juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Transit bus

**Transit buses** (also **city buses**, **town buses** or **public buses**) are public transport vehicles that transport  people for short and medium distances, especially within the same city. Public transit buses often use large or multiple exit and entry doors to make boarding and exiting easier, and have minimal to moderate luggage spaces (or none at all), and air conditioner/heating for passengers and drivers.

Pull chains or cords are also used on public buses. Fares are usually paid with cash, tickets or certain credit/debit cards. Many people prefer using public buses, instead of driving their own automobile for many reasons (such as not able or willing to drive).
Leonid Gaidai

**Leonid Gaidai** (30 January 1923 – 19 November 1993), was a Soviet comedy movie director. He was born in Svobodny, Amur Oblast.
Maria Bello

**Maria Elena Bello** (born April 18, 1967) is an American actress and singer. She has acted in the movies _Permanent Midnight_ (1998), _Payback_ (1999), _Coyote Ugly_ (2000), _The Cooler_ (2003), _A History of Violence_ (2005), _Thank You for Smoking_ (2006), and _The Jane Austen Book Club_ (2007). In television, she acted in the medical drama _ER_ from 1997 to 1998. She stars in _NCIS_. She also acted in _Touch_ in 2013.

She was born in Pennsylvania. In November 2013, Bello wrote about having a same-sex relationship with her partner Clare Munn.

## Other websites

- Official website

## Infobox (person)

- **name**: Maria Bello
- **image**: Maria Bello 2010.jpg
- **caption**: Bello at the Independent Spirit Awards in Los Angeles on March 5, 2010
- **birthname**: Maria Elena Bello
- **birth place**: Norristown, Pennsylvania, U.S.
- **occupation**: Actress, singer
- **yearsactive**: 1992–present
- **partner**: Clare Munn
Paiçandu

**Paiçandu** is a city in the state of Paraná in the south of Brazil. Paiçandu was founded in 1948.

## History

During 1938 and 1940 the area of land where is the County Paiçandu was inhabited by Native Americans and caboclos. There was a small cemetery that was the point of reference in the dense virgin forest, where were buried those who died at that time.

In the period 1942–1944, the first explorers of Minas Gerais and São Paulo were attracted by the fertility of the land. It was suitable for growing coffee. At the time the land was cleared, coffee was the largest source of wealth in the region. Facing all sorts of difficulties, farmers built their small farms and formed their crops.

The prospects for progress attract residents from different parts of the country. Trade prospered dramatically with the installation of warehouses and general merchandise. The good quality land started the first agricultural productions, especially the coffee culture.

Its name is a honor to the Brazilian Army. In the Uruguayan War, the army conquered the Uruguayan city of Paysandú.

## Geography

- Area: 171,604 km²
- Altitude: 550,00 m
- Distance from Curitiba, the state capital: 449 km
- Distance from Paranaguá, Paraná's primary seaport: 540 km
- Distance from Maringá, site of the nearest major airport: 7 km

## Economy

- Participation in the Municipal GIP
- Agriculture: 8.72%
- Industry: 38.92%
- Services: 52.35%
- GDP: U.S. $ 39,784,126.08%
- GDP per capita: U.S. $ 1,651.07%
- Economically Active Population: 14597.00 hab.
Susan Stryker

**Susan O'Neal Stryker** (born 1961) is an American professor and activist. She is a lesbian transgender woman. Her first book, _Gay by the Bay: A History of Queer Culture in the San Francisco Bay Area_, was published in 1996 by Chronicle Books. Stryker wrote the book with Jim Van Buskirk. It was nominated for a Lambda Literary Award.

She edited the 2003 essay collection _The Transgender Studies Reader_. In 2005 _Screaming Queens: The Riot at Compton's Cafeteria_ was released. Stryker got an Emmy Award for it. In 2008 Seal Press published Stryker's book _Transgender History_. She wrote the 2013 documentary _Masculinity/Femininity_. The Association for Queer Anthropology gave Stryker the 2013 Ruth Benedict Prize.

## Infobox (writer)

- **image**: Susan Stryker at Trans March San Francisco 20170623-6594.jpg
- **caption**: At Trans March San Francisco, June 2017
- **birth date**: 1961
- **occupation**: Professor, author, filmmaker
- **language**: English
- **nationality**: United States
- **citizenship**: United States
- **education**: Ph.D., History of the United States, United States History
B.A., Letters
- **alma mater**: University of California, Berkeley
University of Oklahoma
- **subject**: Gender studies
LGBT culture
LGBT rights in the United States
Women's studies
- **notableworks**: _The Transgender Studies Reader_ (2006)
Gossip (band)

**Gossip** is an American indie rock band. They started in 1999 in Olympia, Washington as **The Gossip**. The main singer is Beth Ditto. Brace Paine is the guitarist, Hannah Blilie is the drummer and Heather Schultz is the keyboardist. The band became popular with their third album _Standing in the Way of Control_ (2006). Three singles were released from the album. The first single, "Standing in the Way of Control", reached number seven in the UK Singles Chart. Gossip's fourth album _Music for Men_ was released in 2009 by Columbia Records. Their 2009 single "Heavy Cross" reached number two in Germany's chart.

## Other websites

- Official website
House of Gonzaga

The **House of Gonzaga** were a noble family that ruled Mantua in Northern Italy from 1328 to 1708. They also ruled Monferrato in Piedmont, Nevers in France, and also many other lesser fiefs in Italy and Europe. Among their members was a saint, twelve cardinals and fourteen bishops of the Catholic Church.
Hill House School

**Hill House School** is a preparatory school in Knightsbridge, London, England. It was started in 1951 by Lt. Col. Stuart Townend. It is for boys and girls aged 4 to 11. The school only allowed male students until 1981.

