juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Spruce

**Spruce** are trees of the genus ***Picea***, a genus of about 35 species of coniferous evergreen trees in the family Pinaceae. They live in the northern temperate and taiga regions of the Earth.

Spruce are large trees, from 20 to 60 (–95) m tall when mature, and can be distinguished by their conical form and their needles, that are attached singly to the branches in a spiral fashion. The needles are shed when 4–10 years old.

## Growth

More than half of spruce seedling mortality occurs during the first growing season and is very high during the first winter. Seedlings get freezing damage, frost heaving and erosion, and smothered by litter and snow-pressed vegetation.

Losses often remain high for some years. "Establishment" is a subjective concept based on the idea that once a seedling has successfully reached a certain size, not much is likely to prevent its further development.

## Classification

There are 35 species alive in the world. The Plant List has 59 accepted spruce names. The other list is World Flora Online.

## Other websites

- Arboretum de Villardebelle Picea cone photos Cones of selected species (page 1)
- Arboretum de Villardebelle Picea cone photos Cones of selected species (page 2)
- Gymnosperm Database – Picea
Christmas tree

**A Christmas tree** is a tradition associated with the celebration of Christmas. It is usually an evergreen coniferous tree that is cut and brought into the home. In Europe, the tree is traditionally a Norway spruce tree.

The tree is decorated with Christmas lights and colourful ornaments during the days around Christmas. An angel or a star is often placed at the top of the tree. Fir trees outside the home may be decorated in a similar fashion. The custom of the Christmas tree has its origin among the Protestant peoples of Northern Europe. It is not a religious symbol.

## In minority communities

There Is an annual Christmas tree lighting party in the courtyard of the YMCA in Gaza City () in the Gaza Strip.

## Other websites

- British Royal Family Christmas trees
Cell division

**Cell division** is how a cell, called the parent cell, divides into two cells, called daughter cells. When the cell divides, everything inside it divides also. The nucleus and the chromosomes divide, and the mitochondria divide also.

In mitosis, an ordinary body (somatic) cell divides to make two daughter cells.

In meiosis, a cell divides twice, to produce four gametes (sex cells). The first division of meiosis is a special kind of cell division called a reduction division because the number of chromosomes is halved. The second division of meiosis is similar to mitosis.

Cells are the 'building blocks' of life, and cell division is a basic feature of life. For simple unicellular organisms like Amoebozoa, one cell division reproduces the entire organism. On a larger scale, cell division can create offspring from multicellular organisms, such as plants that grow from cuttings. But most importantly, cell division enables organisms that are able to sexually reproduce to develop from the one-celled fertilised egg (zygote). Cell division also allows for continual renewal and repair of the organism.
Saparmurat Niyazov

**Saparmurat Niyazov** (February 19, 1940 - December 21, 2006) was the first President of Turkmenistan. He served from October 27, 1991 to December 21, 2006. Saparmurat Niyazov also called himself Türkmenbaşy, which means leader of the Turkmen people. He tried to make a cult of personality, which means that he put many pictures and statues of himself around his country to make himself seem important. While he was president, Niyazov made doing many things against the law, such as growing a beard or ballet dancing. He died from a heart attack on December 21, 2006, and Gurbanguly Berdimuhammedow became the new president of Turkmenistan.
Spruce (disambiguation)

**Spruce** are trees in the genus _Picea_. "Spruce" may also mean:

**Places:**
- Spruce, Wisconsin, United States of America
- Spruce Township, Minnesota, United States of America

**People:**
- Richard Spruce, English botanist and explorer
- Stuart Spruce, former rugby player for Bradford
Temperate climate

In geography, **temperate** latitudes of the Earth lie between the subtropics and the polar circles. Average yearly temperatures in these regions are not extreme, not burning hot nor freezing cold. Temperate means moderate.

Unlike in the tropics, temperatures can change greatly here, between summer and winter. So, most places with a temperate climate have four seasons: Other areas with a temperate climate can have very unpredictable weather. One day it may be sunny, the next may be rainy, and after that it may be cloudy. This is normal in summer as well as in winter. These are the main types of temperate climate:

- A maritime climate is generally for location<nowiki/>s near the sea. That includes London, Dublin, Melbourne or Auckland. Most places do not have a rainy season and a dry season. Prevailing winds in the temperate zone are from the west.  The western edge of temperate continents usually get this maritime climate. Examples are Western Europe, and western North America at latitudes between 40° and 60° north (65°N in Europe).
- Some parts of the temperate zone have a Mediterranean climate, which have a dry summer – for example Rome, Cape Town, Santiago or Adelaide.
- Some parts of the temperate zone, especially in the northern part of the continental climate, have severe winters – for example Moscow or Minnesota – this is called a hemiboreal climate.
- Some places in the temperate zone have hot summers and cold winters, for example Chicago, Beijing, Budapest or Almaty.
- Small areas of a country may have their own microclimate. Even the UK has a little rainforest.

The 4 seasons in the temperate zone are Spring, Summer, Autumn, and Winter
Lithuanian language

The **Lithuanian language** is a Baltic language. It is from Lithuania, spoken in a few countries in Europe, as well as in the Americas and Australia.

Lithuanian and Latvian are the only remaining Baltic languages. Both languages have much in common. Lithuanian, however, adopted fewer words and phrases from German and other languages. However, many words were adopted into Lithuanian by Slavic languages long ago, but in 1920, the Lithuanian philologist Jonas Jablonskis and others replaced them with native Lithuanian words.

There are two main dialects of Lithuanian. _Samogitian_ is used mostly in West Lithuania, and the other that is widely used in the whole country is _Aukštaitian_ (Highlanders' dialect). Standard Lithuanian comes from West Aukštaitian.

