juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Romano Mattè

**Romano Mattè** (born 17 January 1939 in Trento) is an Italian former association football player, who coached the national teams of Mali and Indonesia.

## Infobox (football biography)

- **name**: Romano Mattè
- **fullname**: Romano Mattè
- **birth place**: Italy
- **manageryears1**: 1964–1966
- **managerclubs1**: Folgore Verona (youth)
- **managerclubs2**: L.R. Vicenza Virtus, Vicenza Calcio (youth and assistant)
- **manageryears3**: 1969–1971
- **managerclubs3**: Associazione Calcio Audace (:it:Associazione Calcio Audace, it)
- **managerclubs4**: A.C. Trento S.C.S.D., Trento
- **managerclubs5**: F.C. Bolzano 1996, Bolzano
- **manageryears6**: 1971–1972
- **managerclubs6**: Alense
- **manageryears7**: 1971–1973
- **managerclubs7**: Oltrisarco
- **manageryears8**: 1974–1975
- **managerclubs8**: F.C. Legnago Salus S.S.D., Legnago Salus
- **manageryears9**: 1975–1976
- **managerclubs9**: A.C.D. Sant'Angelo 1907, Sant'Angelo
- **manageryears10**: 1976
- **managerclubs10**: U.S.D. 1913 Seregno Calcio, Seregno
- **manageryears11**: 1977
- **managerclubs11**: Calcio Padova
- **manageryears12**: 1978
- **managerclubs12**: U.S. Alessandria Calcio 1912
- **manageryears13**: 1978–1979
- **managerclubs13**: A.C.D. Treviso, Treviso
- **manageryears14**: 1979–1980
- **managerclubs14**: Piacenza Calcio 1919, Piacenza
- **manageryears15**: 1980–1981
- **managerclubs15**: Calcio Avellino S.S.D., Avellino (preparer)
- **manageryears16**: 1981–1982
- **managerclubs16**: U.S. Salernitana 1919, Salernitana
- **manageryears17**: 1982–1983
- **managerclubs17**: Ternana Calcio, Ternana
- **manageryears18**: 1983–1984
- **managerclubs18**: S.S. Robur Siena, Siena
- **manageryears19**: 1985
- **managerclubs19**: A.S.D. Francavilla
- **manageryears20**: 1986
- **managerclubs20**: Benevento Calcio, Benevento
- **manageryears21**: 1986–1988
- **managerclubs21**: A.S. Livorno Calcio, Livorno
- **manageryears22**: 1989–1990
- **managerclubs22**: S.S. Teramo Calcio, Teramo
- **manageryears23**: 1990–1991
- **managerclubs23**: A.S.D. Riccione 1929, Riccione
- **manageryears24**: 1992
- **managerclubs24**: A.C. Cuneo 1905
- **managerclubs25**: Indonesia youth
- **manageryears26**: 1993–1996
- **managerclubs26**: Indonesia national football team, Indonesia
- **manageryears27**: 2000–2001
- **managerclubs27**: Mali national football team, Mali
Mental breakdown

**Mental breakdown** (also known as a **nervous breakdown**) is a non-medical term used to describe an acute, temporary, short phase of a disorder with features of depression or anxiety.

## Definition

The terms 'nervous breakdown' and 'mental breakdown' are not formally defined in a diagnostic system such as the DSM-IV or ICD-10. The terms are not often used in the scientific literature on mental illness.

Specific cases are sometimes described as a 'breakdown' only after a person cannot function in day-to-day life. It is a temporary condition.

## Causes

Different things can cause a mental breakdown. A study found that problems with intimate relationships, such as divorce or separation, contributed to 24% of nervous breakdowns. Problems at work and school accounted for 17% of cases, and financial problems for 11%. Surveys suggest that in the United States, health problems have decreased in importance as a contributor to nervous breakdowns, as these accounted for 28% of nervous breakdowns in 1957, 12% in 1976, and only 5.6% in 1996.

In themselves, nervous breakdowns are considered a 'health problem' by most professionals.
Arthur Rubinstein

**Arthur Rubinstein** (January 28, 1887 – December 20, 1982) was a Polish-American pianist. He received praise from around the world for his playing of the music of a selection of composers (many call him the greatest Chopin player of the century).

Rubinstein was born in Łódź, Poland to a family of Jews. He was the youngest child of the family. His father was a rich owner of a factory.

Although his given name is **Artur Rubinstein**, in English-speaking countries he wanted to be known as **Arthur Rubinstein**. However, his United States impresario Sol Hurok wanted him to still be billed as _Artur_, and his recordings were released in the West under both names.

Rubinstein learned the piano at the age of two in Warsaw, before beginning study in Berlin at the age of eight. His debut in Berlin was made in 1898 followed by a debut at Carnegie Hall in the United States in 1906.

Throughout his life, Rubinstein was famous as a solo pianist, a soloist in piano concertos, and even as a chamber musician. He retired from the stage at age eighty-nine, and died in Geneva, Switzerland, on 20 December 1982, at the age of ninety-five, and his body was cremated. On the first anniversary of his death, his ashes were buried in Jerusalem – as specified in his will – in a plot now nicknamed the "Rubinstein Forest" overlooking the Jerusalem Forest.
U.S. Defense Department firefighters

The United States Department of Defense employs civilian firefighters. They are stationed at military bases to work as firefighters. These workers have their own uniforms and equipment. They are not a part of any military unit. They will work alongside military units if needed. Many times, they are the only firefighters at a military facility. The civilian firefighters wear special uniforms, usually a dark blue suit with a badge and with a shoulder patch indicating their firefighting organization.

Firefighters go to special classes to learn firefighting skills. They earn certificates after taking the classes. One major class is called "DoD Fire & Emergency Services Training."

