juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Catalysis

**Catalysis** is the process of change in rate (speed) of a chemical reaction due to the help of a catalyst. Unlike other chemicals which take part in the reaction, a catalyst is not consumed by the reaction itself. A catalyst may participate in many chemical reactions. Catalysts that speed the reaction are called positive catalysts. Catalysts that slow the reaction are called negative catalysts, or inhibitors. Substances that increase the activity of catalysts are called promoters, and substances that deactivate catalysts are called catalytic poisons.

## In chemistry

A **catalyst** is something which changes the rate of a chemical reaction. An example is when manganese oxide (MnO<sub>2</sub>) is added to hydrogen peroxide (H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>), and the hydrogen peroxide starts to break up into water and oxygen. Catalysts are either of natural or synthetic origin. Catalysts are useful because they leave no residue in the solution they have sped up. A catalyst can also be used in a reaction again and again as it is not used up. There are many catalysts in our body which play an important part in many biochemical reactions. These are called enzymes. Most catalysts work by lowering the 'activation energy' of a reaction. This allows less energy to be used, thus speeding up the reaction. The opposite of a catalyst is an _inhibitor_. Inhibitors slow down reactions. Some of them are found in snake venom and are dangerous for our nervous system or heart.

## Related pages

- Enzymes are biological catalysts
Hydrogen peroxide

**Hydrogen peroxide** is a chemical compound. Its molecular formula is H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>. It is used as a cleaner, and as hair bleach. In a concentration of 3% (meaning that there are 3 grams of hydrogen peroxide for 100 grams of a water solution), it can be used to treat wounds. Over time, it will slowly become oxygen gas and water through decomposition.

Chemists often use hydrogen peroxide in chemical reactions. It is a very strong oxidising agent when used with acid and water. _Oxidising agents_ take electrons from other compounds.

Here hydrogen peroxide takes an electron from the  ions and becomes water. The iron is oxidised (loses electrons) to the  ion.

It can also be a reducing agent when used with stronger oxidisers like sodium hypochlorite. When it acts as a reducing agent, oxygen gas is also produced. _Reducing agents_ give electrons to other compounds. This method is often used to make oxygen in laboratories.

Hydrogen peroxide can be bought in shops when mixed with lots of water but is very dangerous when the concentration is higher. Because it is an oxidiser, it can cause flammable materials to ignite.
Mayotte

**Mayotte** is an island in the Indian Ocean next to Madagascar.
It is geographically part of the Comoros Islands, but politically, it is part of France.

## History

In December 2024, Cyclone Chido hit Mayotte, destroying hundreds of homes, and some administrative buildings and part of the town hall in the capital Mamoudzou.

## Related pages

- Communes of Mayotte

## Other websites

- Open Directory Project - _Mayotte_  directory category
- Mayotte travel information at Wikivoyage
- Analysis of the linguistic situation on Mayotte  (in French)
Halldór Ásgrímsson

**Halldór Ásgrímsson** (8 September 1947 – 18 May 2015) was the Prime Minister of Iceland. He became the leader of the Progressive Party in 1994. On September 15, 2004, he took over as Prime Minister from the Independence Party leader, Davíð Oddsson. He resigned in 2009.

Halldór died from a heart attack at a Reykjavik hospital, aged 67.
Penny

A **penny** (plural _pence_ in the United Kingdom, plural _pennies_ in Canada and the United States) is a coin used by several countries where people speak English. This includes United Kingdom, the United States, where a penny is worth one cent, and Canada, where "penny" is an informal term for one cent coins. Canada stopped minting the penny in 2012.

## Popular Culture

In British and American culture, finding a penny is often thought to be lucky. A popular expression is "Find a penny, pick it up, and all the day you'll have good luck." If someone asks you "A penny for your thoughts", they're wanting to know what you think. The phrase was first written in John Heywood's 1547 Dialogue Conteinying the Nomber in Effect of All the Proverbes in the Englishe Tongue, written when the penny was still a sterling silver coin. The possibly related American expression "my two cents" (meaning "my humble opinion") uses the low value of the penny to make fun of one's own thoughts in a funny way. In British English, to "spend a penny" means to urinate. The phrase does actually imply spending an actual penny: coin-operated public toilets commonly charged a predecimal penny, starting with the Great Exhibition of 1851. Around Decimal Day, British Rail introduced the "Superloo", better public toilets that charged 2p (roughly the equivalent of 6d.).

## Related pages

- Penny sterling
Matt Groening

**Matthew Abram** "**Matt**" **Groening** (born February 15, 1954) is an American cartoonist, screenwriter, producer, animator, author, musician, comedian, and voice actor. He is the creator of the comic strip _Life in Hell_, as well as two successful television series, _The Simpsons_ and _Futurama_.

Groening has won 12 Primetime Emmy Awards, ten for The Simpsons and two for Futurama as well as a British Comedy Award for "outstanding contribution to comedy" in 2004. In 2002, he won the National Cartoonist Society Reuben Award for his work on Life in Hell. He received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on February 14, 2012.

## Early life

He was born on February 15, 1954 in Portland, Oregon, the middle of five children. His mother Margaret Ruth was once a teacher. His father Homer Philip Groening was a filmmaker, advertiser, writer and cartoonist. Groening has Norwegian and German ancestry.

Groening grew up in Portland, and attended Ainsworth Elementary School, Lincoln High School and also The Evergreen State College in Olympia, Washington.

## Personal life

Groening identifies himself as agnostic and liberal. He has often made campaign contributions to Democratic Party candidates. His first cousin, Laurie Monnes Anderson, is a member of the Oregon State Senate representing eastern Multnomah County.