The first book written in Lithuanian is _Katekizmas_ by Martynas Mažvydas. It was published in East Prussia in 1547.

Even though Lithuanian was written down relatively recently, it is known for being close to old Proto-European languages by keeping old traits that are found only in early languages like Vedic Sanskrit and have been lost in later languages.

## Infobox (language)

- **name**: Lithuanian
- **nativename**: lietuvių kalba
- **states**: Lithuania
- **region**: Europe
- **speakers**: 2.96 million (Lithuania)
170,000 (Abroad)
3.13 million (Worldwide)
- **familycolor**: Indo-European
- **fam1**: Indo-European languages, Indo-European
- **fam2**: Balto-Slavic languages, Balto-Slavic
- **fam3**: Baltic languages, Baltic
- **fam4**: East Baltic languages, Eastern Baltic
- **dia1**: Samogitian dialect, Samogitian, Aukštaitian dialect, Aukštaitian
- **iso1**: lt
- **iso2**: lit
- **iso3**: lit
- **lingua**: 54-AAA-a
- **script**: Roman alphabet, Roman script
- **nation**:

- **agency**: Commission of the Lithuanian Language
- **notice**: IPA
Depeche Mode

**Depeche Mode** are an English electronic music band formed in Basildon, Essex in 1980. The band's name was taken from French fashion magazine, _Dépêche mode_. This translates to "fashion update" or "fashion news dispatch". The band has sold over 100 million records around the world. Depeche Mode were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2020. The band has two current members: Dave Gahan and Martin Gore.

## Discography

- Studio albums
- _Speak & Spell_ (1981)
- _A Broken Frame_ (1982)
- _Construction Time Again_ (1983)
- _Some Great Reward_ (1984)
- _Black Celebration_ (1986)
- _Music for the Masses_ (1987)
- _Violator_ (1990)
- _Songs of Faith and Devotion_ (1993)
- _Ultra_ (1997)
- _Exciter_ (2001)
- _Playing the Angel_ (2005)
- _Sounds of the Universe_ (2009)
- _Delta Machine_ (2013)
- _Spirit_ (2017)
- _Memento Mori_ (2023)

## Other websites

- The official Depeche Mode website
- Depeche Mode International  (Official Fan Club on Smule)

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Depeche Mode
- **img**: Tierecke dm (cropped).jpg
- **img capt**: Depeche Mode in concert, 2006.
Other musicians Peter Gordeno (musician), Peter Gordeno (far left) and Christian Eigner (centre-left), with original members Dave Gahan (centre), Martin Gore (centre-right) and Andy Fletcher (musician), Andy Fletcher (far right).
- **img size**: 250
- **landscape**: Yes
- **background**: group_or_band
- **alias**: Composition of Sound  early 1980
- **origin**: Basildon, Essex, England
- **years active**: –present
- **label**: Mute Records, Mute, EMI Records, EMI, Sire Records, Sire, Reprise Records, Reprise, Some Bizzare Records, Some Bizzare, Columbia Records, Columbia
- **current members**: Dave Gahan
Martin Gore
- **past members**: Vince Clarke
Andy Fletcher (musician), Andy Fletcher
Alan Wilder
Gingivitis

**Gingivitis** is the inflammation of the gums around the teeth. Gingivitis may be caused by a buildup of plaque and tartar because the teeth have not been cleaned properly. It can also be a manifestation of a systemic disease, as in diabetes or AIDS.

Sometimes excessive brushing or flossing can wear out the gums causing gum recession.

If gingivitis is not treated by proper oral hygiene, it can lead to periodontitis, which is a more advanced state of gum disease, that affects the bone and is harder to treat.

## Other websites

- Gingivitis and Periodontitis
- Gum Disease Treatments
Taiga

The **taiga** or **boreal forest** is a large area of coniferous forests. It covers most of inland Alaska, Canada, Sweden, Finland, inland Norway, northern Kazakhstan, Russia (especially Siberia), and parts of the northern continental United States.

In Canada, **boreal forest** is the term used to refer to the southern part of those forests, and "taiga" is used to describe the northern areas south of the Arctic tree line that separates it from tundra.  The trees are mostly pines, spruces and larches. The climate has cold winters and cool summers.

## Other websites

- Boreal Forests/Taiga (WWF)
- Terraformers Canadian Taiga Conservation Foundation
- Arctic and Taiga (Canadian Geographic)
- Coniferous Forest. Earth Observatory. NASA. http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Laboratory/Biome/bioconiferous.html .
- Taiga Rescue Network (TRN)  A network of NGOs, indigenous peoples or individuals that works to protect the boreal forests.
- Index of Boreal Forests/Taiga ecoregions at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu
- The Nature Conservancy and its partners work to protect the Canadian Boreal Forest
- Slater museum of natural history: Taiga
Conifer

**Conifers** are gymnosperms. They are cone-bearing seed plants.

All living conifers are woody plants which are perennial. Most are trees; some are shrubs. They are the Division **Pinophyta** or **Coniferophyta**.

Living conifers are all in the order **Pinales**. Typical examples include cedars, cypresses, firs, junipers, kauris, larches, pines, redwoods, spruces, and yews.

Species of conifers can be found in almost all parts of the world, and are often the most common plants in their habitats, as in the taiga. Conifers are of great economic value, and their wood is mainly used for timber and paper-making The wood of conifers is known as softwood, though yew wood is actually quite hard. The division _Coniferae_ contains about 700 living species.

