juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
A

**A** is the first letter of the English alphabet. The small letter, **a**, is used as a lowercase vowel.

## Overview

When it is spoken,  ā is said as a long **a**, a diphthong of ĕ and y. A is similar to Alpha of the Greek alphabet. That is not surprising, because it means  the same sound. "Alpha and Omega" (the last letter of the Greek alphabet) means from beginning to the end. In musical notation, the letter A is the symbol of a note in the scale, below B and above G.

A is the letter that was used to represent a team in an old TV show, The A-Team. A capital a is written "A". Use a capital A at the start of a sentence if writing. A is also a musical note, sometimes referred to as "La".

## Origin

The letter 'A' was in the Phoenician alphabet's aleph. This symbol came from a simple picture of an ox head.

This Phoenician letter helped make the basic blocks of later types of the letter. The Greeks later modified this letter and used it as their letter alpha. The Greek alphabet was used by the Etruscans in northern Italy, and the Romans later modified the Etruscan alphabet for their own language.

## Using the letter

The letter A has six different sounds. It can sound like æ, in the International Phonetic Alphabet, such as the word _pad_. Other sounds of this letter are in the words _father_, which developed into another sound, such as in the word _ace_.

## Use in mathematics

In algebra, the letter "A" along with other letters at the beginning of the alphabet is used to represent known quantities.

In geometry, capital A, B, C etc. are used to label line segments, lines, etc. Also, A is typically used as one of the letters to label an angle in a triangle.

Its letter shape is referred to abstractly in Sir William Vallance Douglas Hodge's 5th postulate, the basis for, as one of the Millennium Prize Problems, the Hodge Conjecture.
Air

**Air** is the Earth's atmosphere. Air is a mixture of many gases and tiny dust particles. It is the clear gas in which living things live and breathe. It has an indefinite shape and volume. It has mass and weight, because it is matter. The weight of air creates atmospheric pressure. There is no air in outer space.

Earth's atmosphere is composed of about 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, 0.9 percent argon, and 0.1 percent other gases.

Animals live and need to breathe the oxygen in the atmosphere. In breathing, the lungs put oxygen into the blood, and send back carbon dioxide to the air. Plants need the carbon dioxide in the air to live. They give off the oxygen that we breathe. Without it animals die of asphyxia.

Air can be polluted by some gases (such as carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides), smoke, and ash. This air pollution causes various problems including smog, acid rain and global warming. It can damage people's health and the environment. There are debates about whether or not to act upon climate change, but soon enough the Earth will heat up too much, causing it to become too hot and not support life. Some say fewer people would die of cold weather, and that is true but there is already a huge amount of people dying from heat and that number is and will keep increasing more and more.

Since early times, air has been used to create technology. Ships moved with sails and windmills used the mechanical motion of air. Aircraft use propellers to move air over a wing, which allows them to fly. Pneumatics use air pressure to move things. Since the late 1900s, air power is also used to generate electricity.

Air is invisible: it cannot be seen by the eye, though a shimmering in hot air can be seen.

Air is one of the 4 classical elements (water, air, earth and fire).

### Original atmosphere

At first it was mainly a hydrogen atmosphere. It has changed dramatically on several occasions—for example, the Great Oxygenation Event 2.4 billion years ago, greatly increased oxygen in the atmosphere from practically no oxygen to levels closer to present day. Humans have also contributed to significant changes in atmospheric composition through air pollution, especially since industrialisation, leading to rapid environmental change such as ozone depletion and global warming.

### Second atmosphere

Out gassing from volcanism, supplemented by gases produced during the late heavy bombardment of Earth by huge asteroids, produced the next atmosphere, consisting largely of nitrogen plus carbon dioxide and inert gases.

### Third atmosphere

The constant re-arrangement of continents by plate tectonics influences the long-term evolution of the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide was transferred to and from large continental carbonate stores. Free oxygen did not exist in the atmosphere until about 2.4 billion years ago. The Great Oxygenation Event is shown by the end of the banded iron formations.

## Related pages

- Air pollution
- Air craft
Autonomous communities of Spain

Spain is divided in 17 parts called **autonomous communities**. _Autonomous_ means that each of these autonomous communities has its own executive, legislative, and judicial powers. These are similar to, but _not_ the same as, states in the United States of America, for example.

Spain has fifty smaller parts called provinces. In 1978 these parts came together, making the autonomous communities.
Before then, some of these provinces were together but were broken. The groups that were together once before are called "historic communities": Catalonia, Basque Country, Galicia and Andalusia.

