juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Constantinople

**Constantinople** (; ) was the capital city of the Roman Empire from 330 AD and later what historians called the Byzantine Empire. Constantinople was located in the Bosporus, the strait between the Balkans and Asia Minor.

## History

For centuries the city was not very large, and was called Byzantium. In the 4th century, Roman emperor Constantine the Great made Byzantium the capital of the Roman Empire and renamed it to **Constantinople**.

In the 13th century, Constantinople was looted and captured by crusaders during the Fourth Crusade. The crusaders created the Latin Empire (12041261), with Constantinople as the capital city. In 1261, the Empire of Nicaea successfully restored the Byzantine Empire, under the rule of the Palaiologos dynasty.

In 1453 the Ottoman sultan Mehmed the Conqueror captured Constantinople. The city was renamed Istanbul and became the capital of the Ottoman Empire (14531922).

Over time, the city's short name in  became the name Istanbul. This name became the city's official name in 1930, during the government of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.

## Related pages

- Istanbul

## Other websites

- Monuments of Byzantium  - Pantokrator Monastery of Constantinople
- Mosaics of Hagia Sophia - The Deesis Mosaic from Hagia Sophia
- Constantinoupolis on the web Select internet resources on the history and culture of Constantinople
- Info on the name change  from the Foundation for the Advancement of Sephardic Studies and Culture
- Welcome to Constantinople , documenting the monuments of Byzantine Constantinople, compiled by Robert Ousterhout, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
- Constantinople, from _History of the Later Roman Empire_, by J.B. Bury
Mohammad Khatami

**Seyyed Mohammad Khatami** (**سید محمد خاتمی**), (born October 14, 1943) is an Iranian politician who was President of Iran from August 2, 1997 to August 3, 2005 and was followed by Mahmoud Ahmadinejad. Khatami studied Islamic theology in Qom, and philosophy in Isfahan. Khatami built upon the idea of a lawful state, called Rechtsstaat, of democracy and of social equality. He was the first Iranian president to officially do so. These tenets led to conflicts with the government of Iran. Khatami is seen as a reformist. He is currently a prominent supporter of the Iranian Green Movement, and a critic of the government.

## Other websites

- Biography in I.R.I.B. Archive
- Biography in Encyclopedia Britannica
- Web site of the International Center for Dialogue Among Civilizations

## Infobox (officeholder)

- **honorific-prefix**: Sayyid
Amir (Iranian Army), Amir
Hujjat al-Islam
- **name**: Muhammad Khatami
- **image**: File:Mohammad Khatami - December 11, 2007.jpg
- **caption**: Khatami in 2007
- **birth name**: Mohammad Khatami
- **birth place**: Ardakan, Yazd Province, Pahlavi Iran, Imperial State of Iran
- **office**: 5th President of Iran
- **term start**: 3 August 1997
- **term end**: 3 August 2005
- **1blankname**: Supreme Leader
- **1namedata**: Ali Khamenei
- **2blankname**: Vice President
- **2namedata**: Hassan Habibi
Mohammad Reza Aref
- **predecessor**: Akbar Rafsanjani
- **successor**: Mahmoud Ahmadinejad
- **office2**: Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance, Minister of Culture and Islamic Guidance
- **term start2**: 9 November 1982
- **term end2**: 24 May 1992
- **predecessor2**: Mir-Hossein Mousavi (acting)
- **successor2**: Ali Larijani
- **president2**: Ali Khamenei
Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani
- **primeminister2**: Mir-Hossein Mousavi
- **office3**: Parliament of Iran, Member of the Parliament of Iran
- **term start3**: 28 May 1980
- **term end3**: 24 August 1982
- **constituency3**: Yazd, Ardakan County, Ardakan district
- **predecessor3**: Manouchehr Yazdi
- **successor3**: Mohammad Hosseininejad
- **majority3**: 40,112 (82.1%)
- **alma mater**: University of Isfahan
University of Tehran
- **party**: Association of Combatant Clerics
- **nationality**: Iranian peoples, Iranian
- **parents**: Ruhollah Khatami (father)
Sakineh Ziaee (mother)
- **relatives**: Mohammad-Reza Khatami (brother)
Ali Khatami (brother)
Mohammad Reza Tabesh (nephew)
- **signature**: Mohammad Khatami signature.svg
- **signature alt**: Mohammad Khatami
- **children**: 3
- **website**: [http://www.Khatami.ir/  Official website]
- **serviceyears**: 1969–1971
- **allegiance**: Iran
- **branch**: Islamic Republic of Iran Army, Iranian Imperial Army
- **rank**: Second lieutenant; Financial specialist
- **unit**: Tehran region 3 sustainment
- **native name lang**: fa
1499

## Events

- January 8 – Louis XII of France marries Anne of Brittany
- August 24 – Lake Maracaibo is explored by Alonso de Ojeda and Amerigo Vespucci.
- September 18 – Vasco da Gama arrives at Lisbon, returning from India
- Montenegro is added to the Ottoman Empire

- October 14 – Claude of France
Bison

**Bisons** are large, even-toed ungulates.  They are bovines, and are similar to cows. They are often called buffalo, but are not closely related to the African buffalo or water buffalo.

Bison live in the northern part of the world. The American bison lives in North America where they once wandered around the prairies in huge herds. The wisent lives in Europe. Bison can also live in rugged areas.

## American

The American bison is the biggest mammal in North America.   There used to be as many as 30 million bison in the United States, but because of hunting, by 1890, only 1000 bison were left. Through conservation efforts, there are now more American bison than there used to be, but still far fewer than there were before the 1800s.

## European

European bison (wisent) tend to live in lightly wooded to fully wooded areas and areas with increased shrubs and bushes, though they can also live on grasslands and plains.