## Evolution

The earliest conifers were in the late Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian) period (about 300 million years ago), Pinophytes, Cycads, and Ginkgos all developed at this time. These plants live without being so dependent on water. Other adaptations are pollen (so fertilisation can occur without water) and the seed, which allows the embryo to be transported and developed elsewhere.

Conifers appear to be one of the taxa that benefited from the Permian–Triassic extinction event. They were the dominant land plants of the Mesozoic era. Conifers were eventually overtaken by their descendants, the  flowering plants, which first appeared in the Cretaceous. Flowering plants became dominant in the Cainozoic era.

Conifers were a main food of herbivorous dinosaurs, and their resins and poisons no doubt gave them some protection against herbivores. All the reproductive features of modern conifers had evolved by the end of the Mesozoic era.

## List of genera

- _Araucariaceae_
    - _Agathis_ (kauri)
    - _Araucaria_ (monkey puzzle)
    - _Wollemia_ (wollemi pine)
- _Cupressaceae_
    - _Athrotaxis_ (pencil pine)
    - _Cryptomeria_ (Japanese redwood)
    - _Cunninghamia_
    - _Glyptostrobus_ (Chinese swamp cypress)
    - _Metasequoia_ (dawn redwood)
    - _Sequoia_ (coast redwood)
    - _Sequoiadendron_ (giant redwood)
    - _Taiwania_
    - _Taxodium_
- _Pinaceae_
    - _Abies_ (fir)
    - _Cathaya_
    - _Cedrus_ (cedar)
    - _Keeteleeria_
    - _Larix_ (larch)
    - _Nothotsuga_ (bristlecone hemlock)
    - _Picea_ (spruce)
    - _Pinus_ (pine)
    - _Pseudolarix_ (golden larch)
    - _Pseudotsuga_ (Douglas fir)
    - _Tsuga_ (hemlock)

## Related pages

- Gymnosperm
- Conifer cones
Binomial nomenclature

**Binomial nomenclature** is a way of naming and categorizing species in biology. "Binomial nomenclature" means "two-part name" or "system of two-part names". In this system, the name of a species is made of two parts: one indicating the genus and one indicating the species. The name of the genus is always capitalized; the name of the species is not.

For example, in binomial nomenclature, modern humans are called _Homo sapiens_ because they belong to the genus _Homo_ and the species _sapiens_.

## History

Swedish botanist and physician Carolus Linnaeus (1707–1778) popularized this system.  He gave a two-part name to every species he knew.  This kind of naming had been used before Linnaeus by some naturalists, but after Linnaeus, it was accepted as a good method.

Linnaeus chose Latin names: first, because it avoided competitive nationalism; second, because most educated people in his day learned Latin.

## Value of binomial nomenclature

The value of the binomial nomenclature comes from several things.

### It is universal and unique

Binomial nomenclature saves words because it replaces long descriptions, it is used everywhere, and the names are unique and stable.

### Everyone uses the same names

The system ended the use of local common names, which was the source of much confusion. When Western science was done by just a few European countries, their common names for species were well-known. But as it happened, the common names in all countries were rather different. The same name might be used for more than one species, and several species given the same name.

#### Example

For example, people in North America and Europe use the word "robin" to refer to unrelated birds. The common name "robin" is not specific enough to show which type of robin the bird is.

The Linnaeus system avoids this confusion because everyone worldwide uses the same name for the same species. Instead of describing both species as "robins," binomial nomenclature calls the American robin _Turdus migratorius_, and calls the European robin _Erithacus rubecula_. This makes it clear that these are different species that do not even belong to the same genus or family.

### Problems

The system has been a great success, but it does have some problems. It is not always clear what is a species and what is not. Many species are quite clear. However, sometimes biologists disagree about whether something is a single species or several species.

Linnaeus himself noticed that species were not always distinct. Today we know something about why this is so. In practice, international committees make decisions about naming species in difficult cases.

## Where names come from

There are no rules about what a genus or a species must be named. The parts of the name may come from anywhere. Often they are Latin words which come originally from ancient Greek. This is gradually changing, and some names are now Latinized words (for example, describing a place, a person, or a name from a local language).

## Related pages

- Biological classification
- Taxonomy

## Other websites

- The Language of Horticulture
System

A **system**  is a group of related things that work together as a whole. These things can be real or imaginary. Systems can be man-made things like a car engine or natural things like a star system. Systems can also be concepts made by people to organize ideas.

A **subsystem** is a system that is part of some larger system. For example, in computer networking, a disk subsystem is a part of a computer system.

## Definition

- A system is a group of things that connect and form some kind of coherent whole.

One of the founders of physiology, Claude Bernard, took a big step when he noticed that the internal systems of the body tend to keep things the same even if they are disturbed. He called the functions which keep system stable as homeostasis. This led towards the ideas of error-correction, feedback and regulation. These are all typical of systems which have some kind of goal and can adjust their behaviour so as to correct errors.

## Example

The Solar System is an example of a system. The Solar System includes the Sun and the eight planets, as well as the moons of those planets. These and other members are linked by gravity and by their history as a  planetary system.

## Types of systems

There are many kinds of systems. The key is that the elements of a system work together as a whole whilst still keeping their own identity. This is why planetary systems and body systems are good examples. They work together but have their own separate identity.
- Systems in a living person, such as digestive system, nervous system, and so on. These systems operate so as to keep the body's physiology going within limits.
- Systems of life, such as life cycle, carbon cycle, or ecosystem
- Systems in science, such as the  solar system
- Any mechanical or electrical gadgets where parts work together to keep the output within certain limits. A thermostat is the classic example of this.

