juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Pas-de-Calais

**Pas-de-Calais** (Picard: _Pas-Calés_; Dutch: _Nauw van Kales_) is a department found in the north of France in the Hauts-de-France region. Its prefecture is Arras. Its population is about 1,456,000 (2006 estimation). It is one of the 83 first French departments made during the French Revolution.

## Arrondissement

The department has 7 arrondissement:
- Arrondissement of Arras
- Arrondissement of Béthune
- Arrondissement of Calais
- Arrondissement of Montreuil
- Arrondissement of Boulogne-sur-Mer
- Arrondissement of Lens
- Arrondissement of Saint-Omer

## Cantons

The department has 39 cantons:
- Canton of Aire-sur-la-Lys
- Canton of Arras-1
- Canton of Arras-2
- Canton of Arras-3
- Canton of Auchel
- Canton of Auxi-le-Château
- Canton of Avesnes-le-Comte
- Canton of Avion
- Canton of Bapaume
- Canton of Berck
- Canton of Béthune
- Canton of Beuvry
- Canton of Boulogne-sur-Mer-1
- Canton of Boulogne-sur-Mer-2
- Canton of Brebières
- Canton of Bruay-la-Buissière
- Canton of Bully-les-Mines
- Canton of Calais-1
- Canton of Calais-2
- Canton of Calais-3
- Canton of Carvin
- Canton of Desvres
- Canton of Douvrin
- Canton of Étaples
- Canton of Fruges
- Canton of Harnes
- Canton of Hénin-Beaumont-1
- Canton of Hénin-Beaumont-2
- Canton of Lens
- Canton of Liévin
- Canton of Lillers
- Canton of Longuenesse
- Canton of Lumbres
- Canton of Marck
- Canton of Nœux-les-Mines
- Canton of Outreau
- Canton of Saint-Omer
- Canton of Saint-Pol-sur-Ternoise
- Canton of Wingles
Rhône (department)

**Rhône** is a department in the center of France in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region. Its prefecture (capital) is Lyon and about 475,000 people live there (2022 estimate).

Before 2015, Rhône included the Lyon Metropolis. The metropolis is now officially a "territorial collectivity" with the same powers as a department. Lyon remains the prefecture of Rhône despite no longer being a part of it.
Sarthe

**Sarthe** is a department found in the west of France in the Pays de la Loire region. Its prefecture is Le Mans and its population is about 543,000 (2006 estimation). It is one of the 83 first French departments made during the French revolution.
Seine-Maritime

**Seine-Maritime** is a department found in the northwest of France in the Normandy region. Its prefecture is Rouen. Its population is about 1,245,000 (2006 estimation). It is one of the 83 first French departments made during the French revolution.
Seine-et-Marne

**Seine-et-Marne** is a department found in the center of France in the Île-de-France region. Its prefecture is Melun and its population is about 1,260,000 (2006 estimation). It is one of the 83 first French departments made during the French revolution.
Yvelines

**Yvelines** is a department in the Île-de-France region. Its prefecture is Versailles. About 1,395,000 people live there (2006 estimation).

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Yvelines
- **native name lang**: fr
- **type**: Departments of France, Department of France
- **image caption**: From top down, left to right: Prefectures in France, prefecture building in Versailles, Yvelines, Versailles, view of La Celle-Saint-Cloud, forest and lake in Guyancourt, marble courtyard and Gardens of Versailles, gardens of the Palace of Versailles
- **image flag**: Drapeau fr département Yvelines.svg
- **image shield**: Blason département fr Yvelines.svg
- **image map**: Yvelines-Position.svg
- **map caption**: Location of Yvelines in France
- **subdivision type**: List of sovereign states, Country
- **subdivision name**: France
- **subdivision type1**: Regions of France, Region
- **subdivision name1**: Île-de-France
- **seat type**: Prefectures in France, Prefecture
- **seat**: Versailles, Yvelines, Versailles
- **parts type**: Subprefectures in France, Subprefectures
- **parts style**: para
- **p1**: Mantes-la-Jolie
Rambouillet
Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Saint-Germain-
en-Laye
- **leader title**: List of presidents of departmental councils (France), President of the Departmental Council
- **leader name**: Pierre Bédier (The Republicans (France), LR)
- **unit pref**: Metric
- **area total km2**: 2284
- **population total**: 1431808
- **population as of**: 2016
- **population rank**: List of French departments by population, 9th
- **population density km2**: auto
- **blank name sec1**: Departments of France, Department number
- **blank info sec1**: 78
- **blank name sec2**: Arrondissements of France, Arrondissements
- **blank info sec2**: arrondissements of the Yvelines department, 4
- **blank1 name sec2**: Cantons in France, Cantons
- **blank1 info sec2**: cantons of the Yvelines department, 21
- **blank2 name sec2**: Communes in France, Communes
- **blank2 info sec2**: communes of the Yvelines department, 259
- **timezone1**: Central European Time, CET
- **utc offset1**: +1
- **timezone1 dst**: Central European Summer Time, CEST
- **utc offset1 dst**: +2
- **footnotes**: French Land Register data, which exclude estuaries and lakes, ponds and glaciers larger than 1 km².
Somme

**Somme** is a department found in the north of France in the Hauts-de-France region. Its prefecture is Amiens. Its population is about 559,000 (2006 estimation). It is one of the 83 first French departments made during the French revolution.
Vendée

**Vendée** is a department found in the west of France in the Pays de la Loire region. Its prefecture is La Roche-sur-Yon and its population is about 577,000 (2006 estimation). It is one of the 83 first French departments made during the French revolution.
Vosges

**Vosges** is a department found in the east of France in the Grand Est region. Its prefecture is Épinal. Its population is about 382,000 (2006 estimation). It is one of the 83 first French departments made during the French revolution.
Zwentendorf Nuclear Power Plant

The **Zwentendorf power plant** is a nuclear power plant in Zwentendorf an der Donau in Austria. It has never been used.  This is because the people of Austria voted against using it in 1978.

