juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Champagne-Ardenne

**Champagne-Ardenne** is a former administrative region of France. It is now part of the administrative region of Grand Est. Its capital was Chalons-en-Champagne. Another very important city in the region is Reims.

The departments in Champagne-Ardenne were Ardennes, Aube, Marne, and Haute-Marne.

The region is heavily centered on farming. It was the first region of France in the production of barley and alfalfa. Many cereals are also grown here. It is also very important for vegetables and wine. It is nearest to the east border. Sparkling wine is officially allowed to be called champagne if it is from here.
Upper Normandy

**Upper Normandy** (called _Haute-Normandie_ in French) is a former region of France. It is now part of the administrative region of Normandy. The capital was Rouen, which is now the capital of Normandy. In 2007 about 1.9 million people lived in the region.

Upper Normandy was formed as a region in 1956. The old region of Normandy was split into the current Upper Normandy and Lower Normandy. The departments in the region were Seine-Maritime and Eure.

The region was the first producer of flax in France. It is also quite industrialized, specialising in petrochemical and pharmaceutical, as well as manufacturing industries.
Limousin

**Limousin** is a former administrative region of France. It is now part of the administrative region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine. Its capital was Limoges. With 42 people per square kilometer, this was one of the least populated regions. About 710,000 people lived on roughly .

The departments in the region were Corrèze, Creuse, and Haute-Vienne.

The local economy had been recentered around services.
Poitou-Charentes

**Poitou-Charentes** is a former administrative region of France. It is now part of the administrative region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine. It was in the west, bordering the Atlantic. Its capital was Poitiers. In 2007 about 1.7 million people lived in the region.

The departments in the region were Charente, Charente-Maritime, Deux-Sèvres and Vienne.

The region is well known for making wines. It is better known for its spirits, such as Cognac and Pineau. There is also some tourism and a little agriculture.

## Other websites

- A short guide to the Poitou Charentes region
Nord-Pas-de-Calais

**Nord-Pas-de-Calais** (sometimes also **Nord-Pas de Calais**)  used to be an administrative region of France. It is now part of the administrative region of Hauts-de-France. Its prefecture was Lille. In 2012, four million people lived there (365,000 in the urban area of Lille).

The two departments in the region were Nord and Pas-de-Calais.

The local economy was based on carbon, steel and textiles. The secondary sector (industry) employed 33.8% (of an 28.9% national average). Unemployment was at 12.9 per cent (9.8% national average). Structural investment in the TGV and the Channel Tunnel has shown some improvement though. The tourism industry does well thanks to the border with Belgium and closeness to England.
Picardy

**Picardy** ()  used to be an administrative region of France. It is now part of the administrative region of Hauts-de-France. It is in the north of the country. Amiens was its capital. In 2007 almost 1.9 million people lived in the region, 186,000 of them in the capital.

The departments in the region were Aisne, Oise, and Somme.

Agriculture is very important for Picardy. There are many products, including potatoes, cereals, and vegetables. Picardy was also called _Jardin de France_, meaning 'Garden of France'.
Pays de la Loire

**Pays de la Loire** (or **Pays-de-la-Loire**) is an administrative region of France. Its capital is Nantes. In 2018, about 3.8 million people lived in the region. There are seven big centers, with more than 100.000 people in the respective urban area:  Nantes, Angers, Le Mans, La Roche-sur-Yon, Cholet, Saint-Nazaire and Laval.

The departments in the region are:
- Loire-Atlantique
- Maine-et-Loire
- Mayenne
- Sarthe
- Vendée

The economy is centered around the production of food, and agriculture in general. It is the third in France in that sector. 51% of meat products, 19% of milk, and 67% of the natural produce of grain (cereals) are produced there.

## Languages

Some people in the region also speak other local languages. These are

- Angevin
- Breton
- Gallo
- Poitevin

Breton is a Celtic language, the others are Romance languages.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **official name**: Pays de la Loire
- **native name lang**: fr
- **settlement type**: Regions of France, Region of France
- **image skyline**: Chateau Montsoreau Loire.jpg
- **image caption**: Château de Montsoreau
- **image flag**: Cultural flag of Pays-de-la-Loire.svg
- **flag size**: 120px
- **image shield**: Blason région fr Pays-de-la-Loire.svg
- **image blank emblem**: Région Pays-de-la-Loire (logo).svg
- **blank emblem size**: 200
- **image map**: Pays de la Loire region locator map2.svg
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **seat type**: Prefectures in France, Prefecture
- **seat**: Nantes
- **parts type**: Departments of France, Departments
- **parts style**: list
- **parts**: 5
- **p1**: Loire-Atlantique
- **p2**: Maine-et-Loire
- **p3**: Mayenne
- **p4**: Sarthe
- **p5**: Vendée
- **leader party**: The Republicans (France), LR
- **leader title**: President of the Regional Council (France), President of the Regional Council
- **leader name**: Christelle Morançais
- **area total km2**: 32082
- **area rank**: 8th
- **population total**: 3553352
- **population density km2**: auto
- **timezone1**: Central European Time, CET
- **utc offset1**: +01:00
- **timezone1 dst**: Central European Summer Time, CEST
- **utc offset1 dst**: +02:00
- **blank name sec1**: Gross domestic product, GDP (2012)
- **blank info sec1**: List of French regions and overseas collectivities by GDP, Ranked 5th
- **blank1 name sec1**: Total
- **blank1 info sec1**: €101.2 billion (US$130.2 bn)
- **blank2 name sec1**: Per capita
- **blank2 info sec1**: €27,775 (US$35,725)
- **blank name sec2**: First level NUTS of the European Union#France, NUTS Region
- **blank info sec2**: FR5
- **website**: [http://www.paysdelaloire.fr/ www.paysdelaloire.fr]
- **iso code**: FR-PDL
Rhône-Alpes

**Rhône-Alpes** is a former administrative region of France. It is now part of the administrative region of Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes. In 2010, about six million people lived in the region.

