juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Strict scrutiny

**Strict scrutiny** is the most stringent standard of judicial review used by United States courts. It is part of the hierarchy of standards that courts use to weigh the government's interest against a constitutional right or principle. The lesser standards are rational basis review and exacting or intermediate scrutiny. These standards are used to test statutes and government action at all levels of government within the United States.

The idea of "levels of judicial scrutiny", including strict scrutiny, was introduced in _United States v. Carolene Products Co._ (1938), one of a series of decisions testing the constitutionality of New Deal legislation. The first and most notable case in which the Supreme Court applied the strict scrutiny standard and found the government's actions valid was _Korematsu v. United States_ (1944). In _Korematsu_ the Court upheld the government ruling 6-3 that the need to protect the country from espionage outweighed the rights of Mr. Korematsu.

## Applicability

U.S. courts apply the strict scrutiny standard in two contexts: when a fundamental constitutional right is infringed, particularly those found in the Bill of Rights and those the court has deemed a fundamental right protected by the Due Process Clause or "liberty clause" of the 14th Amendment, or when a government action applies to a "suspect classification," such as race or national origin.

To pass strict scrutiny, the law or policy must satisfy three tests:

- **Compelling governmental interest**. While the Courts have never clearly defined how to determine if an interest is compelling, the concept generally refers to something necessary or crucial. Examples include national security, preserving the lives of multiple individuals, and not violating explicit constitutional protections.

- **Narrowly tailored** refers to achieve that goal or interest. If the government action includes too much (overbroad) or fails to address important parts of the compelling interest, then the rule is not considered narrowly tailored.

- **least restrictive means** must be used for achieving that interest. That is, there cannot be a less restrictive way to effectively achieve the compelling government interest. The test will be met even if there is another method that is equally the least restrictive. Some legal scholars consider this "least restrictive means" requirement part of being narrowly tailored, though the Court generally evaluates it separately.
Cancer of unknown primary origin

**"Cancer of unknown primary origin"** (**CUP**, "**occult cancer**") is a term used to describe a cancer that is said to be at the metastatic stage at the time of diagnosis, but a primary tumor cannot be identified. A diagnosis of CUP requires a clinical picture  with metastatic disease and one or more biopsy results inconsistent with a primary tumor.

CUP is found in about 3 to 5% of all people diagnosed with invasive cancer, and carries a poor prognosis in most (80 to 85%) of those circumstances.  The other 15 to 20% of patients, however, have a relatively long survival with appropriate treatment.
Joe Garagiola, Sr.

**Joseph Henry Garagiola, Sr.** (February 12, 1926 – March 23, 2016) was an American professional baseball catcher and later an announcer and television host.

Garagiola played nine seasons in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the St. Louis Cardinals, Pittsburgh Pirates, Chicago Cubs and the New York Giants. He was also well known outside of baseball for having been one of the regular panelists on _The Today Show_ for many years and for his many appearances on game shows both as a host and panelist.

Garagiola died on March 23, 2016 in Phoenix, Arizona at the age of 90.

## Other websites

- Baseball Hall of Fame - Frick Award recipient
- St. Louis Walk of Fame
- http://appelpr.com/ARTICLES/A-funny.htm
- Joe Garagiola hosting "Monitor" on the NBC Radio Network, Saturday, February 22, 1969, from 3 to 4 p.m. ET
- Joe Garagiola at the Internet Movie Database

## Infobox (mlb player)

- **name**: Joe Garagiola
- **image**: Joe Garagiola 1953.jpg
- **caption**: Garagiola in 1953
- **position**: Catcher
- **bats**: Left
- **throws**: Right
- **birth place**: St. Louis, Missouri
- **death place**: Phoenix, Arizona, Phoenix, Arizona
- **debutleague**: MLB
- **debutdate**: May 26
- **debutyear**: 1946
- **debutteam**: St. Louis Cardinals
- **finalleague**: MLB
- **finaldate**: September 26
- **finalyear**: 1954
- **finalteam**: New York Giants
- **statleague**: MLB
- **stat1label**: Batting average
- **stat1value**: .257
- **stat2label**: Home runs
- **stat2value**: 42
- **stat3label**: Runs batted in
- **stat3value**: 255
- **teams**: *St. Louis Cardinals (–)
*Pittsburgh Pirates (–)
*Chicago Cubs (–)
*New York Giants (NL), New York Giants ()
- **highlights**: *1946 World Series champion
* Ford Frick Award recipient
*St. Louis Walk of Fame
*  Buck O'Neil Lifetime Achievement Award
Phife Dawg

**Malik Isaac Taylor** (November 20, 1970 – March 22, 2016), better known by his stage name **Phife Dawg** (or simply **Phife**), was an American rapper, singer and songwriter.

## Career

He was a member of the group A Tribe Called Quest with high school classmates Q-Tip and Ali Shaheed Muhammad (and for a short time Jarobi White). He was also known as the "Five Foot Assassin" and "The Five Footer", because he stood at .

## Death

Taylor died on March 22, 2016 due to complications of diabetes at the age of 45.