Today, the plant is used to get replacement parts to other plants of the same type (mainly in Germany), and for staff training. It is not possible to visit the power plant. Because the nuclear power plant was never in use, a coal power plant was built in 1987 to replace it.

The plant is now owned by Austrian energy company and used as a Solar Power Plant.

## Related pages

- Anti-nuclear movement
Essonne

**Essonne** is a department to the south of Paris in the Île-de-France region. Its prefecture is Évry. About 1,172,000 people live there (2006 estimation).
Hauts-de-Seine

**Hauts-de-Seine** is a department which is the western inner suburbs of Paris in the Île-de-France region. Its prefecture is Nanterre and its population is about 1,517,000 (2006 estimation).
Seine-Saint-Denis

**Seine-Saint-Denis** is a department. It is in the center of France in the Île-de-France region. Its prefecture is Bobigny. About 1,459,000 people live there (2006 estimation).
Val-de-Marne

**Val-de-Marne** is a department in the center of France in the Île-de-France region. Its prefecture is Créteil. About 1,279,000 people live there (2006 estimation).
Val-d'Oise

**Val-d'Oise** is a department to the north of Paris in the Île-de-France region. Its prefecture is Cergy. About 1,139,000 people live there (2006 estimation).
Quimper

**Quimper** () is a town in France. It is the prefecture of the Finistère department in the Brittany region. Its population is around 65,000 (2006).

## Sister cities

Quimper is twinned with:
- Limerick, Ireland
- Remscheid, Germany
- Falkirk, Scotland
- Ourense, Spain
- Yantai, China
Georges Cuvier

**Baron Georges Léopold Chrétien Frédéric Dagobert Cuvier** (23 August 1769–13 May 1832), usually called **Cuvier**, was a French naturalist and zoologist.

Cuvier was a very important figure in scientific circles in Paris during the early 19th century. He helped establish the fields of comparative anatomy and paleontology by comparing living animals with fossils. He proved extinction was a fact. He was the most influential person believing in  catastrophism in geology in the early 19th century. His most famous work is the _Règne animal distribué d'après son organisation_ 1817; translated into English as _The Animal Kingdom_.

Cuvier was a member of the elite Académie française and the French Academy of Sciences. He is remembered for strongly opposing the evolutionary theories of Lamarck and Geoffroy. Cuvier believed there was no evidence for the evolution of organic forms, but there was evidence for successive creations after catastrophic extinction events.

Some of Cuvier's most influential followers were Louis Agassiz, and Richard Owen. His is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower.

He was the elder brother of Frédéric Cuvier (1773–1838), also a naturalist. Cuvier died in Paris, of cholera.

## Infobox (scientist)

- **name**: Georges Cuvier
- **image**: Georges Cuvier.jpg
- **image size**: 200px
- **caption**: Georges Cuvier
- **birth date**: 23 August 1769
- **birth place**: Montbéliard
- **death date**: 13 May 1832
- **death place**: Paris
- **nationality**: France, French
- **field**: natural history, paleontology, anatomy
- **work institutions**: _Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle_
- **known for**: establishing extinction, catastrophism, opposition to evolution, stratigraphy
Samuel Chase

**Samuel Chase** (April 17, 1741 – June 19, 1811), was an Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court and earlier was a signer of the United States Declaration of Independence as a representative of Maryland.

## Infobox (judge)

- **name**: Samuel Chase
- **image**: Samuel Chase.jpg
- **office**: Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States
- **nominator**: George Washington
- **term start**: January 27, 1796
- **term end**: June 19, 1811
- **predecessor**: John Blair Jr., John Blair
- **successor**: Gabriel Duvall
- **birth place**: Somerset County, Maryland, Somerset County, Province of Maryland, Maryland, British America
- **death place**: Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.
- **party**: Federalist Party, Federalist
- **spouse**: Ann Baldwin
Hannah Kilty
- **signature**: Samuel Chase Signature.svg
- **nickname**: Old Bacon Face, the Demosthenes of Maryland
Chloroform

**Chloroform** (also called **trichloromethane**) is a chemical substance. It is an organic compound. Chloroform is one of the intermediate substances that occur in the production of Polytetrafluoroethylene, better known as _Teflon_. Chloroform is used as a solvent. It is a colourless liquid. In the 19th century, it was a widely used anaesthetic.

## History

The first who reported to have produced Chloroform was the French chemist Eugène Soubeiran, in 1831. Soubeiran took acetone and ethanol, and used bleach powder for the reaction. The American physician Samuel Guthrie prepared gallons of the material and described its "deliciousness of flavor."  Independently, Justus von Liebig also described it. Chloroform was named and chemically characterised in 1834 by Jean-Baptiste Dumas. Starting in the 1850s factories made large amounts. Its use as an anesthetic declined in the early to mid-20th century as safer chemicals (like trichloroethylene and halothane) were more used.

## Production

Chloroform is produced by mixing methane and chlorine at a temperature of 400 to 500°C. In this reaction, the result is a mix of chloromethane, methylene chloride, chloroform and carbon tetrachloride.

The four compounds get then separated with a distillation.

In laboratories, chloroform can be produced by mixing sodium hypochlorite and acetone together. This is an exothermic reaction, meaning it makes a lot of heat.