The capital was Lyon. Grenoble and Saint-Étienne are also important cities in the region.

The departments in the region were:
- Ain
- Ardèche
- Drôme
- Isère
- Loire
- Rhône
- Savoie
- Haute-Savoie

The Rhône-Alpes region hosted the Winter Olympics three times; in 1924 at Chamonix, 1968 at Grenoble, and 1992 at Albertville.
Île-de-France

**Île-de-France** (pronounced _Eel-de-frans_) is a region of France. The capital city is Paris. It is also the capital city of France. In 2013 about 12 million people lived in the region. About 2.1 million people live in the city of Paris.

There are 8 departments in the region. They are:
- Essonne
- Hauts-de-Seine
- Paris
- Seine-et-Marne
- Seine-Saint-Denis
- Val-d'Oise
- Val-de-Marne
- Yvelines
Pont-l'évêque cheese

**Pont-l'évêque** is a soft cheese from Normandy. It is produced in the village with the same name. It has had an AOC since 1976, which means it can only be made in Pont-l'Évêque, Calvados. It is made from the milk of cows.
Livarot cheese

**Livarot** is a cheese from Normandy. It is produced in the village with the same name. It is a soft cheese made from the milk of cows.
Ajaccio

**Ajaccio** (Latin: _Ajax_; French: _Ajaccio_; Corsican: _Aiacciu_), pronounced "ah-YAH-cho", is a town in France. It is the capital of the _territorial collectivity_ of Corsica and the prefecture of the department of Corse-du-Sud.

## Geography

Ajaccio is on the west coast of the island of Corsica in a sheltered position at the foot of wooded hills on the northern shore of the Gulf of Ajaccio. The harbour is to the east of the town and is protected on the south by a peninsula. Ajaccio has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (_Csa_ in the Koeppen climate classification).

Ajaccio was the birthplace of:
- Napoleon Bonaparte (1769–1821), Emperor of the French
- Joseph Fesch (1763-1839), cardinal
- Tino Rossi (1907-1983), singer, actor
- Fred Scamaroni (1914-1943), WW II Resistance hero
- Alizée (born 1984), pop singer
- Irène Bordoni (1895-1953), singer, Broadway theatre & movie actress

## Other websites

- Official website
Prefectures in France

A **prefecture** in France can refer to :
- the _Chef-lieu de département_, the town in which the administration of a _département_ is located ;
- the _Chef-lieu de région_, the town in which the administration of a _région_ is located ;
- the jurisdiction of a _préfecture_ ;
- the official residence or headquarters of a _préfet_.
Spectrum

_This article is about the visible spectrum. For all other uses see: Spectrum (disambiguation)_

A **spectrum**, plural: **spectra**, is a band of several colours: violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red. A spectrum can be seen if the Sun's light is passed through a prism and allowed to gather on a white screen. This **visible spectrum** is part of the larger electromagnetic spectrum. Spectroscopy is the study of spectra.

A natural example of a spectrum is a rainbow. The word _spectrum_ was first used by scientists studying optics. They used the word to describe the rainbow of colors in visible light when separated using a prism.  The spectrum seen when light passes through a prism is an example of the dispersion of light.  The material from which the prism is made has a different  refractive index _n_ than air.  Usually, _n_<sub>prism</sub> is greater than _n_<sub>air</sub>, and _n_<sub>air</sub> is taken to be approximately one. This implies that light travels a little slower in the material of the prism than in the space surrounding it.  The angle of refraction can be determined from the angle of incidence and the refractive indexes using Snell's law.

The reason why the white light separates into in its component colors instead of remaining white is because the shorter wavelengths are refracted, or bent, more than the longer wavelengths.  Thus, red, having the longest visible wavelength, will appear closest to the line perpendicular to the surface of the material (the normal), that is, it will be bent the least.  Violet light, with the smallest wavelength  in the visible spectrum, will be bent the most.  The rainbow produced will always be in the same order: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet.

## Related pages

- Primary colour
- Electromagnetic spectrum
Arshak II

**Arshak II** (or **Arsaces II**) (350-367) was the son of Diran. During his reign, Shapur II of Persia tried to take over Armenia once and for all. Arshak II was taken prisoner during talks about peace with Shapur and later killed himself in prison.

Despite having many troubles during his reign, Arshak II was able to change many parts of his kingdom for the better. They included:
- The creation of many monasteries, to keep monks away from the problems of everyday life. They also helped spread the gospel
- The building of hospitals
- The creation of many schools to teach Assyrian and Greek, since the Holy Bible was read in those languages at that time
- The ban of inbred marriages, polygamy, divorce, pagan rituals, drunkenness and killings for revenge
- The better treatment of slaves

## References

- Translated from the Armenian: Mihran Kurdoghlian, Badmoutioun Hayots, A. hador [Armenian History, volume I], Athens, Greece, 1994, pg. 108-111
Tiridates III of Armenia

**Tiridates III** (or **Trdat III**) was the king of Armenia (286-330), and was also known as **Tiridates the Great**. (Some scholars may be wrong because they call him as Trdat IV as a result of the fact that Tiridates I of Armenia reigned twice.) In 301, Tiridates made Christianity as the sole religion in Armenia, making Armenia the first Christian state in the world.

