juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
European Union budget

The European Union (EU) has an independent parliament and civil service which is distinct from those of the 27 member states. It has to pay for expenditure on common policies throughout the EU. Therefore, the EU has an agreed budget of €862 billion for the period 2007-2013. By comparison, the UK expenditure for 2004 alone was estimated at €759 billion.

## Setting a budget

The EU has three elements to its government: the Council of Ministers, the European Commission and the European Parliament. All three take a part in setting the annual budget.

## Revenue

The EU obtains most of its revenue indirectly by payments from treasuries of member states. Revenue is divided into three categories.

**Traditional own resources** are taxes raised on behalf of the EU as a whole, principally import duties on goods brought into the EU. These are collected by the state where import occurs and passed on to the EU. States are allowed to keep a proportion of the revenue to cover administration.

**VAT based own resources** are taxes on EU citizens as a proportion of Value added tax in each member country. VAT rates and exemptions vary in different countries, so a formula is used to create the 'harmonised tax base'. The starting point for calculations is the total VAT raised in a country.

**GNI based own resources** currently forms the largest contribution to EU funding. A simple multiplier is applied to the calculated GNI for the country concerned. Revenue is currently capped at 1.24% of GNI for the EU as a whole.

## Expenditure

The largest single expenditure item is the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) at around 45% of the total budget. The second largest element is the regional policy, at 30%. Foreign policy consumes 8%, administration 6%, research 5%.

## Criticisms

- "_As it stands today _[in 2003]_, the EU budget is a historical relic. Expenditures, revenues and procedures are all inconsistent with the present and future state of EU integration._" - The _Sapir Report_, 2003, p 162.

## References

- EU discussion of revenue
- EU Breakdown of revenue
- EU financial report 2004
Wittingen

**Wittingen** is a small town in the north of the district of Gifhorn, Lower Saxony, Germany. It has 12.268 inhabitants (2005). Wittingen's postal codes are 29378 and 29379.

## Divisions

Around Wittingen, there are 26 villages:

## History

Wittingen was first mentioned in a document of 781.

## Democracy

According to the Lower Saxony State Department for Statistics, 12,291 people lived in the town of Wittingen in 2005 in 3,745 buildings with a total of 5,399 homes.

### Health and medicine

Wittingen has one hospital (Städtisches Krankenhaus), four pharmacies and six dentists.

## Other websites

- www.wittingen.de

## Infobox (german location)

- **type**: Stadt
- **name**: Wittingen
- **image coa**: Wappen Wittingen.png
- **image plan**: Wittingen in GF.svg
- **state**: Niedersachsen
- **district**: Gifhorn
- **elevation**: 79
- **area**: 225.08
- **population**: 12268
- **stand**: 2005-06-30
- **postal code**: 29378, 29379
- **area code**: 05831
- **licence**: GF
- **gemeindeschlüssel**: 03 1 51 040
- **divisions**: 26 districts
- **mayor**: Karl Ridder
- **party**: CDU
Golden Gloves

The **Golden Gloves** is the name given to competitions held every year for amateur boxing in the United States. The Golden Gloves is often the term used to refer to the National Golden Gloves competition, but it can also mean a few other amateur tournaments, including regional golden gloves tournaments and other notable tournaments such as the Intercity Golden Gloves, the Chicago Golden Gloves, and the New York Golden Gloves.

The Golden Gloves are open to all non-professional boxers age 16 and over. There is also a Silver Gloves amateur tournament, which is for young amateur male boxers age 8 to 15 years old.
Sonny Liston

**Charles L. "Sonny" Liston** (May 8, 1932 – December 30, 1970) was an American boxer. He held the world heavyweight championship from 1962 to 1964.

Liston was disliked by much of the public because of his criminal history and rumored association with organized crime characters. Liston served prison sentences for armed robbery and assaulting a police officer.

However, he was a skilled boxer and gained a shot at the heavyweight title held by Floyd Patterson. He knocked Patterson out in the first round to gain the title in 1962. He defeated Patterson by another first-round knockout in their rematch in 1963.

He lost the championship to Muhammad Ali (then known as Cassius Clay) when he quit in his corner before the start of the seventh round in their 1964 fight. He was then knocked out in the first round during their second fight, which happened in 1965.

Liston continued to box, but died from congestive heart failure in 1970 in Las Vegas, Nevada.

## Other websites

- Boxing record
Buckwheat

**Buckwheat** (or **common buckwheat**) is a plant whose seeds may be used as a cereal. Buckwheat is not a true grass. It is not related to wheat, because wheat _is_ a true grass, and buckwheat is not.

Buckwheat seeds look like small beech tree seeds. Both seeds have three sides. _Beech_ is also called _buck_, which is how buckwheat got its name.

Instead, buckwheat is related to sorrel, knotweed, and rhubarb. Buckwheat is referred to as a _pseudocereal_ because its seeds are used in cooking the same as cereals, because they have complex carbohydrates.

The cultivation of buckwheat grain declined sharply in the 20th century with the adoption of nitrogen fertilizer which increased the productivity of other staples.
Kinston Indians

The **Kinston Indians** were a Minor league baseball team in Kinston, North Carolina.  The team played in the Carolina League from (1956–1957, 1962–1974 and 1978–2011). Professional baseball in Kinston started in 1908, and there have been many teams since then. 2007 was the twenty-first season the Kinston team had been known as the Indians. Before that they were known as the Eagles and the Blue Jays. The Indians, or K-Tribe as they were nicknamed, played their home games in Grainger Stadium. The Indians' mascot was a dog named Scout.