## Other websites

- Official website
Competitive advantage

In economics a **competitive advantage** is something that allows someone or a company to beat their rivals. This includes:

1. Low cost: I have better resources. I can make things at a lower cost. I sell things at a lower price than others.
1. Differentiation: The product I create is different, better, or both.
1. Focus: The product I create is targeted to a specific person.

## Related pages

- Comparative advantage
Comparative advantage

**Comparative advantage** is a term economists use, especially in international trade. A country has a comparative advantage when it can make goods or services at a lower opportunity cost than another country.

## Ricardo's example

For example, during the Industrial Revolution, England and Portugal both made wine and cloth.
|scope="col"|**Country \ Produce**|scope="col"|Cloth|scope="col"|Wine|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|100|120|||||
|90|80|||||
Suppose the number shows the number of hours required to create one piece of cloth or one crate of wine. In 100 hours, England can either make 1 unit of cloth or 5/6 units of wine. Meanwhile in 90 hours Portugal can make 1 unit of cloth or 9/8 units of wine. Portugal has an absolute advantage in both. However England's opportunity cost of 5/6 is lower than Portugal's OC 9/8. Hence England has a comparative advantage in cloth-making.

David Ricardo predicted that Portugal would stop making cloths and England would stop making wine. That did happen.

Theory predicts that even if one country can produce all good more efficiently than another, trade will make both better off if they specialize in the goods they have a comparative advantage in.

This theory also says that protectionism (raising tariffs or blocking trade from other countries) does not work in the long run.

## Related pages

- Competitive advantage

## Other websites

- What Is Comparative Advantage? | The Street
- Comparative advantage and when to blow up your island
- Ricardo's Difficult Idea, Paul Krugman's 1996 exploration of why non-economists don't understand the idea of comparative advantage
- What is comparative advantage? | Investopedia
Hikikomori

**Hikikomori** is a Japanese word that describes people who withdraw from society and spend extreme amounts of time in their own house. The withdrawal usually happens slowly. Tamaki Saitō was the first person to use the word. In 1998 his book _Shakaiteki hikikomori--Owaranai Shishunki_ was published. An English translation by Jeffrey Angles, _Hikikomori: Adolescence without End_, was published in 2013. The Japanese Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare defines hikikomori as people who refuse to leave their house for over six months. In 2010 there were 700,000 hikikomori. The average hikikomori was 31 years old. Tamaki Saitō thinks that there may be over 1 million hikikomori (1% of the Japanese population).

People who withdrew from society during school refusal is often referred to as _futōkō_ (不登校).

English words with similar meanings include recluse and agoraphobic.

## In popular culture

- _Welcome to the N.H.K._, a 2002 novel by Tatsuhiko Takimoto, is about hikikomori.
- The main character of the 2002 manga _Rozen Maiden_ is a hikikomori.
- The 2008 film _Tokyo!_ has a part about a hikikomori.
- On her 2011 album _Conatus_, American singer-songwriter Zola Jesus has a song called "Hikikomori".
- The main character of the anime _Anohana: The Flower We Saw That Day_ is a hikikomori.
- In 2013 _Hikikomori and the Rental Sister_, a novel by Jeff Backhaus, was published. It is about an American hikikomori who has sex with a Japanese immigrant.
Heinrich Boere

**Heinrich Boere** (27 September 1921 – 1 December 2013) was a convicted German-Dutch war criminal and former member of the Waffen-SS. He was one of the most wanted Nazis during the 1940s.

Boere was born in Eschweiler, Germany to a Dutch father and German mother.

Boere began serving his life sentence on 16 December 2011 at the age of 90. He died on 1 December 2013 in prison custody in Fröndenberg from natural causes, aged 92.

## Other websites

- Germany: Trial opens of former SS member Heinrich Boere, wsws.org 2 November 2009
- Life imprisonment for SS man Heinrich Boere, wsws.org 3 April 2010

## Infobox (person)

- **name**: Heinrich Boere
- **image size**: 235px
- **birth place**: Eschweiler, Germany
- **death place**: Fröndenberg, Germany
- **criminal charge**: Triple murder
Serving Nazi Germany, the enemy
<small>(war crimes)</small>
- **criminal penalty**: Death sentence <small>(By the Netherlands, 1949; not performed)</small>
Life in prison <small>(By Germany, 2010)</small>
- **criminal status**: Convicted
Donald Malarkey

**Donald G. Malarkey** (July 31, 1921 – September 30, 2017) was a former non-commissioned officer during World War II.  Malarkey was portrayed in the HBO miniseries _Band of Brothers_ by Scott Grimes.

Malarkey was born in Astoria, Oregon on July 31, 1921.

## Other websites

- Photos of Don Malarkey & the Band of Brothers during their visit to the 1st Armored Division in Germany
- Photos of Don Malarkey during his 2009 visit with Prince Charles
- Interview from Men of Easy Company

## Infobox (military person)

- **name**: Donald Malarkey
- **image**: Don Malarkey 117381 (cropped).jpg
- **caption**: Donald Malarkey in 2008
- **rank**:  Technical Sergeant
- **unit**:  E Company, 506th Infantry Regiment (United States), Easy Company, 2nd Battalion, 506th Parachute Infantry Regiment,
101st Airborne Division
- **nickname**: Don
- **birth place**: Astoria, Oregon
- **death place**: Salem, Oregon
- **placeofburial label**: Place of burial
- **branch**:  United States Army
- **serviceyears**: 1942-1945
- **battles**: World War II
*Operation Overlord, Battle of Normandy
*Operation Market Garden
*Battle of the Bulge
- **awards**:  Bronze Star 1 OLC
 Purple Heart
 Presidential Unit Citation (US), Presidential Unit Citation 1 OLC
  American Defense Service Medal
  Good Conduct Medal (United States), Good Conduct Medal
 European-African-Middle Eastern Campaign Medal
 World War II Victory Medal
  Army of Occupation Medal
  American Campaign Medal
 Croix de guerre
  Légion d’Honneur with Chevalier Status
 French Liberation Medal
Combat Infantryman Badge
Parachutist Badge (United States), Parachutist Badge