## Related pages

- Systems theory
- Systems science
- Cybernetics
Valencia orange

The **Valencia orange** is an orange first made by the Californian agronomist William Wolfskill, on his farm in Santa Ana.  The orange was later sold to the Irvine Company, who later used half of its land to grow the orange.  Orange County is named after this orange because of its popularity.  The Irvine Company's Valencia operation later split from the company and became Sunkist.  Cultivation of the Valencia in Orange County had stopped by the mid-1990s because of rising property costs, which caused what remained of the Southern California orange industry to move to Florida. It is usually harvested between March and June.
Amanda Michalka

**Amanda Joy "AJ" Michalka** (born April 10, 1991) is an American singer and actress from Torrance, California. Her parents are Carrey Begley-Michalka and Mark Michalka. Her older sister is actress Alyson Michalka. She and her sister are in the band 78violet. She starred with her sister in the Disney movie _Cow Belles_. She is of German-American ancestry.

## Biography

Amanda Michalka was born in Torrance, California in 1991. Her older sister, Alyson "Aly" Michalka and their parents moved to Seattle, Washington. There her parents made sure they were exposed to all varieties of music. They then moved back to Southern California, where they still live.

### Career

Michalka was in a number of WORD Music Productions at her church in Southern California as a young child. Michalka plays a variety of instruments such as acoustic guitar, electric guitar, piano, and bongos. She used to be a model for catalogs. In March 2006, she made her first appearance on the Disney Channel in the Disney Channel Original Movie _Cow Belles_, as "Courtney Callum", along with sister Aly, as "Taylor Callum". She has also made appearances on shows such as _Oliver Beene_, _Six Feet Under_, _The Guardian_, and _General Hospital_. She also appeared with her sister in the MTV movie, _Super Sweet 16: The Movie_.

## Albums

- _Insomniatic_ (2007)
- _Acoustic Hearts of Winter_ (2006)
- _Into The Rush_ (2005)

### Feature movies

- _The Lovely Bones_ (2009) - Clarissa, Susie’s best friend.

### Television movies

- _Super Sweet 16: The Movie_ (2007) - Sara Conners
- _Cow Belles_ (2006) - Courtney Callum

### Television series

- _Aly & AJ: Sister Act_ (2007) - Herself
- _Kitty's Dish_ (2005) - Kitty
- _Six Feet Under_ (2004) - Ashley
- _General Hospital_ (2004) - Ashley B.
- _Oliver Beene_ (2003-2004) - Bonnie
- _The Guardian_ (2002-2004) - Shannon Gressler
- _Birds of Prey_ (2002-2003) - Young Dinah

### Guest appearances

- _Fox & Friends_ (2007) - Herself
- _Live with Regis and Kelly_ (2007) - Herself
- _Punk'd_ (2007) -  Herself
- _Total Request Live_ (2006) - Herself
- _Live with Regis and Kelly_ (2006) - Herself
- _Good Morning America_ (2006) - Herself
- _America's Got Talent_ (2006) - Herself
- _MTV Cribs_ (2006) - Herself
- _The Megan Mullally Show_ (2006) - Herself

## Other websites

- Hollywood Records's Aly & AJ Bio

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Amanda Michalka
- **img**: Amanda Joy (AJ) Michalka - September 2007.jpg
- **background**: solo_singer
- **birth name**: Amanda Joy Michalka
- **alias**: AJ
- **origin**: California, United States
- **instrument**: Guitar, singer, vocals
- **genre**: Pop music, Pop rock
- **occupation**: Singer
- **years active**: 2002-present
- **associated acts**: 78violet
Salmonberry

A **salmonberry** (_Rubus spectabilis_) is a type of fruit. It is a bramble in the rose family Rosaceae. It is native and widespread in areas of Alaska, predominantly the southeast. It is also widespread in Washington State. They come in red and orange varieties. They fruit in early summer and are used by many to make jams, juices, and other such products. They are considered to be a weed and reproduce and spread rapidly. The berries can be eaten raw, straight from the source. They co-exist with huckleberries, blueberries, thimbleberries, and other such plants in the Tongass National Forest.  This fruit is related to the rose and are native to the west coast of North America from Alaska to Idaho.
Grape tomato

A **grape tomato** is a small, usually oblong tomato.  They are similar in size to a small cherry tomato and they both have a similar taste, but the grape tomato also has the similar oblong shape of a plum tomato.  The tomatoes were introduced to the United States market in 1997 by grower Andrew Chu, who got them from Taiwan's Known-You Seed Co, though the majority of the production is by a company called Procacci Brothers, who market them as "Santa Sweets". They are considered a difficult crop to grow, as they do not produce as heavily as many cherry tomato varieties.

It is believed that the tomatoes originated in Southeast Asia.  They are eaten as bar snacks in some parts of Thailand.
Adolf von Henselt

**Adolf von Henselt** (born Schwabach, Bavaria, May 9 1814; died Warmbrunn (now Cieplice), Silesia, October 10 1889) was a German pianist and composer.  He had piano lessons from Hummel in Weimar.  When he was a young man he played in concerts all over Germany.  Then he went to Russia where he was very successful and he settled there to live.  He became pianist at the court of the tsar and taught the tsar’s children how to play the piano.

Henselt was known for his beautiful playing of the music of Chopin.  He was very good at playing widely spaced arpeggios and could make them sound very smooth (legato) even if he was not using the pedal.

As a composer he is mostly remembered today for a few of his short works which are often quite sentimental, e.g. _Frühlingslied_ (_Spring Song_) and _Si oiseau j’étais_ (_If I were a bird_).
Cherry tomato

The **cherry tomato** is a type of tomato that is a fruit. This type of tomato was originally developed in Israel.

