juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Francisco Ferrer y Guardia

**Francesc Ferrer i Guàrdia** (; 14 January 1859 – 13 October 1909) commonly known as **Francisco Ferrer**, was a Spanish Catalan "free-thinker" and anarchist.

## Early life

He was born in Alella (a small town near Barcelona). A supporter of Spanish republican leader Ruiz Zorilla, Ferrer was exiled to Paris with his wife and children in 1885. Divorcing his first wife in 1899, he remarried a rich Parisian teacher some time after.

In 1901 he returned to Spain and opened la Escuela Moderna (_The Modern School_) to teach middle-class children (then) radical social values, the school was free.  In 1906 he was arrested and accused of helping with Mateu Morral's attack on King Alphonso XIII and released a year later.  His school failed and closed while he was incarcerated.

## Works

Early in the summer of 1908, after his release from jail, he wrote the story of the Modern School. The book was called _The Origins and Ideals of the Modern School_ and was translated into English by Joseph McCabe and published by the Knickerbocker Press in 1913.

When the martial law was reused in 1909 during the Tragic Week, he was arrested, convicted without any proof and executed by firing squad at Montjuich Fortress in Barcelona on 13 October.

After his execution, numerous supporters of Ferrer's ideas in the United States formed what were called Modern Schools, or Ferrer Schools. The first and most important Modern School was formed in New York City in 1911, and then later a community was founded around a school, known as Ferrer Colony and Modern School.

## Other websites

- Francisco Ferrer Collection MSS 248. Special Collections & Archives, UC San Diego Library.
- Francisco Ferrer Page at the Daily Bleed's Anarchist Encyclopedia
- Francisco Ferrer Page at the Anarchy Archives

## Infobox (person)

- **name**: Francesc Ferrer i Guàrdia
- **image**: Francisco Ferrer Guardia.jpg
- **birth place**: Alella, Catalonia, Mid-nineteenth century Spain, Spain
- **death place**: Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain under the Restoration, Spain
- **nationality**: Spanish
Gaetano Bresci

**Gaetano Bresci** (11 November 1869 – 22 May 1901) was an Italian American anarchist who killed Italian King Umberto I. He is still considered a hero by many anarchists and republicans.

## Life

Bresci was born in Tuscany, later emigrating from Italy to the United States, spending much time living in Paterson, New Jersey, where there was a large Italian-American community. He was one of the founders of _La Questione Sociale_, the Italian language anarchist paper published in Paterson.

In 1898, high bread prices led to demonstrations over much of Italy. In Milan, an unarmed group of workers, women, and children marched together in protest, near the palace, which was surrounded by a strong military force under command of General Fiorenzo Bava-Beccaris. The people ignored an order to stop, so the General gave the signal to fire on them with rifles and cannons, resulting in a massacre of innocent people. Ninety people died, one of whom was Bresci's sister.

## Umberto I's killing

King Humbert later decorated Bava-Beccaris, and the king after said thanks to him,for "the defense of the royal house", the king did not do anything for the innocent people died, he decorated the murder, this is the reason that made Bresci determined to kill the king. Bresci had his loan to the paper returned (without telling his comrades why), and with the money he went to Italy. In Monza, where the king was visiting on 29 July 1900, he shot him three times.

Bresci was captured and put on trial, where he was defended by the anarchist lawyer Francesco Saverio Merlino. He was sentenced in Milan on 29 August 1900, to life imprisonment on the jail of Santo Stefano Island near Ventotene, where lot of other anarchists had also been sent over the years. Less than a year later he was found dead in prison. It is not clear whether he committed suicide, as officially announced, or whether he was murdered by his guards.

## Other websites

- _Gaetano Bresci Page_ in the _Anarchist Encyclopedia_
Songs for Polarbears

***Songs for Polarbears*** is the debut album by the alternative rock group Snow Patrol. It was released on August 31, 1998. Gary Lightbody wrote all of the lyrics, and helped Mark McClelland and Jonny Quinn write the music. The name of the album is a reference to how Snow Patrol was once called 'Polar Bear', but changed their name.

_Songs for Polarbears_ was re-released in 2006.

### Original release

1. "Downhill From Here" – 3:23
1. "Starfighter Pilot" – 3:19
1. "The Last Shot Ringing in My Ears" – 4:26
1. "Absolute Gravity" – 2:45
1. "Get Balsamic Vinegar... Quick You Fool" – 3:27
1. "Mahogany" – 2:46
1. "NYC" – 4:27
1. "Little Hide" – 2:41
1. "Make Up" – 2:12
1. "Velocity Girl" – 4:37
1. "Days Without Paracetamol" – 3:32
1. "Fifteen Minutes Old" – 3:08
1. "Favourite Friend" – 2:46
1. "One Hundred Things You Should Have Done in Bed" (UK release) – 6:14
1. "Marketplace" (hidden track on UK version, bonus track on U.S. version)
1. "I Could Stay Away Forever" (bonus track on U.S. version)
1. "Sticky Teenage Twin" (bonus track on U.S. version)
1. "Holy Cow" (bonus track on U.S. version)
1. "When You're Right, You're Right (Darth Vader Bringing in His Washing Mix)" (bonus track on U.S. version)

### 2006 re-release

1. "Downhill From Here" – 3:23
1. "Starfighter Pilot" – 3:19
1. "The Last Shot Ringing In My Ears" – 4:26
1. "Absolute Gravity" – 2:45
1. "Get Balsamic Vinegar... Quick You Fool" – 3:27
1. "Mahogany" – 2:46
1. "NYC" – 4:27
1. "Little Hide" – 2:41
1. "Make Up" – 2:12
1. "Velocity Girl" – 4:37
1. "Days Without Paracetamol" – 3:32
1. "Fifteen Minutes Old" – 3:08
1. "Favourite Friend" – 2:46
1. "One Hundred Things You Should Have Done in Bed/ Marketplace" – 6:14
1. "Sticky Teenage Twin" – 2:08
1. "Limited Edition" – 2:33
1. "Jj" – 1:47
1. "My Last Girlfriend" – 2:59
1. "T.M.T." – 2:51
1. "I Could Stay Away Forever" – 4:28
1. "When You're Right, You're Right (Darth Vader Bringing In His Washing Mix)" – 3:31
1. "Raze The City" – 4:20
1. "Riot Please" – 2:52