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Phife Dawg
- **background**: solo_singer
- **image**: Phife-dawg-jm3-funyons.jpg
- **caption**: Phife Dawg in 2009
- **birth name**: Malik Isaac Taylor
- **alias**: Five Foot Assassin
Phife
- **origin**: St. Albans, Queens, New York City, New York, United States, U.S.
- **genre**: Hip hop music, Hip hop
- **instrument**: Vocals
- **years active**: 1988–2016
- **label**: Jive Records, Jive
Groove Attack Records
- **associated acts**: A Tribe Called Quest
De La Soul
Jungle Brothers
J Dilla
Hi-Tek
Pete Rock
Busta Rhymes
Queen Latifah
Monie Love
Supa Dave West
 TLC (band), TLC
One_Over
Peter Brown (actor)

**Peter Brown** (October 5, 1935 – March 21, 2016) was an American television actor. He was known for his four-year role as young Deputy Johnny McKay in the 1958 to 1962 ABC/Warner Brothers western television series, _Lawman_ and as Texas Ranger Chad Cooper on _Laredo_ from 1965 to 1967.

Brown died on March 21, 2016 in Phoenix, Arizona from complications of Parkinson's disease, aged 80.

## Infobox (person)

- **name**: Peter Brown
- **image**: Peter Brown Lawman 1959.jpg
- **caption**: Brown as Deputy Johnny McKay in the television series _Lawman (TV series), Lawman_ (1959)
- **birth name**: Pierre Lind de Lappe
- **birth place**: New York City, New York (state), New York, USA
- **death place**: Phoenix, Arizona, USA
- **alma mater**: University of California, Los Angeles
- **occupation**: Film and television actor
- **yearsactive**: 1957–2005
- **children**: Three
Glen Dawson

**Glen Dawson** (June 3, 1912 – March 22, 2016) was an American rock climber, mountaineer, antiquarian bookseller, publisher and environmentalist. He was born in California.

In 1929, Glen began serious mountaineering in the Sierra Nevada. On July 6, 1930, during the Sierra Club's annual High Trip, he first teamed up with Jules Eichorn to make the third ascent of Red-and-White Mountain in the Sierra.

Dawson died in Pasadena, California on March 22, 2016, aged 103.

## Infobox (person)

- **name**: Glen Dawson
- **image**: Glen Dawson.jpg
- **caption**: Glen Dawson in the Sierra Nevada in 1931
- **birth date**: June 3, 1912
- **death date**: March 22, 2016
- **occupation**: Rock climbing, Rock climber, mountaineer
Jimmy Riley

**Martin James Norman Riley** (22 May 1954 – 23 March 2016), better known as **Jimmy Riley**, was a Jamaican singer. Along to recording solo, he was also a member of the Sensations and The Uniques. He was the father of Tarrus Riley.

In September 2013 he released the album _Contradiction_, that featured guest appearances from his son Tarrus, Sizzla, and Fantan Mojah.

Riley died on the morning of 23 March 2016 in New York City after suffering from cancer, aged 61.

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Jimmy Riley
- **background**: solo_singer
- **image**: JimmyRiley.jpg
- **caption**: Riley pictured in 2010
- **birth name**: Martin James Norman Riley
- **origin**: Kingston, Jamaica
- **death place**: New York City, United States
- **genre**: Ska, rocksteady, reggae
- **occupation**: Singer, record producer
- **years active**: Mid-1960s–2016
- **associated acts**: The Sensations, The Uniques (Jamaican group), The Uniques, Skin, Flesh and Bones
Carolyn Squires

**Carolyn M. Squires** (September 25, 1940 – March 21, 2016) was an American politician. She was a member of the Democratic Party.

Squires was a member of the Montana House of Representatives for the 96th district from 2010 to 2015. From 2002 to 2010, she was a member of the Montana Senate, representing District 48, where she served as Majority Whip. Earlier she was a member of the Montana House of Representatives from 1987 through 2000.

Squires died in Missoula, Montana from colorectal cancer at the age of 75.

## Other websites

- Project Vote Smart - Senator Carolyn M. Squires (MT) profile
- _Follow the Money_ - Carolyn Squires
    - 2008 2006 2002 Senate campaign contributions
    - 1998 1996 1994 1992 1990 House campaign contributions

## Infobox (officeholder)

- **name**: Carolyn Squires
- **image**: Squires HD96.jpg
- **state house**: Montana
- **district**: 96th
- **term**: 2010 -2015
- **succeeded**: Incumbent
- **state senate2**: Montana
- **state2**: Montana
- **district2**: 48th
- **term2**: 2002–2010
- **party**: Democratic Party (United States), Democratic Party
- **birth place**: Whitefish, Montana
- **death date**: March 21, 2016 (aged 75)
- **death place**: Missoula, Montana
- **alma mater**: University of Montana
- **occupation**: Licensed practical nurse
- **spouse**: Harold D.
Missoula, Montana

**Missoula** is a city in the U.S. state of Montana and is the county seat of Missoula County. , the United States Census Bureau counted 73,489 people living in Missoula, and 122,457 people living in the Missoula Metropolitan Area. It is the second largest city in Montana. It is home of the University of Montana.
Santiago J. Erevia

**Santiago Jesus Erevia** (December 15, 1946 – March 22, 2016) was an American U.S. Army-veteran. He was born in Nordheim, Texas. Erevia served in the Vietnam War starting at the age of 22.

In 1970, Erevia left active service with a two-year reserve obligation. In 1972 he joined the Texas National Guard and went on to serve 17 years. Erevia worked as a mail carrier for the United States Postal Service, retiring in 2002 after thirty-two years of service.

Erevia was awarded the Medal of Honor by President Barack Obama in a March 18, 2014 ceremony at the White House.

Erevia died on March 22, 2016 in San Antonio, Texas at the age of 70.
EDVAC

**EDVAC** (**E**lectronic **D**iscrete **V**ariable **A**utomatic **C**omputer) was one of the first electronic computers. Unlike the computer before it, the ENIAC, EDVAC operated in binary and was able to store programs.

