juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
South African rand

The **rand** (sign: **R**; code: **ZAR**) is the South African currency. 100 cents make up one rand.
The rand is named after an area near Johannesburg called the Rand, which is famous for its gold mines.

The symbol for the rand is a capital R, written before the sum. Thus, one hundred rand is written as R100. The plural form is "rand" in both English and Afrikaans.
In February 2018, it was announced that a new series of banknotes would be released in commemoration of what would have been Nelson Mandela's centennial year. This series would include notes of all denominations, 10-, 20-, 50-, 100- and 200-Rand. These notes would circulate alongside existing notes and be released on 18 July 2018, which was the 100th anniversary of his birth.[34] The notes depict the standard face of Nelson Mandela on the obverse, but instead of the Big Five animals on the reverse, they show a younger Mandela with different iconic scenes related to his legacy. These scenes comprise: the rolling hills of the Eastern Cape, featuring Mandela’s humble birthplace of Mvezo (10-Rand); the home of Mandela in Soweto, where he defined his political life alongside other struggle icons (20-Rand); the site where Mandela was captured near Howick, following 17 months in hiding, where a monument has been erected in his honour (50-Rand); the place of Mandela's 27-year imprisonment at Robben Island (100-Rand); the inauguration of Mandela as president at the Union Buildings in 1994 (200-Rand). On January 1, 2023, the South African Reserve Bank issued new coins with a completely different design and the country's name in all eleven official languages.

## Infobox (currency)

- **currency name in local**: Suid-Afrikaanse Rand <small></small>
- **iso code**: ZAR
- **using countries**: (**Common Monetary Area** member)
 (**Common Monetary Area** member), alongside Lesotho loti
 (**Common Monetary Area** member), alongside Namibian dollar
 (**Common Monetary Area** member), alongsde Swazi lilangeni
- **pegged with**: Lesotho loti, Swazi lilangeni and Namibian dollar at par
- **inflation rate**: 3.6% (South Africa only)
- **inflation method**: :en:Consumer price index, CPI
- **inflation source date**: [http://www.reservebank.co.za/ South African Reserve Bank], November 2010
- **subunit ratio 1**: 1/100
- **subunit name 1**: Cent (currency), Cent
- **symbol**: R
- **plural**: rand
- **symbol subunit 1**: c
- **used coins**: 10c, 20c, 50c, R 1, R 2, R 5
- **coin article**: Coins of the South African rand
- **used banknotes**: R 10, R 20, R 50, R 100, R 200
- **issuing authority**: South African Reserve Bank
- **issuing authority website**: www.reservebank.co.za
1779

## Births

- July 15 – Clement Clarke Moore, American educator, writer, and poet (d. 1863)
- August 1 – Francis Scott Key, American lawyer and lyricist (d. 1843)
1700

**1700** (MDCC) was an exceptional common year starting on Friday in the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Monday in the Julian calendar.  It was the last year of the 17th century.  Due to a leap day observed in the Julian calendar, the Gregorian calendar moved ahead by 11 days.

## Events

- January 1 – Russia first starts using Western numbers for its calendar.
366

## Events

- January 31 – Athanasius of Alexandria returns from his fifth exile.
- April – Emperor Valens defeats the troops of Procopius in the Battle of Thyatira.
- Valens builds a pontoon bridge across the Danube.  This lets the Visigoths travel farther north.
- The _Tabula Peutingeriana_, a map showing Roman places and roads, is made about this time.
- October 1 – Damasus I becomes 37th pope.

## Births

- Yao Xing, emperor of the Chinese Qiang state Later Qin

## Deaths

- Acacius of Caesarea, bishop and Christian leader of Arianism
- September 24 – Pope Liberius
- Marcellus, general and Roman usurper
- May 27 – Procopius, Roman usurper
- Yu Daolian, empress and wife of Jin Feidi
- Zhi Dun, Chinese Buddhist monk and philosopher
1322

## Events

- March 16 – Battle of Boroughbridge, where Edward II of England beats Thomas, Earl of Lancaster
- September 27/September 28 – Battle of Ampfing, often called the last battle of knights, when Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor beats Frederick I of Austria

## Births

- January 11 – Emperor Komyo of Japan (died 1380)
- June 24 – Joanna, Duchess of Brabant (died 1406)

## Deaths

- January 3 – King Philip V of France (born 1293)
1463

## Events

- January 5 – Poet François Villon is banned from Paris.
- September 15 – Battle of Zatoka Świeża.
1205

## Events

- January 6 – Philip of Swabia becomes King of the Romans
- April 14 – Battle of Adrianople between Bulgars and Latins
- August 20 – Following certain news of Baldwin I's death, Henry of Flanders is crowned Emperor of the Latin Empire

## Births

- Walter IV of Brienne
- Wenceslaus I, King of Bohemia

## Deaths

- April 1 – King Amalric II of Jerusalem (born 1145)
- May 7 – Ladislaus III of Hungary (born 1201)
- June 14 – Walter III of Brienne
- July 13 – Hubert Walter, Archbishop of Canterbury
- Alexius V, Byzantine Emperor
- Baldwin I of Constantinople (born 1172)
- Enrico Dandolo, Doge of Venice
- Isabella of Jerusalem
- Žvelgaitis, Lithuanian duke
Chaos theory

**Chaos theory** is a part of mathematics. It looks at certain systems that are very sensitive. A very small change may make the system behave completely differently.