Israeli scientists Haim Rabinowitch and Nachum Kadar from the Weizmann Institute in Rehovot bred one of the varieties of cherry tomatoes in 1973.

## Notes

de:Kirschtomate
Comparison of the Imperial and US customary systems

The imperial and U.S. customary systems are similar, but there are some differences between them.

## Volume

The main difference is in units of volume. The American system has two gallons: a wet and a dry one. The imperial gallon is bigger than each of these. However, the imperial fluid ounce is slightly smaller than the American one.

|1 U.S. fluid ounce||
| --- | --- |
|= 29.573 529 562 5 millilitres|≈ 1.041 Imperial fluid ounces|
|= 28.413 062 5 millilitres|≈ 0.961 U.S. fluid ounce|
|= 3.785 411 784 litres|≈ 0.833 Imperial gallon|
|= 4.546 09 litres|≈ 1.201 liquid U.S. gallons|
|= 4.404 842 803 2 litres|≈ 0.968 Imperial gallon|
|= 4.546 09 litres|≈ 1.032 dry U.S. gallons|

## Length

The international yard is exactly 0.9144 metres. This definition was agreed upon by the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand in 1959. However, the United States continued to use its old length units for surveying purposes. The US survey foot is exactly 1200/3937 metre.

## Weight

Another difference is in units of mass. In Britain people often use the stone. One stone is 14 pounds. Eight stones are one hundredweight (112 lb). Twenty hundredweights are one ton. So one British ton is 2240 pounds. It is very close to the tonne of the metric system.

In the United States people do not use the stone. They usually use a hundredweight of 100 pounds. This hundredweight is also called a _short hundredweight_. Twenty short hundredweights are one short ton. The British hundredweight is also called the _long hundredweight_ and the Britsh ton is also called the _long ton_.

## Related pages

- Imperial units
- United States customary units
- International System of Units
- Metric system
Stone (unit)

The **stone** is a unit for measuring mass in the Imperial system. It is equal to fourteen pounds. 160 stone make up a long ton. In the metric system, 1 stone = 6.35029318 kilograms.

The short way of writing stones is **st**.

## Mass

|Units|Grains|Drachms|Ounces|Pounds|Stones|Quarters|Long Hundredweights|Long Tons|Metric Values|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Stones|98,000|3,584|224|14|1||||6.35029318 Kilogrammes|

## Usage

The stone was outlawed in Ireland and the United Kingdom, in 1983 and 1985 respectively. However stones and pounds are both commonly used in non-official cases, most commonly when stating the weight of a person. Often in American-British boxing matches, the contenders  weight is stated in pounds then stones and pounds. The same in horse racing.
Tundra

In physical geography, **tundra** is the part of the world in which the tree growth is hindered by low temperatures and short growing seasons. The word comes from the Sami _tūndâr_, which means "uplands," "tundra," or "treeless mountains."

There are three types of tundra: **Arctic tundra**, **Antarctic tundra**, and **alpine tundra**. In all three types, the plants are mostly grass, moss, and lichens. Trees grow in some of the tundra. The boundary between the tundra and the forest is known as the tree line or timberline. The area itself encircles the Arctic Ocean of the Northern Hemisphere. The climate in a tundra biome consists of freezing cold and dryness in the winter and cold summers. The tundra ground is a barren place and is often covered with rocks.

Most water on the tundra is permafrost  permanent frozen soil. Permafrost and fierce winds prevent large trees from growing deep roots. Plants in the tundra are small and grow near the ground. Plants, called "cushions," grow in tight clumps in the tundra, but lichens are the dominant plants and cover the rocks. The few trees that do grow on the tundra are dwarf willows and birch.

The deep and cold snow makes life in the tundra very difficult. Animal must adapt to survive. Some have thick fur that turns white during the winter. Others find places to hibernate during the winter months. Some examples of animals that live in the tundra are rodents, hares, sables, caribou, wolves, arctic foxes, bears, walruses, seals, and snowy owls.

## Other websites

- WWF Tundra Ecoregions
- The Arctic biome at Classroom of the Future
- British Antarctica Survey
- Antarctica: West of the Transantarctic Mountains
- Tundra Food Chain | How The Tundra Food Chain Works?
Lift (force)

The force of lift is the upward force that keeps an aircraft in the air. It's an aerodynamic force that's generated when a fluid, like air, flows past a solid object, like an airplane wing:

The most common type of lift is that of a wing of an aircraft.  But there are many other common uses such as propellers on both aircraft and boats, rotors on helicopters, fan blades, sails on sailboats, and wind turbines.

While the common meaning of the term "lift" suggests an "upwards" action, lift can be in any direction. For instance, for a sail the lift is horizontal, and for the wing on a race car the lift is down.

There are a number of ways of explaining the production of lift; some are more complicated than others, some have been shown to be false. The simplest explanation is that the wing deflects air downward, and the reaction pushes the wing up.

## Other websites

- How Airplanes Fly: A Physical Description of Lift
- NASA tutorial, with animation, describing lift
- Description on one very common incorrect explanation of lift
- Discussion of the apparent "conflict" between the various explanations of lift
- Explanation of Lift with animation of fluid flow around an airfoil
- A treatment of why and how wings generate lift that focuses on pressure.
Tropics

The **tropics** are the region of the Earth near to the equator and between the Tropic of Cancer (23.5° N) in the northern hemisphere and the Tropic of Capricorn (23.5° S) in the southern hemisphere. This region is also referred to as the **tropical zone** and the **torrid zone**.

This area includes all the areas of the Earth where the sun reaches a point directly overhead at least once a year. The word "tropics" comes from Greek _tropos_ meaning "turn", because the apparent position of the Sun moves between the two tropics within a year.

