juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
1050s

The **1050s** was a decade that began on 1 January 1050, and ended on 31 December 1059. It is distinct from the decade known as the **_106th decade** which_ began on January 1, 1051 and ended on December 31, 1060.

## Events

- 1050
    - Hedeby is sacked by King Harald Hardraade of Norway during the course of a conflict with King Eric Estridsson of Denmark.
    - King Anund Jacob of Sweden is succeeded by Emund the Old. (See Swedish monarchs.)
- 1051 Zenkunen War starts in Japan. It will continue until the early 1060s. Part of Clan disputes of the Heian period.
- 1054
    - A powerful supernova is observed. It is so bright that it can be seen in daylight. The supernova remnant left by the event is now known as the Crab Nebula.
    - Pope Leo IX and Michael Cerularius, Patriarch of Constantinople, decree each other's excommunication, finalising the Great Schism between the Catholic and Orthodox Churches.
- 1055
    - Seljuk Turks capture Baghdad.
    - Pope Victor II attains papacy.
- 1057
    - Change of Scottish Monarch from Macbeth to Lulach
    - Pope Victor II dies, Pope Stephen IX attains papacy.
Makalani

**Makalani** is the name given to a certain palm tree, growing in northern Namibia (Southern Africa). The local Owambo people call a full grown palm tree "Omulunga" and a sapling "Oshivale." These palm trees grow very high and it takes many years for a Makalani sapling to grow into a full-grown tree.

The seeds look like small coconuts, and the local people, the Owambos and Himbas, peel the outer ginger looking skin and carve the inner hard core to certain objects of art. The inner core is white with a dark brown skin, the size of a golf ball, and it is hollow inside. The Makalani fruit (Ondunga/Onduga)is very useful to the local people. It can be eaten and can also be used to brew Ombike/Owalende: the Oshiwambo brew that looks and taste similar to Whiskey.
There are now also some hotels, restaurants, and guesthouses which have adopted the name Makalani (in Namibia). These include Makalani Sugar processors, Makalani Holdings and Makalani Airtime Distributors.
Trowbridge

**Trowbridge** is the county town of Wiltshire,(capital city of Wiltshire) a county in England. It is on the River Biss in the west of the county, 8 miles (13 km) south east of Bath, Somerset, separated by the Mendip Hills, which rise 3 miles (4.8 km) to the west. The town is also 38 miles (61 km) south of Gloucester and 20 miles (32km) south east of Bristol.

Trowbridge has been a market town for a long time. The Kennet and Avon Canal has been a very important part of the town's growth because it allowed coal to be moved from the Somerset Coalfield. This began steam-powered wool production in mills, which the town is famous for. The town was a very important producer of clothes and blankets in the south west of England. Because of this, in the late 18th century and early 19th century, it had the nickname of "The Manchester of the West".

The civil parish of Trowbridge had 33,108 people in the 2011 census. The parish goes over the areas of **Longfield**, **Lower Studley**, **Upper Studley**, **Studley Green** and **Trowle Common**. Parishes that are next to Trowbridge include Staverton, Hilperton, West Ashton, North Bradley, Southwick and Wingfield. Some towns close to Trowbridge are Bradford on Avon, Westbury, Melksham, Frome and Devizes.

Once in the town of Trowbridge it rained frogs,it was around the 1800s.

## Infobox (uk place)

- **static image name**: Town Hall, Trowbridge.jpg
- **static image caption**: Trowbridge Town Hall, seen from Fore Street
- **country**: England
- **official name**: Trowbridge
- **population**: 33108
- **population ref**: (in 2011)
- **unitary england**: Wiltshire Council, Wiltshire
- **lieutenancy england**: Wiltshire
- **region**: South West England
- **constituency westminster**: South West Wiltshire (UK Parliament constituency), South West Wiltshire
- **post town**: Trowbridge
- **postcode district**: BA14
- **postcode area**: BA
- **dial code**: 01225
- **os grid reference**: ST8557
- **website**: [http://www.trowbridge.gov.uk/ Town Council]
Bow

**Bow** can mean:

(Rhyming with "no":)
- Bow (weapon), "bows and arrows"
- Bow (music), the bow used to play musical instruments
- A type of knot which has two large loops.  It is used to tie simple things such as apron strings, shoelaces, or ribbons on wrapped-up presents or for a fashion accessory in womens' hair.

(Rhyming with "now":)
- Bow (ship), the forward part of the hull of a ship or boat
- a gesture, see Bowing

## People

- Clara Bow, an actress
Billie Jean King

**Billie Jean King** (born **Billie Jean Moffitt** on November 22, 1943 in Long Beach, California) is an American retired tennis player. She is considered one of the greatest female tennis players. She won many championships during her career, which started in 1959 and ended in 1983. She was known for speaking against sexism in sports and society. She started the Women's Tennis Association, World TeamTennis, and the Women's Sports Foundation. Her most famous match was in 1973. It was called "The Battle of the Sexes" and was with Bobby Riggs, who had been a champion in the 1930s and 1940s. She loved playing tennis but had to stop after an injury.

Her brother is baseball player Randy Moffitt.

Billie Jean King grew up poor. It was hard for her parents to support her. Her father was an engineer for a fire department. Her mother was a housekeeper. Her father had two jobs. Her mother sold Tupperware to pay for King’s tennis competitions. King’s family could not pay to join their local tennis club. Therefore, King learned at public tennis courts.

King was interested in fighting for the rights of women in tennis. When she was seventeen years old, King played doubles in Wimbledon. She and her partner, Karen Hantze, won the match. They became the youngest women players to win that match at Wimbledon. Even though she won this competition, she didn't want to focus on tennis completely yet.