## Related pages

- Firefighting

## Other websites

- Military Firefighter Heritage Foundation  website.
- U.S. Defense Dept. Fire & Emergency Services Certification Program  web page.
- dodfire.com , Organization website
- History web page , dodfire.com
- Website for US Army civilian firefighter units , U.S. Army Installation Management Command
- fedfire.org , federal firefighters group in California.
- Fort Knox firefighters  website
- Fort Knox firefighters patch  website
- US Government document authorizing use of uniforms for civilian firefighters
Bongo (antelope)

The **bongo** (_Tragelaphus eurycerus_) is a nocturnal antelope. It has two subspecies: the western or lowland bongo, and the eastern or mountain bongo. The western bongo is near threatened and the mountain bongo is critically endangered. Bongos eat plants. They live in forests in Africa. Kenya is the only place eastern bongos live in the wild. Like the west African giraffe, the eastern or mountain bongo is one of the most threatened animals in Africa. Bongos live in both captivity and the wild.

As bongos grow their horns appear. Both male and female bongos have horns.
Dyotropic reaction

A **dyotropic reaction** is a type of chemical reaction. It is when an organic compound changes its structure. Two substituents jump from one place on the molecule to another. It is a pericyclic valence isomerization when two sigma bonds move at the same time to a new place on the same molecule. Dyotropic reactions are important in organic chemistry. They can explain how certain reactions work. Dyotropic reactions can be a useful step in making large and complicated molecules. Dyotropic reactions were first described by Manfred T. Reetz in 1971. The name "dyotropic reaction" comes from the Greek word _dyo_ meaning "two." "Rearrangement" means that the reaction changes the bonds between atoms on a single molecule.
In a **type I reaction**, two migrating groups trade their relative positions. A **type II reaction **  involves migration to new bonding sites without positional interchange.

## Type I rearrangements

In type I rearrangements (Y-A-B-X conversion to X-A-B-Y), the two migrating groups are oriented trans to each other. The reaction leaves both groups on the opposite sides. The first example of a dyotropic rearrangement involving a carbon-carbon bond was reported by Cyril A. Grob and Saul Winstein. They saw the exchange of two bromine atoms in a certain steroid.

In a simple example, the two bromine atoms in 3-tert-butyl-trans-1,2-dibromohexane mutarotate by heating. In the transition state both bromine atoms connect symmetrically two both carbon atoms on opposite sides and the reaction is concerted. Chemists have also investigated stepwise mechanisms in dyotropic reactions.

In organic synthesis, an important dyotropic reaction is the conversion of 4-substituted-gamma-lactones to butyrolactones. Type I dyotropic rearrangements also occur around carbon-oxygen bonds. One example is using heat to change RRSi<sup>1</sup>R<sub>3</sub>C-O-Si<sup>2</sup>R<sub>3</sub> to RRSi<sup>2</sup>R<sub>3</sub>C-O-Si<sup>1</sup>R<sub>3</sub>.  (This reaction can go in both directions depending on temperature.) Another example is the 1,2-Wittig rearrangement. Dyotropic reactions can also happen with N-O bonds or N-N bonds.

## Type II rearrangements

Type II rearrangements often involve two hydrogen atoms moving along a carbon skeleton. This reaction type can be found in certain transfer hydrogenations. An example is hydrogen transfer in syn-sesquinorbornene
disulfones.
Diels–Alder reaction

The **Diels–Alder reaction** (DA) is a chemical reaction between organic compounds. The reaction causes the compounds to form a new six-sided compound. This is called a cyclohexene. A conjugated diene joins with an alkene to make the cyclohexene. This compound looks like a ring.

This reaction was discovered by Otto Diels and Kurt Alder in 1928. In 1950, they were given the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their work on this reaction. The DA reaction is very useful as it means cyclohexenes can be made with very little energy. Cyclohexenes are used to make complex organic molecules. One of the first uses of the DA reaction was to make insecticides.

The DA reaction makes a new hexagonal ring-shaped compound. A compound with two double bonds which are one carbon atom apart from each other is joined to another compound with at least one double bond. A DA reaction can also happen if some of the atoms in the newly formed ring are not carbon. Some of the DA reactions are reversible. The reaction caused during this breaking up of the cyclic system is called the **retro-Diels–Alder**. These retro-Diels–Alder compounds are often seen when they are analyzed by mass spectrometry.

Some chemists call the Diels–Alder reaction the 'Mona Lisa' of organic reactions. Like the simple smile on the painting, the reaction may be far more complex than chemists have so far discovered.

Lewis acids (AlCl<sub>3</sub>, ZnCl<sub>2</sub>, and others) act as catalysts to the reaction.

## Other websites

- Asymmetric Hetero-Diels–Alder Reactions
- Semi-empirical calculations of the Diels–Alder reaction.
- Endo Addition Rule
Theoretical chemistry

**Theoretical chemistry** tries to explain data from chemistry experiments. It uses mathematics and computational analysis. Theoretical chemistry predicts what happens when atoms combine to form molecules. It also predicts chemical properties (characteristics) of molecules. An important part of theoretical chemistry is quantum chemistry.

## More reading

- Attila Szabo and Neil S. Ostlund, _Modern Quantum Chemistry: Introduction to Advanced Electronic Structure Theory_, Dover Publications; New Ed edition (1996) ,
- Robert G. Parr and Weitao Yang, _Density-Functional Theory of Atoms and Molecules_, Oxford Science Publications; first published in 1989; ,
Pebble

A **pebble** is a piece of rock with a particle size of 4 to 64 millimetres. They are often made of flint.

Pebbles are larger than granules (2 to 4 millimetres diameter) and smaller than cobbles (64 to 256 millimetres diameter). A rock made predominantly of pebbles is termed a conglomerate. Pebble tools are among the earliest known man-made artifacts, dating from the Palaeolithic period of human history.