Very small changes in the starting position of a chaotic system make a big difference after a while. This is why even large computers cannot tell the weather for more than a few days in the future. Even if the weather was perfectly measured, a small change or error will make the prediction completely wrong. Since even a butterfly flapping its wings can make enough wind to change weather, a chaotic system is sometimes called the "butterfly effect". No computer knows enough to tell how the small wind will change the weather.

Some systems (like weather) might appear random at first look, but chaos theory says that these kinds of systems or patterns may not be. If people pay close enough attention to what is really going on, they might notice the chaotic patterns.

The main idea of chaos theory is that a minor difference at the start of a process can make a major change in it as time progresses. Quantum chaos theory is a new idea in the study of chaos theory. It deals with quantum physics.

## Examples

As an example, take a pendulum that is attached at some point, and swings freely. Connecting a second pendulum to the first will make the system completely different. It is very hard to start in exactly the same position again - a change in starting position so small that it cannot even be seen can quickly cause the pendulum swing to become different from what it was before.

A very important part to the study of chaos theory is the study of mathematics functions that are known as _fractals_. Fractal functions work like chaotic systems: a small change in the starting values can change the value of the function in ways that look random. Due to the fact that they are mathematical, they are easy to study.

## Related pages

- Discontinuous function
- Lorenz attractor
- Systems theory
1540

## Events

- January 6 – Henry VIII marries Anne of Cleves, his fourth wife.
First World

**First World** or **Developed World** is a term used in geopolitics and economics to refer to the richer and more developed nations. In these countries, the majority of the people are in the middle class and enjoy a good standard of living. This term is being used less, as terms like _global North_ and _developed world_ become more common.

## List of First World nations

- Andorra
- Australia
- Austria
- Belgium
- Canada
- Denmark
- Finland
- France
- Germany
- Greece
- Iceland
- Ireland
- Italy
- Japan
- Liechtenstein
- Luxembourg
- Monaco
- Netherlands
- New Zealand
- Norway
- Portugal
- San Marino
- Spain
- Sweden
- Switzerland
- United Kingdom
- United States
- Vatican City
1823

## Events

- Mexico becomes a republic.
- Monroe Doctrine is expressed during President James Monroe's seventh annual message to Congress on December 2

## Art, music, theatre, and literature

- December 23 - "A Visit from St. Nicholas" ("The Night Before Christmas")
1876

## Births

- April 27 - Irma Sèthe, Belgian violinist.
- December 25 – Muhammad Ali Jinnah, founder of Pakistan.

## Events

- The telephone is invented by Alexander Graham Bell.
- The United States celebrated its 100th birthday.
- The Falkland Island Fox becomes extinct.
- George Armstrong Custer dies with his troops at the Battle of Little Big Horn
1861

## Events

- The American Civil War begins.
- January 1 - Benito Juárez captures Mexico City.
- March 19 – The First Taranaki War ends in New Zealand.
- August 19 – First ascent of Weisshorn, fifth highest summit in the Alps.
- September – The first complete identified remains of _Archaeopteryx_ are discovered in Germany.

## Related pages

1861 in architecture
1829

**1829** (MDCCCXXIX) was a common year starting on Thursday in the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Tuesday in the Julian calendar, the 1829th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, .

## Births

- September 7 – Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz, German organic chemist (d. 1896)
- October 5 - Chester A. Arthur, twenty-first President of the United States (d. 1886)
- October 15 - Asaph Hall, American astronomer (d. 1907)
Chantilly, Virginia

**Chantilly** is a community in Fairfax County, Virginia. The Battle of Chantilly was fought here during the American Civil War.

## Notable local organizations

- Ellanor C. Lawrence Park – Along Route 28 between Chantilly and Centreville, the park houses athletic fields—including soccer, baseball, and softball fields, trails, and fitness stations. Coyote sightings have been reported within the park.
- Flat Lick Stream Valley Park
- The Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center annex of the National Air and Space Museum
- The headquarters of the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO). It designs, builds, and operates the spy satellites of the United States government, and provides satellite intelligence to several government agencies, particularly signals intelligence (SIGINT) to the NSA, imagery intelligence (IMINT) to the NGA, and measurement and signature intelligence (MASINT) to the DIA.
- The Westfields Marriott in Chantilly hosted the annual Bilderberg summit in 2002; 2008, 2012, and 2017, There were protests.
Corpus Christi, Texas

**Corpus Christi**, Texas is a city in the United States. It is near the coast of the Gulf of Mexico and is one of the fastest growing cities in America. Its economy is based around petroleum refining and tourism.

The city was founded in 1839 as _Kinney's Ranch_ and has been known as Corpus Christi since 1847.

Elsa Flores, a famous biologist and chemist, grew up in Corpus Christi, Texas.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **image flag**: Flag of Corpus Christi, Texas.svg
Sick

To be **sick** can mean:
- Having a disease, illness, or disorder

**Sick** may also refer to:
- Sick comedy, an expression used to attack the social criticism of the new late 1950s comedians
- _Sick_ (magazine), a humour magazine
- _Sick_ (Sow album), an album by Sow
- _Sick_ (Massacra album), an album by Massacra
- "Sick" (_Young Ones_ episode), the 11th episode of the British comedy _The Young Ones_
- "Sick, Sick, Sick", a song by Queens of the Stone Age
- _SICK: The Life & Death of Bob Flanagan, Supermasochist_, a 1997 documentary about Bob Flanagan
- Sick AG, a German sensor technology corporation which built the laser range-finders used on the robot Stanley
- Gary Sick, a writer

## Related pages

- _Sic_, a Latin word used in writing
- _Sicko_, a 2007 documentary film by Michael Moore
- Sickness (disambiguation)
Panama Canal

The **Panama Canal** is a waterway (a canal) in the country of Panama in Central America, that connects the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean. Because of the way Panama twists, the entrance to the Pacific Ocean is farther east than the entrance to the Atlantic Ocean. This is the opposite of what one would expect.