## Infobox (album)

- **name**: Songs for Polarbears
- **type**: Album
- **artist**: Snow Patrol
- **released**: August 31, 1998 <small>(United Kingdom, UK)</small>
September 23, 1999 <small>(United States, U.S.)</small>
- **recorded**: 1997 at Chamber Studios, Edinburgh
- **genre**: Indie rock
- **length**: 49:49 <small>(United Kingdom, UK)</small>
65:16 <small>(United States, U.S.)</small>
77:22 <small>(2006 re-release)</small>
- **label**: Jeepster Records <small>(United Kingdom, UK)</small>
Never Records <small>(United States, U.S.)</small>
- **producer**: Jamie Watson (producer), Jamie Watson
- **prev title**: Starfighter Pilot
- **prev year**: 1997
- **next title**: When It's All Over We Still Have to Clear Up
- **next year**: 2001
Starfighter Pilot

***Starfighter Pilot*** was the debut, or first, EP from the alternative rock band Snow Patrol, and was finished in 1997. It was released on the Electric Honey record label.  The song "Starfighter Pilot" was also put on the band's first full-length album, _Songs for Polarbears_.

## Track listing

1. "Starfighter Pilot"
1. "Holy Cow"
1. "Safety"
When It's All Over We Still Have to Clear Up

***When It's All Over We Still Have to Clear Up*** is the second full-length album by the Alternative rock band Snow Patrol. It was released on March 5 2001. Gary Lightbody wrote all of the lyrics, and wrote the music with Mark McClelland and Jonny Quinn.

When the album first was released, it was not bought enough to get its name onto the top 200 albums chart. After the next album, _Final Straw_, became popular, people began buying _When It's All Over We Still Have To Clear Up_, and it went onto the chart.

### First release

1. "Never Gonna Fall in Love Again" – 2:10
1. "Ask Me How I Am" – 2:34
1. "Making Enemies" – 4:18
1. "Black and Blue" – 3:40
1. "Last Ever Lone Gunman" – 2:43
1. "If I'd Found the Right Words to Say" – 4:47
1. "Batten Down the Hatch" – 3:29
1. "One Night Is Not Enough" – 3:23
1. "Chased by... I Don't Know What" – 2:41
1. "On/Off" – 2:40
1. "An Olive Grove Facing the Sea" – 5:18
1. "When It's All Over We Still Have to Clear Up" – 3:17
1. "Make Love to Me Forever" – 2:55
1. "Firelight" – 3:43

### 2006 re-release

1. "Never Gonna Fall in Love Again" – 2:10
1. "Ask Me How I Am" – 2:34
1. "Making Enemies" – 4:18
1. "Black and Blue" – 3:40
1. "Last Ever Lone Gunman" – 2:43
1. "If I'd Found the Right Words to Say" – 4:47
1. "Batten Down the Hatch" – 3:29
1. "One Night Is Not Enough" – 3:23
1. "Chased by... I Don't Know What" – 2:41
1. "On/Off" – 2:40
1. "An Olive Grove Facing the Sea" – 5:18
1. "When It's All Over We Still Have to Clear Up" – 3:17
1. "Make Love to Me Forever" – 2:55
1. "Firelight" – 3:43
1. "In Command of Cars" – 3:59
1. "Talk to the Trees" – 1:57
1. "Monkey Mobe" – 1:16
1. "Workwear Shop" – 2:25
1. "Ask Me How I Am" (Video) – 2:44

## Infobox (album)

- **name**: When It's All Over We Still Have to Clear Up
- **type**: studio
- **artist**: Snow Patrol
- **released**: 5 March 2001 <small>(United Kingdom, UK)</small>
24 April 2001 <small>(United States, US)</small>
- **recorded**: 2000 at Substation, CaVa Studios, CaVa, The Stables, Rage
- **genre**: Indie rock
- **length**: 47:44
57:35 <small>(2006 re-release)</small>
- **language**: English language, English
- **label**: Jeepster Records
- **producer**: Snow Patrol, Michael Brennan
- **prev title**: Songs for Polarbears
- **prev year**: 1998
- **next title**: Final Straw
- **next year**: 2003
Final Straw

***Final Straw*** is the third full-length album by the alternative rock band Snow Patrol. It was released in the United Kingdom in 2003 and in the United States in 2004, under Polydor Records. Gary Lightbody wrote all of the lyrics, and wrote the music with Nathan Connolly, Mark McClelland and Jonny Quinn. The album was the first by Snow Patrol to become popular outside Northern Ireland and Scotland. _Final Straw_ was re-released in the UK in 2004 with two extra tracks, and then was able to be bought in the U.S. without the bonus tracks.