He has been married twice. Groening and Deborah Caplan married in 1986. They had 2 sons - Homer (who is called Will) and Abe. Couple split up in 1999. In 2011, Groening married Argentinian artist Agustina Picasso and became stepfather to her daughter Camille. In May 2013, Picasso gave birth to Nathaniel Philip Picasso Groening who was named after American writer Nathanael West.

## Other websites

- Incomplete list of Matt Groening appearances on _The Simpsons_  at The Simpsons Archive
- The Story (1969) – Matt Groening tells a story to his sisters Lisa & Maggie in this film by father, Homer
- The Simpsons – a Norwegian/German success (in Norwegian)
- Forvo: Matt Groening Pronunciation

## Infobox (person)

- **birth name**: Matthew Abram Groening
- **name**: Matt Groening
- **image**: Matt Groening by Gage Skidmore 2.jpg
- **caption**: Groening at San Diego Comic-Con International, Comic-Con, July 24, 2010
- **alt**: A man in glasses and a plaid shirt sits in front of a microphone.
- **birth place**: Portland, Oregon, United States, U.S.
- **known for**: _The Simpsons_
_Futurama_
_Life in Hell_
_Bongo Comics Group, Bongo Comics_
- **net worth**: US$500 million
- **party**: Democratic Party (United States), Democrat
- **occupation**: Cartoonist, screenwriter, writer, executive producer, producer, animator, author, musician, comedian, voice actor
- **years active**: 1977–present
- **spouse**: Deborah Caplan (1986–99, divorced)
Agustina Picasso (2011–present)
- **children**: Homer ("Will") Groening
Abe Groening
Nathaniel Philip Picasso Groening
Camille (stepdaughter)
- **signature**: Matt Groening Signature.svg
- **education**: Lincoln High School
- **alma mater**: The Evergreen State College
Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky

**Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky** (, 1792–1856) was a Russian mathematician. He became known for his achievements in non-Euclidean geometry.

## Biography

Lobachevsky was born in Nizhny Novgorod, Russia. His parents were Ivan Maksimovich Lobachevsky, a clerk in a landsurveying office, and Praskovia Alexandrovna Lobachevskaya. In 1800, his father died and his mother moved to Kazan. In Kazan, Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky attended Kazan Gymnasium. He graduated in 1807 and then went to Kazan University which was founded just three years earlier, in 1804.

At Kazan University, Lobachevsky was influenced by professor Johann Christian Martin Bartels (1769–1833). Bartels was a former teacher and friend of German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss. Lobachevsky received a Master's degree in physics and mathematics in 1811. In 1814, he became a lecturer at Kazan University, and in 1822 he became a full professor. He served in many administrative positions and was the rector of Kazan University from 1827 to 1846. He retired (or was dismissed) in 1846. After this event his health rapidly deteriorated. In addition to teaching mathematics and physics at Kazan University Lobachevsky also was an astronomy teacher there.

In 1832, he married Varvara Alexivna Moisieva. They had seven children.
Wildebeest

A **wildebeest** (or **gnu**) is an animal. It is a large hoofed mammal in the Bovidae family. There are two species of wildebeest. Both live in Africa.

## Taxonomy

- Genus _Connochaetes_
    - Blue wildebeest or brindled gnu (_Connochaetes taurinus_)
    - Black wildebeest or white-tailed gnu (_Connochaetes gnou_)

## Size

Wildebeest grow to 1.15 to 1.40 metres (at the shoulder) and they weigh between 150 and 250 kilograms when they are fully grown. They live in the plains and open woodlands in southern Africa. The biggest herds can be found in the Serengeti.

Wildebeest can live for more than 20 years.

## What they eat

Like other members of the same family (like antelopes, deer and goats), they mainly eat grass. However, in the African grasslands, there is not always grass. For this reason, wildebeest are forced to migrate to find food all year round. In May, about 1.5 million animals move from the grasslands to the woods. In November they move back; there is grass in the plains in summer.

## Breeding and mating season

The cows (female Gnus) calve (give birth to the young) in summer in the plains. After the females have given birth, the breeding season begins. The dominant males mark off (and defend) some territory. They do this with feces and scent.

Wildebeest are an important part of the ecosystem. With their feces, they fertilize the ground, and their trampling is good for new growth. They also provide food for predators, like lions, leopards, cheetahs, hyenas, African wild dogs, and Nile crocodiles.

## References

- The Columbia Encyclopedia

## Other websites

- _The Great Migration_ , on migration patterns of the wildebeest
- Wildebeest images
Gnu

**Gnu** or **GNU** may mean:
- Gnu, an animal
- GNU, a computer operating system
1760s

The **1760s** was a decade that began on 1 January 1760 and ended on 31 December 1769. It is distinct from the decade known as the ***177th decade*** which began on January 1, 1761 and ended on December 31, 1770.

### Events

- King George III takes the British throne in 1760. The Seven Years' War (1756–1763) comes to an end. France gives Canada to Britain, but criticism of the government still grows, led by the controversial figure of John Wilkes. Meanwhile, there is increasing unrest in Britain's American colonies. King George III died later in 1820.

- Science and technology – development of the steam engine continues.

## World leaders

- Emperor Qianlong (Ch'ien Lung) (China)
- King Frederick V (Denmark and Norway)
- King Christian VII (Denmark and Norway)
- King Louis XV (France)
- King Augustus III (Poland)
- King José I (Portugal)
- Czar Peter III (Russia)
- Czarina Catherine II (the Great) (Russia)
- King Carlos III (Spain)
- King Adolf Fredrik (Sweden)
- Sultan Mustafa III (Ottoman Empire)
- King George III (United Kingdom)

### Births

- Josephine de Beauharnais, Empress of France
- Michail Leontievich Bulatov, Russian military

### Deaths

- Pierre de Marivaux, French writer
Cacao tree

The **cacao tree** is a small tree originally grown in tropical South America. It only grows to 4 to 8 meters in height. Its seeds are called cocoa and are used to produce cocoa butter, chocolate drinks, and chocolate. Now the trees are grown in plantations in many tropical countries.

