronations.

## Colonialism

Sometimes the word is also used to mean dependent territories in  Africa, Asia and India, pre-Columbian America and Oceania. For these, the word princely states is generally preferred, especially if they came under the authority of a European colonial power.
Fertile Crescent

The **Fertile Crescent** is a historical region in the Middle East that includes the Levant, Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. These countries on a map together have a shape that is similar to a crescent, so archaeologist James Henry Breasted spoke of the "Fertile Crescent" because he wanted to show the similarities of the cultures of this region in ancient times.

All these lands are watered by important rivers: Nile, Jordan, Euphrates and Tigris. Together they cover some 400-500,000 square kilometers, and the region extends from the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea around the north of the Syrian Desert and through the Jazirah and Mesopotamia to the Persian Gulf. These areas are in present-day Egypt, Israel, West Bank, Gaza strip, Lebanon, Cyprus and parts of Jordan, Syria, Iraq, south-eastern Turkey and south-western Iran. The population of the Nile River basin is about 70 million, the Jordan River basin about 20 million, and the Tigris and Euphrates basins about 30 million, giving the present-day Fertile Crescent a total population of around 120 million, or at least a quarter of the population of the Middle East.

The Fertile Crescent has a very long record of past human activity.

## Related pages

- Mesopotamia
- Ancient Egypt
Crescent

In art and symbolism, a **crescent** is generally the shape produced when a circular disk has a segment of another circle removed from its edge, so that what remains is a shape enclosed by two circular arcs of different diameters which intersect at two points (usually in such a manner that the enclosed shape does not include the center of the original circle).

The crescent was long used as the symbol of Byzantium. Now it is the main symbol for the religion Islam.

## Other websites

- The origin of the Islamic crescent
- MathWorld article on geometric "Lune"
- Worldwide Moon Sighting Reports
Crescent (disambiguation)

**Crescent** is a shape, form or symbol.

**Crescent** may also refer to:
- _Crescent_ (Amtrak), an American passenger train
- Crescent Engineering College, a private engineering college in Vandalur, Chennai (Madras), India
- Crescent School, an all-male private school in Toronto, Canada
- Crescent (Dallas), an ornate office tower in the Oak Lawn area of Dallas, Texas, United States
- _Crescent_ (John Coltrane), a 1964 album by John Coltrane
- _Crescent_ (album), a 2003 album by Gackt
- Crescent (architecture), an architectural structure where a number of houses are laid out in an arc to form of a crescent shape
- Crescent (pigeon), a breed of domestic pigeon
- "Crescent" is the literal translation of _croissant_ - a popular buttery French bread in the shape of a crescent moon.
- _Crescent_, a Swedish bicycle brand manufactured by Nymanbolagen
- the Crescent meteorite of 1936, which fell in Oklahoma, United States (see meteorite falls)
- Crescent is also often found as part of street names. Such streets are often (but not always) curved in some way.
- Crescent Records, a record label
- HMCS _Crescent_, a WWII Royal Canadian Navy destroyer.
- The Crescent, a defunct department store chain.
- Crescent Arms, a firearms manufacturer bought by Savage Arms.
Levant

**Levant** is a term in geography that refers to an area in the Middle East. It includes the historic areas of Lebanon, Jordan, Israel, Palestine, Syria, Cyprus, and the Hatay Province (located in modern-day Turkey).

The Levant is bounded by the Taurus Mountains to the north, the Mediterranean Sea to the west, the northern Arabian Desert to the south and Upper Mesopotamia to the east.

The word "Levant" entered the English language in the 16th century, together with the first English merchant adventurers in the region. English ships appeared in the Mediterranean in the 1570s and the English merchant company signed its agreement ("capitulations") with the Grand Turk in 1579 (Braudel).

Today, the word "Levant" is usually used by archaeologists and historians  who are talking about the prehistory and the ancient and medieval history of the region, as when discussing the Crusades. The term is also used sometimes to refer to modern or contemporary events, peoples, states, or parts of states in the same region, such as Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Cyprus, and the Hatay Province.

## Regions

- Cyprus
- Egypt
- Iraq
- Israel
- Jordan
- Lebanon
- Palestine
- Syria
- Turkey

## Related pages

- Land of Israel
- Canaan
- Mesopotamia
- Palestine

## References

- Braudel, Fernand, _The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Phillip II_
- http://www.levantine.plus.com/index.htm . Levantine Heritage Site. Includes many oral and scholarly histories, and genealogies for some Levantine Turkish families.

