juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Cavagnago

**Cavagnago** is a former municipality of the district of Leventina in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. On 1 April 2012 the former municipalities of Anzonico, Calpiogna, Campello, Cavagnago, Chironico, Mairengo and Osco merged to form the municipality of Faido.

## Infobox (swiss town)

- **subject name**: Cavagnago
- **image photo**: Cavagnago.JPG
- **municipality name**: Cavagnago
- **municipality type**: former
- **imagepath coa**: Cavagnago-coat of arms.svg
- **map**: Karte Gemeinde Cavagnago.png
- **languages**: Italian
- **canton**: Ticino
- **iso-code-region**: CH-TI
- **district**: Leventina (district), Leventina
- **postal code**: 6749
- **municipality code**: 5068
- **area**: 6.7
- **elevation**: 1020
- **population**: 91
- **populationof**: December 2004
- **neighboring municipalities**: Acquarossa, Anzonico, Giornico, Sobrio
Caviano

**Caviano** was a municipality of the district Locarno in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. On 25 April 2010, the former municipalities of Caviano, Contone, Gerra Gambarogno, Indemini, Magadino, Piazzogna, San Nazzaro, Sant'Abbondio and Vira Gambarogno merged to form the new municipality of Gambarogno.

## Infobox (swiss town)

- **subject name**: Caviano
- **municipality name**: Caviano
- **municipality type**: former
- **imagepath coa**: Caviano-coat_of_arms.svg
- **map**: Karte Gemeinde Caviano 2009.png
- **languages**: Italian
- **canton**: Ticino
- **iso-code-region**: CH-TI
- **district**: Locarno (district), Locarno
- **postal code**: 6578
- **municipality code**: 5098
- **area**: 3.2
- **elevation**: 282
- **population**: 124
- **populationof**: December 2004
- **popofyear**: 2004
- **places**: Dirinella, Scalano
- **neighboring municipalities**: Brissago, Gerra (Gambarogno), Gerra, Pino sulla Sponda del Lago Maggiore, Ronco sopra Ascona, San Nazzaro, Switzerland, San Nazzaro, Sant'Abbondio, Veddasca
Cavigliano

**Cavigliano** was a municipality of the district Locarno in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. On 14 April 2013, the former municipalities of Cavigliano, Tegna and Verscio merged to form the new municipality of Terre di Pedemonte.

## Infobox (swiss town)

- **subject name**: Cavigliano
- **image photo**: Cavigliano 250915.jpg
- **image caption**: Cavigliano
- **municipality name**: Cavigliano
- **municipality type**: former
- **imagepath coa**: Cavigliano-coat of arms.svg
- **map**: Karte Gemeinde Cavigliano 2010.png
- **languages**: Italian
- **canton**: Ticino
- **iso-code-region**: CH-TI
- **district**: Locarno (district), Locarno
- **postal code**: 6654
- **municipality code**: 5099
- **area**: 5.48
- **elevation**: 366
- **population**: 697
- **populationof**: Dec 2011
- **neighboring municipalities**: Intragna, Switzerland, Intragna, Isorno, Losone, Maggia, Switzerland, Maggia, Verscio
Cerentino

**Cerentino** is a municipality of the district Vallemaggia in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland.

## Other websites

- Official website

## Infobox (swiss town)

- **subject name**: Cerentino
- **municipality name**: Cerentino
- **municipality type**: municipality
- **imagepath coa**: Cerentino-coat of arms.svg
- **map**: Karte Gemeinde Cerentino 2008.png
- **languages**: Italian
- **canton**: Ticino
- **iso-code-region**: CH-TI
- **district**: Vallemaggia (district), Vallemaggia
- **postal code**: 6683
- **municipality code**: 5309
- **area**: 20.16
- **elevation**: 981
- **population**: 69
- **populationof**: December 2004
- **website**: www.cerentino.ch
- **neighboring municipalities**: Bosco/Gurin, Campo (Vallemaggia), Cevio, Linescio
Certara

**Certara** was a municipality of the district Lugano in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. On 14 April 2013, the former municipalities of Bogno, Cadro, Carona, Certara, Cimadera, Valcolla and Sonvico merged into the city of Lugano.

## Infobox (swiss town)

- **subject name**: Certara
- **image photo**: Denti della Vecchia.jpg
- **image caption**: Denti della Vecchia
- **municipality name**: Certara
- **municipality type**: former
- **imagepath coa**: Certara-coat of arms.svg
- **map**: Karte Gemeinde Certara 2012.png
- **languages**: Italian
- **canton**: Ticino
- **iso-code-region**: CH-TI
- **district**: Lugano (district), Lugano
- **postal code**: 6959
- **municipality code**: 5173
- **area**: 2.73
- **elevation**: 1025
- **population**: 60
- **populationof**: Dec 2011
- **neighboring municipalities**: Bogno, Cimadera, Valcolla, Val Rezzo (IT-CO)
Cevio

**Cevio** is the capital of the district Vallemaggia in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. On 22 October 2006, Cevio became bigger when it came together with the villages of Bignasco and Cavergno. Both were municipalities of Ticino before this coming together.

## Geography

Cevio is about  northwest of the city of Locarno in the upper Vallemaggia. Most of the area of the municipality, about 64 percent, is covered with trees. About 25 percent of the area has mountains.  Only 5 percent of the langer is used for farming.

## History

Cevio has been the main town of the district for a long time. In 1858, the municipality of Linescio broke off from it.

In the fall of 2006, the villages of Cavergno and Bignasco were put into the municipality, even though Bignasco did not want to do so.

### Languages

The inhabitants of Cevio speak using a language that is different from the Italian.

