juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
1781

## Events

- March 13 – Uranus.
- End of the American Revolutionary War

## Births

- January 26 – Achim von Arnim, German writer (d. 1831)
- January 30 – Adelbert von Chamisso, German writer (d. 1838)
- February 17 – Rene Theophile Hyacinthe Laennec, French physician and inventor (d. 1826)
- March 4 – Rebecca Gratz, American educator and philanthropist (d. 1869)
- March 13 – Karl Friedrich Schinkel, German architect and painter (d. 1841)
- June 9–  George Stephenson, English engineer (d. 1848)
- June 21 – Siméon-Denis Poisson, French mathematician and physicist (d. 1840)
- July 6 – Thomas Stamford Raffles, English founder of Singapore (d. 1826)
- July 6   – John D. Sloat, American naval officer (d. 1867)
- July 27 – Mauro Giuliani, Italian composer (d. 1828)
- September 3 – Eugène de Beauharnais, French nobleman, son of Napoleon's wife Josephine (d. 1824)
- September 6 – Anton Diabelli, Austrian music publisher, editor, and composer (d. 1858)
- October 1 – James Lawrence, U.S. Navy officer (d. 1813)
- November 6 – Lucy Aikin, English writer (d. 1864)
- November 20 – Karl Friedrich Eichhorn, German jurist (d. 1854)
- November 29 – Andrés Bello, Venezuelan poet, lawmaked, teacher, philosopher and sociologist (d. 1865)
- November 30 – Alexander Berry, Scottish adventurer and Australian pioneer (d. 1873)
- December 11 – Sir David Brewster, Scottish physicist (d. 1868)
- William Williams of Wern, minister (d. 1840)
1566

**1566** (MDLXVI) was a common year starting on Tuesday in the Julian calendar and a common year starting on Saturday in the proleptic Gregorian calendar.

## Births

- March 8 – Carlo Gesualdo, Italian composer and murderer (died 1613)
- May 26 – Mehmed III, Ottoman Emperor (died 1603)
- June 19 – King James VI of Scotland/James I of England and Ireland (died 1625)
- June 20 (O.S.) – King Sigismund III of Poland (d. 1632)
- August 12 – Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia of Spain (d. 1633)
- September 1 – Edward Alleyn, English actor (died 1626)
- September 18 – King Sigismund III of Poland/Sigismund I of Sweden (died 1632)
- October 13 – Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of Cork, Irish politician (died 1643)
- November 10 – Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, English politician (died 1601)
- December 11 – (baptised) – Manuel Cardoso, Portuguese composer (died 1650)
- December 20 – Edward Wightman, English Baptist martyr (died 1612)
- Pietro Cerone, Italian music theorist (died 1625)
- Giovanni Baglione, Italian painter and historian of art (died 1643)
- Jan Jesenius, Slovak physician (died 1621)
- Michal Sedziwój, Polish alchemist (died 1636)
- James Sempill, Scottish theologian (died 1626)
1714

## Events

- George I becomes King of Great Britain

## Births

- January 1 – Kristijonas Donelaitis, Lithuanian poet (d. 1780)
- January 6 – Percivall Pott, English surgeon (d. 1788)
- January 26 – Jean-Baptiste Pigalle, French sculptor (d. 1785)
- February 2 – Gottfried August Homilius, German composer (d. 1785)
- February 22 – Louis-Georges de Bréquigny, French historian (d. 1795)
- February 25 – René Nicolas Charles Augustin de Maupeou, Chancellor of France (d. 1792)
- February 25 – Hyde Parker, British admiral (d. 1782)
- February 26 – James Hervey, English clergyman and writer (d. 1758)
- March 8 – Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, German composer (d. 1788)
- March 27 – Francesco Antonio Zaccaria, Italian theologian and historian (d. 1795)
- April 14 – Adam Gib, Scottish religious leader (d. 1788)
- June 6 – King Joseph I of Portugal (d. 1777)
- June 17 – Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten, German philosopher (d. 1762)
- June 17 – César-François Cassini de Thury, French astronomer (d. 1784)
- July 2 – Christoph Willibald Gluck, German composer (d. 1787)
- July 16 – Marc René, marquis de Montalembert, French military engineer and writer (d. 1800)
- August 1 – Richard Wilson, Welsh painter (d. 1782)
- August 14 – Claude Joseph Vernet, French painter (d. 1789)
- August 28 – Anthony Ulrich II, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (d. 1774)
- September 10 – Niccolò Jommelli, Italian composer (d. 1774)
- September 19 – Charles Humphreys, American delegate to the Continental Congress (d. 1786)
- October 13 – Pieter Burmann the Younger, Dutch philologist (d. 1778)
- October 16 – Giovanni Arduino, Italian geologist (d. 1795)
- November 13 – William Shenstone, English poet (d. 1763)
- November 25 – Yoriyuki Arima, Japanese mathematician (d. 1783)
- December 16 – George Whitefield, English-born Methodist leader (d. 1770)
- December 19 – John Winthrop, American astronomer (d. 1779)
- December 21 – John Bradstreet, Canadian-born soldier (d. 1774)
Georg Agricola

**Georg** or **Georgius** **Agricola** (1494-1555) was a German scholar and scientist. He was one of the first people to study mining and minerals (stones and gems), that is the father of mineralogy.
1440

## Events

- February 21 – The Prussian Confederation is formed.
- September – Gilles de Rais, an early known serial killer, is arrested and taking into custody on orders from the Bishop of Nantes.