## References

- Translated from the Armenian: Mihran Kurdoghlian, Badmoutioun Hayots, A. hador [Armenian History, volume I],  Athens, Greece, 1994, pg. 96-105.
- The Library of Congress - Armenia - A Country Study
- Yuri Babayan - Tiridates the Great

## Infobox (monarch)

- **name**: Tiridates III of Armenia
- **title**: King of Armenia
- **image**: Tiridates III of Armenia-Baptism.jpg
- **father**: Chosroes I of Armenia
Tiridates

**Tiridates** was the name of three members of the Arsacid Dynasty of Parthia:
- Tiridates I of Parthia was the brother of Arsaces I.
- Tiridates II of Parthia ruled c. 30–26 BC
- Tiridates III of Parthia ruled c. AD 35–36

**Tiridates** (**Trdat** in Armenian) was the name of three kings of the Arsacid Dynasty of Armenia:
- Tiridates I of Armenia ruled c. 56–59 and 62–72
- Tiridates II of Armenia ruled c. 197–238
- Tiridates III of Armenia ruled c. 283–330

**Other**

- Trdat the Architect, reconstructed the dome of Hagia Sophia in 989 and built the Cathedral of Ani.
Aotearoa

**Aotearoa** is the current Māori language name for New Zealand. It has replaced previous translations such as _Niu Tirani_ (which was used in the Treaty of Waitangi) and _Niu Tireni_ (which was used in the Whakaputanga Declaration of Independence). It translates to _the land of the long white cloud_ or _one long white cloud_.
Hagia Sophia

**Hagia Sophia** (Greek: Ἁγία Σοφία, meaning the **Holy Wisdom**) is a mosque in the eastern Bosporus of Istanbul, Turkey. It was originally a Byzantine Eastern Orthodox cathedral and was turned into a mosque after the conquest of Constantinople by the Ottoman Empire.
The walls and floor of the building are from the Late Antiquity and the decorations, including mosaics and frescoes, are mostly from the Middle Ages.

### Cathedral

Hagia Sophia was the third church built in this location. It was built between 532 and 537 as the cathedral of Constantinople, the capital city of the Eastern Roman Empire during Late Antiquity. Byzantine emperor Justinian the Great ordered the construction. The architects were Anthemius of Tralles and Isidore of Miletus. Greek historian Procopius wrote about Hagia Sophia's construction. The building's roof (a large dome) fell and had been rebuilt many times. An earthquake in 994 damaged the cathedral, it was rebuilt by Trdat the Architect.

Hagia Sophia was used as an Eastern Orthodox cathedral until 1453, except during the Latin Empire when it was turned into a Roman Catholic cathedral.

### Mosque

In 1453, after the Fall of Constantinople, Ottoman Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror turned Hagia Sophia into a mosque.

It became a museum in 1935 after the decision of the secularist Turkish government under Kemal Atatürk in 1934. In July 2020, the Turkish government under Tayyip Erdoğan ordered the Hagia Sophia to be turned back into a mosque following a supreme court annulment of a 1934 presidential decree that made it a museum.
Incense

**Incense** is a fuel that is burned to make a smell. It can be used for many purposes, for example, during rituals in some religions. Incense can be used to make a place smell better or to help improve mood.

In Judaism, instructions for the use of incense were given in Exodus. (E.g. Exodus 30:1). In Christianity, Christ is given myrrh and frankincense by the wise men. (Gospel of Matthew 2:11)

Incense is also used in Hindu rituals.

## Other websites

- Incense in Catholicism
Derbyshire

**Derbyshire** is a county in the East Midlands of England. A large part of the Peak District National Park lies within Derbyshire.

The northern part of Derbyshire overlaps with the Pennines, a famous chain of hills and mountains. The county contains part of the National Forest, and borders on Greater Manchester, West Yorkshire, South Yorkshire, Nottinghamshire, Leicestershire, Staffordshire and Cheshire.

## Places of interest

- Chatsworth — a stately home
- Crich Tramway Village, Crich
- Derwent Valley Mills — a World Heritage Site
- Hob Hurst's House — English Heritage
- Nine Ladies Stone Circle — English Heritage
- Sutton Scarsdale Hall — English Heritage
- Wingfield Manor — English Heritage
- Creswell Crags — pending World Heritage Site proposal

## Geology

Derbyshire can only be understood by its ancient geology. Most of the geology was laid down in a tropical paradise in the equatorial region of the Earth.

Northern Derbyshire is an uplifted dome of rock layers. These layers have been eroded to expose older rocks in the centre of the Derbyshire Dome. They are encircled by younger limestone rocks. They give way on three sides to Upper Carboniferous shales, gritstones and sandstones of Namurian age (331 to 315 mya).

South of Buxton much of the land is difficult to walk on, and roads are narrow and winding. This area was once a tropical paradise with scattered calcium carbonate reefs. This coarse sandstone was much used for gritstone grinding wheels for use in mills.

## Infobox (england county)

- **name**: Derbyshire
- **flag image**:
- **arms image**:
- **map**:
- **status**: Ceremonial counties of England, Ceremonial & (smaller) Metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties of England, Non-metropolitan county
- **region**: East Midlands
- **arearank**: Ranked 21st
- **area km2**: 2,625
- **adminarearank**: Ranked 20th
- **adminarea**: 2,547
- **adminhq**: Matlock, England, Matlock
- **iso**: GB-DBY
- **ons**: 17
- **nuts3**: UKF12/13
- **poprank**: Ranked
- **adminpoprank**: Ranked
- **ethnicity**: 96.0% White
2.3% S.Asian
- **council**: Derbyshire County Council
http://www.derbyshire.gov.uk/
- **mps**: * Margaret Beckett
* Liz Blackman
* Natasha Engel
* Paul Holmes (politician), Paul Holmes
* Bob Laxton
* Tom Levitt
* Judy Mallaber
* Patrick McLoughlin
* Dennis Skinner
* Mark Todd (politician), Mark Todd
- **subdivmap**:
- **subdivs**: #High Peak
# Derby, England, Derby (Unitary)


## Infobox (unesco world heritage site)

- **whs**: Derwent Valley Mills
- **image**: Arkwright Masson Mills.jpg
- **caption**: Masson Mills, Derwent Valley
- **id**: 1030
- **year**: 2001
- **criteria**: Cultural: ii, iv
- **area**: 1,228.7 ha
- **buffer zone**: 4,362.7002 ha
- **location**: Derbyshire, England
- **locmapin**: United Kingdom Derbyshire#United Kingdom
- **map caption**: Location of the mills
Salad

A **salad** is a serving in a meal that includes leaf vegetables such as lettuce, spinach, or arugula. Uncooked or cold cooked vegetables that are sliced into small pieces (for example tomato or onion) are then mixed with the leaf vegetables. Some salads use spices like Tabbouleh.

