juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Montgomery Ward

**Montgomery Ward** was an American department store chain. It currently exists only as an online retail website since 2004. It only delivers in the United States.

It started as a mail-order catalog (called a "Wish Book") and department store in 1872. It owned Jefferson Ward discount stores. Jefferson Ward stores in the northern US were sold to Bradlees in 1985. The rest closed in 1988. All its stores closed in 2000. In 2004, it reopened as an online store.

Montgomery Ward was founded by Aaron Montgomery Ward, a Chicago entrepreneur.

## Infobox (company)

- **name**: Montgomery Ward Inc.
- **logo**: Montwards logo.png
- **logo size**: 250px
- **logo caption**: Montgomery Ward retailer logo, also the store's 1982–1995 and 2004–present logo
- **type**: private company, Private –

Original incarnation, mail order and department store

Current incarnation, online retailer and catalog merchant
- **industry**: Retail
- **fate**: Bankruptcy in 2000;

Full liquidation in 2001

namesake retailer launched in 2004 after purchase of trademarks
- **foundation**: (as mail order company and later department store, defunct 2001)

(as current online retailer)
- **defunct**: (original company)
- **location**: Original company in Chicago, Illinois, United States

2004 to 2008: namesake company Monroe, Wisconsin, United States
- **key people**: Original company: 1872 founder, Aaron Montgomery Ward

namesake company: John Baumann, president of parent company Swiss Colony
- **products**: Clothing, footwear, bedding, furniture, jewelry, beauty products, appliances, housewares, tools, and electronics.
- **brands**: Riverside (brand), Riverside

Airline (brand), Airline

Powr-Kraft
- **divisions**: Electric Avenue

Wards Kids

Montgomery Ward Catalog

Montgomery Wards Auto Express
Toe

**Toes** are the _digits_ of the foot of an animal. Many animal species walk on their toes, and are called _digitigrade_. Humans, and other animals that walk on the soles of their feet, are _plantigrade_; hoofed animals are _unguligrade_.

In humans, the bones of each toe continue all the way to the heel, although in from the base of the toes they come together in the body of the foot. The inside toe is by far the thickest, and is called the _big toe_, _great toe_, or _hallux_.

The one on the other end is short and thin. The toes, especially the big toe, play an essential role in walking, although a loss of the smallest toe will not affect the way people move.

## Related pages

- Phalanges
- Bones of the foot
- Foot
Raptor

**Raptor** can mean:
- Birds of prey, the group of birds which includes eagles, hawks, and falcons.
- Feathered dinosaurs of the Dromaeosaur family, including _Velociraptor_ and _Deinonychus_
- F-22 Raptor fighter jet
- The Toronto Raptors, a National Basketball Association team that plays in Toronto, Ontario
Fencing

**Fencing** is a sport for two people with different kinds of swords. The aim is to score hits. There is also a referee.

### Foil

The foil is a light and easy to bend weapon, first made in mid 17th century as a weapon for practice. 'Hits' can only be scored by hitting the target area with the point of the sword. The target area is the torso.

### Épée

The épée is the heaviest of the three weapons. To score a hit, the push-button on the end of the weapon must remain fully down for 2-10 milliseconds, and must arrive (hit) with a force of at least 7.35 newtons. The target area for Épée is the entire body. This includes the feet and the head.

### Sabre

The sabre is the "cutting" weapon, with a curved guard (to protect the hand) and a triangular blade. However, in modern electric scoring, a touch with any part of the sabre, (point, flat or edge, as long as it is on target) will count as a hit. The target area in sabre is everything from the waist up, except for the hands.

## Uniform

Fencers wear a uniform to avoid injury. They wear a mask of black mesh with a bib. Also, a jacket, short pants and a sort of half-a-shirt (called an underarm protector or plastron), all of white fabric. They must also wear socks that cover their legs. Women must wear a chest protector. These are collectively called "whites."

## Related pages

- _Kendo_
- Swordsmanship

## Other websites

- Fédération Internationale d'Escrime The organisation responsible for all international fencing
Administrator

**Administrators** or **admins** are people who organize things like businesses. All businesses have administrators. They make decisions, organize the people who work there and make sure that things are working alright and there are no problems. Their work is called "administration". The administrators are part of the "management".

An administrator is also the person in charge of some of the small territories of the United Kingdom, for example Ascension Island and the British Antarctic Territory which are too small to run their own government.

## Administrators in life

In real life, administrators manage and control business to make sure it runs correctly. In business, Administrators are usually in-charge of handling disputes, work related issues, and keeping the office or place in working order. The admin usually supervise around the office of businesses and make sure that all tasks or requests are filled.

## Administrators on the internet

Administrators on the internet usually manage and control a website. On websites that need it such as forums, they have moderation tools that ban them, warn them, etc. from the website to prevent bad and inappropriate content. Most websites usually treat moderation positions as a real job.
International law

**International law**, also called **public international law**, is a set of laws used when there is a conflict between countries. These help set standards for human rights and global relations. Since there is no completely agreed authority to enforce it, the rules are suggestions for nations to follow.