## Births

- January 22 – Ivan III of Russia (d. 1505)
- February 10 – Henry of York, elder brother of Edward IV of England and Richard III of England (died 1441)
- February 22 – King Ladislaus Posthumus of Bohemia and Hungary (died 1457)
- Pedrarias Dávila, Spanish colonial administrator (died 1531)
- Kabir, Indian mystic (died 1518)
- Jorge Manrique, Spanish poet (died 1479)

## Deaths

- September 30 – Reginald Grey, 3rd Baron Grey de Ruthyn (born c.1362)
- October 26 – Gilles de Rais, Marshal of France (born 1405)
1457

## Births

- January 28 – Henry VII of England
- February 2 – Peter Martyr d'Anghiera

## Deaths

- March 14 – Jingtai Emperor of China (born 1428)
- May 22 – Saint Rita of Cascia, Italian saint (born 1381)
- August 1 – Lorenzo Valla, Italian humanist
- November 23 – King Ladislaus Posthumus of Bohemia and Hungary (born 1440)
- Andrea del Castagno, Italian painter
- Peter II, Duke of Brittany (born 1418)
- László Hunyadi, Hungarian statesman and warrior (born 1433)
- Babur Ibn-Baysunkur, ruler of Khurasan (born 1422)
1428

## Births

- May 3 – Pedro González de Mendoza, Spanish cardinal and statesman (died 1495)
- September 21 – Jingtai Emperor of China (died 1457)
- Donato Acciaiuoli, Italian scholar (died 1478)
- Abulkhair Khan, Uzbek leader (died 1468)
- Didrik Pining, German explorer (approximate date)
- Leonor of Viseu, Princess and later Queen of Portugal (died 1525)
- Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, English kingmaker (died 1471)
1525

## Deaths

- February 24 – Guillaume Gouffier, seigneur de Bonnivet, French soldier
- February 26 – Cuauhtémoc, last Aztec ruler (tortured to death)
- May 5 – Frederick III, Elector of Saxony (born 1463)
- May 27 – Thomas Muentzer, German pastor and rebel leader (born 1489)
- July 22 – Richard Wingfield, English diplomat
- December 30 – Jakob Fugger, German banker (born 1459)
- Jean Lemaire de Belges, Walloon poet and historian (born 1473)
- Huayna Capac, emperor of the Inca (born 1493)
- Franciabigio, Florentine painter (born 1482)
- Jacques de la Palice, French nobleman and military officer
- Richard de la Pole, last Yorkist claimant to the English throne (killed in battle)
- Nicholas Storch, weaver and reformer
- Leonor of Viseu, queen of João II of Portugal
1489

## Births

- April 15 – Sinan, Turkish architect (died 1588)
- June 4 – Antoine, Duke of Lorraine (d. 1544)
- July 2 – Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury (died 1556)
- August 10 – Jacob Sturm von Sturmeck, German statesman and reformer (died 1553)
- November 28 – Margaret Tudor, queen of James IV of Scotland) (died 1541)
- August – Antonio da Correggio, Italian painter (died 1534)
- William Farel, French evangelist (died 1565)
- Francesco Ferruccio, Florentine captain (died 1530)
- Juan de Grijalva, Spanish conquistador (died 1527)
- Thomas Muentzer, German pastor and rebel leader (died 1525)
- Hosokawa Sumimoto, Japanese warlord (died 1520)
- Tsukahara Bokuden, Japanese swordsman (died 1571)
1494

## Births

- February 2 – Bona Sforza, queen of Sigismund I of Poland (died 1557)
- April 20 – Johannes Agricola, German Protestant reformer (died 1566)
- May 24 – Pontormo, Italian painter (d. 1557)
- September 5 – Hans Sachs, German _Meistersinger_ (died 1576)
- September 12 – King Francis I of France (died 1547)
- November 6 – Suleiman the Magnificent, Ottoman Sultan (died 1566)
- Purandara Dasa, Indian poet and composer (died 1564)
- Saito Dosan, Japanese warlord (died 1556)
- John Sutton, 3rd Baron Dudley (died 1554)
- Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda, Spanish philosopher and theologian (died 1573)
- Ambrosius Holbein, German painter (died 1519)
- Lucas van Leyden, Dutch engraver and painter (died 1533)
- Alonso Alvarez de Pineda, Spanish explorer and cartographer (died 1519)
- Hans Tausen, Danish religious reformer (died 1561)
- Qiu Ying, Chinese painter (died 1552)
Amiga CD32

The **Amiga CD32** was a game console made by Commodore International release in 1993. It was based around the Amiga A1200 Computer.

Using third party devices, it is possible to upgrade the CD32 with keyboard, floppy drive, hard drive, RAM and mouse, turning it into the equivalent of an Amiga 1200 personal computer.

In the Christmas period of 1993, the CD32 accounted for 38% of all CD-ROM drive sales in the UK, exceeding sales of the Mega-CD; however, it was soon overshadowed by CD-ROM based games consoles from other companies, and was discontinued as Commodore went into bankruptcy in 1994.

175 known game discs were released for the Amiga CD32
GX4000

The **GX4000** was a console made by Amstrad in 1990. At first, it was successful. But it did not continue its early success. The GX4000 games could be used with other Amstrad computers. The GX4000 was made to package the CPC+ computer line into Video Game Consoles. Only 40 games were made for it. Soon it disappeared into the mist of history. These days it is very rare to see one that is still in working condition.

de:Amstrad GX4000
ApeXtreme

**ApeXtreme** is a console created by Apex Digital Inc. It was released January 9, 2004.

It can do many things, like play computer games, DVDs, CDs, VCDs and use the Internet.

What it can do:
- games
- videos
- pictures
- slide shows
- music
- DVD
- VCD
- CD
- MP3
- Internet radio
1617

### January–June

- February 27 – The Treaty of Stolbovo ends the Ingrian War between Sweden and Russia. Sweden gains Ingria and Kexholm.

### July–December

- November 17 – A naval battle between the Sicilians and Venetians ends inconclusively.
- November 22 – Mustafa I succeeds Ahmed I as Sultan of the Ottoman Empire.

### Date unknown

- At least seven women are sentenced to death by burning for witchcraft at the Finspång witch trial in Sweden.
- Giambattista Andreini's play _The Penitent Magdalene_ is published in Mantua.
1623

## Deaths

- February 8 – Thomas Cecil, 1st Earl of Exeter, English politician (b. 1546)
- March 19 – Uesugi Kagekatsu, Japanese samurai and warlord (b. 1556)
- June 16 – Christian, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg-Wolfenbüttel, German Protestant military leader (b. 1599)
- July 4 – William Byrd, English composer
- July 8 – Pope Gregory XV (b. 1554)
- October 21 – William Waad, English statesman and diplomat (b. 1546)
- November 9 – William Camden, English historian (b. 1551)
- November 11 – Philippe de Mornay, French writer (b. 1549)
- November 12 – Josaphat Kuncevyc, Lithuanian archbishop
- Andrea Andreani, Italian engraver (b. 1540)
1556

**1556** (MDLVI) was a leap year starting on Wednesday in the Julian calendar and a leap year starting on Sunday in the proleptic Gregorian calendar.