## Other websites

- France and the Levant from 1920
Levant (disambiguation)

**Levant** may be:

- **The Levant** - a region in of the Middle East
- **Southern Levant** - area of The Levant
- **Île du Levant** - French island in the Mediterranean
- **Levant, Maine** - town in Penobscot County, Maine, USA
- **Levant, Cornwall** - a town in Cornwall, England
- ***Levant*** - the primary annual publication of the Council for British Research in the Levant
- **Impression, soleil levant** - the French name for the Monet painting Impression, Sunrise
- **Levant Company** - English company formed to trade with the Middle East
- **Levant Mine** - tin mine on the western coast of Cornwall
- **Levant Sparrowhawk**, bird of prey
- ***USS Levant***, sloop-of-war in the United States Navy 1837–1860
Jordan River (disambiguation)

**Jordan River** could mean:

Asia:
- Jordan River, a tributary of the Dead Sea in Southwest Asia

Australia:
- Jordan River, Tasmania

Canada:
- River Jordan, British Columbia, a hamlet and river on Vancouver Island

England:
- River Jordan, Cornwall

New Zealand:
- Jordan River, New Zealand, in the South Island

United States:
- Jordan River (Michigan), a tributary of Lake Charlevoix
- Jordan River (Utah), a tributary of the Great Salt Lake
- Jordan River (Virginia), a tributary of the Rappahannock River
- Ohio River, called the "River Jordan" by slaves escaping to freedom in the North before and during the Civil War
Armorial of districts in Rhineland-Palatinate

**List of coats of arms of the 24 districts and the 12 urban districts in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany**

## Districts

||Ahrweiler||Altenkirchen||Alzey-Worms||Bad Dürkheim|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
||Bad Kreuznach||Bernkastel-Wittlich||Birkenfeld||Bitburg-Prüm|
||Cochem-Zell||Donnersbergkreis||Germersheim||Kaiserslautern|
||Kusel||Rhein-Pfalz-Kreis||Mainz-Bingen||Mayen-Koblenz|
||Neuwied||Rhein-Hunsrück||Rhein-Lahn||Südliche Weinstraße|
||Südwestpfalz||Trier-Saarburg||Vulkaneifel||Westerwaldkreis|

## Urban districts

||Frankenthal||Kaiserslautern||Koblenz||Landau|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
||Ludwigshafen||Mainz||Neustadt an der Weinstraße||Pirmasens|
||Speyer||Trier||Worms||Zweibrücken|
Proselyte

**Proselyte**, from Greek _/proselytos_, is used in the Septuagint for "stranger", i.e. a newcomer to Israel; a sojourner in the land, and in the New Testament (Strong's G4339 ) for a convert to Judaism from Paganism. It is a translation of the Hebrew word _/ger_ (Strong's H1616 ).

## Two kinds of proselyte in Judaism

There are two kinds of proselyte:
1. _Ger tzedek_ (_righteous proselytes_, _proselytes of righteousness_, _religious proselyte_, _devout proselyte_)
1. _Ger toshav_ (_gate proselyte_, _proselytes of the gate_, _limited proselyte_, _half-proselyte_)
A righteous proselyte was a Gentile who had converted to Judaism, was bound to all the doctrines and precepts of the Jewish economy, and was considered a full member of the Jewish people.

A gate proselyte was a "resident alien" who lived in the Land of Israel and followed some of the customs.

## Proselytes in early Christianity

The "religious proselytes" spoken of in Early Christian writings were righteous proselytes, as distinguished from gate proselytes.

## Related pages

- Proselytism

## Other websites

- Petrine Proselytes
- Catholic Encyclopedia: Proselyte
- Jewish Encyclopedia: Proselyte
- Free Online Book: 'The Path of the Righteous Gentile'
- Proselyte in the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica
Oriental Orthodoxy

**Oriental Orthodoxy** is a group of six Eastern Christian Churches that accept only the first three ecumenical councils (the First Council of Nicaea, the First Council of Constantinople and the Council of Ephesus). They reject the dogmatic definitions of the Council of Chalcedon. Those Churches are also called **Old Oriental Churches**.

Oriental Orthodox Churches are different from the churches that call themselves "Eastern Orthodoxy".