The Spanish language is the sole official language in every autonomous community but six, where Spanish is co-official with other languages, as follows:
- Catalonia: Catalan and Occitan
- Valencian Community: Catalan (also called Valencian there)
- Balearic Islands: Catalan
- Galicia: Galician
- Basque Country: Basque
- Navarre: Basque (only in the north and near the border with the Basque County)

List of the autonomous communities, with their Capital city (the place where the government has its offices):

- Andalusia (its capital is Sevilla)
- Aragon (its capital is Zaragoza)
- Asturias (its capital is Oviedo)
- Balearic Islands (its capital is Palma de Mallorca)
- Basque Country (its capital is Vitoria)
- Canary Islands (they have two capitals - Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and Santa Cruz de Tenerife)
- Cantabria (its capital is Santander)
- Castile-La Mancha (its capital is Toledo)
- Castile and León (its capital is Valladolid)
- Catalonia (its capital is Barcelona)
- Extremadura (its capital is Mérida)
- Galicia (its capital is Santiago de Compostela)
- La Rioja (its capital is Logroño)
- Community of Madrid (its capital is Madrid)
- Region of Murcia (its capital is Murcia)
- Navarre (its capital is Pamplona)
- Valencian Community (its capital is Valencia)

Spain also has two cities on the north coast of Africa: Ceuta and Melilla. They are called "autonomous cities" and have simultaneously the majority of the power of an autonomous community and also power of provinces and power of municipalities.
Alan Turing

**Alan Mathison Turing** (London, 23 June 1912 – Wilmslow, Cheshire, 7 June 1954) was an English mathematician and computer scientist. He is known as the father of computer science. He was born in Maida Vale, London.

## Early life

Turing was born in Maida Vale, London. His father came from a Scottish merchant family. His mother, Ethel Sara Stoney, was the daughter of an engineer from Ireland. Turing was very good at math when he was young.

## Education

He went to school at St. Michael’s in St Leonards-on-Sea. Later, he studied at Cambridge University and Princeton University.

## Career

In 1936, Turing wrote about a theoretical machine called the Turing machine. This idea became important in the development of computers. He also created the idea of a computer program.

During World War II, Turing worked at Bletchley Park. He helped break secret German messages made by the Enigma machine. This helped the Allies win the war and may have saved millions of lives.

He worked for the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS), using cryptanalysis to break Nazi codes. Later, he helped design the Automatic Computing Engine (ACE), one of the first stored-program computers. He presented the design in 1946.

Turing was also interested in artificial intelligence. He proposed the Turing test to check if a machine can "think".

## Private life

Turing was homosexual. In 1952, he admitted to having sex with a man. At that time, being gay was illegal in the UK. He was convicted and had to choose between prison or taking hormones to reduce his sex drive. He chose the medicine. This caused him health problems like impotence and breast growth.

## Death

In 1954, Turing died from cyanide poisoning. Some say he ate a poisoned apple, but the apple was never tested. It is believed he died by suicide.

## Legacy

In 2009, a petition asked the UK Government to say sorry for how Turing was treated. Prime Minister Gordon Brown later gave an apology and called Turing's treatment "appalling".

In 2013, Queen Elizabeth II gave him a royal pardon.

The “Turing Law” was later passed to pardon other men who were punished under old anti-gay laws.

## Other websites

- Jack Copeland 2012. Alan Turing: The codebreaker who saved 'millions of lives'. BBC News / Technology https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-18419691
Adobe Illustrator

***Adobe Illustrator*** is a computer program for making graphic design and illustrations. It is made by Adobe Systems. Pictures created in _Adobe Illustrator_ can be made bigger or smaller, and look exactly the same at any size. It works well with the rest of the products with the Adobe name.

## History

It was first released in 1986 for the Apple Macintosh. The latest version is ***Adobe Illustrator 2024***, part of Adobe Creative Cloud.

## Release history

|**Version**|**Platforms**|**Release date**|**Code name**|
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|1.0|Mac OS|January 1987|Picasso|
|1.1|Mac OS|19 March 1987|Inca|
|88|Mac OS|March 1988||
|2.0|Windows|January 1989|Pinnacle|
|3|Mac OS, NeXT, other Unices|October 1990|Desert Moose|
|3.5|Silicon Graphics|1991||
|4|Windows|May 1992|Kangaroose|
|3.5|Solaris|1993||
|5|Mac OS|June 1993|Saturn|
|5.5|Mac OS, Solaris|June 1994|Janus|
|4.1|Windows|1995||
|6|Mac OS|February 1996|Popeye|
|7|Mac/Windows|May 1997|Simba|
|8|Mac/Windows|September 1998|Elvis|
|9|Mac/Windows|June 2000|Matisse|
|10|Mac/Windows|November 2001|Paloma|
|CS (11)|Mac/Windows|October 2003|Pangaea/Sprinkles|
|CS2 (12, 12.0.1)|Mac/Windows|27 April 2005|Zodiac|
|CS3 (13)|Mac/Windows|April 2007|Jason|
|CS4 (14)|Mac/Windows|October 2008||
|CS5 (15)|Mac/Windows|April 2010||
|CS6 (16)|Mac/Windows|April 2012||
|CC (17-28.4.1/2013-2024)|Mac/Windows|May 2013||

## Infobox (software)

- **name**: Adobe Illustrator
- **logo**: Adobe Illustrator CC icon.svg
- **developer**: Adobe Systems
- **latest release version**: 28.4.1
- **operating system**: Microsoft Windows, macOS
- **genre**: Vector graphics editor
- **license**: Proprietary software, Proprietary
Andouille

**Andouille** is a type of pork sausage. It is spicy (hot in taste) and smoked. There are different kinds, all with different combinations of pork meat, fat, intestines (tubes going to the stomach), and tripe (the wall of the stomach).