The Kinston Indians won their league championship in 1988, 1991, 1995, 2004 and 2006.

For the 2012 season the Indians moved to Zebulon, North Carolina to become the Carolina Mudcats. The team still plays in the Carolina League.

## Source Materials

- - Over the years, this publication has also been known as _Carolina League Media Guide and Record Book_ and _Carolina League Directory and Record Book_
Columbia University

**Columbia University** (officially **Columbia University in the City of New York**) is a research university in the United States. It is an Ivy League university and often considered one of the best in the world. It is the fifth oldest college in the United States.

It was ranked 2nd best college in the United States by Times Higher Education in 2017. It was ranked 8th best university in the world by U.S. News & World Report.

The university was founded as _King's College_ by royal charter from King George II of Great Britain. It was the first college in New York, and the fifth college in the Thirteen Colonies. A lot of the money that paid for the school came from slavery. After the American Revolution it was renamed "Columbia College" in 1784 and renamed once again to "Columbia University" in 1896 when it moved to its current location in Morningside Heights.

Ninety-Six Nobel Prize winners have been at Columbia, the second most in the United States after Harvard University. Five Founding Fathers attended Columbia: Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, Robert Livingston, Gouverneur Morris and Egbert Benson. Three U.S. Presidents have attended Columbia: Barack Obama, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Theodore Roosevelt. Ten Supreme Court Justices have attended Columbia including the most recent Associate Justice, Neil Gorsuch, and the first Chief Justice, John Jay. Other famous alumni include: Warren Buffett, Madeline Albright, and Lou Gehrig.

Columbia is home to the Pulitzer Prize for good work in journalism, literature and music.  FM radio was created at Columbia. The school is where the foundation of modern genetics was discovered. Its Morningside Heights campus was the first North American site where the uranium atom was split.

Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons and College of Dental Medicine are in Washington Heights in Northern Manhattan.

## Other websites

- Columbia's homepage
- Columbia School of General Studies
- Columbia Daily Spectator - second oldest student newspaper in the nation

## Infobox (university)

- **name**: Columbia University
- **image**: View of Columbia University.jpg
- **caption**: View of Columbia
- **motto lang**: Latin
- **established**: 1754
- **type**: Private
- **endowment**: $13 billion
- **president**: Minouche Shafik
- **students**: 34,782
- **undergrad**: 6,668
- **postgrad**: 25,880
- **city**: New York City
- **state**: New York (state), New York
- **country**: United States
- **campus**: Urban area, Urban
- **athletics**: National Collegiate Athletic Association, NCAA Division I FCS
- **nickname**: Lions
- **mascot**: Roaree the Lion

Association of American Universities, AAU, Ivy League, MAISA
- **website**: [http://www.columbia.edu/ www.columbia.edu]
Ragusa

- _Ragusa is also the Italian name for the city of Dubrovnik_

**Ragusa** is the capital of the Province of Ragusa in Italy, with 72,808 inhabitants in the city and more than 310,000 in the province area.

## Other websites

- ItalianVisits.com
- Pictures of Ragusa
- Ragusa. All about the town of Ragusa
- Ragusa on lne
Elliott Carter

**Elliott Carter** (December 11, 1908 – November 5, 2012) was an American composer. He is one of the most important composers of classical music of his time. He experimented with new ideas of composition. He lived to be 103 years old and continued composing all his life. He recently composed a piece called _Interventions for Piano and Orchestra_ which was given its first performance in the Symphony Hall, Boston where it was played by the Boston Symphony Orchestra conducted by James Levine with the pianist Daniel Barenboim as soloist. The same players played it again a week later on December 11, 2008 in the Carnegie Hall, New York to celebrate Carter's 100th birthday.

## Life

Elliott Carter was born in New York. The composer Charles Ives noticed his talent and gave him encouragement, taking him to concerts. Carter studied English and music at Harvard University. He then went to Paris to study with Nadia Boulanger, returning to the US in 1935 where he directed the Ballet Caravan.

In 1939 he married. The couple had one son.

He wrote a ballet called _Pocahontas_. In 1940 the suite from this ballet got him the Juilliard Publication Award. From then on his got many more important awards and prizes for his music.

Carter has taught music and other related subjects in a number of well-known places including the Peabody Conservatory, Columbia University, Queen’s College, New York, Yale University and the Julliard School. He has received honorary doctorates from many universities and honours from many countries.

He has not written a large number of compositions, but the ones he has written are important works.

He died at his home in New York on November 5, 2012.

## Music

When Carter went to study in Paris in the early 1930s Stravinsky was the most famous composer who worked there. Carter was influenced to some extent by Stravinsky’s music as well as by that of his friend Charles Ives, but he worked hard to find a style of his own. Some of his music during the Second World War is quite tonal, but his later music uses more atonality (music not in any key) and has complicated rhythms. His best known works include the _Variations for Orchestra_ (1954-5); the _Double Concerto_ for harpsichord, piano and two chamber orchestras (1959-61); the _Piano Concerto_ (1964-65), written as an 85th birthday present for Igor Stravinsky; the _Concerto for Orchestra_ (1969) and _A Symphony of Three Orchestras_ (1976).

## Other websites

- Website about Elliott Carter at 100
Dubrovnik

**Dubrovnik** is a city in Croatia on the Dalmatian coast. More than 500 years ago it was called "**Ragusa**". The Italian name of the city is still "Ragusa". This sometimes leads to confusion because there is also a city named Ragusa on Sicily. It is on the Adriatic Sea. About 50,000 people lived there in 2001. Because of its age and unique buildings, the old city of Dubrovnik has been declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

## History

The old city of Ragusa was started by Greeks who left Illirya after their home was invaded in the sixth century. They had been part of the Holy Roman Empire. Ragusa in Dalmatia grew to be an important country on the sea, called the _Republic of Ragusa_. This republic lasted until Napoleonic times.