## Events

- January 23 – Most devastating recorded earthquake in Shaanxi, China. Over 850,000 deaths.

## Births

- January 8 – Uesugi Kagekatsu, Japanese samurai and warlord (died 1623)
- February 21 – Sethus Calvisius, German calendar reformer (d. 1615)
- March 7 – Guillaume du Vair, French statesman and philosopher (died 1621)
- June 6 – Edward la Zouche, 11th Baron Zouche (died 1625)
- November 15 – Jacques-Davy Duperron, French cardinal (died 1618)
- Henry Briggs, English mathematician (died 1630)
- Margaret Clitherow, English Catholic martyr (died 1586)
- Shibata Katsutoyo, Japanese military commander (died 1583)
- Nakagawa Kiyohide, Japanese military commander (died 1583)
- Ahmad Baba al Massufi, Sudanese writer and political leader
- James Melville, Scottish divine and reformer (died 1614)
- Maria of Nassau, second daughter of William the Silent (died 1616)
1625

## Deaths

- January 7 – Ruggiero Giovannelli, Italian composer
- March 7 – Johann Bayer, German astronomer (b. 1572)
- March 25 – Giambattista Marini, Italian poet (b. 1569)
- March 27 – King James I of England and Ireland/James VI of Scotland (b. 1566)
- March 29 – Antonio de Herrera y Tordesillas, Spanish historian (b. 1549)
- April 23 – Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange (b. 1567)
- April 27 – Mori Terumoto, Japanese warrior (b. 1553)
- June 1 – Honoré d'Urfé, French writer (b. 1568)
- June 5 – Orlando Gibbons, English composer and organist (b. 1583)
- August – John Fletcher, English writer (b. 1579)
- September 20 – Heinrich Meibom, German historian and poet (b. 1555)
- September 26 – Thomas Dempster, Scottish historian (d. 1579)
- October 22 – Kikkawa Hiroie, Japanese politician (b. 1561)
- December 9 – Ubbo Emmius, Dutch historian and geographer (b. 1547)
- Robert Cushman, Plymouth Colony settler
1561

**1561** (MDLXI) was a common year starting on Wednesday in the Julian calendar and a common year starting on Sunday in the proleptic Gregorian calendar.

## Births

- January 6 – Thomas Fincke, Danish mathematician and physicist (died 1656)
- January 22 – Sir Francis Bacon, English philosopher, scientist, and statesman (died 1626)
- July 11 – Luís de Góngora y Argote, Spanish poet (died 1627)
- August 20 – Jacopo Peri, Italian composer (died 1633)
- August 24 – Thomas Howard, 1st Earl of Suffolk (died 1626)
- August 25 – Philippe van Lansberge, Dutch astronomer (died 1632)
- September 29 – Adriaan van Roomen, Belgian mathematician (died 1615)
- December 7 – Kikkawa Hiroie, Japanese politician (d. 1625)
- December 9 – Edwin Sandys, English founder of the colony of Virginia (died 1629)
- Jacopo Corsi, Italian composer (died 1602)
- John Harington, English writer (died 1612)
- Samuel Harsnett, Archbishop of York (died 1631)
Coagulation

A **coagulation**, also known as **clot**, is a semi-solid substance blood forms on purpose to stop a leak. Blood does this especially when it is in air. When a person bleeds, the blood turns into a clot at the site of injury so no more blood can escape.

A blood clot called a _thrombus_ is one example of a blood clot.

The clotting process is called _coagulation._

If a person gets a cut on their body, they will bleed. To stop the bleeding, the human body first tells the liver to produce chemicals that will help the clot to form, the message coming from the brain. When the chemicals released by the liver arrive at the injury through the circulation, coagulation begins. At the same time, the brain also lessens the blood flow near the site of injury (by tightening the veins and arteries in that area), so that not as much blood is lost.

There is a limit to how quickly a clot can form. If the cut is very deep and the person is bleeding too much, a clot may not be able to form and a lot of blood may be lost. Losing too much blood too quickly can be fatal. In medical emergencies where the blood circulation needs to be temporarily stopped (like to prevent death by hypovolaemia) they might use a Tourniquet on the limb if they can.

## The details

Coagulation begins almost instantly after an injury to the blood vessel has damaged the endothelium lining the vessel. When blood is exposed to proteins such as tissue factor it starts changes to blood platelets and the plasma protein fibrinogen, which is a clotting factor. Platelets immediately form a plug at the site of injury. Proteins in the blood plasma, called _coagulation factors_ or _clotting factors_, respond in a complex cascade to form fibrin strands. These strengthen the platelet plug.

Coagulation is highly conserved throughout biology; that means its genetics is almost the same in all species of mammal. In all mammals, coagulation involves both a cellular (platelet) and a protein (coagulation factor) component. The system in humans has been the most extensively researched and is the best understood.

## Fibrin

Fibrin is a white insoluble fibrous protein formed by the action of thrombin on fibrinogen when blood clots. it forms a network that traps red cells and platelets.

## Vitamin K

Vitamin K is an essential factor in blood clotting. Then, vitamin K is oxidized. Another enzyme, Vitamin K epoxide reductase, (VKORC) reduces vitamin K back to its active form. This reactivation is important as a target of anticoagulant drug warfarin. Vitamin K can be found in green vegetables, such as spinach, lettuce, broccoli or cabbage.