## Other websites

- Official website

## Infobox (swiss town)

- **subject name**: Cevio
- **image photo**: Gana 08.05.08 039.jpg
- **image caption**: Cevio
- **municipality name**: Cevio
- **municipality type**: municipality
- **imagepath coa**: CHE Cevio COA.svg
- **map**: Karte Gemeinde Cevio 2008.png
- **languages**: Italian
- **canton**: Ticino
- **iso-code-region**: CH-TI
- **district**: Vallemaggia (district), Vallemaggia
- **postal code**: 6675
- **municipality code**: 5310
- **area**: 14.68
- **elevation**: 421
- **population**: 476
- **populationof**: December 2004
- **website**: www.cevio.ch
- **mayor**: Pierluigi Martini
- **places**: Bignasco, Cavergno
- **neighboring municipalities**: Bedretto, Bosco/Gurin, Brione (Verzasca), Campo (Vallemaggia), Cerentino, Formazza (IT-VB), Lavizzara, Linescio, Maggia, Switzerland, Maggia
Bignasco

**Bignasco** is a village in the district of Vallemaggia, in the canton of Ticino, Switzerland. Bignasco is not a free municipality anymore after merging with another village to become Cevio.

## Infobox (swiss town)

- **subject name**: Bignasco
- **imagepath coa**: Bignasco-coat of arms.svg
- **municipality type**: former
- **canton**: Ticino
- **district**: Vallemaggia (district), Vallemaggia
- **municipality code**: 5303
- **postal code**: 6676
- **iso-code-region**: CH-TI
- **elevation**: 443
- **area**: 81.43
- **population**: 306
- **populationof**: December 2004
- **popofyear**: 2004
- **map**: Karte Gemeinde Bignasco.png
Cavergno

**Cavergno** is a village in the district of Vallemaggia, in the canton of Ticino, Switzerland. Cavergno is not a free municipality anymore after merging with the village Bignasco to form the municipality Cevio.

## Infobox (swiss town)

- **subject name**: Cavergno
- **municipality name**: Cavergno
- **municipality type**: former
- **imagepath coa**: CHE Cavergno COA.svg
- **map**: Karte_Gemeinde_Cavergno.png
- **languages**: Italian
- **canton**: Ticino
- **iso-code-region**: CH-TI
- **district**: Vallemaggia (district), Vallemaggia
- **postal code**: 6690
- **municipality code**: 5308
- **area**: 54.79
- **elevation**: 459
- **population**: 486
- **populationof**: December 2004
- **popofyear**: 2004
- **neighboring municipalities**: Bignasco, Bosco/Gurin, Cerentino, Formazza (IT-VB), Lavizzara
Massa

**Massa** is a town and "comune" in Tuscany, Italy, in the centre of province of Massa-Carrara. It is in the northern part of the Tuscany region.

## Location

Massa is near the sea, and has a population of approximately 69,000 inhabitants, distributed in five areas.

## Tourism

The Massa area has a high number of touristists, and it's famous for concentration of some 600 industrial and craft activities where are working about 7,000 people.
Together with the twin town of Carrara, Massa is worldwide known for the extraction and production of marble.

## History

From the 15th to the 19th century, Massa was the capital of the independent Principate (later Duchy) of Massa and Carrara, controlled and ruled by the Malaspina and Cybo-Malaspina families.

In 1829, the city was handed by the Austrian Este family. In 1859, during the unification of Italy process, it joined the Kingdom of Sardinia.

## Important monuments

Massa's attractions include:
- The Malaspina Castle (15th century)
- The Renaissance Ducal Palace, on the Piazza Aranci
- The Cathedral.

## Infobox (italian comune)

- **name**: Massa
- **image skyline**: Massa-panorama dalle alture1.jpg
- **image shield**: Massa-Stemma.svg
- **image flag**: Flag of Massa.svg
- **image map**: Map of comune of Massa (province of Massa and Carrara, region Tuscany, Italy).svg
- **map caption**: Massa within the province of Massa and Carrara
- **region**: Tuscany
- **province**: Province of Massa and Carrara, Massa and Carrara (MS)
- **frazioni**: see #_Frazioni_, list
- **mayor party**: Centre-right
- **mayor**: Francesco Persiani
- **area total km2**: 94.1
- **population total**: 68946
- **population as of**: 30 September 2017
- **population demonym**: Massesi
- **elevation m**: 65
- **saint**: St. Francis of Assisi
- **day**: October 4
- **postal code**: 54100
- **area code**: 0585
Carrara

**Carrara** is a city in the province of Massa-Carrara (Tuscany, Italy), famous for white or blue-gray marble, and for being a city "symbol" of international anarchism.

## History

Carrara was ruled by Pisa in 1235, Lucca in 1322, Genoa in 1329, and Milan in 1343. After Filippo Maria Visconti of Milan died in 1477, Carrara was controlled by Tommaso Campogregoso, lord of Sarzana, and the Malaspina family.

Carrara and Massa made up the Duchy of Massa and Carrara from the 15th to the 19th century. In 1929, the cities of Carrara, Massa and Montignoso were joined into a single big city, called _Apuania_. In 1945 "Apuania", was abolished, and the cities were separated.

## Important monuments

- Cathedral (12th century).
- Ducal Palace (16th century), now the seat of the Fine Arts Academy.

## Economy and culture

**Carrara marble** has been used since the time of Ancient Rome for buildings, like the Pantheon and Trajan's Column in Rome. Many sculptures of the Renaissance, such as Michelangelo's _David_, were made from Carrara marble.

The city has academies of sculpture and fine arts and a museum of statuaries and antiquities. The local marble is exported around the world.

## Famous people born in Carrara

- Pietro Tacca, an important sculptor
- Pietro Tenerani, sculptor born in 1800
- Carlo Finelli, sculptor
- Gianluigi Buffon, goalkeeper of the Juventus team and of the Italian National Football Team
- Pellegrino Rossi, economist and politician
- Emanuele Repetti, geographic
- Domenico Zaccagna, geologist
- Maurizia Cacciatori, volleyball player
- Danese Cattaneo, sculptor and poet
- Arturo Dazzi, sculptor
- Gino Lucetti, anarchist
- Giorgio Chinaglia, football player
- Belgrado Pedrini, partisan and anarchist
- Renato Ricci, an important man in the fascist era
- Goliardo Fiaschi, anarchist

## Other websites

- Official website
298 Baptistina

**298 Baptistina** is a common Main belt asteroid. It was found by Auguste Charlois on September 9, 1890 in Nice.

Although it has an orbit similar to the Flora family asteroids, it was found to be an unrelated asteroid.