A salad dressing or vinaigrette is then poured on top of the vegetables. Salad dressings and vinaigrettes are a mixture of oil, herbs, spices, and flavorings.

Some people also add other foods to the salad, such as croutons, bacon, beef, chicken, grated cheese, tuna, pasta, olives, cooked potatoes, rice, or beans.

### Green salad

A **green salad** or **garden salad** has leafy vegetables such as lettuce, spinach, or rocket (arugula). The salad leaves may be cut or torn into bite-sized fragments and tossed together (a _tossed salad_). They may also have nuts or croutons.

A **wedge salad** is made from a head of lettuce (such as iceberg) halved or quartered, with other ingredients on top.

### Vegetable salad

Vegetables other than greens may be used in a salad. Common raw vegetables used in a salad include cucumbers, peppers, tomatoes, onions, carrots, celery, and radishes. Other ingredients include mushrooms, avocado, olives, hard boiled egg, artichoke hearts, heart of palm, green beans, cheeses.

### Fruit salads

Fruit salads are made of fruit, and include the fruit cocktail that can be made fresh or from canned fruit.

### Dessert salads

Dessert salads rarely include leafy greens and are often sweet. Common variants are made with gelatin or whipped cream; e.g. jello salad, pistachio salad, and ambrosia. Other forms of dessert salads include snickers salad, glorified rice, and cookie salad popular in parts of the Midwestern United States.

### Composed salad

A composed salad is a salad arranged on a plate rather than put into a bowl. It can be used as a meal in itself rather than as a part of a meal.

### Dressings

A green salad is often served with a salad dressing. Some examples include:
- Italian dressing
- Mayonnaise
- Olive oil
    - French dressing
- Tahini
- Vinaigrette

The purpose of salad dressing depends across cultures. There are many often used salad dressings in North America. Traditional dressings in southern Europe are vinaigrettes, while mayonnaise is predominant in eastern European countries and Russia. In Denmark dressings are often based on crème fraîche. In China, where Western salad is a recent adoption from Western cuisine, the term salad dressing (沙拉酱, _shalajiang_) means to mayonnaise or mayonnaise-based dressings.

### Garnishes

There are many vegetables and other fare that are often added to salads. Some of them include:

- shelled sunflower seeds
- onions (mostly the red variety)
- bacon bits (sometimes the bits are artificially flavored pieces of textured soybean protein)
- radishes
- grated carrots
- tomatoes
- surimi - artificial crab meat

Again, individual taste usually governs the choice of salad garnishes.

## Related pages

- Chef salad
- Caesar salad
- Fruit salad
- Watercress salad
- Salade niçoise
Nottinghamshire

**Nottinghamshire** (abbreviated **Notts**) is a county in the East Midlands of England. It borders South Yorkshire, North Lincolnshire, Lincolnshire, Leicestershire and Derbyshire. The county town is traditionally Nottingham, at , though the council is now based in West Bridgford (at a site facing Nottingham over the River Trent).

The districts of Nottinghamshire are Ashfield, Bassetlaw, Broxtowe, Gedling, Mansfield, Newark and Sherwood, and Rushcliffe. The City of Nottingham was administratively part of Nottinghamshire between 1974 and 1998 but is now a unitary authority, although it remains part of the county.

## Culture

Nottinghamshire contains the ancestral home of the poet Lord Byron, Newstead Abbey, which he sold in 1818. It is now owned by Nottingham City Council and open to the public.

## Settlements and communications

The traditional county town, and the largest settlement in the historic and ceremonial county boundaries, is Nottingham. The city is now administratively independent, but suburbs including Arnold, Carlton, West Bridgford, Beeston and Stapleford are still within the administrative county and West Bridgford is now home of the county council.

## Places of interest

- Clumber Park
- Creswell Crags
- Rufford Country Park
- Southwell Minster
- Sherwood Forest
- Ye Olde Trip To Jerusalem
- Hawton Church
- Nottingham Castle
- Newstead Abbey

## Other websites

- Nottinghamshire County Council
- BBC Nottingham
- Nottinghamshire Indymedia
- Visit Nottinghamshire
- Nottinghamshire Police
- Flickr Nottingham  A collaborative blog from the members of the Nottingham Flickr Group, covering the county as well as the city
- Nottingham Nightclub Guide

## Infobox (england county)

- **name**: Nottinghamshire
- **flag image**:
- **map**:
- **status**: Ceremonial counties of England, Ceremonial & (smaller) Metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties of England, Non-metropolitan county
- **origin**: Historic counties of England, Historic
- **region**: East Midlands
- **arearank**: List of Ceremonial counties of England by Area, Ranked 27th
- **area km2**: 2160
- **adminarearank**: List of Administrative shire counties of England by Area, Ranked 24th
- **adminarea km2**: 2085
- **adminhq**: West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire, West Bridgford
- **iso**: GB-NTT
- **ons**: 37
- **nuts3**: UKF15/16
- **poprank**: List of ceremonial counties of England by population, Ranked
- **adminpoprank**: List of non-metropolitan counties of England by population, Ranked
- **ethnicity**: 94.1% White
2.5% S. Asian
1.5% Afro-Carib.
- **council**: Nottinghamshire County Council
http://www.nottscc.gov.uk/
- **mps**: *Graham Allen
* Kenneth Clarke
* Vernon Coaker
* John Heppell
* Geoff Hoon
* John Mann (politician), John Mann
* Alan Meale
* Patrick Mercer
* Nick Palmer
* Alan Simpson (politician), Alan Simpson
* Paddy Tipping
- **subdivmap**:
- **subdivs**: #Rushcliffe
# Nottingham (Unitary)
Pennines

The **Pennines** are a mountain range in England. Often said to be the "backbone of England", they form an unbroken range stretching from the Peak District in the Midlands, through the Yorkshire Dales, parts of Greater Manchester, the West Pennine Moors of Lancashire and Cumbrian Fells to the Cheviot Hills on the Scottish border. Their total length is about .