## Related pages

- Haemophilia
- Heart
Asthma

**Asthma** (or **Asthma bronchiale**) is an obstructive lung disease which affect the airways inside the lungs. It has generally been accepted as an inflammatory disease. _Asthmatics are affected_ in three ways by asthma, explained in this section. It causes the tissue inside the airways to swell. Asthma also causes the bands of muscle around the airways to become narrow. This makes it hard for enough air to pass through and for the person to breathe normally. The third is that it also causes mucus-making cells inside the airways to make more mucus than normal. This blocks the airways, which are already very narrow during an asthma attack, and makes it even more difficult to breathe.

## Infobox (disease)

- **name**: Asthma
- **image**: Asthma attack-illustration NIH.jpg
- **caption**: An asthma attack causes the airways to tighten and causes too much mucus to be made.  This makes it hard to breathe.
- **diseasesdb**: 1006
- **omim**: 600807
- **medlineplus**: 000141
- **emedicinesubj**: article
- **emedicinetopic**: 806890
- **meshid**: D001249
Turkish

**Turkish** might mean:

- Something related to the country Turkey
- Something related to the Ottoman Empire, also called the Turkish Empire
- Turkish language
- Turkish people
- Turkish alphabet
1690

## Events

- January 6 – Joseph, son of Emperor Leopold I becomes King of the Romans
- January 14 – The clarinet is invented in Nuremberg, Germany
- May 20 – England passes Act of Grace, forgiving followers of James II
- July 1 – The Battle of the Boyne, in Ireland
- October 6-12 – Massachusetts Puritans led by Sir William Phips besiege the city of Quebec. The siege ends in failure.
- December 29 – earthquake in Anconer in Papal States, Italy

- Earliest recorded sighting of the planet Uranus, by John Flamsteed, who mistakenly catalogues it as the star 34 Tauri
- Giovanni Domenico Cassini observes differential rotation within Jupiter's atmosphere.
- The French invade the small town of Teignmouth in Southwest England, in their last attack on England.

## Births

- January 22 – Nicolas Lancret, French painter (d. 1743)
- February 1 – Francesco Maria Veracini, Italian composer (d. 1768)
- February 3 – Richard Rawlinson, English minister and antiquarian (d. 1755)
- March 18 – Christian Goldbach Prussian mathematician (d. 1764)
- April 22 – John Carteret, 2nd Earl Granville, English statesman (d. 1763)
- September 12 – Peter Dens, Belgian Catholic theologian (d. 1775)
- October 29 – Martin Folkes, English antiquarian (d. 1754)
- November 24 – Charles Theodore Pachelbel, German composer (d. 1750)
- November 29 – Christian Augustus of Anhalt-Zerbst, father of Catherine II of Russia (d. 1747)
- December 1 – Philip Yorke, 1st Earl of Hardwicke, Lord Chancellor of England (d. 1764)
890

## Events

- The sovereignty of prince Svatopluk I in Bohemia is confirmed.
- First ceremonial visit by a Welsh king (Anarawd, King of Gwynedd) to an English court (that of Alfred the Great).
- Founding of Kirby Muxloe. (approximate date)
Bochum

**Bochum** ( , <small>also</small>  , ; Westphalian: _Baukem_, Low Franconian: _Boochem_, Old Saxon: _Bochem_) is a city in the Ruhr area of the state of North Rhine-Westphalia in Germany. It is part of the Arnsberg Government Region. Bochum is situated between the cities of Essen, Dortmund, Gelsenkirchen, and Hattingen.

Bochum has about 380,000 inhabitants.
The city is formed by the traditional industry of coal mining in the Ruhr area, but today there is no mining in Bochum anymore.

## Education

Today the most important institution in Bochum is the Ruhr-University Bochum, one of the biggest German universities.
It has an extremely wide spectrum of subjects, beginning with mathematics and science, social sciences, economy, engineering, laws, philosophy, historical subjects, theology, medicine, and languages even including Chinese and Polish.

## Culture

Bochum has a rich cultural life and its theatre is one of the most prominent in Germany. The Folkwang University of Art has its well known theatre centre in the Ehrenfeld neighbourhood of Bochum, educating a quite small group of students in the theatrical arts.

The _Bermuda3eck_ (Bermuda Triangle) is a well known area for night life in central Bochum such as bars, nightclubs, and Hookah parlours. It has over 60 bars and restaurants, serving many kinds of food and drinks from both Germany and abroad. Since 1986, the Bochum Total music festival has taken place in the _Bermuda3eck_, with many live music performances. Bochum Total usually takes place for four days around the start of July, and is one of the largest free music festivals in Europe.

The German Mining Museum is also in Bochum, and has a number of permanent and temporary exhibits which cover the history of coal's uses and how it is mined. The Zeiss Planetarium nearby has a number of shows featuring animations and recordings of space, along with music such as Pink Floyd's The Dark Side of the Moon.

## Infobox (german location)

- **german name**: _Baukem_
_Boochem_
_Bochem_
- **type**: City
- **image caption**: Bochum Skyline, German Mining Museum, Zeiss Planetarium Bochum, Schauspielhaus Bochum, Bochum Kammerspiele
- **image coa**: DEU Bochum COA.svg
- **image flag**: DEU Bochum Flag.svg
- **state**: North Rhine-Westphalia
- **region**: Arnsberg
- **district**: Urban districts of Germany, Urban district
- **area**: 145.4
- **gemeindeschlüssel**: 05911000
- **postal code**: 44701-44894
- **area code**: 0234, 02327
- **licence**: BO, WAT
- **website**: [https://www.bochum.de/ www.bochum.de]
- **mayor**: Jörg Lukat
- **leader term**: 2025–30
- **party**: SPD
San Juan, Puerto Rico

**San Juan** is the capital and largest city of Puerto Rico. The city's population is 321,992. It is the 42nd-largest city and the oldest European settlement in United States territory. Today, San Juan is Puerto Rico's most important seaport.

## History

San Juan was founded in 1521. It was named after San Juan Bautista, or St. John the Baptist (name given by Christopher Columbus). San Juan is also known as "La Ciudad Amurallada". This means the "walled city".

Many Spanish explorers came during the Age of Discovery and built forts, churches, and other historical buildings. "La Fortaleza" (also known as "Palacio de Santa Catalina") is an example of a very old fort in San Juan.