Private International Law is when there is a conflict between two or more countries that broke a certain law based on the countries' law. It is composed of a set of treaties.

In recent years, people have also seen international organizations like the United Nations use international law.

## Related pages

- European Union law
- International human rights law
- Geneva Conventions
- Laws of war
- Roerich Pact
Hague Convention

The **Hague Convention** is a set of treaties signed in Den Haag in 1899 and 1907. Along with the Geneva conventions, they are among the first treaties to speak about war crimes and the laws of war that prohibit expanding bullets and poison gas. They are considered to be part of international law.
The Hague

**The Hague** (with capital T; Dutch: also called ***', commonly ***') is the third-largest municipality in the Netherlands, after Amsterdam and Rotterdam. It has a population of about 546,000 (2020) and an area of around 98 km². It is in the west of the country, in the province South Holland. It is the capital of the province. About 1 million people live in the urban area of The Hague, on about 405 square kilometers.

The Hague is the location of the Binnenhof, the building where the national government of the Netherlands meets. Built in the 13th century, the Binnenhof is the home of the "Eerste Kamer" (literally "First Chamber") or "Senaat", and the "Tweede Kamer" (literally "Second Chamber"). These are the same as the upper and lower houses in some other countries. They form the "Staten Generaal" (literally the "Estates-General").

Willem-Alexander, the king of the Netherlands, lives and works in The Hague. His home is called the Noordeinde Palace and it is not far away from the Binnenhof. All foreign embassies and government ministries of the country are in the city, as well as the Hoge Raad der Nederlanden (The Supreme Court) and many lobbying organisations.

All of this is unusual for a country, because The Hague is not the capital of the Netherlands, which is Amsterdam. This is made so by the Constitution of the Netherlands.

Besides the buildings used by the government, the International Court of Justice of the United Nations is based in the Peace Palace, which is also in The Hague and often referred to as "The Hague" by metonymy. A tourist attraction is Madurodam, which has lots of tiny buildings that look like the real things.

The Hague is part of a large conurbation called the Randstad, where most Dutch people live. It is only an hour away from Amsterdam, Utrecht, and Amsterdam Airport Schiphol by train (most of which are run by Nederlandse Spoorwegen) and with its two train stations, is easy to get to from many places in the Netherlands and all around Europe.

## Partner cities

- Warsaw, Poland

## Related pages

- Residentie Orchestra

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Den Haag
- **settlement type**: List of municipalities of the Netherlands, Municipality
- **image skyline**: The_Hague_Montage_2021.png
- **imagesize**: 265px
- **image caption**: Montage of Den Haag
- **image flag**: Flag of The Hague.svg
- **image seal**: Den Haag wapen.svg
- **pushpin map**: Netherlands
- **pushpin mapsize**: 265px
- **pushpin relief**: yes
- **subdivision type**: List of sovereign states, Country
- **subdivision type1**: Provinces of the Netherlands, Province
- **leader title**: Mayor
- **leader name**: Jan van Zanen
- **area total km2**: 82.45
- **population total**: 562,416
- **population as of**: January 1, 2023
- **population density km2**: 6,821
- **timezone**: Central European Time, CET
- **utc offset**: +01:00
- **postal code type**: Postal code(s)
- **postal code**: 2491–2597
- **blank name sec2**: Community Identification Number, MCN
- **blank info sec2**: 0518
Kookaburra Sport

**Kookaburra Sport** is an Australian company named after an Australian bird related to the kingfisher, which eats snakes and is, therefore, very valuable to the Australians.

Kookaburra makes and sells cricket supplies which are used by amateurs and professionals. They are one of the leading brands and are famous for their colourful and artistic designs. It is the leading manufacturer of cricket equipment in the world. Its balls are used the most in international cricket matches.
Lancashire

**Lancashire** is a ceremonial county in the North West of England. Its two cities are Lancaster and Preston. Before 1974, Liverpool and Manchester were part of the administrative county of Lancashire.

## Rivalry

The county has developed a fierce rivalry with Yorkshire, the next county east. This comes from rivalry in sport, such as in cricket, and comes from the War of the Roses.

## Places

A big attraction in Lancashire is Blackpool, an English seaside resort, which has a theme park called Blackpool Pleasure Beach. It has the second largest rollercoaster in Europe ("The Big One") and Blackpool Tower, a tower which was made to look like the Eiffel Tower in Paris.

Lancashire has market towns (like Chorley) and small villages (like Bretherton, Croston and Eccleston). It is just south of an area of outstanding natural beauty called the Lake District. Lancashire also has a lot of pleasant countryside such as White Coppice and the Rivington Moors.

## Food

A famous food from Lancashire is "Lancashire hotpot" which is made of meat, onion or other vegetables and potatoes. It is often found on many pub menus in the county and in other places in Britain.

## People

The people of Lancashire are known for their friendly nature. Humour is also an important part of Lancashire life.