## Cultivation

Cacao is planted on over 70000 square kilometres worldwide with 40% of production coming from Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, and Indonesia. Each country produces about 15%, with smaller amounts coming from Brazil, Nigeria, and Cameroon.

A tree begins to bear fruit when it is 4 or 5 years old. In one year, when mature, it may have 6,000 flowers, but only about 20 pods. About 300-600 seeds (10 pods) are required to produce around 1 kg of cocoa paste.

There are three main cultivar groups of cacao beans used to make cocoa and chocolate. The most prized, rare, and expensive is the Criollo Group, the cocoa bean used by the Maya. Only 10% of chocolate is made from the Criollo, which is less bitter and more aromatic than any other bean. The cacao bean in 80% of chocolate is made using beans of the Forastero Group. Forastero trees are significantly hardier than Criollo trees, resulting in cheaper cacao beans. Trinitario, a hybrid of Criollo and Forastero, is used in about 10% of chocolate. For details of processing, see cocoa.

Cacao beans were commonly used as currency in Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. In some areas, such as Yucatán, they were still used in place of small coins as late as the 1840s.

## Other websites

- The food of the Gods - the nature, growth, cultivation, manufacture and history of Cocoa, by Brandon Head, from Project Gutenberg
Mahabad

**Mahabad and Piranshahr** (, ) is a city in Iran. It is in the north-west of the country, in the region of Iranian Kurdistan and the province of West Azarbaijan. The city is south of Lake Urmia in a narrow valley 1,300 metres above sea level. There are about 162.434 people who live in the city. Mahabad is connected by road with Tabriz 300 km north, Urmia 150 km north and Arbil, in Iraqi Kurdistan.

The city is one center and symbol of the Kurdish nationalism. The reason is  because in 1945 it was the capital of the newly founded people's Republic of Mahabad. The republic was conquered by Iranian forces on 16 December 1946.  The president was Qazi Muhammad. The majority of the population is Kurdish. During the revolution in Iran, on 3 September 1979 the city was bombed and occupied by Iranian forces. After the death of Shivan Qaderi, a student and opposition activist on July 9 2005, the Kurdish population protested against the Iranian government.

Mahabad also a branch of the Islamic Azad University.

The region of Mukrian consists of Piranshahr and Mahabad.
Shivan Qaderi

**Shivan Qaderi** (or **Sivan Ghaderi** or Schuaneh Ghaderi; died 9 July 2005 in Mahabad) was a student and opposition activist in Iran. After his death in 2005, the Kurds protested and the Iranian government had to send more than 100,000 soldiers to this region. The Kurdistan Democratic Party of Iran reported, that about 50,000 people had protested after his death on the Chuwarchira Square. Humans Rights First say that, after he was shot, Iranian soldiers tied Ghaderi's body "to a military vehicle and dragged it through the city, obviously trying to frighten the population so that they would not organize any more protests."

## Related pages

- Anti-Kurdism

## Other websites

- Amnesty International
- Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor with the Bureau of Public Affairs Washington, DC: Iran: Voices Struggling To Be Heard 3.11.2005
Spaghetti

**Spaghetti** (Italian: [spaˈɡetti]) is a long, solid, thin string-shaped kind of pasta.

The word  was first used in 1824 in the work _Li maccheroni di Napoli_ by . A single strand of spaghetti is called a , which means "short/little string" in Italian.

Spaghetti is now most commonly available in  lengths. The varieties of pasta dishes are based on it and it is frequently used with tomato sauce, meat or vegetables.

Spaghetti is made from wheat noodles, which are boiled in water for a short time. Spaghetti can either be served as a side dish, or as a main dish. Most commonly, a sauce is added. There are many different kinds of sauces. Simpler ones are made of butter, more complicated ones include tomatos, garlic, olive oil and various other herbs. Different varieties with mussels, fish or meat also exist. Ground parmesan cheese is often added.

In Italy, the sauce is usually mixed with the spaghetti while they are being prepared. Usually, spaghetti is eaten only with a fork, or with a fork and a spoon. Sometimes, they are cut with a knife for small children. Many Italians see using a knife to eat spaghetti as bad manners, except to prepare them for small children.

In the United States, there is a kind of spaghetti called "Alvaro's spaghetti" which is served with alfredo sauce. In some countries, like United States or Canada, meatballs are often in the spaghetti sauce.

In China, spaghetti is often made by hand. In Italy, spaghetti is made with a machine so that large amounts can be made quickly. Italy is the biggest producer and consumer of spaghetti in the world.

It is also a popular dish in Libya.

Spaghetti is called by other words when it has a different thickness: "spaghettini (n. 3)" (which means "little spaghetti"), "spaghetti (n. 5)", and "spaghettoni (n. 8)" (which means "big spaghetti").

Usually, spaghetti leftovers last in a fridge for around 3 to 5 days, while spaghetti in a freezer will last more than one month.

## Infobox (food)

- **name**: Spaghetti
- **image**: Spaghettoni.jpg
- **caption**: _Spaghettoni_
- **country**: Italy
- **type**: Pasta
- **main ingredient**: Semolina or flour, water
Snares penguin

The **Snares penguin** (_Eudyptes robustus_), is a crested penguin. It is probably a subspecies of the Fiordland penguin. It is a penguin from New Zealand. It is between 50 and 70 centimetres in height and weighs between 2.5 and 4 kilograms.

It breeds on The Snares, a small island group south of New Zealand's South Island.
Chahar Cheragh Square

**Chuar-chira Square** (, ) (meaning _Square of the four candles_), is a known square in center of city of Mahabad where after Iranian invasion in 1947, Qazi Muhammad the president of Republic of Mahabad was hanged in public as well as other leaders of the republic in Mahabad and Bukan. In 2005 the Kurdistan Democratic Party of Iran reported that about 50.000 persons had demonstrated against the Iranian gouverment. The reason was the death of Shivan Qaderi.