A 2007 US-Czech study decided that 298 Baptistina may be the biggest remnant of a 170 km (110 mile) asteroid that was destroyed about 160 million years ago in an impact with a smaller body, making the Baptistina family of asteroids and that the Baptistina event may have created the eventual impact asteroid believed by many to have caused the K/T extinction event about 65 million years ago. This is the K/T impactor believed to be shown in the geological record. This theory has not, as yet, found general acceptance among the scientific community.

## Infobox (planet)

- **minorplanet**: yes
- **background**: #D6D6D6
- **name**: 298 Baptistina
- **image**: 298Bap-LB1-mag15.jpg
- **image size**: 265
- **caption**: Asteroid 298 Baptistina (apparent magnitude 15.2) near a mag 15.3 star
- **discoverer**: Auguste Charlois
- **discovered**: 9 September 1890
- **mpc name**: (298) Baptistina
- **mp category**: Asteroid belt, Main belt,
Baptistina family
- **epoch**: 31 July 2016 (Julian day, JD 2457600.5)
- **eccentricity**: 0.095630
- **period**: 3.41 Julian year (astronomy), yr (1244.3 Julian year (astronomy), d)
- **inclination**: 6.2884°
- **asc node**: 8.2161°
- **arg peri**: 135.004°
- **mean anomaly**: 209.69Degree (angle), °
- **dimensions**: 13–30 km
- **rotation**:
16.23±0.02 hours
- **spectral type**: X-type
- **abs magnitude**: 11.2
- **mean motion**: / day
- **observation arc**: 123.99 yr (45289 d)
- **uncertainty**: 0
VLC media player

**VLC media player** (also known as **VLC** or **VideoLAN Client**) is a free software media player by the VideoLAN project.

It is a highly portable multimedia player, encoder, and streamer that supports many kinds of audio and video. VLC can repair and play files that are corrupt, damaged or unfinished.

It is one of the most platform-independent players, available for BeOS, BSD, Linux, Mac OS X, Microsoft Windows, Solaris and Windows CE, and had over 50 million downloads for version 0.8.6.

VLC uses a large number of free decoding and encoding libraries. Many of its codecs are provided by the libavcodec codec library from the FFmpeg project, but it uses mainly its own muxer and demuxers. VLC gained honor as the first player to support playback of encrypted DVDs on Linux by using the libdvdcss DVD library.

## History

VLC was initially the client for the VideoLAN project, and it was originally made by students at the École Centrale de Paris, and was released under the GPL license on the 1 February 2001.  It now has supporters and contributors worldwide.

The icon of VLC is a traffic cone collected by Ecole Centrale's Networking Students' Association.

## Design principles

VLC has a very flexible design, which makes it easier to include modules for new file format<nowiki/>s, codec<nowiki/>s or streaming methods.  There are more than 300 modules in VLC.  VLC also lets users make personalized skins through the skins2 interface, Winamp 2 and XMMS skins. VLC can play high definition recordings of D-VHS tapes duplicated to a computer using CapDVHS.exe

## Related pages

- List of media players
- Comparison of media players

## Other websites

- Official Website

## Infobox (software)

- **name**: VLC media player
- **title**: VLC media player
- **logo**: VLC Icon.svg
- **logo size**: 100px
- **screenshot**: File:VLC 3.0.10 running on Linux and GNOME Shell.png
- **caption**: VLC 3 running on Linux and GNOME Shell, playing _Spring_, a short film by the Blender Foundation
- **ver layout**: stacked
- **developer**: VideoLAN
- **programming language**: Core: C (programming language), C
 GUI: C++ (with Qt (software), Qt), Objective-C (with Cocoa (API), Cocoa), Swift (programming language), Swift, Java
 Bundled Extensions: Lua (programming language), Lua
- **operating system**: Windows, Windows Phone, macOS, Linux, Android (operating system), Android, Chrome OS, iOS, iPadOS, Apple TV, Tizen, watchOS, Xbox One system software, Xbox One
- **platform**: IA-32, x86-64, ARM architecture, ARM, ARM64, MIPS architecture, MIPS, PowerPC
- **language count**: 48
- **genre**: Media player (software), Media player
- **license**: GNU General Public License, GPL-2.0 with some libraries under GNU Lesser General Public License, LGPL-2.1
Guitar Hero (video game)

***Guitar Hero*** is a music video game, released on November 8, 2005 for the PlayStation 2. The game uses a guitar-shaped controller that allows players to simulate the playing of rock music. _Guitar Hero_ has earned comparisons to _Dance Dance Revolution_ played with a guitar. Despite a high price for the guitar/game bundle, _Guitar Hero_ was very successful and had several sequels; _Guitar Hero II_ and _Guitar Hero III: Legends of Rock_, as well as other games in the music game genre. The game features artists such as David Bowie, Judas Priest, Sum 41 and Deep Purple.
Guitar Hero II

***Guitar Hero II*** is a music video game, released for the PlayStation 2 on November 7, 2006 and the Xbox 360 on April 3, 2007. It is the sequel to _Guitar Hero_. The game features a guitar-shaped controller that allows players to simulate the playing of rock music. Much like the original game, _Guitar Hero II_ was very successful and helped the _Guitar Hero_ series become a cultural phenomenon. The game features artists such as Aerosmith, Nirvana, Foo Fighters, Rage Against the Machine and Guns N' Roses.
PeaZip

**PeaZip** is an open source, cross-platform, portable data compression, file manager and encryption software, available for Microsoft Windows and Linux.

PeaZip created and can open the "Pea" archive format, made by the same corporation. Peazip is written in Free Pascal, using Lazarus. Peazip is under  the GNU Lesser General Public License, PeaZip is free software.

Peazip can change look, like opacity, colors, and icons.

