juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Café

A **café** is a type of restaurant which typically serves coffee and tea, in addition to light refreshments such as baked goods or snacks. The term "café" comes from the French word meaning "coffee".

A café setting is known as a casual social environment where you can find people reading the provided newspapers and magazines or their own, playing board games, studying or chatting with others about current events.  It is also regarded as a place where information can be exchanged.

A café is sometimes called a coffeehouse or a coffee shop or tea shop in English, a café in French and a bar in Italian (cafe, a misspelling due to the difficulty of typing the accented "é", and café are the common spellings used in English, French, Spanish, Portuguese et al. However, the word is spelled "caffè" in Italian). Café can be misspelled as caffe, although the correct spelling is café. It shares some characteristics of a bar and some characteristics of a restaurant given its selection of foods and beverages served, but is distinct from a cafeteria which is a type of restaurant where customers can choose from many dishes displayed on a serving line. In some countries, cafés are designed to more closely resemble restaurants whereby offering a range of hot meals and possibly licensed to serve alcohol. Most British cafés however, do not sell alcohol likely due to the prominent pub culture.

## Café variations

In the Netherlands, cannabis-selling cafés face an uncertain future under a planned new law banning smoking in public places. The cafés, which attract millions of tourists each year, allow customers to buy marijuana over the counter and openly smoke it. The acronym CAFE, Cannabis and Fine Edibles is used in Canada to represent the largest retail chain in the country, post-legalization.

Another type of café, known as the Internet café, was introduced in the 1990s and went hand in hand with the rising prevalence of computers in society. Computers and Internet access in a contemporary atmosphere created a youthful, modern public space compared to existing locales including traditional bars and old-fashioned diners.  Many cafés offer public wireless Internet or even computers and telephones. Further integrating internet usage to the café atmosphere, some stores like Starbucks allow you to order directly from your smartphone, tablet, or other devices through their free store app or websites online.

More recently alongside the growing popularity of geek and gaming culture, gaming cafés have also begun to open in cities worldwide. These cafés offer a library of board games and tabletop games, from childhood classics such as Monopoly to indie games, for customers to play at their leisure for a nominal fee.
Beef

**Beef** is a type of meat that comes from cattle. Beef can be cooked in many ways; cuts are usually used for steak, which can be cooked to many levels of doneness. Trimmings are usually ground or minced, like most hamburgers. Beef has protein, iron, and vitamin B12. High consumption of beef or other kinds of meat is linked to a higher risk of colorectal cancer and coronary heart disease, more so when processed. Beef has a high impact on the environment and is a main cause of deforestation. Beef makes the most greenhouse gasses of any farmed product. Beef is very popular in Argentina, where it is a national dish and icon.

## Types of beef

- Ground beef
- Steak
- Corned beef
- Steak rump
Beef can also be in different types of grading such as:

- Prime
- Choice
- Select
Hyaena

**Hyaenas** (sometimes ***Hyenas***) are mammals. They are the family **Hyaenidae**, in the order Carnivora. They live in Africa, and in west and south Asia. In the past they had a much wider distribution. Now there are two subfamilies with four species.

With only four species, it is the fourth-smallest family in the Carnivora, and one of the smallest in the class Mammalia. Despite their low diversity, hyenas are unique and vital components to most African and some Asian ecosystems.

Hyaena walk much like bears because their front legs are longer than their back. Except for the aardwolf, hyaenas are known to have one of the world's strongest bites. Its function is to crush bone.

## Relationships

Hyaenas look much like canids, but they are actually in the Feliformia, with cats and mongooses. Although related to felines and viverrids, their life style is similar to canids.

Convergent evolution has taken place. Both large hyaenas and canids are non-climbing, running hunters which catch prey with their teeth rather than claws. Both eat food quickly and may store it. Their calloused feet have large, blunt, non-retractable nails, good for running and making sharp turns. However, the hyaenas' grooming, scent marking, defecating habits, mating, and parental behaviour are similar to the behaviour of other feliforms. Spotted hyenas are matriarchal. This means that females dominate and males are inferior.

## Hunting

Spotted hyaenas were long said to be cowardly scavengers, but they kill as much as 95% of the food they eat. They can drive off leopards or lionesses from their kills. Hyenas are mostly nocturnal animals, but may leave their lairs in the early morning. Except for the very social spotted hyaena, hyenas are generally not gregarious animals, though striped and brown hyaenas may live in family groups and come together at kills.

Spotted hyaenas are intelligent creatures. They work together well and are cooperative. They have strategic hunting methods and work to steal and protect food it from other predators. Their main targets are zebra and wildebeest. Their main rival is the lion. Whether spotted hyaenas do or do not chase lions off their kills is mostly a matter of numbers.

## Taxonomy

- Family **Hyaenidae**
    - Subfamily **Hyaeninae**
        - Spotted hyaena (_Crocuta crocuta_)
        - Striped hyaena (_Hyaena hyaena_)
        - Brown hyaena, (_Hyaena brunnea_, formerly _Parahyaena brunnea_)
    - Subfamily **Protelinae**
        - Aardwolf (_Proteles cristatus_)
Table salt

**Table salt** is a mineral composed mainly of sodium chloride (NaCl). This is a chemical compound, one of many salts. Salt in its natural form as a crystalline mineral is known as rock salt or halite.