- **relations**: -Irene Moor (wife)
-John (brother)
-Bob (brother)
-Marilyn (sister)
- **laterwork**: Author
Tony Musante

**Anthony Peter "Tony" Musante** (June 30, 1936 – November 26, 2013) was an American actor. He was born in Bridgeport, Connecticut into an Italian-American family. He was known for his role as David Toma in the 1970s television series _Toma_ and as Joe D'Angelo in _As the World Turns_.

He died of complications following surgery on November 26, 2013, aged 77, in Manhattan, New York City.
Lewis Collins

**Lewis Collins** (26 May 1946 – 27 November 2013) was an English actor. He was best known for his tough-guy role as Bodie in the ITV drama series _The Professionals_. It ran from 1977 to 1983.

Collins died from cancer in Los Angeles, California on 27 November 2013, aged 67.

## Other websites

- The Unofficial Lewis Collins website

## Infobox (person)

- **name**: Lewis Collins
- **birth name**: Lewis Collins
- **birth place**: Birkenhead, Metropolitan Borough of Wirral, Wirral, Cheshire, United Kingdom
- **death place**: Los Angeles, California, United States
- **death cause**: Cancer
- **known for**: Playing "Bodie" in _The Professionals (TV series), The Professionals_
- **occupation**: Actor
- **yearsactive**: 1974–2013
- **spouse**: (his death)
- **children**: Three sons
Edward Heffron

**Edward James Heffron** (May 16, 1923 - December 1, 2013)   was a former American World War II-veteran. Heffron was played in the HBO miniseries _Band of Brothers_ by Robin Laing. He wrote some books about his view of the war.

Heffron was born in South Philadelphia, Pennsylvania on May 16, 1923. He died on December 1, 2013 from natural causes in his home in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, aged 90.

## Other websites

- Photos of Babe Heffron & the Band of Brothers during the 2008 USO tour to the Middle East
- Men of Easy Company website
Alice Herz-Sommer

**Alice Herz-Sommer**, also known as **Alice Sommer** (26 November 1903 – 23 February 2014), was a Czech-British music teacher and supercentenarian from Bohemia. She was a survivor of the Theresienstadt concentration camp and was the world's oldest known Holocaust survivor until Yisrael Kristal was recognized as such.

Herz was born in Prague, Austria-Hungary on 26 November 1903, along with her twin sister Mariana. She married the businessman and amateur musician Leopold Sommer in 1931. They had one son, Raphael Sommer. Leopold Sommer was later sent to Auschwitz. Although he survived the camp, he died at Dachau in 1944.

She lived in Israel and worked as a music teacher in Jerusalem. She then moved to Belsiza Park in London in 1986. Raphael Sommer, her only child, was a cellist and conductor. He died in 2001.

Herz-Sommer died on the morning of 23 February 2014 in London, England, from natural causes, aged 110.

## Other websites

- "Life is beautiful", _The Guardian_, 13 December 2006
- "I look at the good", _Haaretz_, 21 January 2010
- "I played Chopin as they sent my family to their deaths" , _Jewish Chronicle_

## Infobox (person)

- **name**: Alice Herz-Sommer
- **image**: 2010- Alice Herz-Sommer and Luiza Borac in London (cropped) - Alice Herz-Sommer.jpg
- **birth date**: 26 November 1903
- **birth place**: Prague, Austria-Hungary (now Czech Republic)
- **death place**: London, England, United Kingdom
- **death cause**: Natural causes
- **occupation**: Pianist
- **spouse**: (his death)
- **children**: Raphael Sommer (dead)
Mister Donut

**Mister Donut** is a worldwide food franchise which sells pastries, soda, coffee, muffins and doughnuts. The company was established in the United States in 1956, though it is now based from Japan. The company was acquired in 1990, following which every North American outlet was renamed Dunkin' Donuts except for fewer than six by the start of 2010. Only one Illinois location continues using the _Mister Donut_ corporate name.
Acid Black Cherry

**Acid Black Cherry** is the solo project of Japanese musician, Yasu. He started the project in 2007. It was after his previous band, Janne Da Arc, announced that they were taking a break. Acid Black Cherry is often called ABC.
Olive Garden

The **Olive Garden** is an American casual dining restaurant. It serves Italian-American cuisine. The Olive Garden was established in December 1982 in Orlando, Florida. There are over 900 locations worldwide.

The food includes soup, salad, and breadsticks.

## Menu

Olive Garden’s menu primarily features Italian-American dishes, including:

- Pasta entrées such as fettuccine alfredo, spaghetti, and lasagna
- Chicken, seafood, and beef main courses
- Soups including Zuppa Toscana, Chicken & Gnocchi, and Minestrone
- The "Never-Ending" Salad and Breadsticks, which have become signature items
- A variety of desserts such as tiramisu and zeppoli

Menu items vary by location, and the company regularly introduces seasonal offerings.
Ipovlopsychophobia

**Ipovlopsychophobia** is a fear of having one's own photograph taken. It is a type of specific phobia.
Camera shyness

**Camera shyness** is when a person does not like having their photograph taken, or refers to someone doesnt want their photograph to be taken. Many people who are camera shy also do not like to speak in public or perform in front of other people.