Ragusa was once the only city in Dalmatia with Roman influence not controlled by the Republic of Venice. After the Middle Ages more and more Croats and Serbs from inland areas of Bosnia-Herzegovina moved to the area. They had started the neighbouring town of Dubrovnik, which eventually joined Ragusa. The original population (the Dalmatian Italians) was reduced to the few people of the ruling class: in the 19th century nearly all the people living in Ragusa were Croats and Serbs. Ragusa officially changed its name to "Dubrovnik" (a Croatian name) after 1918, when the city became part of the newly created country of Yugoslavia.

Today Dubrovnik is one of the main tourist sites in Croatia. Dubrovnik is famous for its Old Town - this is an ancient fortress with large stone walls, which helped Dubrovnik keep its freedom for many centuries. There was a major earthquake in 1667 that destroyed many buildings, but the people living there were able to rebuild the town.

Dubrovnik has been used as a filming location for Star Wars: Episode VIII The Last Jedi, where it was used as the city Canto Bight, on the planet Cantonica.

## Related pages

- Venice and Dalmatia
- Dalmatian Italians
- List of Italian place names in Dalmatia
- Croatia

## Other websites

- Old City of Dubrovnik - UNESCO World Heritage Centre
- Flags of Ragusa
- Storia e monetazione di Ragusa, oggi Dubrovnik (in Italian)
- _Dalmatia and Montenegro_ by John Gardner Wilkinson, on Google Books

## Further reading

- Harris, Robin. _Dubrovnik, A History_. London: Saqi Books, 2003.
- Scotti, Giacomo. _Ragusa, la quinta repubblica marinara_. LINT Editoriale, Trieste,
Antiparticle

There is an **antiparticle** corresponding to most kinds of particle. It has the same mass and opposite electric charge.

Even electrically neutral particles, such as the neutron, are not identical to their antiparticle. In the example of the neutron, the 'ordinary' particle is made out of quarks, and the antiparticle out of antiquarks.

Particle-antiparticle pairs can annihilate each other if they are in appropriate quantum states. They can also be produced in various processes. These processes are used in  particle accelerators to create new particles and to test theories of particle physics. High energy processes in nature can create antiparticles. These are visible in cosmic rays and in certain nuclear reactions. The word antimatter properly refers to (elementary) antiparticles, composite antiparticles made with them (such as antihydrogen), and larger assemblies of either.

## History

In 1932, soon after the prediction of positrons by Paul Dirac, Carl Anderson found that cosmic-ray collisions produced these particles in a cloud chamber  a particle detector in which moving electrons (or positrons) leave behind trails as they move through the gas.

The antiproton and antineutron were found by Emilio Segrè and Owen Chamberlain in 1955 at the University of California, Berkeley. Since then the antiparticles of many other subatomic particles have been created in particle accelerators. In recent years, complete atoms of antimatter have been assembled out of antiprotons and positrons, collected in electromagnetic traps.

## Further reading

- Feynman, Richard P. The reason for antiparticles, in _The 1986 Dirac memorial lectures_, R.P. Feynman and S. Weinberg. Cambridge University Press, 1987. .
- Weinberg, Steven. _The quantum theory of fields, Volume 1: Foundations_. Cambridge University Press, 1995. .
Hamo Beknazarian

**Hamo Beknazarian**, also known as **Hamo Bek Nazarov** (born May 19, 1891 in Yerevan, died April 27, 1965 in Moscow) was an Armenian movie director. His career in cinema started in 1914, when a friend offered him a part in a movie. Between 1914 and 1918, he played about 70 parts, becoming a popular actor in pre-Revolutionary Russian movie. In 1920, instead of going to Armenia as he planned, he went to Tbilisi, where he developed a movie department for Georgian Commissioner's office of Public Education. Many of his movies were filmed in Tbilisi, including _The Father Murderer_ and _Lost Treasures_. In 1925, he filmed his first Armenian movie and moved to Armenia. In 1933, he made the first Armenian movie to have sound, _Pepo_.

Beknazarian also made a few documentary movies.

## Filmography

- _Shor and Shorshor_ (1926), scriptwriter, director. A comedy about two friends.
- _Namus_ (1926), Director. This was the first Armenian movie. It was a tragic love story.
- _Pepo_ (1935), director
- _Zangezur_ (1938), director
- _David-Bek_ (1943), co-scriptwriter, director. A movie about an 18th-century Armenian hero, David Bek (died 1728) who fought to free Armenia from the Ottoman Empire.
- _Anahit_ (1947), director
Henrik Malyan

**Henrik Malyan** (Armenian language:Հենրիկ Մալյան; 30 September 1925 in Telavi, Georgia – 14 March 1988 in Yerevan, Armenia) was an Armenian movie director.

His 1977 movie _Life Triumphs_ (_Nahapet_) is considered to be one of the most important Armenian movies to deal with the Armenian Genocide. It was exhibited in the 1978 Cannes Film Festival.

## Filmography

- 1977: Nahapet - Sos Sargsyan
- 1968: Yerankyunin
- 1980: Hayrik - Mher Mkrtchyan
- 1969: Menk enk mer sarare
- 1978: Ktor me yerkink
Katharine McPhee

**Katharine Hope McPhee** (born March 25, 1984) is an American Pop/R&B singer. She was the runner-up to Taylor Hicks on the fifth season of the television show American Idol in 2006. Her first album, named _Katharine McPhee_, was released January 30, 2007.