## Album credits

- Stephen Marcussen - Mastering
- Louie Teran - Mastering
- Iain Archer - Vocals (Background)
- Bruce White - Viola
- James Banbury - Piano, String Arrangements, Cello
- Fiona McCapra - Violin
- Ben Georgiades 	- Engineer
- Snow Patrol - Main Performer
- Dan Swift - Engineer
- Garrett Lee - Producer, Mixing
- Gary Lightbody - Guitar, Glockenspiel, Vocals, Group Member, Vocals (Background), Keyboards
- Nathan Connolly - Guitar, Group Member, Vocals (Background)
- Mark McClelland - Bass, Group Member, Keyboards
- Jonny Quinn - Drums, Group Member
- Phil Tyreman - Assistant Engineer
- Ian Dowling - Assistant Engineer
- Mike Nelson - Mixing
- Jeff McLaughlin - Assistant
- Chris Lord-Alge - Mixing

## Track listing

1. "How to Be Dead" – 3:22
1. "Wow" – 4:02 (This song is on the PlayStation 2 game _Gran Turismo 4_)
1. "Gleaming Auction" – 2:04
1. "Whatever's Left" – 2:39
1. "Spitting Games" – 3:46
1. "Chocolate" – 3:02
1. "Run" – 5:54  (This song was part of the soundtrack for the movie Chumscrubber)
1. "Grazed Knees" – 2:55
1. "Ways & Means" – 4:48
1. "Tiny Little Fractures" – 2:27
1. "Somewhere a Clock Is Ticking" – 4:32
1. "Same" – 3:54
1. "We Can Run Away Now They're All Dead and Gone" (UK re-release bonus track) – 3:15
1. "Half the Fun" (UK re-release bonus track) – 2:54

## Chart positions

|Title|Release date|UK|US*|
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|"Spitting Games"|2003|23|39|
|"Run"|2003|5|15|
|"Chocolate"|2004|24|40|
|_Final Straw_|2003|3|91|
|"How to Be Dead"|2004|39|-|
Live and Acoustic at Park Ave.

***Live and Acoustic at Park Ave.*** is the second EP by alternative rock band Snow Patrol. It was released in 2005.  All of the songs are played live and are taken from one performance.

## Track listing

1. "Spitting Games"
1. "How to Be Dead"
1. "Grazed Knees"
1. "Chocolate"
1. "Run"
Epimetheus

**Epimetheus** is a titan in Greek mythology, and is the brother of Prometheus, a Greek titan who gave all of the creatures something to protect themselves from the elements. By the time he came to the humans, he had run out of feathers and fur to give. He went to his brother, and he gave humans fire.

Epimetheus literally means "thinks after" and Prometheus means "thinks before".

## References

- Kerenyi, Karl, 1951. _The Gods of the Greeks_, pp 209ff.
- Graves, Robert, (1955) 1960, _The Greek Myths_ 39.a-j
Wrestling

**Wrestling** is a competition in which two people try to pin the other person to the ground during matches. The people who wrestle are called wrestlers. Striking is not allowed in wrestling. Wrestlers use throws, takedowns, and trips to get their opponents down to the ground. On the ground, they use holds and pins to control their opponent on the mat and attempt to turn them on their back. Wrestling is a popular and effective base for fighters in mixed martial arts competitions.

Western styles of wrestling:
- Freestyle
- Greco-Roman (French wrestling)
- Collegiate (folk style) (USA)

International folk wrestling styles:
- Kuresh (Armenia)
- Karakucak Guresh (Turkey)
- Sumo (Japan)
- Ssireum (Korea)
- Bekh (Mongolia)
- Chidaoba (Georgia)
- Kushti  (India)
- Oil wrestling (Turkey, and Bulgaria)

## Related pages

- Professional wrestling
- Boxing
- Judo
Power trio

The **power trio** is a popular type of a rock and roll band format since the 1960s. The usual power trio has three people playing the guitar, bass, and drums. It does not include the rhythm guitar or keyboard often included in other rock music. In more recent years, the term has come to mean any type of a three-person band.

## Famous power trios

- Beck, Bogert & Appice
- The Cream
- Nirvana
Ratchet & Clank: Going Commando

***Ratchet & Clank: Going Commando*** (***Ratchet & Clank 2: Locked and Loaded*** in Europe, Australia and New Zealand) is a 3D platform/shooter for the PlayStation 2. It was developed by Insomniac Games and published by Sony in 2003. It is the second game in the _Ratchet & Clank_ series. The words _Going Commando_ are a phrase, or set of words, for wearing pants with no underwear.

Similar to _Ratchet & Clank_, _Going Commando_ got high review scores, and has a 92% on Game Rankings, and a 90% from Metacritic. IGN gave the game a score of 9.4/10, and Gamestats gave it a 9.1/10. Game Informer magazine called it Game of the Month when it was released. _Going Commando_ was given a 4/5 from Gamespy and a 5/5 from X-Play.

## Other websites

- Official site
- Official Insomniac Games website

## Infobox (vg)

- **title**: Ratchet & Clank: Going Commando
- **developer**: Insomniac Games
- **publisher**: Sony Computer Entertainment
- **released**: <small><sup>**North America, NA**</sup></small> November 11, 2003
<small><sup>**Europe, EU**</sup></small> November 21, 2003
<small><sup>**Japan, JP**</sup></small> December 11, 2003
- **genre**: Platform game, Platformer, Shooter
- **modes**: Single player
- **platforms**: PlayStation 2
Gillian Welch

**Gillian Howard Welch** (born October 2, 1967 in New York City) is an American singer-songwriter. Her musical style combines bluegrass, country, and folk into a style she calls "American Primitive".

## Other websites

- Official website
- Concert review

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Gillian Howard Welch
- **img**: Gil-welch-fls.jpg
- **img capt**: Gillian Welch in 2007
- **background**: solo_singer
- **birth place**: New York City, New York (state), New York, United States, U.S.
- **origin**: Nashville, Tennessee, United States, U.S.
- **instrument**: singing, guitar, banjo, drums, harmonica
- **genre**: bluegrass music, bluegrass, country music, country, folk music, folk
- **website**: [http://www.gillianwelch.com/ gillianwelch.com]
David Rawlings

**David Todd Rawlings** is a United States guitarist.  He is best known as the musical partner of bluegrass singer-songwriter Gillian Welch. Rawlings has also been a record producer, producing albums such as those by Welch and other artists like Old Crow Medicine Show.
Meitnerium

**Meitnerium** is a chemical element in the periodic table. Its atomic number is 109. It is not found on earth naturally. Because of this, it needs to be made in a science laboratory. Its half life, or the amount of time it takes for half of the element to go away is a little over one second. Meitnerium was first made in 1982.