A beach composed chiefly of surface pebbles is commonly termed a shingle beach. This type of beach resists wave erosion, and has ecological niches which can provide habitat for animals and plants.
MESSENGER

**MESSENGER**, MErcury Surface, Space ENvironment, GEochemistry and Ranging, was an unmanned NASA and APL spacecraft. It was orbiting and studying the planet Mercury.  Its mission lasted 10 years, 8 months and 28 days.

It was launched on August 3, 2004 at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. It was aboard a Boeing Delta II rocket. After launch, the probe did several fly-bys and deep space manoeuvres to gain the right trajectory and speed.

It completed 30% mapping of Mercury on January 14, 2008. MESSENGER made one more pass by Mercury in 2009, and on March 18, 2011 began to orbit Mercury. 100% mapping was completed in March 2013 and the probe continued its studies. On April 30, 2015, it crashed into Mercury. It crashed near the crater Janáček.

## Infobox (spaceflight/ip)

- **type**: flyby
- **note**: gravity assist
- **object**: Earth
- **arrival date**: August 2, 2005


## Infobox (spaceflight/ip)

- **type**: flyby
- **note**: gravity assist
- **object**: Venus
- **arrival date**: October 24, 2006


## Infobox (spaceflight/ip)

- **type**: flyby
- **note**: gravity assist
- **object**: Venus
- **arrival date**: June 5, 2007


## Infobox (spaceflight/ip)

- **type**: flyby
- **object**: Mercury (planet), Mercury
- **arrival date**: January 14, 2008


## Infobox (spaceflight/ip)

- **type**: flyby
- **object**: Mercury (planet), Mercury
- **arrival date**: October 6, 2008


## Infobox (spaceflight/ip)

- **type**: flyby
- **object**: Mercury (planet), Mercury
- **arrival date**: September 29, 2009


## Infobox (spaceflight/ip)

- **type**: orbiter
- **object**: Mercury (planet), Mercury
- **arrival date**: March 18, 2011, 01:00 UTC


## Infobox (spaceflight)

- **name**: _MESSENGER_
- **image**: File:MESSENGER - spacecraft at mercury - atmercury lg.jpg
- **image size**: 250px
- **image caption**: Artist's rendering of _MESSENGER_ orbiting Mercury.
- **insignia**: MESSENGER mission emblem.png
- **insignia size**: 135px
- **mission type**: Mercury (planet), Mercury probe
- **operator**: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, NASA
- **cospar id**: 2004-030A
- **satcat**: 28391
- **mission duration**: Total:
<small>10 years, 8 months and 27 days</small>
At Mercury:
<small>4 years, 1 month and 14 days</small>
En route: 7 years
Primary mission: 1 year
First extension: 1 year
 Second extension: 2 years
- **manufacturer**: Applied Physics Laboratory
- **power**: 450 watts
- **launch date**:  UTC
- **launch rocket**: Delta II, Delta II 7925H-9.5
- **launch site**: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Cape Canaveral Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Space Launch Complex 17, SLC-17B
- **entered service**: April 4, 2011
- **disposal type**: Deorbited
- **destroyed**: April 30, 2015 at 19:26 UT
- **orbit epoch**: Jan 1, 2000
- **orbit reference**: hermiocentric orbit, Hermiocentric
- **orbit inclination**: 80 degrees
- **orbit period**: 12 hours
- **apsis**: hermion
- **programme**: **Discovery program**
- **previous mission**: _CONTOUR_
- **next mission**: _Deep Impact (spacecraft), Deep Impact_
Compensation (psychology)

In psychology, **compensation** is a way people hide something that they cannot do well, by doing something else really well. They may not even be aware that they are doing it. Compensation can hide real or imagined problems and personal or physical inferiority. However it does not really solve the cause of the problem. Positive compensations may help a person overcome difficulties. But negative compensations do not, and can even make the problems worse.

There are two kinds of negative compensation:
- Overcompensation, where a person has a goal to gain superiority. This leads to wanting power, dominance, self-esteem and self-devaluation.
- Under compensation which includes a demand for help, leads to a lack of courage and a fear for life.

A well-known example of failing overcompensation, can be seen in people going through a mid life crisis. Approaching midlife many people (especially men) lack the energy to maintain their psychological defenses, including their compensatory acts.

## Origin

Alfred Adler, founder of individual psychology, used the word compensation in relation inferiority feelings. In his book _Study of Organ Inferiority and Its Physical Compensation_ (1907) he wrote if a person feels inferior (weak) then they will (usually) try to compensate for it somewhere else.

Adler's reason to explore this was from his own experience. He was shy and yet he pushed himself to give lectures.

Adler also "transferred" this idea of compensation to psychic training.

## Cultural implications

Narcissistic people, by compensation theory, hide their feelings of low self-esteem by:
- talking "highly"
- contacting "highly admired" persons

Narcissistic children try to compensate for their jealousy and anger by fantasizing about:
- power
- beauty
- wealth

Christopher Lasch, an American historian and social critic wrote in his book _The Culture of Narcissism_ (1979) that North American society in the 1970s was narcissistic. The narcissistic society:
- worships consumption
- fears dependency, aging, and death.
Therefore, it is "fascinated" with fame.

Consumption can be an example of compensation (see study by Allison J. Pugh: _From compensation to ‘childhood wonder’_). Examples:
- use of goods to convey human relationships.
- parents make up for "bad" conditions (poverty, abuse ...) they lived in
- parents make up for "bad" conditions (divorce, ...) they caused to children

## References

- Claude S. Fisher: Comment On “Anxiety”: Compensation In Social History
- Christopher Lasch (1979). The Culture of Narcissism: American Life in an Age of Diminishing Expectations. New York: Norton.
- Allison J. Pugh: ‘From compensation to ‘childhood wonder’: Why parents buy.
- http://www.infinityinst.com/articles/alfred_adler.htm
- http://everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=535671
Shingle beach

A **shingle beach** (or **pebble beach**) is a beach made of pebbles, not sand. The stones may be from  diameter. These beaches strongly resist erosion by waves.