A fear of having one's own picture taken is called ipovlopsychophobia.

## Related pages

- Modesty
Availability factor

**Availability factor** in a power plant is the amount of time that it is able to produce electricity over a certain period, divided by the amount of the time in the period. The availability factor depends on the type of power plant, the source of energy used and how the plant is operated. Newer types of power plants usually have higher availability factors than old power plants.
Base load power plant

A **base load power plant** is a power station that usually provides a continuous supply of electricity throughout the year with some minimum power generation requirement. Base load power plants will only be turned off during periodic maintenance, upgrading, overhaul or service. Base load power plant has the character of slow demand respond, a mechanism to match generation with the load it supplies.

Examples of base load power plants are coal-fired power plant, geothermal power plant, tidal power plant, nuclear power plant, etc.

## Related pages

- Load following power plant
- Peaking power plant
Peaking power plant

A **peaking power plant** (or **peaker**) is a power station that only runs during peak hours of demand of electricity. Because of that, the price of electricity it generates is generally higher than the electricity generated by base load power plant, which operates continuously throughout the year. Peak hours may include hot afternoons when air conditioners are working.

Examples of peaking power plants are a hydropower plant, pumped-storage hydro power plant, and gas-fired power plant. Nuclear and solar power are not used in this way. Peaker plants have been replaced with battery storage in some places. The New York Power Authority (NYPA) is seeking to replace gas peaker plants with battery storage, 142 Tesla Megapacks (storng 100 MWh) replaced a gas peaker plant in Ventura County, California and in Lessines, Belgium 40 Tesla Megapacks (50 MWh) replaced a turbojet generator. Australia's Clean Energy Council found in April 2021 that battery storage can be 30% cheaper than gas peaker plants.

## Related pages

- Load following power plant
Analytical psychology

**Analytical psychology** is the school of psychology that came from the ideas of Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung. Analytical psychology has two main parts:

- The first part is clinical and related to the care of any particular person (child or adult), who suffers from mental health issues such as addictions, anxiety, depression, panic attacks and fears, using talking and sometimes drawing, painting, music or sand-play.

- The second part is about research into all kinds of repeating patterns in the human mind and in human behaviour. They include the contents of dreams, personality types like introversion and extraversion, being shy or a show off, feeling abilities and sensations. The research is guided by clinical theories, observations and experiments like active imagination, free-association of ideas and word association tests. It also includes looking into the meaning of fairy tales, myths and legends as well as paranormal events and coincidences.
Load following power plant

A **load following power plant** is a power plant that can adjust the amount of electricity it generates to match the changing demand throughout the day. Load following power plants are usually in between base load power plant and peaking power plant in terms of construction cost, cost of the electricity it generates, efficiency, and capacity.

Hydroelectric power plant can be considered load following power plant.
Cable tray

A **cable tray** is a system to put insulated cables and other wiring (communication, network etc.) in building structures, such as in office buildings, residential, industries etc. A cable tray system gives easy access. This is useful when adding new cables or replacing the old cables on the tray.

Cable trays can be made out of galvanized steel, stainless steel, aluminum or plastic. The choice depends on how it will be used or where it will be placed.
Brownout (electricity)

A **brownout** is a drop of voltage in an electrical power supply. Brownouts may be done intentionally in order to reduce the load during an emergency. This is done to prevent a total supply failure ("blackout"). Brownouts can also be caused accidentally by faults in the electrical grid which cause a drop in voltage.
Adams County, Indiana

**Adams County** is a county in Indiana. Its county seat is Decatur.

## Cities

- Decatur
- Berne

## Towns

- Geneva
- Monroe

## Infobox (u.s. county)

- **county**: Adams County
- **state**: Indiana
- **founded**: March 1, 1836
- **seat**: Decatur, Indiana, Decatur
- **largest city wl**: Decatur
- **area total sq mi**: 339.97
- **area land sq mi**: 339.03
- **area water sq mi**: 0.94
- **area percentage**: 0.28%
- **census yr**: 2020
- **pop**: 35809
- **density sq mi**: auto
- **web**: www.co.adams.in.us
- **ex image**: Decatur-indiana-courthouse.jpg
- **ex image cap**: Adams County courthouse in Decatur
- **ex image size**: 250px
- **district**: 3rd
- **footnotes**: FIPS No. 001
- **named for**: John Quincy Adams
- **time zone**: Eastern
Independent Power Producer

An **Independent Power Producer** (**IPP**) or **Non-Utility Generator** (**NUG**) is an organisation that owns a power-producing facility and can sell electricity to utility companies and electricity users. An IPP is usually a private company and is generally not a public utility company. Transaction of electricity between IPP with its customers are usually regulated under the power purchase agreement.

An **independent water and power producer** (IWPP) is similar to an IPP, but with a unified process to also output usable treated water.
Allen County, Indiana

**Allen County** is a county in Indiana. Its county seat is Fort Wayne.

## Cities

- Fort Wayne
- New Haven
- Woodburn

## Towns

- Grabill
- Huntertown
- Leo-Cedarville
- Monroeville
- Zanesville

## Infobox (u.s. county)

- **county**: Allen County
- **state**: Indiana
- **flag**: Flag of Allen County, Indiana.svg
- **founded**: April 1, 1824
- **seat wl**: Fort Wayne
- **largest city wl**: Fort Wayne
- **area total sq mi**: 660.02
- **area land sq mi**: 657.31
- **area water sq mi**: 2.71
- **area percentage**: 0.41%
- **census yr**: 2020
- **pop**: 385410
- **density km2**: 208.73
- **density sq mi**: 541
- **web**: www.co.allen.in.us
- **district**: 3rd
- **ex image**: Cortes del Condado de Allen, Fort Wayne, Indiana, Estados Unidos, 2012-11-12, DD 03.jpg
- **ex image cap**: Allen County Courthouse in Fort Wayne
- **time zone**: Eastern
- **named for**: John Allen (soldier), John Allen
Bartholomew County, Indiana