### The Coptic Orthodox Church

The Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria (based in Egypt) is the spiritual leader of all the Oriental Orthodox Churches. This is because the Pope of Alexandria (the head of the Coptic Orthodox Church) is also given the title of Patriarch of all Africa on the Holy See of St. Mark the Apostle.

This spiritual leadership isn't like the relationship between the Eastern Orthodox Churches and the Patriarch of Constantinople. It does not give any special rights to the Church of Alexandria. But the position is an honor and a sign of respect.

### Other Churches

In addition to the Coptic Orthodox Church, these are five other Oriental Orthodox Churches:

- Syriac Orthodox Church
- Armenian Apostolic Church
- Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church
- Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church
- Malankara Syrian Orthodox Church

## History

The schism (division) between the Great Church Orthodox, Catholic, and Oriental Orthodox Churches happened in the 5th century after the Council of Chalcedon.

## Sources

- Betts, Robert B., _Christians in the Arab East_ , Lycabbetus Press (Athens, 1978)
- Charles, R. H. _The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu: Translated from Zotenberg's Ethiopic Text_, 1916. Reprinted 2007. Evolution Publishing, . http://www.evolpub.com/CRE/CREseries.html#CRE4

## Other websites

- Website on the unity between Oriental and Eastern Orthodox Churches
Dogma

A **dogma** is something that should not be disputed or doubted. Most often, this means the basic beliefs and doctrines of a religion.  What a majority of followers of an ideology or any kind of organization believe in can also be a dogma.

In the context of religion, the term has a neutral meaning. Outside of religion for most people the term means something negative, because it accepts only a particular point of view. If someone disputes a religious dogma, they can be accused of heresy.

In Christianity, the Resurrection of Jesus is a basic dogma.

## Other websites

- Dogma - Catholic Encyclopedia
- Dogma  - Strong's N.T. Greek Lexicon
Dogma (disambiguation)

**Dogma** is belief accepted by a religion or ideology as the only correct one.

**Dogma** could also mean:

- _Dogma_ (movie), a movie written and directed by Kevin Smith
- Dogma 95, a manifesto about filmmaking aesthetics
- Dogma (band), a thrash metal band
- Dogma (Game), a freeware fighting game
- Dogma (movie company), a Bukkake movie company
- "Dogma", a social-commentary track by rock band KMFDM
- Dogma (bar), a British pub chain
Mass (disambiguation)

The term **Mass** is used for different concepts, in different fields of study:

## Physics

- Mass, a physical quantity describing the amount of matter in something (everything it is made of)
- Thermal mass, a mass which absorbs heat

## Religion

- Mass (liturgy), the main worship service of many Christian churches
- Mass (music), a piece of music for choir, which is sung during the religious service. The text of this is usually from a religious setting

## Music and theatre

- Mass (movie), a Tollywood movie starring Akkineni Nagarjuna
- Mass (theatre), a 1971 musical play by Leonard Bernstein based on Roman Catholic liturgy
- Mass (band), a post-punk band who recorded for the 4AD label
- The Mass (band), an American jazzcore band

## Placenames and geography

- Mass., an abbreviation for the U.S. state of Massachusetts
- Landmass (also _land mass_)

## Medicine and health

- Body mass index, a health indicator to do with to human body weight and height
- Muscle mass, a bodybuilding term to do with the configuration of muscles in a person's body
- MASS, the common acronym for sports nutrition company Muscle And Sports Science
- Mass (medicine), a tumor

## People

- Isaac Mass, a Franklin County, Massachusetts politician
- **Mass**, another name for electronic musician Peter Harris, more commonly known as **Blu Peter**

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In the plural form, **the masses**, can mean:
- The working class or the people ("the masses"). See also multitudes. Masses are disorganized, as opposed to classes (see class consciousness).
- Hoi polloi (or "the masses"), a term that usually refers to ordinary, simple people (not important people like rulers and aristocracy)
- _The Masses_, a Socialist magazine

An adjective describing a large amount of something, as in:
- mass production
- mass transit
- mass communication
- mass education
- mass marketing
- mass media
- mass murder
- mass suicide
- weapons of mass destruction
- mass burial
- mass hysteria
- mass storage
Mass (music)

In music the word **mass** is used for a piece of music, to be sung by a choir. The Roman Catholic, Anglican and Lutheran churches use this. There are two very broad kinds of masses: Those using the **Ordinary** are not linked to the Church calendar, they use the same pieces (and words) throughout the year. The Proper covers the parts of the mass that vary through the year. At the start, masses were sung in Latin or Greek. Examples of masses not in English include the Deutsche Messe by Franz Schubert or A German Requiem by Johannes Brahms.