This beach landform is quite common in Western Europe, because the pebbles come from the lines of flint in the chalk. Chesil Bank is an example. When the chalk erodes, the tough flint stays as pebbles.

Other examples are found in Bahrain, North America and in a number of other places. On the east coast of New Zealand's South Island, there are mixed shingle and sand fans in the braided rivers.
Puddingstone

**Puddingstone** is a kind of sedimentary rock. It is formed when pebbles, perhaps from a shingle beach, are cemented together by silica coming out of solution.

The rock which forms is extremely hard and resistant to wear. It is used for grindstones and building. The pebbles are usually made of flint, and both they and the matrix are made of silica. These types of stones are also a source of million-year-old fossils.
Eponym

An **eponym** is someone's name being used for naming something else. This is common in some fields of knowledge.
Lorient

**Lorient** is a commune and seaport in the Morbihan department in Brittany.

## Sister cities

Lorient is twinned with:
- Galway City, Ireland, since 1978
- Vigo, Spain
- Wirral, United Kingdom
- Ventspils, Latvia
- Ludwigshafen, Germany
- České Budějovice, Czech Republic
- Denizli, Turkey
Bongo

**Bongo** may mean:

In **nature**:
- Bongo (antelope), a species of forest antelope from Africa

In **geography**:
- Bongo Country, the name of several places in Africa
- Bongo (Grand-Bassam), Ivory Coast

In **entertainment**:
- Bongo drum, a percussion instrument made up of two small drums attached to each other
- The Bongos, an America pop music band
- Music Man Bongo, a model of bass guitar
- DK Bongos, a video game controller

In **vehicles**:
- Kia Bongo, an automobile
- Mazda Bongo, a van

In **fiction**:
- Bongo Comics, a comic book publishing company
- Bongo (_Dragon Ball_) or Krillin, a character in _Dragon Ball_ media

In **other uses**:
- Bongo people (Gabon), a forest people
- Bongo people (Sudan), an ethnic group in Sudan
    - Bongo language, their language, of the Bongo-Baka branch of Central Sudanic languages

## People with the family name

- Omar Bongo (1935–2009), former president of Gabon
- Ali Bongo (1929–2009), British comedy magician
- Ali Bongo Ondimba (born 1959), Current president of Gabon and son of Omar Bongo
Range (mathematics)

In mathematics, the range is a concept which has various meanings in different topics:

- The **range** of a function , also written as  or , is the set of elements that the function outputs.
- In statistics, the range is the difference between the lowest and highest values. For example. in {4, 6, 9, 3, 7}, the lowest value is 3, and the highest is 9, so the range is 9-3 = 6.
- In some occasions, the term "range" can also refer to the mathematical concept of interval.

## Related pages

- Surjective function
Organic reaction

**Organic reactions** are chemical reactions involving organic compounds. The basic organic chemistry reaction types are addition reactions, elimination reactions, substitution reactions, pericyclic reactions, rearrangement reactions, photochemical reactions and redox reactions. In organic synthesis, organic reactions build new organic molecules. Organic reactions produce many man-made chemicals such as drugs, plastics, food additives, and fabrics.

## More websites

- Organic reactions @ Synarchive.com
- Organic reaction flashcards from OSU
- list of named reactions from UConn
- organic reactions
- Organic chemistry help-Best of the Web 2008
- Organic chemistry help-Electronic Flashcards
- Study-Organic-Chemistry.com
- organic-reaction.com
Shikasta (novel)

***Shikasta*** is a 1979 science fiction novel. The full title is ***Re: Colonised Planet 5, Shikasta***. British Nobel Prize in Literature-winner Doris Lessing wrote it as the first book in her five-book _Canopus in Argos_ series. Alfred A. Knopf published it first in the United States in October 1979. Jonathan Cape published the book in the United Kingdom in November 1979. Shikasta is also the name of the fictional planet featured in the novel.

The book has a subtitle, _"Personal, psychological, historical documents relating to visit by Johor (George Sherban) Emissary (Grade 9) 87th of the Period of the Last Days"_. 'The novel is the history of the planet Shikasta under the influence of three galactic empires: Canopus, Sirius, and their shared enemy, Puttiora. The book is a series of reports by Canopean visitors to Shikasta. They record what happens on the planet which is very similar to Earth. The novel shows the Earth's prehistory, how things became worse, the "Century of Destruction" (the 20th-century), and the Apocalypse (World War III).

_Shikasta_ uses stories and images from the Old Testament and is influenced by spiritual and mystical themes in Sufism. Lessing had become interested in this Islamic belief system in the mid-1960s. The book was a major shift of focus in Lessing's writing, from realism to science fiction. Many of her readers were unhappy with the change. Critics gave the book both good and bad reviews. Some were impressed by the way the book showed a wide view of humanity and the universe. One reviewer called it a brave "and disturbing work from one of the world's great living writers". Others reviewers disliked the novel because it was depressing and humanity had no free will. People's lives were controlled by galactic empires.

The story of Shikasta is retold in the third book of the _Canopus_ series, _The Sirian Experiments_ (1980). In that book, the story is told from the point of view of Sirius. Shikasta appears again in the fourth book in the series, _The Making of the Representative for Planet 8_ (1982). The Zones that are briefly mentioned in _Shikasta_ are the subject of the second book in the series, _The Marriages Between Zones Three, Four and Five_ (1980).