## Full support formats

7Z, 7Z-sfx, BZip2/TBZ, GZip/TGZ, LPAQ1/5, PAQ8F/JD/L/O, PEA, QUAD/BALZ/BCM, split (.001), TAR, WIM, XZ, ZIP

## Just extract or reading formats

ACE, ARJ, CAB, CHM, COMPOUND files (MSI, DOC, PPT, XLS...), CPIO, DEB, ISO CD/DVD images, Java archives (JAR, EAR, WAR), LZH, NSIS installers, OpenDocument, PET/PUP (Puppy Linux installers), PAK/PK3/PK4, RAR, RPM, WIM, XPI, Z, ZIPX

## Related pages

- List of file archivers
- Comparison of file archivers

## Other websites

- PeaZip's official website
- Frequently Asked Questions

## Infobox (software)

- **logo**: Peazip ico.svg
- **screenshot**: Peazip-screenshot.png
- **developer**: Giorgio Tani
- **latest release version**: 8.0.0
- **programming language**: Free Pascal
- **platform**: IA-32, x64, ARM architecture, ARM
- **language**: Arabic, Bulgarian, Chinese (simplified), Chinese (traditional), Czech, Dutch, English, Finnish, Français, Galician, German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Norwegian, Polish, Portuguese (Brazil), Portuguese (Portugal), Romanian, Russian, Sinhala, Spanish, Swedish, Tajik, Turkish, Ukrainian, Uzbek, Vietnamese
- **language count**: 30
- **genre**: File archiver, file manager, Encryption software, file encryption, data erasure
- **license**: GNU Lesser General Public License#Version 3, GNU LGPLv3
Guitar Hero III: Legends of Rock

***Guitar Hero III: Legends of Rock*** is a music video game, released on October 28, 2007. The game, like _Guitar Hero II_, was made for PlayStation 2 and Xbox 360, but this time it was also released for PlayStation 3, Nintendo Wii, PC and Mac home computers. The game features a guitar-like controller that simulates the playing of rock music. The game has a number of controllers like microphones and keyboards that can be bought.

There are songs in this game by many bands and singers. Some of these include "Anarchy in the U.K." by the Sex Pistols, "Paint it Black" The Rolling Stones, "Even Flow" by Pearl Jam, "Through the Fire and Flames" by DragonForce, "Before I Forget" by Slipknot, "Story of My Life" by Social Distortion, "My Name is Jonas" by Weezer and "The Number of the Beast" by Iron Maiden.
Lockheed U-2

_For the band, see U2 (band)._

The **U-2** (nicknamed the **Dragon Lady**) is an espionage fixed-wing aircraft made by Lockheed (now Lockheed Martin). It first flew in 1955 and was introduced in 1957. It flies a lot like a glider. It was made during the Cold War, because the United States needed a way to look at the Soviet military from high up. Taiwan also used it to spy on China.

The United States wanted to keep the purpose of the U-2 secret, but on May 1, 1960, Francis Gary Powers was shot down in his U-2 by a Soviet SAM SA-2 missile. In 1962, Powers was released and traded for captured Soviet spy Rudolf Abel. After this, the SR-71 Blackbird started spying on the Soviet Union, which was faster and harder to see on radar.

The U-2 is still in service even though the design is over 50 years old.

## U-2 details (U-2 model)

The U-2S is 62.99 feet (19.20 meters) long, 104.99 feet (32 meters wide), and is 15.75 feet (4.80 meters) tall. It weighs 14,991 pounds (6,800 kilograms) empty, but when full, it weighs 41,006 pounds (18,600 kilograms). It is powered by one General Electric F118-101 engine with 17,000 pounds (7711.2 kilograms) of thrust. It can go 475 miles per hour (764 kilometers per hour), fly 7,000 miles (11,265 kilometers) without refueling, and can fly upwards of 70,000 feet (21,336 meters), possibly as high as 84,974 feet (25,900 meters).

## U-2 Incident of 1960

The Soviet military shot down a U-2 spy plane that was doing aerial reconnaissance over the Soviet Union. They shot it down with a surface-to-air ballistic missile. The pilot survived and was captured and sentenced to 10 years of hard labour in a Soviet gulag for espionage.

## Related pages

- Cold War
- Espionage
Russell Brand

**Russell Edward Brand** (born 4 June 1975) is an English comedian, actor, television presenter, radio host author and activist. He is best known for playing Dr. Nefario in the films _Despicable Me_ (2010), _Despicable Me 2_ (2013) and _Minions: The Rise of Gru_ (2022).

## Career

In 2004, he presented _Big Brother's Big Mouth_, a side-show of _Big Brother UK_.  In 2006, he started presenting a radio show, _The Russell Brand Show_, on BBC Radio 6 Music. In 2007 the show was moved to BBC Radio 2. He was involved in a controversy over a prank phone call with Jonathan Ross in 2008. After this Brand quit his job at the BBC.

He presented _Russell Brand's Ponderland_ in 2007 and 2008. He wrote a book in 2007 about his life, which is called _My Booky Wook_. In October 2014, he wrote another book called _Revolution_.

## Personal life

Many people notice his unusual fashion sense; his choice of clothing and hairstyle is unique. He has been diagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and bipolar disorder. He has had bulimia nervosa and been addicted to crack cocaine, heroin and alcohol.

As of March 2013, Brand has not used drugs or alcohol for ten years. From 2006 to 2008, Brand won The Sun's Shagger of the Year award. He has been arrested 12 times. He married Katy Perry in October 2010. He filed for divorce from her in January 2012, which was finalised in July 2012. He dated Jemima Khan from 2013–2014.

In 2017, Brand married Scottish lifestyle blogger Laura Gallacher. They have a daughter.

Brand lives in Shoreditch, London.

## Infobox (comedian)

- **embed**: yes
- **genre**: Observational comedy, black comedy, blue comedy, improvisational comedy
- **influences**: Richard Pryor, Bill Hicks,
Peter Cook, Lenny Bruce,
Tony Hancock, Jack Kerouac
- **website**: http://www.russellbrand.tv/


## Infobox (comedian)

- **name**: Russell Brand
- **image**: Arthur Russell Brand (5622506846).jpg
- **caption**: Brand in 2011
- **birth name**: Russell Edward Brand
- **birth place**: Grays, Essex, England, UK
- **medium**: Stand up comedy, Stand-up, television, Movie, film, radio
- **nationality**: English people, English
- **spouse**: Katy Perry
(m. 2010–2012, divorced)
- **years active**: 1994–present
Cypher

A **cypher** is an algorithm for performing encryption (coding) or decryption (decoding). It is a series of well-defined steps that can be followed as a procedure. To encipher or encode is to convert information from plain text into cipher or code.