Other sorts are "French andouille" and "German andouille"; they are less spicy than Cajun. Cajun has extra salt, black pepper, and garlic. Andouille makers smoke the sausages over pecan wood and sugar cane for a maximum of seven or eight hours, at about 175 degrees Fahrenheit (80 degrees Celsius).
Arithmetic

In mathematics, **arithmetic** is the basic study of numbers. The four basic arithmetic operations are addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, although other operations such as exponentiation and roots are also studied in arithmetic.

Other arithmetic topics includes working with negative numbers, fractions, decimals and percentages.

## Overview

Most people learn arithmetic in primary school, but some people do not learn arithmetic and others forget the arithmetic they learned. Many jobs require a knowledge of arithmetic, and many employers complain that it is hard to find people who know enough arithmetic.

## Applications

A few of the many jobs that require arithmetic include carpenters, plumbers, mechanics, accountants, architects, doctors, and nurses. Arithmetic is needed in all areas of mathematics, science, and engineering.

Some arithmetic can be carried out mentally. A calculator can also be used to perform arithmetic. Computers can do it more quickly, which is one reason Global Positioning System receivers have a small computer inside.

## Examples

- (addition is commutative:  is the same as )
- (subtraction is not commutative:  is different from )
- (multiplication is commutative:  is the same as )
- (division is not commutative:  is different from

## Related pages

- Algebra
- Calculus
- Affine arithmetic
- Interval arithmetic
- Modular arithmetic
- Elementary algebra
Aquaculture

**Aquaculture** is the farming of fish, shrimp, abalones, algae, and other seafood.  Aquaculture supplies fish, such as catfish, salmon, and trout.  It was developed a few thousand years ago in China.  Aquaculture supplies over 20% of all the seafood harvested.

Fish farming has been practiced, in some parts of the world, for thousands of years. Goldfish originated about a thousand years ago in carp farms in China, and the Roman Empire farmed oysters and other seafood.  Today, half of the seafood eaten in the U.S. is farmed.  To help meet the growing global demand for seafood, aquaculture is growing fast.

The environmental impact of fish farming varies widely, depending on the species being farmed, the methods used and where the farm is located. When good practices are used, it's possible to farm seafood in a way that has very little impact to the environment. Such operations limit habitat damage, disease, escapes of farmed fish and the use of wild fish as feed.
Abbreviation

An **abbreviation** is a shorter way to write a word or phrase. People use abbreviations for words that they write a lot.

## In English

The English language occasionally uses the apostrophe mark ' to show that a word is written in a shorter way, but some abbreviations do not use this mark.

### Borrowed Latin phrases

More often, they use periods, especially the ones that come from the Latin language, which include **i.e.** [id est] (_that is_), **e.g.** [exempli gratia] (_for example_) and **et al.** [et alia] (_and others_).

Some new abbreviations have been created by scientists, by workers in companies and governments, and by people using the Internet. People often think words are abbreviations when in fact they are acronyms.

### Examples

Here are examples of common acronyms: The word "radar" is an acronym for "Radio Detection and Ranging". The name of the large computer company IBM comes from the words "International Business Machines". The name of the part of the United States government that sends rockets into outer space is NASA, from the words "National Aeronautics and Space Administration".

When people using the Internet think that something is very funny, they sometimes write "LOL" to mean "Laughing Out Loud". People sometimes write "ASAP" for "As Soon As Possible".

## Other websites

- Acronym Finder - largest acronym site with many ways to search for acronyms and abbreviations in many languages. Over 10-year history.
- All Acronyms - a website with a large number of abbreviations and acronyms
- Acronyms Abbreviations and Slang  - over 3 million different acronyms and abbreviations in searchable database
- SlangLang Abbreviations   - Slang Words: 2,700 abbreviations and their meanings
Ad hominem

**Ad hominem** is a Latin word for a type of argument. It is a word often used in rhetoric. Rhetoric is the science of speaking well, and convincing other people of your ideas.

Translated to English, _ad hominem_ means _against the person_. In other words, when someone makes an ad hominem, they are attacking the person they are arguing against, instead of what they are saying.

The term comes from the Latin word _homo_, which means human. _Hominem_ is a gender neutral version of the word _homo_. In ancient Rome it referred to all free men, or in other words, all free human beings.

Ad hominem can be a way to use reputation, rumors and hearsay to change the minds of other people listening. When a social network has already excluded or exiled one person, or applied a negative label to them, this can work more often.

It is most of the time considered to be a weak and poor argument. In courts and in diplomacy ad hominems are not appreciated.

Ad hominems are not wrong every time. For example, when people think that someone can't be trusted, things that they have said previously can be doubted.

## What an ad hominem argument looks like

In logic, a proof is something that starts with premises, and goes through a few logical arguments, to reach a conclusion.

### Normal (valid) proof

1. All humans are mortal.
1. Socrates is human.
1. Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

### Ad hominem example

1. Person A thinks abortion should be illegal.
1. Person A is uneducated and poor.
1. Therefore, abortion should not be illegal.

In this example it can be seen that the (completely unrelated) fact that person A is uneducated and poor is used to prove that abortion should not be illegal.

## Related pages

- Fallacy for a list of other types of (false) rhetorical arguments.
Abrahamic religions

The **Abrahamic religions** are a group of religious communities of faith that claim descent from the religion of the ancient Israelites and the worship of the God of Abraham. The Abrahamic religions are monotheistic. The term derives from patriarch Abraham, a major biblical figure from The Hebrew Bible. The major Abrahamic religions are  Christianity, Islam and Judaism.