## Etymology

The name _Pennines_ is believed to come from the Celtic _pennioroches_, meaning "hill", although the earliest written reference to the name dates only from the 18th century.

## Altitude and size

The mountains are not very tall and are often called hills. The highest is Cross Fell in eastern Cumbria, at . Other main mountain peaks include Mickle Fell , Whernside , Ingleborough , Pen-y-ghent , and Kinder Scout .

The landscape of the Pennines are mostly upland areas of high moorland.
The Pennines make up the main watershed in northern England, dividing the eastern and western parts of the country. The rivers Eden, Ribble, and Mersey flow west towards the Irish Sea. On the other side of the watershed, the rivers Tyne, Tees, Swale, Calder, Aire, Don, and Trent flow east to the North Sea.
Lake District

The **Lake District**, also known as **The Lakes** or **Lakeland**, is a rural area in north west England.  It is a popular vacation area, famous for its lakes and its mountains and its associations with the early 19th century poetry and writings of William Wordsworth and the Lake Poets.

It is on a tentative list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

## History

Lake District National Park (created in 1951) is one of the fifteen National parks in the United Kingdom.

## Geography

The Lake District is about 34 miles (55 km) across (north-to-south or west-to-east).  It is entirely within Cumbria, and is one of England's few mountainous regions. All the land in England higher than three thousand feet above sea level is in the Park.

### 25 highest fells

The 25 highest fells (of those given an individual chapter in the _Pictorial Guides_ by Alfred Wainwright) are:

1. Scafell Pike, 978 m / 3210 ft
1. Scafell, 965 m / 3162 ft
1. Helvellyn, 951 m / 3118 ft
1. Skiddaw, 931 m / 3054 ft
1. Great End, 910 m / 2986 ft
1. Bowfell, 902 m / 2960 ft
1. Great Gable, 899 m / 2949 ft
1. Pillar, 892 m / 2926 ft
1. Nethermost Pike, 891 m / 2923 ft
1. Catstycam, 889 m / 2917 ft
1. Esk Pike, 885 m / 2903 ft
1. Raise (Lake District), 883 m / 2896 ft
1. Fairfield, 873 m / 2863 ft
1. Blencathra, 868 m / 2847 ft
1. Skiddaw Little Man, 865 m / 2837 ft
1. White Side, 863 m / 2831 ft
1. Crinkle Crags, 859 m / 2818 ft
1. Dollywaggon Pike, 858 m / 2815 ft
1. Great Dodd, 857 m / 2807 ft
1. Grasmoor, 852 m / 2795 ft
1. Stybarrow Dodd, 843 m / 2772 ft
1. St Sunday Crag, 841 m / 2759 ft
1. Scoat Fell, 841 m / 2759 ft
1. Crag Hill, 839 m / 2753 ft
1. High Street, 828 m / 2717 ft

### Lakes

Only one lake in the National Park has the word 'Lake' in its name, namely Bassenthwaite Lake. All the others such as Windermere, Coniston Water, Ullswater and Buttermere use other forms, such as 'mere' and 'water'. The major lakes and reservoirs in the park are given below.

The word 'tarn' is a local word used to describe any small lake that may otherwise be called a pond.

## Nomenclature

A number of words/phrases are local to the Lake District and are part of the Cumbrian dialect. These include:

- fell - brought to England by Viking invaders and close to modern Norwegian 'Fjell' meaning mountain
- tarn - a word that has been taken to mean a small lake in a corrie, it is a local phrase for any small pool of water
- Yan Tan Tethera - the name for a system of sheep counting which was traditionally used in the Lake District. Though now rare, it is still used by some and taught in local schools.

## Related pages

- List of World Heritage Sites of the United Kingdom
- Yorkshire Dales

## Other websites

- Lake District official website
- Lake District Walks
- Illustrated Guide to the Lake District

## More reading

- Hollingsworth, S. 'The Geology of the Lake District: a review', _Proc. Geologists Assoc._, 65 (Part 4) 1954
- Moseley, F. _Geology of the Lake District_, Yorkshire Geologic
Khosrov III the Small

**Chosroes III The Small** (or Khosrov III Godag), was the son of Tiridates III, was a member of the Arshakuni Dynasty and the king of Armenia from 330 – 339 AD. He was a man of short stature, thus his name. He founded the city of Dvin which later became the Armenian capital.

During his reign, two generals, Vatche Mamikonian and Vahan Amatuni, started a battle, often coming to help the king. During these years, pro-Sassanid  and anti-Mamikonian sentiment grew in Armenia and so did anti-Roman sentiment. Pro-Sassanid groups gained popularity so much so that they were successful in assassinating Catholicos St. Aristaces I, son of Gregory the Illuminator.

Shapur II, Sassanid king of the Persians, invaded Armenia twice and did gain some territory. Vatche Mamikonian was killed in those battles and was later named a saint by the Armenian Apostolic Church for his sacrifice. Chosroes II died in 339 AD.