Functionally, EDVAC was a binary serial computer with automatic addition, subtraction, multiplication, programmed division and automatic checking with a capacity of 1,000 44-bit words. EDVAC's average addition time was 864 microseconds and its average multiplication time was 2,900 microseconds.

By 1960, EDVAC was running over 20 hours a day with error-free run time averaging eight hours. EDVAC ran until 1961 when it was replaced by BRLESC. During its operational life it proved to be reliable and productive for its time.
Naked singularity

In general relativity, a **naked singularity** is a gravitational singularity that is viewable from anywhere in the outside area . The event horizon is like a bubble which surrounds a black hole. Inside the event horizon, the pull of the light cannot escape, so we are unable to view objects inside the event horizon. This includes the event horizon itself. Naked singularities do not have an event horizon, hence the term 'naked'.

The existence of naked singularities is a very important topic in physics, because it would mean we could actually see phenomena made by black holes that we wouldn't be able to see otherwise. In addition, naked singularities would pose big problems for general relativity, since scientists still have not figured out a working idea for what happens to space-time in and around a black hole. Quantum mechanics, the main other scientific theory scientists turn to in physics, is also unable to explain how space-time would behave in such a situation.

Although the cosmic censorship hypothesis says that naked singularities cannot exist, some research says that if loop quantum gravity (a scientific theory that says the universe is made of small 'loops') is correct, naked singularities could exist in nature. Other calculations and arguments have been made to support this.

## Possible formation

There are black holes known as Kerr black holes which have spin (they rotate). But, there is a maximum spin rate. If it spins faster than that maximum, its horizon disappears, leaving the singularity inside it wide open.

Mathematician Demetrios Christodoulou has shown that naked singularities also occur in nature. However, he then showed that such "naked singularities" are unstable.

## Further reading

- M. C. Werner and A. O. Peters, "Magnification relations for Kerr lensing and testing cosmic censorship", _Physical Review D_, Vol. 76, Issue 6 (2007).
- Marcus Chown, "Fast-spinning black holes might reveal all"  _New Scientist_, August 2009.

- Pankaj S. Joshi, "Naked Singularities" _Scientific American_, May 2013.
United States Statutes at Large

The ***United States Statutes at Large***, commonly referred to as the ***Statutes at Large*** and abbreviated **Stat.**, is the official record of Acts of Congress and concurrent resolutions passed by the United States Congress. Each act and resolution of Congress is called a slip law, which is classified as either public law (abbreviated Pub.L.) or private law (Pvt.L.), and designated and numbered accordingly. At the end of a Congress session, slip laws (now commonly called session laws) are compiled into _Statutes at Large_, which are numbered and organised by Congress session. They are part of a three-part model for publication of federal statutes consisting of slip laws, session laws (_Statutes at Large_), and codification (_United States Code_).
Garner v. Louisiana

***Garner v. Louisiana***, ****, was an important civil rights case argued by Thurgood Marshall before the Supreme Court. On December 11, 1961, the court unanimously ruled that Louisiana could not convict peaceful sit-in protesters who refused to leave dining establishments under the state's "disturbing the peace" laws.

## Background

African-American students from Southern University sat at a "whites only" segregated lunch bar at Sitman's Drugstore in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. The manager called the Police after the students quietly remained even though they were asked to move to another counter. After ordering the black patrons to leave, the Police arrested them and charged them with disturbing the peace. The claim was that their behavior could "foreseeably disturb or alarm the public," according to the state's "disturbing the peace" statute.

The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People defended the student demonstrators as did the Kennedy administration's Justice Department, which filed a legal brief on their behalf.

## Opinion of the Court

In a 9-0 decision, the court ruled in the African-American students' favor, arguing the state violated due process of law under the Fourteenth Amendment and finding there was no evidence the students' behavior could have foreseeably disturbed the peace. In his written opinion, Justice John Marshall Harlan compared sit-in demonstrations to verbal expression as a form of free speech.
Justice William O. Douglas in his concurring opinion said, “For the police are supposed to be on the side of the Constitution, not on the side of discrimination. Yet if all constitutional questions are to be put aside and the problem treated merely in terms of disturbing the peace, I would have difficulty in reversing these judgments. I think, however, the constitutional questions must be reached and that they make reversal necessary.”

_Garner v. Louisiana_ was an important case for the Civil Rights Movement, and one of many civil rights cases argued before the Warren Court (1953-69).
Eventually, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 "outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion or national origin in hotels, motels, restaurants, theaters, and all other public accommodations engaged in interstate commerce."

## Infobox (scotus case)

- **litigants**: Garner v. Louisiana
- **arguedatea**: October 18
- **arguedateb**: 19
- **argueyear**: 1961
- **decidedate**: December 11
- **decideyear**: 1961
- **fullname**: John Burrell Garner, et al. v. State of Louisiana, Mary Briscoe, et al.
- **citation**: 82 S. Ct. 248; 7 L. Ed. 2d 207; 1961 U.S. LEXIS 28
- **usvol**: 368
- **uspage**: 157
- **prior**: Certiorari to the Supreme Court of Louisiana
- **holding**: The convictions were so totally devoid of evidentiary support as to violate the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
- **scotus**: 1958-1962
- **majority**: Warren
- **joinmajority**: _unanimous_
- **concurrence**: Frankfurter
- **concurrence2**: Douglas
- **concurrence3**: Harlan
- **lawsapplied**: United States Constitution, Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, Amendment XIV
Federal judiciary of the United States

The **federal judiciary of the United States** is one of the three co-equal branches of the Federal government of the United States organized under the United States Constitution. Article III of the Constitution requires the establishment of a Supreme Court and permits the Congress to create other federal courts, and place limitations on their jurisdiction. Article III United States federal judges are appointed by the President with the consent of the Senate to serve until they resign, are impeached and convicted, retire, or die.