## Uses

The main uses of Chloroform are:
- as a solvent in factories and laboratories (especially chemical, biological and forensic)
- as an anaesthetic (from 1847 until the 1980s, no longer used)
- as a reagent to make other chemicals, especially refrigerants

## Problems

Chloroform was used as an anaesthetic during childbirth and surgery, from about 1847. It replaced ether, which was used before. Chloroform is very poisonous, and can cause breathing problems, and problems with the heart. Death from chloroform can come from cardiac arrest. When Chloroform is stored for a longer time period, it can decay into Phosgene. Phosgene was a chemical weapon (poison gas) used during the First World War. Chloroform can cause birth defects and lead to miscarriages. It may cause cancer.
Santa Cruz, Bolivia

**Santa Cruz de La Sierra**, also known as **Santa Cruz**, is the largest city in Bolivia. It is the capital city of the Santa Cruz department (in the eastern region of the country). In 2006, the municipality's population was 1,528,683. In 2008, the urban population was 1,545,161.

Santa Cruz is not only the most populated city in Bolivia, but the department is also the richest, with over 30% of the national GDP. The city is a major center of petrochemical production in Bolivia, especially because the production of natural gas that exports to neighboring countries. The main sectors that drive the economy are the oil, forestry and agrobusiness firms.

## History

Santa Cruz de la Sierra was founded on February 26, 1561 by Ñuflo de Chaves, after an expedition composed of 158 soldiers who left the city of Asunción del Paraguay. The new town was baptized with the name of Santa Cruz de la Sierra in honor of the founder's hometown in the Castilian Extremadura. The foundation was made on the banks of the Sutús stream in the Chiquitos mountain range.

In 1601, the city was moved to Cotoca, about  to the west (Santa Cruz La Nueva).

At the same time, most of the population of the original Santa Cruz (Santa Cruz La Vieja) moved to San Lorenzo el Real de la Frontera, a nearby town founded in 1590 and moved in 1595.

In 1622, Santa Cruz and San Lorenzo el Real de la Frontera merged. The new city resulting from this union, Santa Cruz de la Sierra, is on the Piraí River.
Arithmetic logic unit

In computing, an **arithmetic logic unit** (**ALU**) is a digital circuit that performs arithmetic and logical operations. The ALU is a basic building block of the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer,  even the simplest microcontrollers contain one for purposes such as timing.

Now, modern microprocessors, microcontrollers and CPUs have very powerful and very complex ALUs. Also, more recent CPUs may contain up to more than 4 ALUs (see superscalar CPUs).

Mathematician John von Neumann proposed the ALU concept in 1945.

## Related pages

- FPU
- Execution unit

## Other websites

- A Simulator of Complex ALU in MATLAB

- ALU full Form
Floating point unit

A **floating point unit (FPU)** is a part of a computer system specially designed to carry out operations on floating point numbers. Typical operations are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and square root.

Some systems can also perform more advanced functions as exponential or trigonometric functions calculations, however in most modern processors these functions are done with software library routines, not by hardware.

In most modern general purpose CPUs, one or more FPUs are integrated inside the CPU; however many embedded microcontrollers, especially older designs, do not have hardware support for floating point operations.

In the past, some systems as the Intel 8086 have implemented floating point via a coprocessor that is controlled by the CPU rather than as an integrated unit.

Most modern computers have integrated FPU hardware; but not all. In the absence of an FPU, many FPU functions can be emulated, which saves the added hardware cost of an FPU but is significantly slower.

## Related pages

- Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)
- Execution unit
Eating disorder

An **eating disorder** is when someone begins eating too much, or when someone begins to avoid eating. This affects their mental and physical health. Anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa are two of the most well-known eating disorders today. Nine percent of the U.S. population or 28.8 million Americans will have an eating disorder in their lifetime time. Eating disorders affect all genders, with females being two times more likely to have an eating disorder. Eating disorders and addictions are closely related.

Eating disorders involve more than just food. Many people with eating disorders are very sad and feel alone. They might get depressed and eating in front of other people can be stressful for them. Some people eat food to feel better when they are sad, stressed, or upset. They might eat a lot of food in a very short period or throw up their food because they feel guilty. They eat very little because they want to lose weight, even if they are already dangerously underweight (weighing less than what it is considered healthy). Even if they are underweight, they can see themselves as very fat. Many people with eating disorders suffer malnutrition (not getting enough nutrients that the body needs to be healthy), or electrolyte imbalances (a change in the number of elements such as sodium or potassium that causes problems in the body's function). Eating disorders can cause death.

## Other websites

- National Association of Anorexia Nervosa and Associated Disorders
- National Eating Disorders Association
- Effects of Eating Disorders
Derealization

**Derealization** (**DR**) is a change in the way someone views the world so that it seems unreal. Derealization can also make someone feel as if their environment does not have emotion or depth. This is a symptom of other problems, such as sleeping disorders, schizophrenia, and other mental disorders. It can also be caused by drug intoxication.

Similar to derealization is depersonalization, but the two are different. Depersonalization is a sense of unreality about oneself. Derealization is a sense of unreality of the outside world.

Derealization often happens during a traumatic or tragic event.
Paresthesia

**Paresthesia** (pron. ; **paraesthesia** in British English, pron. ) is a feeling of tingling, prickling, or numbness with no permanent effects. It is commonly called "pins and needles". This feeling may last a short while, or may be more long-lasting. A long-term effect means there is something wrong with neurons in the body.

An example of this can be felt when sitting cross-legged for a long time and your foot "falls asleep". The tingling feeling you get when you move is paresthesia.