## Infobox (english county)

- **official name**: Lancashire
- **image caption**: Central Pier, Blackpool, Central Pier and the Blackpool Tower, Tower, Blackpool; the Ashton Memorial, Lancaster, Lancashire, Lancaster; and a view of Clitheroe with the Forest of Bowland beyond
- **locator map**:
- **region**: North West England
- **origin**: Honour of Lancaster
- **mps**: List of parliamentary constituencies in Lancashire, 16 MPs
- **police**: Lancashire Constabulary
- **largest city**: Preston, Lancashire, Preston
- **largest town**: Blackpool
- **lord lieutenant office**: Lord Lieutenant of Lancashire
- **lord lieutenant name**: Amanda Parker
- **high sheriff office**: High Sheriff of Lancashire
- **high sheriff name**: David Taylor
- **ethnicity year**: 2021 United Kingdom census, 2021
- **county council**: Lancashire County Council
- **unitary council1**: Blackpool Council
- **unitary council2**: Blackburn with Darwen Borough Council
- **admin hq**: Preston, Lancashire, Preston
- **iso code**: GB-LAN
- **gss code**: E10000017
- **nuts code**: TLD43
- **districts map**:
- **districts key**: Unitary  County council area
Church of England

The **Church of England** is the leading Christian church in England. It is the church established by law: its formal head is the English monarch (Charles III). It is the mother church of the Anglican Communion. Its headquarters are at Church House, Westminster, in London.

The Church of England understands itself to be both Catholic and Reformed:
- **Catholic** because it views itself as a part of the universal church of Jesus Christ in unbroken continuity with the early apostolic church. This is expressed in its emphasis on the teachings of the early Church Father<nowiki/>s, as in the Apostles' Creed, Nicene Creed and Athanasian Creed.
- **Reformed** because it has been shaped by the doctrinal ideas of the 16th-century Protestant Reformation, in particular by the Thirty-Nine Articles and the Book of Common Prayer.

There are other Protestant churches in England which are not part of the Anglican Communion.

## History

The Church of England became independent under King Henry VIII in 1534. Henry VIII was married to Catherine of Aragon, but asked the Pope to annul the marriage (say that it was a mistake and that Henry and Catherine were never really married).  He wanted to annul the marriage because he wanted a male heir to his throne and Catherine could not produce one. When the annulment was refused, Henry VIII used his position as King to break the Church away from the Roman Catholic Church. This established the independence of the Church of England, sometimes called the Anglican (English) Church. Methodism broke away from the church in the 18th century. The Oxford Movement brought some Catholic beliefs and practices back into the church in the 19th century.

Under his son, King Edward VI, more Protestant forms of worship were adopted. The Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer started more changes. A new pattern of worship was set out in the Book of Common Prayer (1549 and 1552). These were based on the older liturgy but influenced by Protestant principles.

## Related pages

- Archbishop of Canterbury
- Thomas Cranmer
- Reformation
- House of Lords
- Supreme Governor of the Church of England

## Other websites

- CofE website
Tense (grammar)

**Tense** is the form of a verb that shows the time something happened, or is going to happen. There are three main tenses:

1. Present tense: things that are true when the words are spoken or written.
    - Example: _She **goes** to school_. In this sentence, goes shows that it is a present tense. It suggests that she regularly goes to school.
    - Example: _She **is going** to school_. This says she is now going to school.
1. Past tense: things that were true before the words were spoken or written.
    - Example: _She **went** to school_. In this sentence, went shows that it is a past tense.
1. Future tense: things that will be true after the words are spoken or written.
    - Example: _She **will go** to school_. In this sentence, _will_ shows that it is a future tense.

Tense can be shown by changing the spelling of a verb. For example, _be_ can become _am_, _is_, and _are_ in present tense, and _was_ and _were_ in past tense. In English, future tense is shown by adding _will_ before the verb. For example, _be_ becomes _will be_ in future tense.

Some verb tenses are much more common than others in English.

_Note: These tenses can be subdivided further (see below)_.

## Aspect

There are also different kinds of tense within each main tense.
In addition to tense, verbs can also indicate the completion, progress, or duration of an action. This is done by adding "helping words" or "auxiliary words", such as _be_ and _have_, before the verb. For example, "I give", "I have given", "I am giving", and "I have been giving" are all in present tense, but have different meanings_._ This is called **aspect**.

Other languages have different ways of showing tense. For example, Latin usually shows tense by changing the verb, like English. However, Chinese and Indonesian show tense by adding new words, instead of changing the verb.
Blackpool Tower

**Blackpool Tower** is a tall structure in Blackpool, a North England seaside town.

It was built in the style of the Eiffel Tower. Building started in 1891 and finished in 1894. It cost £45000 (around US$70000), is 518 ft tall and weighs 2586 tons. It is mainly made from steel and cast iron.

It is one of the main tourist attractions in Blackpool. These include the tower itself, the Golden Mile, which is a row of arcades, the Irish Sea and beach, and Pleasure Beach Blackpool (a theme park).

The oldest part of the building is the old aquarium which was part of Dr Cockers' Menagarie and Aquarium since the 1870s. It was kept open to earn money while the tower building was built around it.

The tower was bought by Blackpool Council in 2010 and is now run by Merlin Entertainments for Blackpool Council.

Since Merlin Entertainments started running the tower, the building has been repaired and new attractions have been added. The aquarium was removed to make way for a new attraction.

