juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Halteres

**Halteres** are small knobbed structures modified from the hind wings in flies. They vibrate during flight, and help the insect fly better.

The halteres evolved from wings. Ancestral flying insects had two pairs of wings, like dragonflies, hymenoptera and lepidoptera still do. Flies have only the front pair of wings.

## Function

Halteres help balancing and improve flight. They help flies to perform their fast aerobatics. In addition to providing rapid feedback to the muscles steering the wings, they also help stabilise the head during flight.

They are flapped rapidly and work as gyroscopes, telling the insect about its body position during flight.

Every vibrating object tends to maintain its plane of vibration, a result of the Coriolis effect. If the body of the insect changes direction in flight or rotates about its axis, the vibrating halteres exert a force on the body. The insect detects this force with sensory organs at the base of the halteres.

The two halteres vibrate in different planes, each forming an angle of about 45 degrees with the long axis of the insect. This increases the information got from the halteres.

## Development

In Diptera, the formation of the haltere during metamorphosis is dependent on the homeotic gene _Ultrabithorax_ (Ubx). If this gene is experimentally deactivated, the haltere will develop into a fully developed wing. This is an excellent illustration of an important mechanism of evolutionary development; a simple homeotic gene change can result in a radically different phenotype.

## Convergent evolution

The Strepsiptera, small insects parasitic on bees, wasps and cockroaches, also have halteres. We know the evolution was independent because in the Strepsiptera the _forewings_ evolved into halteres while, in the Diptera, the _hindwings_ changed into halteres. This is a classic case of convergent evolution.

Grimaldi and Engel say halteres have evolved at least seven times in insects, and "in most cases it is known to be associated with improved manoeuvering in flight".
Chartres

**Chartres** is a French commune in the Eure-et-Loir department. About 39,000 people live there.

## Sister cities

Chartres is twinned with:
- Ravenna, Italy
- Speyer, Germany
- Chichester, United Kingdom
- Bethlehem, Palestinian Authority
- Évora, Portugal
- Cusco, Peru
Jethou

**Jethou** is a small island that is part of the Bailiwick of Guernsey in the Channel Islands. It is privately leased, and not open to the public.

It is immediately south of Herm and has an area of approximately 44 acres (18 ha).

## History

It is said that in AD 709 a storm washed away the strip of land which connected the island with Herm.

The island's name contains the _-hou_ suffix, which means "a small island".

In 1416, it became part of Henry V of England's estate.  It is still a Crown lease, and is owned by the States of Guernsey.

### Modern history

From 1920 to 1923 it was leased by Compton MacKenzie along with Herm and remained part of that estate for years, although it is currently part of a different one.

The British 1957 musical _Free as Air_ by Dorothy Reynolds & Julian Slade was set on the fictitious island of 'Terhou', which was based on Jethou.

On the top is a marker. It is said that in earlier times, pirates were hanged on it with chains, like nearby Crevichon.

From September 1964 until December 1971 the island was occupied by the Faed family consisting of Mr Angus Faed, his wife Susan Faed and their four children, Colin, Erik, Colette and Amanda. Mrs. Susan Faed was the 22nd tenant of Jethou.

It is flanked by two islets, Crevichon to the north and Fauconniere to the south. There is one house on the island and two cottages as well as a large garage where vehicles such as quad bikes and tractors are stored.

It is now leased by Sir Peter Ogden of IT company Computacenter.

## Politics

Unlike the largely autonomous islands of Sark and Alderney within the Bailiwick, Jethou cannot pass its own laws.  It is administered by the States of Guernsey, and elects members to the States of Deliberation as part of the St. Peter Port South electoral district.

## Wildlife

At the east of Jethou, puffins can be seen swimming off the rocks.

They also nest there in the east clifftop.

## Related pages

- List of tenants of Jethou

## References

- _BBC Pronouncing Dictionary of British Names_ (Oxford UP, 1971)

## Other websites

- Jethou Homepage
- Free Gutenberg Project book, a Crusoe-like novel on Jethou
- Stamps from Isle of Jethou
- Island of Jethou at Britlink

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Jethou
- **settlement type**: Island
- **motto**: Vigilare et admonere
- **image skyline**: Jethou Island.JPG
- **image caption**: Jethou from St. Peter Port, Guernsey
- **image map**: Guernsey-Jethou.png
- **map caption**: This is a map of the Bailiwick of Guernsey. Jethou is just south of Herm.
- **subdivision type**: Crown dependency
- **seat**: Manor House
- **unit pref**: Imperial
- **area total sq mi**: 0.06875
- **population as of**: 1996
- **population total**: 3
- **population density km2**: auto
- **coor pinpoint**: isle
Lihou

_Not to be confused with Lihou Reef National Nature Reserve_

**Lihou** () is a small tidal island (95 vergées; 38½ acres; 15.6 hectares) that is part of the Bailiwick of Guernsey, Channel Islands. It lies off the west coast of Guernsey and is the most westerly point in the Channel Islands. Coordinates: . The island was bought by the States of Guernsey in January 1995. Lihou is connected to Guernsey at low tide by an ancient stone causeway between the island and L'Eree headland. It is part of the Parish of St. Peter's. Lihou's bird and marine life makes it an important conservation area.

## History

Like many other Channel Islands, Lihou's name contains the Norman language suffix "_-hou_" of Old Norse origin.

The island has the ruins of the priory of St. Mary which is believed to have been set up by Benedictine monks in the 12th century. The monks of the priory were not very popular with the local people, who thought they were devil worshippers.  This animosity may be due to the monks' insistence on rights of wreck.  Until 1415 it was under the control of Mont Saint Michel and then Eton College until the Reformation when it was closed and fell into disrepair.