King joined a community college and married Larry King. Later, she played tennis again and spoke against sexism. She is famous for winning a competition called the Battle of the Sexes against Bobby Riggs in 1973. This was one of the first tennis matches when a man played against a woman. Winning this match really helped her speak about sexism. She used tennis and the Battle of the Sexes to prove that women are as good at sports as men. She was important in tennis and helped the voice of women.

## Personal life

King is lesbian.
Fabio Cannavaro

**Fabio Cannavaro** (born 13 September 1973) is an Italian retired football player. He was the captain of Italy's winning FIFA World Cup squad in 2006. He is considered one of the best defenders in history.

Cannavaro had originally played several famous football club in Italy, such as Napoli, Parma, Internazionale Milano and Juventus. He won several champions of Italian Serie A in the past, and a UEFA Cup in 1999. In 2006, he turned to Spain to join the Spanish giant Real Madrid, as a defender of the team.

Cannavaro is a famous defender who represent Italy national team for over 100 times, joining three times of FIFA World Cup. In 2006 he led the national team to win the champion of World Cup, and then won the World Footballer of 2006. As few defenders can be very popular, some people comment that Cannavaro has excellent talent, just like German legend Franz Beckenbauer.

## Club career statistics

|-
|1992/93||rowspan="3"|Napoli||rowspan="3"|Serie A||2||0||1||0||colspan="2"|-||3||0
|-
|1993/94||27||0||2||0||colspan="2"|-||29||0
|-
|1994/95||29||1||4||0||3||0||36||1
|-
|1995/96||rowspan="7"|Parma||rowspan="7"|Serie A||29||1||1||0||6||0||36||1
|-
|1996/97||27||0||1||0||2||0||30||0
|-
|1997/98||31||0||6||0||7||0||44||0
|-
|1998/99||30||1||7||0||8||0||45||1
|-
|1999/00||31||2||3||0||9||1||43||3
|-
|2000/01||33||0||7||0||6||0||46||0
|-
|2001/02||31||0||5||0||9||0||45||1
|-
|2002/03||rowspan="2"|Internazionale Milano||rowspan="2"|Serie A||28||0||0||0||12||1||40||1
|-
|2003/04||22||2||3||0||9||0||34||2
|-
|2004/05||rowspan="2"|Juventus||rowspan="2"|Serie A||38||2||0||0||9||1||47||3
|-
|2005/06||36||4||3||0||9||0||48||4

|-
|2006/07||rowspan="3"|Real Madrid||rowspan="3"|La Liga||32||0||1||0||6||0||39||0
|-
|2007/08||33||0||1||0||6||0||40||0
|-
|2008/09||29||0||1||0||7||0||37||0

|-
|2009/10||Juventus||Serie A||||||||||||||||
394||13||43||0||89||3||526||16
94||0||3||0||19||0||116||0
488||13||46||0||108||3||642||16
|}

## International career statistics

|-
|1997||12||0
|-
|1998||11||0
|-
|1999||8||0
|-
|2000||14||0
|-
|2001||9||0
|-
|2002||12||0
|-
|2003||10||0
|-
|2004||6||1
|-
|2005||8||0
|-
|2006||15||0
|-
|2007||8||0
|-
|2008||8||1
|-
|2009||10||0
|-
|2010||5||0
|-
!Total||136||2
|}
Toontown Online

***Disney's Toontown Online***, also called as ***Toontown Online*** or ***Toontown***, was an online video game created by The Walt Disney Company. The game was an MMORPG, where a lot of people play at one time. It was released in 2003, and closed in 2013.

Players live life as a Toon in Toontown. Players can make a duck, bear, mouse, rabbit, dog, cat, horse, pig, or monkey.

## Game's purpose

Players try to live life as a Toon, play games on the Trolley and make new friends. But it's not all paradise. Evil robots called "Cogs" have taken over, and "gags" (cartoon fun) are used to defeat them. There is not a purpose that players have to go by. A player can choose to be the top racer or to have the most "laff points". Many people like it because of this. Some users even dare to become "ubers", Toons with better gags but poor laff.

## Other websites

- Disney
- Work vs. Play: The Story Behind Disney's Toontown Online, community member Comrade's journalism blog

## Infobox (video game)

- **collapsible**: no
- **title**: Disney's Toontown Online
- **developer**: Walt Disney Internet Group, Disney's Virtual Reality Studio
Schell Games
Frogchildren Studios
- **publisher**: The Walt Disney Company
- **platforms**: Microsoft Windows
Mac OS X
- **released**: 2 June 2003
- **genre**: MMORPG
- **modes**: Multiplayer video game, Multiplayer
- **designer**: Jesse Schell
Labrador

**Labrador** can be:

- Labrador, Canada, part of the Province of Newfoundland and Labrador
- Labrador Current, an ocean current in the North Atlantic
- Labrador Retriever, a breed of dog
Toon

A **toon** can mean:
- A cartoon
- Newcastle upon Tyne
- Newcastle United F.C., a football (soccer) team also nicknamed "The Toon"
- Tōon, Ehime, a Japanese city in Ehime Prefecture
- Toon, Somaliland, a town in the Garoodi region of Somaliland
- Toon, a tree in the genus _Toona_
Timbre

**Timbre** is a quality of sound. It is what makes two different musical instruments sound different from each other, even when each instrument plays the same musical note.

"Playing the same note" means they have the same pitch and loudness. For instance, timbre is the difference between a guitar and a piano playing the same note at the same volume. In music, _tone quality_ and _color_ are synonyms for timbre.

There are many attempts by music theorists to explain timbre more fully. Unfortunately, their ideas depend on the reader having an advanced knowledge of musical theory. The _Acoustical Society of America_ (ASA) Acoustical Terminology definition 12.09 of timbre is "that attribute of auditory sensation which enables a listener to judge that two nonidentical sounds, similarly presented and having the same loudness and pitch, are dissimilar". It adds "Timbre depends primarily upon the frequency spectrum, although it also depends upon the sound pressure and the temporal characteristics of the sound".
Exaggeration

**Exaggeration**  is a term for a figure of speech.   arros means the describing of something and making it more than it really is.  The verb is **to exaggerate**.

