juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Absolute zero

**Absolute zero** is the temperature at which the particles of matter (molecules and atoms) are at their lowest energy points. Some might think that at absolute zero particles lose all energy and stop moving. This is not correct. In quantum physics there is something called zero point energy, which means that even after all the energy from particles has been removed, the particles still have some energy. This is due to Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, which states that the more that is known about a particle's position, the less that can be known about its momentum, and vice versa. Therefore, a particle cannot be completely stopped because then its exact position and momentum would be known.

Some people have created temperatures very close to absolute zero: the record temperature was 100 pK (one hundred picokelvin, equal to 10<sup>−10</sup> kelvin) above absolute zero. Even getting close to absolute zero is difficult because anything that touches an object being cooled near absolute zero would give heat to the objects. Scientists use lasers to slow atoms when cooling objects to very low temperatures.

The kelvin and Rankine temperature scales are defined so that absolute zero is 0 kelvin (K) or 0 degrees Rankine (°R). The Celsius and Fahrenheit scales are defined so that absolute zero is −273.15 °C or −459.67 °F.

At this stage the pressure of the particles is zero. If we plot a graph to it, we can see that the temperature of the particles is zero. The temperature cannot go down any further. Also, the particles cannot move in "reverse" either because as the movement of particles is vibration, vibrating in reverse would be nothing but simply vibrating again. The closer the temperature of an object gets to absolute zero, the less resistive the material is to electricity therefore it will conduct electricity almost perfectly, with no measurable resistance.

The Third Law of Thermodynamics says that nothing can ever have a temperature of absolute zero.

The Second Law of Thermodynamics says that all engines that are powered by heat (like car engines and steam train engines) must release waste heat and can not be 100% efficient. This is because the efficiency (percent of energy the engine uses up that is actually used to do the engine's job) is 100%×(1-T<sub>outside</sub>/T<sub>inside</sub>), which only is 100% if the outside temperature is absolute zero which it cannot be. So, an engine cannot be 100% efficient, but you can make its efficiency closer to 100% by making the inside temperature hotter and/or the outside temperature colder.

## Related pages

- Absolute temperature
- Absolute hot
- Superfluidity
Vacuum

A **vacuum** is a place where there is no matter, not even air. Sound cannot move in a vacuum. No place has a perfect vacuum, because a small number of particles remain, even in outer space.

A space where only some of the air is removed is called a "partial vacuum". The space then has lower pressure, even if most of the air remains.

## Common uses

- A vacuum cleaner works by pumping away some of the air. The air and dirt in a room rush into the vacuum left behind, where the dirt is caught by a filter.
- An automobile engine that burns fuel uses a vacuum to pull in air, which contains oxygen that allows the fuel to burn.
- An incandescent lightbulb has a vacuum inside so the hot filament doesn't burn up.

## Industrial uses

Vacuum is needed for some kinds of machines used for industrial production.  Vacuum pumps are used to pump air out of a vacuum chamber.  It is not possible to create 100% vacuum, but some vacuum pumps are able to create 99.9999% vacuum.  This is called "hard vacuum".  Most industrial purposes do not need hard vacuum.

Industrial vacuums are mainly used in:
- Food industry
- Electronics industry
- Packaging
- Manipulation
- Coating and degasing

## Scientific experiments

Vacuum chambers are also used in many scientific experiment<nowiki/>s in laboratories.  Some experiments in physics and chemistry need hard vacuum to keep any air or other gases from interfering with delicate surfaces or chemicals that can react.

## Related pages

- Vacuum cleaner

## External links

- Vacuum (partial)) -Citizendium
Mary Tudor, Queen of France

**Mary Tudor** (18 March 1496 – 25 June 1533) was an English princess who briefly became Queen of France as the third wife of King Louis XII. Mary was the fifth child of Henry VII of England and Elizabeth of York, and she was the youngest of their children to survive infancy. Louis was over 30 years older than her.

After Louis’s death, Mary married Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk. This marriage took place secretly in France without the consent of Mary’s brother, Henry VIII. The union led to the involvement of Thomas Wolsey, a key advisor to Henry, and the couple was eventually pardoned after paying a significant fine.

Mary had four children with Charles Brandon. Through her eldest daughter, **Frances**, Mary became the maternal grandmother of Lady Jane Grey, who was queen of England for nine days in July 1553.

## Biography

Mary was the fifth child of Henry VII of England and Elizabeth of York, born at **Sheen Palace**.

Mary was known for her beauty and had a close relationship with her brother, Henry VII. In 1514, she married Louis XII at the age of 18. Louis was much older and died less than three months after their wedding, and they had no children.

Mary later married Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk, in secret in 1515, without her brother’s permission. This was considered treason, but she and Charles were only fined due to Henry's affection for them. They officially married again later that year.

Mary had four children with Charles and was often still referred to as the Queen of France. Her relationship with Henry became strained over his marriage to Catherine of Aragon and later Anne Boleyn.

After suffering failing health for some years, Mary Tudor died on 25 June, 1533 at the age of thirty seven at Westhorpe Hall, Westhorpe, Suffolk, possibly of Tuberculosis, Cancer, or Angina. Her husband then married Catherine Willoughby.