The Panama Canal is 77 km (48 miles) long and cuts across the Isthmus of Panama. At each end it uses three pairs of _locks_ for lifting and lowering ships on different water levels. This saves ships 15,000 km (10,000 miles) compared to going around South America. Each year, about 14,000 ships come through the canal. By 2002, around 800,000 ships came through.

The old locks are 110 ft (33.53 m) wide by 1,050 ft (320 m) long and 41.2 feet (12.6 m) deep, with a usable length of 1,000 ft (305 m). The biggest ships that can go through the Panama Canal are called Panamax.

New locks opened in 2016 to allow ships more than twice as big, called New Panamax. They are 55 m (180 ft) wide by 427 m (1,400 ft) long, and 18.3 m (60.0 ft) deep. New channels connect to the new locks.

Ferdinand de Lesseps tried building a Panama Canal in 1880, but could not finish it. The project was started again in 1904 by the United States, under the presidency of Theodore Roosevelt, who spent ten years and 375 million dollars building it. The Panama Canal was finally finished in 1914, at the cost of approximately 25,000 lives. Most deaths were from disease, and before United States construction of the canal began. The US government owned and operated the canal until 1999 when the Panamanian government started controlling it.

## Other websites

- Live webcam images of the Panama Canal
- Panama Canal – Britannica
Aarre Merikanto

**Aarre Merikanto** (29 June 1893 — 28 September 1958) was a Finnish composer. His parents were Liisa Häyrynen and composer Oskar Merikanto.

Merikanto was born in 1893. He studied music in Helsinki (1911), Leipzig (1912-1914) and Moscow (1916-1917). He tried composing an opera for the first time when he was 18 years old. The result was _Helena_, which was completed in early 1912. The opera had one act and its libretto was written by Jalmari Finne. In the 1920s Merikanto created his own modernist style. Merikanto was a professor of composition in the Sibelius Academy, Helsinki from 1951 to his death. Merikanto died of lung cancer in Helsinki in 1958.

## Other websites

- Aarre Merikanto – information from the Finnish Music Information Centre
1878

## Events

- March 3 – The Treaty of San Stefano ends the Russo-Turkish War.
- June 12 – July 12 – Congress of Berlin meets to talk about the independence of the Balkans following the Russo-Turkish War.
- Ipswich Town F.C. founded
- Everton F.C. founded
- Manchester United F.C. founded

## Deaths

- February 7 – Pope Pius IX (b. 1792)
1568

**1568** (MDLXVIII) was a leap year starting on Thursday in the Julian calendar and a leap year starting on Monday in the proleptic Gregorian calenda<nowiki/>r.

## Events

- January 16 - Álvaro de Mendaña discovers the Tuvaluan island of Nui.
- Unknown - The Eighty Years War begins.

## Births

- March 9 - Aloysius Gonzaga, Italian saint (d. 1591)
- April 5 - Pope Urban VIII, 236th Pope (d. 1644)
- Unknown - Joris van Spilbergen,  Dutch explorer (d. 1620)

## Deaths

- January 26 - Lady Katherine Grey, English noblewoman (b. 1540)
- July 24 - Carlos, Prince of Asturias, oldest son of Philip II of Spain (b. 1545)
- December 31 – Shimazu Tadayoshi, Japanese daimyo (b. 1493)
Tribe

A **tribe** is a group of people who live and work together in a shared geographical area. A tribe has a common culture, dialect, religion, customs, traditions, and sense of unity. It works cooperatively (for example, dividing up work that needs to be done).

A tribe is usually headed by a chief.  A _tribal society_ is a group of tribes organized around kinships.

The word _tribe_ is taken from the Latin word “_Tribus_”, which means “one third”. The word originally referred to one of the three territorial groups which united to form Rome.

## History

In the evolution of human societies, tribes came after bands of people but before nations. Humans lived in tribes before they started living in cities and nations.

Collectively, the Khoikhoi and San are called the Khoisan and often called the world's first or oldest people, according to the biggest and most detailed analysis of African DNA. A report from NPR details how more than 22,000 years ago, the Nama were the largest group of humans on earth and a tribe of hunter-gatherers.

## Modern day

There are still tribal groups all over the world, though their numbers are getting smaller and smaller. Many live as hunter-gatherer<nowiki/>s, though some tribes practice agriculture. Others, such as the Bedouin and Tuareg people, practice nomadism.

## Related pages

- Anthropology
- Indigenous people
- Tribes of Arabia
- Tribes of Israel
1832

## Events

- Forsyth County, Georgia and Barbour County, Alabama become counties.
- A cholera epidemic affects New York City and other major American cities.
- The University of Durham, England is founded (created).

## Births

- January 13 - Horatio Alger, Jr. American boys' writer, in Chelsea, Massachusetts
- January 27 – Lewis Carroll, English children's writer, in Daresbury, Cheshire
- November 29 – Louisa May Alcott American girls' writer, in Germantown, Pennsylvania
Hiking

**Hiking** is a general word for traveling on foot in wilderness or countryside. Day hikers return before nightfall. Other hikers may go out for many days. Sometimes large groups hike together.