An example of exaggeration would be: “I was walking along when suddenly this enormous dog walked along.  It was as big as an elephant”.  The dog may have been big, but it was certainly not as big as that. Another example of exaggeration would be: “I caught a fish as big as my house.”

**Overstatement** is another word that means almost the same thing.  The opposite of overstatement is **understatement**.

A ** hyperbole** (IPA:[haı'pɝ.bə.li]) is a type of exaggeration that is used in literature.  It is a figure of speech.  The opposite of hyperbole are **litotes**. Litotes are conscious understatements in literature.

People exaggerate things because they have strong feelings about something.  People may exaggerate to make people listen to what they say.  They may do it to emphasize something.  They may also exaggerate just to sound funny:
- ”I’ve heard that a million times”
- ”You’ve got a head the size of a pin”.
- "I just ran a million miles"
People may understate because they are being modest:
- “Thank you, yes, I suppose I may have helped a little” (in a situation where the person actually helped a lot).

In modern slang, the word “hype” is sometimes used about something that is getting more publicity than it really deserves.  The word hype comes from the word “hyperbole”.

## Related pages

- Irony
- Metaphor
- Simile
- Grammar
- Trope
Porsche

**Dr.-Ing. h.c. F. Porsche AG**, usually shortened to **Porsche AG** () or simply **Porsche**, is a German sports car manufacturer based in Zuffenhausen. Porsche was created in 1931 as a design engineering department by Ferdinand Porsche. 1922

## Former models

- Porsche 356
- Porsche 914
- Porsche 924
- Porsche 928
- Porsche 959
- Porsche 944
- Porsche Carrera GT

- Porsche 918

## Current models

- Porsche 911
- Porsche Boxster
- Porsche Cayman
- Porsche Cayenne
- Porsche Panamera
- Porsche Macan

## Other websites

- Spec for all road going Porsche models

## Infobox (company)

- **name**: Porsche AG
- **logo alt**: Porsche logo and wordmark
- **type**: Sports car
- **industry**: Automotive industry, Automotive
- **products**: Automobiles
- **production**: 321,321 vehicles
- **production year**: 2022
- **services**: Automotive financial services, engineering services, investment management
- **revenue**: €37.630 billion (2022)
- **operating income**: €6.770 billion (2022)
- **net income**: €4.957 billion (2022)
- **assets**: €47.673 billion (2022)
- **equity**: €17.027 billion (2022)
- **num employees**: 39,162 (2022)
T.A.T.u

**t.A.T.u.**, or known in Russian as **Тату**, was a Russian pop music duet, made up of Lena Katina and Julia Volkova. The group was formed in 1999 in Moscow. Their albums include _200 Po Vstrechnoy_, _200 km/h in the Wrong Lane_, _Dangerous and Moving_, _Lyudi Invalidy_, _Happy Smiles_, and _Waste Management_. They split in 2011.

## Career

t.A.T.u. released their first single "All the Things She Said" in 2002. It reached number one in the United Kingdom. The song is about a relationship between two girls. In the music video Lena and Julia kiss each other. ITV banned it from their show CD:UK. In 2003 t.A.T.u. performed "Ne Ver', Ne Boysia" at the 2003 Eurovision Song Contest for their country Russia. They came third.

t.A.T.u performed at the Sochi Winter Olympics.

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: t. A. T. u.
- **img**: Tatu at VivaComet 2008 (cropped).jpg
- **img capt**: t.A.T.u. at the Viva Comet concert in Poland (2008)
- **background**: group_or_band
- **origin**: Moscow, Russia
- **genre**: Electronica, Pop music, pop, Rock music, rock, Dance music, dance
- **years active**: 1999–2011 , 2014 , 2016 , 2022-present
- **label**: Neformat <small>2000–2004</small>
Universal Music, Universal <small>2001–2006</small>
Interscope Records, Interscope <small>2002–2006</small>
T.A. Music <small>2005–2011</small>
Soyuz Music <small>2008</small>
Misteriya Zvuka <small>2009</small>
Coqueiro Verde Record <small>2009</small>
Pelo Music <small>2010</small>
- **associated acts**: Neposedi
- **url**: [http://www.tatu.ru/ www.tatu.ru]
- **past members**: Lena Katina
Julia Volkova
Oracle bone

**Oracle Bones** were bones that the Chinese would carve or scratch their questions on. Then the priests would burn the oracle bone until it would crack. Then the priest read these cracks to the Chinese people for their answer. The Chinese people believed their answer to be from the gods. This was also known as the first stages of Chinese writing. These were very important to the Chinese. The oracle bones bear the earliest known significant corpus of ancient Chinese writing, using an early form of Chinese characters.
Book of Mormon

The **Book of Mormon** is a book that Latter Day Saints believe is the word of God along with the Bible.

The original English version of the Book of Mormon was published in March 1830 by a man named Joseph Smith, Jr. who said he was a prophet like the ones in the Old Testament.

Joseph Smith claimed that the record originated from gold plates that he was guided to find by an angel, and then used a spiritual gift from God to translate the book into English. The book says that the language it was first written in was made from "the learning of the Jews and the language of the Egyptians."

The story that is in the Book of Mormon is a shortened version written by a man named Mormon of the story of two groups of people called the Nephites and the Lamanites. Their ancestors left Jerusalem with their father Lehi about 600 years before the birth of Christ, sailed across a very big ocean, and came to live in the New World. It gives a story of their families, cities, wars, systems of government, spiritual experiences and religious beliefs among other things. The main purpose of the Book of Mormon is to teach about Jesus Christ.