## Other websites

- Official Website
- Katharine McPhee on American Idol  at American Idol Watch

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Katharine McPhee
- **img**: Katharine McPhee at Camp Conival 2016.jpg
- **img capt**: McPhee at the Camp Conival presentation for Scorpion at Petco Park during San Diego Comic-Con 2016
- **background**: solo_singer
- **birth name**: Katharine Hope McPhee
- **origin**: Los Angeles, California, United States
- **years active**: 2006—present
- **genre**: Pop music, Pop
R&B
- **label**: RCA Records, RCA
19 Entertainment, 19 <small>(2006-present)</small>
World Heavyweight Championship (WWE)

The **World Heavyweight Championship** was one of the top professional wrestling championships in WWE, along with the WWE Championship. It was created on _Raw_ to match _SmackDown's_ WWE Championship in August 2002. Some of the past champions include Edge, Triple H, The Undertaker, Booker T, Batista, and Kurt Angle.

The World Heavyweight Championship was brought to Raw by then-General Manager Eric Bischoff after WWE Champion Brock Lesnar became exclusive to SmackDown. Bischoff awarded the championship to Triple H, but he had to defend it against his then-best friend, Ric Flair. Triple H was successful and has held the championship on five different occasions. Other holders of this prestigious championship include John Cena, Randy Orton, CM Punk, Shawn Michaels, Rey Mysterio, and more.

The last champion was Randy Orton. He beat then-champion John Cena on December 15, 2013 at TLC: Tables, Ladders, & Chairs. He was already WWE Champion when he won the championship and unified the World Heavyweight Championship with the WWE Championship to make the "WWE World Heavyweight Championship". The World Heavyweight Championship was retired the next day.

In 2023, a new World Heavyweight Championship was made, but it does not continue the history of the old title.

## Other websites

- WWE World Heavyweight Title History

## Infobox (pro wrestling championship)

- **image**: CM Punk WHC SummerSlam 2008.jpg
- **caption**: Three-time Champion CM Punk
- **championshipname**: World Heavyweight Championship
- **promotion**: WWE
- **created**: September 2, 2002
- **retired**: December 15, 2013
 (unified with the WWE Championship)
- **mostreigns**: Edge (wrestler), Edge (List of World Heavyweight Champions (WWE), 7 reigns)
- **firstchamp**: Triple H
- **finalchamp**: Randy Orton
- **longestreign**: Dave Bautista, Batista (List of World Heavyweight Champions (WWE), 282 days)
- **shortestreign**: Randy Orton (1 minutes)
- **oldest**: The Undertaker ()
- **youngest**: Randy Orton ()
- **heaviest**: Big Show ()
- **lightest**: Rey Mysterio ()
Islamic calendar

The **Islamic calendar** or **Hijri calendar** () is a calendar. It is used to determine Islamic holidays in most of Islam. It is a lunar calendar: it uses the phases of the Moon (rather than the Earth's orbit of the Sun) to count the passing of time. Its year has 12 months of 29 or 30 days, and lasts a total of 354 or 355 days. This means that each year of the Hijri calendar is about 11 days shorter than a solar calendar such as the Gregorian. Islamic years are often called _hijra_ years, because the first year of the calendar when the _hijra_ occurred, that is when Prophet Muhammad went from Mecca to Medina.

The current Islamic Calendar year is 1445 AH (AH =  = Year of the Hijra.)

Two Islamic countries (Iran and Afghanistan) use a different calendar, the Solar Hijri Calendar ("SH").

## Months

The timing of the months in the Islamic calendar is determined by direct observation of the Moon. A new month can only begin after a "waxing crescent Moon" is observed shortly after sunset. The "waxing crescent Moon" is the phase of the Moon which starts right after a New Moon. A lunar month (one new moon to the next) lasts a little over 29.5 days. For convenience, a month is the Islamic calendar is either 29 days or 30 days, one after the other. So a 29-day month is followed by a 30-day month (29+30 is the same as 29.5+29.5). In most years, that means that a year of 12 calendar months last 354 days. But that "a little over" is 44 minutes every month so, to keep the calendar in step with reality, an extra day is needed nearly every third year, so these years are 355 days long.

Whether or not the first crescent moon is actually visible differs by location. For desert communities, cloud-cover is rarely a problem but that is not true for people who live in the rain forest. One option is to use the tabular Islamic calendar, which predicts the moment of waxing crescent moon assuming perfect visibility. This method is used routinely by some Islamic communities but regarded by others as just an aid to securing a successful observation.

The commencement of Islamic months occurs at sunset on the first day, coinciding with the visual sighting of the lunar crescent. Lasting approximately 354 days, the lunar year causes the months to cycle in reverse through the seasons, without adherence to the fixed dates of the Gregorian calendar. The months of the Islamic year are:

|Months Number|Month name in English !! Meaning|Days||
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|1|Muḥarram|forbidden|29|
|2|Safar|void|30|
|3|Rabīʿ al-Awwal|the first spring|29|
|4|Rabīʿ al-Thānī or Rabī’ al-Ākhir|the second spring|30|
|5|Jumādá al-Ūlá|the first of dry land|29|
|6|Jumādá al-Ākhirah|the last of dry land|30|
|7|Rajab|honour|29|
|8|Sha‘bān|scattered|29|
|9|Ramaḍān|burning heat|30|
|10|Shawwāl|raised|29|
|11|Dhū al-Qa‘dah|the one of sitting|29|
|12|Dhū al-Ḥijjah|the one of pilgrimage (Hajj)|30|