In the sixteenth century, San Juan was a Spanish fortress against Caribs. (These were the people native to the Caribbean islands and Central America.)

San Juan has many old buildings still standing today. One is the Casas de los Contrasfuertes (House of Buttresses), the oldest residence in Old San Juan.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **official name**: San Juan, Puerto Rico
- **nickname**: La Ciudad Amurallada
(_The Walled City_)
- **settlement type**: Capital city and Municipality
- **image skyline**: 2013_Old_San_Juan_01.JPG
- **image flag**: Flag of San Juan, Puerto Rico.svg
- **image seal**: Coat_of_arms_san_juan_pr.svg
- **image map**: Locator-map-Puerto-Rico-San-Juan.svg
- **map caption**: Location of San Juan within the island of Puerto Rico
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision name**: United States
- **subdivision type1**: Territory
- **subdivision name1**: Puerto Rico
- **established title**: Founded
- **established date**: 1521
- **area total sq mi**: 76.93
- **area land sq mi**: 47.82
- **area water sq mi**: 29.11
- **area water percent**: 37.8
- **population as of**: 2024
- **population total**: 321,992
- **population density sq mi**: 9084.4
- **population metro**: 2509007
- **timezone**: Atlantic Standard Time Zone, AST
- **utc offset**: -4
- **elevation m**: 98
Rural area

**Rural areas** are areas which are not towns or cities. They are often farming or agricultural areas. These areas are sometimes called "the country" or "countryside". People who live "in the country" often live in small villages, but they might also live somewhere where there are no other houses nearby.

Rural is the opposite of urban, which means places such as cities where buildings and places where people work and live are all close together.

Many people who live in cities like to go to the country to relax. They go there for recreation, often for their holidays, or to read.

In the U.S., the United States Census Bureau, defines a "rural area" as sparsely populated and far from urban centers, which make up an estimated 3% of the land area of the U.S., but is home to more than 80% of the total population.

## Related pages

- Rural United States
Stephen Crane

**Stephen Townley Crane** (November 1, 1871 - June 5, 1900) was an American writer.  He was born on November 1, 1871 in Newark, New Jersey to Jonathan Townley Crane, a clergyman, and Mary Helen Peck Crane. He attended Syracuse University in Syracuse, New York, but did not graduate. He moved to New York City in 1892 to write about the slum life of Manhattan. His major works include the novella _Maggie: A Girl of the Streets_ (1893), the war novel _The Red Badge of Courage_ (1895), and the short story "The Open Boat" (1897). After the success of _Badge_, his literary reputation declined.  His health was poor. In May 1899, he entered a sanitarium in Badenweiler, Germany. On June 5, 1900, he died of tuberculosis. He is buried in the Evergreen Cemetery in Hillside, New Jersey.

## Related pages

- List of poets from the United States

## References

- Stephen Crane biography
- Biography of Stephen Crane

## Infobox (writer)

- **name**: Stephen Crane
- **image**: StephenCrane1899.jpg
- **imagesize**: 200
- **caption**: Crane in 1899
- **birth name**: Stephen Townley Crane
- **birth place**: Newark, New Jersey
- **death place**: Badenweiler, Germany
- **resting place**: Evergreen Cemetery in Hillside, New Jersey
- **occupation**: Writer
- **notableworks**: _The Red Badge of Courage_
- **nationality**: American
- **genre**: Realism
- **years active**: 1892 - 1900
- **alma mater**: Syracuse University
Lawrence's goldfinch

The **Lawrence's goldfinch** (_Carduelis lawrencei_) is a small songbird of North America. Bigger than the Lesser Goldfinch, and smaller than the American Goldfinch, with less yellow markings than either.

It lives from central California and its southern coast in the United States, to Baja California in Mexico. Females have less yellow and do not have the black cap and chin of the males.

This bird is named after the American _ornithologist_ (bird expert), George Newbold Lawrence.
George Newbold Lawrence

**George Newbold Lawrence** (October 20, 1806 - January 17, 1895) was an American businessperson and amateur ornithologist (bird expert).

Lawrence counted birds for Spencer Fullerton Baird and John Cassin, and the three men wrote _Birds of North America_ in 1858.

Lawrence left his 8,000 bird skins to the American Museum of Natural History. The Lawrence's Goldfinch _Carduelis lawrencei_ was named for him by Cassin.
Cinnamon

**Cinnamon** is a spice from the inner bark of _Cinnamomum verum_.

The spice is used in both sweet and savoury foods. It is aromatic. People usually put cinnamon in sweet baked goods (such as cinnamon rolls), hot wine or liquors.

Cinnamon was used to make the spiced wine, claret, in the Middle Ages. In India, cinnamon is commonly used in making flavoured tea. It is either directly added as small pieces or put in powdered form during the preparation of tea. It is known as "Daal-Cheeni (दाल चीनि)" in Hindi.

The Sinhalese name of cinnamon is _kurundu_. Cinnamon is grown as an export crop in Sri Lanka.

## Cinnamon as a herbal remedy

There is a literature which suggests that cinnamon spice may have positive effects on diabetes type II. This is not the view of the U.S., National Institutes of Health.
1186

## Events

- John the Chanter becomes Bishop of Exeter.
- January 27 – Constance of Sicily marries Henry (the future Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor).
- The Byzantine Empire recognises the indepence of Bulgaria.
- Guy of Lusignan becomes King of Jerusalem.