It also contains the Book of Ether (a very old book discovered by the Nephites) which told the story of another people (called the Jaredites) who had lived in some of the same areas shortly after the time of the Tower of Babel, but died out because of wars.

Usually, Book of Mormon stories show the Nephites as the more righteous, industrious and peaceful people and the Lamanites as wicked, lazy and warlike. Wars happen all the time between the two groups. But, near the end of the book, the Nephites become more wicked than the Lamanites, and all the Nephites die in their last war, except for one named Moroni who was directed by God to bury the Book of Mormon in a hill so that Joseph Smith Jr. could find it.

The central theme of the book revolves around Jesus Christ visiting the people described, performing miracles and showing them the right way to live.

## Other websites

- Book of Mormon at Scriptures.lds.org
- Book of Mormon Online
Demilitarized zone

A **demilitarized zone** is an area of land that has no military forces in it. This is usually to stop armies from fighting.

The most famous demilitarized zone is the Korean Demilitarized Zone on the land between North Korea and South Korea, Åland Islands, and Antarctica. No one can go into the Demilitarized Zone, so the wildlife is well preserved. There are thousands of soldiers and weapons on each side of the Demilitarized Zone, including to this day a massive American presence.

The Rhineland was also demilitarized from the end of World War I until 1936, when Adolf Hitler remilitarized it.

## Related pages

- Buffer zone
- Neutrality (international relations)
Journey

**Journey** or **journeying** may mean:
- Travel, going from one place to another

### Movies

- _Journey_ (1972 movie), a 1972 Canadian movie directed by Paul Almond
- _Journey_ (1995 movie), a 1995 Hallmark Hall of Fame TV movie
- _Journey_ (2004 movie), a 2004 short movie written and directed by Christine Shin

### Music

- Journey (band), an American rock band

### Video games

- _Journey_ (1983 video game), a 1983 arcade game featuring the band
- _Journey_ (1989 video game), a 1989 computer game by Infocom
- _Journey_ (2012 video game), a 2012 PlayStation 3 game by thatgamecompany
Baryton

A **baryton** is a string instrument with many strings.
It was popular during Joseph Haydn's time.

## Infobox (instrument)

- **name**: Baryton
- **image**: Baryton after Brussels.JPG
- **background**: string
- **classification**: string
- **hornbostel sachs**: 32
- **hornbostel sachs desc**: Composite chordophones
Frankston North

**Frankston North** is a suburb of Melbourne. It is near Frankston and Carrum Downs in Victoria, Australia. It is sometimes nicknamed "**The Pines**".

## Infobox (australian place)

- **type**: suburb
- **name**: Frankston North
- **city**: Melbourne
- **state**: vic
- **image**: Streetview Frankston North.jpg
- **caption**: Street in Frankston North, Victoria.
- **lga**: City of Frankston
- **alternative location map**: Australia Victoria metropolitan Melbourne
- **postcode**: 3200
- **pop**: 5,711
- **area**: 5.2
- **stategov**: Electoral district of Frankston, Frankston
- **stategov2**: Electoral district of Hastings, Hastings
- **fedgov**: Division of Dunkley, Dunkley
- **dist1**: 38
- **location1**: Melbourne
- **dist2**: 3
- **location2**: Frankston, Victoria, Frankston
- **near-nw**: Seaford, Victoria, Seaford
- **near-ne**: Carrum Downs, Victoria, Carrum Downs
- **near-sw**: Frankston, Victoria, Frankston
- **near-se**: Langwarrin, Victoria, Langwarrin
- **local map**: yes
- **zoom**: 12
Recursion

**Recursion** refers to something being a part of its own definition.

## Description

Usually, a recursive function refers to itself in some cases (or inputs), but not in every case. A function that referred to itself in every case would never terminate.

When a function refers to itself, it often uses a smaller input than the input it was given. In this way, it can solve a problem by first solving a simpler version of the problem.

## Example

An example of a recursive function  is:

- If  then return .
- If  then return .
This function computes the factorial of a natural number. It works because  and .

The definition has two cases: a recursive case for , and a case for  that is not recursive. The case that is not recursive is called a "base case".

## Uses

Recursion can be used to write computer programs. A program that uses recursion may be easier to write and understand than a program that does the same thing without recursion.

Recursion is used in mathematics to prove theorems. This method is called induction.

The idea of recursion can be seen in art and language. For example:
- A fractal image contains smaller versions of itself.
- In the rules of grammar, a sentence can be part of another sentence.

## Easter Eggs

In the Google search engine, if you type up "recursion", it will say "Did you mean: Recursion", a reference to the meaning of recursion.
Monte Carlo algorithm

A **Monte Carlo algorithm** is an algorithm for computers which is used to simulate the behaviour of other systems. It is not an exact method, but a heuristical one, typically using randomness and statistics to get a result. The algorithm terminates with an answer that is correct with probability .

It is a computation process that uses random numbers to produce an outcome(s). Instead of having fixed inputs, probability distributions are assigned to some or all of the inputs. This will generate a probability distribution for the output after the simulation is run.

For example, a Monte Carlo algorithm can be used to estimate the value of π. The amount of area within a quarter-circle of radius 1 depends on the value of π. The probability that a randomly-chosen point will lie in that quarter-circle depends on the area of the circle. If points are placed randomly in a square with sides of length 1, the percentage of points that fall within a quarter-circle of radius 1 will depend on the value of π. A Monte Carlo algorithm would randomly place points in the square and use the percentage of points falling inside of the circle to estimate the value of π.This is an effective way for making approximations.