In non-technical usage, a 'cipher' often means the same thing as a 'code'; but in cryptography, cyphers are distinguished from codes. One 20th century source gives this explanation: a cypher is "a method in which the basic unit of concealment is the letter.

In comparison, a code is a form of concealment in which the basic unit is the word". Late in the century, "codes" in this cryptographic sense became rare. 21st century cryptography mostly encrypts bitstreams.

Codes operated by substituting according to a large codebook which linked a random string of characters or numbers to a word or phrase. For example, "UQJHSE" could be the code for "Proceed to the following coordinates".

A cypher is used to turn the original information ("plaintext") to the encrypted form "ciphertext". The ciphertext message contains all the information of the plaintext message, but cannot be read by human or computer without the proper mechanism to decrypt it.
To encipher or decipher, you need the "key". In encryption, a key specifies the particular transformation of plaintext into ciphertext, or vice versa during decryption.

By type of key used cyphers are divided into:
- symmetric key algorithms (private-key cryptography): the same key is used for encryption and decryption, and
- asymmetric key algorithms (public-key cryptography): two different keys are used for encryption and decryption.

The word cypher in French is _cifre_ and in Medieval Latin _cifra_, from the Arabic _sifr_, meaning 'zero'. The first known English use of _zero_ was in 1598.

## Related pages

- Code
- Encryption
- Key (cryptography)
- Block cipher
- Product cipher
- Ciphertext
- Ciphertext-only attack
Green card

**Green Card** or **Permanent Resident Card** is an identification card that proves that someone who is not a United States citizen is a permanent resident of the United States. The holder of the card is allowed to live, work and study in the United States on a permanent basis.

## Overview

Most people get Green Cards after being sponsored by a family member, such as a wife or husband, or by an employer that is located in the United States. Other people may become permanent residents through refugee or asylum programs, or similar programs designed to protect their human rights. In some cases, a person may be allowed to file for their own Green Card without a sponsor.

After five years of legal permanent residency within the United States, the holder of the card is eligible to become a U.S. Citizen.
Council of Chalcedon

The **Council of Chalcedon** was an ecumenical council that took place from October 8 to November 1, 451, in Chalcedon, a city of Bithynia, in Asia Minor. Chalcedon is now Kadıköy, part of the city of Istanbul, on the Asian side of the Bosphorus in Turkey.

## Confession of Chalcedon

The most comprehensive confession of the Person of Christ was made at the Council of Chalcedon in 451:

## Result

For many people, the definitions were too dogmatic. The Oriental Orthodox Churches split from the main church, which would later become the Roman Catholic and the Eastern Orthodox Churches.

## Other websites

- Catholic Encyclopedia: Council of Chalcedon
- Catholic Encyclopedia: Robber Council of Ephesus
- Coptic interpretations of the Fourth Ecumenical Council
- Council of Ephesus
Chalcedon

- _For the Ecumenical Council of 451, see Council of Chalcedon._

**Chalcedon** (Χαλκηδών, sometimes transliterated as _Chalkedon_) was an ancient maritime town of Bithynia, in Asia Minor, almost directly opposite Byzantium, south of Scutari (modern Üsküdar). Today, in modern Turkish, Chalcedon is called Kadıköy and a district of Istanbul, Turkey.
Bithynia

**Bithynia** was an old kingdom of a Roman province in the northwest of Asia Minor. It was at the coast of the Black Sea. It was named after the Bithyni, a tribe that moved there from Thrace. It was an important territory for the Roman empire. Bithynia was also the site of early Christian activities in the first and second centuries AD.

## Further reading

- Stanley Jonathon Storey, _Bithynia: history and administration to the time of Pliny the Younger_ (Ottawa, National Library of Canada, 1998)
Kadıköy

**Kadıköy** is a large district on the Anatolian side of İstanbul, Turkey. It is on the shore of the Sea of Marmara. It faces the historic city centre on the European side of the Bosporus. Kadıköy was known as **Chalcedon** in ancient history.

## Other websites

- Kadıköy Municipality
Antiquity

***Antiquity*** may mean:
- Generally it means "ancient history," and may be used for any historical period before the Middle Ages.
    - More specifically it means the classical antiquity of ancient Greece and Rome.
    - It may also be used for several periods of ancient history, like Ancient Egypt, Ancient Manipur (Antique Kangleipak), ancient Mesopotamia or other early civilizations of the Near East. It is less commonly used for civilizations of the Far East.
- The term, almost always in the plural in modern usage, is also used of antiquities, or archaeological or other objects surviving from ancient cultures.
- _Antiquity_ (journal) is a quarterly journal of archaeological research.
- _Antiquities (Magic: The Gathering)_ an expansion to the Magic: The Gathering collectible card game.
Bosporus

The **Bosporus** or **Bosphorus** () is a strait which is straddled by the city of Istanbul that forms part of the boundary between the European part of Turkey and its Asian part (Anatolia). It connects the Black Sea with the Sea of Marmara. It is about 30 km long, with a maximum width of 3,700 metres at the northern entrance, and a minimum width of 700 metres between Kandilli and Aşiyan; and 750 metres between Anadoluhisarı and Rumelihisarı. The depth varies from 36 to 124 metres in midstream.

The shores of the strait are heavily populated as Istanbul is located on each side. Three bridges and one tunnel cross the strait.

## Other websites

- High Resolution Pictures of Bosphorus
- Google Maps link to Bosphorus
Strait

A **strait** is a narrow channel of water between two land areas. A strait connects two bodies of water. Straits often connect two seas. Many straits are economically and strategically important. Straits may be part of important shipping routes. So, someone who controls a strait can control the shipping. Wars have been fought to control them. Although rivers and canals often connect two large lakes or a lake and a sea, they are not straits. Straits are much larger and wider and do not have water running in a single direction.