## Taxonomy

They are classified in the subfamily Bovinae of the family Bovidae.
- Genus _Bison_
    - American bison (_Bison bison_)
    - Wisent or European bison (_Bison bonasus_)

## Life

They live to be about 20 years old and are born without their "hump" or horns, which both males and females have. After shedding their lightly colored hair, and with their horns, they are grown at 2 to 3 years of age, but males keep growing slowly until seven years. Adult bulls are very dominant in mating season. Adult bison usually have one or two baby bison.
Baseball cap

A **baseball cap** is a type of hat worn by baseball players when they play as part of their team's uniform, but other people wear them as well.
Windows 95

**Windows 95** is an operating system created by Microsoft. It was released in August 1995, and was the first operating system in the Windows 9x family. Windows 95 added newer features to the last Microsoft Windows operating systems, which were part of the Windows 3.x family. Windows 95 was the first Windows operating system with the "Start" menu. Since then, the Start menu has been used in all Windows operating systems until now, and the general look has not changed except for Windows 8's "tablet-design" start menu. It was also the first Windows operating system that included ways to connect to the [Internet]. Although Windows 95 is thought of as an operating system by itself, it works over MS-DOS. Windows 95 is like a visual version of MS-DOS. This means that Windows 95 can run both MS-DOS programs and Windows ones, but programs made just for Windows 95 will not work in MS-DOS.

Windows 95 was Microsoft's first operating system to support long file names. Before that, file names could only be eight characters (letters, numbers, or symbols) long, plus the file extension. Windows 95 was also Microsoft's first operating system to fully support CD-ROMs, though Windows 3.x could also access CD-ROMs.

It was popular from 1995 until 1998, when Microsoft introduced Windows 98. Microsoft ended mainstream support for Windows 95 on December 31, 2000 and extended support ended 95 on December 31, 2001.

## Editions

- _Windows 95 Retail_
- _Windows 95 OSR 1 and SP1_
- _Windows 95 OSR 2.0_
- _Windows 95 OSR 2.1_
- _Windows 95 OSR 2.5_

## Infobox (os version)

- **name**: Windows 95
- **logo**: Windows Logo (1992-2001).svg
- **screenshot**: File:Installing Windows 95 on my vintage computer (52097256672).jpg
- **family**: Microsoft Windows
- **caption**: A computer running Windows 95's installer
- **developer**: Microsoft
- **succeeded by**: Windows 98 (1998)
- **website**: [http://support.microsoft.com/ support.microsoft.com]
- **first release url**: http://windowsitpro.com/windows-server/microsoft-release-windows-95-osr-25
- **source model**: Closed source
- **license**: MS-EULA
- **preceded by**: Windows 3.1x (1992)
- **kernel type**: Hybrid kernel
- **support status**: Mainstream support ended on December 31, 2000. Unsupported since December 31, 2001
Socialist country

A **socialist country** is a sovereign state in which everyone in society equally owns the factors of production.

In a socialist state, the distribution of resources and their allocation is by the State itself. Here, the state gives people items and goods. The state also makes sure that each class gets access to goods too. The four factors of production are labor, capital goods, natural resources and entrepreneurship. In a socialist country, people account for own needs and other needs. The resources of the country go to both types of needs. Social needs include things like education, healthcare, defense, transportation and the preservation of natural resources, as well as caring for people who can't contribute to production (such as children, the elderly and the disabled). Theoretically, everyone in a socialist society receives a share of the production based on their individual needs. A socialist country is vastly different from countries that practice capitalism. The main goal of a socialist society is to end exploitation and improve the quality of life of their citizens.

In a socialist society the logic of the profit doesn’t exist, so (in theory) they hope things will be cheaper and equal. However, in practice, socialism has repeatedly led to a centralized power grab, higher prices, increased poverty, lowered production, and squalor. The reason for this discrepancy between idealism and practice, is due to the psychology of human behavior. People naturally work harder when they directly benefit; socialism takes away this incentive. Government spends money less efficiently than individuals do, and also more corruptly, with special interest payouts and waste; individuals do not. The best way of ensuring a higher standard of living is through limited government and free enterprise.

Socialism has been established in many countries, even today. However, countries have commonly struggled under socialism, shown through conflicts such as in Venezuela. No country has claimed to have fully reached peak socialism, and is therefore impossible to determine whether it is a corrupt way of government.
Hamster

**Hamsters** are small rodents belonging to the subfamily **Cricetinae**. This group has about 25 species in six or seven genera. They have become established as popular small house pets. They are a bit like a mouse. Wild hamsters live in the desert, but people all over the world keep domesticated hamsters as pets.

In the wild, hamsters are crepuscular and stay underground during the day. They feed on seeds, fruits, and vegetation, and occasionally eat burrowing insects. Hamsters are distinguished by their large cheek pouches, and relatively short tail. They use their long cheek pouches, extending to their shoulders, to carry food back to their burrows.

Even though the Syrian hamster or golden hamster (_Mesocricetus auratus_) was first described scientifically by George Robert Waterhouse in 1839, researchers were not able to successfully breed and domesticate hamsters until 1939.

## Hamsters as pets

There are six main types of domestic hamsters: the Syrian hamster (the kind most people have as pets), winter whites, campbells, the Russian dwarf hamster (a hybrid of winter white and Campbell's dwarf hamsters), the Chinese hamster, and the Roborovski hamster. Unlike other species, the Chinese hamster has a long tail. All pet Syrian hamsters are the descendants of 12 baby hamsters found in Syria in 1930.

Pet hamsters need cages with safe bedding, like wood shavings or recycled newspaper. Pine or cedar shavings are harmful to hamsters. Plain toilet paper is also a cheap, safe option, but straw should only be given in small amounts. Hamsters eat mostly hamster food sold at a pet shop, but they can also eat many vegetables and fruits in small portions. Hamsters store food in natural pouches in the sides of their mouths.