The house on Lihou was used for target practice by heavy artillery during the German Occupation of the Channel Islands during World War II.  It has now been rebuilt as accommodation for school groups, and is used as an educational resource.

_Vraic_ (seaweed) was harvested and dried on frames set up on the beach. A 1927 factory building produced iodine from seaweed. All traces of the industry disappeared during the German Occupation.

The Lihou family name is included in parish records which go back as far as the early 15th century and there are a number of groups who study the ancestry of the Lihou's. More recently a group was set up using the social networking site 'Facebook' which links Lihou's around the world.

## Other websites

- Lihou Island
- "History of Little Lihou"
- Archeology on Lihou

## References

- _BBC Pronouncing Dictionary of British Names_ (Oxford UP, 1971)
-hou

**-hou** is a suffix (part added to the end of a word) found in many Channel Islands and Norman names. It is the Norman language version of the Old Norse _holmr_, meaning a small island, and often found anglicised elsewhere as "holm". It can still be found in modern Scandinavian languages, e.g. Stockholm.

The Norman _hommet/houmet_ also comes from this suffix.

In Parisian French, the equivalent is _îlot_, which is the same as the English "islet".

## Bailiwick of Guernsey

- Off Guernsey
    - Lihou
    - Les Houmets including - Houmet Benest/Benet, Houmet Paradis & Houmet Hommetol (Omptolle).
- Off Alderney
    - Burhou
- Off Herm
    - Jethou
    - Le Plat Houmet
- Off Sark
    - Brecqhou

## Bailiwick of Jersey

- Les Écréhous
- Le Plat Hommeit
- Le Hommet du Ouaisné
- Les Hommets
- La Rocco (from _rocque-hou_)
- Icho (from _ic-hou_)

## Normandy

- Tatihou
- Quettehou
- Néhou
- Tribehou
Vergée

A **vergée**, or **vergee**, is a unit of area, a quarter of the French acre. Other spellings include **vergie** and **vrégie**. It is not an SI unit. The SI unit of area is the square metre.

The term derives from Latin _virga_ (rod). Compare French _verge_ (yard).

In the Channel Islands, it is a standard measure of land, but the statutory definition differs between the bailiwicks.

- In Guernsey, a vergée (Guernésiais: vergie) is 17,640 square feet (1,639 m²). It is 40 (square) Guernsey perches. A Guernsey perch (also spelt perque) is 21 feet by 21 feet.
- In Jersey, a vergée (Jèrriais: vrégie) is 19,360 square feet (1,798.6 m²). It is 40 (square) Jersey perches. A Jersey perch (also spelt pèrque) is a square 24 _pied de perche_ on each side (i.e. a square 22 imperial feet on each side).

In France a vergée was 12,100 square Paris feet (1,276.8 m²). It was 25 (square) perches. The surveying perch measured 22 French feet. the royal perch was 18 French feet.

## Conversions

1 vergée (Guernsey) is equivalent to:
- 1 638.809 63 m²
- 0.404958678 acres

1 vergée (Jersey) is equivalent to:
- 1,798.60285 m²
- 0.444444444 acres

## Related pages

- French units of measurement (to 1795)
- Virgate
Crevichon

**Crevichon** is an islet off Herm, immediately to the north of Jethou, in the Channel Islands.

According to Dr S.K. Kellett-Smith, the name "Crevichon" means "island of crabs, crayfish or cranes".

Like many names in the Channel Islands, it is Norman language in origin. A thousand years ago, the water level was ten feet lower (3 m), so there were many more of the animals the island was named after.

## Geography

The island is about 212 by 168 metres (696 by 551 ft) at its widest.  Its area is less than . The distance to Jethou is about 215 metres (705 ft).

## History

A 16th-century drawing of the islet, now in the British Museum, shows Crevichon as apparently a wooded islet.

Prof. John Le Patourel, in _The Building of Castle Cornet_ said that in 1566, iron and hammers were taken to "Creavissham", and the island quarried for the castle. The quarry has been used since then, but this has made the island much smaller, and less visible. As a result, a fifteen-foot () marker was built on the top. Crevichon may have provided the granite for the steps of St. Paul's Cathedral in London.

It is said that in earlier times, pirates were hanged on it with chains, like nearby Jethou.

Compton Mackenzie, former owner of Herm called Crevichon "Merg" in his book, _Fairy Gold_, which is a fictionalised version of the islands.

### Wrecks

In 1953, Victor Coysh says that he saw the remains of a German bomber, from the time of the occupation.

Other wrecks include:
- _Courier_, a Guernsey steamer, beached in 1905 with 80 passengers.

## References

- _Channel Islets_ - Victor Coysh

## Other websites

- Pictures of Crevichon by the Faeds of Jethou
- Faed Family WebSite with pictures of Jethou and Crevichon
Thylacosmilus

***Thylacosmilus*** is a extinct genus of carnivorous sparassodont. found as fossils in deposits dated from about 10 million to 3 million years ago (late Miocene to late Pliocene epoch) in Argentina, South America.

_Thylacosmilus_ was sabre-toothed and was about as large as a modern jaguar. To a remarkable degree, _Thylacosmilus_ paralleled the evolution of felid sabre-toothed cats like _Smilodon_. Its canine teeth were long and powerfully developed; they were used for stabbing prey. Its killing method was to hold its prey, and make deep bites into the soft tissue driven by powerful neck muscles. The canine teeth were protected by a well-developed flange, or projecting edge, in the chin region of the lower jaw. The canines continued to grow during adult life, which they do not in marsupials or placental mammals.