## Causes

Paresthesia has many known causes, including the following:

- Alcoholism
- Anticonvulsant drugs such as topiramate, sultiame, and acetazolamide
- Anxiety and/or Panic Disorder
- Decompression sickness
- Dehydration
- Fabry disease
- Fibromyalgia
- Guillain-Barre Syndrome (GBS)
- Heavy metals
- Hyperventilation
- Hyperkalemia
- Hypothyroidism
- Immune deficiency, such as Chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (CIDP)
- Ingestion of Beta-alanine
- Lidocaine poisoning
- Lomotil
- Low blood-sugar (Hypoglycaemia)
- Menopause
- Migraines
- Multiple sclerosis
- Nitrous Oxide, long term exposure
- Obdormition
- Radiation poisoning
- Vitamin B5 deficiency
- Vitamin B12 deficiency
- Withdrawal from certain SSRIs, such as paroxetine

## Other websites

- Paresthesia in detail
- What makes your arms, legs and feet fall asleep?
Garonne

The **Garonne** is a river that runs through northern Spain and the southwest France. Its mouth is at the Atlantic Ocean. It is  long.
Physical abuse

**Physical abuse** is a form of abuse which causes feelings of pain, injury, or other physical suffering. Physical abuse may lead to low self-esteem and other mental problems.

## Types of physical abuse

Physical abuse has many forms. A few examples of physical abuse are:

- Striking or hitting
- Punching
- Slapping
- Whipping
- Striking with an object
- Pinching
- Kicking
- Strangling
- Drowning
- Sleep deprivation
- Freezing
- Burning
- Electric shock
- Cutting
- Poisoning
- Withholding food or medication
- Assault
- Neglect
- Torture
- Any other excessive physical treatment.

## Infobox (disease)

- **name**: Physical abuse
Sexual abuse

**Sexual abuse** (also called **sexual molestation**) is when one person encourages another person to commit a sexual act, harassment or sexual assault. A person who commits sexual abuse is called a molester, abuser, or sexual abuser. When a victim of sexual abuse is under the age of consent, it is known as child sexual abuse.

Sexual abuse can lead to many psychological problems, including low self-esteem, clinical depression, psychological trauma and other mental disorders, especially if the victim is a child and/or the abuse is severe.

Some groups of people are more likely to be sexually abused than others. It is common knowledge that girls and women are sexually abused more often than boys and men, and that abusers are usually men. Disabled people, especially disabled girls, are much more likely than non-disabled people to be sexually abused. They are often abused by authority figures in their lives, such as carers. Disabled people are more vulnerable to sexual assault for a number of reasons. People of different races have different rates of being sexually abused. African American girls and women 12 years old and older experience higher rates of sexual abuse.

## Other websites

- Rape, Abuse, & Incest National Network RAINN is the largest anti-sexual assault organization and operates the National Sexual Assault Hotlines.
- Gender Male - False Accusations of Sexual Abuse  First-hand accounts from men falsely accused of rape and its effect on their lives.
Saka

The **Sakas** were a population of Iranic nomadic tribesmen lived in the plains of Eurasia from Eastern Europe to China, from the Old Persian Period to the Middle Persian Period. Then Turkic language speakers took their place.

The ancient Greeks called the Sakas the Scythians.

Sakas came across the river Indus and overan Sind and Saurashtra (near Gujrat) .They finally settled down in Kathiawar and malwa. They were often in war with the Satavahanas. Rudradaman, one of their best known king was the one who stopped the expansion of Sata ahana power to the north of river Narmada. The Sakas themselves could not expand to the north as they would have liked to, because Kushanas held them back.

## Books and Articles

- Davis-Kimball, Jeannine. 2002. _Warrior Women: An Archaeologist's Search for History's Hidden Heroines_. Warner Books, New York. 1st Trade printing, 2003.  (pbk).
- Lebedynsky, Iaroslav. (2006). _Les Saces: Les <<Scythes>> d'Asie, VIII<sup>e</sup> av. J.-C.-IV<sup>e</sup> siècle apr. J.-C._ Editions Errance, Paris.  (in French).

## Other websites

- Genetic journeys and ancestors
- Hill, John E. 2004. _The Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu._ Draft annotated English translation.
- Hill, John E. 2004. _The Peoples of the West from the Weilue_ 魏略 _by Yu Huan_ 魚豢_: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE._ Draft annotated English translation.

## Infobox (ethnic group)

- **image**: File:Issyk's Golden Cataphract Warrior.jpg
- thumb
- Issyk's Golden Cataphract Warrior
- **caption**: Issyk's Gold Cataphract Warrior (from Kazakhstan), a parade gold scale armour from Issyk's thoimb of Sakas King
- **total**: Unknown
- **regions**: Eastern Europe
Central Asia
Northeast Asia
- **languages**: Scythian languages
- **religions**: Animism
- **related groups**: *Sarmatians
*Dahae
*Sakas
*Scythians
*Massagetes
Hill Auditorium

**Hill Auditorium** is the largest performance place on the University of Michigan campus in Ann Arbor in the United States. The auditorium was named after Arthur Hill (1847-1909), who was a regent of the university from 1901 to 1909. He gave 200,000 dollars to the university to build it. Opened in 1913, the auditorium was designed by Albert Kahn and Associates. It was recently fixed up by the same firm beginning in 2002 and was re-opened in 2004.
Goulburn

**Goulburn** () is a city in the Southern Tablelands of New South Wales, Australia. It is 190 km south-west of Sydney on the Hume Highway. It is 690 metres above sea-level. In 2006 there were 20,127 people living in Goulburn. Goulburn calls itself as "Australia's first inland city". The city of Bathurst also claims to be the first inland city in Australia.

Goulburn was named by James Meehan after Henry Goulburn, a British politician. The Governor Lachlan Macquarie approved the choice of name. The Aboriginal name for Goulburn is Burbong. This is a Murring/Wiradjuri word meaning a special place.

