Skepticism

**Skepticism** or **scepticism** (Greek _skeptomai_: to consider, to examine) refers to any view involving _doubt_. People who have skepticism as an attitude, opinion, or method are called **skeptics** or **sceptics**.

## Definition

Skepticism can be defined this way:
1. An attitude of doubt about whether something exists
1. A doubt about whether something can be known for certain
1. A doubt about whether we are correct in arguing a certain way
1. A practical method of suspended judgment, systematic doubt or criticism

## Origin

Skepticism is not just a belief that something is incorrect. It is a system of thought which acts against superstitions and rumours. Characteristic of skepticism is the attitude that any statement is judged on the evidence for or against its truth.

### Ancient Greece

Skepticism on philosophy has its roots in ancient Greek philosophy.

#### Sophists

The Greek Sophists of the 5th century BC, such as Protagoras of Abdera (480 – 411 BC), were mostly skeptics. Gorgias (485 – 380 BC) said, "Nothing exists; if anything does exist, it cannot be known; if anything exists and can be known, it cannot be communicated".

In the 4th century, BC, Pyrrho of Elis (c. 360 – 275 BC), who travelled and studied as far as India, adopted practical skepticism. Carneades (c. 213 – 129 BC) disagreed that things were completely true or false. He criticized the Dogmatists, especially Stoics. He said that completely certain knowledge is impossible. Sextus Empiricus (c. 3rd century), the main authority for Greek skepticism, brought together empiricism into the basis for stating knowledge.

### Ancient China

Skepticism comes from Asian philosophy, too. The Chinese philosopher Zhuangzi (c369–c286 BC) said that what seems real could be just a dream. In Indian philosophy, the Cārvāka school thought that we should neither try to infer knowledge nor trust what other people tell us. In Buddhism, Nāgārjuna said that nothing exists by itself, and that this idea is an important part of enlightenment.

### Modern France

The most important part of the argument is that unless we know _something_ for certain, then we cannot know _anything_. The interest lies in the way great philosophers have tried to solve this problem. Some, like Descartes, retreat into the mind: "I think, therefore I am".

Others, such as the British empiricists John Locke and David Hume, would rely on our sense perception. Some forms of knowledge may be especially vulnerable to skepticism. For example, an agnostic believes people cannot get knowledge about supernatural matters.

## Applications

Skepticism is widely used as a method for research in science, and (with changes) in modern legal procedure. Here doubt, suspending judgement, careful investigation, testing and discussion come before any statement of facts. Sometimes, the process takes years before consensus is reached. This systematic approach is called _methodological skepticism_. It is probably the most important legacy of the skeptics.

## Scepticism in Islam

In Islamic philosophy, philosophical skepticism was started by Al-Ghazali, known in the West as "Algazel", as a part of the orthodox Ash'ari school of Islamic theology. It has been said that Rene Descartes' ideas in _Discourse on the Method_ may have been influenced by Al-Ghazli.

## Further reading

- Klein P. 2002. “Skepticism” in _The Oxford Handbook of Epistemology_. P. Moser (ed) Oxford University Press. pp336–361

### Literary skeptics

- Ambrose Bierce: _The Devil's Dictionary_
- Bolesław Prus: _Pharaoh_
- Montaigne: _Essays_
- Ignacy Krasicki: _Fables and Parables_
- Voltaire: _Candide_

### Organizations

- Center for Inquiry
- Committee for Skeptical Inquiry
- The Skeptics Society
- James Randi Educational Foundation
- Rationalist International
- The New England Skeptical Society
- Australian Skeptics

### Media

- MythBusters
- Penn & Teller: Bullshit!

### Other websites

- Australian Skeptics
- British Skeptic magazine
- New York City Skeptics
- Skeptical about skeptics
- Skeptics Canada
- Skeptic Cop
- The Skeptic Friends Network
- Sceptics in Russia (Manifesto)