_Thylacosmilus_ died out during the late Pliocene, whereas saber-toothed cats did not get to South America until the middle Pleistocene epoch. As a result, the last appearance of _Thylacosmilus_ is separated from the first appearance of _Smilodon_ by over one and a half million years.
Garda Síochána

**** (), more commonly referred to as the **Gardaí** (Guards), is the police force of the Republic of Ireland. The service is headed by the  Commissioner who is appointed by the Irish Government. Its headquarters are located in Phoenix Park in Dublin.

## Terminology

The old English language name of the force was the **Civic Guard**, but this title is no longer used. _Garda Síochána na hÉireann_ is usually rendered as the "Guardian of the Peace of Ireland" or the "Guardians of the Peace (of Ireland)".
Châteauroux

**Châteauroux** is a commune in the Indre department in the center of France.

Aérocentre is in Châteauroux.

## Sport

- Châteauroux is the end of the 7th stage of the 2011 Tour de France.

## Sister cities

Châteauroux is twinned with:
- Gütersloh, Germany since 1977
- Bittou Department, Burkina Faso since November 1985
- Olsztyn, Poland since 23 February 1991
Compromise of 1877

The **Compromise of 1877** was an unwritten agreement after the American Civil War between leaders of the Democrats, who mostly ruled the South, and the Republicans, who mostly ruled the North. The Democrats agreed to settle the Presidential election of 1876 by allowing Rutherford B. Hayes to become President and not their own candidate, Samuel J. Tilden.

The Republicans promised to remove the Army from the occupied territory of the South, thus ending the Reconstruction era. The Democrats promised they would maintain African American rights.

The government stopped trying to fix Southern society and stopped helping the African Americans and Republicans there. Additional details are unclear, because it was an unwritten agreement.
Keys to the City (song)

"**Keys to the City**" is a 2007 industrial metal song by the American industrial metal band Ministry & Co Conspirators. The song was made for the Chicago Blackhawks of the NHL and the Wirtz family who is the owner of the Blackhawks. The money that was collected from the iTunes downloads was donated to Blackhawks Charities. It was the final song that Ministry did before the band was retired in 2008. The song was featured in the EA Sports video game _NHL 10_.

## Infobox (song)

- **name**: Keys to the City
- **artist**: Ministry (band), Ministry & Co Conspirators
- **album**: _Digital download_
- **released**: March 5, 2008
- **genre**: Industrial metal
- **writer**: Al Jourgensen
Joshua Bradford
Paul Raven
Credo Reference

**Credo Reference** is a company that offers subscription-based online reference content. It provides full-text online versions of more than 700 published reference works from over 70 publishers, including general and subject dictionaries and encyclopedias.

## History

The company began in 1999 and has offices in Oxford, England, and Boston, Massachusetts. It changed its name from Xrefer in 2007.

Subscriptions are available to academic, government, public and company libraries. Access to Credo Reference is free to users if their library is a subscriber. Librarians can select which titles they wish to subscribe to within Credo General Reference. They can manage the selection during their subscription period by swapping titles in and out.

Between 2000 and 2003, Xrefer offered a free site supported by advertising. When the dot com bust caused Internet advertising revenues to collapse, Xrefer launched a premium subscription variant, called _Xreferplus_. On 17 June 2003, the free service stopped.

## More information

- Golderman, Gail; Connolly, Bruce. "eReviews: General Reference Sources and Short Takes", _Library Journal.com_, Oct 15, 2010.

## Other websites

- corp.credoreference.com
Coober Pedy, South Australia

**Coober Pedy** is a small town in South Australia. It is famous for the opals which have been mined there since 1915. The town was first settled after opals were first discovered. The town is about half way between Adelaide and Alice Springs, on the Stuart Highway. The highway was named after the explorer John McDouall Stuart, who was the first Europen person to see the area in 1858.

The area around Coober Pedy is very dry, treeless flat desert. It has a hot desert climate (BWh in the Koeppen climate classification). The town has about 1700 people, many of whom live in underground houses to keep out of the heat. The name comes from two Aboriginal words which mean "white men in holes in the ground."
George Balabushka

**George Balabushka** (December 9, 1912 – December 5, 1975) was a Russian-born  American billiards (pool) cue maker. He may have been the most important cue stick maker. He is sometimes called "the Stradivarius of cuemakers". His full name or last name alone is often used to refer to a cue stick made by him. He arrived in the U.S. in 1942. He worked at different carpentry and toy and furniture making jobs. He loved playing pool and bought a pool room with a business partner in 1959. Then he started making cues as gifts for friends. This soon became a business when others wanted to buy them.

Balabushka made about 1,200 handcrafted cues during his 16 year career from 1959 to his death in 1975. His cues are highly valued collectors items. They appeared in Martin Scorsese's 1986 film, _The Color of Money_. Original Balabushka cues may sell for tens of thousands of dollars at auction.

### Early life

George Balabushka was born in Russia on December 9, 1912 and immigrated to the United States in 1924 at 12 years of age. His family, parents Anton and Natalie and younger sister Mary, settled in New York City. Although originally named Gregori, according to Balabushka he was given a new first name, George, by emigration officials when he was processed through Ellis Island.

### Employment

Balabushka's first job was as a wooden toy designer and maker at the Educational Equipment Company. in Manhattan, The company made building blocks for nurseries and schools. Later, he built children's furniture for the Playtime Woodworking Company in Greenwich Village. While working, Balabushka lost his middle finger to a band saw. Using a wooden mold, he made himself a replacement plastic finger. It was very realistic so that even his friends did not realize his loss until long after the incident. As Balabushka's carpentry skills improved he began building accordions and other detailed carpentry pieces on his own time.