When salt (sodium chloride) is mixed with water, the salt dissolves into the water, creating a saline solution. Salt is present in vast quantities in seawater, where it is the main mineral constituent. The open ocean has about  of solids per litre, a salinity of 3.5%.

Salt can be made by either evaporation or can be mined. To get sea salt, man-made holes are built then filled with sea water. The water evaporates and leaves salt behind.

Table salt is one of the few minerals that are eaten a lot by humans, but it can be used for other things besides giving food its flavor. Both sodium and chlorine are needed for all living creatures, including humans, but they are not always eaten in the form of salt, where they are found together in large amounts. Some peoples, like the Yanomami tribe in South America, eat very little salt. Salt is used to control the amount of water in the body. Salty flavor is also one of the basic tastes. Salt cravings may be caused by not having enough minerals, such as sodium chloride, in the body.

Eating too much or too little salt can make health problems more likely to happen, for example hypertension. When food is made, salt was often used as a preservative, to make the food last longer, and as a seasoning, for flavor.   Salt is less used as a preservative now as refrigeration is used instead and people are worried that too much salt will make them ill.

There are different ways to get table salt:

- From the sea, using salt evaporation ponds or desalinisation plants.
- From a mountain, or underground, using salt mines.
- From natural brine.
- From the supermarket.

## Related pages

- Salt
Silk

**Silk** is a natural fibre made by the silk worm to form their cocoon. Silk fibres are very strong, yet soft, and so are often used to make cloth.

The cloth from silk can be made into  rugs, bedding, or can be used to write or paint on. In the past, silk was used to make parachutes. The practice of growing silkworms for silk production is called _sericulture_.

Most spiders make a natural fibre of their own that is also called silk to create spider webs.

## History

The practice of breeding silkworms, known as sericulture, dates back to around 5000 BC during the time of the Yellow Emperor, Huang Di. Legend says that his wife, Lei Zu, introduced silkworm rearing and invented the loom, earning her the title "Goddess of Silk". The Chinese began producing silk cloth by 3000 B.C., and traded it across the world throughout Asia and into Europe along the Silk Road because it was very valuable and costly. They were the only ones producing it and selling it to the world until the second century, when the silk industry spread into India and Persia. In the sixth century, Christian monks stole silkworms from China. The silk from these monks played an important role in the economy of the Byzantine Empire. China and India produce the most silk in modern times.

## Chemical properties

Silk that is made by the silk worm is made up of two main proteins, sericin and fibroin.

Fibroin is the structural center of the silk and gives it its strength. It is made up of amino acids, which make the fibers strong and hard to break. The tensile strength is there because of hydrogen bonds. When silk is stretched, there is a strong force on these many bonds, so they do not break.

Serecin is the sticky material which surrounds the fibroin and gives it protection from the outside. Silk is resistant to most mineral acids, except for sulfuric acid, which dissolves it. Perspiration gives the silk a yellowish colour.

## Ethics

Silk worm cocoons are boiled to separate the fibers. This kills the pupa inside, raising ethical concerns. In response, the process of making "peace silk" was created. This process allows the pupa to hatch as adult moths before the broken cocoons are boiled. However, the moths then suffer greatly in the commercial setting, discarded to starve to death after mating or killed by grinding to analyze their remains for disease insted of being cared for, and since the nervous system of animals breaks down in the cocoon stage, negating senses such as pain, there is far more suffering in the current "peace silk" process than in the regular silkmaking process.

## Related pages

- Silk Road
EBay

**eBay** is a website. It is a place for online auctions. Anybody can sell almost anything they want there. People can buy many things there as well.

People have to send what they sell themselves, usually using mail. Some items may be collected by the buyer such as items to large or heavy to post. Buyers can transfer the money in any way they want as long as the sellers accept payments made that way. A lot of people use PayPal to transfer the money. PayPal was owned by the same people as eBay until 2015. Margaret Whitman was the CEO of eBay from 1995 to 2008.

## History

eBay was started in 1995 by Pierre Omidyar. It was first called _Auctionweb_. The name 'eBay' came later when he tried to register a domain name for his planned name _EchoBay_. It was already taken so he shortened the name to 'eBay'.

## Statistics

Millions of items are bought on eBay every day. It is often very cheap to list an item on eBay. Total costs are usually below ordinary auction house costs. Many people look at others' items because they are interested in them.

## Other websites

- eBay site

## Infobox (company)

- **name**: eBay Inc.
- **logo**: EBay logo.svg
- **logo caption**: Logo since 2012
- **image**: EBay Silicon Valley Headquarters in Willow Glen, San Jose, California 1938.jpg
- **image size**: 250px
- **image caption**: Headquarters in the Willow Glen, San Jose, Willow Glen district
of San Jose, California, in 2021.
- **former name**: AuctionWeb (1995–1997)
- **type**: Public company, Public
- **industry**: E-commerce
- **founder**: Pierre Omidyar
- **location**: San Jose, California, U.S.
- **area served**: Worldwide
- **services**: Online shopping
- **revenue**: (2022)
- **operating income**: (2022)
- **net income**: (2022)
- **assets**: (2022)
- **equity**: (2022)
- **num employees**: (December 2022)
- **subsid**: Auction Co., iBazar, GittiGidiyor, G-Market, Half.com, Qoo10.jp
Gerhard Schröder

**Gerhard Schröder** was Chancellor of Germany from 1998 to 2005.

He was born on 7 April 1944 in Mossenberg, North Rhine-Westphalia.
After school he learned retail sales in a Lemgo from 1958 to 1961.
After that he made his abitur (highest school exam in Germany) in Bielefeld. Then he studied law in Göttingen. After that he worked as a lawyer.