## Infobox (royalty)

- **name**: Mary Tudor
- **title**: Duchess of Suffolk
- **image**: 1496 Mary Tudor.jpg
- **caption**: Cropped image from () :File:Mary Tudor and Charles Brandon original.jpg, the wedding portrait, attributed to Jan Gossaert,
- **succession**: Queen consort of France
- **reign**: 9 October 1514 – 1 January 1515
- **reign-type**: Tenure
- **coronation**: 5 November 1514
- **birth date**: 18 March 1496
- **birth place**: Sheen Palace, London, Surrey, Kingdom of England
- **death date**: 25 June 1533 (aged 37)
- **death place**: Westhorpe Hall, Westhorpe, Suffolk, Kingdom of England
- **burial date**: 22 July 1533
- **burial place**: Bury St Edmunds Abbey
1538
St. Mary's Church, Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk
- **issue-link**: #Issue
- **issue-pipe**: more...
- **house**: House of Tudor, Tudor
- **father**: Henry VII of England
- **mother**: Elizabeth of York
Louis XII

**Louis XII of France** (June 27, 1462 – January 1, 1515) was the son of Charles, Duke of Orléans and Mary of Cleves. He was born on June 27, 1462 in the Chateau de Blois, France.

Louis's first wife was Jeanne of France, who was the daughter of Louis XI of France. At the time, Louis was not expected to become King of France. The King, Charles VIII, was a young man and could still have had children, but Charles had an accident and died suddenly. Charles was Jeanne's brother. Louis was Charles's cousin and next in line to the throne. When he became king, he had to end his marriage to Jeanne, partly because she was disabled and could not have children.

Louis's second wife was Anne of Brittany, who was the daughter of Francis II, Duke of Brittany. Anne had been married to King Charles VIII until his death, but all of their children had died. As a result of her marriage to Charles, the dukedom of Brittany had become part of the kingdom of France. Louis wanted to keep Brittany, but in order to do so he had to marry Anne. After her marriage to Louis, Anne had two daughters, who were called Claude and Renee.

In France, women were not allowed to rule the country, so Louis still wanted a son to become king after him. After Anne died, Louis married for a third time. His last wife was Mary Tudor, the sister of Henry VIII of England. She was many years younger than he was. Louis only lived for three months after their marriage. Because Louis had no sons, the throne went to Francis, the husband of his daughter Claude.

## Issue

|Name|Birth|Death|
| --- | --- | --- |
|colspan="14" align="center"|***By Anne of Brittany***||
|Claude of France|14 October 1499|20 July 1524|
|Unnamed son|late 1500/early 1501|died young|
|Unnamed son|21 January 1503/07|21 January 1503/07|
|Renée of France|25 October 1510|12 June 1574|
|Unnamed son|January 1513|January 1513|

## Infobox (royalty)

- **image**: Ludwig XII. von Frankreich.jpg
- **caption**: Louis XII in 1514
- **alt**: Portrait of Louis XII aged 52
- **succession**: King of France
- **moretext**: (Style of the French sovereign, more...)
- **reign**: 7 April 1498 – 1 January 1515
- **predecessor**: Charles VIII of France, Charles VIII
- **successor**: Francis I of France, Francis I
- **coronation**: 27 May 1498
- **cor-type**: france
- **succession1**: Duke of Milan
- **reign1**: 6 September 1499 –
- **predecessor1**: Ludovico Sforza
- **successor1**: Massimiliano Sforza
- **succession2**: King of Naples
- **reign2**: 2 August 1501 –
- **predecessor2**: Frederick of Naples, Frederick
- **successor2**: Ferdinand II of Aragon, Ferdinand III
- **birth date**: 27 June 1462
- **birth place**: Château de Blois
- **death place**: Hôtel des Tournelles
- **burial date**: 4 January 1515
- **burial place**: Saint Denis Basilica
- **issue-link**: #Issue
- **issue-pipe**: more...
- **house**: Valois-Orléans
- **father**: Charles, Duke of Orléans
- **mother**: Mary of Cleves, Marie of Cleves
- **signature**: Signature of Louis XII of France.svg
Louis XIII

**Louis XIII** (27 September 1601 – 14 May 1643) was King of France from 1610 to 1643. He was the son of Henry IV and Marie de' Medici. He lived during the time of the Thirty Years War and had to deal with many rebellions. He was proud of his country, and tried to encourage French artists to stay in France instead of going off to Italy. He did this by giving them work in the Louvre.

His chief minister, Armand Jean du Plessis (known as cardinal Richelieu), helped with consolidating royal power to help Louis XIII, stopping new domestic factions from gaining much power, and shaping French foreign policy at the time. Cardinal Richelieu was consort until his death in 1642. The year which he became King Louis XIII's chief minister was 1624. He remained in office for 18 years. King Louis XIII, with the help of his cardinal, affected the 30 years war and its outcome, even though most of Louis XIII's actions were indirect.

Although he was married, many people thought that he would never produce a heir. Then, after 23 years of marriage, his wife Anne gave birth to a baby boy. He was to become King Louis XIV of France.

He died in 1643 (possibly of tuberculosis) and was later buried at the Royal Basilica of Saint Denis, France. His oldest son would succeed him on the throne.

## Children

1. King Louis XIV of France (5 September 1638–1 September 1715) married Marie Thérèse of Austria.
1. Philippe of France, Duke of Orléans (21 September 1640 – 9 June 1701) married Henrietta of England then Elisabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate.

## Further reading

- Jean-Christian Petitfils, Louis XIII, Perrin, 2008, p. 849
- "Louis XIII, the Just (King of France, 1601–1643)". histoire-pour-tous. Archived (April 2025). Retrieved 28 January 2012. (Original).