Balabushka worked hard on playing ability and fine craftsmanship in his cues. He created new methods of cue construction, cue finishes and cue design. Most Balabushka cues look simple. Many of his construction techniques have become standard in the industry.

George Balabushka died in 1975 at the age of 62. He was named the first member the American Cuemakers Association Hall of Fame in February, 1993. In 2004, he entered the Meritorious Service category of the Billiard Congress of America's Hall of Fame.

## Other websites

- _George Balabuska's_ listing in the BCA Hall of Fame
- _George Balabuska's_ listing in the ACA Hall of Fame

## Infobox (person)

- **name**: George Balabushka
- **birth name**: Gregori Balabushka
- **birth date**: December 9, 1912
- **birth place**: Russia
- **death place**: Brooklyn, New York
Ballad

A **ballad** is a form of verse. It is often a story set to music. Ballads were popular in British and Irish poetry and music until the 19th century from the late medieval period. It was also used in Americas, Australia and North Africa. Many ballads were written and sold as single sheet broadsides. Poets and composers from the 18th century used this form. In this way, they produced lyrical ballads. In the later 19th century, ballads were slow form of popular love song. The term is now often used as synonymous with any love song, particularly the pop or rock _power ballad_.

## Power ballad

**Power ballad** is a name given to love songs that were predictably included in heavy metal albums in the 1980s.

The power ballad was usually slower in tempo and much less aggressive in lyrics than the other music on the album.  The songs were often made in a hope of scoring a Top Forty hit, and were particularly associated with bands in the hard metal genre. Examples include Poison's "Every Rose Has Its Thorn" and Bon Jovi's "Wanted Dead Or Alive".
Le Puy-en-Velay

**Le Puy-en-Velay** is a commune. It is found in the Haute-Loire department in the south of France.

## Sister cities

Le-Puy-en-Velay is twinned with:
- Meschede, Germany
- Tonbridge, United Kingdom
- Tortosa, Spain
- Brugherio, Italy
- Mangualde, Portugal
Lons-le-Saunier

**Lons-le-Saunier** is a spa town in France. It is the prefecture of the Jura department in the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region.

## Sister cities

Lons-le-Saunier is twinned with:
- Offenburg, Germany
- Ripley, United Kingdom

## Infobox (french commune)

- **name**: Lons-le-Saunier
- **commune status**: Prefectures of France, Prefecture and Communes of France, commune
- **image**: LonsPlaceDeLaLiberte.jpg
- **caption**: _Place de la Liberté_ with the statue of Claude Lecourbe
- **arrondissement**: Lons-le-Saunier
- **canton**: Canton of Lons-le-Saunier-1, Lons-le-Saunier-1 and Canton of Lons-le-Saunier-2, 2
- **insee**: 39300
- **postal code**: 39000
- **image coat of arms**: Blason Lons-le-Saunier.svg
- **mayor**: Jacques Pélissard
- **term**: 2014–2020
- **intercommunality**: Bassin de Lons-le-Saunier
- **elevation m**: 255
- **elevation min m**: 243
- **elevation max m**: 415
- **area km2**: 7.68
- **population**: 17353
- **population date**: 2012
The Sin of Madelon Claudet

***The Sin of Madelon Claudet*** is a 1931 American drama movie. The screenplay was adapted from the play _The Lullaby_ by Edward Knoblock. It tells the story of a woman who was put in jail for the crime she did not commit and later had to turn to theft and prostitution to support her son.

In 1932 Helen Hayes won an Academy Award for her leading role in it and was named a Favorite Actress at the first Venice Film Festival.

## Infobox (movie)

- **name**: The Sin of Madelon Claudet
- **caption**: Videotape cover
- **director**: Edgar Selwyn
- **producer**: Irving Thalberg
- **writer**: Charles MacArthur
Ben Hecht (uncredited)
- **starring**: Helen Hayes
Lewis Stone
Jean Hersholt
Robert Young
- **cinematography**: Oliver T. Marsh
- **editing**: Tom Held
- **distributor**: Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer
- **runtime**: 75 minutes
- **country**: United States
- **language**: English
Fallow deer

The **fallow deer** (_Dama dama_) is a type of deer from the family Cervidae. The animal originally lived in Eurasia, though it has been brought it to other parts of the world, such as Australia.

The male is called a buck, the female is a doe, and the young a fawn. They live for about 12–16 years. All of the fallow deer have white spots on their backs, and black tips at the ends of their tails. Only bucks have antlers, which are wide and shaped like a shovel.

They are grazing animals. They like to live in an area that is mixed woodland and open grassland. They try to stay together in groups of up to 150.

## Colours

They have a lot of different coloured coats (hair). There are four main colours: "common", "menil", "melanistic" and "white".
The common coat is a brown coat with white spots that are best seen in the summer. In the winter the coat is much darker. The white coat is lightest colored, almost white. The common and menil coat are darker. The melanistic coat is very dark, sometimes even black.

### Historical herds

One noted historical herd of fallow deer is kept in the Ottenby Preserve in Öland, Sweden. Karl X Gustav built a drystone wall of four kilometres long around a royal fallow deer herd in the mid 17th century. The herd still exists as of 2006.
Another herd lives in Phoenix Park in Ireland. 400-450 fallow deer descend from the original herd introduced in the 1660s.

### Further reading

- FAO ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND HEALTH PAPER   27. (1982). _Deer farming guidelines on practical aspects_. . Retrieved on 4 January 2008.
- Clutton-Brock, J. (1978). _A Natural History of Domesticated Animals_. London, British Museum.
- Lyneborg, L. (1971). _Mammals_ [of Europe]. .