## Courts

The federal courts are composed of three levels of courts. The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest court. It is generally an appellate court that operates under discretionary review, which means that the Court can choose which cases to hear, by granting of writs of certiorari. There is generally no right of appeal to the Supreme Court. In a few situations (like lawsuits between state governments or some cases between the federal government and a state) it sits as a court of original jurisdiction.

The United States courts of appeals are the intermediate federal appellate courts. There are 13 appellate courts that determine if the law was applied correctly in trial courts. In some cases, Congress has diverted appellate jurisdiction to specialized courts, such as the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review.

There are 94 United States district courts. These are general federal trial courts, although in many cases Congress has diverted original jurisdiction to specialized courts, such as the Court of International Trade, the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court, the Alien Terrorist Removal Court, or to Article I or Article IV tribunals. The district courts usually have jurisdiction to hear appeals from such tribunals (unless, for example, appeals are to the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit.)
Capital punishment in the United States

**Capital punishment** has existed in the **United States** before it became a country. As of 2021, capital punishment is legal in 27 out of 50 states. The federal government and the United States military have capital punishment.

The United States is the only Western country that has capital punishment.
Biological half-life

A **half life** of a substance is the amount of time it takes to decay into half of its activity. Usually, this refers to the body's getting rid of a substance. This happens by the function of kidneys and liver as well as excretion.

## Related pages

- Half-life (element)
Der Barbier von Bagdad

***Der Barbier von Bagdad*** (_The Barber of Baghdad_), is an German comic opera with music and libretto by Peter Cornelius. It is based on "The Tale of the Tailor" and "The Barber's Stories of his Six Brothers" in One Thousand and One Nights. It was first performed in Weimar, on December 15, 1858. By far Cornelius' most successful work and his only opera still regularly performed.

## Principal characters

- Nureddin - tenor
- Bostana - mezzo-soprano
- Abdul Hassan Ali Ebn Bekar, _the barber_ - bass
- Margiana - soprano
- Baba Mustapha, _the Cadi_ - tenor
- The Caliph - baritone

## Discography

- 1952: Rudolf Schock (Nureddin), Hilde Rössl-Majdan (Bostana), Gottlob Frick (Abdul Hassan), Sena Jurinac (Margiana); Chor und Orchester Radio Wien, Heinrich Hollreiser - (Melodram)
- 1956: Nicolai Gedda (Nureddin), Grace Hoffmann (Bostana), Oskar Czerwenka (Abdul Hassan), Elisabeth Schwarzkopf (Margiana); Philharmonia Chorus and Orchestra, Erich Leinsdorf - (EMI Classics)
- 1973: Adlabert Kraus (Nureddin), Trudeliese Schmidt (Bostana), Karl Ridderbusch (Abdul Hassan), Sylvia Geszty (Margiana); Chor des Bayerischen Rundfunks, Münchner Rundfunkorchester, Heinrich Hollreiser - (RCA Records)
- 1974: Horst R. Laubenthal (Nureddin), Marga Schiml (Bostana), Hans Sotin (Abdul Hassan), Helen Donath (Margiana); Kölner Rundfunkchor, Kölner Rundfunk-Sinfonieorchester, Ferdinand Leitner - (Profil)

## Sources

- _The Complete Dictionary of Opera & Operetta_, James Anderson, Wings Books, 1993.
Tayap

**Tayap** is a small village in Cameroon. It is  from Yaoundé, the capital city. It is  from Douala, the biggest city of the country.

The climate is equatorial. It is usually hot, . It is often wet. There are four different seasons.

In 2005, 272 people lived in Tayap. The village has a primary school. It has 4 classrooms.

Most people work in agriculture. They produce manioc, bananas, oranges, mangoes, vegetables, peanuts, cocoa and palm oil.

The village is surrounded by a large forest but deforestation is a major problem in this area.

Since 2011 Tayap focuses on biodiversity and ecology. It tries to develop new activities such as tourism.

## Other websites

- Agripo

## Infobox (settlement)

- **official name**: Tayap
- **image skyline**: Village Tayap.JPG
- **image caption**: Entering Tayap
- **subdivision type**: Province
- **population as of**: 2005
- **population total**: 272
- **utc offset**: +1
Ordinary least squares

**Ordinary least squares** or **linear least squares** is a method for estimating unknown parameters in statistics. It is a method used in linear regression. The goal of the method is to minimize the difference between the observed responses and the responses predicted by the linear approximation of the data. A smaller difference means that model fits the data better. Ordinary least squares is a special case of a method commonly called least squares.  The resulting estimator can be expressed by a simple formula.
Justice of the peace

A **justice of the peace** (**JP**) is a judicial officer, elected or appointed to a local court that has limited jurisdiction. In some locations a JP deals with traffic violations, parking tickets and may have the authority to perform marriages ceremonies. In many places they are the entry-level courts that most criminal cases pass through. JP courts were popular in early history, but are now found mostly in rural areas. Otherwise people would have to travel longer distances to other courts of law.

## History

In 1195, a proclamation of Richard I of England local knights were appointed to keep order. In 1264, "Keepers of the Peace were appointed in every county to serve the king. Such men were called "Justice of the Peace" beginning in about 1362. When colonists came to British North America they brought with them the common law system that included JPs. In France, "Lords of the Court" administered justice. After 1789, justices of the peace were elected.