He joined the Social Democratic Party of Germany in 1963 and became chairman of its youth organisation in 1978.
In 1986 he became a member of the State Parliament of Lower Saxony.
In 1990 he was elected as Prime-Minister of Lower Saxony.

He became the chancellor of Germany in 1998. After elections in 2005, he was replaced by Angela Merkel. He is a member of the SPD (Social Democratic Party of Germany).
Victoria

**Victoria** might mean:
- Victoria (name), a female name
- Victoria (state), a state in Australia
- Victoria, British Columbia, capital city of British Columbia, Canada
- Victoria, Seychelles, capital of Seychelles
- Queen Victoria, a former Queen of the United Kingdom.
- Roman version of the Greek goddess Nike (mythology)
Greenhouse effect

The **greenhouse effect** occurs when certain gases in the Earth's atmosphere (the air around the Earth) trap infrared radiation. This makes the planet become warmer, similar to the way a greenhouse becomes warmer.

The most important greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere are: water vapor, carbon dioxide(CO<sub>2</sub>), and methane. When there is more greenhouse gas in the air, the air holds more heat. This is why more greenhouse gases cause climate change and global warming.

The greenhouse effect is natural. It is important for life on Earth. Without the greenhouse effect, the Earth's average temperature would be around 18 or –19 degrees Celsius (0 or 1 degree Fahrenheit). Earth would be locked in an ice age. Because of the greenhouse effect, the Earth's actual average temperature is 14 degrees Celsius (57 degrees Fahrenheit).

The problem is that recently, the greenhouse effect has become stronger. This is because humans have been burning large amounts of fossil fuels, which releases carbon dioxide. Since carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas, it has caused the planet to warm over the past 150 years.

About 10,000 years ago, before people started burning large amounts of fossil fuels, there were 260 to 280 parts per million (ppm) of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere, but now there is over 400 ppm. Most scientists say that having 350 ppm or less is safe for the environment and that species on the planet can adapt to this level.  Higher levels can make severe problems for animal and marine life that are already being seen today, such as ocean acidification.

The greenhouse effect was first proposed by Joseph Fourier in 1824. Mars, Venus and other planets with atmospheres also have greenhouse effects. The effect on Venus is especially strong because Venus has so much CO<sub>2</sub>. This is why Venus is hotter than Mercury, even though Mercury is closer to the sun. The first person to predict that carbon dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels (and other combustion processes) could cause global warming was Nobel Prize winner Svante Arrhenius.

## Related pages

- Greenhouse gas
- Greenhouse gas emissions
- Global warming

## Other websites

- The Climate Change Guide easy-to-understand information on the greenhouse effect
- _Study of Ice Age bolsters carbon and warming link_ February 28, 2013 The New York Times
- Rutgers University: Earth Radiation Budget
- Greenhouse effect -Citizendium
European

**European** may mean:
- A person or attribute of the continent of Europe
- A person or attribute of the European Union
- A person descended from a European ethnic group
- A Citizen of the European Union
- European windstorm, an extratropical cyclone that affects Europe

## Biology

- European ash, a tree. It is a kind of ash. It can be found throughout Europe. It is a deciduous tree that grows to a height of 20–35 metres
- European magpie, a bird that lives in Europe, much of Asia, and Northwest Africa. It is one of several birds in the crow family named as magpies
- European robin, a small bird that is found in many parts of Europe

- European badger, a species of badger. Its genus is _Meles_. It is native to almost all of Europe.
- European honey bee, a species of bee
- European sprat, a kind of fish
Click

**Click** is an onomatopoeia.
- Some languages, such as Xhosa language use click consonants.
- Pressing the button on a computer mouse sometimes is called a "mouse click".
Buzz Aldrin

Dr. **Edwin Eugene "Buzz" Aldrin, Jr.**, retired Colonel (born January 20, 1930) is an American pilot and astronaut. He was one of the Apollo 11 astronauts and the second person to have ever walked on the moon.

## Early life

Aldrin was born in Glen Ridge, New Jersey. He earned a BSc in Mechanical Engineering from the military academy West Point in 1951. After postgraduate studies, he received a ScD in Astronautics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1963. From his earlier activity as a fighter pilot in the Korean War he earned several medals, including the Air Force Distinguished Service Medal.

## Apollo 11 mission

Aldrin was the second person in history to set foot on the Moon (after Neil Armstrong, during the Apollo 11 mission).

The Lunar Lander Module landed on the Moon on July 20, 1969.

He was 39 when he set foot on the moon.

As a Presbyterian elder, Aldrin was the first and only person to hold a religious ceremony on the Moon. Using a kit given to him by his pastor, he took communion during his moon mission.

He received the Presidential Medal of Freedom and the NASA Exceptional Service Medal. After the death of Michael Collins in 2021, Aldrin became the last surviving member of the Apollo 11 crew.