The usual words that are set to music are known as the **Ordinary**. These are the words of the service which are the same every day. The Ordinary consists of five parts: Kyrie (Lord have mercy upon us….), Gloria (Glory be to thee….), Credo (I believe in God the Father….), Sanctus (Holy, Holy, Holy….) and Agnus Dei (O Lamb of God…).

The words of the mass that are not from the Ordinary are called the **Proper**. These are words that may change in the service from day to day. The Proper consists of the Introit, Gradual, Alleluia, Tract, Offertory and Communion. There are also some words which are special for particular feast days.

In the Renaissance period church composers set the words of the Ordinary mass to music. This music was normally polyphonic: the different sections of the choir (soprano, alto, tenor and bass) all had musical lines which shared the melody and were of equal importance. The words of the Proper were not composed to special music. They were sung to plainchant.

During the last two centuries many composers have written masses which were not meant to be sung in a church service: they are written as concert pieces. Some of them are quite long and fill a whole concert program. Some of the most famous masses are those by Bach, Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert, Berlioz, Dvořák, Verdi, Bruckner, Fauré and Vaughan Williams.

## Related pages

- Requiem
Ecumenical council

An **Ecumenical Council** (also sometimes **Oecumenical Council**), or **general council**, is a meeting of the bishops of the Christian Church of the whole world who have come together to discuss matters of Church doctrine and practice.

The word is from the Greek word  _Oikouménē_, which means "inhabited" and was originally another name for the territory of the Roman Empire since all of the earliest councils were called by Roman Emperors. In later times, it was used in the sense of "worldwide" or "general."

### The first seven Ecumenical Councils

The period of Christianity from the First Council of Nicaea (325) to the Second Council of Nicaea (787) is called the period of the Seven Ecumenical Councils.

- 1. First Council of Nicaea, (325) adopted the Nicene Creed.
- 2. First Council of Constantinople, (381); changed the text of the Nicene Creed into present form.
- 3. Council of Ephesus, (431); proclaimed the Virgin Mary as the Theotokos (Greek Η Θεοτόκος, "God-bearer" or more commonly "Mother of God").
- 4. Council of Chalcedon, (451); declared the doctrine of monophysitism to be wrong and adopted the Chalcedonian Creed. This and all following councils are not recognized by the Oriental Orthodox Communion.
- 5. Second Council of Constantinople, (553)
- 6. Third Council of Constantinople, (680–681); affirmed that Christ had both human and divine wills.
    - Quinisext Council (= Fifth and Sixth) or Council in Trullo, (692); this council is accepted by the Eastern Orthodox Church as a part of the Third Council of Constantinople, but is rejected by Catholics.
- 7. Second Council of Nicaea, (787); restoration of the veneration of icons and end of the first iconoclasm. It is rejected by many Protestant denominations, who instead prefer the Council of Constantinople of 754, which condemned the veneration of icons.

## Further reading

- Tanner, Norman P.  _The Councils of the Church_, .
- Tanner, Norman P.  _Decrees of the Ecumenical Councils_, .

## Other websites

- The Seven Ecumenical Councils, Select Online Resources
- All Catholic Church Ecumenical Councils - All the Decrees
- The Eighth and Ninth Ecumenical Councils
- Council in the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica
- Catholic Encyclopedia: The 21 Ecumenical Councils
- Catholic Encyclopedia: General Councils
- Ecumenical Councils
- All Catholic Church Council Decrees including Trent and Vatican II
Criss Angel

**Criss Angel** (born **Christopher Nicholas Sarantakos**, December 19, 1967) is an American illusionist, stuntperformer, and musician. He has done many illusions. Examples of these include walking on water, making an Asian elephant vanish and then reappear several episodes later, and floating between two buildings. Angel has had a television program on the American network A&E called _Criss Angel Mindfreak_. The program has stunts and street magic, as well as public service announcements about scams that are popular around the United States.

Angel was the guest host of the March 8, 2010 version of WWE Monday Night Raw.