Attractions at the tower include the Blackpool Dungeon, the Blackpool Tower Eye, the Blackpool Tower Circus, the Blackpool Tower Ballroom and Jungle Jim's.
Kookaburra

**Kookaburras** are birds of the genus ***Dacelo*** and are native to Australia and New Guinea. An adult kookaburra is generally 28–42 centimetres from the head to the tip of the tail.

## Taxonomy

- Genus _Dacelo_
    - Laughing Kookaburra (_Dacelo novaeguineae_) – Native to eastern mainland Australia, introduced to Tasmania, Flinders Island, Kangaroo Island and Western Australia. Some were also introduced to New Zealand between 1866 and 1880; but only those that were freed by Sir George Grey on Kawau Island are still there today.
    - Blue-winged Kookaburra (_Dacelo leachii_) – Native to northern Australia and southern New Guinea.
    - Spangled Kookaburra (_Dacelo tyro_) – Found only on the Aru Islands and Trans Fly savanna and grasslands of southern New Guinea.
    - Rufous-bellied Kookaburra (_Dacelo gaudichaud_) – Widely distributed through forests of lowland New Guinea and has also been seen on Saibai Island in Queensland.

## Life

Kookaburras usually eat small animals: small mammals (like mice), insects, small birds, lizards and snakes.

Kookaburras usually live in family groups. Young kookaburras help their parents to hunt and care for the smaller children.

Kookaburras are well known for their loud call, which sounds a bit like human laughter. Kookaburras use their calling to show others what is their land.
Poll tax

**Poll tax** is a system of taxing. It is also called **head tax**. It is based on the idea that everyone pays the same amount of tax. This is regardless of how much they earn. In the last few years of Margaret Thatcher's reign as British Prime minister, she received heavy opposition and mass riots were held when she tried to have poll tax used as the tax system.  Her tax was called Community Charge.  Council Tax took its place in 1993. An earlier poll tax in England caused the Peasants' Revolt in 1381.
Canadian dollar

The **Canadian dollar** is the national currency of Canada. It has been used since 1858. The Canadian dollar is also used in Saint Pierre and Miquelon along with the Euro.
Printer

A **printer** can be:

- A person or company who does printing
- computer printer, a computer peripheral that reproduces text and/or picture, usually on paper
- optical printer, a device to copy and/or modify images on motion picture film
Copa Libertadores

**CONMEBOL Libertadores** or **Copa Libertadores** (**Libertadores Cup**) is a football competition between the best club teams in South America. The teams are qualified based on how well they did in the national tournament. The last year winner has assured participation. The tournament is run by Confederación Sudamericana de Fútbol (CONMEBOL).

## Schedule

Copa Libertadores is played annually. It usually happens between the months of February and November (South American summer and spring). Its winner is qualified for the annual FIFA Club World Cup.

Libertadores starts in January with the worst classified team of each country playing for to be a part of the "Main Draw". In February, the Main Draw begins. It is made up of 8 groups with 4 clubs in each group. Each team plays 6 games. They play three home games and three away games. The top 2 clubs in every group advance to the next round. A total of 16 clubs play in the playoffs.

The better qualified clubs in the Main Draw take advantage of playing the second game of each round of the playoffs at home. Libertadores goes on with clubs playing home and away, round after round till the Finals.

## Differences

Unlike European club competitions, the Copa Libertadores, in the past, did not use extra time or away goals to decide a tie. Starting with the 2005 event, CONMEBOL began to use the away goals rule, with the extra time used only in the final matches.
Longbow

A **longbow** is a type of bow. It was mainly used in the Middle Ages until the 1500s. It had many advantages over other weapons at the time: it was inexpensive to make, could easily be mass-produced, and was quite lethal. When shot from a longbow, metal-tipped arrows could pierce all but the strongest armour.

Groups of longbowmen would shoot at the same time.  The arrows would come down like hail, which often scared the enemy. Archers (longbowmen) would usually have a second weapon, often a battle-axe, if the fighting came close to them.

## History

The Welsh were the first people to use longbows. In AD 633 Offrid, son of Edwin, king of Northumbria, was killed by an arrow shot from a Welsh longbow. This happened during a battle between the Welsh and the Mercians — more than five centuries before any record of its use in England. Despite this, the weapon is more commonly known as the "English longbow" than the "Welsh longbow".

In the Middle Ages, the English and Welsh were famous for their very powerful Welsh longbows. They were used to great effect in the civil wars of the period and against the French in the Hundred Years' War (with notable success at the battles of Crécy (1346), Poitiers (1356) and Agincourt (1415)).

The average length of arrow shafts recovered from the 1545 sinking of the Mary Rose is .

## Advantages

The longbow had many advantages over other weapons of the time. It may not have been as strong as a crossbow, but it could shoot more arrows per minute. It was also quite lethal. When shot from a longbow, metal-tipped arrows could pierce all but the strongest armour.

The basic equipment cost little, and could easily be mass-produced. The longbow was made from a single piece of hard-wearing, flexible wood, often from a yew tree. Yew was cut during the winter when there was no sap. The flat side of the bow facing the target was flexible sapwood while the belly (facing the archer) was round and made of strong heartwood (from the center of a tree).