Goulburn has a railway station on the Main Southern railway line. It is a service centre for the many farms in the area. It also provides a rest stop for those travelling on the Hume Highway. It has a central park and many historic buildings, including old houses near the railway station on Sloane Street. It also has two 19th-century cathedrals. It is home to the _Big Merino_, the world's largest cement sheep.

## Infobox (australian place)

- **type**: city
- **name**: Goulburn
- **state**: nsw
- **native name**: _Burbong_
- **image**: Goulburn from War Memorial 004.JPG
- **caption**: Goulburn seen from Rocky Hill
- **lga**: Goulburn Mulwaree Council
- **county**: Argyle County, Argyle
- **parish**: Goulburn Parish, Goulburn
- **postcode**: 2580
- **pop**: 22,890
- **est**: 1833
- **elevation**: 702
- **maxtemp**: 19.6
- **mintemp**: 6.1
- **rainfall**: 529.6
- **stategov**: Electoral district of Goulburn, Goulburn
- **fedgov**: Division of Hume, Hume
- **dist1**: 195
- **location1**: Sydney
- **dist2**: 90
- **location2**: Canberra
- **near-n**: Middle Arm, New South Wales, Middle Arm
- **near-ne**: Tarlo, New South Wales, Tarlo
- **near-e**: Towrang, New South Wales, Towrang
- **near-se**: Boxers Creek, New South Wales, Boxers Creek
- **near-s**: Brisbane Grove, New South Wales, Brisbane Grove
- **near-sw**: Run-O-Waters, New South Wales, Run-O-Waters
- **near-w**: Baw Baw, New South Wales, Baw Baw
- **near-nw**: Kingsdale, New South Wales, Kingsdale
- **local map**: yes
- **zoom**: 8
Women's suffrage

**Women's suffrage** is the right of women to take part in elections. This means two things, which are not necessarily related: First of all, women are allowed to vote for a candidate in an election, and their vote will be treated the same as any other vote. The second thing is that women can be a candidate, and get elected to hold a political office. There's also the idea that all adult citizens should be allowed to vote.

Before the 19th century, a few countries had this idea that all adults should be able to vote, but it only applied to men.

The modern movement for women to gain the right to vote started in France in the late-18th century. The French Republic had been founded after a revolution, and political scientist Antoine Condorcet and activist Olympe de Gouges campaigned for women to be allowed to vote in the national election.

In early cases of women's suffrage, only those women who met certain requirements were given the right to vote in certain kinds of elections. In Sweden, there was conditional women's suffrage during the Age of Liberty (1718–1771). Unmarried women who owned property could vote in New Jersey from 1776 to 1807. In the 1792 election in Sierra Leone, all heads of household—one-third of whom were women—could vote.

Several British colonies recognised women's suffrage before most countries. The female descendants of the _Bounty_ mutineers who lived on Pitcairn Islands could vote from 1838. This right was kept when they were resettled on Norfolk Island in 1856. Women in South Australia were allowed to vote in local elections from 1861, and those on the Isle of Man could vote in parliamentary elections from 1881. In 1893, New Zealand became the first independent country to give all adult women the right to vote in national elections. The women in South Australia got the same right in 1894, and became the first to get the right to stand (run) for seats in parliament.

Many countries did the same soon after, following similar battles. Limited voting rights were also gained by women in several Western countries in the late 19th century, including Sweden, Finland and the United Kingdom. Russian Empire was the first European country to introduce women's suffrage, in 1906. It also elected the world's first female members of parliament in its 1907 elections. At that time it was a part of the Russian Empire. In the years before World War I, women in Norway (1913) and Denmark (1915) also won the right to vote, as did women in the other Australian states. In most other Western countries, women's suffrage came at the end of World War I.

Ceylon, now called Sri Lanka, recognised the right in 1931. It elected the world's first female head of government, Sirimavo Bandaranaike, in the country's 1960 elections. Women's suffrage was explicitly recognised as a right by the United Nations in 1979.

## Related pages

- Suffrage
- Suffragette
Grenfell, New South Wales

**Grenfell** is a country town in the central west of New South Wales, in Australia. It is in the Weddin Shire. It is  west of Sydney. It is close to Forbes, Cowra and Young.  In 2006 there were 1,994 people living in Grenfell.

## History

The Grenfell area was the home of the Wiradjuri Aborigines. Europeans first settled when gold was found at Emu Creek. The town was renamed after John Grenfell, the Gold Commissioner at Forbes. He had been killed in 1866 when bushrangers attacked a stagecoach on which he was travelling.

By 1870-71 more gold was found at Grenfell than in any other town in NSW. By the middle of the 1870s the gold was running out.  Wheat was first grown in the area in 1871.  The railway reached Grenfell in 1901.

The Grenfell area has been badly affected by drought since 2001.

## Events

The poet and story writer Henry Lawson was born on the gold fields at Grenfell. On the Queen's Birthday weekend in June every year, the town has _The Henry Lawson Festival of Arts_. Thousands of people come from all over Australia for the art, poetry and writing competitions. Over the years, famous visitors have included Chips Rafferty, Barry Humphries, Patrick White and Sigrid Thornton.

In June 2007, the _Spirit of the Bush Concert_ was held. It was organized by Australian of the Year, Lee Kernaghan, local and international star Steve Forde and the Flange, Adam Brand, Leo Sayer, Diesel, and The McClymonts.

## Famous people

Cricketer Stan McCabe, cyclist Reggie "IronMan" McNamara and tennis player Jan Lehane and Creative Writer Adam Burn were born in Grenfell.

## Other websites

- Grenfell's web site
- About the town
- _Sydney Morning Herald_ 5 January 2003: Grenfell's attempts to woo people to move to the town.