## Other websites

- Fallow deer in New Zealand
MacDonnell Ranges

The **MacDonnell Ranges** are a long narrow range of mountains in the Northern Territory of Australia. They run in an almost straight line from east to west for hundreds of kilometres, on either side of Alice Springs. The Western MacDonnell Ranges have some spectacular gaps right through the range. Some of these such as Simpsons Gap, and Standley Chasm are major tourist attractions. The Heavitree Gap allows road and rail access to Alice Springs right through the mountains. They were named by the explorer John McDouall Stuart after Sir Richard MacDonnell, the Governor of South Australia.

The ranges are protected by the West MacDonnell National Park There is a long walking trail along the ranges called the Larapinta Trail.

The Arrernte people, the indigenous Australian people who live in the area, believe the mountains were once giant caterpillars, called _Yerrenye_.
Consumption

**Consumption** may refer to:

- Tuberculosis, an infectious disease
- Consumption (ecology), when a living thing eats another living thing to get energy
- Consumption (economics), the purchase of goods
    - Consumption function, an economic formula

## Related pages

- Consumerism
G20 developing nations

The **G20** (**Group of 20**, also variously **G21**, **G22** and **G20+**) is a bloc of developing nations established on 20 August 2003. Distinct and separate from the G-20 major economies, the group emerged at the 5th Ministerial WTO conference, held in  Cancún, Mexico, from 10 September to 14 September 2003.  The G-20 accounts for 60% of the world's population, 70% of its farmers and 26% of world’s agricultural exports. In 2008 the group had 23 members.
Mende, Lozère

**Mende** is a _commune_ and prefecture of the department of Lozère, part of the Occitanie region. It is also the capital of the _arrondissement_ of Mende.

The inhabitants of this city are known, in French, as _Mendois_ (women: _Mendoises_).

## Geography

Mende is located in the southern Massif Central, to the north of the _Cévennes_, near the Mont Lozère, the highest point of the Lozère department. The Lot river flows through the city and most of Mende is on the left side of the river.

The _commune_ of Mende has an area of  and its average altitude is ; at the city hall, the altitude is .

The _commune_ of Mende is surrounded by the _communes_ Chastel-Nouvel, Badaroux, Lanuéjols, Brenoux, Saint-Bauzile, Balsièges, Barjac and Servières.

### Climate

The climate in Mende in the Köppen climate classification is **Cfb** - Oceanic climate with template summers.

## Population

The city of Mende had 11,542 inhabitants for a density of  persons/km<sup>2</sup>.

**Evolution of the population in Mende**

## Administration

Mende is the prefecture of the Lozère department since 1790. It is also the capital of the Mende _arrondissement_ and of two _cantons_:
1. Mende-1, formed with a part of Mende (5,513 inhabitants) <small>(2014)</small>
1. Mende-2, formed with a part of Mende (6,029  inhabitants) <small>(2014)</small>

It is part of the intercommunality _Cœur de Lozère_ ().

## Twinned and partner towns

Mende is twinned with:
- Wunsiedel, Germany, since 1980
- Volterra, Italy, since 1993
- Vila Real, Portugal, since 2003

## Related pages

- Arrondissement of Mende
- Communes of the Lozère department

## Other websites

- City council website
- Mende Tourist Office

## Infobox (french commune)

- **name**: Mende
- **commune status**: Prefectures in France, Prefecture and Communes of France, commune
- **image coat of arms**: Blason Mende.svg
- **image**: Mende-cathedrale-1.JPG
- **caption**: Aerial view of Mende, with the cathedral.
- **arrondissement**: Mende
- **canton**: Mende-1
Mende-2
- **intercommunality**: Communauté de communes Cœur de Lozère
- **mayor**: Laurent Suau
- **term**: 2014-2020
- **elevation m**: 964
- **elevation min m**: 691
- **elevation max m**: 1236
- **area km2**: 36.56
- **population demonym**: Mendois
- **population**: 11542
- **population date**: 2014
- **insee**: 48095
- **postal code**: 48000
- **website**: [http://www.mende.fr/ www.mende.fr]
Diffraction

**Diffraction** is a physics concept which occurs when waves bend around small obstacles, or spread out after they pass through small openings. Diffraction occurs with all waves, including sound waves, water waves, and electromagnetic waves such as light that the eye can see. Diffraction also occurs with as electrons.

## Causes of diffraction

Diffraction is caused by one wave of light being shifted by a diffracting object. This shift will cause the wave to have interference with itself.  Interference can be either constructive or destructive.  When interference is constructive, the intensity of the wave will increase.  When interference is destructive, the intensity will decrease, sometimes to a point where it is completely destroyed.  These patterns of interference rely on the size of the diffracting object and the size of the wave.  The strongest examples of diffraction occur in waves where the wavelength is similar to the size of the object causing diffraction.

## Uses of diffraction

Diffraction can be used to separate different wavelengths of light using a diffraction grating.  A diffraction grating can be a series of closely-spaced slits or a mirror with a series of small grooves.  Diffraction gratings work because different wavelengths of light will constructively interfere at different angles.  Diffraction gratings are used in many analytical chemistry tools, such as a spectrometer.

Diffraction can also be used to look at molecules using X-ray crystallography.  In X-ray crystallography, X-rays are aimed on a crystal. The crystal diffracts the X-ray and makes a diffraction pattern.  This pattern is unique to the type of crystal and can be used to identify the molecule that makes the crystal. Diffraction also occurs in a bending movement where the wave becomes more spread out

## References

Skoog, D.A.; Holler, F.J.; Crouch, S.R.  Principles of Instrumental Analysis. (Brooks/Cole, California).
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Young_Diffraction.png
Shanghai Knights

***Shanghai Knights*** is an 2003 martial arts action-comedy movie that was produced by Jackie Chan, Gary Barber and Roger Birnbaum and was directed by David Dobkin. It is a sequel to _Shanghai Noon_. _Shanghai Knights_ was released on February 7, 2003 in North America. The movie received positive reviews with a 66% rating on Rotten Tomatoes and a 58 out of 100 from Metacritic. prequel _Shanghai Dawn_.