In modern communication systems, the quality of information exchange is determined by the presence of noise in the channel. The major source of noise - Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) being random in nature can be characterized using the Monte Carlo algorithm in simulating a Communications System

The modern version of the Markov chain Monte Carlo method was invented in the late 1940s by Stanislaw Ulam, while he was working on nuclear weapons projects at the Los Alamos National Laboratory.
BBC Radio 2

**BBC Radio 2** is a radio station run by the BBC which is heard across the United Kingdom It started in 1967, replacing the BBC Light Programme.  It is the most popular of the BBC stations with more than 15 million listeners a week in 2017. The audience is mostly adults over the age of 35.

Radio 2 mostly plays music from a period lasting over 40 year. For example, it plays classic pop songs, rock, jazz and folk.

## Other websites

- , from BBC iPlayer.

## Infobox (radio station)

- **name**: BBC Radio 2
- **image**:
- **city**: London
- **area**: United Kingdom - National
- **airdate**: 30 September 1967
- **frequency**: FM: 88.1 megahertz, MHz - 89.7 MHz
 Digital Audio Broadcasting, DAB: 12B
 Freeview (United Kingdom), Freeview: 702
 Sky Digital (UK & Ireland), Sky: 0102
 Tiscali TV: 602
 Virgin Media:902
UPC Ireland:  908
[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio/aod/radio2.shtml?listen Live Stream] Real/WM
- **share**: 16.0%
- **share as of**: June 2008
- **format**: Contemporary music
- **owner**: BBC
BBC Radio
- **website**: [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio2 BBC Radio 2]
Mailing list

Some people or organizations have many addresses of different people. They use these addresses to send the mail. In the postal system, using regular mail, such **mailing lists** are used to distribute these mails, which may be wanted (like newspapers) or unwanted (advertising).

## Electronic mailing lists

In the electronic form, these differences also exist. Bulk mail (SPAM) is distributed using **mailing lists**.

On the other hand, there are echo mailing lists people subscribe to. When a subscriber sends a mail to the mailing list, this mail is distributed (echoed) to all people who are on the list. The Software which manages such a mailing list sometimes offers options to the people who subscribe. Instead of getting each mail directly, they might want only one mail (per day). This mail then contains all the mails of that day. This is called a _digest_. Mails that come from people on the list might be handled differently from mails from people who are not subscribed to the mailing list.

## Postal mailing list

Mailing lists are a way to reach selected groups of people - by specific parameters (or markets) - through the Post office. The population may be broken into sections organized buy their unique qualities such as "catalog purchasers" or "business owners," or by geographic area such as businesses or residents in a particular city or zip code, or buy select statistical parameters such as businesses with over 20 employees, or heads of household with income of over $80,000. Direct Mail Lists are then sold to direct marketing companies wishing to make an offer to this specific segment of the population. By tightly specifying the parameters of the mailing list, direct mail is a very effective way to market to a precisely selected group with little wasted advertising expense.
Electrochemistry

**Electrochemistry** is a kind of chemistry that studies chemical reactions that use or make electricity. Reactions like this happen at electrodes which are made from something that conducts electricity, and put in an electrolyte. An electrolyte is a solution that has ions in it.

Electrochemistry was "invented" at the same time as the voltaic pile; the first kind of electric battery.

## Related pages

- Isotope electrochemistry
- Physical chemistry
Sulfuric acid

**Sulfuric acid**, also known as **sulphuric acid**, is a chemical compound and strong acid. The chemical formula is .

Salts of sulfuric acid are called sulfates.

## History

Sulfuric acid is one of the oldest known mineral acids.

Alchemists called it "oil of vitriol", because they made it from sulfate salts that they called vitriols (from the Latin word for "small glass", as the salts looked like glass). The preparation of sulfuric acid from vitriol is traditionally credited to Jabir ibn Hayyan, known in Europe as Geber, but historians believe they were the work of another author, Pseudo-Geber, who said ibn Hayyan wrote their work so it would be taken more seriously. The oldest verifiable recipes for sulfuric acid date to the 16th century.

The contact process used to make industrial strength sulfuric acid was invented in the 19th century, and continues to be used today.

## Properties

It is a dense (thick), clear, corrosive liquid that can dissolve in water. It can also melt through some weak substances.

## History

It was once known as "oil of vitriol". This name was created by Jabir ibn Hayyan, the person who discovered it. It used to be prepared by the reaction of potassium nitrate with sulfur. This reaction would produce sulfur trioxide which would dissolve in steam to produce sulfuric acid. Then this reaction was done in lead containers. The contact process, the most common process, was invented in 1831 and is still used today.

## Production

It is made by reacting sulfur trioxide with sulfuric acid to produce oleum. Then oleum is dissolved in water to produce more sulfuric acid. The sulfur trioxide is produced by burning sulfur to produce sulfur dioxide, which was then oxidized to sulfur trioxide with a catalyst. This process is called the contact process.

## Uses

Sulfuric acid has many uses. World production in 2001 was 165 million tons, worth about $8 billion US dollars. Uses include ore processing, fertilizer manufacturing, oil refining, wastewater processing, lead acid batteries, and combining chemicals for scientific reasons. For example, phosphate rocks are reacted with sulfuric acid to produce soluble phosphates, useful in fertilizers. This reaction is also used to make phosphoric acid, useful in soda. Potassium compounds are dissolved in sulfuric acid to produce potassium sulfate, useful in fertilizers. Ammonia is also reacted with sulfuric acid to produce ammonium sulfate. These three chemicals are solids and provide the three main minerals needed in plants. Lead acid batteries use sulfuric acid as their electrolyte.

## Reactions and safety

Sulfuric acid is very poisonous because of its acidity and corrosiveness. When it is mixed with sugar, it turns it into carbon. When it is dissolved in water, it becomes less harmful  but is still corrosive like normal acids. It reacts with metals to produce hydrogen and the metal sulfate. Some metals, such as tin, make sulfur dioxide and tin(II) sulfate. It reacts with sodium chloride to make hydrogen chloride.