## Requirements

While the requirements vary from one jurisdiction to another, generally, to become a JP there are few if any educational requirements. An application is filled out and usually there is a fee. Justices may be chosen by their qualifications and references. Many have law degrees while others may have taken a few law classes.

## Other websites

- Justice of the Peace, Texas Association of Counties
- How to Become a Justice of the Peace in Canada
- Justice of the Peace in Australia
- Becoming a Magistrate in England and Wales
Garry Shandling

**Garry Emmanuel Shandling** (November 29, 1949 – March 24, 2016) was an American comedian, actor, writer, producer and director. He was best known for his work in _It's Garry Shandling's Show_ and _The Larry Sanders Show_.

## Early life

Shandling was born **Garry Emmanuel Shandling** in Chicago, Illinois on November 29, 1949. He was raised in Tucson, Arizona. He studied at the University of Arizona.

## Career

Shandling began his career in 1975. He started writing for sitcoms such as _Sanford and Son_ and _Welcome Back, Kotter_. He began his career in comedy when he was on _The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson_ and was on the show many times.

Shandling was for a thought to replace Carson (other hopefuls were Joan Rivers, David Letterman and David Brenner). In 1986, he created _It's Garry Shandling's Show_, for the pay cable channel Showtime. It was nominated for four Emmy Awards (including one for Shandling) and lasted until 1990. His second show, _The Larry Sanders Show_, which began airing on HBO in 1992, was even more successful.

Shandling was nominated for 18 Emmy Awards for the show and won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series in 1998, along with Peter Tolan, for writing the series finale. In movies, Shandling had the same role as Senator Stern in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, appearing in _Iron Man 2_ and _Captain America: The Winter Soldier_, as well as a voice in DreamWorks Animation's _Over the Hedge_.

His last movies were _Captain America: The Winter Soldier_ (2015) and _The Jungle Book_ (2016).

## Personal life

Shandling was in a relationship with Linda Doucett from 1987 through 1994. He lived in Los Angeles, California.

### Death

Shandling died in Los Angeles from a pulmonary embolism caused by thrombosis in his leg on March 24, 2016. He was aged 66.

## Awards

During his career, Shandling was nominated for 19 Primetime Emmy Awards and two Golden Globe Awards, along with many other awards and nominations. He served as host of the Grammy Awards four times and as host of the Emmy Awards three times.

## Other websites

- Garry Shandling on Charlie Rose  via Google Video (2006)
- in 2002
- AllMovie.com: Garry Shandling
- Museum of Broadcasting: _It's Garry Shandling's Show_ / _The Larry Sanders Show_
- Filmbug.com: Garry Shandling

## Infobox (comedian)

- **name**: Garry Shandling
- **image**: GarryShandlingApr2011.jpg
- **caption**: Shandling in April 2011
- **birth name**: Garry Emmanuel Shandling
- **birth place**: Chicago, Illinois, U.S.
- **death place**: Los Angeles, California, U.S.
- **medium**: Stand up comedy, Stand-up, television, movies
- **nationality**: American
- **active**: 1975–2016
- **genre**: Observational comedy, Satire, Cringe comedy
- **subject**: Self-deprecation, Human interaction, Everyday life
- **influences**: Woody Allen, Johnny Carson
- **influenced**: Ricky Gervais, Judd Apatow, Jon Stewart, Louis C.K.
- **domesticpartner**: Linda Doucett (1987–1994)
Mount Kenya

**Mount Kenya** is the highest mountain in Kenya. It is  high. It is the second highest mountain in Africa. It is an extinct volcano. It is on the equator. It is  northeast of Nairobi.

## Infobox (mountain)

- **name**: Mount Kenya
- **photo**: Mount Kenya.jpg
- **elevation m**: 5199
- **prominence m**: 3825
- **prominence ref**:
<small>List of peaks by prominence, Ranked 32nd</small>
- **listing**: Seven Second Summits
List of countries by highest point, Country high point
Ultra prominent peak, Ultra
- **map**: Kenya
- **map size**: 2560
- **location**: Kenya
- **topo**: Mt Kenya by Wielochowski and Savage
- **type**: Stratovolcano (extinct)
- **last eruption**: 2.6–3.1 Mya (unit), MYA
- **first ascent**: 1899 by Halford John Mackinder, Halford Mackinder, with guides César Ollier and Joseph Brocherel
- **easiest route**: rock climbing, Rock climb
Flame fougasse

A **flame fougasse** (**fougasse** or **foo gas**) is a type of mine or improvised explosive device. It uses an explosive charge to put burning liquid onto a target.

The flame fougasse was developed in Britain as an anti-tank weapon in the World War II invasion crisis of 1940. During that period, about 50,000 flame fougasse barrels were put in some 7,000 batteries. Most were in southern England and some in Scotland. Although never used in combat in Britain, the design saw action later in Greece.
Fougasse

**Fougasse** may mean

- Fougasse (bread)
- Flame fougasse
Case citation

**Case citation** is a system used by legal professionals to identify past court case decisions. These are found either in series of books called reporters or law reports, or in a neutral style that identifies a decision regardless of where it is reported. Case citations are formatted differently in different jurisdictions, but generally contain the same key information.

A **legal citation** is a "reference to a legal precedent or authority, such as a case, statute, or work, that either agrees with or contradicts a given position". Where cases are published on paper, the citation usually contains the following information:
- Report title
- Volume number
- Page, section, or paragraph number
- Publication year

In some report series, for example in England and Australia, volumes are not numbered independently of the year. So the year and volume number (usually no greater than 4) are required to identify which book of the series has the case reported within its covers. In such citations, it is usual in these jurisdictions to apply square brackets "" to the year (which may not be the year that the case was decided, For example, a case decided in December 2001 may have been reported in 2002).