## Infobox (book)

- **name**: Shikasta
- **author**: Doris Lessing
- **cover artist**: Paul Gamarello
- **country**: United Kingdom
- **language**: English
- **series**: _Canopus in Argos_
- **genre**: Novel (science fiction)
- **published**: 1979 Alfred A. Knopf, US; Jonathan Cape, UK
- **media type**: Print (hardcover)
- **pages**: 448
- **isbn**: 0-394-50732-0
- **isbn note**: (US)
0-224-01767-5 (UK)
- **dewey**: 823/.9/14
- **congress**: PZ3.L56684 Sh 1979 PR6023.E833
- **oclc**: 4774671
- **preceded by**: –
- **followed by**: The Marriages Between Zones Three, Four and Five
HOMO/LUMO

**HOMO** stands for **highest occupied molecular orbital**. **LUMO** stands for **lowest unoccupied molecular orbital**. The energy difference between the HOMO and LUMO is termed the HOMO-LUMO gap. HOMO and LUMO are sometimes referred to as **frontier orbitals**.

Each molecular orbital has a calculated energy level. Chemists sort the molecular orbitals (MOs) by energy levels. Chemists assume that the electrons will occupy the lowest energy level MOs first. For example, if a molecule has enough electrons to fill 15 MOs, the 15 MOs with the lowest energy levels will be occupied. The 15th MO on the list would be called the "highest occupied molecular orbital" (HOMO) and the 16th MO on the list would be the "lowest unoccupied molecular orbital" (LUMO). The difference in the HOMO's energy level and the LUMO's energy level is called the band gap. The band gap can sometimes serve as a measure of the excitability of the molecule: the smaller the energy, the more easily a molecule's electrons will be excited. For example, this can help predict whether a substance will have luminescence.

## SOMO

A **SOMO** is a _singly occupied molecular orbital_ such as half-filled HOMO of a radical.

## Related pages

- Diels–Alder reaction
- Electron configuration
- Ligand
- Organic semiconductor
Roald Hoffmann

**Roald Hoffmann** (born July 18, 1937) is a Ukrainian-American theoretical chemist of Jewish descent. He won the 1981 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. He currently teaches at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York.

He was born in Zloczov, Poland (now Ukraine)

Hoffmann survived The Holocaust and moved to the United States in 1949.

## Infobox (scientist)

- **name**: Roald Hoffmann
- **image**: Roald Hoffmann.jpg
- **image size**: 180px
- **caption**: Roald Hoffmann
- **birth date**: July 18, 1937
- **birth place**: Zolochiv, Złoczów, Second Polish Republic, Poland (now Ukraine)
- **citizenship**: United States
- **nationality**: American
- **field**: Chemistry
- **work institutions**: Cornell University
- **alma mater**: Stuyvesant High School
 Columbia University
Harvard University
- **doctoral advisor**: William Lipscomb, William N. Lipscomb, Jr.
- **known for**: reaction mechanisms
- **prizes**: 1981 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
Substituent

In organic chemistry and biochemistry, **substituent** is the name for a single atom or for a group of atoms that take the position of another atom in a molecule. They replace this atom. This reaction is called a substitution reaction. The atom or group of atoms that gets replaced is called the leaving group.

The terms **substituent**, **side chain**, **group**, **branch**, or **pendant group** are used in the same way to describe branches from a parent structure. These terms have different meanings in polymer chemistry.  In polymers, side chains extend from a backbone structure, while they are attached to the alpha carbon atoms of the amino acid backbone in proteins.

Organic chemistry has rules for naming compounds with substituent groups. The substituent group is listed first with a suffix to describe how it is attached to the main carbon chain. The suffix **-yl** is used when naming organic compounds that contain a single bond replacing one hydrogen. **-ylidene** and **-ylidyne** are used for double bonds and triple bonds respectively. When naming hydrocarbons that contain a substituent, position numbers may be used. These number will indicate which carbon atom the substituent is attached to. One case where this information is needed is that of isomers.

The phrases **most-substituted** and **least-substituted** are often used to describe molecules and predict their products. For example:

- Markovnikov's rule predicts that the hydrogen adds to the carbon of the alkene functional group that has the greater number of hydrogen substituents.
- Zaitsev's rule predicts that the major reaction product is the alkene with the more highly substituted (more stable) double bond.

## Structures

In a structural diagram or formula, the letters R or X are used to represent a substituent group. An organic substituent such as methyl, ethyl, aryl can be written as **R** (or R<sup>1</sup>, R<sup>2</sup>, etc.)  This is a generic placeholder. The _R_ derived from _radical_ or _rest_. The R can represent as many atoms as the author wants. The first to use this symbol was Charles Frédéric Gerhardt in 1844.

The symbol **X** can represent electronegative substituents such as the halides.

## Related pages

- Side chain
- Functional groups are a subset of substituents
Greater rhea

The **greater rhea**, _Rhea americana_, is a flightless bird found in South America. The greater rhea is also known as **grey**, **common rhea**, or the **American rhea**. The species, first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758, is found in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay.

The greater rhea takes its scientific name from the Greek goddess Rhea and the Latin word for "America".

It has a length of  and a wingspan of . Weighing , the greater rhea is the largest bird in South America.
Petr Kalandra

**Petr Kalandra** (10 March 1950 – 7 September 1995) was a Czech musician, guitarist, harmonica player, vocalist and songwriter. He was member of A.S.P.M., Blues Session and Marsyas. He died in September 1995. In 2006, he was inducted into the Beatová síň slávy (Beat Hall of Fame).

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Petr Kalandra
- **img**: Cundrgrund19770906.jpg
- **img capt**: from left to right: Petr Kalandra, Vladimír Merta, Vladimír Mišík
- **background**: solo_singer
- **birth date**: 10 March 1950
- **death date**: 7 September 1995 (45 years)
- **instrument**: Guitar, vocals, harmonica
- **genre**: Blues-rock, Rock and roll, rock, blues
- **occupation**: Musician, songwriter
- **associated acts**: Marsyas
Till Eulenspiegel's Merry Pranks

**Till Eulenspiegel's Merry Pranks** (German: _Till Eulenspiegels lustige Streiche_) is a very well-known piece of music for orchestra by Richard Strauss.  It is a tone poem (a piece of music which tells some kind of story).  In this work, Richard Strauss describes the adventures of Till Eulenspiegel who was the character in a series of stories written in Germany many years ago.  Till Eulenspiegel was a kind of folk hero.  He was a naughty boy who got up to all kinds of tricks.  The music is very humorous and describes his adventures.