**Bartholomew County** is a county in Indiana. Its county seat is Columbus.

## Cities

- Columbus

## Towns

- Clifford
- Edinburgh
- Elizabethtown
- Hartsville
- Hope
- Jonesville

## Infobox (u.s. county)

- **county**: Bartholomew County
- **state**: Indiana
- **founded**: 12 February 1821
- **seat wl**: Columbus
- **largest city wl**: Columbus
- **area total sq mi**: 409.52
- **area land sq mi**: 406.91
- **area water sq mi**: 2.62
- **area percentage**: 0.64%
- **census yr**: 2020
- **pop**: 82208
- **density km2**: 72.88
- **density sq mi**: 189
- **web**: www.bartholomew.in.gov
- **ex image**: BartholomewCoCH.jpg
- **ex image cap**: Bartholomew County courthouse in Columbus, Indiana
- **district**: 6th
- **footnotes**: Indiana county number 3
- **time zone**: Eastern
- **named for**: Joseph Bartholomew (Major General), Joseph Bartholomew
Al-Ma'mun

**Abū Al-Abbas Abdullāh al-Maʾmūn ibn Harūn** (Arabic: ابُو عَبَّاسِ عَبْدِاللَّهِ الْمُعَوِنِ بْنِ هَارُونَ) (also spelled **Almamon**, **Al-Maymun**, **Al-Ma’moon**, and **el-Mâmoûn**; 13 September 786 – 9 August 833) was an Abbasid caliph. He reigned from 813 until his death in 833.

Al-Ma’mun was born on 13 September 786 AD in Baghdad. His father was Harun al-Rashid, who was an Abbasid caliph. He was a member of the third dynasty of the descendants of Muhammad who were caliphs of Islam. While his father ruled, al-Ma’mun was the governor of Khorasan. After al-Ma’mun was born his father had another son named al-Amin. Before his father died he announced that al-Amin would be the new caliph and al-Ma’mun would continue to be the governor of Khorasan even though al-Ma’mun was older. When Harun al-Rashid died and al-Amin became the caliph, he took away al-Ma’mun's ability to inherit the throne after he died. The two brothers went to war against each other. Al-Ma’mun defeated al-Amin. He cut off al-Amin's head. Since al-Amin had no other heir to the throne, al-Ma’mun became the new caliph.

During his reign al-Ma’mun tried to reunite Sunnis and Shiites. These are the two main brances of Islam that have different beliefs on who should lead Islam. Al-Ma’mun opened many learning centers in his empire. One big one was in Baghdad, which was called the House of Wisdom. Many other libraries and schools were built all over the empire. He was also a big sponsor of philosophy and astronomy.

He had one wife who he tried to divorce. However, his wife got a powerful judge who refused to allow the divorce. He had no children and no heirs with this wife. Instead, he chose another woman to provide an heir.

Al-Ma’mun died on August 9, 833. He remained caliph until his death.
Anna Komnene

**Anna Komnene** (sometimes spelled Comnena; Greek: Άννα Κομνηνή, _Anna Komnēnē_) was a Greek princess, scholar, and doctor. She was the eldest daughter of Emperor Alexios I Komnenos of Byzantium and Irene Doukaina.

Komnene was born in the Porphyra, the purple room of the Byzantine royal palace in Constantinople, on December 2nd, 1083. For some time, the emperor did not have a son, so Komnene who was originally engaged to Constantine Ducas, became an heir to the throne. While they were engaged, Anna went to live with Ducas’s mother, Maria of Alania, where Komnena got an education in mathematics, philosophy, and medicine. Anna’s future changed significantly when her brother John was born in 1087 and became the heir to the throne. This sparked Komnene’s jealousy and hatred for her brother for the rest of her life. Unfortunately, Constantine Ducas died young and Anna married Nicephorus Bryennius in 1097 AD.

Anna began to plot a plan for her husband to inherit the throne, with the help of her grandmother, Anna Dalassene. Anna’s mother, Irene, also helped Anna try to persuade her father while on his death bed, to give Brynnius the throne. The plan failed, mainly because of Nicephorus’s loyalty to the heir of the throne, John. At her father’s funeral, Anne is thought by many historians to have attempted an assassination of John, before he could claim the throne, but failed yet again.

John II Komnenos took the throne in 1188. Anna is supposed to have continued plotting against her brother, even though her husband refused to help her. Once her antics were discovered, Anna’s lands were taken, and she was prohibited from entering the royal palace ever again. When Bryennius, her husband, died, Anna moved into a convent and began her work as a historian.

While she lived there, Anna wrote her book, _The Alexiad_. “The Alexiad” is a lengthy biography of her father’s reign and the Byzantine Empire. It provides a picture of religious and intellectual activities within the empire. Anna writes about the faults and flaws in her father’s reign as well as the successes and accomplishments. The 15 books of _The Alexiad_ are written solely in Greek. Anne is the only female historian who wrote in Greek before the 19th century. She is also one of very few female authors and historians from Byzantium and was viewed as lesser by many. Her book is still important because Anna had access to the royal archives and had an inside view of politics. Her book remains one of the essential primary sources for Byzantine history and is a common read for those studying the time period.