Hiking is a kind of physical activity as well as a leisure activity (a way of spending free time).  Hikers (the people who do hiking) enjoy fresh air and the beauty of nature, and learn about the place.  Many hikers enjoy challenging their physical and mental strength.  Hiking with friends gives them the chance to become stronger.

## Preparation

**Planning** starts with a hiker deciding what he wants from the hike. A traveler should examine the information on landscape, climate, weather, plants, animals, type of ground, and so on. Based on that information, a hiker decides what equipment (tools) he needs. Writing everything on paper is strongly suggested to not forget anything. A hiker should choose the itinerary (the way of the hike).

**Equipping** means getting specialized clothing and equipment. Overnight hiking requires carrying more supplies, usually in a backpack, though many use a backpack even for a day hike. Suggestions for equipment can be found in any hiking book. A hiker is suggested to learn more than one source and work. Equipping sometimes needs getting skills in using the apparatus. Basic skill<nowiki/>s–different ways of orientation (the ability to find the way, for example)–must be developed before hiking.

## Safety

Hiking can quickly become a fight for life. Hikers can get lost or suffer from injury, sickness, bad weather, or other dangers. For this reason everything in hiking is very important. Nobody should hike alone, no matter what the situation, without a great deal of experience to develop his hiking abilities.

Every hiker should keep in mind that theory is important, but it can hardly replace firsthand experience. To be safe a traveler should have enough experience. A hiker had better start by taking short hikes with more experienced hikers.

## Finding the way

Getting lost can have bad results including sickness and death. A hiker is strongly suggested to check from time to time (at least every hour) whether he is going the right way. Portable GPS receivers can help, as long as the batteries are good. Accurate, complete maps and a compass can help, if the user understands them. On no account should he go on traveling if he has lost his way. The first thing a hiker should do is find the direction in which he was going before getting lost. Using the compass and the map, he should choose a reference point nearby (railway, road, river, etc.).
Kiwifruit

**Kiwifruit** (_Actinidia deliciosa_) is a fruit. It has an oval shape. It is green on the inside with small black seeds that can be eaten. The kiwi has thin, fuzzy brown skin that is edible, but is usually removed. It natively grows in South China.

The fruit was named in 1959 after the kiwi, a bird and the symbol of New Zealand. Before that, its English name was **Chinese gooseberry**.

The kiwifruit is healthy and contains many vitamins and minerals. Kiwis are rich in vitamin C, vitamin K, potassium, and fiber. Kiwis have more vitamin C than an equivalent amount of orange.

There are different types of kiwifruit. The main types are Hayward (the most common green kiwifruit), chico, Saanichton 12, and golden kiwifruit. Golden kiwifruit are sweeter than normal green kiwifruit. Golden kiwifruit was invented by grafting and cross-pollinating different types of kiwifruit.

Kiwi fruit is the edible berry of a woody vine which can reach 18 to 24 feet in length. Kiwi Fruit can grow 3.1 inches in length and 2.2 inches in diameter, they have a soft texture, sweet Flavor, and their skin is covered in short stiff brown hairs.

The top 3 producers of kiwi fruit are Italy, New Zealand, and Chile. One medium-sized Kiwi without the skin provides 46 calories, 0.4 grams of fat, 11 grams of carbohydrate, 0.9 grams of protein, 2.3 grams of fiber, and 6.8 Grams of sugar.

Kiwi fruit are high in vitamin C and contain a good amount of vitamin K. Since Kiwi is so high in vitamin C it's an excellent source of antioxidants, which fight free radicals in the Body, it also provides nutrients that protect DNA in the nucleus of cells from oxygen damage.

Kiwi can also help fight against blood clots since it contains vitamin K. It can also help maintain beautiful skin, improve digestion, and help the body's immune system. Kiwi is also a cheap and healthy snack, one medium fruit usually costs around 89 cents. Consuming 2 kiwi fruit daily would meet and surpass the minimum daily vitamin C recommendation.

Kiwi was named after its resemblance to the fuzzy brown Kiwi, New Zealand's national bird. Kiwi is often used in DIY face masks because of its contents that fight the aging process.

## Health Benefits Of Kiwifruit

- 1 Reduces asthma symptoms. A rich source of vitamin C and antioxidants, kiwifruit is said to improve lung function and a regular intake of the fruit is believed to bring down asthma symptoms.

- 2 Improves immunity. Kiwifruit has antifungal properties, along with fighting microbes and seasonal infections

- 3 Controls diabetes. Not only does kiwifruit have a low glycemic index, but it is also said to have properties that prevent the dysfunction of adipose tissue, which has been linked with diabetes. **More **

## References

To get more health benefits detail Read more
Aardvark

The **aardvark** (_Orycteropus afer_) is a mammal from Africa; its name means "earth pig" in the language Afrikaans. It is the only living member in its order, though some fossil genera have been found

## Taxonomy

- Order _Tubulidentata_
    - Family _Orycteropodidae_
        - Genus _Orycteropus_
            - Species _Orycteropus afer_

The Aardvark looks a bit like the South American anteaters but they are not related. It is in a proposed clade Afroinsectiphilia, with the golden moles and tenrecs. Another proposal is to out it in the Pseudungulata, with the elephants and Sirenia. There is no consensus at present.

## Description

Adult aardvarks weighs about 60 kilograms (130 pounds) and a little more than one meter (45 inches) long. It is the largest member of the proposed clade Afroinsectiphilia. The aardvark is pale yellowish-gray in color and often stained reddish-brown by soil. The aardvark's fur is thin. Its hair is short on its head and tail. But, its legs tend to have longer hair.