It is now officially called Shardari Square. This square is one of the oldest places of Mahabad city.

## Other websites

- Photo of the Chuwar Chira Square
Frederick I of Prussia

**Frederick I of Prussia** (), (11 July 1657–25 February 1713) of the Hohenzollern dynasty was the first King in Prussia (1701–1713).
Siege of Jerusalem (1187)

The **Siege of Jerusalem** took place from September 20 to October 2, 1187. It was part of the war called the Third Crusade.

Balian of Ibelin defended Jerusalem against the armies of Saladin. When he surrendered, the Muslims enslaved thousands of Christians but let many leave after they bought their freedom.

A fictionalized version of the siege (attack) is seen in the movie _Kingdom of Heaven_, directed by Ridley Scott.
Verona

**Verona** is a city in the Veneto region of Italy with 260,000 inhabitants. It is famous for being the setting for the Shakespeare play _Romeo and Juliet_ and because of the Roman Arena. This city is built on the Adige river. It has a humid subtropical climate (_Cfa_ in the Köppen climate classification).
Harare

**Harare** is the capital of Zimbabwe. It is home to over 1.6 million people. It was known as _Salisbury_ from its foundation on September 12, 1890 until April 18, 1982.

Harare is Zimbabwe's biggest and most important financial, commercial, and communications centre, and a trade centre for tobacco, maize, cotton, and citrus fruits. Manufactured goods include textiles, steel and chemicals, and gold is mined in the area. The city's suburbs include Borrowdale, Mount Pleasant and Avondale. The richest neighbourhoods are to the north. The University of Zimbabwe, the country's oldest university (founded in 1952), is in Mount Pleasant, about 6 km (3.7 mi) north of the city centre. The country's main Test cricket ground, Harare Sports Club is in the city. The Dynamos F.C. in Harare is Zimbabwe's most successful association football team.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **official name**: Harare
- **settlement type**: List of cities and towns in Zimbabwe, City and Harare Province, Province
- **image skyline**: File:Harare montage.png
- **imagesize**: 300px
- **image caption**: Clockwise, from top: Harare skyline; Parliament of Zimbabwe (front) and the Cathedral of St Mary and All Saints, Harare, Anglican Cathedral (behind); National Heroes Acre (Zimbabwe), Heroes Acre monument; New Reserve Bank Tower; downtown Harare; Jacaranda mimosifolia, Jacaranda trees lining Josiah Chinamano Avenue
- **image flag**: Flag of Harare.svg
- **image shield**: Coat of arms of Harare.svg
- **nicknames**: Sunshine City, H Town
- **image map**: Harare in Zimbabwe (adm).svg
- **map caption**: Location of Harare Province in Zimbabwe
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision name**: Zimbabwe
- **subdivision type1**: Provinces of Zimbabwe, Province
- **subdivision name1**: Harare Province, Harare
- **established title**: Founded
- **established date**: 1890
- **established title2**: Incorporated (city)
- **established date2**: 1935
- **established title3**: Renamed Harare
- **established date3**: 1982
- **leader title**: Mayor of Harare, Mayor
- **leader name**: Herbert Gomba
- **area total km2**: 960.6
- **elevation m**: 1490
- **population total**: 1,606,000
- **population as of**: 2013
- **population density km2**: 2540
- **population density sq mi**: 4330
- **population urban**: 1,619,000
- **population demonym**: Hararean
- **area code**: 242
- **footnotes**: Dialling code 242 (or 0242 from within Zimbabwe)
- **timezone**: Central Africa Time, CAT
- **utc offset**: +2
- **blank name**: Köppen climate classification, Climate
- **blank info**: Subtropical highland climate, Cwb
Lye

**Lye** is the name of different things:

- **Lye** is a corrosive basic solution used for glass and soap making. It may have in it:
    - sodium hydroxide (soda lye) or
    - less commonly, potassium hydroxide (potash lye).
- **Lye, West Midlands** is the name of a small town in England, between Dudley and Stourbridge in the Black Country, Dudley Metropolitan Borough, West Midlands (it was in Worcestershire).
- **Lye** is a commune of the Indre _département_, in France.
Luck

** Luck** can mean:
- Something that happens to someone by chance
- A superstitious feeling that brings good fortune or success
Antony and Cleopatra

***Antony and Cleopatra*** is a play by Shakespeare. It is a tragedy. Shakespeare's source was Plutarch's _Lives_. The play was first performed between 1606 and 1607. It was probably first printed in the First Folio of 1623. The play describes the romantic love and suicides of Antony and Cleopatra.

## References

- Antony and Cleopatra

## Infobox (play)

- **name**: Antony and Cleopatra
- **image**: First Folio, Shakespeare - 0847.jpg
- **image size**: 220px
- **caption**: The first page of _Antony and Cleopatra_, from the First Folio
- **writer**: William Shakespeare
- **sources**: Plutarch's _Lives_
- **characters**: Antony
Octavius Caesar
Cleopatra
- **setting**: Alexandria, Egypt
Rome and Misenum, Italy
- **premiere**: 1606-1607
- **place**: London, England
- **orig lang**: English
- **genre**: Tragedy
1803

**1803** (MDCCCIII) was a common year starting on Saturday in the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Thursday in the Julian calendar.