Anna may have spent a large part of her life in a convent, but she did in fact become a nun until shortly before she died. She is thought to have died in 1153 however the exact date is unknown.
Eleazar of Worms

**Eleazar of Worms** (; c. 1176 – 1238), or **Eleazar ben Judah ben Kalonymus**, was a Jewish mystic. He was an important student of the Talmud. He was also the last major member of the Chassidei Ashkenaz, a group of German Jewish mystics.

Eleazar of Worms was born in Mainz. He traveled and studied at many centers of learning in Germany and northern France. He belonged to the Kalonymus family, which was one of the most important German-Jewish families at the time. His father, Judah B. Kalonymus, was one of the leading scholars of his generation. Eleazar learned from his father about Jewish law and theology.

Eleazar spent most of his life living in Worms. He was a Jewish pietist. Eleazar wrote many books and poems on praising God, and studied liturgical poetry, halakhah, theology, ethics and exegesis. Some of his works were printed but many have been lost. Eleazar witnessed and suffered the persecution of Jews. Eleazar's wife, two daughters  were murdered, and he and his son were badly injured.
Sei Shōnagon

was a Japanese writer. She was a court lady who served the Empress Teishi (Sadako) during the middle Heian period. She is best known as the author of . She also wrote diaries and poems.

## _The Pillow Book_

The Heian period of Japanese history lasted from 794 to 1185 CE. Sei Shōnagon lived and died during this time. Not a lot is known about her as a child. We only know about her personality by her writing, especially _The Pillow Book_. This book contains a lot about her life at the imperial court and her feelings. It is a collection of lists, poetry, gossip and observations from her years in the court (things she saw and how she felt about them). _The Pillow Book_ became very well-known during the Heian period. It revealed an interesting view on life at court.

The name _Pillow Book_ came from an event where the empress was given a bundle of notebooks. The empress did not know what to use the notebooks for so Sei Shōnagon asked Empress Sadako if she could have them. Sei Shōnagon told the empress that she wanted to use them to make a pillow.

The book has about 320 entries. She also wrote lists in her diaries. There are about 164 lists. Some of the lists that were included in her diary were: "Depressing things" and "Things that arouse a fond memory of the past". Sei Shōnagon completed this book some time between 1000 and 1010 CE. Some people believe that a copy of Sei Shōnagon's book was given to Empress Sadako's daughter.

## References

- Hackney, Ryan. "Sei Shonagon." World History: Ancient and Medieval Eras. ABC-CLIO, 2013. Web. 4 Dec. 2013.

## Infobox (writer)

- **name**: Sei Shōnagon
清少納言
- **image**: Hyakuninisshu 062.jpg
- **caption**: Sei Shōnagon, drawing from an issue of Hyakunin Isshu (Edo period)
- **birth name**: Kiyohara Nagiko ()
- **birth date**: about 966
- **death date**: 1017 or 1025
- **occupation**: Lady-in-waiting to Fujiwara no Teishi, Empress Teishi
- **nationality**: Japanese
- **period**: Heian period
- **notableworks**: _The Pillow Book_
Tomoe Gozen

was a female samurai who lived in Japan.

When Tomoe Gozen was a girl who was taught the skills of an upper-class Japanese woman: writing, musical theatre, archery, horseback riding and fencing. She became a skilled horseman and brave warrior. She became a concubine of Minamoto no Yoshinaka when she was a teenager.

When Tomoe Gozen was about 28 years old, she fought in the Gempei War (1180–1185). In the Battle of Awazu (February 1184), Minamoto no Yoshinaka was killed by his cousin Yoritomo. Tomoe's reaction to this is not really known. Some people have theories about what might have happened to her. Some think she may have fled from the Gempei War or she may have continued fighting after his death. She also might have been asked to go by Yoshinaka (who believed that his honor would be destroyed if he was killed by a woman) when he realized he would be killed.

After this time, historians do not know what happened. Yoritomo's friend Yoshimori forced Tomoe to marry him. But Yoshinori died before Tomoe gave birth to a son. According to legend, their son was Asahina Yoshihide. He grew up to be a famous samurai. Tomoe joined a nunnery, where she stayed for the rest of her life. Today, Tomoe Gozen is a role model for many Japanese women.
Al-Kindi

**Abu Yūsuf Yaʻqūb ibn ʼIsḥāq aṣ-Ṣabbāḥ al-Kindī** (, ;  801 – 873 CE), was an Iraqi philosopher. He was called "the Philosopher of the Arabs". He is often thought of as the first Arab philosopher, and one of the most important scholars in the Islamic world.

Al-Kindi was born in Yemen to a rich family. As well as philosophy, he worked in astronomy, alchemy, mathematics, medicine, geography, and many other topics. He became a member of a scientific place of study called the House of Wisdom. As a member there, he helped to preserve a type of philosophy called Hellenistic philosophy. He also edited Greek treatises (written works that formally explain a topic). He also wrote his own treatises on vision, precious stones and minerals. He wrote the first treatise on various types of steel swords, metallurgy. His treatises on music were thought to be the best works on the subject of music in Arabic. He died at age 72 in 873.

## Related pages

- List of scientists from the Middle East

## References

- "Abu Yusuf Ya Qub ibn Ishaq al-Sabbah al-Kindi." Science and Its Times. Ed. Neil Schlager and Josh Lauer. Vol. 2. Detroit: Gale, 2001. Biography in Context. Web. 4 Dec. 2013.
Cai Lun

**Cai Lun** (;  50 AD – 121) was a Chinese eunuch and politician. He is generally regarded as the inventor of paper. Earlier forms of paper, such as papyrus, were used in China from the 2nd century BC. However, Cai Lun developed another form of paper, which is used today.