## Births

- May 18 — Konstantin of Rostov, Prince of Novgorod (d. 1218)
- Queen Urraca of Portugal spouse of King Afonso II of Portugal (d. 1220)
- Hugh Bigod, 3rd Earl of Norfolk (d. 1225)
- Iziaslav IV Vladimirovich, Grand Prince of Kiev
- Ögedei Khan, third son of Genghis Khan and second Great Khan of the Mongol Empire (d. 1241)
- Song Ci, Chinese physician and judge (d. 1249)

## Deaths

- May 29 or June 23 or June 24 — Robert of Torigni
- August 19 — Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany (b. 1158)
- Baldwin V of Jerusalem (b. 1177)
- William of Tyre, Archbishop of Tyre (b. c. 1130)
- Minamoto no Yukiie, Japanese warlord
1187

## Events

- May 1 – Battle of Cresson – Saladin defeats the crusaders
- July 4 – Saladin defeats Guy of Lusignan, King of Jerusalem, at the Battle of Hattin.
- September 20 – October 2 – Siege of Jerusalem – Saladin captures Jerusalem.
- October 29 – Pope Gregory VIII issues the bull _Audita tremendi_, proposing the Third Crusade.
- Alexis Branas attempts to seize Constantinople in defiance of his master Isaac II Angelus.
- Cathedral of St. Jacob consecrated in Szczecin, Pomerania
- Destruction of Sigtuna – archbishop is killed
- Knut Eriksson builds a castle in the island of Stockholm
- Compass in Europe
- The Toltecs are deposed at Chichen Itza
- Zen Buddhism comes to Japan
- King of Ankor Vat, Jayavarman VII defeats Cham conquerors
- Ghorin Muhammed conquers Punjab
- Genoa takes Bonifacio (in Corsica) from Pisa

## Births

- September 5 — King Louis VIII of France (d. 1226)
- Arthur I, Duke of Brittany (d. 1203)
- Vladimir III Rurikovich, Grand Prince of Kiev (d. 1239)

## Deaths

- July 4 — Raynald of Chatillon, Prince of Antioch (executed, b. c. 1125)
- October 19 — Pope Urban III
- November 9 — Emperor Gaozong of China (b. 1107)
- December 17 — Pope Gregory VIII (b. c. 1100)
- Gerard of Cremona, Italian translator of scientific works (b. c. 1114)
- Roger de Moulins, Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller
- Count Raymond III of Tripoli (b. 1140)
1188

## Events

- Saladin unsuccessfully besieges the Hospitaller fortress of Krak des Chevaliers in modern Syria.
- Newgate Prison is built.
- Richard Lionheart allies with Philip II of France against his father, Henry II of England.
- Giraldus Cambrensis and Baldwin of Exeter travel through Wales attempting to recruit men for the Third Crusade.
- The "Saladin tithe" is levied in England.
- Alfonso IX of Castile becomes king of Leon.
- Queen Tamar of Georgia marries David Soslan.
Egg

**Egg** can mean different things:
- Egg (biology)
    - Ovum, the female reproductive cell
        - Zygote, a fertilised ovum
    - Cleidoic egg: the type of egg produced by amniotes (reptiles, birds, mammals)
- Egg (food): a type of egg that can be eaten.
Blaise Pascal

**Blaise Pascal** (19 June 1623 – 19 August 1662 AD) was a French mathematician, physicist, inventor, philosopher, and Christian theologian.

Pascal was born in Clermont-Ferrand, France in 1623. When he was only a few years old, his mother died, leaving his father to care for him and his two sisters. In 1631, Pascal's father moved the family to Paris.

Pascal's father, Ètienne, home-schooled his children. At first, Ètienne said that Pascal was not allowed to study mathematics until he turned fifteen years old. This was because Ètienne wanted to make sure Pascal had a good understanding of languages first. However, Pascal studied mathematics anyway. When his father realized how skilled Pascal was at mathematics, he allowed Pascal to keep learning.

Still in his teens, Pascal attended meetings held by a monk named Marin Mersenne and contributed research on cones. Later, Pascal invented an early calculator to help his father (who was a tax collector) do calculations at work.

Pascal was also a scientist. He conducted experiments involving gases and liquids. Pascal's Law, the pascal (Pa), and Pascal's Triangle were all named after him.

Later in life, Pascal became very interested in Christianity. He wrote two books on Christianity called the _Pensées_ (which he never finished) and the _Lettres Provinciales._ He also argued that people should believe in God because it is the logical thing to do (see Pascal's wager, which is an application of game theory).

Pascal was the first recorded person to wear a watch on his wrist.

Pascal died in Paris in 1662.
Pascal's triangle

<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:250px;">

1
 1   1
 1   2   1
 **1**   **3**   3   1
 1   **4**   6   4   1
 1   5  10  10   5   1

<div class="thumbcaption">
The first six rows of Pascal's triangle</div>
</div>
</div>
**Pascal's Triangle** is a triangular array. It is named after French mathematician Blaise Pascal, but it was known in China, Persia, and India long before Pascal was born.

Pascal's triangle can be made as follows. On the first row, write only the number 1. Then, to get the numbers of following rows, add the number that can be seen above and to the left (if any) and the number above and to the right (if any) to find the new value. For example, the numbers 1 and 3 in the fourth row are added to make 4 in the fifth row.

The triangle displays the coefficients that occur when the binomial  is raised to the  power:

The same triangle can also be expressed using combinations:

,

where

## Uses of Pascal's triangle

The triangle has many uses in probability. It can also be used in binomial expansions. For example,

- (_x_ + 1)<sup>2</sup> = 1_x_<sup>2</sup> + 2_x_ + 1<sup>2</sup>.

Notice the coefficients are the third row of Pascal's triangle: 1, 2, 1.
In general, when a binomial is raised to a positive integer power we have:

- (_x_ + _y_)<sup>_n_</sup> = _a_<sub>0</sub>_x_<sup>_n_</sup> + _a_<sub>1</sub>_x_<sup>_n_−1</sup>_y_ + _a_<sub>2</sub>_x_<sup>_n_−2</sup>_y_<sup>2</sup> + … + _a_<sub>_n_−1</sub>_xy_<sup>_n_−1</sup> + _a_<sub>_n_</sub>_y_<sup>_n_</sup>,

where the coefficients _a_<sub>_i_</sub> in this expansion are precisely the numbers on row _n_ + 1 of Pascal's triangle; in other words,

## Pascal's rule

Formally speaking, the way of making the Pascal's Triangle uses Pascal's rule, which states that

for non-negative integers _n_ and _k_ where _n_ ≥ _k_ and with the initial condition

## Complicated structures based on Pascal's triangle

Pascal's triangle generalizes readily into higher dimensions. The three-dimensional version is called Pascal's pyramid or _Pascal's tetrahedron_. A higher-dimensional analogue is generically called a "Pascal's simplex"<sup>*</sup>. See also pyramid, tetrahedron, and simplex.