## Events

- January 4 – William Symington demonstrates his _Charlotte Dundas_, the "first practical steamboat".
- January 30 – Monroe and Livingston sail for Paris to discuss, and possibly buy, New Orleans. They end completing the Louisiana Purchase.
- February 21 – Edward Despard and six others are hanged, drawn and quartered for plotting to assassinate king George III and to destroy the Bank of England
- February 24 – The Supreme Court of the United States, in _Marbury v. Madison_, establishes the principle of judicial review.
- March 1 – Ohio is admitted as the 17th U.S. state, retroactive from August 7, 1953.
- April 30 – Louisiana Purchase made by the United States from France.
- March 12 – Port Gibson, MS is chartered
- May 18 – The United Kingdom redeclares war on France after France refused to withdraw from Dutch territory.
- July 4 – The Louisiana Purchase is announced to the American people.
- July 5 – The convention of Artlenburg leads to the French occupation of Hanover (which had been ruled by the British king).
- July 23 – Robert Emmet's uprising in Ireland begins
- July 26 – The wagonway between Wandsworth and Croydon is opened, being the first public railway line of the world.
- August 3 – British begin Second Anglo-Maratha War against Sindhia of Gwalior
- September 20 – Irish rebel Robert Emmet is executed
- September 23 – The Battle of Assaye in India – British-lead troops defeat Maratha forces
- October 20 – Senate ratifies the Louisiana Purchase Treaty, doubling the size of the United States.
- November 30 – At the Cabildo building in New Orleans, Spanish representatives Governor Manuel de Salcedo and the Marqués de Casa Calvo, officially transfer Louisiana Territory to French representative Prefect Pierre Clément de Laussat (just 20 days later, France had transferred the same land to the United States as the Louisiana Purchase).

- Aargau, Graubünden, St. Gallen, Thurgau, the Ticino, Vaud become Swiss cantons.
- France – the Livre Tournois (Tours Pound) is replaced by the Franc.
- William Osgoode, Chief Justice of Lower Canada, rules that slavery is inconsistent with British Law.

### Ongoing events

- Napoleonic Wars (1799-1815)
1579

**1579** (MDLXXIX) was a common year starting on Thursday in the Julian calendar.

## Events

- January 6 – The Union of Atrecht united the southern Netherlands under the Duke of Parma, governor in the name of king Philip II of Spain.
- January 23 –  The Union of Utrecht united the northern Netherlands in a confederation called the United Provinces.  William I of Orange becomes Stadtholder, and the Duc d'Anjou, younger brother of Henry III of France is invited to become hereditary sovereign.
- March – Capture of Maastricht by the Spanish under Parma.
- June 17 – Sir Francis Drake, during his circumnavigation of the world, lands in what is now California, which he claims for Queen Elizabeth I.  With an English claim here and in Newfoundland, it becomes the basis for English colonial charters which will claim all land from the Atlantic to the Pacific, from "sea to sea."  Drake's claim is called "Nova Albion" (meaning, _New England_), and subsequent maps will show all lands north of New Spain and New Mexico under this name.
752

## Events

- Pope Stephen II, pope for 3 days in March.
- Pope Stephen III, succeeded Stephen II.
- Retired Emperor Shōmu takes part in the dedication ceremony of the great statue of Vairocana Buddha at the Todaiji temple and declares himself a Buddhist.
1005

## Events

- Malcolm II succeeds Kenneth III as king of Scotland.
- Pomerania revolts against the church.
- Schaffhausen starts minting its own coins.
- Spring – The Republic of Pisa conducts a military offensive against the Saracen strongholds in Southern Italy. The Pisan fleet sacks the city of Reggio Calabria. Pisa becomes one of the four commercial Maritime Republics (the other three are Genoa, Venice and Amalfi), which fight each other for control of the Mediterranean Sea.

## Births

- King Macbeth of Scotland, Scottish royal (died 1057)

## Deaths

- King Kenneth III of Scotland
1233

## Events

- Fortress of Kalan built.
- Establishment of the Inquisition.
- Mustansiriya University founded in Baghdad.
1736

**1736** (MDCCXXXVI) was a leap year starting on Sunday in the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Thursday in the Julian calendar.

## Events

- January 26 – Stanislaus I of Poland abdicates his throne
- February 12 – Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor weds Maria Theresa, mother of Marie Antoinette
- April 14 – Porteous Riots erupt in Edinburgh after execution of a smuggler Andrew Wilson when town guard captain John Porteous orders his men to fire at the crowd. Porteous is arrested later
- May 8 – Marriage of Frederick, Prince of Wales and Augusta of Saxe-Gotha.
- May 26 – Battle of Ackia: British and Chickasaw Native Americans defeat French troops.
- September 7 – Edinburgh crowd drags John Porteous out of his cell in Tolbooth prison and lynches him
- A French expedition led by Pierre Louis Maupertuis is sent by King Louis XV to Lapland to measure the length of a degree of the meridian, and proves that the Earth is flattened at the poles
- _Real Arissona_, namesake of the U.S. state Arizona is founded in what is now that state.
- Isaac Newton Publishes his _Method of Fluxions_
- Thomas Bayes publishes a defense of Isaac Newton's calculus
- Leonhard Euler solves the mathematical problem known as the seven bridges of Königsberg
1340

## Events

- Europe has about 74 million inhabitants.
- January 26 – King Edward III of England is declared King of France
- June 24 – The Battle of Sluys is fought between the naval fleets of the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of France. The former was under the command of Edward III of England and the latter under those of admiral Hue Quiéret and treasurer Nicholas Béhuchet assisted by Genoese mercenary galleys serving under Egidio Bocanegra. The battle ends with the almost complete destruction of the French. Both their commanders were among the casualties. However the mercenaries manage to escape.
- A son of deceased King Christopher II of Denmark is elected to the throne following eight years of Interregnum. He will reign as Valdemar IV of Denmark.
1128

## Events

- Pope Honorius II recognizes and confirms the Order of the Knights Templar.
- King Afonso I of Portugal, then Count of Portugal defeats his mother, Teresa of Leon, in battle and gains control of the county.
- Geoffrey of Anjou marries Matilda, daughter of Henry I of England.
- Holyrood Abbey founded in Edinburgh by David I, King of Scotland.
984