## Related pages

- Sulfurous acid
- Hydrogen sulfide
John Kerr

**Sir John Robert Kerr** (24 September 1914 – 24 March 1991) was the 18th Governor-General of Australia from 1974 to 1977. He is famous for dismissing Prime Minister Gough Whitlam in 1975. This is one of the most famous events in Australian history. Even though the Whitlam government was not voted back in after being dismissed, Kerr's actions divided opinion and he continued to be disliked by many people.

Prime Minister Gough Whitlam chose John Kerr to be Governor General in 1974. In 1974–75 the Whitlam government thought about borrowing US$4 billion in foreign loans. A Minister, Rex Connor, had secret discussions with a loan broker from Pakistan. The Treasurer, Jim Cairns, misled parliament about this. This made the new leader of the Opposition, Malcolm Fraser use the Senate to stop passing money for the government until there was an election. Whitlam refused. In 1975 the opposition, led by Malcolm Fraser, blocked government supply in the Senate. This meant that the government had no money. This was a big crisis in Australia. In order to end the crisis, John Kerr dismissed Whitlam and made Fraser the Prime Minister. Whitlam lost the election that was held a month later.
Malcolm Fraser

**John Malcolm Fraser** AC, CH, GCL, PC (21 May 1930 – 20 March 2015) was an Australian politician. He served as the 22nd Prime Minister of Australia from 11 November 1975 through 11 November 1983. He was also leader of the Liberal Party from 1975 to 1983.

Before being prime minister, Fraser was a member of the Australian Parliament from 1955 through 1983. He served as Minister of Defence from 1966 to 1968 and again from 1969 to 1971 and Minister for Education and Science from 1968 to 1969 and again from 1971 to 1972.

## Early life

Fraser was born in Toorak, Victoria. He studied at Magdalen College, Oxford. He married Tamie Beggs in 1956.

## Prime Minister (1975-1983)

As leader of the Liberal Party, he became Prime Minister in November, 1975 when Governor-General, Sir John Kerr, dismissed Gough Whitlam. At this point he was only temporary Prime Minister. He won the election held in December, 1975. He won two more elections in 1977 and 1980 before losing to Bob Hawke in 1983. Fraser married Tamara (Tamie) Beggs in 1956 and the couple have remained married ever since.

His government stopped some of the changes made by the Whitlam government. They also reduced government spending to stop money becoming less valuable. He also supported efforts to abolish racism in South Africa, the boycott of the Moscow Olympics and more immigration from Asian countries.

He has criticised the prime ministership of John Howard who had been his Treasurer from 1977 to 1983.

## Death

On 20 March 2015, his office announced that Fraser had died in the early hours of the morning, noting that he had suffered a brief illness in Melbourne, Victoria, aged 84.

## More reading

- Ayres, Philip (1987), _Malcolm Fraser, a Biography_, Heinemann, Richmond, Victoria.
- Kelly, Paul (2000), _Malcolm Fraser_, in Michelle Grattan (ed.), _Australian Prime Ministers_, New Holland, Sydney, New South Wales.
- Kerr, John (1978), _Matters for Judgment. An Autobiography_, Macmillan, South Melbourne, Victoria.
- Lopez, Mark (2000),_The Origins of Multiculturalism in Australian Politics 1945–1975_, Melbourne University Press, Carlton South, Victoria.

## Other websites

- Malcolm Fraser – Australia's Prime Ministers / National Archives of Australia
- Australian Biography– Malcolm Fraser  An extensive 1994 interview with Fraser
- The Malcolm Fraser Collection at the University of Melbourne Archives
- Malcolm Fraser at the National Film and Sound Archive

## Infobox (officeholder)

- **honorific-prefix**: The Right Honourable
- **name**: Malcolm Fraser
- **smallimage**: Malcolm Fraser 1977 (cropped).jpg
- **order**: 22nd Prime Minister of Australia
- **term start**: 11 November 1975
- **term end**: 11 March 1983
- **predecessor**: Gough Whitlam
- **successor**: Bob Hawke
- **birth place**: Toorak, Victoria, Toorak, Victoria, Australia, Victoria
- **death place**: Melbourne, Victoria
- **party**: Liberal Party of Australia
(1954–2009)
- **alma mater**: Magdalen College, Oxford
- **spouse**: Tamie Fraser
(m. 1956–2015, his death)
- **children**: 4
Four Seasons Centre for the Performing Arts

The **Four Seasons Centre for the Performing Arts** is an opera house in Toronto, Canada.  It was opened on June 14, 2006.  It is home to the Canadian Opera Company and the National Ballet of Canada.  It is one of the world's most important opera houses.  It was designed by Jack Diamond.  Its construction uses a lot of new technological ideas.  It is in the center of Toronto.  People say that the acoustics are excellent (the music can be heard beautifully everywhere in the hall). The subway (underground train) runs just below the building, but inside the trains cannot be heard.
Casino Royale

***Casino Royale*** is the twenty first James Bond movie. It is the first to star Daniel Craig as the secret agent James Bond. It was released on November 17, 2006. It’s based on the book Casino Royale by Ian Fleming.

## Cast

- Daniel Craig as James Bond
- Eva Green as Vesper Lynd
- Judi Dench as M
Australian Labor Party

The **Australian Labor Party** (ALP) is one of the two major political parties in Australia. The party was formed in 1891, and is the oldest political party in Australia. It is a social democratic party with strong links to the Trade Union movement. Since 1944, their main opponents have been the Liberal Party. Since the 2022 federal election, the Labor Party became the majority government of Australia with Anthony Albanese as prime minister.