Because they are rodents, hamster incisors grow constantly. They need wooden blocks and hard food to wear the teeth down and prevent them from getting too long. Most hamsters also have a wheel to run on for exercise. A 6-inch (15 cm) wheel is recommended for most dwarf hamsters, and at least an eight-inch (20 cm) wheel for Syrians. If the wheel is too small, the hamster's spine can become bent. Some people get other kinds of exercise equipment for their hamsters, like a "hamster ball" in which the hamster can roll around the floor (though these are not recommended by some animal welfare groups), or a long network of tubes with air holes for hamsters to crawl through. They should live in a tank or cage. Hamsters are not recommended for young children.
Watch

A **watch** is a small clock carried or worn by a person. It makes it easy to see the time. It is also considered to be a fashion accessory, and expensive watches are designed for this purpose. A watch may be one of the few accessories worn by a person.

A **wristwatch** is designed to be worn on a wrist, attached by a strap or other type of bracelet. A pocket watch is to be carried in a pocket. There are other variations. Nurses often wear a watch attached to the front of their uniform. It hangs down from a short strap: when lifted by the user, it is right side up.

A wristwatch has the advantage of being portable in comparison to traditional watches.

Watches evolved in the 17th century from spring-powered clocks, which appeared as early as the 14th century. In 1524, Peter Henlein created the first pocket watch.
The first watches were strictly mechanical, driven by clockwork.

As technology developed, mechanical watches were largely replaced by vibrating quartz crystals, producing accurately timed electronic pulses. Some watches use radio technology to correct the time and date. The first digital electronic watch was developed in 1970and the world's first radio-controlled wristwatch with hands was manufactured 1991 by the German watchmaker Junghans.

Electronic movements, also known as quartz movements, have few or no moving parts, except a quartz crystal which is made to vibrate by the piezoelectric effect. A varying electric voltage is applied to the crystal, which responds by changing its shape so it works as an oscillator. It resonates at a stable frequency, which paces a timekeeping mechanism. Most quartz movements are primarily electronic but are geared to drive mechanical hands on the face of the watch to give a traditional analog display of the time.

Some watches are smartwatches, mobile devices similar to smartphones but smaller.
Ed Gein

**Edward Theodore Gein** (August 27, 1906 – July 26, 1984) was an American murderer, possible serial killer, and body snatcher from Plainfield, Wisconsin. He was known as the **Butcher of Plainfield** and the **Plainfield Ghoul**. In 1957, police discovered that Gein had been stealing bodies from local cemeteries and keeping parts of them in his home. He also admitted to killing two women: Mary Hogan in 1954 and Bernice Worden in 1957.

## Infobox (criminal)

- **name**: Ed Gein
- **image**: Ed-Gein.jpeg
- **caption**: Gein in
- **birth name**: Edward Theodore Gein
- **birth place**: La Crosse County, Wisconsin, La Crosse County, Wisconsin, United States, U.S.
- **death place**: Madison, Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, U.S.
- **criminal status**: Death, Dead
- **resting place**: Plainfield Cemetery, Wisconsin, U.S.
- **beginyear**: 1947
- **endyear**: 1957
- **country**: United States
- **states**: Wisconsin
- **apprehended**: November 16, 1957
- **conviction**: Murder (United States law), First degree murder (later found legally insane)
- **penalty**: Sent to the Mendota Mental Health Institute
- **occupation**: Handyman, farmer
Agnosticism

**Agnosticism** is the philosophical view that it is unknown (or even, unknowable) whether any deities (god or gods) exist or not.

Some people who call themselves "agnostic" say that it is not possible for anyone ever to know if there are any deities or not. Other agnostics, though, say only that they themselves currently do not know if there are any deities.

Thomas Henry Huxley, the English biologist, coined the word "agnostic" in 1869. In 1889 he wrote "Agnosticism... is not a creed, but a method... the fundamental axiom of modern science...  In matters of the intellect, do not pretend that conclusions are certain which are not demonstrated or demonstrable".

There are several different kinds of agnosticism:
- _Absolute agnosticism_ (also called _hard agnosticism_, _closed agnosticism_, _strict agnosticism_, _strong agnosticism_) is the belief that it is not possible to know whether a god/gods exists or not.
- _Empirical agnosticism_ (also called _soft agnosticism_, _open agnosticism_, _weak agnosticism_, _temporal agnosticism_) is the belief that at present there is not enough information to know whether any god/gods exists or not, but that we might find out someday.
- _Apathetic agnosticism_ is the belief that it does not matter whether any god/gods exists or not.

People often have difficulty telling agnosticism and atheism apart. Atheists do not believe in the existence of deities, and some say that they are sure that no deity exists. Some (perhaps most) atheists, though, say that it is up to theists (people who believe in a deity) to give the evidence for a god or to show why someone should believe in a god. They say that there is not enough evidence or a strong enough argument to believe any gods exist. So they reject belief that any exist. While agnostics think we cannot _know for sure_ whether any deities exist, some agnostics do _believe_ at least one deity exists  These people are both agnostic and theistic—they believe at least one deity exists, but do not claim to _know_ that to be true. Some people are both atheist and agnostic—they reject belief in any deities without claiming to know that deities do not exist. Some agnostics cannot decide whether to believe any deities exist or not.

## Beliefs related to agnosticism

- _Ignosticism_ is the belief that the idea of god/gods does not have a good enough definition, so saying "god exists" or "god does not exist" does not mean anything.
- _Agnostic theism_ believes in the existence of one or more gods. They accept this is unknown or inherently unknowable.
- _Agnostic atheism_ is the view that a god/gods may or may not exist, but there is no good reason to believe they do.
- _Post-theism_ is the view that religion used to be important, but is not anymore.

All these beliefs point to the lack of evidence of actual presence of God.