## Distribution and Habitat

Aardvarks are found in sub-Saharan Africa. They are found in every country in sub-Saharan Africa except Namibia, Ivory Coast, Ghana and Madagascar. It lives in many habitats like savannas, grasslands, woodlands and bushland. They have been seen as high as 3,200 metres (10,500 ft) in Ethiopia.

## Feeding

Aardvarks eat mostly ants and termites. They have a long sticky tongue which makes it easy to pick up many ants at once. The only fruit that aardvarks eat is the aardvark cucumber. They avoid eating the African driver ant and red ants.

## Behaviour

Aardvarks are nocturnal, which means they are awake at night and asleep during the day. The Aardvark is a good swimmer. It can dig a tunnel that is one yard in about five minutes. Aardvarks live for up to 23 years in captivity. It has many predators such as lions, leopards, cheetahs, African wild dogs, hyenas, and pythons. Some humans also hunt aardvarks for meat. Aardvarks can dig fast or run in a zigzag to confuse predators. If all else fails they will attack with their claws.

## Reproduction

Aardvarks only come together to breed. The gestation period is seven months. They give birth to one cub, which is what a baby aardvark is called. The cub weighs around 1.7–1.9 kilograms (3.7–4.2 lb). It is born during May–July. After 5–6 weeks, hair starts growing on its body. After two weeks, it is able to leave the burrow to follow its mother. After 9 weeks, it is able to eat termites. It is weaned between three months and 16 weeks. At six months, it is able to dig its own burrows, but it will often stay with the mother until the next mating season. It reaches sexual maturity when it is two years old.
Eyebrow

An **eyebrow** is the stripe of hair about 2 cm over the eye. Eyebrows protect the eyes, if water runs over the face or if there is too much sunlight. The eyebrow's ability to move is also important in facial expression.
Secular humanism

**Secular humanists** believe that each human being is worth something and has dignity. They think that people are happiest when they give something to society. They also believe that human beings can solve problems without help from god(s).

Secular humanists are not religious and are against superstition. Usually they are atheists, agnostics, deists, irreligious theists and ignostics.
Quebec City

**Quebec City** (**Ville de Québec** in French) is the capital of the Canadian province of Quebec. It is the second largest city in Quebec, behind Montreal. It is known for its winter fair, beautiful churches, and an old hotel called Château Frontenac. It is next to the Saint Lawrence River. There are around 550,000 people in the city, and over 800,000 people in the metropolitan area.

The city was created in 1608 at a First Nations (native) Canadian place called Stadacona. People came from France to live there. The English captured the city in 1759 during the Battle of the Plains of Abraham. The walls made to keep the city safe are still there. The walls that surrounded Old Quebec are the only remaining fortified city walls that still exist in the Americas north of Mexico. They were declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1985.

Quebec City has a humid continental climate (_Dfb_ in the Köppen climate classification).

Most people in Quebec City speak French.

## Media

Quebec City Stations

SRC Radio

CFCM TVA

CBVT SRC

CIVQ Tele-Quebec

CFAP TQS

CHMG Telemag

## Other websites

- Official website
Vancouver Island

**Vancouver Island** is an island that is part of the province of British Columbia, Canada. Its area is . The island is in the south-western part of the province and is named after the British explorer George Vancouver.

The first people to live on the island, before the Europeans came, were the Nuu-chah-nulth, the Salish, and the Kwakiutl. As of 2009, over 700,000 people live here.

There are no bridges or tunnels between Vancouver Island and the mainland. There are ferries, whichcarry people and cars to and from the island. One route crosses the Strait of Georgia to the Tsawwassen Peninsula,from roads go to Vancouver and other cities in Canada as part of the Trans-Canada Highway. Another ferry route crosses the Strait of Juan de Fuca and reaches Anacortes in the U.S. state of Washington from which roads go to Seattle and other cities along the West Coast.

## Cities and towns

There are many cities and towns on Vancouver Island. The biggest is Victoria, the capital of British Columbia.

Other settlements on Vancouver Island include the following:
- Lake Cowichan
- Nanaimo
- Courtenay
- Comox
- Duncan
- Crofton
- Port Alberni
- Ladysmith
- Chemainus
- Port Hardy
- Parksville
- Cumberland
- Tofino
- Uclulet
- Colwood
- Sidney
- Qualicum Beach
- Coombs
- Port McNeill
- Campbell River
First Nations in Canada

**First Nations** () are the indigenous people who have lived in the lands that are now part of Canada before the French and British people came there.

Many use the term because the people lived there long before Canada and to make it clearer that they have many cultures, which are sometimes very different from others. Some consider the tem as respect to those who first cultivated certain patches of land.

The Indigenous people from Canada's Arctic are called Inuits and are thought of as a different ethnic group to the First Nations, just like the Métis people

The First Nations are important in the world because their stories have taught much about cultural values and how to live in harmony with the land.

Other words that have been used for First Nations people, tribes, and cultures have been "indigenous", "aboriginals", "Indians", "Local Indians", "Amerinds," or "natives". Most people now consider "Indian" to be people from India.

## Infobox (ethnic group)

- **group**: First Nations
- **image**: First Nations Distribution in Canada, 2021 Census.jpg
- **caption**: Population distribution of First Nations Canadians by census division, 2021 census
- **population**: **1,048,400** (2021 Canadian census, 2021)

**** of the total Canadian population
- **related**: Native Americans in the United States, Native Americans, Alaska Natives, Métis in Canada, Métis
Convair B-36 Peacemaker

The **B-36 Peacemaker** was a strategic bomber. It was used in the United States. The B-36 could carry a 21,000 pound bomb. The B-36 was never used in wartime, but was in a movie called Strategic Air Command. The Peacemaker could fly for 48 hours non-stop and was one of the longest ranged bombers at the time. It first flew in 1948, and the last combat flight was in 1959.
Wing

A **wing** is the part of an animal or airplane that allows it to fly.