## Infobox (australian place)

- **type**: town
- **name**: Grenfell
- **state**: nsw
- **image**: Grenfell Main Street 002.JPG
- **caption**: Main Street, Grenfell, during the 2011 Henry Lawson Festival
- **lga**: Weddin Shire
- **postcode**: 2810
- **pop**: 2513
- **elevation**: 410
- **maxtemp**: 22.5
- **mintemp**: 9.4
- **rainfall**: 622.9
- **stategov**: Electoral district of Cootamundra, Cootamundra
- **fedgov**: Division of Hume, Hume
- **dist1**: 367
- **dir1**: W
- **location1**: Sydney
- **dist2**: 226
- **dir2**: NW
- **location2**: Canberra
- **dist3**: 197
- **dir3**: N
- **location3**: Wagga Wagga, New South Wales, Wagga Wagga
- **dist4**: 55
- **dir4**: WSW
- **location4**: Cowra, New South Wales, Cowra
- **dist5**: 51
- **dir5**: NW
- **location5**: Young, New South Wales, Young
Metropolitan France

**Metropolitan France** ( or _la Métropole_) is the part of France that is in Europe. It can also be described as mainland France plus the island of Corsica. By contrast, Overseas France (_France d'outre-mer_) is the collective name for all of the French overseas departments, territories and collectivities and New Caledonia. Metropolitan France and Overseas France together form the French Republic.

Metropolitan France covers an area of 551,695 km² (213,011 sq. miles). Excluding the territory of Adélie Land in Antarctica, this is 81.8% of the nation's territory. As of January 1, 2011, 63,136,180 people lived in metropolitan France. This is 95.9% of the nation's population.

The five overseas departments – Martinique, Guadeloupe, Réunion, French Guiana, and Mayotte – have the same political status as the departments in metropolitan France. Metropolitan France and these five overseas departments together are sometimes called _France entière_ ("entire France") by the French administration, especially by INSEE. This grouping does not include the French overseas collectivities and territories, which have more autonomy than the overseas departments.

## Related pages

- French colonial empire
Justin Raimondo

**Justin Raimondo** (born **Dennis Raimondo**; November 18, 1951 – June 27, 2019) was an American writer and the editorial director of the website Antiwar.com. He was born in White Plains, New York.

Raimondo died on June 27, 2019 in Sebastopol, California from lung cancer at the age of 67.

## Other websites

- Raimondo's Online Work at AntiWar.com
- Raimondo's Online Work at TakiMag.com
Chelsea Clinton

**Chelsea Victoria Clinton** (born February 27, 1980) is the only child of Bill Clinton, former President of the United States, and his wife, former Secretary of State, Hillary Clinton.

## Early life and education

Clinton was born at Baptist Health Medical Center in Little Rock, Arkansas. She moved in to The White House when she was twelve years old when her father, Bill Clinton, became president. She has helped her mother, Hillary Clinton, many times by campaigning for people to elect her mother as the first woman President of the United States.

She has an undergraduate degree from Stanford University, and master's degrees from University of Oxford and Columbia University. She also has a Doctor of Philosophy in international relations from the University of Oxford in 2014..

Clinton is vegetarian.

## Personal life

On November 30, 2009, it was announced that Clinton was engaged to Marc Mezvinsky, an investment banker. They married on July 31, 2010. On November 14, 2011, Clinton announced joining as a "special correspondent" for NBC News.

In September 2014, Clinton gave birth to a daughter Charlotte. She gave birth to an eldest son Aiden in June 2016.

Her youngest son, Jasper, was born in New York in July 2019.

## Infobox (academic)

- **child**: yes
- **thesis title**: The Global Fund: an experiment in global governance
- **thesis url**: https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:657c56dd-82cc-42c1-8453-33993a4a760f
- **thesis year**: 2014
- **doctoral advisor**: Ngaire Woods


## Infobox (person)

- **name**: Chelsea Clinton
- **image**: Chelsea Clinton at the British Embassy in Washington, D.C. on January 8, 2024 (cropped).jpg
- **caption**: Clinton in 2024
- **birth name**: Chelsea Victoria Clinton
- **birth place**: Little Rock, Arkansas, U.S.
- **education**: Stanford University (Bachelor of Arts, BA)
University College, Oxford
(Master of Philosophy, MPhil, Doctor of Philosophy, DPhil)
Columbia University (Master of Public Health, MPH)
- **party**: Democratic Party (United States), Democratic
- **children**: 3
- **relatives**: Clinton family
Crich

**Crich** ( _kryech_)  is a village in the English county of Derbyshire. It is the home of the National Tramway Museum in the Crich Tramway Village.

## Memorial Tower

At the top of Crich Hill is a tower. The tower was built to remember members of the regiment who died in battle, particularly in World War I.

The tower was built in 1923 on the site of an older tower called Crich Stand. The Memorial Tower is the end of an annual pilgrimage on the first Sunday in July. It is  above sea level. The tower has 52 steps to the top. From the top of the tower, eight counties and landmarks such as the Humber Bridge and Lincoln Cathedral can be seen.

## History

Crich is mentioned in 1009 by Ethelred the Unready when he gives away Weston-on-Trent to his minister.

A workhouse opened in 1734 and had 40 people. The workhouse accepted poor people from places, including Melbourne, Pentrich, Willington, Mercaston and Denby.

The television series _Peak Practice_ and the 2007 movie _"And When Did You Last See Your Father"_ were filmed in Crich.