## Well-known straits

Well-known straits in the world are:
- Bosporus and the Dardanelles, which connect the Mediterranean and the Black Sea
- Strait of Dover, between England and France, which connects the North Sea with the English Channel
- Strait of Gibraltar, the only natural passage between the World Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea
- Bering Strait between Alaska and Siberia, which connects the Pacific and Arctic Oceans
- Strait of Magellan, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans north of Tierra del Fuego
- Palk strait, between India and Sri Lanka, the location of Ram Sethu and rich in natural resources
- Strait of Hormuz connecting the Persian Gulf and the Oman Sea, through which Persian Gulf petroleum is shipped to the world
- Strait of Malacca, which separates the Malay Peninsula from Sumatra, and connects the Indian Ocean with the South China Sea. (It is one of the highest-volume shipping lanes in the world.)
- Bass Strait, which is between mainland Australia and Tasmania, and connects the Indian Ocean with the Pacific Ocean.
- Torres Strait which is between Australia and New Guinea.
- Cook Strait, between New Zealand's North and South Islands, and connects the Tasman Sea and the South Pacific Ocean.

## Related pages

- Canal
- Channel
Strait of Dover

The **Strait of Dover** or **Dover Strait** is the strait at the narrowest part of the English Channel.

The strait is at the east end of the English Channel, where it joins the North Sea. Its width is the shortest distance between France and England. On a clear day, it is possible to see the coastline on the other side and the buildings on the shore without the help of binoculars.

The shortest distance across the strait is from the South Foreland, some 6 km (4 mi) north-east of Dover in the county of Kent, England, to Cap Gris Nez, a cape near Calais in the _département_ of Pas-de-Calais, France. Between these two points – the most popular route for cross-channel swimmers – the distance is just 33 km (20 mi).

## Other websites

- Channel Navigation Information Service/the_dover_strait.htm)
- Channel Swimming & Piloting Federation
- Channel Swimming Association
- Depth Chart showing straits and former course of Rhine
SA

**SA** is an abbreviation. It can stand for different things.

## Countries and territories

- It can refer to Schengen Area
- It is the official two letter shorthand for Saudi Arabia.
- It is the official state abbreviation for South Australia.
- It is used to mean Saline County, Kansas
- It is sometimes used to refer to South Africa. The official two letter shorthand for that country is _ZA_.
- It is used to informally refer to South America.

## Cities

- It is used to mean San Antonio, Texas
- It is used to mean San Andreas, California
- It is used to mean St. Albans, Hertfordshire

## Organizations

- It is used to mean the Sturmabteilung, during its existence from 1919 to 1945.
- It can refer to S.A. (corporation). This is a special type of company.
The Pigeon Detectives

**The Pigeon Detectives** are an English band who originated from Rothwell in Leeds, they formed in 2002. They have received praise by such well known DJs as Steve Lamacq and Jo Whiley, and performed at the Reading and Leeds Festivals in 2006, where they were "the band most likely to leap to the main stage in 2007” in an issue of the NME.

They supported _Dirty Pretty Things_ whilst they toured in spring 2006. In early November 2006 they supported The _Kaiser Chiefs_, who are known to be admirers of the band. On 8 July 2007, they played on the Radio 1 NME Stage in front of thousands of people at T in the Park. The performance was televised and shown later that day on BBC3 television channel.

## Current members

- Matt Bowman (vocals)
- Oliver Main (lead guitar)
- Ryan Wilson (rhythm guitar)
- Dave Best (bass)
- Jimmi Naylor (drums)

### Singles

|width="250"|Title|Release Date|Label|Cat Number|UK Singles Chart|Album|Extra Information|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|"I'm Not Sorry"|13 March 2006|Dance To The Radio|DTTR008||Limited Edition (500) 7"|||
|"You Know I Love You"|16 July 2006|Dance To The Radio|DTTR015|N/A|Limited Edition 1000 7" and 500 empty CD covers for single promotion gig at The Cockpit|||
|"I Found Out"|6 November 2006|Dance To The Radio|DTTR018|39|Wait For Me|#1 UK Indie||
|"Romantic Type"|26 February 2007|Dance To The Radio|DTTR026|19|Wait For Me|#1 UK Indie||
|"I'm Not Sorry"|21 May 2007|Dance To The Radio|DTTR029|12|Wait For Me|#1 UK Indie||
|"Take Her Back"|13 August 2007|Dance To The Radio|DTTR034|20|Wait For Me|#1 UK Indie||
|"I Found Out (2007 Version)"|12 November 2007|Dance To The Radio|DTTR040|42|Original Version Taken From The Pigeon Detectives' First Album, _Wait For Me_|Re-Recorded with a DJ named Stephen Street||

## Other websites

- Official site
- Dance to the Radio record label
- The Pigeon Detectives - Leeds Music Scene
- The band at MySpace
- The Pigeon Detectives live images on shootingmusic
- The band  at Drowned in Sound
- Last.fm playbacks, samples and tunes

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: The Pigeon Detectives
- **img**: The Pigeon Detectives.jpg
- **landscape**: Yes
- **background**: group_or_band
- **origin**: Rothwell, West Yorkshire, Rothwell, West Yorkshire, England
- **genre**: Indie rock, garage rock revival, post-punk revival
- **years active**: 2004 – present
- **label**: Dance to the Radio
- **url**: [http://www.thepigeondetectives.com ThePigeonDetectives.com]
- **current members**: Matt Bowman
Oliver Main
Ryan Wilson
Dave Best
Jimmi Naylor
Hirschaid

**Hirschaid** is the biggest municipality in the district of Bamberg. About 11,650 people live there. The mayor is Andreas Schlund.

## Infobox (german location)

- **type**: Markt
- **image coa**: Wappen von Hirschaid.png
- **image photo**: Hirschaid St. Vitus.JPG
- **image caption**: Church of St. Vitus
- **image plan**: Hirschaid in BA.svg
- **state**: Bayern
- **region**: Oberfranken
- **district**: Bamberg
- **elevation**: 248
- **area**: 40.95
- **population**: 11600
- **stand**: 2007-06-30
- **postal code**: 96114
- **area code**: 09543
- **licence**: BA
- **gemeindeschlüssel**: 09 4 71 145
- **divisions**: 10 Gemeindeteile
- **mayor**: Klaus Homann
- **party**: CSU
Julián Marías

**Julián Marías Aguilera** (June 17, 1914 – December 15, 2005) was a Spanish philosopher. He is the author of _History of Philosophy_ (1941) written in Spanish on the subject of the history of philosophy.  He was a pupil of the Spanish philosopher José Ortega y Gasset.