Cai Lun was born in Leiyang (then called Guiyang), a part of Hunan. He lived during the Han Dynasty. His courtesy name was **Jingzhong** (). He served the government as a eunuch from AD 75, and in AD 89 got a promotion to be a "Shang Fang Si", someone who makes weapons, and a Regular Palace Attendant (中常侍). Cai Lun invented paper in the year 105. For his invention, he was rewarded by the Emperor. After his death he was considered the patron of papermaking. To make paper, Cai Lun used a pulp made of materials such as tree bark and rags. He then strained the liquid from the pulp and spread it out to dry. Legend has it that the mortar, a tool he used to grind materials, was buried in a pool near his grave.

## References

- "Cai Lun (Chinese Inventor)." Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, n.d. Web. 04 Dec. 2013.
- Rosinsky, Natalie M. "Let's make paper." Calliope Feb. 2007: 44+. General OneFile. Web. 4 Dec. 2013.
- Forage, Paul. "Printing and Papermaking." Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. Ed. Karen Christensen and David Levinson. Vol. 5. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2002. 7-9. World History In Context. Web. 4 Dec. 2013
Shen Kuo

**Shen Kuo** (or **Shen Gua** ; 1031–1095) was a Chinese scientist and politician. He lived during the Song Dynasty. He was a polymath, being good at many fields of study.

Many of his most important works came from his use of astronomy. In 1088, Shen was the first to describe the magnetic needle compass, which would be used for navigation. He was also one of the first to suggest that the Earth goes through gradual climate change. His hobbies consisted of music, painting, calligraphy, and philosophy.

## Related pages

- List of Chinese scientists
Al Sahili

**Abu Ishaq Ibrahim al-Sahili** (1290–1346) was an architect during the Mali Empire. He lived under the rule of Mansa Musa.

He was born in Granada in 1290. At the time this was part of Muslim Spain. Al-Sahili studied law and the arts. He was known as a gifted poet. His family were rich merchants (traders). He left Granada in 1321 and began to travel through the Middle East, to Egypt, Syria, Iraq and Yemen. In 1346, he met the ruler of Mali, Mansa Musa, who loved his poetry and invited him to return.

Al-Sahili built for Mansa Musa an audience chamber (or Djingereyber; Great Mosque) in 1327. The mosque was described as a square building with a dome. The outside was decorated with plaster and patterns in colors. It was built with banco: soil mixed with wood, mixed with dried grass, and other fibers allowed to dry in the sun. It was built with the same architectural style as the Alhambra in Granada. Mansa Musa then wanted him to make a house for him, but the building was destroyed over time. He started a new trend of rounded arches in Timbuktu. Al-Sahili died there in 1346.
Mansa Sakura

**Mansa Sakura** (also spelled **Sakoura**) was the sixth emperor (_mansa_) of the Mali Empire. He was born a slave, but was later freed. Soon after he was freed he became a general in the army of Sundiata Keita. When Sundiata Keita died, there was a struggle between his sons over who would become the emperor. Around 1285, Sakura took control of the throne. He became the ruler of Mali and brought the empire back together.

Mansa Sakura became a powerful leader. He was known for exploring other lands and using the ideas he saw in his own kingdom. He also encouraged trade. Under Sakura's leadership, the Mali Empire made several new conquests. It expanded along the Gambia River to the sea. It became a dominant force in West Africa.

Sakura performed the Hajj shortly before his death. On his way home, he was attacked near Djibouti by warriors who wanted his gold. He was killed in the attack, which happened around the year 1300.

After Sakura died, the throne was returned to the royal heirs of the Keita dynasty. The next emperor was Sundiata's nephew, Gao.
Sonni Ali

**Sonni Ali** (also known as **Sunni Ali Ber** or **Sunni Ali**) was the first king of the Songhai Empire in western Africa. He ruled from about 1464 to 1492. He was the 15th ruler of the Sonni dynasty. During Sonni's reign, Songhai surpassed the Mali Empire in power. His armies captured several important cities, such as Timbuktu (in 1468) and Djenné (captured in 1475). His battle strategies greatly expanded the empire's territory.

Before Sonni took Timbuktu in 1468, the city was controlled by Tuareg raiders. He then conquered the Tuareg and took them under his rule, which brought the great Saharan trade routes to his kingdom. After conquering Timbuktu, he and his army went south to conquer the port of Djenné, on the Niger River. The city surrendered after a long-fought siege.

Sonni defined himself as Muslim, but was careful to not separate himself from the traditional animist beliefs. He executed many of the clerics from Timbuktu. He ran a very organized and powerful military. His army included both soldiers on horseback, as well as soldiers who fought on foot. He also built a fleet of ships to control the ports along the Niger River.

In 1480, Sunni Ali attacked the Mossi Kingdoms south of the Niger River. Unfortunately, he did not conquer the Mossi, but he was able to stop the spread of their empire. He also fought a successful war against several of the Fulani states. On his return home from this war, Sonni drowned in a river, in 1493
Soumaoro Kanté

**Soumaoro Kanté** (also written **Sumanguru Kanté**) was a king of the Sosso people during the 13th century. The Sosso formed their kingdom in the 1180s, after the collapse of the Ghana Empire.

In the _Epic of Sundiata_, Soumaoro is portrayed as a villain. He is said to have been a supernatural warrior with eight heads rising above his own. Many of his military victories were associated with his supernatural powers.

In 1203, Soumaoro captured Koumbi, the old capital of Ghana. He conquered several neighbouring peoples, including nine other kingdoms in the early 1200s. Among these were the Mandinka in what is now Mali. Soumaoro killed all of the Mandinka king's sons except one. This son, Sundiata Keita, was a cripple, and Soumaoro did not believe him to be a threat.

A short time later, however, Sundiata built an alliance of smaller kingdoms to oppose Soumaoro. Legends describe Sundiata as having supernatural powers as well. In 1230, Sundiata founded the Mali Empire. He defeated Soumaoro at the Battle of Kirina in 1235.