The Internet brought with it the opportunity for courts to publish their decisions on websites. Decisions of many courts from all over the world can now be found through the website WorldLII and its member institutes.

Most court decisions are not published on paper. The large number of court decisions found online  resulted in a flood of information. The result was that a medium-neutral citation system was adopted.  This usually contains the following information:
- Year of decision
- Abbreviated title of the court
- Decision number (not the court file number)
Rather than utilizing page numbers for "pinpoint references", which would depend upon particular printers and browsers, pinpoint quotations refer to paragraph numbers.

The conjunction "versus" is abbreviated to "v" in Commonwealth countries and to "v." in  the United States.

## Pronunciation of case titles

In common law countries with an adversarial system of justice, the names of the opposing parties are separated in the case title by the abbreviation _v._ The abbreviation represents the Latin word _versus_, which means _against_. When case titles are read out loud, the _v._ can be pronounced, depending on the context, as _and_, _against_, _versus_, or _vee_.
Barisal Zilla School

**Barisal Zilla School** is a boys school located in Barisal, Bangladesh. It is one of the oldest and top ranked high schools in the country and the first high school in Barisal Division.

It was founded by an Englishman, N. W. Garret, on 23 December 1829 with only 8 students. Now it has more than two thousand students.

## Notable alumni

- A. K. Fazlul Huq, Prime Minister of Bengal (1937–1943)
- Khan Bahadur Hasem Ali Khan, Bengali nationalist and former minister of United Bengal
- Abdul Jabbar Khan, Speaker of the National Assembly of Pakistan (1965–1969)
- Abdur Rahman Biswas, President of Bangladesh (1991–1996)
- Altaf Mahmud, music composer
- Sardar Fazlul Karim, philosopher
- Buddhadeb Guha, writer
- Golam Mustafa, Ekushey Padak and National Film Award winning actor
- Manzoor Alam Beg, father of the fine art photography movement in Bangladesh, Alokchitracharya (the great teacher of photography), Ekushey Padak awardee
- Lieutenant General Hasan Mashhud Chowdhury, former chief of Army staff of Bangladesh
- Tapan Raychaudhuri, historian, Padma Bhushan awardee
- Promode Dasgupta, communist leader
- Tawfiq-e-Elahi Chowdhury, Bir Bikrom
- Hafizuddin Ahmed, Bir Bikrom
- Siraj Sikder, communist revolutionist

## Infobox (school)

- **name**: Barisal Zilla School
- **native name**: বরিশাল জিলা স্কুল
- **image**: Barisal Zilla School West Bulding.jpg
- **caption**: Barisal Zilla School West Building
- **motto**: পড় তোমার প্রভুর নামে
- **location**: Sadar Road
Barisal
- **country**: Bangladesh
- **postcode**: 8200
- **type**: State school, Public school
- **schoolboard**: Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education, Barisal
- **grades**: Class III-X
- **gender**: Single-sex education, Boys only
- **headmaster**: Bishwanath Saha
- **enrollment**: 2500+
- **faculty**: 54
- **language**: Bengali
- **yearbook**: Sobuj Pata
- **free label**: Special project
- **free text**: Connecting classrooms under British Council
Boynton v. Virginia

***Boynton v. Virginia***, ****, was a decision by the Supreme Court of the United States. On December 20, 1958, Bruce Boynton, a senior at Howard Law School, left Washington, D.C. on a bus to go home for Christmas to Montgomery, Alabama. At the bus terminal in Richmond, Virginia he entered the restaurant and sat in the "white only" section.  For refusing to leave, he was arrested and convicted for violating a Virginia statute making it illegal for anyone "without authority of law" to remain after being forbidden to do so. He then appealed the conviction to the Supreme Court of Virginia. He maintained “that his conviction violated the Interstate Commerce Act and the Equal Protection, Due Process and Commerce Clauses of the Federal Constitution.” But the state Supreme Court upheld his conviction.He next petitioned the United States Supreme Court for certiorari. The U.S. Supreme Court reversed the conviction of the lower court. The Court held that Boynton “had a federal right to remain in the white portion of the restaurant” as the Interstate Commerce Act “forbids any interstate common carrier by motor vehicle to subject any person to unjust discrimination.” Justice Hugo Black delivered the majority opinion.

## The decision

The court ruled in a 7-2 decision in favor of Boynton. It held that interstate passengers were protected by the Interstate Commerce Act and the terminal's restaurant was a part of that facility. In part the decision read:

## Effects of "Boynton"

Justices Tom C. Clark and Charles Evans Whittaker dissented in the 7-2 decision. It was the first time since 1946 the court had split over matters of racial segregation.

_Boynton v. Virginia_ paved the way and inspired the Freedom Riders to test the new ruling. Black and white riders rode together on Southern racially segregated buses beginning in 1961. After six months of protests and press coverage of the Freedom Riders, The Interstate Commerce Commission outlawed racial discrimination in seating passengers on interstate busses. It ordered the removal of "whites only" signs from all interstate bus terminals.

## Other websites

- _Boynton v. Virginia_,  The 1961 Freedom Rides
- The Freedom Rides of 1961, Testing _Boynton v. Virginia_

## Infobox (scotus case)

- **litigants**: Boynton v. Virginia
- **arguedate**: October 12
- **argueyear**: 1960
- **decidedate**: December 5
- **decideyear**: 1960
- **fullname**: Boynton v. Virginia
- **usvol**: 364
- **uspage**: 454
- **holding**: Racial segregation in public transportation is illegal under the Interstate Commerce Act.
- **scotus**: 1958-1962
- **majority**: Black
- **joinmajority**: Warren, Frankfurter, Douglas, Harlan, Brennan, Stewart
- **dissent**: Whittaker
- **joindissent**: Clark
- **lawsapplied**: Interstate Commerce Act
Proof-of-work system

A **proof-of-work (POW) system** is a system where finding a solution to a given problem is difficult and/or expensive, but verifying the solution to the given problem is simple and/or cheap.