## Other websites

- Official Criss Angel website
- Official Criss Angel Mindfreak website at A&E
- Official Criss Angel MySpace profile
- Videos of Criss Angel

## Infobox (actor)

- **image**: File:Headshot of Criss Angel.png
- **caption**: Angel in 2014
- **birthname**: Criss Angel
- **birth place**: Long Island, New York (state), New York, United States, U.S.
- **occupation**: magic (illusion), Illusionist, stunstman, musician
- **spouse**: JoAnna Sarantakos (2002–2007)
Psyche (mythology)

**Psyche** (pronounced: SY-kee) is a former mortal woman and goddess of the soul in Greek mythology. She is the wife of Eros (Cupid) and the mother of Hedone.  Today, Psyche is known from a story called _The Golden Ass_, written by Lucius Apuleius in the 2nd century.

### Early life

Psyche was the youngest daughter of a Greek king and queen. She had two older sisters. She was very beautiful. Many people said she was more beautiful than Aphrodite. People started worshipping Psyche instead of Aphrodite. This made the goddess angry. As a punishment, she sent her son, Eros, to make Psyche fall in love with an ugly person. However, Eros fell in love with Psyche. He decided to save her from his mother's anger.

Psyche's sisters were jealous of her beauty. They eventually married kings and left to be with their husbands. Nobody asked to marry Psyche. She was left alone. Her father decided to ask the Oracle of Delphi for help.

### Marriage to Eros

Apollo, spoke to Psyche's father through the Oracle. He told her father that Psyche would marry a monster that even the gods were afraid of. Apollo said to dress Psyche in funeral clothes, take her to the tallest rock in the kingdom, and leave her there. The king sadly obeyed Apollo.

Psyche waited for the monster. When it did not come, she jumped from the rock. Zephyrus, the Greek lord of west wind, held her up to save her from death. He took her to Eros's palace. When Eros returned, he talked to Psyche in the dark. He said that she must not try to see him. He said that it would ruin everything if he told her his name. The first few weeks of Psyche's life in the palace were good. But soon her sisters convinced her to see what her husband looked like.

Psyche sneaked into her husband's room with an oil lamp. Psyche shone the light on her husband's face. A small drop of hot oil fell onto his shoulder. That burned him and woke him up. Eros felt betrayed by his wife's actions. He left Psyche.

Psyche was very unhappy after learning what she had done. Aphrodite found her and made her do four things.
- The first thing was to sort a huge pile of seeds. An ant colony helped Psyche do this.
- The second thing was to gather wool from a dangerous sheep. A river god helped her by teaching her to collect pieces of wool from bushes.
- The third thing was to collect water from the underworld. The eagle of Zeus collected the water for her.
- The last thing was the most difficult. She had to bring back some of Persephone's beauty for Aphrodite. Persephone gave Psyche some of her beauty. When she was on her way back to Olympus, Psyche opened the box of Persephone's beauty. The only thing inside was death. Psyche died. Her husband, Eros, forgave her. He took her to Olympus.

Psyche was made the goddess of the soul. Psyche and Eros had a daughter, Hedone. Their daughter was the goddess of physical joy.

## Related pages

- 16 Psyche
Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet

**Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet** (December 10, 1787 - September 10, 1851) was an American teacher and the founder of the American School for the Deaf. He founded the school in 1817.

## History

Gallaudet was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He went to Yale University. He got his bachelor's degree in 1805 and master's degree in 1808. He wanted to do many things for example,  study law or study religion. In 1814, Gallaudet became a preacher.

Gallaudet chose not to become a preacher when he met Alice Cogswell, the nine-year-old deaf daughter of a neighbor, Dr. Mason Cogswell. He taught her many words by writing them in the dirt. Cogswell asked Gallaudet to go to Europe to learn ways for teaching deaf people.

While in Great Britain, he met Abbé Sicard, head of a school for deaf people in Paris, and two of its deaf teachers, Laurent Clerc and Jean Massieu. Sicard asked Gallaudet to go to Paris to study the school's ways of teaching the deaf. Gallaudet studied with Sicard. He learned sign language from Massieu and Clerc, who were both graduates of the school.