## Properties of Pascal's Triangle

The first and last number in each row is always 1.
The second number in each row is the row number. In a binomial expansion, this second number is equal to the power. (This makes the 'first' row, 1, actually the zero row).
The rows always read the same forward and backward.
The sum of the numbers in each row is double the sum of the numbers in the row before. The sum of each row is 2<sup>_n_</sup>.
- The zero row, 1, has a sum of 1.
- The first row, 1,1 has a sum of 2.
- The second row, 1,2,1 has a sum of 4.
- The third row, (1,3,3,1) has a sum of 8.
- The sum of the nth row is

## Other websites

- Higher Dimensional Pascal's Triange - Like Structures
Antidisestablishmentarianism

**Antidisestablishmentarianism** is a political position. It means "to keep an established church". An official state church is called the "established" church, so a **dis**establishment**arian** is a person who wants to stop the state church. These people say a state church hurts the freedom of religion. These people say the state should be secular, meaning religion and the country are separate. This idea is called disestablishmentarian**ism. **So **anti**disestablishmentarianism wants to keep the state church.

It is famous because it is one of the longest words in the English language.

## History in England

The word comes from England in the 1800s. In England, Ireland and Wales, there was an official state church called the Anglican Church. Ireland disestablished in 1871, and Wales disestablished in 1920. England still has the Anglican Church as the state church.

In 2014 Nick Clegg, who was the leader of the Liberal Democrats at the time, said that he thought the Church of England should no longer be the established church. David Cameron, who was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, said the establishment helps the church and state.

## As a word

Antidisestablishmentarianism is one of the longest words in the English language. It has 28 letters and 12 syllables. It is considered to be the longest word, if you do not count technical terms. For example, "pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis" is a technical term for the lung disease asbestosis, made by people who wanted it to be the longest word. However, while some dictionaries, such as the Cambridge dictionary have decided to include antidisestablishmentarianism, Merriam-Webster has stated that it will not add the word  to its dictionaries due to a lack of widespread use.

## In pop culture

The word became famous because of a popular television show in the 1950s called _The $64,000 Question_, where someone spelled it and won. Duke Ellington, a jazz artist, had a song called "You're Just an Old Antidisestablishmentarianismist". Eminem, a rapper, used the word in his song "Almost Famous".

## Construction of the word

- _establish_
- to set up, put in place, or institute
- _dis-establish_
- to end the established status of something, in this case a state church
- _disestablish-ment_
- the separation of church and state
- _anti-disestablishment_
- do not want disestablishment
- _antidisestablishment-ary_
- about anti-disestablishment
- _antidisestablishmentari-an_
- someone who does not want disestablishment
- _antidisestablishmentarian-ism_
- the movement or ideology that does not want disestablishment

## Related pages

- Secularism
- State religion
- The separation of church (Religion) and State
- Racial religions (such as ethnic religions), Nationalism
1193

## Events

- Saladin dies, and the lands of the Kurdish Ayyubid dynasty of Egypt and Syria are split among his descendants.
- Qutb-ud-Din, a Ghurid slave commander, captures Delhi.
- Muhammad Khilji, a general under the command of Qutb-ud-Din sacks and burns Nalanda, India's greatest Buddhist university.
- Philip II of France marries Ingeborg, daughter of Valdemar I of Denmark.

## Births

- William de Ferrers, 5th Earl of Derby (d. 1254)
- Albertus Magnus, German philosopher and theologian (d. 1280)
- John III Ducas Vatatzes, Byzantine Emperor (d. 1254)

## Deaths

- March 4 — Saladin, Sultan of the Kurdish Ayyubid dynasty of Egypt and Syria (b. c. 1138)
- Balian of Ibelin, noble of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem (b. early 1140s)
- Düsum Khyenpa, 1st Gyalwa Karmapa (b. 1110)
- Minamoto no Noriyori, Japanese general (b. 1156)
- Emperor Renzong of Western Xia, 5th emperor of the Western Xia dynasty (b. 1124)
- Fan Chengda, Chinese poet

## Heads of states

- England — Richard I King of England (reigned 1189–1199)
- France — Philippe II, Auguste King of France (reigned 1180–1223)
- Byzantine Empire — Isaac II Angelus (reigned 1185 to 1195, and 1203–1204)
- Pope — Celestine III (Pope 1191–1198)
- China — Emperor Guangzong of Song (reigned 1189-1194)
Sarah McLachlan

**Sarah Ann McLachlan** (born January 28, 1968) is a Canadian singer-songwriter who is known for her emotional music. She was adopted and raised in Halifax, Nova Scotia. She went to the Nova Scotia College of Art and Design, then moved to Vancouver, British Columbia.

Her recording company, Nettwerk, released her first album in 1988. After recording several albums, she organized the all-female music festival Lilith Fair in 1997, 1998, and 1999. Some of the money made from these concerts went to women's charities. McLachlan received the Elizabeth Cady Stanton Visionary Award in 1998 for helping women's music.

She married her drummer, Ashwin Sood, in 1997. They have a daughter, India, born in 2002.

McLachlan has been written about in magazines such as Rolling Stone, Time, and Entertainment Weekly. She has won Grammy and Juno awards for her music.

She funds a Vancouver program that helps poor children learn music. She has played at charity concerts, such as for victims of the December 26, 2004 tsunami and at the 2005 Live 8 concert in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.

Some of McLachlan's best-known songs include "The Path of Thorns", "Into the Fire", "Possession", "Building a Mystery", "Sweet Surrender", "Adia", "Angel", and "World on Fire".

## Albums

Albums with only new songs:
- _Touch_ (1988)
- _Solace_ (1991)
- _Fumbling Towards Ecstacy_ (1993)
- _Surfacing_ (1997)
- _Afterglow_ (2003)

## Live albums

- _Mirrorball_ (1999)
- _Afterglow Live_ (2004)
Live EPs (shorter albums) were released in 1992 and 2004.