## Events

- End of the reign of Emperor En'yū, emperor of Japan
- Emperor Kazan ascends to the throne of Japan
- Henry II, Duke of Bavaria abducts the child king Otto III
- Antipope Boniface VII murders Pope John XIV

## Births

- Bethoc, eldest daughter of Malcolm II of Scotland
- Ch'oe Ch'ung, Korean scholar

## Deaths

- Pope John XIV
1639

## Events

- January 14 – Connecticut's first constitution, the "Fundamental Orders," is adopted.
- January 23 – Francisco Maldonado de Silva, Peruvian Jewish poet, executed by burning at the stake
- March 13 – Harvard University is named for a clergyman named John Harvard.
- November 24 – Jeremiah Horrocks observes the transit of Venus.
- Charles I starts the first of the Bishops Wars against Scotland.
- The Casiquiare canal, a river forming a natural canal between the Amazon River and Orinoco River basins, is first encountered by Europeans.
- The Barbados House of Assembly meets for the first time.
- The first printing press in North America is started in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
- Russian Cossacks advance over Urals to Pacific, to Okhotsk.
- Montreal first settled.
1003

## Events

- Sweyn I of Denmark begins his first invasion of England.
- Humbert I becomes the first count of Savoy.
- King Robert II of France invades Burgundy, but fails.
- Pope John XVII succeeds Pope Silvester II.
- Pope John XVIII succeeds Pope John XVII.
- Boleslaus I of Poland becomes duke of Bohemia and Moravia.
- Battle of Albesa: Muslim forces of the Caliphate of Cordoba defeat the northern Christian armies of León, Pamplona and Castile.

## Births

- c.December 25 – Edward the Confessor, King of England and founder of Westminster Abbey in London (died 1066)
- date unknown
    - Prince Louis of France, French royal (died 1028)
Fuzzy logic

**Fuzzy logic** is a sort of computer logic that is different from boolean algebra founded by Lotfi A. Zadeh. It is different in the way that it allows values to be more accurate than on or off. While boolean logic only allows true or false, fuzzy logic allows all things in between. An example of this could be a computer game: A person is standing in a doorway while a thing explodes. The character is hit or not hit if boolean logic is used, but the doorway protects him from the explosion. Therefore, he might only be hit 20%, and takes less damage.

To put it in  more precise mathematical terms, classical logic has two values. These values are usually called  _false_ (0) or _true_ (1). With fuzzy logic, a (calculated) value of 0.8 or 0.971 is possible. It is important to know the difference between fuzzy logic and chance. A coin that is thrown has a chance of 0.5 for landing heads up. If it is thrown 1000 times, it is expected that it will land with heads side up 500 times. With fuzzy logic, a thing with a "truth value" of 0.5 will have a value of 0.5 no matter how many times it is done. It is not a 50% chance of true or untrue, it is 50% true and 50% untrue at the same time.
Fuzzy logic is used a lot in expert systems and neural networks.

Humans tend to use a combination of predicate logic and fuzzy logic. If you are an outfielder catching a baseball hit into the air, then your precise logic will calculate trajectory and start you running to the point of intercept (catching). However, once close to the ball the eyes and brain of the outfielder lacks the ability to accurately estimate distance and speed because the ball is coming straight at the outfielder. The human brain switches to fuzzy logic that says "get me closer", "get me closer", and so on. That is why you see outfielders in baseball run to a spot and then move around as the ball gets closer.

Predicate logic says calculate the point to be at to catch the ball. Fuzzy logic says because of wind or other things you might not be in the correct place so just keep getting closer until you catch the ball.

In predicate logic it is the mathematics of calculating the path of the ball that determines your action. In fuzzy logic it is the error of your calculations that determines your action.

In effect, it's like your brain trying to steady a drink in your hand while traveling down a bumpy road.
Douala

**Douala** is the largest city in the African country of Cameroon. It is the capital city of Littoral Region.

The city is placed near the Wouri River. Its population is about 2,000,000 people. The first European people who came to Douala were from Portugal. They found Duala in about 1472. Before 1884 it was named **Cameroons Town**. In 1884 German people came to Duala and changed its name to **Kamarunstadt** ("Camaroon City") and made it the capital of German Kamerun. In 1907 its name was changed to Duala. It became the capital of French Cameroons in 1919. From 1940 to 1946, it was the capital of Cameroon.

Duala is an expensive city. It ranked 24th most expensive city of the world in 2007.

## Transport

Douala is linked by rail to Yaoundé, Ngaoundéré, Kumba and Nkongsamba. The largest port and the most important airport in Cameron are both in Douala.

## Other websites

- Image of Douala from Google Earth
1843

## Events

- February 6 – The Virginia Minstrels perform the first minstrel show (Bowery Amphitheatre, New York City).
- February 8 – Earthquakes in Guadeloupe magnitude 8.5, 5000 people reported killed.
- February 11 – Giuseppe Verdi's opera _I Lombardi_ premieres in Milan.
- May 18 – The Disruption of the Church of Scotland took place in Edinburgh.
- May 22 – The first major wagon train headed for the northwest sets out with one thousand pioneers from Elm Grove, Missouri, on the Oregon Trail.
- July 19 – The SS _Great Britain_ is launched from Bristol.
- August 15  – Tivoli Gardens,  one of the oldest still intact amusement parks in the world, opened in Copenhagen, Denmark.
- October 13 – In New York City, Henry Jones and 11 others found B'nai B'rith (the oldest Jewish service organization in the world).
- November 28 – Ka La Ku'oko'a: Hawaiian Independence Day.  The Kingdom of Hawai`i was officially recognized by the United Kingdom and France as an independent nation.
- The world's first commercial Christmas cards are printed by Sir Henry Cole in London.
- December 17 – First publication of Charles Dickens' _A Christmas Carol_.
- James Joule quantifies the conversion of work into heat.
- In Barbados, the first black man, Samuel Jackson Prescod, is elected to the House of Assembly.
- The Danish government re-establishes the althing in Iceland as an advisory body.
- The first tunnel under the Thames is finished.
- Argentina supports Rosas of Uruguay and begins a siege of Montevideo.
- Quaternions are discovered by William Rowan Hamilton.
- The Economist is first published.
- Bishop's University is founded.
- Abbeville is founded by descendants of Acadians from Nova Scotia.