The word _Tropical_ specifically means places near the equator. The word is also sometimes used in a general sense for a tropical climate, a climate that is warm to hot and moist year-round. This includes tropical rainforests with lush vegetation. However, there are mountains in the tropics that are anything but "tropical" in this sense, with even alpine tundra and snow-capped peaks, including Mauna Kea, Mt. Kilimanjaro, and the Andes as far south as the northernmost parts of Chile and Argentina. Places in the tropics which are hot and dry include the Atacama Desert, Sahara Desert, Central Africa, most parts of Western Africa and Northern Australian Outback.

Some parts of Eurasia are also in the tropical zone.

People in some tropical places call their seasons "dry"/"hot" and "rainy"/"wet", especially where the seasons are made by monsoons. Tropical cyclones form in tropical ocean areas, and some move from there into the temperate zone. Tropical plants and animals are native to the tropics or the Torrid zone.
Mount Kilimanjaro

**Kilimanjaro** (or Kilimanjaro, which means "shining mountain" in Swahili), formerly **Kaiser-Wilhelm-Spitze**, is a mountain in northeastern Tanzania. Kilimanjaro is the tallest free-standing mountain rise in the world, rising 4600 meters (15,000 ft) from the base, and is the highest peak in Africa at 5,895 meters (19,340 ft) and one of Seven Summits. It gives a dramatic view from the surrounding plains.  Almost 85% of the ice cover on Kilimanjaro disappeared from October 1912 to June 2011.

Kilimanjaro is also a strato-like volcano. It has explosive eruptions. The last major eruption was about 100,000 years ago. killimanjaro is 5895 meters tall.

## Climbing and acclimatization

There are 6 routes up Kilimanjaro: Lemosho, Machame, Marangu, Umbwe, Rongai and Northern Circuit.

Since there are big differences in height, climbers can feel Altitude sickness. 7-, 8- and 9-day routes are recommended (especially for beginners), as on them it will be easier to adapt to less oxygen in the air. The more time is spent being on the slope, the easier it is to acclimatize.

For best results, It is recommended to plan for 6 to 8 weeks of training before your Kilimanjaro trek and build your stamina and strength. Add some ‘walks’ into your gym workouts to stimulate the development of relevant muscles. Try doing one or two day walking trials in your area. It will be a good physical preparation but also a nice way to prepare yourself to the challenge.

It may not be a technical climb, but there are still a few Mount Kilimanjaro fatalities each year, and those heading up Africa’s tallest mountain need to have a clear-eyed respect for danger. The main causes of death on Kilimanjaro are: High Altitude Illness (HAI) or Acute Mountain Sickness (AMS) High Altitude Pulmonary Edema (HAPE) High Altitude Cerebral Edema (HACE). These three are the main killers on the mountain.

## Infobox (mountain)

- **name**: Kilimanjaro
- **photo**: Kilimanjaro, Tanzania, 2024-05-22, DD 109.jpg
- **photo caption**: The Kibo summit of Mount Kilimanjaro.
- **map**: Tanzania#Africa
- **map caption**: Kilimanjaro's location in Tanzania
- **location**: Kilimanjaro Region, north east Tanzania
- **label position**: right
- **elevation m**: 5,895
- **prominence m**: 5,885
- **prominence ref**:
<small>Ranked 4th</small>
- **range**: The Eastern Rift mountains
- **topo**: Kilimanjaro map and guide by Wielochowski
- **type**: Stratovolcano
- **age**: 3 million years
- **last eruption**: Between 150,000 and 200,000 years ago
- **first ascent**: 6 October 1889 by Hans Meyer (geologist), Hans Meyer and Ludwig Purtscheller
- **easiest route**: Hiking
Tropical climate

A **tropical climate** is a type of climate typical in the tropics. It is a humid climate in which all twelve months have mean temperatures above 18°C (64.4 °F). Some tropical areas have rainfall throughout the year, usually in the afternoon. Others have a wet season and a dry season, for example because of monsoon.  The usual tropical climate is hot, humid and wet.  Cold weather effects like frost and cold weather precipitation like snow never happen in a tropical climate. One famous area of tropical climate is the Amazon rainforest, which, like most rainforests, has high biodiversity.

Desert and semi-arid climates are classified separately.

Some tropical areas are less wet, which makes them savanna<nowiki/>s. A few places near the equator, such as Mount Kilimanjaro, are high mountains and cold for that reason.

## Examples of tropical climates

- Rainforests
- Savanna
- Semi-arid
Fumarole

A **fumarole** (Latin _fumus_, smoke) is an opening in the crust of the Earth, often in the neighborhood of dormant volcanoes, where steam and gases come out, for instance carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrochloric acid, and hydrogen sulfide.

## Etymology

The name solfatara (from the Italian _solfo_, sulfur), is given to fumaroles with sulfurous gases.
Köppen climate classification

The **Köppen climate classification** is one of the most widely used climate classification systems.  It was developed by Wladimir Köppen, a German climatologist, around 1900 (with several further modifications by himself, notably in 1918 and 1936).  It is based on the concept that native vegetation is the best expression of climate, thus climate zone boundaries have been selected with vegetation distribution in mind.

## System

- **Group A** is tropical. The average temperature in the coolest month must be at least 18° C.
- **Group B** is arid - desert and steppe/semi-arid. The average precipitation must be less than a certain amount that depends on the temperature.
- **Group C** is mesothermal, the subtropical and temperate climates. The warmest months must have an average greater than 10° C and the coldest month must have a temperature between 0 or -3° C and 18° C. This group includes humid subtropical, Mediterranean, highland, and oceanic.
- **Group D** is microthermal or continental (hot/warm summers and cold winters) and subarctic (short warm summers and cold winters). The warmest months must have an average greater than 10° C and the coldest months must have an average of less than 0 or -3° C.
- **Group E** is polar and alpine. The warmest month must have an average temperature less than 10° C.