## Religions

|Religion|Founded in|Claims descent from|Central symbol|Central scripture|Central figure|Adherents|Population|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Christianity|1st century CE|Isaac and Joseph|Christian cross|Christian Bible|Jesus|Christians|2.4 billion|
|Islam|7th century CE|Ishmael|Star and crescent|Qur'an|Muhammad|Muslims|1.9 billion|
|Judaism|20th–18th century BCE|Isaac and Joseph|Star of David|Tanakh|Moses|Jews|14 million|
|Bahá'í Faith|19th century CE|Keturah's children|9-pointed star|Aqdas|Bahá'ullah|Baha'is|10 million|
|Druze|11th century CE|Ishmael|Druze star|Hikmah|Hamza|Muwahhidun|5 million|
|Samaritanism|20th–18th century BCE|Isaac and Joseph||Pentateuch|Moses|Samaritans|820 followers|
|Rastafari|20th century CE|Haile Selassie|Lion of Judah|Christian Bible|Haile Selassie|Rastas|700,000|
|Mormonism|19th century CE|Joseph Smith|Christ leaving the tomb|Christian Bible and The Book of Mormon|Jesus|Latter-Day Saints|17 million|
|Mandaeism|4-6th century CE|Shem|The Drabsha|The Ginza Rabba|John the Baptist|Mandaens|60-100 thousand|
Anatomy

**Anatomy** is the study of the bodies of people and other animals. Anatomy is the study of the inside of the body and outside the body. Anatomy notes the position and structure of organs such as muscles, glands and bones. A person who studies anatomy is an anatomist.

The history of anatomy dates back to 1600 BC when Egyptians began studying human anatomy. They discovered the functions of many organs like the liver, spleen, kidneys, heart etc. and were the first to discover the structure and functions of the lymphatic system.

For long periods the dissection of deceased people was forbidden, and correct ideas about human anatomy was a long time coming.

Academic human anatomists are usually employed by universities, medical schools and teaching hospitals. They are often involved in teaching and research.  Gross anatomy studies parts of the body that are big enough to see. Micro-anatomy studies smaller parts.

## Body systems

There are different organ systems, such as the cardiovascular system, also known as the circulatory system (the system that gets blood around the body), the muscular system (the system that contains muscles), the nervous system (the system that controls the nerves, and the brain) and the skeleton (the bones).

Anatomy, physiology and biochemistry are similar basic medical sciences.

## Related pages

- Anatomical terms of location
- Medicine
- Zoology
    - Comparative anatomy
    - Organ (anatomy)
- Gray's Anatomy
- Vesalius
- William Harvey
Asteroid

An **asteroid** is a minor planet that orbits within the inner solar system. It is a small object in the Solar System that travels around the Sun. It is like a planet but smaller. They range from very small (smaller than a car) to 600 miles (1000 km) across. A few asteroids have an asteroid moon.

The name "asteroid" means "like a star" in the ancient Greek language. Asteroids may look like small stars in the sky, but they really do move around the Sun. Like planets, asteroids do not make their own light. Because of this, some people think "asteroids" is not a good name, and think that the name "planetoid" ("like a planet") would be a better name.

Asteroids are the leftover rock and other material from the formation of the Solar System. These rocks were too small to come together to make a planet. Some are made of carbon or metal. Depending on what's on the surface, they are classified into various asteroid spectral types including Type M (metal), Type S (stone), and Type C (carbon).

Most asteroids in our Solar System are in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. Many are not in the main asteroid belt. The ones that come close to Earth are called Near-Earth asteroids. Some scientists think asteroids striking the Earth killed off all the dinosaurs and caused some of the other extinction events.

Media told in 2025, about the chemical substances that were (found on, or) sampled from asteroid Bennu: "traces of brine" and "all five nucleobases that make up DNA and RNA: adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, and uracil". The sample was taken in 2020, and the space capsule with sample, landed in the United States in 2023.

## History

Giuseppe Piazzi found the first asteroid, in 1801. He called it Ceres, and it is the biggest object in the asteroid belt. Others, like Juno, Pallas, and Vesta were found later. In the 1850s, so many had been found that they were numbered by a Minor planet designation starting with 1 Ceres. Today, astronomers using computerized telescopes find thousands of asteroids every month. Asteroid impact prediction is one of their purposes.
Application

The word **application** has several uses.

- In medicine, 'application' means putting some drug or ointment usually on the skin where it is absorbed into the human body.

- In computer software, an application is a type of program which is designed for a particular function. Example: word processing.  It is most used to mean a Mobile app.

- In business or government, an application is a (usually paper) form filled out and handed in by a person seeking a privilege from a state or company, such as work, credit, some type of license or permit, or a place to live.

- At work, generally engineering, when dealing with certain materials or objects, an "application" is a purpose that material or object can be used for. Wood and steel have many applications.
Animal

**Animals** (or **Metazoa**) are living creatures with many cells that make up the kingdom **Animalia**.

Animals get their energy from other living things. Usually, they eat them or are parasites. Animals, plants, fungi, and some other living things have complex cells, so they are grouped together as eukaryotes.