## Later life

Aldrin left NASA in March 1972. He has been married four times: to Joan Archer, to Beverly Zile, to Lois Driggs Cannon, and to Anca V Faur. He had three children with Joan, named James, Janice, and Andrew. He married Cannon on Valentine's Day, 1988. He is the oldest contestant on the television series _Dancing with the Stars_. He competed in 2010.

## Infobox (astronaut)

- **name**: Space career
- **type**: NASA astronaut
- **rank**:  Colonel (United States), Colonel, United States Air Force
- **time**: 12 days, 1 hour and 53 minutes
- **selection**: NASA Astronaut Group 3
- **eva1**: 4
- **eva2**: 7 hours and 52 minutes
- **insignia**:
- **date of ret**: July 1, 1971


## Infobox (person)

- **name**: Buzz Aldrin
- **image**: Buzz Aldrin (S69-31743).jpg
- **caption**: Aldrin in July 1969
- **birth name**: Edwin Eugene Aldrin, Jr.
- **birth place**: Glen Ridge, New Jersey, United States, U.S.
- **nationality**: American
- **other names**: Dr. Rendezvous
- **education**: Montclair High School
- **known for**: Second man on the Moon
- **children**: 3
- **mother**: Marion Aldrin (née Moon)
- **father**: Edwin Eugene Aldrin Sr.
- **signature**: Buzz Aldrin Autograph.svg
American (word)

The word **American** is used to mean a person or a thing from the United States or any country in the Americas - North America, Central America, and South America. In English, the most common use of this word is to mean a person or a thing from the United States.

Even though the islands in the Caribbean Sea are close to the Americas, people who speak English do not usually use the word "American" for people or things from these islands.

Because the word 'American' can be unclear, some languages don’t use it to talk about people or things from the United States. Instead, they use more specific words, like _estadounidense_ in Spanish, _usonano_ in Esperanto, _yhdysvaltalainen_ in Finnish, and _US-Amerikaner_ in German. In English, people sometimes use the word 'Yankee', though this usually means someone from New England. The word _Usonian_ (from Usonia) was suggested by architect Frank Lloyd Wright as another way to say 'American'.

A Native American is someone who is mostly descended from the people who lived in the Americas before the Europeans arrived. Native Americans are also called First Nations and _Indians_.

There is no language "American." Some important languages used in the Americas are English, French, Portuguese, and Spanish. Some people still use Native American languages. Quechua is the largest.
Grain

**Grain** is the seeds of some special kinds of grass. The main types of commercial grain crops are cereals. People grow different kinds of grain as food. The different kinds of grain are among the most important foods in the world.

Some kinds of grain are:
- Barley
- Maize _or Indian corn (or simply as "corn")_
- Millet
- Oats
- Rice
- Wheat

87% of all grain grown by farmers around the world is maize. Grains contain carbohydrates that people can eat. In poorer countries, grains are a large part of the food supply. In richer countries, they are still important as food, but not as important as in poorer countries. Growing grain uses a lot of water. About 1,000 tons of water is needed to grow one ton of grain.

Many different foods are made from different types of grain. The part of the grain that people can eat is called the grist, and the part they can not eat is called chaff. The grist is often ground into a powder called flour. Flour can be made into breads, cakes, or noodles.

Different kinds of beer are made from barley malt, wheat, and other grains.

Tortillas are made from a special flour of dried maize (corn) called _masa_.
Clause

A **clause** is a part of a sentence. Each clause is made up of a subject (who or what the sentence is about) and a predicate (what happens in a sentence). Each predicate has only one main verb.

_I love you_ is a sentence that has only one clause. _I love you and I will always love you_ is a sentence that has two clauses: _I love you_ and _I will always love you_. Both clauses are joined together by the word _and_, which is a conjunction. Clauses may be independent or dependent.

## In use

Two clauses can be joined with a pronoun: _I live in London, which is in England_. Theere, _I live in London_ is the first clause, and _which is in England_ is the second clause. The word _which_ is a pronoun that takes the place of _London_ and joins the two clauses.

A sentence can contain many clauses, but sentences with fewer clauses are easier to understand.

## Dependent and independent clauses

A simple sentence may also be called an independent clause. It may be a part of a compound or complex sentence, but it can also stand on its own as a simple sentence (or independent clause).
A **subordinate clause**, also called a **dependent clause**, is one that cannot stand by itself because it does not express a complete thought. It contains both a subject and a verb. A subordinate clause always depends on a main clause.

The main clause is almost always an independent clause and so the main clause by itself makes sense and can stand on its own. However, the subordinate clause does not. For example, _I love you_ makes perfect sense left on its own. However, _and always will_ does not. A sentence can be made up of only dependent clauses only if it is joined by a correlative conjunction, a conjunction pair like "either/or", "neither/nor", and "not only/but also".

## Other websites

- Clauses: the Essential Building-Blocks
- Purdue Owl: Identifying Independent and Dependent Clauses
Sacred

The words **sacred** or **holy** are sometimes used interchangeably and are often misunderstood to mean "important" or "special"  instead of "set apart" and "pure."

According to Websters 1828 Dictionary (the more accurate definition given the spiritual context- Christian and beyond), sacred means "...separated from that which is common, vulgar, polluted, or open... or Holy." Holy, means "Properly, whole, entire or perfect, in a moral sense. Hence, pure in heart, temper or dispositions; free from sin and sinful affections. Applied to the Supreme Being, holy signifies perfectly pure, immaculate and complete in moral character..."