## Infobox (royalty)

- **name**: Louis XIII
- **image**: LouisXIII.jpg
- **succession**: King of France and Navarre
- **reign**: 14 May 1610 – 14 May 1643
- **coronation**: 17 October 1610
- **cor-type**: france
- **predecessor**: Henry IV of France, Henry IV and III
- **successor**: Louis XIV of France, Louis XIV
- **regent**: Marie de' Medici _(1610–1614)_
- **spouse**: Anne of Austria
- **issue**: Louis XIV of France, Louis XIV, King of France
 Philippe, Duke of Orléans
- **house**: House of Bourbon
- **father**: Henry IV of France
- **mother**: Marie de' Medici
- **birth place**: Château de Fontainebleau, France
- **death place**: Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France
- **burial place**: Royal Basilica of Saint Denis
- **religion**: Roman Catholicism
Claude of France

**Claude of France** (13 October 1499 – 26 July 1524) was Duchess of Brittany from 1514. She was Queen of France from 1515 as the wife of King Francis I. She was the eldest daughter of Louis XII and Anne of Brittany. Claude became Duchess of Brittany after her mother’s death in 1514. Months later, at the age of 14, she married her cousin Francis, securing Brittany's union with the French crown.

After the death of Louis XII in 1515, Francis and Claude became King and Queen of France. Claude's reign as queen was largely overshadowed by her mother-in-law, Louise of Savoy, and her sister-in-law, Margaret of Angoulême. Claude did not actively engage in political matters, leaving the administration of Brittany and her other lands to her husband, though she resisted his efforts to fully annex Brittany into France.

Claude was mostly known for her religious devotion and her frequent pregnancies. She had seven children in just nine years. Her son Henry later became Henry II of France. Claude's health suffered from her many pregnancies, and she died at the age of 24 at the Château de Blois. The cause of her death is uncertain, with theories ranging from exhaustion due to childbirth to bone tuberculosis or syphilis, possibly contracted from her husband.

Her eldest son, Francis, briefly succeeded her as Duke of Brittany. After his death in 1536, her second son, Henry, took the title and later became King of France. Claude's legacy lives on through her children and her role in maintaining the union between Brittany and France. She was buried at St. Denis Basilica.

## Infobox (royalty)

- **name**: Claude
- **image**: Claude de France (1499-1524).png
- **caption**: Contemporary image of Claude, c. 1520
- **succession**: Duchess of Brittany
- **predecessor**: Anne of Brittany, Anne
- **successor**: Francis III, Duke of Brittany, Francis III
- **reign**: 9 January 1514 – 26 July 1524
- **succession1**: Queen consort of France
- **reign1**: 1 January 1515 – 26 July 1524
- **reign-type1**: Tenure
- **cor-type1**: Coronation
- **coronation1**: 10 May 1517
- **issue-link**: #Issue
- **issue-pipe**: more...
- **house**: House of Valois, Valois-Orléans
- **father**: Louis XII of France
- **mother**: Anne of Brittany, Anne, Duchess of Brittany
- **birth date**: 13 October 1499
- **birth place**: Romorantin-Lanthenay
- **death place**: Château de Blois
- **burial place**: Saint Denis Basilica
Eleanor Clifford, Countess of Cumberland

**Lady Eleanor Brandon** (1519 - 27 September 1547) was the daughter of Mary Tudor, Queen of France and Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk. Her maternal grandparents were King Henry VII of England and Elizabeth of York. She was the sister of Lady Frances Brandon therefore she was the aunt of Lady Jane Grey.

## Biography

Eleanor was married to Henry Clifford in 1537. She then became the Countess of Cumberland.
Henry and Eleanor had three children:
- Lady Margaret Clifford (1540-1596)
- Henry Clifford. Died as an infant.
- Charles Clifford. Died as an infant.
Frances Grey, Duchess of Suffolk

**Lady Frances Brandon** (16 July 1517 – 20 November 1559) was the daughter of Mary Tudor and Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk. She was married to Henry Grey, Duke of Suffolk and had three daughters: Jane, Mary and Katherine. Her daughter Jane became the Queen of England for nine days.

## Life

Frances Brandon was a cruel, abusive mother to her children and a bold wife to her husband, Henry Grey. She had spent her childhood with her mother and was very close to Catherine of Aragon, so she was against Henry VIII's marriage to Anne Boleyn. In 1533, she married Henry Grey and soon she had two children who died young before having Lady Jane Grey in 1537, Katherine in 1540, and Mary in 1545.
In 1554, just weeks after her daughter Lady Jane Grey's and her husband Henry Grey's execution, Frances married again. This time it was to Adrian Stokes. Many people were shocked about this marriage, because Adrian was far below Frances's status. Historians believe that Frances was pregnant at the time of their marriage because she gave birth to a child about six months later. This child did not survive and Frances had two others. None of these last three children lived past a year.

## Death

Frances became increasingly large similar to her uncle Henry VIII. Because of this, she died in 1559 and was buried in Westminster Abbey.