## Animal wings

A _wing_ is the part of an animal that allows it to fly. By moving its wings, the animal can produce lift and get off the ground.

Animals that have wings are insects, birds and bats. Birds' wings are made of feathers. The wings of bats are made of skin, which is stretched between the bones of the bat's arms and fingers. Not all insects and birds can fly, even if they have wings.

## Artificial wings

- Airplanes also have wings. Those wings cannot be moved; they are stable, but the wings also produce lift, so the airplane will get off the ground if you move it fast enough.

- People also talk about wings of buildings. What they mean is usually a part of the building that is separated from the rest (for example: the west wing of a building).
Newfoundland

**Newfoundland** is an island off the east Coast of North America, and is part of the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. The capital city of Newfoundland is St. John's, on the north-east part of the island. Over 500,000 people live in Newfoundland (these people are called Newfoundlanders). It, along with Labrador on the mainland, became part of Canada on March 31, 1949. There is no bridge or tunnel from Newfoundland to the rest of the country but there is a ferry to Nova Scotia.

In Newfoundland, most people speak English, but there are also French speakers on the island, mostly in the south-west. In some areas of Newfoundland, people speak with an accent and use words that are not in standard English. There is even a dictionary of Newfoundland English.

The first people in Newfoundland were the First Nations. Settlers came from countries like Norway, England, Portugal, France, and Ireland in the 16th century. The first European explorers were the Vikings from Norway and they settled in L'Anse aux Meadows. They came because of the good fishing off the coast, especially off the south-east coast. Eventually they left because of disagreements with aboriginals. Today, there is still fishing, but not very much because people fished too much, and now there are not many fish left.

Cutting down trees and mining have also been attractions of the island. There are some paper mills (paper factories) in a few cities in Newfoundland.

## Other websites

- Government of Newfoundland and Labrador
- Welcome Page for Newfoundland and Labrador
- Newfoundland Tourism
The Visioner's Tale

**The Visioner's Tale** is one of the little-known writings of Geoffrey Chaucer.   Only parts of the story were left from when Chaucer wrote it in the 14th century, so it is not normally included in modern versions of the Canterbury Tales.

Here is the tale, as put together by someone from Denmark who studied the parts of the story, and tried to put them together:

_My lady's touch upon the lute is light,
_
_yet she weaves the streams of melody,
_
_with such profound synchicity,
_
_that the river of time spills into dream,
_
_into that ocean of unspoken promise,
_
_where lives primordial the memory of future things,
_
_here vision and voice and sound,
_
_and meaning emerge at last as one._
Geoffrey Chaucer

**Geoffrey Chaucer** (c. 1343–25 October 1400) was an English writer, poet, and philosopher. He is most famous for writing Canterbury Tales which had 24 stories but was never completed. He was one of the first writers to write in English. He wrote in Middle English.

## Early life

Chaucer was probably born in London. His father, John, and grandfather were prosperous wine merchants in London. The name _Chaucer_ is French and means shoemaker. However, not many details are known of his early life and education.

By 1357, Chaucer was a page to Elizabeth, Countess of Ulster, wife of Lionel, 1st Duke of Clarence. In 1360, he was captured by the French near Reims during a battle in the Hundred Years' War. He was then ransomed and released. King Edward III gave £16 towards his release. Chaucer married Phillipa (de) Roet. She was a lady-in-waiting to the queen and had close family connections to John of Gaunt. He had four children:  Elizabeth, Thomas, Agnes and Lewis.

## The king's squire

Chaucer may have studied law in the _Inner Temple_.  He joined the Royal court and travelled around Europe on business for the king. He became one of the king's esquires. One of his first known poems was written in 1369. It was called _The Book of The Duchess_, and was written after the death of John of Gaunt's wife, Blanche. In 1374, he became _Comptroller_ (in charge of the money) of the Customs for the Port of London. He did this job for 12 years. It was a well paid job and Chaucer was quite rich.

When Richard II became king, Chaucer continued to work in Customs. He was also sent to Europe on several more diplomatic jobs for the king.

## Country life

Chaucer moved to Kent in 1385 where he had a new position as Justice of the Peace. He was also elected as one of two knights of the shire to be a member of parliament. At the end of the year he lost his customs jobs. His wife, Phillipa, died in 1387. But on 12 July 1389, he was made the _Clerk of the Kings Works_, looking after repairs to the royal palaces. He was given other small positions, including looking after the river banks of the Thames, and as a deputy forester in the Royal Forest. Over the next few years, Chaucer became poorer and often was given small payments and pensions from the king.

## Death

He died at St.Mary's Chapel in Sevenoaks on 25 October 1400. Chaucer is buried in Westminster Abbey, in what is now called the Poets' Corner.

## His writings

Chaucer did most of his writing between 1369 and 1393. He is famous for his collection of stories in verse called the _Canterbury Tales_. He also wrote _The Book of the Duchess_, _The House of Fame_ and _Troilus and Criseyde_. For these works he is called "the father of English poetry". He also wrote _A Treatise on the Astrolabe,_ an instruction manual.
Echidna

**Echidna**, the spiny anteater, is a monotreme that lives in Australia and in New Guinea. They are the living members of the family **Tachyglossidae**.