## Related pages

- National Tramway Museum (Crich Tramway Village)

## Other websites

- Crich village website

## Infobox (uk place)

- **country**: England
- **static image**: Bowns Hill Crich.jpg
- **static image caption**: Bowns Hill
- **official name**: Crich
- **map type**: Derbyshire
- **shire district**: Amber Valley
- **shire county**: Derbyshire
- **region**: East Midlands
- **constituency westminster**: Amber Valley (UK Parliament constituency), Amber Valley
- **post town**: MATLOCK
- **postcode district**: DE4
- **postcode area**: DE
- **dial code**: 01773
Edwardian period

|Preceded by||
| --- | --- |
|colspan=2 align=center||
|colspan=2 align=center|King Edward VII, after whom the Edwardian period is named. **1901–1914**|
|Victorian era||
|Britain in World War I||

The **Edwardian era** in the United Kingdom is the period which included the reign of King Edward VII (1901–1910). The "Edwardian era" usually includes some years before and after his reign, up to the First World War.

## History

King Edward VII was very different from Queen Victoria. Victoria had become almost a recluse after her husband died. On the other hand, Edward was an important leader. Edward and his fashionable friends followed the art and fashions of other European countries. Edward enjoyed travelling, and his visits to Paris improved relations between the two countries.

The United Kingdom was a powerful nation in the nineteenth century. There was progress in British science and industry at this time. The British Empire was large. The Royal Navy was the most powerful navy in the world at that time.

The prosperity of the Edwardian era was built on trade and manufacturing. These were the main industries at the time:
1. Mining, especially coal, the main source of power
1. Manufacture of iron and steel
1. Shipbuilding
1. Manufacturing cloth and other fabrics from cotton and wool
1. Manufacture household goods and equipment (such as ceramics and cutlery)

The extent of this trade was big. Railways all over the world were built by the British. They were equipped with machinery made in Britain. Germany also became a powerful nation, and the United States was already becoming an industrial giant. By Edward VII's time. Both of these countries were as industrially advanced.

Most British people in the "Edwardian era" were sure that British progress would continue. They were certain that the United Kingdom would continue to be very powerful. The era came to an unexpected end with the First World War. Economically and in human terms, this was a disaster for most of the European nations.

There was a lot of inequality in society in the United Kingdom in the Edwardian era, as there always had been. Rich people and poor people had very different living standards at this time.
Most adult men could vote, but women could not. Suffragettes were fighting for the right to vote.

## Other websites

- The Edwardian Country House (Channel 4 TV series, very evocative of the period)
- Home Decor from the Edwardian Age (from the BBC)
- Edwardian Promenade (Website devoted to the Edwardian era)
Objectivity (philosophy)

**Objectivity** is a philosophical opinion or method that believes that reality exists outside of the human mind. People can separate their own ideas and opinions from the observations they make. Objective observations are true no matter who makes the observation. Being objective helps people focus on things that everyone can agree on.

The Scientific method claims objectivity but see epistemology, the philosophy of science and the work of Karl Popper.  The opposite of objectivity is subjectivity.
Rod Paige

**Roderick Raynor "Rod" Paige** (June 17, 1933 – December 9, 2025) was an American politician and academic who served as the 7th United States Secretary of Education from 2001 to 2005. He was the first African American to serve as the nation's education chief.

## Early life

Paige was born in Monticello, Mississippi. He earned a bachelor's degree from Jackson State University in Mississippi and a Master's degree and an Ed.D from Indiana University Bloomington.  He also held an honorary doctoral degree from the University of Houston presented to him in 2000.

## U.S. Secretary of Education

Paige was sitting with George W. Bush at the Emma E. Booker Elementary School in Sarasota, Florida, when Bush received the news that a second plane had hit the World Trade Center in the September 11, 2001 attacks.

In February 2004, Paige called the National Education Association, the nation's largest teachers union, a "terrorist organization."

On November 15, 2004, Paige announced his resignation after overseeing the President's education agenda for four years. White House domestic policy adviser Margaret Spellings was nominated as his successor. The U.S. Senate confirmed her on January 20, 2005 after Bush's inauguration for a second term.

## Death

Paige died on December 9, 2025 at his home in Houston, Texas at the age of 92.

## Infobox (officeholder)

- **name**: Rod Paige
- **image**: Rod Paige.jpg
- **office**: 7th United States Secretary of Education
- **president**: George W. Bush
- **term start**: January 20, 2001
- **term end**: January 20, 2005
- **predecessor**: Richard Riley
- **successor**: Margaret Spellings
- **office2**: Superintendent of the Houston Independent School District
- **term start2**: 1994
- **term end2**: 2001
- **predecessor2**: Yvonne Gonzales (interim)
- **successor2**: Kaye Stripling (interim)
- **birth name**: Roderick Raynor Paige
- **birth place**: Monticello, Mississippi, U.S.
- **death place**: Houston, Texas, U.S.
- **party**: Republican Party (United States), Republican
- **spouse**:

- **children**: 2
- **education**: Jackson State University (Bachelor of Arts, BA)
Indiana University Bloomington (Master of Arts, MA, Doctor of Education, EdD)
- **serviceyears**: 1955–1957
Joshua Bolten

**Joshua Brewster Bolten** (born August 16, 1954) was the White House Chief of Staff serving U.S. President George W. Bush. Bolten replaced Andrew Card on April 14, 2006.

## Infobox (us cabinet official)

- **name**: Joshua Brewster Bolten
- **image**: Bolten Joshua.jpg
- **order**: 22<sup>nd</sup>
- **office**: White House Chief of Staff
- **term start**: April 14, 2006
- **term end**: January 20, 2009
- **predecessor**: Andrew Card
- **successor**: Rahm Emanuel
- **president**: George W. Bush
- **party**: Republican Party (United States), Republican
- **profession**: Lawyer from Kentucky
Alan Stephenson Boyd

**Alan Stephenson Boyd** (July 20, 1922 – October 18, 2020) was an American politician and lawyer. He was the first United States Secretary of Transportation, appointed by Lyndon Johnson in November 1966.