The music is played by a large orchestra.  There is a small clarinet (normally an E flat clarinet, although in Strauss's day he used a D clarinet) that describes the character of Till.  Till is also represented by a French horn.

## The music

The music starts with the main theme, which is like saying: 'Once upon a time'.  The horn plays one of Till's themes and this is taken up by the orchestra.  The small clarinet is then heard, sounding like Till laughing.  He rides his horse through the market and knocks lots of things off the stalls, then flirts with the girls (the first violin plays a theme which suggests love).

Till gets on his horse again.  Then suddenly there is a funeral march.  Till has been caught and he is sentenced to death.  Till pleads to be let free and tries to joke his way out of his troubles, but the executioner takes no notice.  Till is taken to the gallows (small clarinet), the flutes rattle as he reaches the top.  The small clarinet describes his death scream, and then he is executed (strings playing pizzicato.  There is a short silence, then the music returns to the opening 'Once upon a Time' theme, but the music finishes with a little joke, as if saying that someone like Till can never be destroyed.
Beatová síň slávy

**Beatová síň slávy** (**Beat Hall of Fame** or shortly **BSS**) is something like the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Czech Radio Beat honors the greatest legends of Czech rock music.

## Categories

- Musician
- Dead Musician
- Band

## Induction

|**Year**|**Musician**|**Dead Musician**|**Band**|**Date**|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|2004|Vladimír Mišík|Jiří Schelinger|Blue Effect|May 16, 2004|
|2005|Radim Hladík|Milan „Mejla“ Hlavsa|Pražský výběr||
|2006|Michal Pavlíček|Petr Kalandra|Hudba Praha/Jasná Páka|June 8, 2006|
|2007|Michal Prokop|Petr Novák|Katapult|June 14, 2007|
|2008|Aleš Brichta|Miki Volek|Arakain|May 20, 2008|
|2009|Lou Fanánek Hagen|Jiří „Dědek“ Šindelář|Visací zámek|June 16, 2009|
|2010|Ota Petřina|František Kotva|Etc...|May 27, 2010|
|2011|Jan Haubert|Jan Ivan Wünsch|Tři sestry|June 13, 2011|
|2012|Roman Dragoun|Vladimír Padrůněk|The Plastic People of the Universe|May 17, 2012|
|2013|Vladimír Guma Kulhánek|Ivan Martin Jirous|Flamengo||

## Multiple inductees

|**Jméno**|**First entry Year Category**|**Second entry Year Category**|**Third entry Year Category**|
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Jiří „Dědek“ Šindelář|Katapult 2007 Band|Jiří „Dědek“ Šindelář 2009 Dead musician||
|Vladimír Mišík|Blue Effect 2004 Band|Vladimír Mišík 2004 Musician|Etc... 2010 Band|
|Radim Hladík|Blue Effect 2004 Band|Radim Hladík 2005 Musician||
|Aleš Brichta|Arakain 2008 Band|Aleš Brichta 2008 Musician||
|Michal Pavlíček|Pražský Výběr 2005 Band|Michal Pavlíček 2006 Musician||
|Jan Haubert|Visací zámek 2009 Band|Jan Haubert 2011 Musician||
|Lou Fanánek Hagen|Lou Fanánek Hagen 2009 Musician|Tři sestry 2011 Band||
|Jan Ivan Wünsch|Hudba Praha/Jasná Páka 2006 Band|Jan Ivan Wünsch 2011 Dead musician||

## Other websites

- Beatová síň slávy
Extranet

The **extranet** is a part of intranet that selected people outside the company can use.

## Related pages

- Internet
- Intranet
Thomson's gazelle

The **Thomson's gazelle** (_Gazella thomsonii_) is the most common gazelle in East Africa. It is a kind of small antelope. It is named after explorer Joseph Thomson and, as a result, is sometimes referred to as a "tommie". They can be found on ranches and farmland throughout East Africa, and survive long after other species have been killed off or migrated away.

## Description

Thomson's gazelles are commonly referred to as "tommies". Tommies stand at about half a meter (22-26 inches) tall and weigh in between 15 and 25 kilograms (35-55 pounds). Although very similar in appearance to the Grant's gazelle, they have some distinguishing features.

## Predators

The tommy has adapted to drier life on the open grass plains of East Africa, mainly southern Kenya and northern Tanzania. Although tommies have many predators, including cheetahs, lions, leopards, crocodiles and hyenas, they are frequently the last animals left on an abandoned ranch or farmland.

Their major predators are cheetahs, which can run faster, but gazelles can outlast them in long chases and are able to make turns more speedily. This small antelope-gazelle can run extremely fast, from , to 96 km/h (60 mph) and zigzag, a peculiarity which often saves it from predators.

Sometimes they are also chased by leopards, lions and hyenas, but the gazelles are faster and more agile; these predators attack especially the young or infirm individuals. They can also be devoured by crocodiles and pythons, and their fawns are sometimes the prey of eagles, jackals, and baboons. A noticeable behaviour of Thomson's gazelles is their bounding leap, known as stotting or pronking, used to startle predators and display strength.
Mack Robinson (athlete)

**Matthew MacKenzie Robinson** (July 18, 1914 – March 12, 2000) was an American track athlete. He was the older brother of professional baseball player Jackie Robinson.

Robinson was born in Cairo, Georgia. He moved to Pasadena, California when he was young and lived there most of his life.

## Athletic career

Robinson ran track in high school and college. While at Pasadena City College, he set junior college records in several events.

He won a silver medal at the 1936 Summer Olympics. He came in second to Jesse Owens in the 200m.