## Related pages

- Atheism
- Religion
- Humanism
- Irreligion
- Skepticism
Universal Media Disc

_UMD can also mean University of Maryland._

The **Universal Media Disc** (**UMD**) is an optical disc made by Sony for their PlayStation Portable handheld console. It can hold up to 900 megabytes (single layer) or 1.8 gigabytes (double layer) of data. The disc can store games, music, and video, along with updates for the PSP. It is the first optical disc format to be used for a handheld video game system. To prevent illegal copying, Sony has not made blank discs available for sale. This disc is not used with any other devices. The UMD is very fragile and can be broken from misuse.

## Uses

The primary use for UMD discs is for a storage medium for PSP games, but the format is also used for the storage of movies.

## Future

Even though with the release of the PSP Go, most new games continue to be made via UMD, and, aside from those published by SCE, not all have been released on the PSN.
First-person shooter

A **first-person shooter** (**FPS**) is a type of video game. In a first-person shooter, a player sees through the eyes of a character. The character uses a gun to shoot objects or enemies. The character travels and shoots in a three-dimensional world.

## History

The first first-person shooters were made in the 1970s and 1980s.  In the 1970s, schools like the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and the University of Illinois made _Maze War_ and _Spacism._ These games were not sold.  In 1980, arcades got a tank game called _Battlezone._ In 1983, home computers got _Battlezone._ It was the first successful first-person shooter sold to many people.

In the 1990s, first-person shooters were very popular. Many people played the first-person shooters _Wolfenstein 3D_ and _Doom_ because they were shareware. In 1998, _Half-Life_ was made. _Half-Life_ was different because it had a strong narrative.
Read-only memory

**Read-only memory** (or simply **ROM**) is a type of computer memory. Unlike RAM, it keeps its contents even when the computer or device is turned off. Usually, ROM cannot be written to when the computer runs normally. ROM is used for the BIOS which tells the computer how to start, or important programs like the firmware of certain devices, which usually does not need to be modified. Usually, ROM comes on computer chips.

There are different kinds of ROMs:
- Masked ROM: This kind is written once, at the factory. It cannot be changed at all later on. Its main benefit is that it is very cheap to make.
- PROM: Can be programmed once. Comes _unprogrammed_ from the factory. Programming consists in removing connections. Invented in 1956, it has been replaced by EPROMs.
- EPROM: This kind can be erased with UV light. Invented in 1972, it became rare early in the 21st century.
- EEPROM: This kind can be erased using an electrical signal. Today, flash memory is often used.''
Moss

**Mosses** are bryophytes, a group of plants without tissue to move water. Mosses evolved from liverworts.<sup>p75</sup>

Moss tissue does not have cells that move water. This means that they are non-vascular plants. Water must soak into mosses like a sponge. A patch of moss is made of many tiny moss plants packed together so that they can hold water for as long as possible. They do not have roots. Because mosses cannot find water, they live in two ways. They can live in places that are always wet like near a spring, a river, or in a place where there is a lot of fog or has a lot of rainfall. They can also pause their natural processes when they dry up. Mosses can survive months in this paused state. However, they eventually need water to live. This means they can never live in dry places like deserts.

Mosses cannot grow very large because they could not move water to the top of their growth. The largest moss grows in New Zealand. It is about 30 cm tall.

A moss does not make seeds. A moss does not have fruit. The green fuzzy part of a moss that is always there has only one set of DNA. Moss waits until there is lots of food and enough water. Then it produces spores that leave the parent plant and float away. The spores are like dust. They will make more moss. Each spore is male or female. It grows into the green fuzzy part of the moss called the gametophyte. Male gametophyte make sperm. Female gametophyte make eggs. Water moves the sperm from the male moss to the female moss. Then the sperm and the egg join to make a cell with two sets of moss DNA. This cell grows into a different shape called a sporophyte. The sporophyte gets all of its food from the green fuzzy female gametophyte. When the sporophyte grows up, it makes a tiny box with spores inside instead of seeds. The lid on the box falls and the spores float away to repeat the cycle again. This process is called alternation of generations.

Scientists divide the mosses into eight groups. Five of these groups are small, with just a few species; most mosses are in the group called Bryopsida.
Grunge music

**Grunge music** or **Seattle sound** (as it is called sometimes) is a style of rock music that has elements of punk rock and heavy metal. It started in the mid- 1980s in the Pacific Northwest of the United States, especially in the state of Washington. It became more popular in the early 1990s. Grunge songs often had lyrics with nihilism, depression, unhappiness, or apathy as themes. The widespread use of heroin as a recreational drug found its way into the lyrics and careers of numerous grunge rockers, notably Kurt Cobain and Layne Staley of "Alice in Chains".

The songs often had light (or clean) guitar sounds in the verses, and the high energy boost of distorted (or dirty) guitars in the choruses. The line-up for these bands was the typical rock band of guitars, bass, drums and vocal.

Although grunge as a movement became less popular by the end of the 1990s, its influence is still heard in many bands. Grunge musical sounds were copied by post-grunge bands such as Foo Fighters and Nickelback and nu metal bands such as Korn and Limp Bizkit.

## Sound

Grunge music uses music from punk rock and heavy metal. Grunge guitar players use distorted electric guitar. Like punk and heavy metal, grunge bands use electric guitar, bass guitar, a drummer and a singer.