## Cast

- Jackie Chan as Chon Wang
- Owen Wilson as Roy O'Bannon
- Fann Wong as Chon Lin
- Thomas Fisher as Inspector Artie Doyle/Sir Arthur Conan Doyle
- Aidan Gillen as Lord Nelson Rathbone
- Donnie Yen as Wu Chow
- Aaron Johnson as Charlie Chaplin
- Oliver Cotton as Jack the Ripper
- Kim Chan as Chon Wang's Father
- Gemma Jones as Queen Victoria
- Brad Allan as Thug (_uncredited_)

## Stunts

- Tom Wu
- Nicky Li
- He Jun
- Wu Gang
- Park Hyun Jin
- Lee In Seob
- Han Guan Hua

## Other websites

- Shanghai Knights Official website

## Infobox (movie)

- **name**: Shanghai Knights
- **director**: David Dobkin
- **producer**: Jackie Chan
Gary Barber
Roger Birnbaum
- **writer**: Alfred Gough
Miles Millar
- **starring**: Jackie Chan
Owen Wilson
Fann Wong
Thomas Fisher
Aidan Gillen
Donnie Yen
- **music**: Randy Edelman
- **cinematography**: Adrian Biddle
- **editing**: Malcolm Campbell
- **studio**: Touchstone Pictures
- **distributor**: Buena Vista Pictures
- **released**: February 7, 2003
- **runtime**: 114 mins.
- **country**: United States
- **language**: English
- **budget**: $50 million
- **gross**: $88,323,487
Wyre

**Wyre** is a local government district in Lancashire, England. It is a borough, based in the town of Poulton-le-Fylde. Wyre is named after the River Wyre, which runs through the district.

Wyre was formed in 1974.

### Urban areas

- Fleetwood
- Poulton-le-Fylde
- Thornton Cleveleys

### Parish councils

- Barnacre with Bonds
- Bleasdale
- Cabus
- Catterall
- Claughton on Brock
- Forton
- Garstang
- Great Eccleston
- Hambleton
- Inskip-with-Sowerby
- Kirkland, Lancashire
- Myerscough and Bilsborrow
- Nateby
- Nether Wyresdale
- Out Rawcliffe
- Pilling
- Preesall (Town Council)
- Stalmine-with-Staynall
- Upper Rawcliffe with Tarnacre
- Winmarleigh

## Other websites

- Wyre Borough Council

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Borough of Wyre
- **type**: Borough
- **blank emblem type**: Coat of Arms of the City Council
- **image map**: LancashireWyre.png
- **map caption**: Shown within non-metropolitan Lancashire
- **mapsize**: frameless
- **subdivision type**: List of sovereign states, Sovereign state
- **subdivision name**: United Kingdom
- **subdivision type1**: Constituent country
- **subdivision name1**: England
- **subdivision type2**: Regions of England, Region
- **subdivision name2**: North West England
- **subdivision type3**: Ceremonial counties of England, Ceremonial county
- **subdivision name3**: Lancashire
- **seat type**: Admin. HQ
- **seat**: Poulton-le-Fylde
- **government type**: Wyre Borough Council
- **leader title**: Local government in England#Councillors and mayors, Leadership:
- **leader name**: Leader & Cabinet
- **leader title1**: Executive:
- **leader title2**: MPs elected in the United Kingdom general election, 2005, MPs:
- **leader name2**: Joan Humble, Michael Jack, Ben Wallace (UK politician), Ben Wallace
- **established title**: Founded
- **established date**: 1974
- **timezone**: Greenwich Mean Time
- **utc offset**: +0
- **timezone dst**: British Summer Time
- **utc offset dst**: +1
- **postal code type**: Postcode
- **blank name**: ISO 3166-2:GB, ISO 3166-2
- **blank1 name**: ONS coding system, ONS code
- **blank1 info**: 30UQ
- **blank2 name**: British national grid reference system, OS grid reference
- **blank3 name**: Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics, NUTS 3
- **blank4 name**: Ethnicity
- **blank4 info**: 96.6% White
1.9% S.Asian
- **website**: [http://www.wyrebc.gov.uk/ wyrebc.gov.uk]
River Wyre

The **River Wyre** is a river in Lancashire, England. It flows into the Irish Sea at the town of Fleetwood. It is about  long. The river is a County Biological Heritage Site.
Michael Konsel

**Michael Konsel** (born 6 March 1962) is a retired Austrian football player who played as goalkeeper in Austria and Italy.

## Career

He started as defender for Fortuna 05 when he was six but at the age of nine he became goalkeeper, a position he played for the rest of his career. At the age of 16 he came to  FC Kritzendorf where he became goalkeeper of the first team. His first professional team was First Vienna FC, then he want to SK Rapid Wien. For Rapid he played 395 matches in the league, 47 Cup matches and 42 international matches He played twice in the final of the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup.

After his successful time with Rapid he went to AS Roma in Italy's Serie A. The last year of his career he spent with SSC Venice.

## International

Michael Konsel played 43 matches in Austria's national team. He was member of Austria's team for the FIFA World Cup in 1990 and 1998. 1990 in Italy he was second goalkeeper but 1998 he was number 1 and played 3 matches. Although he played his first match in 1985 he did not because number one until ten years later. His last match was a friendly versus world champions France in Vienna's Ernst-Happel-Stadion.