The element is named in honor of Lise Meitner (1878-1968).

The two letter abbreviation is _Mt_ and is a solid. Nobody knows for sure what meitnerium looks like, but scientists think it is a white, gray, or silver color.

## Other websites

- WebElements.com - Meitnerium
The Convent (Gibraltar)

**The Convent** has been the home of the Governor of Gibraltar since 1728. The building is located near the southern end of Main Street. It is said to be haunted by the ghost of a nun.

## Infobox (building)

- **name**: The Convent
- **image**: The Convent (Gibraltar).JPG
- **caption**: The Convent
- **former names**: Convent of Franciscan Friars
- **architectural style**: early Georgian with later Victorian features being introduced
- **location**: Main Street, Gibraltar, Main Street, Gibraltar
- **current tenants**: Sir Adrian Johns
- **completion date**: 1531
- **floor count**: 3
River Ocoa

The **River Ocoa** is a river in the southern side of the Cordillera Central, Dominican Republic. It is  long. It flows through mountains except near its end in the Caribbean Sea.

## Name

Ocoa is a Taíno word that means "a place with mountains". _Coa_ meant "place" and _o_ meant, in some cases, "mountain".

## Course

The source of the Ocoa is at the La Chorreosa mountain (also known as La Chorriosa), on the eastern side of Valle Nuevo (Cordillera Central). It flows through the San José de Ocoa province. After that, it forms part of the limits between the Azua and Peravia provinces.

It ends at the eastern side of Ocoa Bay, on the Caribbean Sea.

The city of San José de Ocoa is the most important city near the river. Other towns are Las Carreras, Sabana Buey and Villa Fundación, in the Peravia province, and Palmar de Ocoa in the Azua province, near its mouth. The water of the river is used for irrigation in those towns. It is not used for the houses because it has too much solid materials because mountains have very few trees.

The most important tributaries are Banilejo, Canal and Arroyo Parra, all in the higher part of the river. There is not any important tributary in the lower part.

## In history

In the 16th century, sugar cane was grown near the mouth of the river to produce sugar.

In April 1849, there was an important battle (the _Battle of Las Carreras_) here during the Dominican-Haitian War. The fight was on the western side of the river in Las Carreras, a place at about  from the mouth. The Dominican army won the battle against the Haitian army.

## Infobox (river)

- **name**: Ocoa
- **subdivision type1**: Country
- **subdivision name1**: Dominican Republic
- **subdivision type2**: Provinces
- **subdivision name2**: San José de Ocoa Province, San José de Ocoa, Peravia Province, Peravia, Azua Province, Azua
- **subdivision type4**: District
- **subdivision name4**: San José de Ocoa (city), San José de Ocoa, Baní, Las Charcas (Azua), Las Charcas
- **subdivision type5**: Cities
- **subdivision name5**: San José de Ocoa (city), San José de Ocoa, Sabana Buey, Villa Fundación
- **source1 location**: La Chorreosa, Valle Nuevo, Dominican Republic
- **mouth**: Ocoa Bay
- **tributaries left**: El Canal (river), El Canal, Arroyo Parra
- **tributaries right**: Banilejo
Louise Michel (Paris Métro)

**Louise Michel** is a station of the Paris Métro, serving Line 3. It is located in the commune of Levallois-Perret northwest of the French capital, Paris.

## History

Before 1946, this station was named _Vallier_ after a mountain (2839m)in the Pyrenees near the Val d'Aran.

The station was renamed on May 1, 1946 to _Louise Michel_, in honour of the French anarchist and communarde.
Louise Michel Battalions

Two battalions (made up of volunteer troops) of French-speaking people in the International Brigades of the Spanish Civil War against fascism, were named after Louise Michel, a heroine of the 1871 Paris Commune.

- The first battalion was an existing group of volunteers (see Centuria) who had been operating in Barcelona. This joined with battalions being formed for the XI International Brigade.
- The second was a group of Albacete from French-speaking volunteers. At the end of January 1938, it was put into the Henri Vuilleman Battalion of the XIV International Brigade.

## Sources and notes

- Hugh Thomas, _The Spanish Civil War_, 4th Rev. Ed. 2001.
- Antony Beevor, _The Battle for Spain_, 2006.
- Order of Battle website
- Associació Catalana Website
Idol

An **idol** is a religious item that represents a god. It can also mean someone who is admired by many people, like a pop idol. Idolatry refers to the worship of idols.

Christians disagree about what idolatry is. Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy see Christian art and icons as good, because they see Christ's Incarnation as having made images of God lawful.  However many Protestants regard much Catholic art as idolatry.

This is due to differences in the understanding of the Ten Commandments. "You shall have no other gods before me. You shall not make for yourself a graven image, or any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth; you shall not bow down to them or serve them; for I the Lord your God am a jealous God, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children to the third and the fourth generation of those who hate me, but showing steadfast love to thousands of those who love me and keep my commandments." (RSV Exodus 20:3-6)

Islamic art is often based on Geometric abstraction or calligraphy to avoid idolatry, but Jewish art is somewhat broader. Hindus have murtis, a term often translated as "idols".
Jehovah

Jehovah is the conversion of the Hebrew  (YHWH) to Latin. YHWH is the personal name of God in the Hebrew Bible, also known as the Old Testament to Christians.

The majority of scholars agree that the pronunciation of the Tetragrammaton is possibly—but most likely—Yahweh. The pronunciation of this name was simply lost because in Second Temple Judaism during the 3rd to 2nd centuries BCE, saying this name began to be discouraged because it was "too holy". So instead of saying YHWH, Jews used other ways to refer to their God, like _Adonai_.