A longbow has practical advantages compared to a modern recurve or compound bow: it is usually lighter, quicker to prepare for shooting, and shoots more quietly. However, other things being equal, the modern bow will shoot a faster arrow more than the longbow.

## Effects on the human body

Bowmen had to practice for many years and gain a lot of strength before they could shoot a longbow well.  Longbows are very strong.  This made archers' bodies different from other people's bodies.

Compared to other people's, the skeletons of medieval bowmen have thicker arm and shoulder bones that are a little bent.  These bones supported the large muscles that grew on the archers' arms and backs as they practiced with the bow.

On some archers, the right shoulder was higher than the left shoulder.  This is because archers almost always shot on the same side.  They did not switch hands.
African Union

The **African Union** (**AU**) is an supranational organization consisting of fifty-five African member countries. Founded in Durban on 9 July 2002, the AU was formed as a replacement to the Organization of African Unity (OAU) and the African Economic Community (AEC).

The current Chairperson of the African Union is President of Angola João Lourenço since 2025.

## Mission

The AU, in the future, aims to have a Single Currency and a Single integrated Defense force, as well as other Institutions of State, including a cabinet for the AU Head of State. The purpose of the organization is to help secure the continent's Democracy, Human rights, and a Sustainable Economy, especially by bringing an end to conflict between African Nations and creating an effective Common Market.

Example of relations with a country: FOCAC (or Forum on China–Africa Cooperation).

## Members

- (suspended)
- (suspended)
- (suspended)
- (suspended)
- (suspended)

### Observers

- (suspended as of February 2023)

## Related pages

- African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights
- European Union
- Pan-Africanism

## Other websites

- Official site
The Freecycle Network

**The Freecycle Network** (**TFN**) is a global network of people who share and regive items. They organise their network through the Internet. Freecycle is a place for people to meet. There are just two things people can do there.

The first thing is this:  A person can ask other people for an item.  If someone has it, they can tell the person who wants it.

The second thing is this: A person can give away an item.  Sometimes many people want the item, and the donator has to choose just one person.

## Other websites

- Official website
- Freecycle Group Finder
Slashdot

**Slashdot** (sometimes abbreviated as /.) is a website where people can read news.  Most people who go to Slashdot like computers.  Other people go, too.

On the Slashdot website, people can comment on the news. Often this leads to interesting discussions with many points of view.

Slashdot has been a website for ten years.  It has lots of things to talk about.  Some of the things are: computers, the Internet, video games, and politics.

Many people like Slashdot because you can share ideas.  People who like computers and the Internet can read the ideas to learn.

Anyone can go to Slashdot and read it and do not need to give money.  People from every country go.  It has many ideas which are never the same.

## Other websites

- http://slashdot.org/
Hooke's law

It is a law of mechanics and physics discovered by Robert Hooke.

This theory of elasticity says the extension of a spring is proportional to the load applied to it. Many materials obey this law as long as the load does not exceed the material's elastic limit. Materials for which Hooke's law is useful are known as linear-elastic or "Hookean" materials.

## The spring equation

The length of a spring always changes by the same amount when it is pushed or pulled. The equation for this is:

- where
    - F is how much (push or pull) is on the spring
    - k is a constant, the stiffness of the spring.
    - x is how far the spring was pushed or pulled

When x = 0, the spring is at the equilibrium position.
This equation only works on a **linear spring**. A linear spring is a spring that is only being pushed or pulled in one direction, such as left or right or up or down.

## Elastic potential energy

Examples of everyday objects that have elastic potential energy are stretched or compressed elastic bands, springs, bungee cords, car shock absorbers, etc.

Elastic potential energy is the energy saved in an object that is stretched, compressed (compression is pressing objects together), twisted or bent. For example, an arrow gets the elastic potential energy from the bow. When it leaves the bow, the potential energy turns into kinetic energy.
The equation of the elastic potential energy is:

- Which means:
    - U is the elastic potential energy.
    - k is the **spring constant**.
    - x is the distance pushed or pulled.
Railfan

A **railfan** is a person who likes railways and trains. Railfans like to take pictures of trains.  They also like to watch trains.  Some railfans make models of railways.  These are called model railways.

Some railfans like to study the history of railways.  Some railfans collect things having to do with trains.  Railfans may carry a radio scanner when they are watching trains, so they can listen to the railway workers talk. Some railfans work for a railway, or have family members who worked for a railway. Most railfans like to ride trains.

There are many magazines for people who like trains.  Railfans enjoy reading books and magazines about trains.
Time (magazine)

***Time*** is an American news magazine. It was founded in 1923. It is printed every week in the United States. It is published by Time Inc. It has articles on politics and current events. It is read by more people than any other news magazine.

There is also a magazine called _Time For Kids_, aimed at children. That magazine is eight pages long and contains more images and shorter articles than the regular _Time_ magazine.
Cable television

**Cable television** is a way of letting people watch television without having to get signals from an antenna. The television signals are brought to the television through a coaxial cable or optical fiber, people usually have to pay for a subscription to get cable television. With cable television, people can watch many television channels carrying many television programs. Usually some of these are television stations and others are cable channels, made for the cable companies.