Robinson later ran for the University of Oregon. While there, he won National Collegiate Athletic Association and Amateur Athletic Union titles. He is a member of the Oregon Sports Hall of Fame.

## Later years

Robinson spent his later years working for the city of Pasadena as a garbage collector and mailman. He tried to stop crime in the black neighborhoods of Pasadena. He died in Pasadena in 2000.

Several landmarks in Pasadena, including the stadium at Pasadena City College, honor both Jackie and Mack Robinson.
Diene

In organic chemistry, a **diene** ( ) or **diolefin** ( ) is a hydrocarbon that contains two carbon pi bonds.
Conjugated dienes are functional groups, with a general formula of C<sub>n</sub>H<sub>2n-2</sub>. Dienes and alkynes are functional isomers. Dienes occur occasionally in nature but are widely used in the polymer industry.

## Classification

Dienes can be divided into three classes, depending on the relative location of the double bonds:
1. **Cumulated dienes** have the double bonds sharing a common atom as in a group of compounds called allenes.
1. **Conjugated dienes** have conjugated double bonds separated by one single bond.
1. **Unconjugated dienes** have the double bonds separated by two or more single bonds. They are usually less stable than isomeric conjugated dienes.

Compounds that contain more than two double bonds are called polyenes. Polyenes and dienes, share many of their properties.

## Cycloaddition

An important reaction for conjugated dienes is the Diels–Alder reaction.  Many specialized dienes have been developed to exploit this reactivity for the synthesis of natural products, e.g. Danishefsky’s diene.

## Other websites

- IUPACs Gold Book definition of dienes _dienes_ PDF
Conjugated system

In chemistry, a **conjugated system** is a system of continuous and parallel p-orbitals with delocalized electrons. Conjugated systems are created by several multiple bond<nowiki/>s, each separated by single bonds. In general, conjugated systems may lower the overall energy of the molecule and increase how steady it is. They can contain lone pairs, radicals or carbonium ions. The compound may be cyclic, acyclic, linear or mixed. In most cases, the atoms in a molecule are held together by single bonds (where orbitals from adjacent atoms overlap).  Molecules which have a conjugated system have unique properties different from normal compounds created by the sharing of the delocalized electrons among many atoms.

**Conjugation** is the overlap of one p-orbital with another across a sigma bond (or single bond) that is in between. (The d-orbitals of larger atoms can also contribute to a conjugated system).

A conjugated system has a region of overlapping p-orbitals, bridging the single bonds that are between. They allow a delocalization of pi electrons across all the adjacent aligned p-orbitals. The pi electrons do not belong to a single bond or atom, but rather to a group of atoms.

The **largest** conjugated systems (with the greatest number of shared electrons) are in graphite, conductive polymers, and carbon nanotubes.

## Mechanism

Different types of molecular structures can result in conjugation. For conjugation, all the neighboring atoms in a chain must have an available p-orbital. In many cases, conjugated systems are a series of a single bonds each followed by a double bond. Other systems exist. For example, furan (see picture) is a five-membered ring with two alternating double bonds and an oxygen in position 1. The Oxygen in furan has two lone pairs, one of which fills a p-orbital on that position. The lone pair electron makes conjugation possible on a five-membered ring. The presence of a nitrogen in the ring can be a source of pi orbitals needed for conjugation. Also, pi orbitals needed for conjugation can come from substituent groups α to the ring like: a carbonyl group (C=O), an imine group (C=N), a vinyl group (C=C), or an anion.

### Chromophores

Conjugated systems are the main things that make up chromophores. Chromophores are light-absorbing parts of a molecule that can cause a compound to have a visible color. Chromophores are often present in organic compounds and sometimes present in polymers that are colored or glow in the dark. Chromophores often consist of a series of conjugated bonds and/or ring systems, which can include C-C, C=C, C=O, or N=N bonds. Many times, chromophores have aromatic rings.

## Common examples

- Diene
- Vitamin D
- Vitamin A
- Benzene
- Conjugated linoleic acid

## Related pages

- Resonance (chemistry)
- Hyperconjugation
- Cross-conjugation
- Polyene
Prince Fielder

**Prince Semien Fielder** (born May 9, 1984 in Ontario, California) is an American former Major League Baseball player. He currently plays for the Texas Rangers. He debuted in the MLB for the Milwaukee Brewers on June 13, 2005 when he was called up from the minor league Nashville Sounds. He was sent back down but was called up again on August 17, 2005 where he finished the season with the Brewers and was used as a pinch-hitter. Fielder is a 3-time All Star and is also one of 26 players in the 50 home run club.

## Other websites

- Prince Fielder's MLB player profile

## Infobox (mlb player)

- **name**: Prince Fielder
- **team**: Detroit Tigers
- **number**: 28
- **width**: 250
- **image**: Prince Fielder crop.jpg
- **caption**: Prince Fielder in 2007
- **position**: First baseman
- **bats**: Left
- **throws**: Right
- **birth place**: Ontario, California
- **debutdate**: June 13
- **debutyear**: 2005
- **debutteam**: Milwaukee Brewers
- **statyear**: 2011 season
- **stat1label**: Batting average
- **stat1value**: .282
- **stat2label**: Home runs
- **stat2value**: 230
- **stat3label**: Runs batted in
- **stat3value**: 656
- **stat4label**: Slugging percentage
- **stat4value**: .540
- **stat5label**: On-base percentage
- **stat5value**: .390
- **stat6label**: Hit (baseball), Hits
- **stat6value**: 996
- **teams**: * Milwaukee Brewers (2005–2011)
* Detroit Tigers (2012–present)
* Texas Rangers (2014-present)
- **awards**: * 3× Major League Baseball All-Star Game, All-Star (2007 Major League Baseball All-Star Game, 2007, 2009 Major League Baseball All-Star Game, 2009, 2011 Major League Baseball All-Star Game, 2011)
* 2011 Major League Baseball All-Star Game Most Valuable Player Award, All Star Game MVP
* 2× Silver Slugger Award (2007, 2011)
* 2007 NL Hank Aaron Award
* Brewers franchise leader for home runs in a season (50 in 2007)
* 50 home run club
* 2009 Major League Baseball Home Run Derby, 2009 Home Run Derby winner
Kurt Alder

**Kurt Alder** (July 10, 1902 – June 20, 1958) was a German chemist and Nobel laureate.

## Biography

Alder was born in the industrial area of Königshütte, Silesia (modern day Chorzów). He received his early schooling there. Alder left the area for political reasons when Königshütte became part of Poland in 1922. He studied chemistry at the University of Berlin from 1922, and later at the University of Kiel where his earned a PhD in 1926 for work supervised by Diels.