## Related pages

- YHWH
- Names of God in Judaism
Yahweh

**Yahweh** was the national god of ancient Israel and Judah. His worship may have started at least at the early Iron Age, and most likely to the Late Bronze Age (if not earlier.) In the oldest writings of the Bible (Torah) he has characteristics that typical weather and war gods have, like making the land bear fruit and sending his heavenly armies to go against Israel's enemies. The early people of Israel were polytheistic and worshipped not Yahweh alone but a lot of Canaanite gods and goddesses. These include El, Asherah, and Baal. In later centuries, the deities of El and Yahweh were combined, and because of this, Yahweh won the qualities of El. This made titles that were supposed to be only applied to El, like El Shaddai, be applied to Yahweh alone. Other Caananite gods and goddesses, such as Baal and Asherah, were absorbed into the Yahwism fully.

## See also

- Jehovah
- YHWH
Catholic Encyclopedia

The **Catholic Encyclopedia**, or the **Old Catholic Encyclopedia**, is an English language encyclopedia. It was published by The Encyclopedia Press. The first volume appeared in March 1907. It was completed in April 1914.

The encyclopedia was designed for the Roman Catholic Church. It does not include information which has nothing to do with the Church. It explains matters from the point of view of the official Catholic doctrine, as it was during the time of Pope Pius X. It tells the accomplishments of Catholics and some others in nearly all intellectual and professional pursuits. These include artists, educators, poets and scientists.
Bright Eyes

**Bright Eyes** may mean several different things:

- _Bright Eyes_ (movie), a 1934 movie from 20th Century Fox starring Shirley Temple
- Bright Eyes (band), an indie rock band from Omaha, Nebraska
Stanley, Falkland Islands

**Stanley** (also known as **Port Stanley** or **Puerto Argentino**) is the capital city of the Falkland Islands. It is found on the island of East Falkland and has a population of 2,000 (2/3 of the total population of the Falkland Islands of 3,000). Stanley is the biggest settlement and only town in the Falkland Islands. Stanley was the sight of fighting in the 1982 Falklands War, where Argentinian forces captured Government House, the seat of the Falklands Government. It has an airport and a seaport. Cruise ships going through the South Atlantic often make a stop in Stanley, which has a small tourism industry to serve cruise ship passengers and others visiting the islands.
Numismatics

**Numismatics** is the study and collecting of coins and the history behind the coins. A **Numismatist** is either a collector of coins or a scholar who studies the history of coins.

## Origin of Word

The term comes from a word meaning "of coins." The original word is French (numismatique), which itself is from a Latin origin (numismatis).

## History of Numismatics

Coin collectors may have existed in ancient times. Caesar Augustus may have been an example. The first known book about coin collecting was in 1514, "De Asse et Partibus", by Guillaume Budé. However, only royalty really enjoyed coin collecting until the 19th century. That's when professional organizations started to sprout, like the American Numismatic Society in 1858.

## Modern Numismatics

**Modern numismatics** is a sub-field that focuses on when coins started being stamped by machines (around 17th century on). Because of its focus, modern numismatics is more popular with collectors than with historians. Other subfields/variants include exonumia (focus on coin-like objects), notaphily (focus on paper money instead of coins), and scripophily (focus on stocks and bonds instead of coins).
Philately

**Philately** is the study and collection of postage stamps and postal history.

## Types of Philately

- Thematic philately, also known as topical philately, is the study of art shown on stamps. This can be pictures of many things on a stamp, like people, animals, boats, insects, and vehicles. Interesting parts of thematic philately also include mistakes in the art of a stamp. For example, the removal of cigarettes from United States stamps.
- Postal history studies the history of how mail and stamps were processed. This relates to post offices, postmarks, and how mail is taken from place to place.
- Aerophilately studies airmail (mail that travels on planes).
- Astrophilately studies stamps that are related to outer space, and objects like the Moon.

## Organizations

- In the United Kingdom
- National Philatelic Society UK
- Philatelic Traders Society (London)
- Royal Philatelic Society London
- Welsh Philatelic Society

- In the United States
- American First Day Cover Society
- American Philatelic Society
- American Revenue Association
- American Topical Association
- National Postal Museum (USA)
- Precancel Stamp Society
- Old World Archaeological Study Unit

- Other places
- Académie Européenne de Philatélie
- Fédération Internationale de Philatélie
- Scouts on Stamps Society International
- GEOPHILA Association of collectors of stamp territories around the world
- Wreck & Crash Mail Society
- Europe: Small European Postal Administration Cooperation
- Argentina: Féderación Argentina de Entidades Filatélicas
- Australia: Australian Philatelic Federation
- Canada: British North American Philatelic Society
- Cyprus: Cyprus Philatelic Society
- India: Indian Postal Service
- New Zealand: Royal Philatelic Society of New Zealand Inc
- Russia: The Rossica Society of Russian Philately
- South Africa: Thematic Collecting Group in South Africa
- Ukraine: Odessa City Collectors' Society

## Related pages

- All-Russian Society of Philatelists
- Organisation of the Commissioner for Philately and Scripophily
- Philatelic International
- Soviet Philatelic Association
- Stamp collector
- Soviet Philatelist
Charles of Valois

**Charles of Valois** (March 12, 1270 – December 16, 1325) started the House of Valois as the first Count of Valois. He was the third son of Philip III of France and Isabella of Aragon. His mother was a daughter of James I of Aragon and Yolande of Hungary. He was part the Capetian dynasty.
House of Bourbon

The **House of Bourbon** is an important royal house of Europe.  Kings from the House of Bourbon ruled France from 1589 to 1792 and again from 1815 to 1848.  This is a younger branch of the Capetian dynasty.  Members of the House of Bourbon also ruled Naples, Sicily, and Parma in the past.  Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg and King Felipe VI of Spain are both part of the House of Bourbon.