## References

- Frances Brandon A detailed reference to Frances's relationship with her daughter

## Infobox (person)

- **honorific prefix**: Grace (style), Her Grace
- **name**: Duke of Suffolk, The Duchess of Suffolk
- **image**:
- **children**:
Henry Grey, Lord Harington
Daughter
Lady Jane Grey
Lady Katherine Grey, Katherine Seymour, Countess of Hertford
Lady Mary Grey, Lady Mary Keyes

Elizabeth Stokes
Elizabeth Stokes (II)
Son
- **noble family**: Brandon
- **father**: Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk
- **mother**: Mary Tudor, Queen of France, Mary Tudor
- **birth date**: 16 July 1517
- **birth place**: Hatfield, Hertfordshire, Kingdom of England
- **death place**: London, Kingdom of England
- **signature**: Frances Brandon signature.jpg
- **burial date**: 5 December 1559
- **burial place**: Westminster Abbey
Henry II of France

**Henry II** (31 March 1519 – 10 July 1559) was King of France from 1547 until his death in 1559. He was the second son of Francis I and Claude of Brittany, and became Dauphin of France after his older brother, Francis, died in 1536.

As a child, Henry and his brother were taken hostage by Spain for over four years as part of a treaty exchange for their father. During his reign, Henry continued many of his father’s policies, including promoting the arts and engaging in the Italian Wars against the Habsburgs. He also sought to suppress the Protestant Reformation in France, although the number of Huguenots (French Protestants) grew significantly during his rule.

In 1559, Henry signed the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis, which ended the long-running Italian Wars. Although France gave up its claims to Italian territories, it gained control of important areas like the Pale of Calais and the Three Bishoprics, which strengthened its borders. That same year, Henry was fatally injured in a jousting tournament, celebrating the peace treaty. His surgeon, Ambroise Paré, could not save him after a lance pierced his eye, and Henry died ten days later.

Henry's death marked a period of instability for France. He left behind four sons, three of whom became kings, and his widow, Catherine de' Medici, who served as regent. However, the weak reigns of his sons and Catherine’s unpopular regency contributed to the outbreak of the French Wars of Religion between Catholics and Protestants. This period ultimately led to the decline of the Valois dynasty.

## Infobox (royalty)

- **name**: Henry II
- **succession**: King of France
- **moretext**: (Style of the French sovereign, more...)
- **image**: Henry II of France-François Clouet (altered).jpg
- **caption**: 1559 portrait
- **reign**: 31 March 1547 – 10 July 1559
- **coronation**: 25 July 1547
- **cor-type**: france
- **predecessor**: Francis I of France, Francis I
- **successor**: Francis II of France, Francis II
- **succession1**: Duke of Brittany
- **reign1**: 10 August 1536 – 13 August 1547
- **predecessor1**: Francis III, Duke of Brittany, Francis III
- **successor1**: _Position abolished_ (Brittany absorbed into the crown lands of France)
- **issue-link**: #Children
- **issue-pipe**: more...
- **house**: House of Valois-Angoulême, Valois-Angoulême
- **father**: Francis I of France
- **mother**: Claude, Duchess of Brittany
- **birth name**: Henry, Duke of Orléans
- **birth date**: 31 March 1519
- **birth place**: Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye
- **death date**: 10 July 1559 (aged 40)
- **death place**: Hôtel des Tournelles
- **burial date**: 13 August 1559
- **burial place**: Saint Denis Basilica
- **signature**: Henry II of France signature.svg
- **religion**: Catholic Church in France, Catholicism
Francis I of France

**Francis I of France** (September 12, 1494 – March 31, 1547) was a King of France and a member of the House of Valois.

## Birth

Francis was born in Cognac, France on September 12, 1494. His parents were Charles, Duke of Angoulême and Louise of Savoy.

## Marriage

Francis I married Claude of France on May 18, 1514. They had seven children, two died before turning eight, two died at the ages of eighteen to twenty-three. Those who lived to adulthood were:
- Henry, _King of France_
- Madeline, _Queen of Scotland_
- Margaret, _Duchess of Berry_

## Art

Francis was very interested in art and liked the artist Leonardo da Vinci.

## Death

Francis died on March 31, 1547. He is buried in the Saint Denis Basilica.
Madeleine of Valois

Madeleine of Valois (10 August 1520 – 7 July 1537) was a French princess who briefly became Queen of Scotland as the first wife of King James V. Their marriage was part of the Treaty of Rouen, which aimed to strengthen the alliance between France and Scotland. Despite concerns about her poor health, Madeleine and James were married in January 1537 at Notre-Dame de Paris.

After the wedding, Madeleine traveled to Scotland, but her health quickly worsened. Sadly, she passed away in July 1537, just six months after their marriage and less than two months after arriving in Scotland. Because of her short reign, she became known as the "Summer Queen.

## Infobox (royalty)

- **consort**: yes
- **succession**: Queen consort of Scotland
- **image**: MadeleinedeValois.jpg
- **image size**: 180px
- **caption**: Madeleine de Valois by Corneille de la Haye
- **reign**: 1 January 1537 –
- **house**: House of Valois-Angoulême, Valois-Angoulême
- **father**: Francis I of France
- **mother**: Claude of France, Claude, Duchess of Brittany
- **birth date**: 10 August 1520
- **birth place**: Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France
- **death place**: Holyrood Palace, Edinburgh, Scotland
- **burial place**: Holyrood Abbey
Holyrood Abbey

**Holyrood Abbey** is a ruined Augustine Abbey. It is in Edinburgh, Scotland. It was built by David I of Scotland in 1128.
Francis II of France

**Francis II of France** (January 19, 1544 – December 5, 1560) was a King of France and a member of the House of Valois.

## Birth

Francis was born in Fontainebleau, France, on January 19, 1544. His parents were Henry II of France and Catherine of Medici.