## Other websites

- Islamic Calendar
- Islamic-Western Calendar Converter (Based on the Arithmetical or Tabular Calendar)
Town privileges

**Town privileges** were important things. They were special treaties or royal charters used in the Middle Ages. In such a charter, a sovereign, a monarch granted the town or city special rights. These usually included
- The right to have a market, to form guilds
- Some freedoms, like to determine the government of the town or city, or to judge criminals.
- Some people who permanently lived in the town or city (called Burghers) had special rights. Getting these rights was a special privilege (and not granted to everyone).
Many of those charters were very similar. In the end, only few charters remained in use. Notable ones in the territory of modern-day Germany  include the  Lübeck law, the Magdeburg rights and the Kulm law.
Afternoon

**Afternoon** is period between midday until sunset.

It is considered the period with many urban activities, noisy streets, many people working, kids at school and open businesses.
Neolithic

The **Neolithic** period is the last part of the Stone Age. The word "Neolithic" means “new Stone Age.” It comes from two words in Greek meaning "new" and "lithic" ("stone"). It started when humans began farming, and ended when they began using copper.

## Timeline

The Neolithic period started at different times in different places, since not everyone started farming at the same time. The earliest Neolithic period started around 10,000 BC in the Middle East.

The Stone Age ended when humans began to use copper to make tools. This began the Copper Age.

## Neolithic Revolution

_See the main page: Neolithic Revolution_

In the Neolithic period, people invented farming and started caring for animals, such as cows, sheep and pigs. Scientists call this the Neolithic Revolution. It was a gradual change from nomadic hunting and gathering communities to agriculture and settlement.

### Farming & domestication

_See the main pages: History of agriculture and Domestication of animals_

By around 9500 BC, humans were cultivating eight key crops in the Levant. These eight Neolithic founder crops were emmer wheat, einkorn wheat, hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chickpeas, and flax.

The first evidence we have of rice cultivation is from 5700 BC. By 6200 BC, humans had domesticated rice in China. After that, they domesticated mung, soy and azuki beans.

Pigs were domesticated in Mesopotamia around 11,000 years ago, followed by sheep. These provided food and wool for warm clothing. Cattle were domesticated from the wild aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey and India around 8500 BC.

## Culture

Neolithic people were not simple cavemen. They made pottery and invented jade carving. They buried their dead in tombs and left jewelry and pottery inside, suggesting that they had a concept of the afterlife.

In Turkey, archaeologists found a pillar with a three-dimensional face carved into it. This carving, which was created around 8000-9000 BC, suggests that Neolithic people understood symbolism.

## Related pages

- Neolithic Revolution
- Palaeolithic
- Mesolithic
- Stone Age

## Other websites

- Neolithic Stone Tools and Artifacts—World Museum of Man
- Brutal lives of Stone Age Britons
- Vincha Neolithic Script
Crotchet

A **crotchet** or **quarter note** is a note played for one fourth of a whole note (or _semibreve_). Quarter notes are written as a filled-in oval (or round) note head and a straight, flagless stem (the line). The stem usually points up (like a d) if it is below the middle line of the stave or down (like a p) if it is on or above the middle line.

When beginners start to learn to play an instrument they are often taught that one crotchet lasts for one beat (one count). That is because they are learning pieces with simple time signatures. It is, however, important to remember that other note lengths (minims, dotted crotchets etc.) can also be treated as one beat, depending on the time signature.
44 BC

Year **44 BC** was either a common year starting on Sunday or Monday or a leap year starting on Friday or Saturday of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Caesar and Antony**.

## Events

- March 15 Julius Caesar, dictator of Rome, is assassinated by a group of Roman senators. This date is known as _The Ides of March_.
- March 20 — Caesar's funeral.
- Early April — Octavian returns from Apollonia in Dalmatia to Rome to become ruler of Rome, against advice from his mother and stepfather Phillipus.
- June — Mark Antony promised five years of being governor of northern and central Transalpine Gaul (France) and Cisalpine Gaul (Northern Italy).
- September 2 — Pharaoh Cleopatra VII of Egypt makes her son co-ruler as Ptolemy XV Caesarion.
- Comosicus succeeds Burebista as king of Dacia.

## Deaths

- March 15 — Julius Caesar assassinated in the Senate
- July 26 — Pharaoh Ptolemy XIV of Egypt (last date mentioned alive)
- Burebista, King of Dacia
- Antipater the Idumaean, procurator of Judaea and father of Herod the Great
Burzum

**Burzum** was a black metal/dark ambient one man band from Bergen, Norway. The band was formed in 1991 by Varg Vikernes.

The word "Burzum" means "darkness" in the Black Speech, a fictional language created by J. R. R. Tolkien for The Lord of the Rings novels.

### Albums

- _Burzum_ (1992)
- _Det som engang var_ (1993)
- _Hvis lyset tar oss_ (1994)
- _Filosofem_ (1996)
- _Dauði Baldrs_ (1997)
- _Hliðskjálf_ (1999)
- _Belus_ (2010)
- _Fallen_ (2011)
- _Umskiptar_ (2012)
- _Sôl austan, Mâni vestan_ (2013)
- _The Ways of Yore_ (2014)
- _Thulêan Mysteries_ (2020)

### EPs

- Aske (1993)

## Other websites

- Burzum

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Burzum
- **image**: Varg Vikernes.jpg
- **caption**: Varg Vikernes in 2009
- **background**: group_or_band
- **origin**: Bergen, Norway
- **genre**: Black metal
Dark Ambient
- **years active**: 1991–1999, 2009–present
- **label**: Deathlike Silence Productions, Deathlike Silence, Cymophane, Misanthropy Records, Misanthropy, Byelobog
- **associated acts**: Mayhem (band), Mayhem, Old Funeral, Darkthrone, Immortal (band), Immortal,  Satanael
- **current members**: Varg Vikernes
John Collins

**John Collins** (born January 31, 1968 in Galashiels, Scotland) is a Scottish footballer. He is currently the manager of Charleroi. Collins played for Celtic in the early 1990s.