## Branches

**All of these branches descended from three legitimate grandsons of Louis XIV**.

- Bourbons of France, such as King Louis XV.
- House of Bourbon–Anjou, Bourbons of Spain, such as the present King.
- Bourbons of Parma, Dukes of Parma
- Bourbons of the Two Sicilies, Kings of the Two Sicilies
Camelot

In the legends of King Arthur, **Camelot** is Arthur's castle. In fiction about the Middle Ages, Arthur rules Scotland from Camelot and holds feasts at his round table. The round table, which has no legs or head, symbolized the idea of a good king because every knight who sat at it had an equal place. Since Camelot's original place is still uncertain, the truth about it, if it ever existed, is still unknown. Camelot once held many great things such as The Holy Grail, The Holy Sword Excalibur and The Round Table which brought Arthur's best knights together.

The end of Camelot was caused by Sir Lancelot's and Queen Guinevere's love affair, which forced Camelot to plunge into civil-war.
University of Hawaiʻi

The **University of Hawaii** is a group of public colleges and universities in Hawaii established in 1907. There are three universities, seven community colleges, an employment training center, four education centers and some research laboratories:

- Universities
- University of Hawaii at Hilo, doctoral university in Hilo
- University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa, doctoral university in Honolulu
- University of Hawaii-West Oahu, baccalaureate university in Kapolei

- Community Colleges
- Hawaii Community College, Hilo
- Honolulu Community College, Honolulu
- Kapiolani Community College, Honolulu
- Kauai Community College, Līhu'e
- Leeward Community College, Pearl City
- Windward Community College, Kāne'ohe
- University of Hawaii Maui College, Kahului
Cowlitz River

**Cowlitz River** is a river in the state of Washington in the United States. The river is a tributary of the larger Columbia River. There are several mountains near the river including Mount St. Helens, Mount Rainier, and Mount Adams.

## Other websites

- USGS Cowlitz River Basin map
- Cowlitz Falls Project
- http://www.energy-northwest.com/generation/packwood
Alexandre Dumas

**Alexandre Dumas** can mean one of two people

- Alexandre Dumas, père, a French author
- Alexandre Dumas, fils, also a French author, the son of the one above
Leonidas I

**Leonidas I** (; c. 530 BC–480 BC) was a king of the Greek city-the state of Sparta from about 490 BC until his death in 480. The Spartans and associates defended the pass at Thermopylae against the Persian army.

Although Leonidas lost the battle, his death at Thermopylae was seen as a heroic sacrifice. Leonidas sent most of his army away when he realized that the Persians had outmaneuvered him. Three hundred of his fellow Spartans stayed with him to fight to the death. Almost everything that is known about Leonidas comes from the work of the Greek historian Herodotus (c. 484–c. 425 BC)

### Invasion of Greece

In 480 BC, the Persians with their king Xerxes attacked Greece. When the Greeks asked the Spartans to join their army against the Persians, the Spartans went to the Oracle at Delphi. The Oracle gave a prophecy. It said that either Sparta would fall or the Spartans would lose a king.

### Fighting back

In August 480 BC, Leonidas went to Thermopylae with only 300 of his bodyguards. Other Greek forces joined him there and formed an army of 4,000 soldiers. This army would try to hold the pass of Thermopylae against the great army of Xerxes I, King of Persia.

### Siege

Leonidas and his men held Thermopylae for three days. On the third day, a Greek traitor named Ephialtes led the Persian army behind the Spartans. It was then that Leonidas sent away all the Greek troops except 700 Thespians, who refused to leave. The small Greek force was attacked from both sides. They fought hard but finally they were all killed. Xerxes told his men to remove Leonidas' head and put it on a stake. He also told them to crucify his body. Now, there is a monument near Leonidas’ death site. It has the following inscription:

### After the battle

Only two Spartans survived that battle. One was Kirtanian. He was injured and sent behind the rest of the soldiers. The other was Pantites. He was sent by Leonidas to get help in Thessaly. He did not get back to Thermopylae until after the battle was done. At the end, he hanged himself because he was harassed and often referred as a coward.

## Infobox (monarch)

- **name**: Leonidas I
Λεωνίδας
- **title**: List of kings of Sparta, King of Sparta
- **image**: File:Helmed Hoplite Sparta.JPG
- **image size**: 230px
- **caption**: Marble Leonidas (statue), statue of Leonidas, (5th century BC), Sparta, Archæological Museum of Sparta, Greece
- **reign**: 489–480 BC
- **native lang1**: Greek
- **birth place**: Sparta, Ancient Greece
- **death date**: 11 August 480 BC (aged around 60)
- **death place**: Thermopylae
- **predecessor**: Cleomenes I
- **successor**: Pleistarchus
- **queen**: Gorgo, Queen of Sparta, Gorgo
- **royal house**: Agiad
- **father**: Anaxandridas II
- **issue**: Pleistarchus
- **religion**: Religion in ancient Greece, Greek Polytheism
Shrapnel

**Shrapnel** is small chunks of broken objects, such as concrete and metal, that is around an explosive, usually as part of a container. When the explosive goes off, the shrapnel flies out in all directions with a similar effect to a bullet. Nail bombs work like this.

## Related pages

- Gunpowder
- Weapon
Nail bomb

A **nail bomb** is a weapon that is made of a bag of nails with an bomb inside. When the bomb goes off, the nails fly out in all directions, like bullets. They are usually used by suicide bombers, insurgents, and terrorists.
Introduced species

An **introduced species** is an living thing that is not native to a given place. It has been brought there by human activities.  People may have brought the living thing by accident or on purpose.  The introduced species can cause problems when it becomes a pest in the new place.  It may damage the ecosystem of the new place.  This damage can be to other animals, plants and also human activity.

One introduced species is the tilapia.  It is a fish that comes from warm freshwater areas of Africa, North and South America, India and Sri Lanka.  It has been taken to other areas because it is good for fish farming, and it also is a good pet for an aquarium.  When the fish is released into other parts of the world, it quickly takes over from the native fish.  It can do this because it breeds quickly, eats all the available food, and eats the eggs and babies of native fish.  This can cause the water to become so muddy, that the native fish cannot live.  Tilapia has been listed as one of the 100 worst introduced species.  A person owning or selling one in Australia could be fined up to AU$11,000.