## References

Translated from the Armenian: Mihran Kurdoghlian, Badmoutioun Hayots, A. hador [Armenian History, volume I],  Athens, Greece, 1994, pg. 107

## Infobox (royalty)

- **name**: Khosrov III the Small
- **succession**: List of Armenian kings#Arshakuni (Arsacid) Kings of Armenia, King of Armenia
- **reign**: 330–339
- **predecessor**: Tiridates III of Armenia, Tiridates III
- **successor**: Tiran of Armenia, Tigranes VII (Tiran)
- **birth date**: 280–285
- **death date**: 338/339
- **issue**: Tiran of Armenia, Tiran
Varazdoukht
Bambish
- **house**: Arsacid dynasty of Armenia, Arsacid
- **house-type**: House
- **father**: Tiridates III
- **mother**: Ashkhen
Isabella, Queen of Armenia

**Queen Isabella of Armenia** (died c. 1252) ruled the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia 1219–1252. She was the daughter of Leo II of Armenia and Sybilla of Lusignan (daughter of Amalric I of Cyprus). Leo named Isabella as his heir.

She was married twice. Her first husband was Philip, son of Bohemund IV of Antioch, whom she married in 1223. Philip was murdered in 1225.

Her second husband was Hethum (or Hetoum) I, to whom she was married against her will on June 14, 1226. Hethum was co-ruler (or ruler) of Armenia from 1226 to 1270. The couple had six children:

1. Leo III (d. 1289)
1. Thoros (d. 1266),
1. Sibylle (d. 1290), who married Bohemund VI of Antioch
1. Euphemie (d. 1309), who married to Julien Grenier, Lord of Sidon
1. Rita of Armenia
1. Maria of Armenia, who married Guy d'Ibelin
Argishti II of Urartu

**Argishti II of Urartu** was king of the Urartun empire from 714 to 680 BC.
Xerxes of Sophene

**Xerxes** (died c. 212 BC) was the King of Sophene and son of Arsames II. During his domination, Antiochus III the Great invaded his capital Arsamosata. Xerxes recognized Antiochus as his sovereign and received his sister Antiochia as his bride, who later killed him.

## Notes

- Polybius, VIII.25

## References

- Johann Gustav Droysen,  _Geschichte des Hellenismus_, vol. ii. p. 73
- Joseph Hilarius Eckhel, vol. iii. p. 204.
Yorkshire and the Humber

**Yorkshire and the Humber** is one of the regions of England. It covers most of the historic county of Yorkshire, along with the part of northern Lincolnshire that was previously in the administrative area of Humberside (which existed 1974-1996).

The highest point of the region is Whernside, in the Yorkshire Dales, at 737 metres. The largest freshwater lake is Hornsea Mere in the East Riding of Yorkshire.

The population in 2005 was 5,854,357.

## Local government

The official region consists of the following subdivisions:

|Map||Ceremonial county||County/ unitary||Districts|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
||South Yorkshire *|1. Sheffield 2. Rotherham 3. Barnsley 4. Doncaster|||||
|West Yorkshire *|5. Wakefield 6. Kirklees 7. Calderdale 8. Bradford 9. Leeds||||||
|rowspan="2"|North Yorkshire (part only) || 10. North Yorkshire † || Selby Harrogate Craven Richmondshire Hambleton Ryedale Scarborough||||||
|colspan="2"|11. York||||||
|East Riding of Yorkshire|12. East Riding of Yorkshire||||||
|colspan="2"|13. Kingston upon Hull||||||
|rowspan="2"|Lincolnshire (part only) || colspan="2" | 14. North Lincolnshire||||||
|colspan="2"|15. North East Lincolnshire||||||

Key: shire county = † | metropolitan county = *

It was originally called **Yorkshire and Humberside**, and defined as North Yorkshire, West Yorkshire, South Yorkshire and Humberside.

## Other websites

- Government Office for Yorkshire and the Humber
- Yorkshire and Humber Assembly
Sophene

**Sophene** (Armenian: __) was a province of the Armenian Kingdom and of the Roman Empire, in the southwest of the kingdom. It is currently in modern-day southeastern Turkey.

According to Anania Shirakatsi's _Ashkharatsuyts_ ("World Atlas," 7th century), Tsopk was the 2nd among the 15 provinces of Greater Armenia. It consisted of 8 cantons (_gavars_): Khordzyan, Hashtyank, Paghnatun, Balahovit, Tsopk (Shahunyats), Andzit, Degiq, and Gavreq (Goreq).

Tsopk was part of the kingdom of Urartu in the 8th-7th cc BC. After unifying the region with his kingdom in the early 700s BC, king Argishtis I of Urartu resettled many of its inhabitants to his newly built city of Erebuni (modern day Armenian capital Yerevan). Around 600 BC, Tsopk became part of the newly emerged ancient Armenian Kingdom of Orontids.

After Alexander the Great's campaigns in 330s BC and the subsequent collapse of the Achaemenid Empire, Tsopk remained part of the newly independent kingdom of Greater Armenia. In the early 200s BC, at the instigation of the Seleucid Empire, which was trying to weaken the Armenian kingdom, Tsopk, along with Commagene, split from Greater Armenia, forming the Hellenistic kingdom of Tsopk-Commagene. The kingdom was ruled by a branch of the Armenian royal dynasty of Orontids. Tsopk later split from the Tsopk-Commagene kingdom as well, forming an independent kingdom.

Around 200 BC, in his attempt to finally subjugate Armenia, Seleucian king Antiochus III conquered both Greater Armenia and Tsopk, installing Armenian generals Artaxias I and Zariadres as governors-strategoses respectively in each kingdom. Following Antiochus' defeat by Romans at the battle of Magnesia in 190 BC, both Zareh and Artashes declared themselves independent kings. Zareh and his descendants ruled the kingdom of Tsopk until it was reunified with Greater Armenia by Tigranes the Great in the 80s BC.

Pompey gave Sophene to Tigranes, after defeating his father Tigranes the Great.
Sophene later become part of the Roman Empire, and was made into a province of the Roman Empire. The capital was Amida (modern Diyarbakır). Around 54, the province was ruled by Gaius Julius Sohaemus.
In 530, Sophene was included into the province of Armenia IV.
Westmorland

**Westmorland** (an older spelling is _Westmoreland_, an even older spelling is _Westmerland_) is an area of north west England and one of the 39 historic counties of England. It was an administrative county from 1889 to 1974 and now is part of Cumbria.