## Grunge artists

Some well known grunge artists were:
- Alice in Chains
- Melvins
- Mother Love Bone
- Mudhoney
- Nirvana
- Pearl Jam
- Screaming Trees
- Smashing Pumpkins
- Soundgarden
- Stone Temple Pilots
- Tad
- Temple of the Dog

## Infobox (music genre)

- **name**: Grunge
- **bgcolor**: crimson
- **color**: white
- **stylistic origins**: * Punk rock
* heavy metal music, heavy metal
* hardcore punk
* hard rock
* alternative rock
* indie rock
* thrash metal
* noise rock
- **cultural origins**: Mid-1980s, Seattle, Washington (state), Washington
- **instruments**: *Electric guitar
* bass guitar
* Drum kit, drums
* vocals
- **derivatives**: *Post-grunge
* nu metal
- **regional scenes**: * Music of Australia, Australia
* Music of California, California
- **local scenes**: Music of Seattle, Seattle, Washington
- **other topics**: * Alternative metal
* biker metal
* Britpop
* crusties
* Palm Desert Scene, desert rock
* Generation X
* grunge lit
* grunge speak
* punk revival
* soft grunge
* stoner rock
* timeline of alternative rock
Carly Simon

**Carly Simon** (born June 25, 1945) is an American singer-songwriter and occasional children's book writer. She was born in New York City to businessman Richard L. Simon (1899-1960) and Andrea Heinemann Simon (1909-1994). She was raised in Riverdale, The Bronx. She has two sisters - singer Joanna Simon (born 1940) and composer Lucy Simon (born 1943). She also has a brother, photographer Peter Simon.

Simon's songs include: "You're So Vain", "Nobody Does It Better", "Coming Around Again" and "Let the River Run", and "Why".
Toto (band)

**Toto** (stylized as **TOTO**) is a rock group that formed in Los Angeles in 1977, that was popular in the early 1980's. Their best known song is "Africa" (1982). Their best known albums are "_TOTO_", "_TOTO IV_", and _"The Seventh One_".

The current band members are Joseph Williams, Steve Lukather and David Paich.

The former band members were David Hungate, Fergie Frederiksen, Mike Porcaro, Jeff Porcaro, Simon Phillips, Greg Phillinganes, Jean-Michel Byron, Bobby Kimball, Keith Carlock and Steve Porcaro.

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Toto
- **img**: TOTO live 2010 in Copenhagen in KB Hallen.JPG
- **img capt**: Toto in 2010
- **landscape**: yes
- **background**: group_or_band
- **origin**: Los Angeles, U.S.
- **genre**: Rock music, Rock, hard rock, soft rock
- **years active**: 1977–2008, 2010–present
- **label**: Columbia Records, Columbia, Frontiers Records, Frontiers, Toto Recordings, Toto
- **current members**: Steve Lukather
David Paich
Joseph Williams (musician), Joseph Williams
- **past members**: Jeff Porcaro
Bobby Kimball
Mike Porcaro
Dennis Frederiksen
Jean-Michel Byron
Greg Phillinganes
Simon Phillips
David Hungate
Keith Carlock
Steve Porcaro
Sanford Dole

**Sanford Dole** (April 23, 1844 – June 9, 1926) was an American politician. Dole was a part of a group of businessmen who first forced a new Hawaiian national constitution on the country during King David Kalakaua's reign and then after his death removed Queen Liliuokalani from the throne and took control of the country in 1893. They removed the queen by threatening to use the warships of the U.S. Navy had in Honolulu harbor.

Queen Liliuokalani did not want her people to be harmed so she agreed to do what the revolutionists wanted. The Queen went to Washington and talked to the American President, Grover Cleveland. Cleveland decided that this had been an act of war against the Hawaiian Kingdom. Cleveland ordered Sanford Dole, the President of the newly formed republic, to make Liliuokalani the queen again.

Dole refused to do this. He said that President Cleveland was interfering.  Dole remained the president of Hawaii from 1894 until 1900 after Cleveland was elected out of office.  The newly elected American president William McKinley signed the Newsland Resolution. The Newsland Resolution made Hawaii a territory of the United States.  This ended any legal or military chance of restoring the Queen and the Hawaiian Kingdom.

Dole served as governor of Hawaii from 1900 until 1903, he was the first when he accepted a position as United States District Court judge. He remained a judge until 1915.
Skinhead

**Skinheads**, named after their short haircuts, are members of a subculture that originated in Britain in late 1960s, where they were closely tied to the Rude Boys and the Mods. They shave their heads, because originally most of them were workers in factories and they had to be bald, so their hair could not get caught in the machines.

Traditional skinheads identify with the original skinhead movement ("The Spirit of '69") in music, style, and/or working class pride. Skinheads listen to ska, rocksteady, reggae, Oi! and punk music.

People who are not part of the group often see Skinheads as being close to Neo-Nazis. Often Skinheads are seen as part of that movement. This is wrong, given that there are many young people in the movement who have no political views at all. Many Skinheads are also not violent, unless they are provoked.

## Other websites

- Libcom.org: A Brief History of Skinhead Culture
- Reggae, Reggae, Reggae  The Skinhead Movement and Reggae Music
- Papaskin American skinhead web site with news, images, forum, etc.
- Aussie Skins Australian skinhead web site with news, images, forum, etc.
- Oi! the Truth  History of Oi! according to Garry Bushell
- SHARP Skinheads  UK skinhead site with news, images, forum, etc.
- Skins and Punks in Indonesia! 1400 Photos
OpenBSD

**OpenBSD** is a secure, free computer operating system. Many different types of computers can be used with OpenBSD, including Intel PCs and Apple Computer's PowerPCs.

Like the other open source BSDs, the whole operating system is developed by the same group of people with OpenBSD. Programmes from other sources are available separately.

OpenBSD is often the first to add new security tools to make it harder to break. Developers have also carefully read through the programming code to check for mistakes more than once. The project is led by Theo de Raadt from Calgary, Alberta, Canada.  There are few restrictions on people that use the source code, the BSD licence.

OpenBSD releases new versions every six months. Each version is supported for one year after release. OpenBSD's latest version has been released on 5th April 2024.

OpenBSD's first mascot was a BSD daemon with a halo, it was replaced with Puffy, a pufferfish, on June 15th, 2000, with the release of OpenBSD 2.7.