Echnidas have a long, tube-like mouth with a sticky tongue. They are also covered in spines. They have mammary glands, and lay eggs.

The echidna has a method of protecting itself. With its long, sharp claws, they quickly dig a hole until only their spines are showing when they are hiding in the hole. The predator is not be able to get it without injuring itself on the spines.
When there is a fire, the echidna digs down out of reach of the fire.

## Prey

The short-beaked echidna (_Tachyglossus_) eats termites and ants. The three _Zaglossus_ species also eat other small insects and grubs. Echidnas pick up the prey with their sticky tongues. There is a separate page for _Zaglossus_.

## Species

- Family **Tachyglossidae**
    - Genus _Tachyglossus_
        - _Tachyglossus aculeatus_
    - Genus _Zaglossus_
        - _Zaglossus attenboroughi_
        - _Zaglossus bartoni_
        - _Zaglossus bruijni_

## Other websites

- Echidna
2002 Bali terrorist bombing

The **2002 Bali terrorist bombings** took place in Kuta on the Indonesian island of Bali. The attack was the deadliest act of terrorism in the history of Indonesia. Kuta is a popular tourist destination. 202 people were killed. 164 of them were foreigners, 38 were Indonesian citizens. Most of those killed were Australians, Britons and Indonesians. In addition, 209 people were injured.

## The bombings

At around 11 in the evening, a bomb destroyed a bar on Bali. The bomb was in a backpack, and only the person that owned it died. A few seconds later, a larger bomb went off. This bomb was close to 1,000 kilograms.

## Attackers

A terrorist group called Jemaah Islamiyah are believed to be responsible for making and exploding the device.

In total, four people were charged with the terrorist attack. An Indonesian court sentenced three of them to death. One person received a long prison sentence.

## Infobox (terrorist attack)

- **title**: 2002 Bali bombings
- **caption**: Aftermath of the bombings in Kuta
- **location**: Kuta, Indonesia
- **target**: Two nightclubs (_Paddy's Pub_ and _Sari Club_) with Western clientele, U.S. Consular office
- **time**: 11:05 p.m. Time in Indonesia, Central Indonesia Standard Time
- **timezone**: UTC+08:00
- **type**: Suicide bombing, car bombing
- **weapons**: Improvised explosive device, IEDs
- **fatalities**: 204 (including both bombers)
- **injuries**: 209
- **perps**: Jemaah Islamiyah
Al-Qaeda
Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress

The **Boeing 17 Flying Fortress** was a heavy bomber, that was used by the United States Strategic Air Force during World War II. It first flew in 1935, and was introduced in 1938. It had a shorter range, and a smaller bomb load, than its sister bomber the B-24 Liberator, but it had more defensive armament. It dropped large amounts of bombs during air raids against Germany, such as the raid on Dresden. The B-17 was also used in the Pacific, including the Battle of Midway. The Flying Fortress had its name for a good reason, it could survive the hits and was able to fly while under enemy fire. The B-17 was a heavy bomber plane that carried 2 tons of bombs. The reason why few B-17's survived WWII was because lack of escort by allied fighters and enemy fire. Later in WWII, the U.S. increased escort fighters for the bombers giving more protection. The escort fights flew until the end of WWII.

The Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress was a large **American aircraft**, and arguably one of the **most successful** or dangerous bombers. These 4-propeller destroyers could carry well over **10,000 pounds of bombs,** and can travel hundreds of miles without refuelling. Similar to other **long-range bombers,** the B-17 was armed with plenty of **small turrets** to cover all angles from anti-air. **Flocks of these massive aircraft** with escorts would be spotted from kilometres out, making them a **large target for enemy Flak.**

## Technical data (Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress)

|Data|Units|
| --- | --- |
|Years of production|1935-1945|
|Manufacturer|Boeing|
|Wingspan|31,62 m|
|Length|22,66 m|
|Height|5,82 m|
|Wing area|131,92 m²|
|Weight (empty)|16.391 kg|
|Max takeoff weight|29.710 kg|
|Crew|9|
|Speed|462km/h|
|Service ceiling|10.800 m|
|Range|3.220 km|
|Powerplant|4x Wright-R-1820-97 Cyclone|
|Power|4x 895 kW (1.217 HP)|
|Weapons|8 T bombs and 13* machine guns 12.7mm|

## Infobox (aircraft begin)

- **name**: B-17 Flying Fortress
- **image**: File:B17 - Chino Airshow 2014 (framed).jpg
- **caption**: A B-17G performing at the 2014 Chino, California, Chino Airshow


## Infobox (aircraft type)

- **type**: Heavy bomber
- **national origin**: United States
- **manufacturer**: Boeing
- **retired**: 1968 (Brazilian Air Force)
- **primary user**: United States Army Air Forces
- **more users**: Royal Air Force
- **produced**: 1936–1945
- **number built**: 12,731
- **developed into**: Boeing 307 Stratoliner
Midway Atoll

**Midway Atoll** is an island in the Pacific Ocean and was the site of a famous battle in World War II, the Battle of Midway. The United States of America took control of the atoll in 1867 when nobody lived there. In the 21st century about 40 people live there, mostly working for the United States Fish and Wildlife Service.

## Wildlife

Midway Atoll is now home to 67-70% of the world's Laysan Albatross population, and 34-39% of the global Black-footed Albatross.