## Early history

At the time of the Domesday Book in 1086 the county was said to form part of Yorkshire.
The historic county borders are with Cumberland to the north, County Durham and Yorkshire to the east, and Lancashire to the south and west.

The highest point of the county is Helvellyn at 950m (3,117 ft). According to the 1831 census its area was 485,990 acres.

Appleby, the historic county town, was also a historic borough until it was reformed in 1885.

According to the 1971 census, Westmorland was the second smallest administrative county with people in England, after Rutland. The spead of population was as follows:

|District||Number of People|
| --- | --- | --- |
|Municipal Borough of Appleby|1,944||
|Municipal Borough of Kendal|21,602||
|Lakes Urban District|5,815||
|Windermere Urban District|8,065||
|North Westmorland Rural District|14,778||
|South Westmorland Rural District|20,633||

In 1974, under the Local Government Act 1972, the county was abolished and its former area was combined with Cumberland and parts of Lancashire and Yorkshire to form the new county of Cumbria. The former county now forms part of the districts of South Lakeland and Eden.
Historic counties of England

The **historic counties of England** are subdivisions of UK They were used for various functions for several hundred years and continue to form the basis of modern local government. They are alternatively known as _ancient counties_ and _traditional counties_.

## The counties

The historic counties are as follows:

|valign="top"|<ol style="font-size:83%;"> <li>Bedfordshire <li>Berkshire <li>Buckinghamshire <li>Cambridgeshire <li>Cheshire (County of Chester) * <li>Cornwall <li>Cumberland <li>Derbyshire <li>Devon <li>Dorset <li>County Durham * <li>Essex <li>Gloucestershire <li>Hampshire † <li>Herefordshire <li>Hertfordshire <li>Huntingdonshire <li>Kent <li>Lancashire (County of Lancaster) * <li>Leicestershire </ol>||valign="top"|<ol start=21 style="font-size:83%;"> <li>Lincolnshire <li>Middlesex <li>Norfolk <li>Northamptonshire <li>Northumberland <li>Nottinghamshire <li>Oxfordshire <li>Rutland <li>Shropshire (County of Salop) <li>Somerset <li>Staffordshire <li>Suffolk <li>Surrey <li>Sussex <li>Warwickshire <li>Westmorland <li>Wiltshire <li>Worcestershire <li>Yorkshire </ol>|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|colspan=3|* = county palatine|† = also known as the County of Southampton or Southamptonshire|Monmouthshire is not shown||

## Other websites

- GENUKI - Family history links to historic counties
- The Historic Counties Trust
Samus Aran

is the main character of the _Metroid_ games.  She's a bounty hunter, and helps the Galactic Federation. She has many enemies, including Mother Brain, Ridley, Kraid, Dark Samus, and the Metroids. Because she does not remove her suit or talk much, people thought she was a boy until they saw the secret ending of _Metroid_, which shows Samus without her suit.

## Creation

The makers said that the Metroid series is supposed to be like the 1979 film, _Alien_, and Samus was like one of the film's characters, Ellen Ripley. Players thought Samus was a boy until the end of the original _Metroid_ game. One of the makers said that it would be "kind of cool if it turned out that this person inside the suit was a woman". The rest of the makers liked it so it happened.

## Suit

Samus' suit is orange and red, and runs on Energy Tanks. It was made by creatures called Chozos, and can gain new powers and abilities. She has lots of other suits as well.

## Appearances

- _Metroid_ series
- _Metroid Prime_ series

The _Metroid Prime_ series takes place in between _Metroid_ and _Metroid II: Return of Samus_.

In _Metroid Prime_, Samus has to go to the Frigate Orpheon, and meets Meta Ridley, the revived form of an enemy from _Metroid_. She loses her powers on the frigate through an accident, and escapes to the planet Tallon IV. She eventually has to do battle with the final boss, Metroid Prime.

In _Metroid Prime 2: Echoes_, Samus meets a creature called Dark Samus, which is Metroid Prime fused with a suit Samus got on Tallon IV.

In _Metroid Prime 3: Corruption_, Samus and three other bounty hunters

### Other appearances

Samus was the first female character to appear in the _Super Smash Bros._ series, and has been in _Super Smash Bros._, _Super Smash Bros. Melee_, _Super Smash Bros. Brawl_, and _Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U_. She's only in her suit in the first two, but in the third and fourth, she can be in Zero Suit Samus form, which comes from _Metroid: Zero Mission_. In the fourth game, Samus in her power suit and her zero suit are listed as two separate characters. She takes many moves from the _Metroid_ series, including the Charge Beam, Bombs, Screw Attack, and Missiles.
Metroid

***Metroid*** is a series of video games made by Nintendo. The series started in Japan in 1986. Its main character in the game is Samus Aran. Almost all of the games in the series have a certain kind of fictional creature called a "Metroid". This is where the name of the series comes from. Metroids look a lot like jellyfish except they can fly. They also have teeth instead of tentacles. They attack creatures and people by charging quickly towards them and sucking out

## Characters

The main character in the series is Samus Aran.  She always wears a very powerful space suit. This suit lets her do things that normal humans cannot do, such as jump very high and fall long ways without being hurt. The right arm on Samus' suit has a large gun built into it. She is seen in this space suit almost all of the time. In many of the games, if the player finishes the game fast enough or collects enough items, they can see her without the suit on. When this happens, she is either wearing a tight jumpsuit, or something resembling a bikini.

The main enemies of the _Metroid_ games are the Space Pirates. They are tall creatures who look like lizards that walk on two legs. The Space Pirate commander is a dragon named Ridley, who is Samus' worst enemy.