The operating system's developers add in many new technologies to make the system more secure and harder to break, technologies like W^X, Stack Protection, malloc reconfigurations and ssh to replace telnet and rlogin.

Because of its security features, OpenBSD is often used as a firewall and for other security-related jobs. It is also usable on a desktop computer.

## Related pages

- NetBSD
- FreeBSD
- DragonFly BSD
- POSSE project
- KAME project

## Other websites

- The OpenBSD homepage
- OpenBSD journal
- O'Reilly Network: _An Interview with OpenBSD's Marc Espie _
- One floppy OpenBSD MP3 Player and router/NAT/Firewall
- mdoc.su — short manual page URLs, a URL shortener written in nginx
- OpenBSD ports — full-text search to find applications ported to OpenBSD and available to install as packages
- BXR.SU — OpenBSD source code search (can be useful to see if your new computer parts are supported)

## Infobox (os)

- **name**: OpenBSD
- **logo size**: 200px
- **logo alt**: Puffy, the pufferfish mascot of OpenBSD posing in the official logo.
- **screenshot**: Openbsd61 desktop.png
- **caption**: OpenBSD 6.1 default desktop with various utilities: Top (software), top, xterm, xclock, xcalc, glxgears
- **developer**: Theo de Raadt and other people.
- **family**: Unix-like
- **working state**: Current
- **source model**: Open-source software, Open source
- **latest release version**: 7.5
- **programmed in**: C (programming language), C, assembly language, assembly, Perl, Unix shell
- **package manager**: OpenBSD package tools
- **supported platforms**: DEC Alpha, Alpha, x86-64, ARMv7, ARMv8, ARMv8 (64-bit), PA-RISC, IA-32, :ja:LANDISK, LANDISK, LUNA, Omron LUNA-88K, Loongson, MIPS architecture, MIPS64, PowerPC, 64-bit RISC-V, SPARC, SPARC64
- **kernel type**: Monolithic kernel, Monolithic
- **userland**: BSD
- **ui**: Modified KornShell, pdksh, X Window System, X11 (FVWM)
- **license**: BSD licenses, BSD, ISC license, ISC, other permissive software license, permissive licenses
1170

## Births

- April 23 – Isabelle of Hainaut
- August 8 – Saint Dominic, founder of the Dominicans (d. 1221)

## Deaths

- December 29 – Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury (assassinated) (b. c. 1118)
1883

## Events

- May 24 – Brooklyn Bridge opens to traffic.

## Births

- February 7 – Eubie Blake, American musician and composer
- April 5 - Walter Huston, Canadian actor (d. 1950)
- April 7 – Gino Severini Italian painter (d. 1966)
- April 15 – Stanley Bruce, 8th Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1967)
- July 29 – Benito Mussolini, Italian dictator

## Deaths

- March 14 – Karl Marx, German philosopher
- August 23 – Sarah Yorke Jackson, American First Lady

## New books

- Pinocchio by Carlo Collodi
1741

**1741** (MDCCXLI) was a common year starting on Sunday in the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Thursday in the Julian calendar.

## Events

- June 25 – Maria Theresa of Austria is crowned Queen Regnant of Hungary in Bratislava.
- Royal Order of Scotland is founded.

- January 7 – Benedict Arnold
Civil war

A **civil war** is a type of war that takes place between two or more groups in one country. While civil wars can take place for many reasons, there are two common reasons.

The first is because the different groups disagree about who should be in charge, or how the country should be run. If two political parties disagree about the result of an election and do not come to an agreement, this might lead to a war.

The second is because one group of people does not want to be part of the country anymore. This is known as a war of secession or separatism. A group living in a certain area might decide that they want independence to make their own country. Very few national leaders would be happy to give up land that is part of their country, and a war could result.

Sometimes the people who want to break away do not necessarily want to form a whole new country, but they might want more autonomy over their affairs. This happens sometimes when different ethnic groups belong to the same nation.

Civil wars can go on for many years and be just as destructive and damaging as international wars. Civil wars tend to become complicated very quickly. A civil war might start between two sides, but groups might break up and the new, different sides could start fighting each other. Groups who were not involved at the beginning can easily be sucked in, as they fight to defend themselves against both sides. Civil wars with many different sides all fighting each other have occurred. Sometimes foreign countries help one side, or different countries help different sides. This can become a proxy war.

## Examples

Civil wars include:
- English Civil War (1642–1651)
- American Civil War (1861–1865)
- Chinese Civil War (1927–1949)
- Vietnam War (1955–1975)
- Mexican Revolution (1911–1920)
- Russian Civil War (1917–1921)
- Finnish Civil War (1918)
- Spanish Civil War (1936–1939)
- Pakistan Civil War (1971)
- Sri Lankan Civil War (1983–2009)
- Syrian Civil War (2011–2024)
1175

## Events

- Ruaidri Ua Conchobair, last High King of Ireland, submits to Henry II as vassal of Ireland with the Treaty of Windsor
- Ly Cao Ton becomes ruler of Vietnam
- William of Tyre becomes archbishop of Tyre
- Massacre of Abergavenny ends with several noblemen dead under William de Braose
- Vordingborg Castle is finished.

## Births

- Andrew II of Hungary, King of Hungary (died 1235)
- Frederick I of Austria (died 1198)
- Robert Grosseteste, English statesman, theologian and bishop (approximate date; died 1253)
- Fibonacci, Italian mathematician (approximate date; died 1250)
- Otto IV, Holy Roman Emperor (died 1218)
- Roger III of Sicily (died 1194)
- Michael Scot, Scottish mathematician and astrologer (died 1232)

## Deaths

- Mleh of Armenia, ruler of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia
- Judyta, wife of Ladislaus II of Hungary and Otto I von Brandenburg (born 1132)
ZZT

***ZZT*** is a computer game made by Tim Sweeney. People can make other games with this game's engine.
Centre

**Centre is the UK and Commonwealth spelling of Center (US)**

Although within the US The word "centre" often means places or buildings where an activity takes place, while "center" is a mathematical or locational mid point (center of a room). Common examples are:
- a town centre or city centre
- a shopping centre is a place with lots of shops.
- a sports centre is where people go to use sports facilities, such as squash courts, and swimming pools.
- a centre (ice hockey), the position used in ice hockey
- a Center (American football), the position used in American football
- a balanced political position.