Most religions have sacred books that provide teachings or doctrines associated with the religion. These books are "set apart," from other books published and associated with the religion. There is a deeper connection to these books over the others.

For Christians this book is called the Bible.  Muslim peoples have another book, they call the Qur'an. Jews call their book the Torah. Similarly, the Book of Mormon is also considered as a sacred book in Mormonism.

Some religious people deem specific places sacred because of their mention in the sacred books. Jerusalem is seen as sacred by Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Mecca is sacred in Islam, and Ise Grand Shrine in Mie Prefecture is sacred in Japanese Shinto. In Hinduism the river Ganges is seen as holy.

## Related pages

- Pilgrimage
- Icon

## Other websites

- Holiness in the Bible
Translation

**Translation** means to copy writing or speech from one language into a different language.

The people who do translation are called translators. A translator who is copying a book into another language may use a language dictionary to find out how a word is written in another language. A translator who works with the spoken word is also called an interpreter. Translators can work independently as freelancers or by being hired by translation agencies. People who translate poetry, novels, drama, or short stories are called literary translators.

In computer technology, translation from a programming language to a machine language is called compiling.

There are free translators on the internet. A notable example of this is Google Translate.

## Related pages

- Bible translations
- Concept
- Compiler
- Machine translation

**Useful resources related to the subject:**

- The Impact of Translation in New York City
- Choosing the Perfect Translation Agency for your Company
- Adapt your Translation for a better Understanding of Inter-culture
Astronaut

An **astronaut** or **cosmonaut** is a person who goes into outer space. The Soviet Union and countries that it controlled used the word cosmonaut. Western countries including the United States said astronaut. Astronauts are also called "taikonauts" in China or "spationaute" in France.

The first person to go into space was a Russian from the Soviet Union. His name was Yuri Gagarin. This happened on April 12, 1961. The first and second people to walk on the Moon were the Americans Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin. This happened on July 20, 1969. No astronauts have gone to the moon since 1972. No people have visited any other planets yet.

Astronauts used to go into space using many different ways, but now they can only go on the American Dragon 2, the American Starliner, the Russian Soyuz, or the Chinese Shenzhou. Several countries have worked together to build an International Space Station where people stay and work in space for long periods of time.

A few countries and companies are trying to make more ways to get people into space. The United States is building a very big rocket called the Space Launch System. A United States company called SpaceX is also building a very large rocket called "Starship" that is fully reusable and could take people to Mars and further. Some American companies, for example Boeing, Lockheed Martin and SpaceX, are being paid by the United States to make ways for people to go to space.

## Related pages

- Spaceflight
Hacker

A **hacker** is someone who tries to get into another person's computer using computer software. The computer software could be Trojan horse programs, computer viruses, and worms. It used to mean someone who likes to do new things with computers.  The correct name for a person doing these illegal things was _cracker_, but many news stories used the word _hacker_ even though it was in error. Another meaning of _hacker_ is someone who can change or program something, like how people can change or program a Furby to say something insulting or humorous.

A person doing something illegal with a computer belonging to someone else without asking for permission from the owner is also called a hacker.

In the recent years computers were becoming increasingly more complex. This also means that people with bad intentions have more opportunities to use them for criminal purposes. Computer engineers are not always able to find vulnerable places in the computer code. Hackers find such places, and use them.

There are also hackers who use the same skills for good purposes. Such hackers are called _white hat_ hackers. They help computer engineers to find vulnerable places and correct problems.

A lot of skills are often required to be a hacker. A hacker should be able to find problems or solutions that most other people cannot find.

## Related pages

- Cyberattack
Leninism

**Leninism** is a way of thinking about how the communist party should be organized. It says it should be a dictatorship of the proletariat (meaning the working class holds the power).

Some historians say that Leninism is one of the first steps towards socialism (where the workers own the factories and other means of production). It is one part of Marxism–Leninism, which emphasizes the transition from capitalism to socialism.

## Beliefs

Vladimir Lenin was a Russian Marxist. He had a set of ideas based on Marxism. Lenin's development of Marxism has become known as **Leninism**. These ideas include:

- Democratic Centralism, also known as an idea of the vanguard party.  Like other communists,  Lenin wanted to see a socialist revolution led by the working class.  But he thought the workers needed strong leadership in the form of a Revolutionary Party based on Democratic Centralism.  Lenin wanted Communist political parties in every country to lead the revolution.  He thought the vanguard party would need to have strong discipline, or it would fail.
- The idea that capitalism is the cause of imperialism (empire-building). He thought that imperialism was the "highest stage" of capitalism.
- Accepting the idea that the oppressed ethnic minorities (smaller groups of people) should get to have nationalism and decide how they should be governed.
- Teaching the proletariat (the working class) about politics, especially Marxism.

## Related pages

- Vladimir Lenin
- Marxism-Leninism
- Communism

### Books by Vladimir Lenin

- _What Is To Be Done?_.
- _Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism_.
- _The State and Revolution_.
- "The Lenin Archive".
- "First Conference of the Communist International".