The study of animals is called zoology. The study of ancient life is called palaeontology.

Most animals are mobile, meaning they can move around. Animals take in oxygen, and give out carbon dioxide. This cellular respiration is part of their metabolism (chemical working). In both these ways they are different from plants. Also, the cells of animals have different cell membranes to other eukaryotes like plants and fungi.

Plants are also multicellular eukaryotic organisms, but live by using light, water and basic elements to make their tissues.

## Grouping animals

There are many different types of animals. The common animals most people know are only about 3% of the animal kingdom. When biologists look at animals, they find things that certain animals have in common. They use this to group the animals in a biological classification. Several million species may exist, but biologists have only identified about one million.

Animals can mainly be divided into two main groups: the invertebrates and the vertebrates. Vertebrates have a backbone, or spine; invertebrates do not. Vertebrates are the only group to have an adaptive immune system, which may be partly responsible for their size and success.

Vertebrates are:
- Fish (or 'fishes': both ways are correct)
- Amphibia
- Reptiles
- Birds
- Mammals

Some invertebrates are:
- Insects
- Spiders
- Crustacea
- Molluscs (like a snail or squid)
- worms
- jellyfish

## Life styles

The animal mode of nutrition is called heterotrophic because they get their food from other living organisms. Some animals eat only plants; they are called herbivores. Other animals eat only meat and are called carnivores. Animals that eat both plants and meat are called omnivores. Some animals get their energy from photosynthetic protists that live inside them.

The environments animals live in vary greatly. By the process of evolution, animals adapt to the habitats they live in. A fish is adapted to its life in water and a spider is adapted to a life catching and eating insects. A mammal living on the savannahs of East Africa lives quite a different life from a dolphin or porpoise catching fish in the sea.

The fossil record of animals goes back about 600 million years to the Ediacaran period, or somewhat earlier. During the whole of this long time, animals have been constantly evolving, so that the animals alive on Earth today are very different from those on the edges of the sea-floor in the Ediacaran.

## Related pages

- List of animal phyla
- Ethology, the study of animal behaviour
Black pudding

**Black pudding** is an English name for zwarte pudding.  It is food made by cooking down the blood of any mammal (usually pigs or cattle) with meat, fat or filler until it is thick enough to congeal (become firm or solid) when cooled.

## Types of black pudding

In Great Britain, blood sausage is called  "black pudding". The ingredients include pig's blood, suet, bread, barley and oatmeal.  Bury is well known for them.  The most common kind of German _Blutwurst_ is made from fatty pork meat, beef blood and filler such as barley. Though already cooked and "ready to eat" it is usually served warm.

Other kinds of blood sausage include _boudin noir_ (France), _boudin rouge_ (Creole and Cajun) and _morcilla_ (Spain).

## History

A legend says that blood sausage was invented in a bet between two Bavarian butchers drunk on the alcoholic drink absinthe during the 14th century. Homer's _Odyssey_ from Ancient Greece says that "As when a man besides a great fire has filled a sausage with fat and blood and turns it this way and that and is very eager to get it quickly roasted...".

## Related pages

- Sausage
Boot device

A **boot device** is used to start a computer.  It is named after a boot which fits on the foot.  The word bootstrap is also closely related, and means, to use something simpler to get something more complex to make itself work better. It comes from the English phrase "pull yourself up by your own bootstraps."

Before a computer can operate normally, it must have operating system instructions that tell it how to perform basic functions.  A boot device loads the operating system into the memory of the computer.

Devices that can boot a computer are usually **boot disks** or **boot drives** (normally a hard drive or Solid State Drive, but can be a floppy disk, flash drive or a CD). Some network computers use _boot chips_ that get the operating system over a network. Web phones also use such chips to identify the user to the mobile phone network.  **Boot card** standards may let many users boot kiosk computers with full privacy and access to all application software they own. There are also **boot boards** or **boot _add-in_ cards** that are more permanent than boot cards.

Some people refer to the boot device as just a **boot** and non-boot devices as **data devices**, although it is not the computer but the operating system that cares about the difference between these.

## Origin

The boot in **boot device** is the same as booting (or starting up). This is short for bootstrapping, or to start with simple stuff and make complex stuff out of it.

## Related pages

- Booting
- Boot Loop
Boot

A **boot** is a type of footwear that protects the foot and ankle. Boots are higher and larger than shoes and sandals. Some boots are high enough to protect the calves (lower part of the leg) as well.  Some boots are held on with _bootstraps_ or _bootlaces_.  Some also have **spats** or _gaiters_ to keep water out.  Most have a very strong _boot sole_, the bottom part of a boot.

## Types of boots

- **Rain boots** (or rubber boots) are made from rubber or plastic. Rain boots protect a person's feet from water and rain. People who work on fishing boats and farmers wear rubber boots to keep their feet dry. People who work in chemical factories wear rubber boots to protect their feet from dangerous chemicals.

- **Winter boots** are boots that keep a person's feet warm in cold weather. People in cold countries such as Canada and Sweden wear winter boots during the cold season. Winter boots can be made from many different materials, such as leather, fabric, or plastic. Winter boots are insulated with wool or fur to keep the feet warm. Most winter boots also keep people's feet dry.