## International statistics

|National team|Year|Apps|Goals||
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|rowspan="11"|Austria|1985|1|0|
|1988|1|0|||
|1989|1|0|||
|1990|6|0|||
|1991|4|0|||
|1992|5|0|||
|1994|1|0|||
|1995|4|0|||
|1996|6|0|||
|1997|7|0|||
|1998|7|0|||

## Honours

- **Austrian Bundesliga (3):**
    - 1987, 1988, 1996
- **Austrian Cup (3):**
    - 1985, 1987, 1995
- **Austria**
    - Goalkeeper of the year: 1987/88, 1994/95, 1995/96, 1996/97
    - Footballer of the year:
        - Krone-Fußballerwahl:1987,1995
        - APA-Fußballerwahl:1995
        - VdF-Honourary price:1998
- **Italy **
    - Best Goalkeeper Serie A : 1997/98
- **FIFA World Cup:**
    - Member of the Austrian team 1990 and 1998

## Other websites

- Official homepage
- players profile Michael Konsel
Lamp (electrical component)

A **lamp** is a component that can be replaced such as an incandescent light bulb. It is designed to make light from electricity. These components are usually made of ceramic, metal, glass or plastic, which makes an electrical connection.
Locus

**Locus** may refer to:

- Locus (mathematics), one of a set of points which satisfies one or more conditions
- An allele's position on a chromosome
- Locus Award

## Related pages

- Locust
Saint-Lô

**Saint-Lô** is a commune. It is in the Manche department in west France.

## Sister cities

Saint-Lô is twinned with:
- Saint-Ghislain, Belgium, since 1961
- Aalen, Germany, since 1979
- Christchurch, UK, since 1985
- Kervénanec, Lorient, France, since 1988
- Roanoke, Virginia, US, since 1999
Vannes

**Vannes** is a commune. It is the prefecture of Morbihan in Brittany.

## Education

- Institut catholique d'arts et métiers

## Sister cities

Vannes is twinned with:

- Mons, Belgium _(since 1952)_
- Cuxhaven, Germany _(since 1963)_
- Fareham, United Kingdom _(since 1967)_

Vannes also has partnerships (***‘partenariats’***) with:
- Barouéli, Mali, since 2003
- Wałbrzych, Poland, since 2001

## Infobox (french commune)

- **name**: Vannes
- **image**: Vannes le port.JPG
- **caption**: port
- **image flag**: Drapeau de Vannes.svg
- **image coat of arms**: COA_fr_Vannes_56.svg
- **arrondissement**: Vannes
- **insee**: 56260
- **postal code**: 56000
- **mayor**: David Robo
- **term**: 2014-2020
- **intercommunality**: Vannes agglo - Golfe du Morbihan
- **elevation m**: 102
- **elevation min m**: 93
- **elevation max m**: 217
- **area km2**: 32.3
- **population**: 52648
- **population date**: 2012
Bar-le-Duc

**Bar-le-Duc** is a commune. It is found in the Meuse department in the east of France.

## Sister cities

Bar-le-Duc is twinned with:
- Tambov, Russia
- Griesheim, Germany, since 1975
- Wilkau-Haßlau, Germany, since 1990
- Gyönk, Hungary, since 1995
Royal Hospital Kilmainham

The **Royal Hospital Kilmainham** is a 17th-century building in Kilmainham, Dublin, Ireland. It was built to be a home for retired soldiers. It was used as a home for over 250 years.

The hospital was built between 1680 and 1684 by architect Sir William Robinson. He was the official State Surveyor General for James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormonde and Lord Lieutenant of Ireland to King Charles II.
The style is based on Les Invalides in Paris. The Royal Hospital Chelsea in Chelsea, London was completed two years later and looks alike in style.

The Tudor Gothic gateway at the end of the road leading to the Royal Hospital was designed by Francis Johnston. He was one of the leading architects of the day. This gateway originally stood beside the River Liffey at Bloody Bridge (now Rory O'More Bridge). It was moved after the arrival of the railway in 1844.

When the Irish Free State was formed, they thought about using the building for the Oireachtas Éireann, the new Irish national parliament. This did not happen. After the soldiers were all gone, the buildings were used for different things like offices for the Garda Síochána (the Irish police force) and as storage for the National Museum of Ireland.

The Government of Ireland restored the buildings in different stages from 1957, and opened in 1985 as the National Centre for Culture and the Arts. In 1991 the Irish Museum of Modern Art was opened here.

Every year on the National Day of Commemoration the President of Ireland lays a wreath in the courtyard in memory of all Irishmen and Irishwomen who have died in past wars and on service with the United Nations.

## Related pages

- Kilmainham Gaol

## Other websites

- Royal Hospital Kilmainham website
- Virtual Tours of Royal Hospital Kilmainham North Range, Courtyard and Formal Gardens
Kilmainham

**Kilmainham** (In Irish: _Cill Mhaighneann_, "St Maighnenn's church") is an area of Dublin. It lies south of the River Liffey and west of the city centre in the Dublin 8 postal district.

## History

In the Viking era, there was a monastery here. The monastery was home to the first Norse base (_longphort_) in Ireland.

In the 12th century the lands on the banks of the Liffey belonged to the Knights Templars. Strongbow built a castle for them, about a mile away from the Danish wall of old Dublin. Here the Templars lived for nearly a century and a half. In 1308, Edward II ruled that they were no longer allowed to practice their religion. Thirty members of the Templars were imprisoned in Dublin. Their lands and rights were given to the priory of the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem. They were there until the monasteries were closed in the 16th century.

The Manor of Kilmainham was a liberty. This means it had special rights. "The manor" was an area that included parts of James's Street and side-streets and went as far as Lucan and Chapelizod.