An introduced species may have a great advantage over the native species.  They usually come in without the predators and parasites which they suffer in their old environment.  This allows them to have young quickly. Fire ant<nowiki/>s and Africanized honeybee<nowiki/>s became invasive insects in the 20th century.

## Examples

- People brought rabbits to Australia because they wanted to raise and eat them.  The rabbits got into the wild and became pests.  Australians built the rabbit-proof fence to try to stop them from covering the whole country.
- People put mosquitofish in rivers and lakes in western North America because they thought the fish would eat mosquito young.  Instead, the mosquitofish killed the other fish that had been eating the mosquitoes.  There were more mosquitoes than ever.
- People brought cats and stoats to islands.  When birds live on islands with no mammal predators, they sometimes do not build nests in trees.  Instead, they nest on the ground.  This makes it easy for the cats and stoats to eat the chicks and eggs.  Some birds, for example the kiwi and kakapo do not fly.  The animals that like to eat the kakapo were mostly birds of prey that flew high overhead.  They would find the kakapo by seeing it.  The kakapo would stand very still so the bird of prey would not find it.  But this does not work against a mammal predator that finds its prey by smelling it.  The kakapo would stand very still, and the introduced mammal would catch it.
- Rats hid on human ships and got onto Easter Island.  Historians think the rats might have eaten palm tree seeds and could be what made the trees on the island die out.

## Related pages

- Invasive species
- Feral
Bunker

A **bunker** is a military building for fortification. They are usually built below ground. Blockhouses are like bunkers, but are built above ground.  Bunkers were of big importance during World War I and World War II.  Bunkers were built during the Cold War for important political people and for the general public because of the scare of a nuclear war.

## Types of bunkers

There are many different types of bunkers:

### Trench

A trench is long and narrow.  It may be part of a big system of trenches.  Soldiers often dig and use trenches.  When most of the front-line soldiers use trenches, it is called trench warfare.

### Pillbox

A pillbox is a small building made of concrete that also has small windows that people can shoot guns out of.  The name came from the fact that they look like the boxes that pills came in.
Pillboxes were used a lot during World War I when defence in depth was being used.  Pillboxes are most often found camouflaged so that they are harder to spot.  They can also be part of a trench system, where the pillbox is a firing step that has been built to take grenade blasts and smaller mortar fire.  Pillboxes were also built to help protect strategic structures such as bridges or jetties.

### Industrial

Industrial bunkers are built like regular bunkers and they can be mining sites, food storage areas, dumps for materials, data storage, and sometimes places that people live in.  They were built by nations during World War II to help protect the important industries from getting bombed.  Many mines in France and Germany were made into bunkers by both the Germans and the French in both World War I and World War II.

### Bomb/fallout shelters

A bomb shelter or fallout shelter is a type of bunker, usually civilian bunker, used for protection against nuclear weapons and the toxic radiation "fallout" they leave behind. These shelters run the gammit from modified storm shelters to vast underground cities

## Famous bunkers

Famous bunkers include the World War II V-weapon buildings in Germany (e.g., Mittelwerk, La Coupole, and Éperlecques) and the Cold War buildings in the United States (Cheyenne Mountain, Site R, and The Greenbrier) and Canada (Diefenbunker).

### Examples of bunkers

- _Atlantic Wall_, coasts of Western Europe, built by Nazi Germany during WWII
- _Maginot Line_, eastern France, built by France, pre-WWII
- _Führerbunker_, built by Nazi Germany before and during WWII

## Other websites

- Europe WW2 bunkers in Europe  (reference website about museums and sites of WW2 pillboxes, bunkers and other defensive structures with maps and photos)
- Great Britain  (image collection of WW2 coastal defences)
- Great Britain Pillboxes UK (reference website about WW2 pillboxes and other defensive structures)
- Great Britain UK Heritage: Pillboxes  (short article about "Miniature modern castles")
- Great Britain Subterranea Britannica: Cold War  (information on Cold War-era underground structures in Britain)
Over-harvesting

**Over-harvesting** means taking more from the land (or sea) than it can replace. It includes extreme farming, grazing, fishing, and using fresh water.

Over-harvesting is harmful in the long term. Forests or wetlands are hard to replace. Damage to nature hurts animals and humans. Most wetlands are damaged by overuse as a source of drinking water, and they are sometimes drained to make farmland or land for building. A thriving and diverse ecosystem is destroyed.

Over-harvesting also applies to animals. Population numbers may drop as a result, and species may become extinct. Overfishing is a typical example. Fishing and the shooting of deer or birds are now legal at only certain times of the year. The season in which they mate, reproduce. and lay eggs or have the young are protected. Areas of special natural beauty or scientific interest are also protected. Now, in the United Kingdom, it is illegal to take bird eggs.

One thing which acts against conservation is the overpopulation of the world. The greatest single reason for the world ri lose forests is that some people want the land for other purposes. A few people gain, but everyone shares the cost. That is called the tragedy of the commons.

## Related pages

- Overfishing
Habitat fragmentation

**Habitat fragmentation** happens when large habitats are divided into smaller ones, separating all the species that lived there and depended on each other.

## Causes

Habitat fragmentation is not good because it involves some amount of habitat destruction. Plants and other organisms in these areas are destroyed and mobile animals escape from those places to find another habitat causing an excessive crowding and possible competitions among different animals.
Cecil (band)

**Cecil** was a rock band from Liverpool, England.

### Formation

Cecil formed in Liverpool in 1993. The members were Ste Williams (vocals), Patrick Harrison (guitar), Ally Lambert (drums), Anthony Hughes (guitar and keyboards), and Jay Bennett (bass).