## Other websites

- John Collins career stats  at Soccerbase.com
Mom at Sixteen

***Mom at Sixteen*** is a 2005 American made-for-TV movie. It is about a sixteen year old mother, Jacey Jeffries (Danielle Panabaker) in high school.

## The story

Jeffries is hiding the fact that she is the mother of Charley, the baby. Charley is the teen's mother's responsibility. When Jeffries goes to swimming practice and takes her migrane medicine, she faints because of the side effects of the medicine. While thinking she is being taken to the delivery room, she asks if her baby is okay while other students are around. Her classmates and teacher soon find out about Charley. Jeffries is teased by the other students. She decides give up the baby to the foster home at the end, and Charley finds a new home.

## Cast

|Actor|Character|
| --- | --- |
|Danielle Panabaker|Jacey Jeffries|
|Jane Krakowski|Donna Cooper|
|Clare Stone|Macy|
|Tyler Hynes|Brad|
|Colin Ferguson|Bob|
|Mercedes Ruehl|Terry Jeffries|
|Hollis McLaren|Marlene|
|Rejean Cournoyer|Mr. Cheevers (as Rejean J. Cournoyer)|
|Dawn McKelvie Cyr|Gretchen (as Dawn Cyr)|
|Megan Edwards|Linda|
|Matthew MacCaull|Dr. Hughes|
|Sabrina Jalees|Sarah|
|Deborah Allen|Pauline|
|Anastasia Hill|Trea|
|Leah Fassett|Gena|

## Infobox (movie)

- **director**: Peter Werner
- **writer**: Nancey Silvers
- **music**: Richard Marvin
- **cinematography**: Neil Roach
- **editing**: Tod Feuerman
- **starring**: Mom at Sixteen#Cast, see article
- **production companies**: Von Zerneck Sertner Films
- **runtime**: 86 minutes
- **country**: United States
- **language**: English
Danielle Panabaker

**Danielle Nicole Panabaker** (born September 19, 1987) is an American actress. She is known for acting in many movies. These include _Sky High_ and _Mom at Sixteen_. She has also acted on the television series including _Shark_ and _The Flash_. In 2021, she won a Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress on Television for her role as Caitlin Snow / Frost in _The Flash_.

Panabaker is the older sister of child actress Kay. Both girls act in Disney Channel programs.

## Other websites

- Official site of Danielle Panabaker

## Infobox (person)

- **name**: Danielle Panabaker
- **image**: DaniellePanabakerTIFFSept2010.jpg
- **caption**: Panabaker at TIFF in 2010
- **birthname**: Danielle Nicole Panabaker
- **birth place**: Augusta, Georgia, U.S.
- **alma mater**: University of California, Los Angeles
- **occupation**: Actress
- **yearsactive**: 2002–present
- **children**: 2
- **relatives**: Kay Panabaker (sister)
Kay Panabaker

**Stephanie Kay Panabaker** (born May 2, 1990) is an American actress from Orange, Texas. Some of her best known roles are Emily on _Life is Ruff_ and Debbie on _Phil of the Future_. Panabaker is the younger sister of actress Danielle. The two sisters starred together in the movie _Read it and Weep_ for the Disney Channel. She has had recurring roles on the television series _CSI:Crime Scene Investigations_ and _Angel_.

## Other websites

- Official site of Kay Panabaker

## Infobox (actor)

- **name**: Kay Panabaker
- **image**: Academy Awards afterparty CUN Kay Panabaker.jpg
- **birthname**: Stephanie Kay Panabaker
- **birth place**: Orange, Texas, Orange, Texas, United States, USA
- **homepage**: [http://www.kaypanabaker.com/ www.kaypanabaker.com]
- **known for**: Acting in:

*_Phil of the Future_ (2005)
*_Read it and Weep_ (2006)
*_Summerland_ (2004)
Haley Hudson

**Haley Hudson** (born June 14, 1986) is an American actress. Her best known roles were in _Freaky Friday_ and _Lizzie McGuire_. Her image is a punky Gothic type person.
Enslaved (band)

**Enslaved** is an extreme metal band from Haugesund, Norway. their music has been called black metal and viking metal. The band was formed in 1991. It was made by Ivar Bjørnson and Grutle Kjellson.

## Studio albums

- _Vikingligr Veldi_ (1994)
- _Frost_ (1994)
- _Eld_ (1997)
- _Blodhemn_ (1998)
- _Mardraum – Beyond the Within_ (2000)
- _Monumension_ (2001)
- _Below the Lights_ (2003)
- _Isa_ (2004)
- _Ruun_ (2006)
- _Vertebrae_ (2008)
- _Axioma Ethica Odini_ (2010)
- _RIITIIR_ (2012)
- _In Times_ (2015)
- _E_ (2017)
- _Utgard_ (2020)
- _Heimdal_  (2023)