## Example

Find the positive integer whose sha256 hash value is:

c75cb66ae28d8ebc6eded002c28a8ba0d06d3a78c6b5cbf9b2ade051f0775ac4

To find this integer, you must compute the sha256 value for every integer starting with zero until you find the right value. While each individual computation is trivial and cheap, cumulatively the work adds up and becomes time consuming and expensive. To successfully reproduce the given hash value, you must do some work.

Find some data whose sha256 hash value begins with at least 8 leading zeros:

000000000019d6689c085ae165831e934ff763ae46a2a6c172b3f1b60a8ce26f

In the first example, the problem required the original value as proof that work had been done. In this example, it does not matter what the data is, only that it produces a hash value with the given constraints. Finding this data is difficult, but once found, it is trivial to verify by running it through sha256.
University of Barisal

**University of Barisal** (  also known as **Barisal University** or simply **BU**), is a public university located in Barisal, a city in southern Bangladesh. It is the only general public university in Barishal division and the country's 33rd public university. It was established in 2011 and started educational activities on 25 January 2012.

## Infobox (university)

- **name**: University of Barishal
- **native name**: বরিশাল বিশ্ববিদ্যালয়
- **native name lang**: bn
- **image**: Academic Buildings of the University of Barishal.jpg
- **motto**: জ্ঞানই শক্তি
- **motto lang**: bn
- **mottoeng**: Knowledge is power
- **type**: Public university, Public
- **academic affiliation**: UGC
- **budget**: <big></big> 99.997m
- **chancellor**: President Abdul Hamid (politician), Abdul Hamid
- **vice chancellor**: Professor Dr. S M Imamul Huq
- **dean**: 6
- **academic staff**: 124 (2014)
- **administrative staff**: 158 (2014)
- **students**: 3637 (2014)
- **undergrad**: 3637 (2014)
- **postgrad**: -
- **doctoral**: -
- **other**: -
- **city**: Barishal
- **country**: Bangladesh
- **campus**: Suburban (50 acres)
- **language**: English, Bengali
- **nickname**: **BU**
- **website**: [http://www.bu.ac.bd website]
Barisal Sadar Upazila

**Barisal Sadar** () is an Upazila of Barisal District in the Division of Barisal, Bangladesh.

## Population

The population of Barisal Sadar Upazila is 527,017. Males are 52.72% of the population, and females 47.28%. The population density is about 1625 people per km².

## Infobox (settlement)

- **official name**: Barisal Sadar
- **native name**: বরিশাল সদর
- **settlement type**: Upazilas of Bangladesh, Upazila
- **image caption**: Skyline of Barisal Sadar, Bangladesh
- **pushpin map**: Bangladesh
- **pushpin map caption**: Location in Bangladesh
- **pushpin label position**: right
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision name**: Bangladesh
- **subdivision type1**: Divisions of Bangladesh, Division
- **subdivision name1**: Barisal Division
- **subdivision type2**: Districts of Bangladesh, District
- **subdivision name2**: Barisal District
- **population total**: 414281
- **population as of**: 1991
- **population density km2**: 1347
- **area total km2**: 307.59
- **timezone**: Bangladesh Standard Time, BST
- **utc offset**: +6
- **website**: [http://lib.pmo.gov.bd/maps/images/barisal/BarisalSadar.gif Official Map of the Barisal Sadar Upazila]
Peristalsis

**Peristalsis** is a process of contraction and relaxation of the muscle around parts of the alimentary canal. Peristalsis is also a series of contractions that pass from the mouth to the stomach.

The most familiar example of this is in the oesophagus. In the oesophagus, peristalsis pushes the ball of food down the oesophagus. The smooth muscle of the oesophagus contracts and relaxes in sequence, and this pushes the ball of food down the oesophagus.

The muscle is worked by a nervous mechanism called the "migrating motor complex". This works in one direction only, and also works in the lower regions of the digestive system.
Libertarian Party (Spain)

The **Libertarian Party** (Spanish: Partido Libertario or **P-LIB**) is a Spanish political party. It was formed in 2009. It is currently led by Juan Pina.

The party believes in classical liberalism and that government should stay out of economics. They also believe in objectivism. They believe that governments should only be able to protect people from violence, theft, fraud, and other actions that go against people's rights. The party is open to some more libertarian and anarcho-capitalism ideas. There are two groups within the party; the Objectivist and Radicals. Most party members aren't involved with these groups.

The party took part in the 2011 Spanish general election in Madrid and Zaragoza. They received about 7,000 votes to the Senate and over 2,000 (0.01 %) to the Congress.

## Other websites

- Official website (in Spanish)
European Canadians

**European Canadians** (sometimes called **Euro-Canadians**) are Canadians with ancestry from Europe. As of 2011, there were 25,186,890 European Canadians in Canada.

The French were the first Europeans to live in Canada permanently. Hélène Desportes was the first "white" person born in New France. She was born in 1620.

In 2006, most European Canadians had English ancestry (21.03%). Other common ancestries were French (15.82%), Scottish (15.11%), Irish (13.94%), German (10.18%) then Italian (4.63%). However, 32.22% of people said they had Canadian ancestry. Because of this, some people think the numbers for the English and French ancestry are too low.