### Other similar links

- "Marcel Liebman on Lenin and democracy" .
- "An excerpt on Leninism and State Capitalism from the work of Noam Chomsky".
- Rosa Luxemburg. "Organizational Questions of the Russian Social Democracy".
- Karl Korsch. "Lenin's Philosophy".
- "Cyber Leninism".
- "Leninist Ebooks" .
- Anton Pannekoek. "Lenin as a Philosopher".
- Paul Mattick. "The Lenin Legend".
- Paul Craig Roberts. "Dead Labor: Marx and Lenin Reconsidered".
Bolshevik

**Bolshevik** was a Russian communist in the early 20th century. They are also called the Bolshevik Communists. The majority of the Russian Social Democratic Workers Party was a Marxist political party.

At the party congress in 1903, members disagreed with each other. The party divided into two groups, the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks. They were called Bolsheviks because it means "those who are more." Vladimir Ilyich Lenin was the leader of the Bolshevik group. The more moderate group, the Mensheviks (meaning "those of the minority") were led by Julius Martov. Although the Bolsheviks were called "those who are more", before 1917 there were more Mensheviks. Many of Lenin's opponents were afraid that he liked to control things too much.

In 1905 the Bolshevik group became a separate political party, the **RSDLP(B)** the 'b' in brackets standing for 'Bolshevik'.

## Revolution

After the February Revolution, some of the Mensheviks took positions in the Russian Provisional Government. Lenin said socialists must oppose the Provisional Government. The government began to weaken and Lenin started to have more authority. Because of this, many Mensheviks joined the Bolsheviks.

The Bolsheviks led the October Revolution in Russia in 1917. They said they created the world's first Workers' State. The Mensheviks opposed the government led by the Bolsheviks. Many ended up in prison or were killed. After that, they opposed the Bolsheviks from outside Russia, in exile.

After the Revolution, the Bolshevik Party was called the **Russian Communist Party**.
Anarchism

**Anarchism** is an idea and philosophy that says no one should be forced into any kind of hierarchy. For example, anarchism says that the government and capitalism are harmful and not needed. It also says that people's actions should never be forced by other people. It is usually described as a libertarian type of socialism.

The word "anarchism" is from the Greek word "αναρχία", which means "no rulers" or "no government", but that does not have to mean no rules at all. People often use the word "anarchy" to mean chaos and crime, but anarchists usually do not want this. They say anarchy is just a way of relations between people. They believe that once put into place, those relations work on their own. Anarchists are usually opposed by the systems they wish to remove.

## Principles

Individual freedom, voluntary association, and opposition to the state are important beliefs of anarchism. There are also big differences between anarchist philosophies on things like whether violence can be used to bring about anarchy; the best type of economy; the relationship between technology and hierarchy; the idea of equality; and the usefulness of some organization.

The word "authority" is not clear, but anarchists are against not some types of authority (such as the authority of someone skilled in self-defence over someone that wants to learn self-defence) but only control by force.

## Related pages

- Anti-capitalism
- Anti-fascism
- Self-ownership
Forests in the United Kingdom

This is a list of **forests in the United Kingdom**.

### Cumbria

- Whinfell Forest - Center Parcs

### Derbyshire

- Darwin Forest

### Hampshire

- New Forest

### Norfolk

- Thetford Forest

### Nottinghamshire

- Sherwood Forest

### Staffordshire

- Cannock Chase

### Sussex

- Ashdown Forest

### Warwickshire

- Forest of Arden

### Worcestershire

- Wyre Forest (part in Shropshire)

### West Midlands

- Black Country Urban Forest

### To be classified

- Bracknell Forest
- Epping Forest
- Forest of Avon
- Forest of Mercia
- Kielder Forest
- Mersey Forest
- National Forest
- Royal Forest of Dean

### Dumfries and Galloway

- Forest of Ae

### Fife

- Tentsmuir Forest

### To be classified

- Arecleoch Forest
- Argyll Forest Park
- Carrick Forest
- Carsphairn Forest
- Changue Forest
- Corriedoo Forest
- Craik Forest
- Dalbeattie Forest
- Dundeugh Forest
- Fleet Forest
- Laurieston Forest
- Mabie Forest
- Penninghame Forest
- Rowardennan Forest
- Queen Elizabeth Forest Park
- Strathyre Forest
- Tairlaw Forest
- Wauchope Forest

## Wales

- Clocaenog Forest

## Northern Ireland

- Ballypatrick Forest Drive
- Castlewellan Forest Park
- Drum Manor Forest Park
- Ely Lodge Forest
- Florence Court Forest Park
- Glenariff Forest Park
- Gortin Glen Forest Park
- Gosford Forest Park
- Lough Navar Forest Drive
- Tollymore Forest Park
ΜCLinux

**µCLinux**  is an operating system for small computers inside integrated circuits (chips). The system is based on the Linux operating system in many ways. Apart from the rather big size of Linux, µCLinux is much smaller and not as packed with features as Linux. It finds uses in many places, mostly dealing with sensor and data-gathering of different sorts.

Thanks to its compact nature, it can easily be transferred over slow connections. Yet it is a stable and robust system distributed as an open source program.
Signature

A **signiture** is a special way that people write their name to let others know that they understand or approve of something that was written. A signature is often used to sign a contract, a cheque, a petition or a treaty.

When it comes to signature's there are many ways to write a signature, and signatures may look different depending on your location. In the United States, many people have a signature which is made from writing their name in their own handwriting, often in cursive. Some signatures may be written in a different style than normal writing, which may make it difficult to read. Some people practice autographs, or fancy signatures that are hard to copy.