Cable TV is provided by many carriers, usually a place is served by only one or two cable companies. Some of those carriers in the United States are AT&T U-Verse, Comcast, Time Warner Cable, Charter Communications and Verizon. Another method of subscription television is by Satellite television, especially in places where cable TV is not available.

## Related pages

- Satellite television
- History TV
- HBO
Antenna

An **antenna** or **aerial** is a metal device made to send or receive radio waves. Many electronic devices like radio, television, radar, wireless LAN, cell phone, and GPS need antennas to do their job. Antennas work both in air and outer space.

The word **'antenna**' is from Guglielmo Marconi's test with wireless equipment in 1895. For the test, he used a 2.5 meter long pole antenna with a tent pole called ' _l'antenna centrale_ ' in Italian. So his antenna was simply called ' _l'antenna_ '.  After that, the word 'antenna' became popular among people and had the meaning it has today. The plural of antenna is either _antennas_ or _antennae_ (U.S. and Canada tends to use _antennas_ more than other places).

## Types of antennas

Each one is made to work for a specific frequency range. The antenna's length or size usually depends on the wavelength (1/frequency) it uses.

Different kinds of antenna have different purposes. For example, the isotropic radiator is an imaginary antenna that sends signals equally in all directions. The dipole antenna is simply two wires with one end of each wire connected to the radio and the other end standing free in space. It sends or receives signals in all directions except where the wires are pointing. Some antennas are more directional. Horn is used where high gain is needed, the wavelength is short. Satellite television and radio telescopes mostly use dish antennas.
Jerk

**Jerk** is the change in the acceleration of an object. Mathematically, jerk is the derivative, or the rate of change of acceleration by time. Jerk is also called **jolt** (in British English), **surge**, or **lurch**. Jerk is a vector and there is no word for its scalar value.

The jerk is measured in metres per second cubed ().

Yank can be thought as a force in terms of jerk. Force is mass times acceleration. Similarly, Yank is mass times jerk. It is also the derivative of the force. However, when an object is moving near the speed of light, a force is often written as the derivative of momentum. In this case, Yank is the rate of change of the derivative of momentum.

## Its use

Jerk is used in engineering, particularly in making roller coasters. Weak objects such as people can be damaged by high acceleration or high jerk.
Also, jerk must be thought in the process of making any product. Sudden change in acceleration means very large jerk. Extent of exposure to jerk is often a good predictor of the rate of deterioration of tools while in normal use; it corresponds better to the appearance of metal fatigue among other modes of failure.
Electric current

An **electric current** is a flow of electric charge through a conductor.  The equation of current is:

- where
    - is the current flowing
    - is the change in electric charge
    - is the change in time

The SI unit of electric current is the ampere (A). This is equal to one coulomb of charge in one second. Electric current can be found in wires, batteries, and lightning.

## The source of current

In conducting materials, some electrons are very loosely bound to the atoms of the material.  When large amounts of these atoms come together, there is a sort of electron cloud that "hovers" near the atoms of the material.  If you examine a cross-section of the piece of conducting material, the electrons will move very quickly through it.  This motion is caused by temperature, and electrons flowing in one direction tend to equal the electrons flowing from the other direction, so this is not what causes current to flow.  Electrons flow from one atom to another, a process has been compared to the passing of water buckets from one person to another in a bucket brigade.

When an electric field is put on the wire, the electrons respond almost instantly by drifting slightly in the opposite direction of the field.  They gain energy from the field, which is lost very quickly when they bump into other electrons in the material.  As long as the field is in place, however, the electrons will gain back that energy that they lost, and the process will continue.  This "jolt" that electrons receive from the electric field is the source of current, not the overall flow of electrons themselves.  From this discussion, we can see two things that current is _not_:

- It is not an actual "flow" of electrons in the everyday sense of the word:  If we examine the speed given to the electrons by the field, it is usually very small, on the order of millimeters per second.  It would take half an hour for electrons to cross a 10-foot (3 m) room at this rate.  Since a light bulb flips on almost immediately after hitting the switch, something else must be at work.
- It is also not a "domino effect", although this analogy is closer than the flow.  Since electrons are so tiny, even when they are moving very quickly they are not being propelled by great force.

## Current in circuits

When current is flowing in a wire circuit, it accelerates when there is no resistance in the circuit. Resistors are used to increase resistance in the circuit so it slows down the current. The relationship between resistance, current, and voltage (another part of the circuit) is shown by Ohm's law.
Inbreeding

**Inbreeding** is a term in genetics, meaning the crossing (mating) of closely related animals or plants.  Self-fertilisation in plants is the most extreme kind of inbreeding.  It is quite widespread in plants which carry both male and female flowers on the same plant. Inbreeding is the opposite of outcrossing, which is the mating of unrelated members of the same species. The combination of inbreeding and outcrossing is a standard method of artificial selection.

Other terms are **inbred strain**, a group of organisms so inbred that they have little or no genetic variation, and **inbreeding depression**, which is the decreased fitness (usually lack of fertility and early illness and death) brought about by inbreeding.