## Related pages

- Climatology
Unkel

**Unkel** is a city in the district of Neuwied, Rhineland-Palatinate, in the country of Germany. It is on the Rhine River.

## Infobox (german location)

- **type**: Stadt
- **image photo**: Unkeler Rheinpromenade.jpg
- **image caption**: Unkel seen from the left bank of the Rhine
- **image coa**: Wappen_unkel.svg
- **image plan**: Unkel in NR.svg
- **state**: Rheinland-Pfalz
- **district**: Neuwied
- **verbandsgemeinde**: Unkel
- **elevation**: 56
- **area**: 8.16
- **population**: 5032
- **stand**: 2006-12-31
- **postal code**: 53572
- **area code**: 02224
- **licence**: NR
- **gemeindeschlüssel**: 07 1 38 073
- **divisions**: 3
- **mayor**: Gerhard Hausen
- **party**: SPD
Relative

**Relative** can refer to:
- Kinship, If two people are connected by birth, they are said to be _relatives_

## Physics

- Relativity, an idea in physics (for example Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity)
- Relative angular momentum, astronomy
- Relative density
- Relativity drive, propulsion
- Relative humidity, meteorology/physics
- Relative decibel, acoustics
- Relative effectiveness factor, demolitions
- Relative intensity noise, optics
- Relative motion, kinematics
- Relative permeability, fluid dynamics
- Relative pressure
- Relative thermal resistance
- Relative velocity
- Relative viscosity
- Relative wind, aeronautics

## Math

- Relatively complemented lattice, lattice theory
- Relative risk, statistics and epidemiology
- Relative standard deviation, statistics
- Grothendieck's relative point of view, category/scheme theory

**Topology**
- Relatively compact subspace
- Relative homology
- Relative interior

## Philosophy

- Knowledge relativity, relativity as a philosophical concept, opposed to absolute
- Relativism

## Economics/Finance

- Relative deprivation, socioeconomics
- Relative investment performance
- Relative price
- Relative strength index
- Relative valuation
- Relative value

## Music

- Relative key
- Relative pitch

## Popular culture

**Film and television**
- _Relatively Speaking (play)_, 1965 British play
- _Relatively Speaking_, late 1980s television game show
- _Everything's Relative_, 2000 Japanese anime _Yu-Gi-Oh! Duel Monsters_ episode
- _Relative Values_, 2000 film
- _It's All Relative_, 2003-4 comedy television series

**Literature**
- _The Relativity of Wrong_, 1988 Isaac Asimov essay
- _Relative Heroes_, 2000 DC comic book series
- _Time and Relative_, 2001 Doctor Who book
- _Relative Dementias_, 2002 Doctor Who book series

**Music**
- _Relative Degree_, late 1990s rock band of _Linkin Park_ members
- _Friends & Relatives_, 1999 compilation album
- _Dead Relatives_, 2000 music album by Canadian Emm Gryner
- _Relative Ways_, 2001 music album by _...And You Will Know Us by the Trail of Dead_
- Relative Theory Records, 2003 record store in Norfolk, Virginia, USA

## Other

- Positive relative accommodation, ophthamalogy
- Relative bearing indicator, aviation
- Relative addressing, computer science
- Relative dating, archaeology, geology
- Relative direction, orientation
- Relative gain (international relations)
- Relative location, geography
- Luminance (relative)
- Relative survival, epidemiology

## Related pages

- Relativity
Polar circle

A **polar circle** is either the Arctic Circle or the Antarctic Circle. On Earth, the Arctic Circle is at a latitude of 66˚ 33' 38" N, and the Antarctic Circle is at a latitude of 66˚ 33' 38" S. Areas between each polar circle and its pole (North Pole, or South Pole) will each year have at least one 24 hour period when the sun is continuously above the horizon and at least one 24 hour period when the sun is continuously below the horizon.

## Related pages

- Antarctica

## Other websites

- Wolfram Mathworlds Polar circle calculation formula.
Walk

**Walk** or **walking** is the way people or animals travel on their legs.  It is slower than running, and only one foot is off the ground at any time.  If a person goes out walking, it is said that they 'went for a walk'.  Walking quickly or for a long time is known as a healthy exercise. People are usually taught how to walk by a parent or guardian around the age of 9-18 months.

## Related pages

- Race walking
- Hiking
Horizon

The **horizon** (from Greek _orizein_, to limit) is the line that separates earth from sky. But at many places the _true horizon_ cannot be seen as there are trees, buildings, mountains and so forth. The line is then called _visible horizon_.

## Other websites

- Derivation of the distance to the horizon
Muon

The **muon** is an elementary particle. It has a negative electric charge and half spin. Its symbol is "μ<sup>-</sup>". It is a type of lepton.

The muon has an average life time of 2.2 micro-seconds or 0.0000022 seconds.

A muon is like an electron, but it is 200 times heavier. Unlike an electron, it decays into other particles. The superparticle of a muon is called a "smuon."

## How are muons made?

Muons can be made in particle accelerators with energy levels above 105.7 MeV. Cosmic rays from the Sun also make muons:
1. The photons in the cosmic rays crash into air molecules.
1. Pions are made in the crash
1. The pions undergo atomic decay into neutrinos and muons.