Hundreds of years ago some people used sealing wax to make a copy of their signet rings next to or instead of a signature. This was called their "seal. This is where the term "seal of approval" comes from. Some formal documents still use an official wax seal, such as a coat of arms.

## Types of signatures

**Wet signature:-** A wet signature, ink signature, or wet ink signature is the physical marking a person makes to sign their name on a physical document, usually with a pen.

Wet signatures are the most common kind of signatures and have been used for centuries as a unique marking to indicate agreement and prevent fraud. Physical signatures have been used since 3500 B.C. in the form of seals, but it was in the 1600s when signatures written on paper became widely used and legally valid.

Although wet signatures can be forged by skilled people, they were the norm until the beginning of the 21st century, when online signatures started to become legally binding.

**Electronic signature or E-signature:-** Software programmes allow an electronic representation of a signature to be used that's been created by the software.

**Digital signature:-** A digital signature is a signature created by the authoriser such as copying, pasting and embedding a copy of their signature or a signature created using a stylus pen.
Luke McCormick

**Luke McCormick** (born 15 August 1983) is a former English football player. He was born in Coventry, England. He is a goalkeeper. He plays for the English football team Swindon Town.

In the 2003–04 season, McCormick played when Romain Larrieu could not. Larrieu injured his knee. McCormick played instead. Plymouth Argyle beat Stockport County on 24 January 2004. The score was 2-0. In this match McCormick set a new club record of seven _clean sheets_ in a row. A clean sheet is a game where the other side gets no goals.

McCormick was voted the most promising player of the 2003–04 season by Plymouth Argyle fans.

On 7 June 2008. McCormick was arrested on suspicion for killing two people by dangerous driving. Subsequently, he was released by Plymouth Arygle and was jailed for seven years on 6 October 2008. He was let out of prison in June 2012.

## Club career statistics

|-
|2000-01||rowspan="5"|Plymouth Argyle||rowspan="2"|Third Division||1||0||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||1||0
|-
|2001-02||0||0||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||0||0
|-
|2002-03||rowspan="2"|Second Division||3||0||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||3||0
|-
|2003-04||40||0||1||0||colspan="2"|-||41||0
|-
|2004-05||League Championship||23||0||colspan="2"|-||1||0||24||0
|-
|2004-05||Boston United||League Two||2||0||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||2||0
|-
|2005-06||rowspan="3"|Plymouth Argyle||rowspan="3"|League Championship||1||0||colspan="2"|-||2||0||3||0
|-
|2006-07||40||0||5||0||1||0||46||0
|-
|2007-08||30||0||2||0||3||0||35||0
140||0||8||0||7||0||155||0
140||0||8||0||7||0||155||0
|}

## Infobox (football biography)

- **name**: Luke McCormick
- **caption**: McCormick with Plymouth Argyle F.C., Plymouth Argyle in 2017
- **fullname**: Luke Martin McCormick
- **birth place**: Coventry, England
- **position**: Goalkeeper (association football), Goalkeeper
- **youthclubs1**: Coventry City F.C., Coventry City
- **youthclubs2**: Derby County F.C., Derby County
- **youthclubs3**: West Bromwich Albion F.C., West Brom
- **youthyears4**: –2000
- **youthclubs4**: Plymouth Argyle F.C., Plymouth Argyle
- **years1**: 2000–2008
- **clubs1**: Plymouth Argyle F.C., Plymouth Argyle
- **caps1**: 138
- **goals1**: 0
- **years2**: 2004
- **clubs2**: → Boston United F.C., Boston United (loan)
- **caps2**: 2
- **goals2**: 0
- **years3**: 2012–2013
- **clubs3**: Truro City F.C., Truro City
- **caps3**: 10
- **goals3**: 0
- **years4**: 2013
- **clubs4**: Oxford United F.C., Oxford United
- **caps4**: 15
- **goals4**: 0
- **years5**: 2013–2018
- **clubs5**: Plymouth Argyle F.C., Plymouth Argyle
- **caps5**: 168
- **goals5**: 0
- **years6**: 2018–2020
- **clubs6**: Swindon Town F.C., Swindon Town
- **caps6**: 29
- **goals6**: 0
- **years7**: 2020–2022
- **clubs7**: Plymouth Argyle F.C., Plymouth Argyle
- **caps7**: 2
- **goals7**: 0
- **years8**: 2021
- **clubs8**: → Truro City F.C., Truro City (loan)
- **caps8**: 1
- **goals8**: 0
- **totalcaps**: 365
- **totalgoals**: 0
Auction

An **auction** is a method by which goods or services can be sold and bought. In an auction, the price of an item is not fixed in advance. People wanting to buy the item say how much they are willing to pay for it. This is called their _bid_. In each round, the bids are evaluated. If certain criteria are met, the auction is stopped and one bidder will buy the item at the specified price. Alternatively, the auction can continue for another round. If certain conditions are met, the auction will stop, and the item will not be sold. There are different kinds of auctions, with different rules.

Auctions usually happen within a given timeframe. When the time expires, the bid that best matches will win, or the item will not be sold.

There are companies that specialize in doing auctions. These companies will charge fees for doing the auction; they may also get a commission that depends on the price the item is sold at.

Auctions can be done online, or they can be done offline. Sometimes, bids are placed by telephone, or over the internet.