He was appointed to the Civil Aeronautics Board in 1959 by Dwight Eisenhower and promoted to chairman by John F. Kennedy.

When the Richard M. Nixon administration took power, Boyd left the government and became the president of the Illinois Central Railroad, a position he held from 1969 to 1972.

Boyd died at a retirement home in Seattle, Washington on October 18, 2020 at the age of 98.

## Infobox (officeholder)

- **name**: Alan Stephenson Boyd
- **image**: Alan stephenson boyd.jpg
- **order**: 1st
- **office**: United States Secretary of Transportation
- **term start**: January 16, 1967
- **term end**: January 20, 1969
- **president**: Lyndon B. Johnson
- **predecessor**: None
- **successor**: John A. Volpe
- **birth place**: Jacksonville, Florida, U.S.
- **death place**: Seattle, Washington, U.S.
- **party**: Democratic Party (United States), Democratic Party
- **children**: Mark Boyd
- **alma mater**: University of Florida
University of Virginia
- **branch**: United States Army Air Corps
- **battles**: World War II
Mary Peters (politician)

**Mary E. Peters** (born December 4, 1948) was the United States Secretary of Transportation. She is the second woman and first Arizonan to hold the position. Peters joined the Arizona Department of Transportation in 1985, and was appointed by Gov. Jane Dee Hull to serve as its director in 1998. In 2006, President Bush appointed Peters as the Co-Vice Chairwoman of the National Surface Transportation Policy and Revenue Study Commission.

## Infobox (us cabinet official)

- **name**: Mary Peters
- **image**: Mary Peters, official FHWA photo.jpg
- **order**: 15th
- **title**: United States Secretary of Transportation
- **term start**: October 17, 2006
- **term end**: January 20, 2009
- **president**: George W. Bush
- **predecessor**: Norman Mineta
- **successor**: Ray LaHood
- **birth place**: Phoenix, Arizona
- **party**: Republican Party (United States), Republican
- **alma mater**: University of Phoenix
Harvard University
President-elect

A **president-elect** is a political candidate who has been elected president but who has not yet taken office.
Chesterfield

**Chesterfield** is a market town and borough in the county of Derbyshire in the East Midlands of England. It is on the River Rother and the River Hipper. It is Derbyshire's largest town (Derby is a city).

It is a very old town and was founded between 70–100 AD. The town received its market charter from King John in 1204.

It is 24 miles (39 km) north of Derby and 11 miles (18 km) south of Sheffield.

The town is located on the A61 between Derby and Thirsk in North Yorkshire. It is 6 miles (9.7 km) from the M1.

A 2019 census estimated that the borough has around 104,900 residents.

Chesterfield's most famous landmark is Church of St Mary and All Saints. It is famous because of its "crooked spire". The town's football club, Chesterfield F.C., are nicknamed _The Spireites_ due to this.

Chesterfield railway station is on the Midland Main Line. Passengers can get local trains to towns and villages around the East Midlands as well as long-distance trains, operated by East Midlands Railway, to London, Sheffield and Nottingham. CrossCountry trains also stop at Chesterfield, providing passengers with direct trains to Birmingham, the North East, Scotland and Cornwall

## Twin towns

Chesterfield is twinned with:
- Darmstadt, Germany
- Troyes, France
- Tsumeb, Namibia
- Yangquan, China

## Infobox (uk place)

- **official name**: Chesterfield
- **country**: England
- **region**: East Midlands
- **static image name**: File:Saint-mary-chesterfield.jpg
- **static image caption**: Chesterfield Parish Church, famous for its "crooked spire"
- **static image alt**: Chesterfield Parish Church
- **static image 2 name**: File:Chesterfield_UK_locator_map.svg
- **static image 2 width**: 200px
- **static image 2 caption**: Chesterfield shown within Derbyshire
- **population**: 104,900
- **population demonym**: Cestrefeldian
- **os grid reference**: SK382711
- **post town**: CHESTERFIELD
- **postcode area**: S
- **postcode district**: S40, S41
- **dial code**: 01246
- **constituency westminster**: Chesterfield (UK Parliament constituency), Chesterfield
- **unitary england**: Borough of Chesterfield
- **lieutenancy england**: Derbyshire
Can't Stop This Thing We Started

"**Can't Stop This Thing We Started**" is a song by Bryan Adams. The song was the second single from Adams' 1991 album _Waking Up the Neighbours_, a successor of the single "(Everything I Do) I Do It for You".

## The song

The song is a rock song unlike "(Everything I Do) I Do It for You". It reached #2 on the Billboard Hot 100, behind Prince's "Cream". This track received two nominations at the Grammy Awards of 1992 for Best Rock Song and Best Rock Performance, Solo. It did not win either award.

## Track listing

1. "Can't Stop This Thing We Started" (4:29)
1. "(Everything I Do) I Do It for You" [Full length version] (6:38)

## Chart performance

|Country|Peak|
| --- | --- |
|Canada|1|
|US|2|
|Sweden|3|
|Norway|7|
|Switzerland|8|
|Australia|9|
|France|10|
|UK|12|
|Austria|14|

## Infobox (song)

- **name**: Can't Stop This Thing We Started
- **artist**: Bryan Adams
- **album**: Waking Up the Neighbours
- **released**: October 2, 1991
- **recorded**: 1990 in music, 1990
- **genre**: Rock music, Rock
- **length**: 4:29
- **label**: A&M Records, A&M
- **writer**: Bryan Adams, Robert Lange
- **producer**: Bryan Adams, Robert Lange
- **prev title**: (Everything I Do) I Do It for You
- **prev year**: 1991
- **next title**: There Will Never Be Another Tonight
- **next year**: 1991