In the state and territory parliaments, Labor currently governs in Western Australia, South Australia, Victoria, New South Wales and the ACT

## History

In the 1860s the trade unions in Australia began to try to get better wages and working conditions for their members. They were defeated by employers, the legal system, and the governments of the Australian colonies. Workers soon decided that they needed to become active in politics, and make changes through parliament. The first meeting of the ALP is said to have taken place in Barcaldine, Queensland in 1891. A group of shearers, who were involved in a big strike action, held a meeting in the shade of a large ghost gum (eucalyptus) tree, _Corymbia aparrerinja_. This tree became known as the "Tree of Knowledge".

### ALP Prime Ministers of Australia

- Chris Watson, 1904.
- Andrew Fisher, 1908–1909 and 1910–1913 and 1914–1915.
- Billy Hughes, 1915
- James Scullin, 1929–1932.
- John Curtin, 1941–1945.
- Frank Forde, 1945.
- Ben Chifley, 1945–1949
- Gough Whitlam, 1972–1975.
- Bob Hawke, 1983–1991.
- Paul Keating, 1991–1996.
- Kevin Rudd, 2007–2010.
- Julia Gillard, 2010–2013.
- Kevin Rudd, 2013.
- Anthony Albanese, since 2022.

## Current leaders of states and territories of Australia

- Premier of New South Wales – Chris Minns, since 2023.
- Premier of Victoria – Jacinta Allan, since 2023.
- Leader of the Opposition (Queensland) – Steven Miles, since 2024.
- Premier of South Australia – Peter Malinauskas, since 2022.
- Leader of the Opposition (Tasmania) – Josh Willie, since 2025.
- Premier of Western Australia – Roger Cook, since 2023.
- Leader of the Opposition (Northern Territory) – Selena Uibo, since 2024.
- Chief Minister of the Australian Capital Territory – Andrew Barr, since 2014.

## Infobox (political party/seats)

- 94
- 150
- **hex**: #DC241f


## Infobox (political party/seats)

- 29
- 76
- **hex**: #DC241f


## Infobox (political party)

- **country**: Australia
- **logo**: Logo of Australian Labor Party.svg
- **leader**: Anthony Albanese
- **leader1 title**: Deputy Leader
- **leader1 name**: Richard Marles
- **leader2 title**: President
- **leader2 name**: Wayne Swan
- **leader3 title**: National Secretary
- **leader3 name**: Noah Carroll
- **foundation**: 8 May 1901
- **headquarters**: 161 London Circuit, Canberra Australian Capital Territory 2600
- **youth wing**: Australian Young Labor
- **ideology**: Social democracy
Democratic socialism
- **position**: Centre-left
- **blank1 title**: Party branches
- **international**: Progressive Alliance
Socialist International (Formerly)
- **seats1 title**: Australian House of Representatives, House of Representatives
- **seats2 title**: Australian Senate, Senate
Bob Hawke

**Robert James Lee Hawke**  (December 9, 1929 – May 16, 2019) was an Australian politician. From March 11, 1983 to December 20, 1991, he served as the 23rd Prime Minister of Australia as leader of the Australian Labor Party. He was the third longest serving Prime Minister of Australia.

## Political career

He was a union leader before he entered parliament in 1980. He became leader only a little while before the 1983 election but he defeated Malcolm Fraser. His government made many changes, like the Whitlam government, but did it more slowly and with more planning. His government moved Labor to the right economically. His leadership was challenged twice by Paul Keating. He lost the second time and retired.

By July 1990, Hawke had overtaken Malcolm Fraser as the second longest-serving Australian Prime Minister but on 21 December 2004 the record was overtaken by John Howard, making Hawke the third longest serving Prime Minister.

## Personal life and death

Hawke has been married twice. During office, he was married to Hazel Hawke (_née_ Masterson), a respected "first lady". Just before Hawke became prime minister, author Blanche d'Alpuget wrote a biography about him. Hawke married d'Alpuget in 1995.

In late December 2018, Hawke revealed that he was in "terrible health". He supported Labor in the upcoming 2019 election and said he "may not witness the party's success". He died on 16 May 2019 in Sydney, at the age of 89. His death happened two days before the election.

## Other websites

- Hawke Swoops into Power  – Time 14 March 1983
- Robert Hawke  – Australia's Prime Ministers / National Archives of Australia
- Bob Hawke Prime Ministerial Centre

## Infobox (officeholder)

- **honorific-prefix**: The Honourable
- **name**: Bob Hawke
- **image**: Hawke Bob BANNER.jpg
- **order**: 23rd Prime Minister of Australia
- **term start**: March 11, 1983
- **term end**: December 20, 1991
- **predecessor**: Malcolm Fraser
- **successor**: Paul Keating
- **birth place**: Bordertown, South Australia, Bordertown, South Australia
- **death place**: Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- **party**: Australian Labor Party, Labor
- **spouse**:

- **constituency**: Division of Wills, Wills (Victoria)
Lake Placid

**Lake Placid** might mean:
- Lake Placid, Florida
- Lake Placid, New York, site of the 1932 and 1980 Winter Olympics
- _Lake Placid_ (movie), 1999 American movie set in Lake Placid, New York
1653

## Events

- February 2 – New Amsterdam (later renamed New York City) is incorporated.
1549

**1549** (MDXLIX) was a common year starting on Tuesday in the Julian calendar.  In the Kingdom of England, it was known as "The Year of the Many-Headed Monster".  There was an unusually high number of rebellions happening in the country.