## Marriage

Francis was married to Mary, Queen of Scots, on April 24, 1558. They had no children.

## Death

Francis died in Orleans, France, on December 5, 1560 because of an ear infection. He is buried in the Saint Denis Basilica, next to King Charles IX of France.
Adela of Normandy

**Adela of Normandy** (c. 1067 – c. 8 March 1137) was the daughter of William I of England and Matilda of Flanders. She was married to Stephen, Count of Blois between 1080 and 1084 and became the mother of:
- William, Count of Chartres
- Stephen of England
- Odo of Blois, who died young
- Theobald II of Champagne
- Henry of Blois, who became the Bishop of Winchester

She lived long enough to see her son, Stephen, become King of England, but died soon afterwards.
Stephen, King of England

**Stephen I** (6 June 1092 – 25 October 1154) was the King of England from 1135 until his death in 1154. He became the King after the death of his uncle Henry I. Stephen was the King until his own death in Dover. Stephen was crowned at Westminster Abbey on the 26 December 1135. Stephen is buried at the Clunaic Monastery in Faversham, Kent.

Stephen was born in Blois, France, on 6 June 1092. He was the son of Stephen II, Count of Blois and Adela of Normandy. His mother, Adela, was the daughter of William I of England and Matilda of Flanders. Stephen married Matilda of Boulogne in about 1125. They had five children. He fought a civil war with Henry I's only daughter, Matilda, from 1139 to 1153. This ended with the Treaty of Wallingford in 1153 after the death of Stephen's son and heir, Eustace IV.

The treaty said that Stephen would be King for the rest of his lifetime. After his death, the throne passed to Henry, son of Matilda, and not Stephen's other son William. Stephen died in Dover, Kent on 25 October 1154, at the age of 62.

## Captured

King Stephen was captured after the Battle of Lincoln in April 1141, he was released later and returned to the throne.

## Infobox (military person)

- **embed**: yes
- **branch**: English Army
- **serviceyears**: 1135–1154
- **rank**: Commander-in-Chief
- **commands**: English Army (from 1135)
- **battles**: *The Anarchy
**Battle of Clitheroe
** Siege of Wark (1138), Siege of Wark
**Battle of the Standard
**Battle of Lincoln (1141), Battle of Lincoln
**Rout of Winchester
**Battle of Wilton


## Infobox (royalty)

- **name**: Stephen I
- **image**: King Stephen from NPG.jpg
- **caption**: An artist's :en:wikt:depiction, depiction of Stephen
- **succession**: List of English monarchs, King of England
- **moretext**: (Style of the British sovereign#English sovereigns, more...)
- **reign-type**: Reign
- **reign**: 22 December 1135 – 25 October 1154
- **coronation**: 26 December 1135
- **predecessor**: Henry I of England, Henry I
- **successor**: Henry II of England, Henry II
- **succession2**: Duke of Normandy
- **reign2**: 1 December 1135 – 26 July 1144
- **predecessor2**: Henry I
- **successor2**: Geoffrey V, Count of Anjou, Geoffrey I
- **issue-type**: Issue (genealogy), Issue
- **house**: House of Blois, Blois
- **father**: Stephen II, Count of Blois
- **mother**: Adela of Normandy
- **birth place**: Blois, France
- **death place**: Dover, England, Dover, Kent
- **burial date**: 26 February 1155
- **burial place**: Faversham Abbey, Kent
- **religion**: Catholic Church, Roman Catholicism
Eleanor of Aquitaine

**Eleanor of Aquitaine** (c. 1122 – March 31, 1204) was the daughter of William X of Aquitaine. She had a younger sister called Petronilla of Aquitaine.  She brought the province of Aquitaine to England when she married Henry II of England. It stayed under English control for 300 years.

## Life

Eleanor inherited land in France at the age of 15. She married Louis VII of France on July 22, 1137, and had two daughters:
- Marie of France
- Alix of France

The marriage was later annulled, as there were no male children.

Eleanor then married Henry II of England on May 18, 1152, and had eight children, including:
- William, who died at the age of 3.
- Henry the Young King
- Richard I of England
- John I of England
- Matilda of England, Duchess of Saxony
- Joan/Joanna of England
- Eleanor of England

Eleanor was  greatly known for her work in the Second Crusade, for she inspired many people to join.

Eleanor supported a revolt by her children against their father's rule in 1173. This revolt was unsuccessful, and King Henry II was so angry that he locked her away in a prison. In 1189, after King Henry II died and her son, Richard, came to be the king, Eleanor was freed. Ten years later, in 1199, Richard died so she supported her youngest son John to take the English throne against the claim of her grandson Arthur of Brittany. In 1202 during the campaign at Mairebeau, she continued to oppose Arthur. Upon John’s ascension, Eleanor retired to Aquitaine, spending most of her remaining life at a monastery. She died there on April 1, 1204.