## Muon decay

Muons are unstable elementary particles. They are heavier than electrons and neutrinos but lighter than all other particles. They decay via the weak interaction. Because the total of the lepton numbers of the starting and ending particles must be the same, one of the product neutrinos of muon decay must be a muon-type neutrino and the other an electron-type antineutrino. Because charge must be kept the same, one of the products of muon decay is always an electron of the same charge as the muon. So, all muons decay to at least an electron, and two neutrinos. Sometimes, besides these necessary products, additional other particles that have a net charge and spin of zero (e.g., a pair of photons, or an electron-positron pair), are produced.

The dominant muon decay mode (sometimes called the Michel decay after Louis Michel) is the simplest possible: the muon decays to an electron, an electron-antineutrino, and a muon-neutrino. Antimuons, in mirror fashion, most often decay to the corresponding antiparticles: a positron, an electron-neutrino, and a muon-antineutrino.

## Other websites

- Muon anomalous magnetic moment and supersymmetry
- g-2 (muon anomalous magnetic moment) experiment
- muLan (Measurement of the Positive Muon Lifetime) experiment
- The Review of Particle Physics
- The TRIUMF Weak Interaction Symmetry Test
- The MEG Experiment (Search for the decay Muon → Positron + Gamma)
Magnoliopsida

**Magnoliopsida** or **dicotyledons** is the name of  a class of plants in taxonomy. They are also called dicots. It is the biggest group of flowering plants. Seedlings in this group have two seed leaves. Monocots have one seed leaf.

## Examples of the group

- Oaks
- Sunflowers
- Roses
- Blackberries
- Blueberry
- Bilberry

tr:Çift çenekliler
Airén

An **airén** is a  type of white grape used to make wine. The grape is native to Spain. It is one of the most grown types of grape worldwide.

The areas of Valdepeñas and La Mancha grow the most Airén. Ciudad Real, Toledo, Albacete and Cuenca also grow large amounts. It can also be found significantly in Madrid and as far south as Montilla-Moriles.
William Penn

**William Penn** (14 October 1644-30 July 1718) was an English colonial leader. He was very wealthy and owned slaves who he forced to work on his plantation. He was given what would become the US state of Pennsylvania by King Charles II as a debt to his father. Penn was a member of the Religious Society of Friends, who are known as Quakers.

Penn and his wife were made honorary United States citizens in 1984 by US President Ronald Reagan. He was friends with George Fox.

## Infobox (person)

- **image**: William Penn.png
- **caption**: _Portrait of William Penn_
- **birth place**: London, England
- **death place**: Berkshire, England
- **spouse**: Gulielma Maria Springett, Hannah Callowhill Penn, Hannah Margaret Callowhill
- **parents**: Admiral Sir William Penn and Margaret Jasper
- **children**: William Penn, Jr., John Penn ("the American"), Thomas Penn, Richard Penn, Sr., Letitia Penn, Margaret Penn, Dennis Penn, Hannah Penn
- **signature**: William Penn signature.svg
Korn

**Korn** (sometimes written as **KoЯn** to fit their logo) is an American Grammy Award-winning nu metal and alternative metal band from Bakersfield, California.

The band was first called 'Creep' and had another singer.

People often say they created the nu metal genre. Along with other bands of the time, they were influences for a wave of nu metal, alternative metal and rap metal bands through the mid 1990s and early 2000s, helping Limp Bizkit (who were discovered by Korn themselves) and Slipknot more than other bands. Despite this, Korn have been quoted for disliking the term and even being called 'metal'. Jonathan Davis has said that Korn's music can not be classified and that it contains many other influences besides simply 'metal'. The official review on the iTunes Store for their first album goes as far as saying that Korn "hate the term".

Their first album was first sold in 1994 and also called KoRn. Since then, Korn has sold over 35 million records worldwide - including 16,5 millions in the U.S., making them one of the best-selling metal acts of the last twelve years. The band's catalogue consists of seven platinum studio albums in a row, one platinum compilation album, and seven consecutive debuts (including _Greatest Hits, Volume 1_ compilation album) in top 10 of Billboard Top 200 best selling albums. Korn has been selected for 6 Grammys, and won 2 such awards. 8 of their albums have been awarded as multi-platinum, despite only part of them being on Billboard.

## Band members

- Current lineup
- Jonathan Davis – lead vocals, bagpipes <small>(1993–present)</small>
- James "Munky" Shaffer – guitars <small>(1993–present)</small>; backing vocals <small>(2005–present)</small>
- Brian "Head" Welch – guitars, backing vocals <small>(1993–2005, 2013–present)</small>
- Reginald "Fieldy" Arvizu – bass <small>(1993–present)</small>
- Ray Luzier – drums <small>(2009–present)</small>

- Former
- David Silveria – drums, percussion <small>(1993–2006)</small>

**Timeline**

## Studio albums

- _Korn_ (1994)
- _Life Is Peachy_ (1996)
- _Follow the Leader_ (1998)
- _Issues_ (1999)
- _Untouchables_ (2002)
- _Take a Look in the Mirror_ (2003)
- _See You on the Other Side_ (2005)
- Untitled album (2007)
- _Korn III: Remember Who You Are_ (2010)
- _The Path of Totality_ (2011)
- _The Paradigm Shift_ (2013)
- _The Serenity of Suffering_ (2016)
- _The Nothing_ (2019)
- _Requiem_ (2022)

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Korn
- **image**: Korn MTV Asia Awards 2006.jpg
- **landscape**: yes
- **caption**: Korn in 2006
- **background**: group_or_band
- **origin**: Bakersfield, California, U.S.
- **years active**: 1993–present
- **current members**: * Jonathan Davis
* James Shaffer
* Reginald Arvizu (on hiatus)
* Brian Welch
* Ray Luzier
- **past members**: David Silveria