January 29 - William McKinley, twenty-fifth President of the United States (d. 1901)
- January 1 – Francis Scott Key, American lawyer and lyricist (b. 1779)
1225

## Births

- Thomas Aquinas, Italian theologian (died 1274)
- Saint Isabel of France, daughter of Louis VIII of France
- David VI Narin, King of Georgia (died 1293)
- Michael VIII Palaeologus, Byzantine Emperor (died 1282)
841

## Events

- June 25: Battle of Fontenay – Louis the German and Charles the Bald defeat Lothar.
- Battle at Magh-Ochtar in Kildare, Ireland, at which Feidlimid mac Cremthanin is defeated by the Southern Uí Neill.
1164

## Events

- Count Henry I of Champagne marries Marie de Champagne.
- Uppsala is recognized as the seat of the Swedish metropolitan.
- Antipope Paschal III elected by cardinals supporting Frederick Barbarossa.
- Olaf II of Norway is canonized as Saint Olaf.
- Archbishop Rainald of Dassel brings relics of the Magi from Milan to Cologne.
- Thomas Becket contends with Henry II, leaves England to solicit support from the Pope and the King of France.
- The first written record of Tver
578

## Events

- Tiberius II Constantine succeeds Justin II as Byzantine Emperor
- Kongo Gumi, world's oldest (construction) company founded in Osaka, Japan
1707

## Events

- January 1 – John V is crowned King of Portugal
- May 1 – The Acts of Union 1707 become law, making the separate kingdoms of England and Scotland into one country, the United Kingdom of Great Britain.
- April 25 – Allied army is defeated by Bourbonic army at Almansa (Spain) in the War of the Spanish Succession.
- September 29 – Four British Royal Navy ships run aground near Scilly Isles because of faulty navigation – Admiral Sir Cloddisley Shovel and thousands of sailors drown
- October 23 – First Parliament of Great Britain.
- A fortress is founded on the future site of Ust-Abakanskoye (modern Abakan).
- Mount Fuji in Japan erupts.
- The Lao empire of Lan Xang officially ends and splits into the kingdoms of Vientiane, Luang Prabang, and Champasak.

## Births

- February 1 - Frederick, Prince of Wales (d. 1751)
- April 15 - Leonhard Euler, Swiss mathematician and physicist (d. 1783)
- April 22 - Henry Fielding,  British writer (d. 1754)
- May 23 - Carolus Linnaeus, Swedish botanist (d. 1778)
- September 7 - Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, French scientist (d. 1788)

## Deaths

- May 9 - Dieterich Buxtehude, German composer (b. c. 1637)
972

## Events

- Otto II marries Theophanu, Byzantine princess
- Battle of Cedynia – Polish duke Mieszko I defeats Germans
- Pope Benedict VI succeeds Pope John XIII as pope
- Boleslaus II the Pious succeeds Boleslav I of Bohemia in Bohemia
- Yaropolk of Kiev succeeds Sviatoslav I in Kiev
- Fatimids enter Egypt, establish the Al-Azhar mosque in Cairo
- Buluggin ibn Ziri appointed viceroy in Ifriqiya, start of the Zirid dynasty
- The monastery at the site of Peterborough Cathedral is rebuilt
- Saint Eadburga is canonized
- Emperor John Tzoimisces makes eastern Bulgaria a Byzantine subject
- The city of Satu Mare, Romania is founded

## Births

- March 27 – King Robert II of France (d. 1031)
- Al-Mawardi
- Ermesinde of Carcassonne, countess and regent of Barcelona (d. 1057)
- Fujiwara no Yukinari
- Fulk III of Anjou
- Pope Gregory V
- Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor
- Renauld I, Count of Nevers

## Deaths

- July 15 – Boleslav I of Bohemia
- September 6 – Pope John XIII
- Liutprand, bishop of Cremona and historian
- Sviatoslav I, Prince of Kiev
- Kuya, Japanese monk of Pure Land Buddhism (b. 903)
1031

## Events

- Collapse of the Moorish Caliphate of Córdoba.
- Byzantine general George Maniaces captures Edessa.
- Henry I becomes King of France
- Bezprym seizes the throne of Poland from Mieszko II Lambert
- France suffers from a famine (until 1033).

## Births

- King Malcolm III of Scotland, Scottish royal (died 1093)
- Matilda of Flanders, Queen consort of the Kingdom of England (died 1083)
- Roger I of Sicily, Count of Sicily (died 1101)

## Deaths

- July 20 – King Robert II of France (b. 972)
- September 2 – Saint Emeric of Hungary
1083

## Events

- Sancho I of Aragon conquers Graus.
- Alfonso VI of Castile conquers Talavera de la Reina.
- Bosnia is conquered by Duklja.
- June – Pope Gregory VII is besieged in Castel Sant'Angelo by Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor.
1027

## Events

- March 26 – Pope John XIX crowns Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor.
- May 14 – Henry I of France is crowned king of France at Reims Cathedral.
- Aldred becomes abbot of Tavistock.
- Start of the Tibetan calendar.

## Births

- October 14 – William the Conqueror, King of England and Duke of Normandy (died 1087)

## Deaths

- Richard, Duke of Normandy, French nobleman (born 960)
1316

## Events

- Pope John XXII elected to the papacy.
- The Great Famine of 1315-1317.