## Infobox (royalty)

- **name**: Eleanor of Aquitaine
- **title**: Queen consort of  France
Queen consort of England
- **image**: Queen Eleanor (Frederick Sandys, 1858).jpg
- **caption**: Queen Eleanor
- **succession**: Duchess of Aquitaine
- **reign**: 9 April 1137 – 1 April 1204
- **predecessor**: William X, Duke of Aquitaine, William X
- **successor**: John, King of England, John
- **succession1**: Queen consort of France
- **reign1**: 1 August 1137 – 21 March 1152
- **reign-type1**: Tenure
- **coronation1**: 25 December 1137
- **succession2**: Queen consort of England
- **reign2**: 19 December 1154 – 6 July 1189
- **reign-type2**: Tenure
- **coronation2**: 19 December 1154
- **issue**: Marie of France, Countess of Champagne, Marie, Countess of Champagne
Alix of France, Alix, Countess of Blois
William IX, Count of Poitiers
Henry the Young King
Matilda, Duchess of Saxony
Richard I of England, Richard I _the Lionheart_, King of the English
Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany
Leonora of England, Leonora, Queen of Castile
Joan of England, Queen of Sicily, Joan, Queen of Sicily
John of England, John _Lackland_, King of England
- **issue-link**: #Issue
- **house**: House of Poitiers
- **father**: William X, Duke of Aquitaine
- **mother**: Aenor de Châtellerault
- **birth date**: 1122
- **birth place**: Poitiers, France
- **death date**: 1 April 1204 (aged 81/82)
- **death place**: Poitiers, France
- **place of burial**: Fontevraud Abbey
13 (number)

**13** (**thirteen**) is a number. It comes after twelve and before fourteen. It is an odd number.

Many people think thirteen is an lucky number, especially when Friday is the thirteenth day of the month. This is a superstition. There is no proof that thirteen is an unlucky number.

Floors in tall buildings often skip floor thirteen, or reserve it for a mechanical floor. The idea of thirteen as an unlucky number is from pagan Norse mythology. It was believed to be unlucky to have thirteen people sitting at a table at a meal, and death is number thirteen in the tarot deck.

In Roman numerals, 13 is written as **XIII**.

## Related pages

- Triskaidekaphobia

## Infobox (number)

- **number**: 13
- **cardinal**: thirteen, draze
- **ordinal text**: thirteenth, drazeth
- **numeral**: Base 13, tredecimal
- **factorization**: Prime number, prime
- **prime**: 6th
- **divisor**: 1, 13
Weekend

The **weekend** is a time when fewer people go to work or school. Traditional Christians believe that Sunday is a day of rest or Sabbath, and Jews believe the day of rest is the seventh day, Saturday, and start the week with Sunday. Friday is also considered the beginning of the weekend, and it is a day of rest for Muslims.
Alexandria

**Alexandria** (Arabic: الإسكندرية) is the second largest city in Egypt. It was founded by Alexander the Great in 331 BC as Ἀλεξάνδρεια (_Alexandria_). It is on the Mediterranean Sea, only 225 km (140 miles) northwest of Cairo.

Alexandria has 3.8 million people. It is the main port of Egypt. It has two airports and three big stadia: Alexandria stadium, Harras el hadoud stadium and Borg el-Arab stadium in the Borg el-Arab industrial city.

The fourth Wikimania was hosted in this city in 2008.

## History

Alexandria, named after Alexander the Great, was founded around 331 BC. For nearly 300 years, it was the capital of the Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt. Some famous ancient Greek scientists, such as Euclid of Alexandria and Eratosthenes, lived there or studied there. It was home to the largest library in the ancient Western world, the Library of Alexandria.

It was a wealthy city in its heyday, and remained the main way Egyptian grain went by sea to Ancient Rome. Rome depended greatly on Egyptian grain. Much of Alexandria sank below the sea in the 4th century. Some of her history is in the Mediterranean.

After the Muslim conquest of Egypt in 641 AD, they did not want to have their capital at Alexandria, because it was too vulnerable to naval raids. They made a new capital, much farther upriver, on the east side of the Nile, and called it Fustat. Alexandria became less important.

## Other websites

- Official website
- Greek Community of Alexandria
Celtic League

The **Celtic League** is a group of people from the six modern Celtic nations: Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Brittany, Cornwall and the Isle of Man. Its members want their countries to be free. All six countries have a native Celtic language, and the Celtic League supports learning of them. The six Celtic languages are Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Welsh, Breton, Cornish and Manx.

## Related pages

- Pan-Celticism

## References

- Ellis, Peter Berresford _The Celtic Dawn_
- Tanner, Marcus _Last of the Celts_

## Other websites

- Celtic League Website
- Celtic League, American branch
- Celtic League, International Site
- Celtic League, Scottish Branch
Kölsch

The word **Kölsch** has several meanings:

- some breweries in the city of Cologne in the West of Germany make a special type of beer: Kölsch (beer)
- people in and around the city of Cologne in the West of Germany speak their own local language: Kölsch (language)
Past tense

**Past tense** is a verb form which is marked by time (tense).

The past tense is used for actions in a time which has already happened.  In order to explain and understand past tense, it is useful to imagine time as a line on which the past, the present tense and the future tense are positioned.

Words in English have several tenses, including many common past tenses. The two that are used the most are the **simple past tense** and the **perfect tense**

## Simple past tense

The simple past tense is used for action in past time. It usually uses for story telling or there is in narrative and recount text.

Different verbs change in different ways to make the past tense. The most common way is by ending with _ed" or we usually says REGULAR VERB.
Many other verbs are _irregular_, this means that there is no pattern and no easy way to know how the verb changes.