## Other websites

- Enslaved's website

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Enslaved
- **img**: Enslaved-Live-Norway_Rock_2010.jpg
- **img capt**: Enslaved at Norway Rock Festival 2010
- **img size**: 250
- **landscape**: yes
- **background**: group_or_band
- **origin**: Haugesund, Norway
- **genre**: Progressive metal, black metal,
- **years active**: 1992–present
- **label**: Deathlike Silence Productions, Deathlike Silence, Voices of Wonder, SPV GmbH, Osmose Productions, Osmose, Tabu Recordings, Tabu, Relapse Records, Relapse, The End Records, The End, Candlelight Records, Candlelight, Nuclear Blast
- **current members**: Ivar Bjørnson
Grutle Kjellson
Arve Isdal
Cato Bekkevold
Herbrand Larsen
- **past members**: Trym Torson
Roy Kronheim
Per Husebø
Harald Helgeson
Viking metal

**Viking metal** is a heavy metal music subgenre inspired by Norse mythology. Swedish metal band Bathory's fourth album, released in 1988 and called _Blood Fire Death_, was the first Viking metal album.

## Viking metal bands

- Bathory
- Enslaved
- Amon Amarth
- Graveland
- Darkthrone
Musica ficta

**Musica ficta** is a term used in medieval and Renaissance music. It means that when musicians play or sing music they put in accidentals (sharps and flats) which are not written in the music.

In those days (near the end of the 16th century) music used modes instead of the modern system of major and minor keys. Sometimes the music would not sound right unless a note was sharpened or flattened (raised or lowered a semitone). For example, to go down from the note B to an F would have sounded bad, so the F would need to be an F sharp. The composer who wrote the music down might not bother to put the sign for F sharp. He would expect the performer to know that it should be an F sharp and not an F. This is what is called musica ficta.

Gradually it became more and more necessary for composers to write exactly what notes they wanted. The modern system of keys was developing. They developed the system of key signatures and accidentals (sharps and flats which are not in the key signature, but written as and when they are needed). The practice of musica ficta gradually ended.
Accidental (music)

An accidental is a symbol modifying a note's pitch. There are three main types of accidentals:

- Sharps () raise a note's pitch by one semitone. For example, a sharp symbol on a D note indicates that the note should be played a semitone higher.
- Flats () are essentially the opposite of sharps: they lower a note's pitch by one semitone. For example, a flat symbol on an A note tells the player to play the note a semitone lower.
- Naturals () cancel the effects of a sharp or flat, returning a note to its standard pitch. For example, if a G is followed by a G in the same bar, a natural is used to cancel the effects of the sharp accidental.

A key signature may consist of up to 7 sharps or flats. For example, the key signature for B major has five sharps (F, C, G, D, and A).

## Accidentals in notation

In musical notation, accidentals are written to the left of the note and that accidental applies for the rest of the bar; canceling an accidental within that bar is done by writing in another accidental.

Below is an example of the effects of accidentals within bars:

- <score> {

\override Score.TimeSignature
1. 'stencil = ##f
    \relative c' {
        \time 3/4
        c' des d c des des
    }  }
</score>

Note that the natural accidental in bar 1 is used to cancel the flat accidental of the previous D, and in bar 2 the third note is D because no accidental is being used to cancel.

Notes outside of the key signature must be indicated with accidentals. For example:

- <score> {

\override Score.TimeSignature
1. 'stencil = ##f
    \relative c' {
        \time 4/4
        \key g \major
        fis2 f e es
    }  }
</score>

## Double sharps and double flats

Although not commonly seen, double sharps () and double flats () exist. They modify a note's pitch by two semitones. For example, the following passage contains an F:

- <score> {

\override Score.TimeSignature
1. 'stencil = ##f
    \relative c' {
        \time 3/4
        \key b \major
        fis dis e fis fisis gis
    }  }
</score>

## Related pages

- Key signature
- Circle of fifths
- Scale (music)
Universal Studios Japan

**Universal Studios Japan** is one of four Universal Studios theme parks. It is in Osaka, Japan. The park opened on March 31, 2001.

## Attractions

- Ride attractions
    - Space Fantasy
    - Hollywood Dream
    - New The Amazing Adventures of Spider-Man
    - Jurassic Park
    - Jaws
    - Back to the Future
    - Lego Ninjago

- Show attractions
    - Magical Starlight Parade
    - WaterWorld
    - Terminater 2: 3D
    - Backdraft
    - Universal Monsters Live Rock and Roll Show
    - Animation Celebration
    - Shrek's 4D Adventure
    - Sesame Street 4D Movie Magic

## Other websites

- Official site
Gap year

A **gap year** is time taken between completing secondary school and going to a university or college or also between college and graduate school or a profession. It is generally a practice of young people from Australia, Poland, Scandinavia, United Kingdom and United States. The time between the two events is often, but not always, a year. It is often used to travel or to gain experience with an internship at the lowest cost possible.
Beam bridge

A **beam bridge** is a strong, horizontal structure that rests on two end supports, and carries traffic by acting as a beam.

Beam bridges are often used for heavy cars and trains to pass, and some are also built for people to walk on. Beam bridges used to be made from wood and were called _log bridges_. Modern ones are mostly made of steel. Beam bridges are usually placed over highways, rivers or gaps in the earth so people or cars can cross over them.  Beam bridges are simple but they cannot be as long as more complex and expensive kinds.  Beam bridges can be connected to make one longer bridge.
Beam

**Beam** could mean:
- Beam theory, a way to find the load-carrying and deflection characteristics of beams
- Beam (nautical), the most extreme width (or breadth) of a nautical vessel, or a point alongside the ship at the midpoint of its length
- Beam (structure), a construction element
    - Beam bridge, a bridge that uses beams
- A narrow stream of particles or energy:
    - Charged particle beam
        - Cathode ray, or "electron beam"
    - Light or other Electromagnetic radiation
    - The output of a raygun in science fiction
    - Beam weapons from the _Metroid_ series
    - Beaming means a way of traveling on the _Star Trek_ television series
    - Tractor beam, a hypothetical beam that pulls or pushes
- "On the beam", following a radio navigation beacon
- Beam (music), a connection line in musical notation
- Balance beam (gymnastics), a piece of gymnastics equipment
- BEAM robotics, an automatically moving machine based on analog electronics
- Beam Software, a computer game developer
- BEAM.TV, a global distribution network
Fox News

The **Fox News Channel** (commonly known as **Fox News**) is an American 24-hour cable and satellite television entertainment network. It was made by Rupert Murdoch and Roger Ailes. It is owned by Fox Corporation. the channel was officially launched in 1996.