## Other albums

- _The Freedom Sessions_ (1994)
- _Rarities, B-Sides and Other Stuff_ (1996)
- Albums called _Murmers_ were released only for her fan club every year from 1995 to 2001.
- Two remix albums were released, in 2001 and 2005.
Mark Twain

**Samuel Langhorne Clemens** (November 30, 1835 – April 21, 1910), more widely known as **Mark Twain**, was an American writer. He was born in Florida, Missouri.  He worked mainly for newspapers and as a steamboat pilot on the Mississippi River before he became a writer. He married in 1870, and raised his family in Hartford, Connecticut. In later life he invested and lost the money that his writing had made, and toured the world giving lectures that brought him enough money to pay his debt and recover his fortune.

Clemens was  best known for his works in fiction, and especially for his use of humour. His first published story, in 1865, was _The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County._

_Adventures of Huckleberry Finn_ is considered by many to be Clemens' best work.  This story of a white boy who helps a black man escape slavery in the southern United States is known for its humanity.

Clemens's style was usually informal and humorous. This made him different from many important 19th century writers whose books he disliked. For example, he greatly disliked Jane Austen's works, such as _Sense and Sensibility_ and _Pride and Prejudice_, and famously remarked, "She makes me detest (hate) all her people, without reserve."

Actor Hal Holbrook played Mark Twain on stage in a one-man show called _Mark Twain Tonight_.

Halley's Comet appeared in the sky during the year Twain was born and the year he died. This periodic comet comes back every 74 years, which is how long he lived.

## Bibliography

- _The Adventures of Tom Sawyer_ (1876)
- _The Prince and the Pauper_ (1882)
- _Adventures of Huckleberry Finn_ (1884)
- _A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court_ (1889)

## Other websites

- The Mark Twain Papers and Project of the Bancroft Library (Archive of Mark Twain's papers and writings)
- Samuel Langhorne Clemens collection of papers at New York Public Library

## Infobox (writer)

- **name**: Mark Twain
- **image**: Mark Twain 1907.jpg
- **imagesize**: 200px
- **caption**: Twain in 1909
- **birth name**: Samuel Langhorne Clemens
- **pseudonym**: Mark Twain
- **birth place**: Florida, Missouri, U.S.
- **death place**: Redding, Connecticut, U.S.
- **occupation**: Writer
- **nationality**: American
- **signature**: Mark Twain Signatures-2.svg
- **notableworks**: _Adventures of Huckleberry Finn_, _The Adventures of Tom Sawyer_
Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban

***Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban*** is the third book in the _Harry Potter_ series by J. K. Rowling. The book was released on 8 July 1999. It covers Harry Potter's third year at Hogwarts. A movie based on the book was released on 31 May 2004. This is the only book where Lord Voldemort does not make an appearance.

## Plot

After accidentally inflating his aunt Marge, Harry leaves the Dursleys, and catches a ride on the street on a magical bus called The Knight Bus. Before he begins his way back to Hogwarts, he learns of Sirius Black, a mass murderer, believed to have killed thirteen people with a single curse. Black has escaped from the wizard prison, Azkaban. Meanwhile, upon meeting the Weasleys, Harry learns that, despite accidentally using magic (which is illegal), he has not been expelled.   Mr. Weasley tells Mrs. Weasley of Sirius Black's motive to kill Harry when Harry overhears this he is told not to go looking for Black. Later in the book, Harry soon realizes why.

## Infobox (book)

- **name**: Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban
- **author**: J. K. Rowling
- **country**: United Kingdom
- **language**: English
- **genre**: Fantasy novel, Fantasy
- **isbn**: 0-7475-4215-5
- **illustrator**: Cliff Wright (UK Edition)
Mary GrandPré (US Edition)
Jim Kay (Illustrated Edition)
- **series**: _Harry Potter_
- **release number**: in series
- **pub date**: 8 July 1999 (UK)
8 September 1999 (US)
- **pages**: 317 (UK Edition)
462 (2014 UK Edition)
435 (US Edition)
464 (2013 US Edition)
 326 (Illustrated Edition)
- **preceded by**: Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets
- **followed by**: Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire
Crohn's disease

**Crohn's disease** is a type of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). It can affect any part of the GI system from the mouth to the anus (usually the small bowel and the beginning of the colon). People with Crohn's disease often have abdominal pain, diarrhea, vomiting, fatigue, bloody stool and weight loss. Crohn's can also cause skin rashes, arthritis, and swollen eyes. It is named after Burrill Bernard Crohn, who described cases in 1932. It was first described by Giovanni Battista Morgagni (1682–1771) in the 18th century.

Crohn's disease is a chronic inflammatory and an idiopathic disease which means that we don’t know what exactly causes it. There are several factors that play a role in development of the disease such as genetics and the immune system. Though Crohn's is connected to the immune system, the exact underlying immune problem is not clear. There is disagreement in the medical community as to whether the disease is immune-related, immune-mediated or is an autoimmune disease (the immune system is not triggered by the body itself). There are also some lifestyle risk factors. The autoimmune reaction causes inflammation in the gut, leading to development of the symptoms listed above.

Crohn's disease seems to be connected to the person's genes. People whose brothers or sisters have the disease are the most likely to get it. Men and women can both be affected by Crohn's disease.

Around 20% of people with Crohn’s disease have Inflammatory bowel disease. Environmental factors can increase your risk of disease. For example, people who live in developed countries and urban areas have a higher risk. Studies show that patients who have had appendix surgery may have an increased risk of Crohn’s.

Managing Crohn's disease includes both lifestyle changes and various kind of medication. It is a chronic condition for which there is no cure. Certain parasitic intestinal worms appear to make the bowel less inflamed. It is supposed that the worms modify the immune reactions in the parts of the intestine where they live.

Alternative medicine of various kinds has been tried, with uncertain results.

## Other websites

- Crohn's disease information and tools for patients
- Crohn's disease facts from the National Institutes of Health
- Crohns Disease Resource Site