Gallaudet asked Clerc to go back to America with him. The two men toured New England and got money to create a school for deaf students in Hartford, Connecticut which later became known as the American School for the Deaf. Young Alice was one of the first seven students in the United States.
Annelid

Annelids are a phylum of invertebrate worms. They are the segmented worms, with over 17,000 known species.

Well known species are earthworms and leeches. Annelids can be found in most wet environments. Some of these species are parasitic or mutualistic. This means they live together with (or inside) another organism. A mutualistic relationship is beneficial to both organisms. Their size varies from under a millimetre to about 3 metres. The largest known species is the seep tube worm (_Lamellibrachia lymnesi_), which is related to the giant tube worm.

Annelids are made of one or more body segments. Each segment has one or more rings. These rings are called _annuli_ (singular: 'annulus' = 'little ring'). Annelids reproduce sexually by hermaphroditic cross-fertilization. They can regenerate cut off pieces of their body, unlike sponges, which can come back together if ripped apart. They have a hydrostatic skeleton, a one-way digestion system, and bilateral symmetry.

## Nervous system

Annelid worms have a nervous system. The brain forms a ring round the pharynx (throat), consisting of a pair of ganglia (local control centers) above and in front of the pharynx, linked by nerve cords either side of the pharynx to another pair of ganglia just below and behind it. In some very mobile and active polychaetes the brain is enlarged and more complex, with visible hindbrain, midbrain and forebrain sections.

The rest of the central nervous system is usually 'ladder-like', with a pair of nerve cords that run along the bottom part of the body cavity. In each segment there are paired ganglia linked by a cross-connection. From each segmental ganglion a branching system of local nerves runs into the body wall and then encircles the body.

## Main groups

- Polychaetes: about 12,000 species, free-living
- Clitellates: about 5,000 species
    - Oligochaetes
    - Hirudinea
- Echiura
Lugworm

The **lugworm** (_Arenicola marina_), also known as the **sandworm**, is a large marine worm of the phylum Annelida. Lugworms make the coiled tubes of sand that are a familiar sight on a beach at low tide. The lugworm itself is not seen except by people who dig them up from curiosity or to use as fishing bait.

The lugworm lives in a U-shaped tube in the sand, and filters out its food from the water.

Arenicola marina can grow to about 5 inches long (13 cm). Its body is segmented, like that of an earthworm. It has bristles in the middle of its body. It is a polychaete. It also has well-developed blood-vessels, and gills to breathe in the water.

Although the textbook example is usually _Arenicola marina_, there is a second species, _Arenicola defodiens_, which lives a similar life. It grows to about 9 inches long (23 cm)
Alitta succinea

***Alitta succinea***, also known as the **pile worm** or **clam worm**, is a common polychaete worm.

It is a species of ragworm or sandworm. The terms can refer to any one of a number of other species.

This worm can reach up to 15 centimeters (6 inches) in length.  Most specimens are smaller than this. It is brown coloured at the rear, and reddish-brown on the rest of its body. It has a head with four eyes, two sensory feelers or palps, and eight tentacles. It is a freeswimming polychaete, scavenging on the bottom of shallow marine waters.

Clam worms are an important food source for bottom-feeding fish and crustaceans. They can protect themselves by secreting a mucous substance which hardens to form a sheath around them.

Planktonic larvae develop, grow into adults and eventually sink to the bottom of the water.
Protozoa

**Protozoa** are microorganisms.  They are single-celled heterotrophic eukaryotes, which eat bacteria and other food sources.

It is an old term, and the wider term protist is generally preferred today.  However, 'protozoa' is often used for convenience, especially in junior education.  It is a convenient hold-all term, and most systems of taxonomy  classify 'protozoa' into several different phyla.

The term is problematic because modern biochemical and genetic techniques show that it includes several quite different kinds of cells. They are found only in moist or aquatic habitats. Many protozoan species are symbionts, some are parasites, and some are predators of soil bacteria and algae. About 30,000 protozoan species are known.  The study of protists is called "protistology".

## Related pages

- Protist
- Eukaryote
- Amoeba
- Paramecium
Sandworm

The name **Sandworm**' can refer to different species:
- A ragworm, of the genus Nereis
- A lugworm

It can also stand for huge worms in the book Dune by Frank Herbert, see Sandworm (Dune)
Hematophagy

**Hematophagy** is the habit of certain animals to feed on blood. Blood is rich in proteins. Examples of animals that feed on blood are mosquitoes, vampire bats and leeches.