In 1930 Alder was appointed reader for chemistry at Kiel, and promoted to lecturer in 1934. In 1936 he left Kiel to join I G Farben Industrie at Leverkusen, where he worked on synthetic rubber. In 1940, he was appointed Professor of Experimental Chemistry and Chemical Technology at the  University of Cologne and Director of the Institute of Chemistry there. Throughout this time and despite the many obstacles to original research in Europe at the time, he continued a systematic program of investigations of his particular interests in the synthesis of organic compounds. In all he published more than 151 papers in this field.

Alder received several honorary degrees and other awards, most famously the 1950 Nobel Prize in Chemistry which he shared with his teacher Diels for their work on what is now known as the Diels–Alder reaction. The lunar crater Alder is named in his honour. The insecticide aldrin, created through a Diels–Alder reaction, is also named for him.

## Other websites

- Nobel Prize biography

## Infobox (scientist)

- **name**: Kurt Alder
- **image**: Kurt Alder Nobel.jpg
- **birth place**: Königshütte, Silesia Province, Silesia, Imperial Germany, Germany
- **nationality**: German
- **death place**: Cologne, West Germany
- **field**: Organic chemistry
- **work institution**: IG Farben, I G Farben Industrie,
University of Cologne
- **alma mater**: University of Berlin
 University of Kiel
- **known for**: Diels-Alder reaction
- **prizes**: Nobel Prize for Chemistry (1950)
Kenichi Fukui

**Kenichi Fukui** (October 4, 1918–January 9, 1998) was a Japanese chemist. He won the 1981 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.

## Early life

Fukui was the oldest of three sons of Ryokichi Fukui, who was a merchant. He was born in Nara, Japan.

He graduated from Kyoto Imperial University in 1941.

## Career

Fukui worked at the Army Fuel Laboratory of Japan during World War II.{

In 1943, he was appointed a lecturer in fuel chemistry at Kyoto Imperial University.

He was professor of physical chemistry at Kyoto University from 1951 to 1982.

He was president of the Kyoto Institute of Technology between 1982 and 1988.

Fukui shared the 1981 Nobel Prize with Roald Hoffmann.  Fukui and Hoffmann worked separately on the mechanisms of chemical reactions.  Fukui explained in his Nobel lecture that,
- "It is only after the remarkable appearance of the brilliant work by Woodward and Hoffmann that I have become fully aware that not only the density distribution but also the nodal property of the particular orbitals have significance in such a wide variety of chemical reactions."

## Honors

- Japan Academy Medal, 1962
- Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1981
- Order of Culture, 1981
- Order of the Rising Sun, Grand Cordon, 1988
- Royal Society (UK), foreign member, 1989

## Related pages

- List of Nobel Prize winners by country

## Infobox (scientist)

- **name**: Kenichi Fukui
- **image**: Kenichi_Fukui_nobel.jpg
- **birth date**: October 4, 1918
- **birth place**: Nara, Nara, Nara, Japan
- **death date**: January 9, 1998 (aged 79)
- **death place**: Kyoto, Japan
- **nationality**: Japan
- **field**: chemistry
- **work institutions**: Kyoto University
- **known for**: molecular orbital, orbitals in chemical reactions
- **prizes**: Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1981
Woodward's rules

**Woodward's rules** are a set of rules about how organic chemical compounds absorb ultraviolet light.

They give information about the wavelength of the absorption maximum (symbol λ<sub>max</sub> ) in an ultraviolet-visible (UV) spectrum of a compound.  The rules are named after Robert Burns Woodward. He was a Harvard University professor who won the 1965 Nobel Prize in chemistry. The rules are sometimes called the **Woodward-Fieser rules**, to also honor Louis Fieser.

The rules build the prediction on the type of chromophores present, the substituents on the chromophores, and changes due to the solvent. Examples are conjugated carbonyl compounds, conjugated dienes, and polyenes.

## Implementation

One set of Woodward-Fieser rules for dienes is shown in table one. A diene is either **homoannular** with both double bonds contained in one ring or **heteroannular** with two double bonds distributed between two rings.

|Base value for heteroannular diene|214|
| --- | --- |
|Base value for homoannular diene|253|
|colspan=2|_Increments_|
|Double bond extending conjugation|+ 30|
|Alkyl substituent or ring residue|+ 5|
|Exocyclic double bond|+ 5|
|acetate group|+ 0|
|Ether group|+ 6|
|Thioether group|+ 30|
|bromine, chlorine|+ 5|
|secondary amine group|+ 60|
|colspan=2 align=left style="background: #ccccff;"|_Table 1. Rules for wavelength of maximum diene absorption (in nanometers) _|

- These rules predict the UV absorption maximum of compounds. Here are two examples:

In the compound on the left the base value is 214 nm (a heteroannular diene). This diene group has 4 alkyl substituents (labeled 1,2,3,4) and the double bond in one ring is exocyclic to the other (adding 5 nm for an exocyclic double bond). In the compound on the right, the diene is homoannular with 4 alkyl substituents. Both double bonds in the central B ring are exocyclic with respect to rings A and C.