Sourmaoro ruled as a tyrant. His empire lasted a little more that 30 years. He was unable to maintain stability. He also made his people pay heavy taxes. He made them give him large amounts of gold, food, and livestock. On top of that he demanded that his subjects turn over the most beautiful women for his pleasure and the strongest boys to be his slaves. He killed anyone suspected of becoming a potential threat to his rule. Although he was successful on the battlefield, Sumanguru an arrogant, brutal and intolerant ruler. He failed at winning the faith and loyalty of the people he had hoped to unify under his rule.
Sundiata Keita

**Sundiata Keita** ( 1210 – c. 1260) was the founder of the Mali Empire. He ruled as emperor (_mansa_) from 1235 to 1260. He is celebrated as a hero of the Mandinka people of West Africa in the _Epic of Sundiata_. Sundiata changed his father's small kingdom into the core of the Mali Empire. It grew to be one of largest and richest empires of Africa.

Sundiata Keita was born in about 1210. His father was Naré Maghann Konaté, a king of the Mandinka. Keita was disabled from birth. His legend follows the theme of a culture hero overcoming extreme hardships to achieve greatness. According to the legend, Keita and his mother went into voluntary exile to avoid the risk of being killed by his jealous half-brother, Kankaran Tuman, who had become king in 1218. While Keita and his mother were in exile, the Mandinka were conquered by the Sosso Empire. Later, Keita was recalled by his fellow people to free them from this foreign oppression.

In the early 1200s, the independence of the Mandinka was threatened by the Sosso. Sosso was one of the many kingdoms that succeeded the Ghana Empire. Keita, who had already become a king, gathered his people and fought a battle with the Sosso army. In 1235, Keita and his army destroyed the army of Soumaoro Kanté, the ruler of the Sosso. This battle is called the Battle of Kirina, located in present-day Mali.

Further military advancements led to the expansion of the Mali Empire. The empire thrived, because it controlled many of the major gold fields and was an important center of trans-Saharan trade. Keita also successfully combined Islamic and traditional African beliefs to create a functional kingdom. Today, some of the Mandinka people of West Africa still regard Sundiata as a hero.

Little is known about the later life of Keita, but it is known that Keita ruled for about 25 years before his death. It is said that Keita was killed in an accident in his capital city.
Zhang Heng

**Zhang Heng** (also written **Chang Heng**, ; AD 78–139) was a Chinese scientist who worked in many subjects. He lived during the Han dynasty. He was an accomplished engineer, meteorologist, geologist, philosopher, mathematician, astronomer and writer.

Zhang invented the first seismometer, a machine that measures the strength of earthquakes. He is remembered for many other inventions and writings. He invented the seismometer in 132 AD. Heng was also the first in China to apply a grid system to maps, from which positions and distances could be calculated.

Some of his jobs were chief astronomer of the Imperial Chancellery for Astronomical and Calendrical Science, and chief minister under the rule of Moana. He also wrote many works ranging from poetry to books full of his scientific research. One was his book of astronomical research and it described his theories about previously unexplained things that could be seen in the night sky. Some things it theorized were that the Moon was lit by the Sun instead of making its own light. It also proposed that the Moon could be eclipsed by the shadow of the Earth.

## Related pages

- List of Chinese scientists

## References

- "Zhang Heng". Science and Its Times. Ed. Neil Schlager and Josh Lauer. Vol. 1. Detroit: Gale, 2001. Biography in Context. Web. 4 Dec. 2013.
- "Chang Heng". Encyclopedia of World Biography. Vol. 24. Detroit: Gale, 2005.Biography in Context. Web. 4 Dec. 2013.

## Infobox (scientist)

- **name**: Zhang Heng
<small></small>
- **image**: Zhang Heng.jpg
- **caption**: A stamp of Zhang Heng issued by China Post in 1955
- **birth date**: AD 78
- **birth place**: Nanyang, Henan, Nanyang, China
- **death date**: AD
- **death place**: Luoyang, China
- **field**: Astronomy, mathematics, seismology, hydraulics, geography, ethnography, mechanical engineering, Chinese calendar, calendrical science, metaphysics, poetry
- **known for**: Seismometer, Hydraulics, hydraulic-powered armillary sphere, pi, pi calculation, shi (poetry), poetry, Shape of the Universe, universe model, lunar eclipse and solar eclipse theory
Refractory

A **refractory** is a material that can stand high temperature. It is used in furnaces, kilns, incinerators and reactors. Materials to make refractory must be chemically and physically stable at high temperature, such as alumina, silica, magnesia and lime.

### Based on material

- Acidic refractory
- Neutral refractory
- Basic refractory

### Based on ways to manufacture

- Dry press process
- Fused cast
- Hand molded
- Formed
- Unformed
- Unformed dry vibratable

### Based on operating temperature

- Normal refractory
- High refractory
- Super refractory
One-line diagram

The **one-line diagram** (or **single-line diagram**) is a diagram that shows a three-phase power system in a simple way. It is used in many power-related applications. Each electrical element is represented by a unique symbol. Although it describes three-phase electricity, only one conductor is shown in the diagram.
Rotor (electric)

A **rotor** is the part of an electric machine (motor or generator) that rotates. It rotates because of the torque developed by wires and magnetic field inside the machine.

## Related pages

- Stator
Stator

A **stator** is the part of a rotary system that does not move. It is the fixed, stationary part of an electric machine (motor or generator). The stator might act as the field magnet (working with the armature to create the spinning movement) or as the armature (receives influence from the moving field coils of the rotor).

## Related pages

- Rotor (electric)