Most European Canadians are Christian. A small number of them are Jews, Deists, Agnostics, Atheists, Muslims, Bahá'ís, Paganists/Wiccas and Unitarian Universalists. Most also speak English and French.

## Infobox (ethnic group)

- **group**: European Canadians
- **population**: **19,683,320**
53% of the total Canadian population (Canada 2016 Census, 2016 Census)
- **regions**: List of regions of Canada, All areas of Canada
less prevelant in the Northern Canada, North
- **langs**: Predominantly Canadian English, EnglishCanadian French, French
<small>Historically Canadian Gaelic, Scottish GaelicNewfoundland Irish, Irish were spoken in certain regions</small>
- **rels**: Predominantly Christianity in Canada, Christianity (Protestantism in Canada, Protestantism and Catholic Church in Canada, Roman Catholicism)
- **related**: European diasporaEuropean ethnic groups, EuropeansEuropean AmericansEuropean AustraliansEuropean New Zealanders
- **footnotes**: An additional 11,135,965 people chose "Canadian" as their ethnic group in the Census.
Latin American Canadians

**Latin American Canadians** are Canadians with ancestry from Latin America. They may also be called "Latino Canadian" and "Latin Canadian". As of 2011, there were 381,280 Latin American Canadians in Canada.

Most Latin American Canadians speak two or more languages. They usually speak Spanish and/or Portuguese along with English and French.

A lot of Latin American Canadians came to Canada in the late 20th century. They came to Canada because it has better economic opportunities than their native country. Some Cubans came to Canada to escape Fidel Castro's regime. Other Latino Americans left their country because Canada offered freedom from war.

In 2011, most Latin American Canadians had Mexican ancestry (18.6%). Other common ancestries were Colombian (16.2%), Salvadoran (11.7%), Peruvian (7.1%), Chilean (6.7%) and Brazilian (6.1%).

Almost all Latino American Canadians are Christian.
Peremptory challenge

A **peremptory challenge** is a right during voir dire (the process of selecting a jury) to reject a certain number of potential jurors without having to give a reason. The word "peremptory" means without a reason given; allowing no contradiction or refusal. Peremptory challenges may be made by either party to the proceedings. This kind of challenge has been more difficult to use because the Supreme Court of the United States has prohibited peremptory challenges (also called peremptory strikes) based on gender or race. Different jurisdictions allow different numbers of peremptory challenges to each side. Some jurisdictions allow additional peremptory challenges. In United States federal courts each side is allowed three peremptory challenges. Also, if there are more than two parties involved in the proceeding the court may allow additional challenges or restrict the number for all parties.

## Peremptory vs for cause

To insure an impartial jury, during voir dire, prospective jurors are questioned by the lawyers and the court. Either lawyer may challenge a juror for cause. Reasons may include the prospective juror's opinions on issues, personal knowledge of the case, their occupation or any reason to believe the juror may not be able to be fair. Unlike peremptory challenges, challenges for cause may not be limited to a certain number in most jurisdictions. The reason for either type of challenge is that each lawyer is trying to find jurors who are sympathetic to their case.

## History

The peremptory challenge has its roots in Roman law. Both parties would propose up to 100 prospective jurors, then each could strike 50. This left a total of 100 jurors on the jury. In English common law, a prosecutor had an unlimited number of peremptory challenges while the defendant has 35. In 1305, the Parliament of England eliminated all peremptory challenges for the prosecution. In 1988, Parliament eliminated all peremptory challenges for the defense. Peremptory challenges came to the United States with the colonists and Common Law. Peremptory challenges remained much the same until the late 20th century.

## Peremptory challenges and the Supreme Court

The following observation is attributed to Mark Twain:

While the right to use peremptory challenges is not guaranteed by the Constitution of the United States, The Supreme Court has held peremptory challenges are "to assure the parties that the jurors before whom they try the case will decide on the basis of the evidence placed before them, and not otherwise."

Three Supreme Court decisions have shaped the modern peremptory challenge:
- In _Turner v. Murray_, , the Court held that in "special circumstances" judges must question potential jurors about racial prejudice to prevent a biased jury.
- In _Batson v. Kentucky_, , prosecutors may not use peremptory challenges to exclude jurors based on race as it violates the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
- In _Tanner v. United States_, , the Court held that a jury verdict would not be overturned even when the jury had been consuming copious amounts of alcohol, marijuana and cocaine during the trial and deliberations.
Polearm

**Polearms** were long sticks that had a blade on the side. They were similar to an axe, but much longer. They were also used by women in ancient Japan.
Sher-e-Bangla Medical College

**Sher-e-Bangla Medical College** (**SBMC**), is a government medical school in  Bangladesh, established in 1968. It is located in Barisal.

## History

Construction began on the college on 6 November 1964, at that time it was known as Barisal Medical College.

## Campus

There are three hostels for male students and two for the female students. Both male and female intern doctors have each one hostel for them.

## Infobox (university)

- **name**: Sher-e-Bangla Medical College
- **native name**: শের-ই-বাংলা মেডিকেল কলেজ
- **native name lang**: bn
- **image**: Shere Bangla Medical College.jpg
- **former name**: Barisal Medical College
- **type**: Public university, Public medical school
- **academic affiliation**: University of Dhaka
- **principal**: Bhaskar Saha
- **director**: Md. Kamrul Hassan
- **students**: 1080 (MBBS) & 50 (BDS)
- **city**: Barisal
- **country**: Bangladesh
- **campus**: Urban area, Urban
- **language**: English