## Most common kinds of auction

The most common kinds of auction are:
- _English auction_: the highest bidder wins. The auction starts at the lowest price the seller is willing to sell at, and the price goes up as long as someone is willing to pay a higher price.
- A _Dutch auction_ goes the other way round: The auction starts at a high price, and goes down until someone is willing to buy. Before the auction, the seller sets the lowest price they'll sell the item for, and if the auction reaches that price without anyone buying, the auction is stopped without selling the item.
- _Sealed first-bid auction_: All the bids are submitted at the same time, without any of the bidders knowing each other's bids. The bidder with the highest bid wins.
- _Vickrey auction_ (or _sealed-bid second-price auction)_ : This kind of auction works the same as the sealed first-bid auction, but the bidder only pays the second-highest price. This kind of auction is very important in economic theory, but isn't used as much in real life.

## The mechanisms why auctions work

Auctions work because of information asymmetry: The seller wants to sell at the highest possible price, and the buyers want to pay as little as possible.But the seller does not know the prices the buyers are willing to pay: Setting a price that is too hight means that there will be no sale, setting a price that is too low means that there will be less profit. Each buyer knows how much he is willing to pay, but does not know the price the other buyers are willing to pay. So buyers influence each other. The theory that models these phenomena is called auction theory. It is based on game theory and microeconomics.

## Related pages

- Paul Milgrom
Blitzkrieg

**Blitzkrieg** is a German word that means "lightning war" and refers to the high speed of a lightning bolt.

In _blitzkrieg_, the attacking motorized infantry armies move quickly and are helped by tanks and aircraft. Slower-moving enemy units are overrun or surrounded and often captured with little fighting. The slower units often become disorganized and are not ready to fight when they are captured.

The combined arms tactics of _blitzkrieg_ were developed in the 1920s and 1930s, especially in the German Wehrmacht. They seldom used this word, however.

This method worked well early in World War II during the invasions of Poland and France and was mostly successful during Operation Barbarossa. Later in the war, the Allies learned to defeat German _blitzkrieg_ attacks by defence in depth and by attacking the flanks of the attackers with reserve forces.

**The Blitz** refers to the German bombing of Britain, particularly London, during World War II. It destroyed over a million homes, killed over 40,000 people and was supposed to destroy industry and morale quickly to make the British pressure their government to end the war. The Blitz started in September 1940, in response to the British bombing of German cities by the Royal Air Force and continued until May 1941.
Edinburgh

**Edinburgh** (Scottish Gaelic: _Dùn Èideann_) is the capital city and second largest city in Scotland. Edinburgh lies on the east coast, where the River Forth flows into the sea.

The central part is Edinburgh Castle, at the top of a steep hill. The castle has a military display every year, called a _tattoo_, where soldiers show their skills at marching and competitions, and there are brass bands and bands of bagpipes.

Edinburgh has a very large festival every year, where thousands of performers come to put on shows. The Edinburgh International Festival takes place in August and September. At the same time there is the Edinburgh Fringe. The shows are of all kinds, and range from large ones with famous people, to very small ones by new or unknown actors.

The city is served by Edinburgh Airport, and Haymarket and Waverley railway stations.

## Old and New towns

The Old Town of Edinburgh is the oldest part of the city, and with the 18th-century New Town, it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It has preserved its mediaeval plan and many Reformation-era buildings. The Old and New Towns are known locally simply as "Town". It is the city centre. The main part of the Old Town is a complex of streets called the Royal Mile while Princes Street is the main business area of the New Town.

## Sport

The city's main football teams are Heart of Midlothian F.C. and Hibernian F.C. Murrayfield stadium in the city is the home of the Scottish national rugby team and Edinburgh Rugby. The nearby Murrayfield Ice Rink is home to the city's ice hockey team, the Edinburgh Capitals. See also Leith Athletic F.C.

## Buildings

Edinburgh has lots of important buildings. The Balmoral Hotel was opened in 1902 and designed by W. Hamilton Beattie. Saint Giles' Cathedral was built in Mediaeval times. There was a big fire there in 1385. The Royal Museum was designed by architect Francis Fowke and built between 1861 and 1888. Its sister museum, the Museum of Scotland, was designed by Benson and Forsyth in 1998.

Holyrood Palace was once the home of the Scottish kings, and is open to the public. It now serves as the King of Britain's Scottish residence. The Scottish Parliament is located next to Holyrood Palace.

## Governing

Edinburgh is one of the 32 local government areas of Scotland. It has its own council which is led by the Lord Provost (similar to a mayor). The city is divided into 17 "wards" which elect their councillors.

## Famous people from Edinburgh

- Sir Walter Scott, who wrote many historical stories.
- Alexander Graham Bell, who invented the telephone, was born in Edinburgh.
- Sir Arthur Conan Doyle who wrote the Sherlock Holmes stories.
- Robert Louis Stevenson who wrote _Kidnapped_, _Treasure Island_, _Doctor Jekyll_ _and Mr Hyde_ and many other stories.
- Muriel Spark, who wrote _The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie_ and many other stories.
- Sean Connery, who acted as _James Bond_ in films.

## Twin Towns

Edinburgh is twinned with:

- Florence
- Dunedin
- Nice
- Kraków
- San Diego
- Aalborg
- Kyiv
- Kyoto
- Xi'an
- Vancouver
- St. Petersburg
- Munich

## References

2. Map of Edinburgh