- **Work boots** (or "construction boots") are designed for people who work in construction or factory jobs. Work boots often have a steel toe cover to protect the person's toes. Work boots are usually made of strong leather, to protect the person's foot from sharp objects or dangerous chemicals. Some work boots have a flat piece of steel in the sole to protect the foot from sharp nails. Many countries require construction workers to wear work boots when they are on a construction site.

- **Fashion boots** are boots that are worn for style than for protection. Usually the term is used for women's boots. These kind of boots come in many heights, where the top ends at the ankle, the knee, or the thigh. The ones that are tall are usually closed by a zipper or can stretch for putting it on easily. This is because using shoe laces would take time for the taller types.
Browser

A **browser** is a name given to any animal, usually a herbivorous mammal, which eats leaves and shrubs rather than grass. It is contrasted with grazers, which eat grass.
Beekeeping

**Beekeeping** or **apiculture** is the farming of honeybees.

## Uses

The keeping of bees is usually, and has been in the past, for honey. That is becoming less true. Instead, it is more used for crop pollination and other products. These are wax and propolis.

There is only one queen bee in each hive and she is bigger than the rest. She lays all the eggs, which makes all the other bees in the hive her daughters and sons. However, they do not control the hive.

## Types of beekeeping

The largest beekeeping operations are agricultural businesses that are operated for profit. Some people also have small beekeeping operations that they do as a hobby. Urban beekeeping is a growing trend, and some have found that "city bees" are actually healthier than "rural bees" because there are fewer pesticides and greater biodiversity.

## Threats

Colony Collapse Disorder is a growing problem, along with mites.
Being

- _Being is also a present tense part of to be_

The word **being** means a living person or animal. ‘Human being’ means the same as ’person’. Men, women, and children are human beings.

Some people write stories or make movies about beings from other planets. Most religions talk about supernatural beings, for example spirits, angels, devils, gods, or God.
Bottle

A **bottle** is a container used to carry liquids. Bottles can have many different sizes. Bottles are usually made of glass or plastic. Drinks such as milk, wine, lemonade, soft drinks, and water are often put into bottles. Other liquids put into bottles include chemicals like bleach or detergent, and some kinds of medicines.
Berry

The word **berry** is used for many different kinds of small fruits that have many seeds and can be used as food. Some examples are raspberry, strawberry, sutberry, lingonberry and blueberry.

When botanists talk about _berries_, they mean a simple fruit produced from a single ovary. They sometimes call this _true berry_, to distinguish it from _false berries_. By that statement of how words are used, grapes or tomatoes are true berries.

The berry is the most common type of soft fruit in which the entire ovary wall gets to the right stage of development of the pericarp which can be taken as food. The flowers of these plants have an upper ovary with one or more carpels. The seeds are inside the soft body of the ovary.

Berries are small, sweet, bright colored fruits. Due to this, they are able to bring more animals towards them and spread their seeds.

## Types of berries

Some fruits that are called _berries_ in English are not _true berries_ by the use of words above. These include raspberries, strawberry, sutberry, blackberries, cranberries, and boysenberries. Some true berries do not have _berry_ in their name. These include tomatoes, bananas, eggplants, guavas, pomegranates and chillies. Pumpkins, cucumbers, melons, oranges and lemons are also berries that have slightly different structure and may be called by different names (pepo for pumpkins, cucumbers, and melons, or hesperidium for oranges and lemons).

Some fruits are "botanical berries", meaning that scientists who study plants call them berries. But not all of these are the types of fruit that we usually call berries. Also, some of the fruits we usually call berries, are not "botanical berries".
Boil

**Boil** might mean:

- Boiling, heating a liquid to the point where it turns into gas
- Boil, a type of _Staphylococcal infection_
Beard

A **beard** is the hair growing on the lower part of a man's face.

The hair that grows on the upper lip of some men is a mustache.  When a man has hair only below the lower lip and above the chin, it is called a soul patch.  Some men have a lot of hair and a big beard, and some have very little. In the modern world, many men shave part or all of their beards, or cut their beard so it does not get very long.

Some animals also have hair like this, and people sometimes also call this hair a beard.
Black

In light, **black** is the complete absence of all color. It is a shade. In painting, however, black pigment is the combination of all colors. In heraldry, black is called "sable". It is the opposite of white. No color can have the same level of dark pigmentation without turning itself into black. It appears as a dark shade that can reflect light into the rainbow.

## Black in science and related

A way to create black objects is to mix pigments. A pigment works by reflecting only the color of other colored objects because they absorb more light.

## Meaning of blacks

Black is a neutral color it is not a cool color or a hot color its can be made by mixing different pigments. Black is seen as a scary color or dark color. Black can also be seen as strength and courage and sometimes fear.

Black is a color seen with fear and the unknown. It can have a bad meaning (blackbird, black bunny) or a good meaning ('in the black', 'black is beautiful'). Black can stand for strength and boldness. It can be a formal, elegant and high-class color (black tie, black Mercedes).