Inbred strains, for example of mice or drosophila, are often used in biology as model organism<nowiki/>s when genetic uniformity makes them useful in investigation of such things as drugs and cancer.

For human beings, inbreeding is destructive, and almost all cultures have an incest taboo. For example, many prohibit marriage between first cousins, and most prohibit it for closer family members.

## Loss of genetic variation

Loss of genetic variation means that many gene loci that were heterozygous are now homozygous. The result of both genes at a locus being mutant can be serious.

The most intense form of inbreeding is the self-fertilisation in an hermaphrodite, in which the proportion of heterozygotes is halved in each generation.<sup>p139</sup> Aa x Aa (100%) gives 1 AA: 2 Aa; 1 aa (50%), and so on. A similar effect takes twice as long with brother-sister mating, and longer still with mating in very small isolated groups. The latter situation is famous because Sewall Wright did his calculations for just such groups, and he called the process genetic drift. Genetic drift and inbreeding are closely related concepts.

The degree of inbreeding can be measured in various ways. A simple test for mammals is the exchange of skin grafts. If the grafts are not rejected, the animals must be nearly identical genetically. Skin grafts can be successfully exchanged between rats in standard laboratory strains, and between cheetahs caught in the wild.

## Discussion

Why is it that inbreeding brings about a loss of viability? There are two answers, and both seem to be true. The first is that a group with little genetic variation is vulnerable to environmental challenges: infections, sudden climate events, predators. Small groups are vulnerable to chance events in any case, but with no heritable variability they are even more vulnerable.

The second explanation is genetic. Some of the homozygous genes will be _deleterious recessives_ which would normally be shielded by a dominant allele. Also, there are some loci where the heterozygote is inherently fitter than either homozygote. If so, inbreeding will automatically cause a loss of vigour.<sup>p103</sup>

Many plant species do self-pollination in the wild, but the great majority have occasional outcrossing. This provides them with sufficient variety for their survival.
Cambridge

**Cambridge** is a city in England. It is  north of London. The city is famous for its university, the University of Cambridge, which is thought to be one of the best universities in the world. The university has a hospital (Addenbrooke's Hospital), laboratory (Cavendish Laboratory), chapel (King's College Chapel) and library (Cambridge University Library). There is also a Central Library in Cambridge, on the first floor of the Grand Arcade, St Andrew's Street.

There are 108,863 people living in Cambridge, of which 22,153 are students. There are lots of smaller towns and villages around Cambridge.

The city has lots of parks and is next to the river Cam - the city's name "Cambridge" means "bridge over the Cam."

## Infobox (settlement)

- **official name**: Cambridge
- **other name**: City of Cambridge
- **settlement type**: City status in the United Kingdom, City and non-metropolitan district
- **image skyline**: KingsCollegeChapelWest.jpg
- **imagesize**: 280px
- **image caption**: King's College Chapel, seen from the Backs
- **blank emblem type**: Coat of Arms of the City Council
- **blank emblem size**: 150px
- **blank emblem link**: Cambridge City Council, England
- **image map**: Cambridge UK locator map.svg
- **mapsize**: 200px
- **map caption**: Cambridge shown within Cambridgeshire
- **subdivision type**: List of sovereign states, Sovereign state
- **subdivision type1**: Countries of the United Kingdom, Country
- **subdivision type2**: Regions of England, Region
- **subdivision type3**: Ceremonial counties of England, Ceremonial county
- **subdivision type4**: Admin HQ
- **subdivision name2**: East of England
- **subdivision name4**: Cambridge Guildhall
- **established title**: Founded
- **established date**: 1st century
- **established title2**: City status
- **established date2**: 1951
- **government type**: Non-metropolitan district, City status in the United Kingdom, city
- **leader title**: Governing body
- **leader name**: Cambridge City Council
- **leader title1**: Mayor
- **leader name1**: George Pippas (Liberal Democrats (UK), LD)
- **area total sq mi**: 15.71
- **elevation m**: 6
- **population total**: (List of English districts by population, ranked )
- **population metro**: 280,000

-
- **population demonym**: Cantabrigian
- **population blank2 title**: Ethnicity (2011)
- **population blank2**: 66% White British
1.4% White Irish
15% White Other
1.7% Black British
3.2% Mixed Race
11% British Asian & Chinese
1.6% other
- **postal code type**: Postcode
- **postal code**: CB postcode area, CB1 – CB5
- **area code**: 01223
- **website**: [https://www.cambridge.gov.uk/ www.cambridge.gov.uk]
- **leader title3**: MPs elected in the UK general election, 2017, MPs:
- **leader name3**: Daniel Zeichner (Labour Party (UK), L)
Heidi Allen (Conservative Party (UK), C)
- **timezone**: Greenwich Mean Time
- **utc offset**: +0
- **timezone dst**: British Summer Time, BST
- **utc offset dst**: +1
- **blank1 name**: ONS coding system, ONS code
- **blank1 info**: 12UB (ONS)
E07000008 (GSS)
- **blank2 name**: British national grid reference system, OS grid reference
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn

***Adventures of Huckleberry Finn*** is a book written by Mark Twain, published in 1884. It is a sequel to his earlier book, _Tom Sawyer_.