## Places

- Centre, the former name of Centre-Val de Loire, an administrative region of France
- Centre Department, the department of Haiti
BBC Radio 1

**BBC Radio 1** (often known as **Radio 1**) is an international radio station that is based in the United Kingdom. It is owned by BBC and BBC Radio. Radio 1 started broadcasting at 7.00 am on 30 September 1967. Tony Blackburn presented the first (later known as Breakfast) programme on the station. The station is meant to be listened to mainly by people aged 15–29.

Before the launch of Radio 1, the BBC ran three radio stations (the BBC Light Programme, the BBC Home Service and the BBC Third Programme), but these were considered old fashioned and were closed down in 1967. They were replaced with Radio 1, 2, 3 and 4.

The launch of Radio 1 in 1967 was because of the popularity of pirate radio stations such as Radio Caroline. They had been outlawed by Act of Parliament, and the BBC needed to provide alternative radio stations.

Radio 1 also has a sister station, BBC Radio 1Xtra.

## Programming

The daytime shows (Monday-Thursday 4.00 - 19.00, Friday 4.00 - 18.00, Saturday 6.00 - 16.00 and Sunday 6.00 - 19.00) are very speech-focused and use an extensive playlist to introduce unknown and emerging material alongside more established, _top 40_ hits from the recent past (usually in a 5-year cycle).

The nighttime shows focus specifically on new music, with each show devoted to a particular genre. These genres include electronica, dance, hip-hop, rap and rock. All programs during this time are playlisted and presented by the DJs without any influence of the station's music editor.

## Infobox (radio station)

- **name**: BBC Radio 1
- **image**:
- **city**: London
- **area**: United Kingdom - National
- **airdate**: 30 September 1967
- **slogan**: _Where It Begins_
- **frequency**: FM: 97.7 megahertz, MHz - 99.7 MHz <small>(UK)</small>
Digital Audio Broadcasting, DAB: 12B
Freeview (United Kingdom), Freeview: 700
 Virgin Media: 901
Sky Digital (UK & Ireland), Sky: 0101
 Tiscali TV: 600
UPC Ireland: 907
Sirius Satellite Radio, Sirius<small> (USA & Canada)</small>: 11
Dish Network<small> (USA)</small>: 6011
[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio/aod/radio1.shtml?listen Live Stream] Real/WM
- **share**: 9.8%
- **share as of**: Dec 2009
- **format**: Contemporary hit radio, news, outline of entertainment, entertainment, speech, Show business, showbiz
- **owner**: BBC
BBC Radio
- **website**: [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio1 BBC Radio 1]
1232

**1232** is a leap year which started on a Thursday of the Julian Calendar.

## Events

- In Korea, the printing press is invented.
1443

## Events

- July 22 – Zürich is defeated in the Battle of St. Jakob an der Sihl.

## Births

- January 27 – Albert, Duke of Saxony (died 1500)
- February 23 – Matthias Corvinus of Hungary (died 1490)
- May 17 – Edmund, Earl of Rutland, brother of King Edward IV of England and King Richard III of England (died 1460)
- May 31 – Margaret Beaufort, mother of Henry VII of England (died 1509)
- December 5 – Pope Julius II (died 1513)
- Rodolphus Agricola, Dutch scholar and humanist (died 1485)
- John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford, English leader (died 1513)
- Piero del Pollaiuolo, Italian painter (died 1496)
- Philip II, Duke of Savoy (died 1497)
- Ygo Gales Galama, Frisian warlord and rebel (died 1492)
- Anne Beauchamp, 15th Countess of Warwick (died 1449)

## Deaths

- Zeami – Japanese actor.
1558

**1558** (MDLVIII) was a common year starting on Saturday in the Julian calendar.

## Events

- November 17 – Elizabeth I becomes Queen of England.
Fear Factory

**Fear Factory** is an American industrial metal band. They were formed in Los Angeles, California in 1989 and disbanded in early 2002. They reformed the following year adding Byron Stroud (of Strapping Young Lad) as their current bass player. Their classic line-up was Burton C. Bell (vocals), Dino Cazares (guitars), Christian Olde Woblers (bass) and Raymond Herrera (drums) between 1994 and break up time. Milo Silvestro became the band's vocalist in 2021 after Burton C. Bell's departure.

### Current members

- Dino Cazares – guitars, backing vocals <small>(1989–2002, 2009–present)</small>
- Tony Campos – bass, backing vocals <small>(2015–present)</small>
- Milo Silvestro – lead vocals <small>(2023–present)</small>
- Pete Webber – drums <small>(2023–present)</small>

### Former members

- Burton C. Bell – lead vocals <small>(1989–2002, 2003–2006, 2009–2020)</small>; keyboards <small>(1995)</small>
- Raymond Herrera – drums <small>(1989–2002, 2003–2006)</small>
- David Gibney – bass <small>(1989–1991)</small>
- Andy Romero – bass <small>(1991–1992)</small>
- Andrew Shives – bass <small>(1992–1994)</small>
- Christian Olde Wolbers – bass <small>(1994–2002)</small>; guitars <small>(2003–2006)</small>; backing vocals <small>(1994–2006)</small>
- Byron Stroud – bass <small>(2003–2006, 2009–2012)</small>
- Gene Hoglan – drums <small>(2009–2012)</small>
- Matt DeVries – bass, backing vocals <small>(2012–2015)</small>
- Mike Heller – drums <small>(2012–2023)</small>