## Related pages

- List of colors
- Atomic physics
- Blackbody radiation
- Quantum mechanics
- Vantablack
Biology

**Biology** is the science that studies life, living things, and the evolution of life. Living things include animals, plants, fungi (such as mushrooms), and microorganisms such as bacteria and archaea.
Britain

**Britain** may mean:
- Great Britain, a large island with the countries of England, Scotland and Wales
- The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, a sovereign state in Europe with Great Britain and the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland.
- The realm of the Monarchy of the United Kingdom, comprising the United Kingdom, the Crown Dependencies, and British Overseas Territories.

**Britain** may also refer to:

## Places

- British Isles, an archipelago comprising Great Britain, Ireland and many other smaller islands
- British Islands, the UK, Channel Islands and Isle of Man collectively
- Roman Britain, a Roman province corresponding roughly to modern-day England and Wales
- Historical predecessors to the present-day United Kingdom:
    - Kingdom of Great Britain (1707 to 1800)
    - United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (1801 to 1922)
- Britain (place name)
- Britain, Virginia, an unincorporated community in the United States

## People

- Calvin Britain (1800–1862), an American politician
- Clarissa Britain (1816–1895), an American inventor
- Kristen Britain (born 1965), an American novelist

## Other uses

- Captain Britain, a Marvel Comics superhero

## Related pages

- England
- Britannia
- Brittonic languages
Chemistry

**Chemistry** is the science that studies what everything is made of and how it changes. It looks at matter, which is anything that takes up space. Chemistry tries to understand how matter is built, how it behaves, and how it can change. Chemistry explores how tiny particles called atoms and molecules come together, break apart, or rearrange to form new substances. People often call chemistry the “central science” because it connects other sciences like physics (which studies energy and forces) and biology (which studies living things). Chemistry helps explain things all around us, like why iron rusts, how food gives us energy, and how soap cleans our hands.
Compound

**Compound** may refer to:

## Architecture and built environments

- Compound (enclosure), a group of buildings that has a shared purpose, usually inside a fence or wall
    - Compound (fortification), a type of the above with defensive structures
- Compound (migrant labour), a hostel for migrant workers
- The Compound, an place in Palm Bay, Florida, US
- Komboni or compound, a type of slum in Zambia

## Government and law

- Composition (fine), a legal procedure in use after the English Civil War
    - Committee for Compounding with Delinquents, an English Civil War institution that allowed Parliament to compound the estates of Royalists
- Compounding treason, an offence under the common law of England
- Compounding a felony, a previous offense under the common law of England

## Linguistics

- Compound (linguistics), a word that is made of words that add together
- Compound sentence (linguistics), a sentence that is made up of two or more independent clauses

### Biology and medicine

- Compounding, the mixing of drugs in pharmacy
- Compound fracture, a complete fracture of bone where at least one broken piece has damaged the skin, soft tissue or surrounding body cavity
- Compound leaf, a type of leaf being divided into smaller leaflets

### Chemistry and materials science

- Chemical compound, a substance that is made up of two or more elements
- Plastic compounding, a method of mixing polymers and additives to make plastic

### Vehicles and engines

- Compound engine, a steam engine in which steam is expanded through two or three cylinders before exhaust
- Turbo-compound engine, an internal combustion engine where exhaust gases exits through power-turbines
- Compounding pressure, a method in which pressure in a steam turbine is made to drop in a number of stages

### Other uses in science, technology, and mathematics

- Compound bow, a type of bow for archery
- Polyhedral compound, a polyhedron composed of multiple polyhedra sharing the same centre

### Common names

- Compound (music), an attribute of a time signature
- Compound interest, in finance, unpaid interest that is added to the principal
- Compound chocolate, an inexpensive chocolate substitute that uses cocoa but does not have cocoa butter

### Proper names

- _The Compound_ (book), a 2008 young adult novel by S. A. Bodeen
- Compound (company), a venture capital firm previously known as Metamorphic Ventures
- Eisenhuth Horseless Vehicle Company, or Compound, a former US automobile manufacturer
Chinese

**Chinese** might mean:

- Anything related to the country of China
- Chinese people, the people of China
- Chinese language
- Chinese characters, the symbols used to write the Chinese and Japanese languages
Classical element

The Greek **classical elements** are fire, air, water, and earth. In Greek philosophy, science and medicine, these make up a whole.

- Fire is both hot and dry.
- Air is both hot and wet.
- Water is both cold and wet.
- Earth is both cold and dry.

The image below has two squares on top of each other. The corners of one are the classical elements. The corners of the other are the properties.

Galen said these elements were used by Hippocrates to describe the human body. The elements are linked to the four humours: phlegm (water), yellow bile (fire), black bile (earth), and blood (air).

In Chinese Taoism the elements are metal, wood, water, fire, earth ().

Traditionally, only four classical elements were thought to exist. Later a fifth element, known as the luminiferous aether also known as **quintessence** was thought to be the final element.
Colchester

**Colchester** is a city in the northern part of the English county of Essex. It has a population of 130,245 people. People believe that Colchester is the oldest Roman town in England.

## History

Before Roman times, Colchester was _Camulodunon_. This is a Celtic name that came from Camulos. Camulos was the Celtic god of war. The Romans called Colchester _Camulodunum_ (written "CAMVLODVNVM") and made it the capital of Roman Britain. Colchester was attacked and burnt by Boudicca in 61 AD.  The Romans moved their capital of Britannia to Londinium (now London), but Camulodunum remained an important city until the fifth century, when the Saxons conquered the region.