If we want to make a past sentence, here are the formula:

~Verbal sentence~

(+) S + V2 (past verb)

(- ) S + did not / didn't + V1 (present verb)

(?) Did + S + V1 (present verb)

~ Nominal sentence~

(+) S + to be ( was / were) +                                                  Noun/adjective/adverb

(- ) S + to be (was / were) + not  +Noun/adjective/adverb

(?) To be (was / were) + Noun/adjective/adverb

Example:
(+) I went to bandung last week

(- ) I did not go to bandung last week

(? ) did you go to bandung last week?

(+) she was happy this morning

(- ) she was not happy this morning

(?) Was she happy this morning?

## Past tense classified into four types

1. Past Indefinite Tense
1. Past Progressive Tense
1. Past Perfect Tense
1. Past Perfect Progressive Tense

## Perfect tense

The Perfect is about _completion_: actions which are completed. The tense refers to a period in the past. In English the Perfect is made by have + -ed or variations of that form.

- Present perfect refers to a time which begins in the past and continues to the present. Examples: _I **have lived** in  Dover since my birth_. _She **has discovered** it_. _She **has done** it now! We **have seen** the movies since 2011_
- Past perfect, or pluperfect, refers to an action before another action in the past. Examples: _She **had not been** home since her parents divorced_. _I **had discovered** that he had taken my key_. She **had begged** for the job before the interview.
- Present continuous progressive perfect: _She **has been discovering** that grammar is not so easy as she thought_..., They **have** **been lecturing** all day long
- Past continuous progressive perfect: _They **had been finding** it difficult_.
- Future perfect refers to an event before a future event. Examples: _She **will have finished** her report for the next board meeting._ _By now she **will have discovered** the key._
- Future continuous progressive perfect: _I'm sure she **will have been looking** for that. It **will have been** **raining** before we get to the party''

Verb endings: **-ed** = finished; **-ing** = continuing
Freeview

**Freeview** is a free television service in the United Kingdom, and is sent to people's home using a digital signal. It includes more channels than normal analogue television provides. Over 30 television channels and 24 radio stations are on it at the moment. The service was put on air on October 30, 2002 in the early morning. ITV Digital was the previous service but the service had to be replaced because they were having financial problems.

Some TVs can receive Freeview automatically, but most people have to buy a special box to connect to their TV. In March 2006 over 6 million people had Freeview in their homes.

The service replaced the analogue signal in the United Kingdom in 2012.
Mark Addy

**Mark Addy** (born 14 January 1965, in York, England) is an English actor. The best known works by Addy are as Detective Boyle in the British sitcom _The Thin Blue Line_, Dave in the movie _The Full Monty_, father Bill Miller in the US sitcom _Still Standing_ and more recently as King Robert Baratheon in the HBO fantasy epic _Game of Thrones_.

Addy has played many different roles in both television and in movies. In 2013 he played Hercules, a medieval King, and a modern-day alcoholic with family problems.

Addy received the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture for _The Full Monty_.  He was also nominated for a BAFTA, Chlotrudis Award and Satellite Award.  For _Game of Thrones_ he was nominated for a Scream Award for Best Ensemble and an ensemble Screen Actors Guild Award.

## Infobox (person)

- **image**: Mark Addy.JPG
- **caption**: Mark Addy
- **birthname**: Mark Addy Johnson
- **birth place**: York, England, United Kingdom
- **yearsactive**: 1987–present
- **spouse**: Kelly Johnson (1996–present)
- **children**: 3
Tuba

The **tuba** is the biggest of all the brass, string, musical instruments. They are the newest part of the symphony orchestra, first showing up in the mid-19th century. Most orchestras have a tuba now. The standard tuba has about 16 feet of tubes.

Tubas are normally in the key of F, E_b_, CC, or BB_b_ and can have 3 to 6 valves. Because they are so big, some tubas have a _compensating system_. This means a fourth, fifth or sixth valve is used to make the instrument sound more in tune - especially the lowest notes.

It takes a lot of breath to play the tuba. It is one of the loudest instruments in the orchestra but can also play very quietly.

## Use of the tuba

The tuba usually plays the bass (lowest sounding) part even though it can play relatively high as well.

The tuba is used in all sorts of music and can be found in orchestras, wind bands, brass bands, jazz groups, pop groups, brass ensembles and even in tuba quartets (in groups of 4).

## References

.

## Infobox (instrument)

- **name**: Tuba
- **image**: Tuba 25J Conn BBb.jpg
- **image capt**: A tuba
- **classification**: Brass instrument, Brass

String instrument, String
- **developed**: in the 19th century
Garden gnome

**Garden gnomes** are small lawn ornaments, usually placed in gardens or in front of houses. They are small statues, usually between one and two feet tall (30 to 60 centimeters). They depict gnomes, which are short creatures similar to humans.

Garden gnomes have become a popular accessory in many gardens, but they are not loved by all. They can be the target of pranks. People have been known to "return them to the wild", most notably France's "Front de Liberation des Nains de Jardins" and Italy's "MALAG" (Garden Gnome Liberation Front). Some kidnapped garden gnomes have been sent on trips around the world, being passed from person to person and photographed at different famous landmarks, with the photos being returned to the owner. This practice is featured in the 2001 French film, _Amélie_ and in an advertising campaign for Travelocity.com. Non-conventional gnome statues have also been made, such as a flashing gnome in a raincoat, or a gnome couple in love.

A sub-culture exists among those who collect garden gnomes. This phenomenon is frequently made fun of in popular culture.