### First concert

The band took part in a "Battle of the Bands". It was sponsored by Liverpool Echo who later tried to stitch the band up by putting them on the front cover under the title "Bulger Band", a reference to their song No Excuses that they believed, incorrectly, to be about the murder of toddler James Bulger. The band never spoke to the Liverpool Echo again. The band signed a manangement contract with Raymond Coffer. They later signed with the record label Parlophone (EMI). They released their first single "No Excuses" with Parlophone in October 1995.

### Tours

The band spent the end of 1995 and most of 1996 playing concerts in much of the United Kingdom. They played with such bands as The Levellers, Skunk Anansie, and Paw. They also played in music festivals at Donnington and T in the Park. During this time, they released their second single "My Neck", which was backed with an acoustic track and a piano version of the single, giving a hint of the direction they were heading in for the recording of their 2nd record.

### First album

In 1996, their first album _Bombar Diddlah_ was getting good reviews. It was produced by Barrett Jones of Foo Fighters.

### Later history

Cecil spent most of 1997 writing songs, touring with the band Mansun and making their music sound even better.  The changes could particularly be heard in the sound of Ste Williams' vocals. By the end of 1997, their new sound could be heard in their new release "Red Wine At Dead Time". They released a second album in 1998, "Subtitles". It did not sell as well as hoped. The band spent the next few years writing and touring sporadically, finally relocating to Seattle in 2001 to work on a third album with long time cohort Barrett Jones. After a productive 2-month stint, straight after the 9/11 bombings, the band went back home to write more songs and booked to go into Stone Gossard's (Pearl Jam) Studio Litho with Barrett to record the rest of the third record. This never happened after being dropped from their label.The band went their separate ways in March 2002 and remain firm friends, occasionally reuniting for off the cuff live shows in their native Liverpool.

### Albums

- Bombar Diddlah (1996)
- Subtitles (1998)

### Singles

- "No Excuses" (1995)
- "My Neck" (1996)
- "Measured" (1996)
- "Red Wine at Dead Time" (1997)
- "Hostage in a Frock" (1997)
- "The Most Tiring Day" (1998)

### EPs

- "Canyon EP" (2000)
- "Missile EP" (2001)

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Cecil
- **background**: group_or_band
- **origin**: Liverpool, England
- **genre**: Rock music, Rock
- **label**: Parlophone (EMI)
- **years active**: 1993 - 2002
- **past members**: Ste Williams
Patrick Harrison
Ally Lambert
Anthony Hughes
Jay Bennett
Christopher Marlowe

**Christopher "Kit" Marlowe** (6 February 1564–30 May 1593) was a major dramatist, poet, and translator of English Renaissance drama. Swinburne has written that: "Marlowe is a **Father of English Tragedy** and the creator of English blank verse and therefore also the teacher and guide of Shakespeare." He was born the same year as Shakespeare, or at least baptised, but lived only to the age of 29, when he was murdered in a fight.

Marlowe was the son of a shoemaker in Canterbury. Because he was smart, he got scholarships, to King's School in Canterbury at age 15, and two years later to the University of Cambridge. Marlowe was well-educated; he earned a bachelor's degree in 1584 and a master's degree in 1587.

Marlowe's plays were both popular and controversial, while he was still alive and later. His plays deal with disturbing subjects like devil worship (_Doctor Faustus_), homosexuality (_Edward II_), and anti-Semitism (_The Jew of Malta_). Marlowe is generally regarded as master of blank verse.

In addition to seven plays, Marlowe wrote one long poem, _Hero and Leander_, and one famous shorter poem, "The Passionate Shepherd to His Love."

Marlowe's death was also highly controversial. He was killed in a fight at a tavern (similar to a pub/bar) where he was stabbed in the head.  Marlowe was, or sometimes claimed to be, an atheist, at a time when atheism was a crime that could be punished by death. Some people have wondered if his death were connected with these other issues.

Uncertainty about Marlowe's death has led some people to believe that Marlowe faked his death and continued to write plays using the name "William Shakespeare." This is called the "Marlovian theory."

## Plays

- _Dido Queen of Carthage_
- _Tamburlaine, Parts 1 and 2_
- _The Jew of Malta_
- _Doctor Faustus_
- _Edward II_
- _The Massacre at Paris_

### Other possible works

- _The Contention of York and Lancaster_ (or _The First Part of the Contention betwixt the Two Famous Houses of York and Lancaster_) is an annoymous work that some people think may have been written by Marlowe. It was the basis for Shakespeare's play _Henry VI, Part 2_.

## Infobox (writer)

- **name**: Christopher Marlowe
- **image**: Christopher_Marlowe.jpg
- **caption**: A painting in Corpus Christi College, Cambridge that is believed to be Christopher Marlowe.
- **birth date**: baptised 6 February 1564
- **birth place**: Canterbury, Kent, England
- **death place**: Deptford, Kent, England
- **occupation**: Playwright, poet
- **nationality**: English people, English
- **period**: _circa_ 1586–1593
- **movement**: English Renaissance drama
Neuhof an der Zenn

**Neuhof an der Zenn** is a municipality in Neustadt (Aisch)-Bad Windsheim in Bavaria in Germany.

## Infobox (german location)

- **name**: Neuhof a.d.Zenn
- **image coa**: DEU Neuhof an der Zenn COA.svg
- **image skyline**: Neuhof an der Zenn, Schloß, 003.jpg
- **image caption**: Neuhof an der Zenn Castle
- **image plan**: Neuhof an der Zenn in NEA.svg
- **state**: Bayern
- **region**: Mittelfranken
- **district**: Neustadt a.d.Aisch-Bad Windsheim
- **verwaltungsgemeinschaft**: Neuhof an der Zenn
- **elevation**: 334
- **area**: 30.94
- **postal code**: 90616
- **area code**: 09107
- **licence**: NEA
- **gemeindeschlüssel**: 09 5 75 152
- **divisions**: 14 Ortsteile
- **website**: [http://www.neuhof-zenn.de www.neuhof-zenn.de]
- **mayor**: Claudia Wust
- **leader term**: 2020–26