The Roman town of _Camulodunum_, officially known as _Colonia Victricensis_, reached its peak in the Second and Third centuries AD.  It may have reached a population of 30,000 in those centuries, but when the Romans withdrew from Britannia in 410 AD it probably had fewer than 5,000 inhabitants.

The church at the Benedictine abbey of Saint John the Baptist was destroyed in 1539.  This action was part of the dissolution of the monasteries by King Henry VIII.  Only a gate remains, that people still go to visit.

King Cunobelinus (or "Cunobelin") was from Colchester.

Until 2022, Colchester was officially a town, not a city. On 5 September, Queen Elizabeth II signed letters patent to grant it city status. This was planned as part of her Platinum Jubilee celebrations. However, she died three days later. On 29 September, these letters were publicly released.

## Twin cities

Colchester is twinned with the following cities:
- Imola, Italy
- Wetzlar, Germany
- Avignon, France

## Bibliography

- B D'Ambrosio. "Roman Camulodunum". Universita' Statale di Genova (Genova University). Genova, 2007

## Infobox (uk place)

- **country**: England
- **official name**: Colchester
- **population**: 130,245
- **population ref**: (United Kingdom Census 2021, 2021 census)
- **shire district**: Borough of Colchester, Colchester
- **shire county**: Essex
- **region**: East of England
- **constituency westminster**: Colchester (UK Parliament constituency), Colchester
- **post town**: COLCHESTER
- **postcode area**: CO
- **postcode district**: CO1 – CO7
- **dial code**: 01206
- **os grid reference**: TL997254
- **static image**: Colchester town center.jpg
- **static image caption**: <small>Colchester Town Centre</small>
Cartography

**Cartography** is making maps. It is part of geography. How people make maps is always changing. In the past, maps were drawn by hand, but today most printed maps are made using computers and people usually see maps on computer screens<nowiki/>. Someone who makes maps is called a cartographer.

Making a map can be as simple as drawing a direction on a napkin, or as complicated as showing a whole country or world. Anyone can make a map, but cartographers spend their lives learning how to make better maps.

For many centuries maps were usually carefully drawn onto paper or parchment. Now they are made on a computer which makes them look neater with accurate images.

Maps are of two main types:
- General maps with a variety of features.
- Thematic maps with particular themes for specific audiences.

General maps are produced in a series. Governments produce them in larger-scale and smaller-scale maps of great detail.

Thematic maps are now very common. They are necessary to show spatial, cultural and social data.

## Related pages

- Geodesy
- Map projection
- Surveying
- Topography
Creator

A **creator** is a person who creates something.

In some religions (Judaism, Christianity, Islam) God (or Allah meaning **the God** in Arabic) is the most important and original creator of the whole universe - including Man who is made "in his image" (see Genesis) to observe it and control it like God. The idea that anything that a person is creating, like an idea, can be owned as property comes from the ethical traditions and legal codes that came from these religions.

In other traditions (Buddhism, Native American mythology) anyone has this potential for creating, and can become part of the greater creating of the universe. Stewardship of home, land and all of Earth is a test for participating in this, or just good sense.

## Related pages

- Creation myth
Contact network

**Contact network** may mean:
- Creative network
- Social network
- Power network
Chorizo

**Chorizo** is a pork (pig-meat) sausage which people first made in the Iberian Peninsula. It is made with large pieces of fatty pork, chili pepper and paprika. The special taste of this sausage comes from the mild Spanish paprika in it.

In the western hemisphere, the Mexican and Caribbean types are better known. These types of chorizo are made with smaller pieces of pork and different seasonings and peppers are used.

Cured smoked chorizo is edible and can be eaten without cooking. Fresh chorizo must be cooked before eating. It can be eaten by its self, or as part of meal. It can also be used in place of ground beef or pork.

Chorizo can be fresh. Also it can be dried. It can be spicy or not spicy depending on the recipe. There are many ways to eat chorizo. It can be sliced and eaten as a snack, or cooked. Dishes like stews, soups and rice dishes also use Chorizo. In Spain, chorizo is served as a small plate of food with drinks. In Latin America, chorizo is served with beans and eggs for breakfast. To make chorizo, the pork is cut into small pieces. Then it is mixed with spices and other ingredients. The mixture is then put into a casing. Casing is a thin, tube-like skin. Casing is made from the intestine of a pig. The chorizo is then left to dry for a few weeks. By doing this chorizo gets its special flavor and texture. There are many kinds of chorizo. Recipe of chorizo also different in different countries. In Spain, there are two main kinds of chorizo: chorizo de verdeo, and chorizo de cantimpalo. Chorizo de verdeo made with white wine and chorizo de cantimpalomade with red wine. In Latin America, chorizo is made with a mixture of chili peppers and other spices. It makes chorizo spicy. There are a few different ways to cook with chorizo. One popular way is to slice the chorizo and fry it in a pan until it is crispy. It can then be added to dishes like soups, stews and rice dishes. Chorizo can also be grilled, which gives it a smoky flavor. It can be sliced and added to sandwiches or served as a topping on pizza. Chorizo is a tasty and versatile food that can be enjoyed in many different ways.