## Infobox (person)

- **honorific-prefix**: The Most Excellent, Excelentísimo Señor Don (honorific), Don
- **name**: Julián Marías
- **honorific-suffix**: Civil Order of Alfonso X, the Wise, OAXS
- **image**: Julián Marías.JPG
- **birth name**: Julián Marías Aguilera
- **birth place**: Valladolid, Spain
- **death place**: Madrid, Spain
Static random-access memory

**Static random-access memory** (**SRAM**) is a type of RAM that keeps data that is fed to it without having to be refreshed over and over again.

Both DRAM and SRAM store information in binary by using very small electronic components. Both are volatile (need electric current flowing to make the negative and positively charged components stay that way).

One difference is that SRAM are also used for specific applications within the PC, where their good points outweigh their bad points compared to DRAM.

Like other semiconductor chips, SRAM chips are made by photolithography.

For SRAM, each bit is composed of between four and six transistors, forming a flip-flop to hold information. This complexity is what makes SRAM bigger and more expensive than DRAM. In DRAM each bit has only one transistor plus a capacitor acting like a miniature rechargeable battery).

## Advantages

- SRAM does not need to be refreshed.
- Changing Static RAM is faster than DRAM.

## Disadvantages

- SRAM is more expensive than DRAM.
- SRAMs take up more space and electricity.

## Other websites

- Uses of SRAM by Intel Corp.
Damnation

In Western Christian belief, **damnation** to hell is the punishment of God for persons who were sinners.

In Eastern Christian traditions (Eastern Orthodoxy and Oriental Orthodoxy), as well as some Western traditions, it is seen as a state of separation from God, a state into which all humans are born but against which Christ is the "Mediator" and "Great Physician".

## Further reading

- _The Justice of God in the Damnation of Sinners_ Jonathan Edwards, Diggory Press,

## Related pages

- Afterlife
- Hell
PetSmart

**PetSmart Inc.** is an American pet supply company. They sell pet supplies and services like grooming and dog training in the United States and Canada. The name PetSmart was made as a pun.

## Other websites

- Official website

## Infobox (company)

- **company name**: PetSmart, Inc.
- **company logo**: PetSmart.svg
- **company type**: Pet Store
- **former name**: Pet Food Warehouse
PETsMART
- **foundation**: 1986
- **founder**: Jim Dougherty
- **location**: Phoenix, Arizona
- **key people**: Philip L. Francis
- **area served**: United States, Canada and Puerto Rico
- **industry**: Retail
- **products**: Pet Supplies, Grooming, Training, PetsHotel, Doggie Day Camp
- **homepage**: http://www.petsmart.com/
Chironico

**Chironico** was a municipality of the district Leventina in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. On 1 April 2012, the former municipalities of Anzonico, Calpiogna, Campello, Cavagnago, Chironico, Mairengo and Osco merged to form the municipality of Faido.

## Infobox (swiss town)

- **subject name**: Chironico
- **image photo**: Chironico.jpg
- **municipality name**: Chironico
- **municipality type**: former
- **imagepath coa**: Chironico-coat of arms.svg
- **map**: Karte Gemeinde Chironico.png
- **languages**: Italian
- **canton**: Ticino
- **iso-code-region**: CH-TI
- **district**: Leventina (district), Leventina
- **postal code**: 6747
- **municipality code**: 5070
- **area**: 57.77
- **elevation**: 786
- **population**: 402
- **populationof**: December 2004
- **popofyear**: 2004
- **neighboring municipalities**: Anzonico, Dalpe, Faido, Frasco, Giornico, Lavizzara, Sonogno
Cimadera

**Cimadera** was a municipality of the district Lugano in the canton of Ticino in  Switzerland. On 14 April 2013, the former municipalities of Bogno, Cadro, Carona, Certara, Cimadera, Valcolla and Sonvico merged into the city of Lugano.

## Infobox (swiss town)

- **subject name**: Cimadera
- **image photo**: Vista dal balcone Lugano.jpg
- **municipality name**: Cimadera
- **municipality type**: former
- **imagepath coa**: Cimadera-coat of arms.svg
- **map**: Karte Gemeinde Cimadera 2012.png
- **languages**: Italian
- **canton**: Ticino
- **iso-code-region**: CH-TI
- **district**: Lugano (district), Lugano
- **postal code**: 6951
- **municipality code**: 5174
- **area**: 5.28
- **elevation**: 1084
- **population**: 115
- **populationof**: Dec 2011
- **neighboring municipalities**: Certara, Sonvico, Valcolla, Val Rezzo (Italy), Valsolda (Italy)
Claro, Ticino

**Claro** was a municipality of the district Riviera in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland.

On 2 April 2017, the former municipalities of Camorino, Claro, Giubiasco, Gnosca, Gorduno, Gudo, Moleno, Monte Carasso, Pianezzo, Preonzo, Sant'Antonio and Sementina merged into the municipality of Bellinzona.

## Other websites

- Official website

## Infobox (swiss town)

- **subject name**: Claro
- **municipality name**: Claro
- **municipality type**: former
- **imagepath coa**: Claro-coat of arms.svg
- **map**: Karte Gemeinde Claro 2007.png
- **languages**: Italian
- **canton**: Ticino
- **iso-code-region**: CH-TI
- **district**: Riviera (district), Riviera
- **postal code**: 6702
- **municipality code**: 5282
- **area**: 21.22
- **elevation**: 270
- **population**: 2215
- **website**: www.comune-claro.ch
- **neighboring municipalities**: Arbedo-Castione, Cresciano, Gnosca, Lumino, Preonzo, San Vittore, Switzerland, San Vittore (GR)
- **twintowns**: Valle di Cadore (Italy)
Musical form

The term ***musical form*** can have two meanings:

- It can mean: the kind of composition.  For example, a musical work can be a symphony, a concerto, a sonata etc.  This is more often called “musical genre”.  The word showing the musical genre will show things such as: whether the music is for an orchestra to play and whether or not there is a soloist as well, or whether it is a piece for one instrument on its own.  It may give an idea of whether it is likely to be a long piece or a short piece, or whether it has several movements.