While Midway supports nearly three million birds, each seabird species has carved out a specific site on the atoll in which to nest.  Seventeen different species of seabird can be found, the rarest of which is the Short-tailed Albatross, otherwise known as the “Golden Gooney.”  Fewer than 2,200 are believed to exist due to excessive feather hunting in the late nineteenth century.

Over 250 different species of looli marine life are found in the  of lagoon and surrounding waters. The critically endangered Hawaiian monk seals raise their pups on the beaches. Monk seals are benthic foragers and rely on the Midway Atoll’s reef fish, squid, octopus and crustaceans. Green sea turtles, another threatened species, occasionally nest on the island. The first was found in 2006 on Spitsy Rinaia Island and another in 2007 on Sand Island. A resident pod of 300 spinner dolphins live in the lagoons and nearshore waters.

## Other websites

- Satellite Map and NOAA Chart of Midway  on BlooSee
- AirNav - Henderson Field Airport : Airport facilities and navigational aids.
- Diary from the middle of nowhere BBC's environment correspondent David Shukman reports on the threat of plastic rubbish drifting in the North Pacific Gyre to Midway. Accessed 2008-03-26.
- Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge (this article incorporated some content from this public domain site)
- NOAA Midway Island Hawaiian Monk Seal Captive Care & Release Project
- _The Battle of Midway: Turning the Tide in the Pacific,_ a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan
- _Marines at Midway: by Lieutenant Colonel R.D. Heinl, Jr., USMC Historical Section, Division of Public Information Headquarters, U.S. Marine Corps 1948,_
- Aviation: From Sand Dunes to Sonic Booms, a National Park Service _Discover Our Shared Heritage_ Travel Itinerary
- Past residents of Midway Discussion of Midway related topics by former residents and those interested in Midway.
- U.S. Unincorporated Possessions. Accessed 2008-03-26.
Beşiktaş J.K.

**Beşiktaş Jimnastik Kulübü** (**Besiktas JK**) is a Turkish football club from Istanbul.  Besiktas JK was founded in 1903 by 26 young men in "Osman Pasa Konagi".

It was the beginning of the 20th century and it was forbidden then to attend sports activities on a club basis. People were gathering together all around Istanbul. Twenty-six young men (Huseyin Bereket, Mehmet Samil, Ahmet Fetgeri, Mehmet Ali Fetgeri, Fuat Balkan, Muhittin Pasa, Mazhar Kazanci, Nazim Nazif Ander, Haydar Bey, Cami Baykurt, Behcet Bey, Sevket Cenani, Mahmut Naci Bey, Refik Bey, Sukru Pasa, Haci Ahmet Pasa, Kilic Ali, Ziya Karamursel, Kenan Bey, Yuzbasi Fethi Bey, Seraffettin Bey, Seref Bey, Celal Davut, Hami Bey, Fuat Pasa, and Kamil Beyler) gathered together on November in 1902 and decided to found a club. Next year in 1903 the vision came to life and Besiktas JK was founded.

Besiktas is one of the 3 big clubs in Turkey. Others are Galatasaray and Fenerbahçe.
Strategic bombing

**Strategic bombing** is a military strategy used to destroy the enemies' economic ability to fight a war.  It is an attack from the air. Strategic bombing missions usually attack targets such as factories, railroads, oil refineries and cities. Missions would attack targets such as military bases, command and control facilities, airfields, and ammunition dumps.

The United States Air Force (USAF) has used strategic bombers in later conflicts.

## History

Strategic bombing was an idea first tried in World War I. It was used by the German Luftwaffe. They bombed Antwerp. Zeppelins were used to bomb England.

However, the strategic bombing in World War II was on a far larger scale than anything which went before. First, In the Battle of Britain the German Air Force almost defeated Britain by attacking the Royal Air Force planes on the ground. This was partly successful, and some think it was a mistake to switch to other targets. The British had primitive radar, good enough to know whereabouts each attack was going. There was time to get the fighters in the air to intercept and damage the attacks.

Despairing of victory this way, the attack was switched to the cities.
German bombing of London and the larger provincial cities such as Coventry (an industrial city). They used high explosives and incendiary devices to cause fires.

Once the attacks on British air bases was diverted to the city targets, the Luftwaffe began to lose planes to the defences. The German air force, which had previously fought easy targets (for example, in the Spanish Civil War) began to take losses. Eventually these losses began to tell, and Hitler cancelled the planned invasion. He realised that no invasion across the Channel could succeed while Britain still had an active air force.

## USA enters World War II

United States Army Air Force (USAAF) Colonel Billy Mitchell promoted strategic bombing in the United States. He had new ideas on the strategic, and tactical air war. The first USAAF strategic bomber was the B-17 Flying Fortress.

In the end, the large bomber fleets of the Allies devastated Nazi Germany with conventional bombs, and the atomic bomb was dropped on the Japan.

## Later years

After World War II, the Strategic Air Command was located at Omaha, Nebraska, at Offutt Air Force Base.  Nuclear weapons became an important mission.

A full cadre of generals at Offutt participated in many of the missions of the "Looking Glass", a KC-135 air tanker which was stripped and refitted with state of the art electronics which would take over in case the president was killed in wartime.  The plane had several generals on board to assume wartime duties.  The "red telephone" was an instant connection to the president at the White House.  The plane flew all day every day, three planes took off a day in overlapping flights to provide this level of coverage.  Since the end of the cold war, this flight ended, however, the Strategic Air Command still maintains the main facility at Offutt AFB - this is where President Bush flew to when the Twin Towers were bombed on 9-11-01 to set up his command center.

## References

de:Luftkrieg#Strategische Bombardements