## Story

After _The Adventures of Tom Sawyer_, Huck was adopted by the widow Douglas who wants to “civilize” him and so he joined Tom’s band of robbers.

One day, Huck’s father Pap, a violent drunkard, appears in St. Petersburg. When a new judge arrives, Pap gains custody of his son and moves to a cabin on the other side of the river. Huck is kept locked but fakes his own death and hides on Jackson’s Island, a small island on the river. There he meets Miss Watson’s black slave Jim who ran away.

When they find a raft, they decide to go to a free state. After a storm, a house is floating down the river and they enter it and grab what they can. Inside, there is a dead man shot in the back and Jim prevents Huck from seeing the dead man’s face.

Huck dresses as a girl and returns to town because he wants to hear what's going on in town. A woman tells that Jim is considered to be Huck’s murderer. Moreover, she is suspicious about Huck’s true sex and reveals that he is a boy. Huck returns to the island and together with Jim he flees downriver.

After some time on the river, they are separated by a passing steaming boat and Huck meets the Grangerfords, a rich family. He befriends with Buck Grangerford who is about his age. The Grangerfords are in a 30-year feud against the Shepherdsons, another rich family along the Mississippi. When a conflict breaks out, all Grangerford males are killed. Huck can escape and reunites with Jim. Together they float further downriver.

Later, they rescue two con men who join the boys on their journey. They pull several scams along the river. Once, they pretend to be a dead man’s brothers and escape after their true identities are revealed.

Later, the elder one sells Jim. Huck finds out that Jim is now owned by the Phelps. He decides to free him and pretends to be the Phelps’ nephew Tom Sawyer. When the real Tom arrives, he plays along.

Jim is held in a shed and Tom has a risky escape plan. As they carry out their plan, Tom is shot in the leg. While Huck gets help, Jim remains with Tom. When they return to the farm, Jim is recaptured while Tom is unconscious.

When Tom awakes, he reveals that Jim had been free for weeks after his owner died two months ago. He did not tell Huck because he wanted a risky plan to rescue Jim. Furthermore, Tom’s Aunt Polly arrives and reveals Huck’s and Tom’s real identities. Moreover, Jim tells that Pap was the dead man on the floating house. Finally, Huck decides to go West.

## Controversy

_Adventures of Huckleberry Finn_ received often good reviews, but the novel was controversial from the beginning. When the American edition came out in 1885 some libraries banned it.
Today, many people feel that the book attacks racism and shows that it is bad. Others criticize the book because it shows things like slavery, and uses words like "nigger". They also think that, although Jim is not meant to be a bad character, he has some stereotypes of that time.

## Related pages

- _The Adventures of Tom Sawyer_
Snooker

**Snooker** is a cue sport played by two players. It is popular in the United Kingdom, the Commonwealth and parts of Asia.

It is played on a large (12 by 6 feet) table that is covered with a smooth green cloth called baize and has holes (called pockets) in each of the four corners and in the middle of each of the long side cushions.

The players use long thin sticks called cues to strike a white ball (the cue ball). The cue ball must always be hit first when attempting a shot at the target ball.

There are 22 coloured balls. One white ball, and 21 other balls to try to put in the pockets. There are 15 red balls (worth 1 point each) and a yellow (2 points), green (3 points), brown (4 points), blue (5 points), pink (6 points) and black ball (7 points).

Each target ball must be aimed or 'potted' into one of the pockets in order. A red ball first, and then any other colour then a red ball again. This happens until only the coloured balls are left. The colours then have to be potted in the following order: yellow, green, brown, blue, pink and black.

The player who scores more points wins the game or 'frame'. A match consists of an agreed number of frames.

Big events in snooker are the World Snooker Championship, UK Championship and the Masters. Professional players play on the World Snooker Tour.

The best-known snooker players are the seven-time world champion Ronnie O'Sullivan, seven-time world champion Stephen Hendry. Other former world champions are for example Joe Davis (fifteen wins), his brother Fred Davis, John Pulman (each eight wins) and six-time world champions Ray Reardon and Steve Davis.
Aaliyah

**Aaliyah Dana Haughton** (January 16, 1979 – August 25, 2001) was an American singer, actress, dancer, and model.

She was born in Brooklyn, New York, and raised in Detroit, Michigan. From her youth, she began to sing: she did singing competitions, castings and shows. Her career began in 1994 with the release of her first album _Age Ain't Nothing But A Number_. She continued going to the High School of the Performing Arts after this.

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Aaliyah
- **img**: Aaliyah-02.jpg
- **img capt**: Aaliyah in 2000
- **background**: solo_singer
- **birth name**: Aaliyah Dana Haughton
- **birth place**: Brooklyn, New York City, New York, U.S.
- **origin**: Detroit, Michigan, U.S.
- **years active**: 1989–2001
- **url**: [http://www.Aaliyah.com Aaliyah.com]
- **death date**: August 25, 2001 (aged 22)
- **death place**: Marsh Harbour, Abaco Islands, The Bahamas