## Shows

The channel plays up to 15 hours of live shows every day. 6 hours of these are opinion shows. Fox News Network leans right-wing, but has some liberals (such as Greta van Susteren).

## Criticisms

There was a documentary called _Outfoxed_ that criticized the channel because they say it is biased towards conservatives and the US Republican Party in its reporting. Fox says its opinion shows are conservative but its regular news programs are not. President Barack Obama, through a spokesperson, accused Fox News of working for the Republican Party. Fox has also been accused of having a right-wing bias, racism, discrimination, race baiting and gender inequality. Roger Ailes has called Fox News "the balance" against the liberal networks news groups such as ABC News, NBC News, CBS News, Cable News Network, and MS NOW.
Omsk

**Omsk** is a city in Russia in the Siberia region, capital of Omsk Oblast. As of the census in 2024, Omsk had been declared one of the cities in Russia with over 1.1 million people. Omsk is close to the border of Kazakhstan.
Omsk is the only city in the world which has Metro with only one station.

## Related pages

- List of cities and towns in Russia

## Other websites

- Official site of Omsk city administration
- Open Omsk -- an independent news source
- Current events in Omsk (Russian)
- Omsk in Livejournal.com
- Photoblog about Omsk
- Omsk-On-Line
Mayhem

**Mayhem** could mean:
- Mayhem, a type of crime
- Mayhem, an influential black metal band
- _Mayhem_, an album by English rock group Toyah
- Mayhem, a Marvel Comics character
- Mayhem, a professional wrestler
- _Mayhem in Monsterland_, a Commodore 64 video game
- _TV Mayhem_, a television show that aired for six weeks beginning in September 1991
- WCW Mayhem, a World Championship Wrestling event, which has a video game based on it:
    - _WCW Mayhem_
- Mayhem Attack Squad, a team of Decepticons
- _Mayhem_ (Lady Gaga album), the seventh studio album by American singer Lady Gaga (2025)

## Related pages

- Methods of Mayhem, an American rap metal band formed by ex-Mötley Crüe drummer, Tommy Lee
- Minstrels of Mayhem, an American Renaissance Festival music group
- Michigan Mayhem, a minor league basketball team in the Continental Basketball Association
- Dr. Teeth and The Electric Mayhem, a Muppet rock band that appeared on The Muppet Show
- Ani-Mayhem, an anime-based collectible card game
- Jason "Mayhem" Miller, a Mixed Martial Arts fighter
- Monica Mayhem, an Australian pornographic actress
Question mark

The **question mark** (**?**) is a punctuation mark that is used at the end of a sentence when asking a question.

The symbol is thought to come from the Latin quæstio, meaning "question", which was shortened to Qo. The uppercase Q was written above the lowercase o, and this mark was turned into the symbol that we use today.

Another guess about where question mark comes from says that it comes from the 9th century, when it was a point followed by the curved part written slanted.

Some writers put a space between the end of their sentence and the question mark. This is thought to come from a French practice and is called French spacing. In French a space is always put before question marks, exclamation marks, colons, and semicolons. In English, however, using this space is thought of as bad form. Some English books do have these spaces, but are often a very thin space, which are not full spaces but an attempt to make the words easier to read.

## Computing

In computing, the question mark character is represented by ASCII code 63, and is located at Unicode code-point U+003F. The full-width (double-byte) equivalent, ？, is located at Unicode code point U+FF1F.

On Macs, a folder with a flashing question mark on startup means there is no operating system found or the startup disk has failed or there is no hard drive inside the computer.

## Examples of the question mark being used

- "What time is it?"
- "How are you doing?"
- "Why did that happen?"

## Sources

<div class="references-small">
- Lupton, Ellen and Miller, J. Abbott, "Period styles: a punctuated history", in _The Norton Reader_ 11th edition, ed. Linda H. Peterson, Norton, 2003 Online excerpt (at least)
- Parkes, M.B., _Pause and Effect: an Introduction to the History of Punctuation in the West_, University of California Press, 1993
- Truss, Lynne, _Eats, Shoots & Leaves_ Gotham Books, NY, p. 139
</div>
Kevin Federline

**Kevin Earl Federline** (born March 21, 1978) is an American entertainer, who dances, raps and models as his job. He is famous for being the former husband of pop singer Britney Spears. Federline has 6 kids, 2 with actress Shar Jackson, 2 with Spears, 2 with current wife Victoria Prince.

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Kevin Federline
- **background**: solo_singer
- **birth name**: Kevin Earl Federline
- **birth place**: Fresno, California
- **origin**: Los Angeles, California
- **genre**: Dance music, Backup Stage Dance
 Hip hop music, Hip hop
- **years active**: 2005–2012
- **label**: Federation Records, under exclusive license to Reincarnate Music
- **url**: http://www.kevinfederline.com