## Deaths

- Ala-ud-din-Khilji
1778

## Events

- The term thoroughbred was first used in the United States in an advertisement in a Kentucky gazette to describe a New Jersey stallion called Pilgarlick.
- January 18 – Third Pacific expedition of Capt. James Cook, with ships _HMS Resolution_ and _HMS Discovery_, first see O'ahu then Kaua'i in the Hawaiian Islands, which he names the "Sandwich Islands".
- February 5 – South Carolina becomes the first state to ratify the Articles of Confederation.
- February 6 – American Revolutionary War: In Paris the Treaty of Alliance and the Treaty of Amity and Commerce are signed by the United States and France beginning official recognition of the new republic.
- February 23 – American Revolutionary War: Baron von Steuben arrives at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania and begins to train the Continental Army.
- July 10 – American  Revolutionary War: Louis XVI of France declares war on the United Kingdom of Great Britain.
- July 27 –  American Revolution: First Battle of Ushant – British and French fleets fight to a standoff.
- August 26 – Triglav, at 2,864 metres above sea level the highest peak of Slovenia, was ascended for the first time by four brave men: Luka Korošec, Matevž Kos, Štefan Rožič and Lovrenc Willomitzer on Sigismund Zois's initiative.
- September – The Massachusetts Banishment Act, providing punishment for Loyalists, is passed.
- November 26 – In the Hawaiian Islands, Captain James Cook becomes the first European to discover Maui.
- France introduced the first state-controlled brothel.
- The first settlement was made in the area of what is now Louisville, Kentucky by 13 families under Col. George Rogers Clark.
- Phillips Academy, the most prestigious secondary boarding school in the United States, was founded by Samuel Phillips Jr.
885

## Events

- Vikings besiege Paris

## Births

- Emperor Daigo of Japan
- November 26 – Emperor Zhuangzong of Later Tang

## Deaths

- April 6 – Saint Methodius, bishop and Bible translator
- June – Godfrith, the Sea King
- July – Pope Adrian III
- July/August – Sulayman ibn Wahb, Abbasid vizier
1751

## Events

- Adam Smith is appointed professor of logic at the University of Glasgow
- March 25 – For the last time, New Year's Day is legally on March 25 in England and Wales.
- March 31 – The future King George III of the United Kingdom succeeds his father as Prince of Wales.  His mother Augusta of Saxe-Gotha becomes Dowager Princess of Wales.
- First publication of Encyclopédie
- The Academy and College of Philadelphia, the predecessor to the private University of Pennsylvania, is founded.
- Pennsylvania Hospital, the first hospital in the British colonies, is founded.

## Births

- March 16 – James Madison, American politician, fourth President of the United States (d. 1836)

## Deaths

- March 31 – Frederick, Prince of Wales, member of the British Royal Family (b. 1707)
250

**250** (**CCL**) was .

## Events

- Diophantus writes _Arithmetica_ the first systematic treatise on algebra.
- A group of Franks penetrate as far as Tarragona in Spain (approximate date).
- Goths invade Moesia.
- The Alamanni drive the Romans from the modern area of Donau-Ries.
- Decius begins a period of persecution of the Christians in the Roman Empire.
- Teotihuacán is rebuilt as a four-quartered cosmogram by Zapotec architects brought from Monte Albán in Oaxaca.
- Kofun Period begins in Japan.

## Births

- Helena of Constantinople
- Licinius
1802

**1802** (MDCCCII) was a common year starting on Friday in the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Wednesday in the Julian calendar.

## Events

- March 16 – West Point is established.
- March 25/27 – Treaty of Amiens between France and United Kingdom ends the War of the Second Coalition.
- March 28 – H. W. Olbers discovers the asteroid Pallas.
- May 19 – Napoleon Bonaparte establishes the French légion d'honneur (Legion of Honour).
- June 8 – Haitian revolutionary Toussaint Louverture is seized by French troops and sent to Fort de Joux for prison.
- July 4 – At West Point, New York the United States Military Academy opens.
- August 2 – In a plebiscite Napoleon Bonaparte is confirmed as consul for life.
- September 11 – The Italian region of Piedmont becomes a part of Napoleonic France.
- October 2 – War ends between Sweden and Tripoli. The United States also negotiates peace, but war continues over the size of compensation.
- July – Eleuthère Irénée du Pont founds E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Company, the modern DuPont Company.
- October – French army enters Switzerland.
- Marie Tussaud opens her famous wax museum in London, having been commissioned during the Reign of Terror to make death masks of the victims.
- Treviranus uses the term biology for the first time.
- Thomas Wedgwood produces the world's first photograph, but has no means of fixing the image, which quickly fades.
- William Symington builds the first successful steamship, the _Charlotte Dundas_.
- Ludwig van Beethoven performs the Moonlight Sonata for the first time.
- William Wordsworth publishes the poem "Westminster Bridge."
- The estimated world population reaches 1 billion people.

### Ongoing events

- French Revolutionary Wars (1792-1802)
- Napoleonic Wars (1799-1815)
37

## Events

- March 18 – Roman Senate ends Tiberius' will. They proclaim Caligula Roman Emperor.
- Caligula tries declare himself a god.  This creates tension between himself and the Senate.
- An earthquake destroys Antioch
- Abilene is granted to Agrippa I.
- Saint Peter founds the Syrian Orthodox Church. (traditional date)
- Probable year of the conversion of the Pharisee Saul of Tarsus to Christianity.  After 39 he is recognised as Saint Paul.

## Births

- December 15 – Nero, Roman Emperor
- Josephus, Jewish historian

## Deaths

- March 16 – Tiberius, Roman Emperor
- May 1 – Antonia Minor, daughter of Mark Antony and Octavia Minor
- Marbod king of the Marcomanni