## Gameplay

In most _Metroid_ games, the player explores far away planets or space stations. The player, as Samus, starts the game with very few powers, and not many places to go. The player must explore to find items and powers that let him or her get to new areas. In the first _Metroid_; Samus had to defeat Ridley; a giant monster named Kraid; and then destroy the Space Pirate's computer, Mother Brain. In all _Metroid_ games, there are different goals to achieve, but nearly all of them involve looking for items and exploring.

## Other websites

- Official English website
- Wikitroid, the Metroid wiki
Michelson–Morley experiment

The **Michelson–Morley experiment** was a scientific experiment to test for the presence and properties of a substance called aether. This was thought hypothetically to fill empty space. The experiment showed the substance did not exist.

The experiment was done by Albert A. Michelson and Edward Morley in 1887.

Since waves in water need something to move in (water) and sound waves do as well (air), it was believed that light also needed something to move in. Scientists in the 18th century named this substance "aether", after the Greek god of light. They believed that aether was all around us and that it also filled the vacuum of space. Michelson and Morley created this experiment to try and prove the theory that aether existed. They did this with a device called an interferometer. This experiment is a test of Einstein's special relativity theory.

## The experiment

The Earth travels very quickly (more than 100,000 km per hour) around the Sun. If aether exists, the Earth moving through it would cause a "wind" in the same way that there seems to be a wind outside a moving car. To a person in the car, the air outside the car would seem like a moving substance. In the same way, aether should seem like a moving substance to things on Earth.

The interferometer was designed to measure the speed and direction of the "aether wind" by measuring the difference between the speed of light traveling in different directions. It measured this difference by shining a beam of light into a mirror that was only partially coated in silver. Part of the beam would be reflected one way, and the rest would go the other. Those two parts would then be reflected back to where they were split apart, and recombined. By looking at interference patterns in the recombined beam of light, any changes in speed because of the aether wind could be seen.

They found that there was, in fact, no substantial difference in the measurements. This was puzzling to the scientific community at the time, and led to the creation of various new theories to explain the result. The most important was the Lorentz factor, which is used in Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity.

## Other websites

- Early Experiments
- Modern Michelson–Morley Experiment improves the best previous result by two orders of magnitude, from 2003
Hydrogen sulfide

**Hydrogen sulfide**  (British English: _hydrogen sulphide_) is the chemical compound with the formula , is a colorless, toxic, flammable gas that is responsible for the foul smell of rotten eggs and flatulence. It often results when bacteria break down organic matter if there is no oxygen. This happens in swamps, and sewers (alongside the process of anaerobic digestion). It also happens in volcanic gases, natural gas and some well waters. This is the smell that people often think to be that of sulfur. But sulfur itself does not smell.

Hydrogen sulfide is also known as **sulfane**, **sulfur hydride**, **sour gas**, **sulfurated hydrogen**, **hydrosulfuric acid**, **sewer gas** and **stink damp**. IUPAC accepts the names "hydrogen sulfide" and "sulfane". When people speak of more complicated compounds they always use the term "sulfane".

## Occurrence

Small amounts of hydrogen sulfide can be found in crude petroleum. Sour natural gas can contain up to 28%. But, sour natural gas must be cleaned before it can enter a long distance pipeline. Pipelines limit hydrogen sulfide to 3 grains per thousand cubic feet of natural gas. Volcanoes and hot springs give off some H<sub>2</sub>S, where it probably is made by the hydrolysis of sulfide minerals, i.e. MS + H<sub>2</sub>O to give MO + H<sub>2</sub>S.

Normal average concentration in clean air is about 0.0001-0.0002 ppm.

## Safety

Hydrogen sulfide is a highly toxic and flammable gas. Because it is heavier than air it tends to accumulate at the bottom of poorly ventilated spaces.

## Toxicity

Hydrogen sulfide is considered a broad-spectrum poison, meaning that it can poison several different systems in the body, although the nervous system is most affected. The toxicity of H<sub>2</sub>S is comparable with that of hydrogen cyanide.

## References

- "Hydrogen Sulfide", Committee on Medical and Biological Effects of Environmental Pollutants, University Park Press, 1979, Baltimore.

## Other websites

- International Chemical Safety Card 0165
- Concise International Chemical Assessment Document 53
- National Pollutant Inventory - Hydrogen sulfide fact sheet
- NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
- MSDS safety data sheet
- Abstract of survey article on H<sub>2</sub>S as used by the body, by P. Kamoun
- Computational Chemistry Wiki
William Petty, 2nd Earl of Shelburne

**William Petty, 1st Marquess of Lansdowne**, KG, PC (2 May 1737–7 May 1805) was a British Whig statesman and Prime Minister of Great Britain. He was born **William FitzMaurice** in Dublin in Ireland. Petty was known historically as **The Earl of Shelburne**.

## Titles from birth to death

- Mr William FitzMaurice (1737-1751)
- Mr William Petty (1751)
- The Hon William Petty (1751-1753)
- Viscount FitzMaurice (1753-1760)
- Viscount FitzMaurice, MP (1760-1761)
- The Rt Hon The Earl of Shelburne (1761-1763)
- The Rt Hon The Earl of Shelburne, PC (1763-1782)
- The Rt Hon The Earl of Shelburne, KG, PC (1782-1784)
- The Most Hon The Marquess of Lansdowne, KG, PC (1784-1805)

## Infobox (officeholder)

- **name**: The Earl of Shelburne
- **image**: Shelburne.jpg
- **order**: Prime Minister of Great Britain
- **term start**: 4 July 1782
- **term end**: 2 April 1783
- **predecessor**: Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham, The Marquess of Rockingham
- **successor**: William Cavendish-Bentinck, 3rd Duke of Portland, The Duke of Portland
- **birth place**: Dublin, Ireland
- **death place**: Berkeley Square, London
- **party**: British Whig Party, Whig