## Events

- Kett's Rebellion

## Births

- Maria Holl (d. 1634), German woman accused of witchcraft
- 30 July – Ferdinando I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (d. 17 February 1609)

## Deaths

- 10 November – Pope Paul III (b. 29 February 1468), 221st Pope of the Roman Catholic Church
1544

## Births

- January 19 – King Francis II of France (d. December 5, 1560)
1209

## Events

- Albigensian Crusade against Cathars (1209-1218)
- the Franciscans are founded
- Cambridge University founded.
- London Bridge completed
- In August, Simon De Monfort, leader of Albigensian Crusade, takes over Carcassonne
- Genghis Khan conquers Turkestan

## Births

- January 5 – Richard, Earl of Cornwall, Holy Roman Emperor (died 1272)
- Hajji Bektash Wali, Turkish mystic (died 1271)

## Deaths

- November 12 – Phillipe de Plessis, Grand Master of the Knights Templar (born 1165)
- Walter Map, Welsh writer (born 1137)
- Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, Persian theologian and philosopher (born 1149)
Tony Award

The **Tony Award** (formally, the **Antoinette Perry Award for Excellence in Theatre**) is an annual award celebrating achievements in live American theater, including musical theater, primarily honoring productions on Broadway in New York.

To get the Tony Award, a show must play in a "Broadway" theater, which is said by its size, not its geographical location. The rules for the Tony Awards are explained in the official document "Rules and Regulations of The American Theatre Wing's Tony Awards", which applies for each season only.

## Related pages

- Tony Award for Best Musical
- Tony Award for Best Play

## Other websites

- Official site
Petunia

***Petunia*** is a genus of 20 species of plants of South American origin. All of them bear flowers. They are in the Nightshade family, and are related to tobacco. Many people grow them in the garden. Petunias are usually used as annual plants, because they die when the weather becomes cold. They grow best when they are planted in the sun.
Guantánamo

**Guantanamo** is a city in the southeast of Cuba. It is the capital of the province with the same name.

About 200,000 people live in the city. Most of them are employed in the production of sugarcane and coffee. The city is 910 km away from Havana, the capital city of Cuba. About 15 km away is Guantanamo Naval Base, on a territory occupied by the United States since 1902.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Municipio de Guantanamo
- **settlement type**: Municipality and Province of Cuba
- **image skyline**: Strato en Guantanamo 08.jpg
- **image caption**: A neighborhood in Guantanamo
- **area total km2**: 2,770
- **population total**: 208,000
- **subdivision type**: Country, Nation
- **subdivision name**: **Cuba, Cuban archipelago**
- **established title**: Established by Spain
- **established date**: 1796
- **population demonym**: Guantanameros
- **founder**: Spanish Empire, Royal Spanish Government in Cuba
- **government type**: Mayor-council government
- **leader title**: Mayor-council
- **leader name**: Emilio Matos Mosqueda, Emilio Matos
- **population metro**: 514,909
Pete Townshend

**Peter Dennis Blandford "Pete" Townshend** (born 19 May 1945) is an English rock musician, songwriter and author best known as the founder of the band The Who.

Beginning in 1961, he studied graphic design at Ealing Art College. At Ealing, Townshend studied with future Rolling Stones guitarist Ronnie Wood and future Queen singer Freddie Mercury.

Townshend is the primary songwriter for The Who and has written over one hundred songs for the band's eleven studio albums including the rock operas "Tommy" and "Quadrophenia" and the popular rock radio staple "Who's Next." Although known mainly as a guitarist he is also an accomplished singer and keyboard player and has played many other instruments including: banjo, accordion, bass guitar and drums.

Townshend has also written many newspaper and magazine articles, books, book reviews, essays and scripts. Townshend was ranked #3 in Dave Marsh's list of best guitarists in "The New Book of Rock Lists" and #50 in Rolling Stone Magazine's list of the "100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time."

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Pete Townshend
- **image**: Pete Townshend (2012).jpg
- **caption**: Townshend in 2012
- **alias**: Bijou Drains
- **birth name**: Peter Dennis Blandford Townshend
- **birth place**: Chiswick, London, England
- **instrument**: Vocals, guitar, bass, harmonica, keyboards
- **background**: solo_singer
- **genre**: Rock music, Rock, hard rock, power pop, progressive rock, beat music, British beat, jazz
- **occupation**: Musician, singer-songwriter, composer, Arrangement, musical arranger, author
- **years active**: 1962–present
- **label**: Track Records, Track, Polydor, Atlantic Records, Atlantic, Atco Records, Atco, Decca Records, Decca, Rykodisc, Warner Bros. Records, Warner Bros.
- **associated acts**: The Who, Deep End (band), Deep End, Ronnie Lane, Thunderclap Newman
- **website**: [http://www.thewho.com/index.php The Who's official webpage]
Aphelion

The ** aphelion** is the point in the orbit of an object where it is farthest from the Sun. The point in the orbit where an object is nearest to the sun is called the perihelion. The word _aphelion_ derives from the Greek words, _apo_ meaning _away, off, apart_ and _Helios_. It's an apoapsis of a body in the Solar System.

The Earth's orbit has its aphelion around 25th June or July the third, at which it is approximately 152.1 million kilometers or 94.5 million miles from the Sun. Due to the workings of the Gregorian calendar, it may be a day or two earlier or later.

This path's shape varies due to the gravitational influences of other planetary objects, particularly the Moon. Approximately every 100,000 years, the Earth's orbital path changes from being nearly circular to elliptical. The difference of the Earth’s orbital shape from a perfect circle is known as its **eccentricity**. An eccentricity value of 0 is a circular orbit, while values between 0 and 1 describe an elliptical orbit.
Anthony Wagner

**Sir Anthony Richard Wagner** (6 September, 1908–5 May 1995) was an officer of arms from England. Wagner wrote many books about heraldry. He became Portcullis Pursuivant in 1931 and then served in the Army during World War II. He became Garter King of Arms in 1961 and served until 1978. Wagner was made a knight in 1961. Even though he was blind when he was older, he still served at the College of Arms until he died in 1995.