### Touring musicians

- Javier Arriaga – bass
- Alexandro Hernandez – bass
- Ricky Bonazza – bass

### Session musicians

- Rhys Fulber – keyboards, samples <small>(1993–2002, 2003–2004, 2009–present)</small>
- Reynor Diego – keyboards, samples <small>(1992–1995)</small>
- Steve Tushar – keyboards, synthesizer, samples <small>(1995–1997, 2003–2005)</small>
- John Morgan – keyboards, samples <small>(1997)</small>
- John Bechdel – keyboards, synthesizer, samples <small>(1998–2002, 2002–2004)</small>

## Discography

- _Soul of a New Machine_ (1992)
- _Demanufacture_ (1995)
- _Obsolete_ (1998)
- _Digimortal_ (2001)
- _Archetype_ (2004)
- _Transgression_ (2005)
- _Mechanize_ (2010)
- _The Industrialist_ (2012)
- _Genexus_ (2015)
- _Aggression Continuum_ (2021)

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Fear Factory
- **image**: Fear Factory - Elbriot 2016 02 (cropped).jpg
- **caption**: Fear Factory in 2016
- **landscape**: yes
- **background**: group_or_band
- **origin**: Los Angeles, California, U.S.
- **label**: Roadrunner Records, Roadrunner, Candlelight Records, Candlelight
- **associated acts**: Brujeria (band), Brujeria, Asesino, Ascension of the Watchers, Arkaea, Zimmers Hole, Metallica, Strapping Young Lad, Divine Heresy, Threat Signal, Phobia (band), Phobia, City of Fire (band), City of Fire
- **current members**: * Dino Cazares
* Tony Campos
* Milo Silvestro
* Pete Webber
- **past members**: * Burton C. Bell
* David Gibney
* Andy Romero
* Andrew Shives
* Raymond Herrera
* Christian Olde Wolbers
* Byron Stroud
* Gene Hoglan
* Matt DeVries
* Mike Heller
Sublime

**Sublime** was a popular punk/ska rock band. The band was formed in 1988 in Long Beach, California. They have released popular hit singles like "Date Rape", "Doin' Time", "Santeria" and "What I Got"

Sublime broke up 1996, because singer, guitarist and songwriter Bradley Nowell died. He died in a hotel room in San Francisco, California on May 25th of the same year from a heroin overdose. He was 28 years old. Their third and final album _Sublime_ was released two months after Nowell's death. The album's song "What I Got" was what made Sublime famous.

Sublime has sold over 8 million albums around the world.

## Cultural references

A few of Sublimes songs have been used in video games. "Santeria" was included in _Guitar Hero World Tour_.
The song "Seed" was included in _Tony Hawk's Underground_ and the song "What I Got" was included in _Dave Mirra Freestyle BMX and in Saints Row The Third_.

### Albums

|**Released**|**Album**|**Notes**|
| --- | --- | --- |
|1992|_40 Oz. to Freedom_|Certified 2x Platinum by RIAA; peaked at #15 at Top Heatseekers in 1995 and #140 in Billboard 200 in 1996|
|1994|_Robbin' the Hood_|Certified Gold by RIAA|
|1996|_Sublime_|Certified 5x Multi Platinum by RIAA; peaked at #13 on Billboard 200|

### Compilations and live albums

|**Released**|**Album**|**Notes**|
| --- | --- | --- |
|1995|_Badfish (EP)_||
|1997|_What I Got (EP)_|Peaked at #169 on Billboard 200|
|1997|_Doin' Time (EP)_||
|1997|_Second-hand Smoke_|Certified platinum by RIAA; peaked at #28 on Billboard 200|
|1998|_Stand by Your Van_|Peaked at #49 on Billboard 200|
|1998|_Sublime Acoustic: Bradley Nowell & Friends_|Peaked at #107 on Billboard 200|
|1999|_Greatest Hits_|Certified gold by RIAA; peaked at #114 on Billboard 200|
|2002|_20th Century Masters: The Millennium Collection: The Best of Sublime_|Certified gold by RIAA; peaked at #190 on Billboard 200|
|2005|_Gold_|Certified gold by RIAA; peaked at #165 on Billboard 200|
|2006|_Everything Under the Sun_|Four disc box set|

### Singles

|rowspan="2"|**Year**|rowspan="2"|**Title**|colspan="6"|**Chart positions**|rowspan="2"|**Album**||
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|US Hot 100|US Modern Rock|US Mainstream Rock|Adult Top 40|UK|US Hot 100 Airplay||||
|1995|"Date Rape"|-|-|-|-|-|-|_40 oz. to Freedom_|
|1996|"What I Got"|-|#1|#11|#39|#71|#29|_Sublime_|
|1997|"Santeria"|-|#3|-|#38|-|#43|_Sublime_|
|1997|"Wrong Way"|-|#3|-|-|-|#47|_Sublime_|
|1997|"Doin' Time"|#87|#28|-|-|-|-|_Sublime_|

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Sublime
- **background**: group_or_band
- **origin**: Long Beach, California, Long Beach, California, United States, U.S.
- **genre**: Ska punk
Third-wave ska
 Reggae
Alternative rock
Punk rock
Pop punk
Pop rock
Reggae rock
Reggae fusion
- **years active**: 1988–1996
- **label**: MCA Records, MCA, Skunk Records, Skunk
- **associated acts**: Sublime with Rome
Long Beach Dub Allstars
Long Beach Shortbus
Eyes Adrift
Volcano (supergroup), Volcano
- **past members**: Bradley Nowell
 Eric Wilson (bassist), Eric Wilson
 Bud Gaugh