- It can also mean: the shape of the music and how it is planned.  The form of a piece of music may, for example, be an “ABA” form, which means that there is the first part of the piece (which we can call part “A”), then something different happens (which we can call part “B”), and finally part “A” comes back again.  There are many other ways of planning a piece of music, e.g. in jazz there is the twelve bar blues (in which the music is based on a repeated pattern of chords that last 12 bars, or in classical music there is sonata form which can often be the plan of a movement lasting anything from five minutes (as in the early Classical symphonies) to half an hour (as in some of Mahler’s symphonies).
Electric Gardens

**Electric Gardens Festival**, sometimes called **Electric Gardens**, 'EGFestival', 'EGFest', or 'EG', is a medium sized music festival at Mount Ephraim, Faversham in Kent. The festival happens on a weekend in early August.

The first time the festival took place was in 2006. There are plans to hold the festival every year.

## The Myspace bus

A bus was parked at the festival, by Myspace. The bus was used for the music players to meet people. Free gifts and information are also given from here.

#### Main stage

- Saturday
- Southern Fried Records Stage
- Audio Bullys
- Armand Van Helden
- Cassius (DJ set)
- Cagedbaby
- Grandadbob
- Touché
- Nathan Detroit
- Sunday
- The Charlatans
- Morning Runner
- The Automatic
- The Young Knives
- The Fratellis
- The Boy Least Likely To
- The Long Blondes

#### Other stages

- Saturday
- Archie Bronson Outfit
- The Elegant Bachelors
- Audio Bullys
- Layo & Bushwaka!
- Armand Van Helden
- Stanton Warriors
- Plump DJs
- Caged Baby
- Soho Dolls
- Grant Dee
- Mezza Breaks
- Cassius
- Veto Silver
- Marcus Wallis
- Touché
- Warren Suicide
- Nathan Detroit
- Paul Arnold
- Chew The Fat!
- Grandadbob
- Southern Fried
- Sunday
- The Charlatans
- The Automatic
- Morning Runner
- The Fratellis
- The Long Blondes
- The Earlies
- The Boy Least Likely To
- Brakes
- Battle
- Jamie T
- Adem
- Field Music
- Findlay Brown
- Duels
- The Electric Soft Parade
- The Veils
- Mohair
- Larrikin Love
- The Young Knives
- Kid Harpoon
- Eyoe

#### Main stage

- Saturday
- Supergrass
- Calvin Harris
- The Pipettes
- Kate Nash
- Pull Tiger Tail
- Blood Red Shoes
- Jonny Flynn
- Reverend and the Makers
- Palladium
- Sunday
- Happy Mondays
- The Rakes
- The Young Knives
- The Maccabees
- Noisettes
- Hot Club de Paris
- Milburn (band)
- Sonic Heatrs

#### Second stage

- Saturday
- Plan B (rapper)
- New Young Pony Club
- The Holloways
- Lethal Bizzle
- Foals
- Peggy Sue and The Pirates
- Video Nasties
- Newton Faulkner
- Ciara Haidar
- Sunday
- Patrick Wolf
- Jack Peñate
- Mr Hudson & The Library
- Kid Harpoon
- The Teenagers
- Late of the Pier
- Laura Marling
- Ox.Eagle.Lion.Man
- The Sylvias

#### Myspace stage

- Saturday
- Good Books
- Lupen Crook
- Beans on Toast
- Nic Dawson Kelly
- Gillan Edgar
- Tom Allalone and the Great Expectations
- Thom Stone
- Poetry by Dockers MC
- Scroobius Pip
- The Thirst
- Stuart James
- Eleanor Goulding
- Sunday
- Underground Heroes
- Devils Gun
- Sparrows
- Chineapples
- Rosemary
- Maker
- The Long Weekend
- Our Name is Legion
- Letters from London
- The Cut Outs

#### Club Class Dance stage

- Saturday
- Slam
- Stanton Warriors
- Nic Fanciulli
- Meat Katie
- Mike Pickering
- A Skillz
- Mark Fanciulli & Small Fry
- Shake DJ's
- Mezza Breaks
- Sunday
- Danny Howells
- Funk D'Void
- Justin Robertson
- Damian Lazarus
- Desyn Masiello
- Micky Slim
- Sam Ball & Anil Chawla
- Pete Griffiths & George Andrews
- Warning: 2 Dirty DJ's
- Rebel Beat Allies
Margarita

**Margarita** may mean:
- The margarita, a cocktail made with tequila and triple sec
- _Margarita Island_, a Caribbean Island off the coast of Venezuela
- _Infanta Margarita_, a 1659 painting by Diego Velázquez of Margaret Theresa of Spain
- _The Master and Margarita_, a novel by Soviet author Mikhail Bulgakov
- _Felis margarita_, the scientific name for the Sand Cat
- The Greek word for "pearl"
- Pizza Margherita, a pizza made with tomatoes, mozzarella, and basil

## Places

- 310 Margarita, a Main Belt asteroid
- Isla Margarita, an island in the Venezuelan state of Nueva Esparta
- Rancho Santa Margarita, California, a city in the United States
- Margarita, Panama, in the former Canal Zone
Near East

The **Near East** is a large area of land in the eastern hemisphere. Countries of the eastern Mediterranean are part of the Near East. The name of the Near East comes from its position to the east of Europe and to the west of the Middle East and the Far East.

The Levant, Mesopotamia, Anatolia, Iran, and Egypt are all regions that are part of the Near East. In the past, the Balkan Peninsula, south-west Asia, and northern Africa were part of the Near East as well. The Near East is also a name for Middle East which archaeologists, geographers and historians use.

## Background

The term _Near East_ came into use in the 1890s, when European powers had to deal with two critical situations in the "east". The Sino-Japanese War in 1894–1895 in the Far East, and the Armenian Genocide in the Near East.

British archaeologist D.G. Hogarth published _The Nearer East_ in 1902, which helped to define the term and its extent, including Albania, Montenegro, southern Serbia and Bulgaria, Greece, Egypt, all the Ottoman lands, the entire Arabian peninsula, and western parts of Iran.