Until the time of Queen Elizabeth, the lord lieutenants used the manor of Kilmainham. In 1559, the earl of Sussex, found that the building at Kilmainham was damaged by a storm. The following year Elizabeth ordered that Dublin Castle be improved so the lord lieutenant could live there. From that time, Kilmainham was no longer used much.

## Things to see

The Royal Hospital Kilmainham is in Kilmainham. It was built on the site where the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem had their priory in Dublin. It is now the Irish Museum of Modern Art. Nearby is also Kilmainham Gaol, where the executions of the leaders of the Easter Rising took place.

Kilmainham also has one of a small number of Viking era burial sites (Old Norse _haugr_ meaning barrow or mound), within Dublin.
Balancing selection

**Balancing selection** refers to selective processes by which different alleles (different versions of a gene) are kept in the gene pool of a population _at frequencies above that of gene mutation_.

This usually happens when the heterozygote for a gene has a higher relative fitness than the homozygote. In this way genetic polymorphism is conserved.

Evidence for balancing selection can be found in the number of alleles in a population which are maintained above mutation rate frequencies. All modern research has shown that this significant genetic variation is common in panmictic populations. It is the field experience of Darwin, Wallace and others, that natural populations in the wild are extraordinarily varied. Museum collections of single species tell the same story.

There are several ways balancing selection works to maintain polymorphism. The two major and most studied are heterozygote advantage and frequency-dependent selection.

### Heterozygote advantage

In heterozygote advantage, or _heterotic balancing selection_, an individual who is heterozygous at a particular gene locus has a greater fitness than a homozygous individual. Polymorphisms maintained by this mechanism are _balanced polymorphisms_.

A well-studied case is that of sickle cell anemia in humans, a hereditary disease that damages red blood cells. Sickle cell anemia is caused by the inheritance of a variant hemoglobin gene (HgbS) from both parents. In these individuals, hemoglobin in red blood cells is extremely sensitive to oxygen deprivation, and this causes shorter life expectancy.

A person who inherits the sickle cell gene from one parent, and a normal hemoglobin gene (HgbA) from the other, has a normal life expectancy. The heterozygote is resistant to the malarial parasite which kills a large number of people each year. The heterozygote frequency is kept high because of the fierce selection against both the homozygotes.

The heterozygote has a permanent advantage (a higher fitness) wherever malaria exists.

### Frequency-dependent selection

Frequency-dependent selection occurs when the fitness of a phenotype depends on its frequency.

In _positive frequency-dependent selection_ the fitness of a phenotype increases as it becomes more common. In _negative frequency-dependent selection_ the fitness of a phenotype increases as it becomes less common. For example, in prey switching, rare morphs of prey are fitter because predators concentrate on more frequent morphs.

### Fitness varies in time and space

The fitness of a genotype may vary greatly between larval and adult stages, or between parts of a habitat range.

### Selection acts at different levels

The fitness of a genotype may depend on the fitness of other genotypes in the population: this covers many natural situations where the best thing to do (from the point of view of survival and reproduction) depends on what other members of the population are doing at the time.
Philip Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield

**Philip Dormer Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield** PC KG (22 September 1694 – 24 March 1773) was a British statesman and intellectual.

Stanhope was born in London. He got his schooling at Trinity Hall, Cambridge. After that, he went on the Grand Tour of the continent. He became gentleman of the bedchamber to the Prince of Wales.

## Career in government

In 1715, he entered the House of Commons as Lord Stanhope of Shelford and member for St Germans. He left for Paris and sent the government valuable information about the Jacobite plot. In 1716, he returned to Britain and sat in the House of Commons. He liked to take part in the debates.

He took his seat in the House of Lords. In 1728, he was sent to the Hague as ambassador. He did a good job, and got the Order of the Garter in 1730, and the position of Lord Steward. After he did not support Walpole's Excise Bill, he was dismissed from his stewardship. He spent years opposing the ruling party in the House of Lords. First against Robert Walpole and then against King George II of England. In 1744, the "Broad Bottom" party, led by Chesterfield and Pitt, came into office. They ruled together with the Pelhams.

He was then sent to the Hague as ambassador a second time. The object of his mission was to persuade the Dutch to join in the War of the Austrian Succession. His mission was successful. When he got back to London, he was made Lord-Lieutenancy of Ireland. This was a position he wanted for a long time.

He took the his role seriously. He established schools and manufacturing in Ireland. In politics, he found a way to work with both Protestant and Roman Catholic parties.

He also still took his seat in the Upper House. In 1751, he helped in making the Gregorian calendar a fact. That Act of Parliament is sometimes known as Chesterfield's Act. After he slowly became deaf, he had to stop his work in the parliament.

He lived for some years at the Ranger's House, Chesterfield Walk, Greenwich, London.

## How he is remembered

In politics, he is best known for the time he was Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. As a writer, he is best known for his _Letters to his Son_. Those letters were not really written to be read by the general public. His widow Eugenia Stanhope first published them in 1774. _Letters to his Godson_ was published in 1890. Both sets of letters are written with great style and knowledge.

Chesterfield County, Virginia and Chesterfield County, South Carolina in the United States were named in his honour. He also plays a role in the 1757-1758 novel _The Virginians_ by William Makepeace Thackery.

Things he has probably said:

- "An able man shows his spirit by gentle words and resolute actions."

- "I recommend you to take care of the minutes, for the hours will take care of themselves."

## Other websites

- Scans of Stanhope's _Letters to his son_, 1774–1775 edition, Vol. 1, Vol. 2
- Guide to the Chesterfield Manuscripts at the Lilly Library, Indiana University