## History

The first garden gnome was created in Switzerland. It was later introduced to the United Kingdom in 1847 by Sir Charles Isham, when he brought 21 terracotta figures back from a trip to Germany and placed them around the gardens of his home at Lamport Hall in Northamptonshire. Only one of the original batch of gnomes survives. His name is Lampy. He is on display at Lamport Hall, and is insured for one million pounds.

## Other websites

- Garden Gnome - Encyc
Gary Busey

**William Gary Busey** (born June 29, 1944) is an American actor. He has appeared in many movies and television shows since the 1970s. In 1988, He was involved in a motorcycle accident, but he recovered. He was born in Goose Creek, Texas and grew up in Oklahoma. He was a heavy cocaine user for many years, before giving it up and becoming a born-again Christian. His elder son Jake Busey (born 1971) is also an actor.

Busey was a contestant in two celebrity series of _The Apprentice_ (2011 and 2013). He won the August September 2014 series of _Celebrity Big Brother_ _UK_.

## Infobox (person)

- **name**: Gary Busey
- **image**: CUN2008 Oscar party Gary Busey.jpg
- **caption**: Busey in 2008
- **birth name**: William Gary Busey
- **birth place**: Goose Creek, Texas#History, Goose Creek, Texas, U.S.
- **occupation**: Actor
- **spouse**:

- **partner**: Steffanie Sampson
(2008–present)
- **years active**: 1967–present
- **children**: 3; including Jake Busey, Jake
Wool

**Wool** is the hair of certain mammals. Most wool comes from sheep and goats, while also being taken from camels, llamas and certain rabbits.
Wool is a Natural fibre. People use wool fiber to make clothing, blankets and other items to keep one warm. It is usually used to make outer clothing but is also used to make blankets, socks, sweaters and fine clothing. Rabbit wool is called angora wool. Cashmere wool and mohair come from goats, qiviut from musk ox<nowiki/>en and other types of wool from camelids.

## Properties

Wool has several qualities that distinguish it from hair or fur: it is crimped and elastic. Wool fabrics can be cleaned easily. Wool also absorbs moisture and insulates against heat and cold. Wool can be spun or made into yarn. Wool is usually carded before it is spun. Carding is a way of making the wool straighter, using two brushes.

### Yarn

The yarn is used to weave fabric or material.  The yarn of wool can also be knitted or crocheted into fabric or clothing like jumpers.  Alpaca, mohair, angora, camel, cashmere and vicuna are all separate types of wool. Wool can also be made into felt after it is boiled in hot water and rubbed together.

### Felt

Felt is a kind of fabric that is not woven. Wool can also be needle felted. Felt can be used to make clothes to keep warm in cold weather. Rag is a sturdy wool fiber made into yarn and used in many rugged applications such as gloves. **Worsted** is a strong, long-staple, combed wool yarn with a hard surface. Woolen is a **soft**, short-staple, **carded** wool yarn typically used for knitting.

## Production

Wool is produced by follicles which are small cells located in the skin. These follicles are located in the upper layer of the skin called the epidermis and push down into the second skin layer called the dermis as the wool fibers grow. Follicles can be classed as either primary or secondary follicles.

Primary follicles produce three types of fiber, Kemp (wool), medullated fibers and true wool fibers. Secondary follicles only produce true wool fibers. Medullated fibers share nearly identical characteristics to hair and are long but lack crimp and elasticity. Kemp fibers are very coarse and shed out.

### Countries

Australia is the world's largest producer of raw wool, growing about 30 percent of the total world supply. Less wool is produced than in the middle 20th century, because people use more synthetic fibers. Sheep were domesticated (tamed) in southwestern Asia about 11,000 years ago and now about 1 billion are now widely bred around the world.
Saw

A **saw** is a tool used to cut things.

There are many kinds of saw. Some of them are hand tools that work with muscle power, like the saw in the picture. Some saws have other sources of power and can be very powerful, such as a chainsaw that is used to cut down trees.

The work carried out with a saw is usually noisy. Using a saw to cut materials is _dangerous_ because of sharp teeth. Care must be taken not to let sharp edges touch the skin. Parts of the material being cut can fly off the work and become a hazard to breathing, to eyes and to the skin.

## Hand saws

Or hand powered saws. These use the motion of a person's arm to make a cut.

### Push saws

Many saws are designed to cut on the push stroke (when the saw is pushed forward).

### Pull saws

The  is a type of saw used in woodworking. These saws typically cut on the pull stroke (when the saw is pulled backwards).

## Power saws

There are several kinds of mechanically powered saws. Some are powered by electricity from a wall socket. Others are powered by batteries. Still others can be powered by Internal combustion engines, steam, or water power.

### Chainsaw

A saw designed to cut down trees or cut branches from trees is a chainsaw. A chainsaw is named for the row of teeth attached to a flexible chain. The cut is often very rough and often has splinters.

### Circular saws

Circular saws use a round blade, usually between 7 and 10 inches. They are often very powerful and can cut through hard or soft wood. They use interchangeable round blades. The blade can be designed to cut any of a number of kinds of materials from steel, to wood, to masonry.

### Jig saws

Jig saws move the blade up and down to cut through materials. The stroke (or up and down movement) is usually less than one inch (25.4 mm). These saws are very good for making curved cuts. Jig saws use a variety of interchangeable blades for cutting different materials. Some blades make very smooth cuts.