juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Richmond, Victoria

**Richmond** is a suburb in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. It is only 3 km (2 miles) south-east of Melbourne's business district. Richmond's population was 26,121 in the 2011 census.

The older suburb has been rebuilt with more expensive houses and stores. This removal of run-down areas started in the early 1990s. Richmond now has many homes for the wealthy that were once warehouses. There are also public housing high-rise flats for the poor and row houses from the Victorian-era. There are also many shops, restaurants and bars.

Richmond has a popular active Vietnamese living area along Victoria Street. The area is also well known for the illegal drug trade (especially heroin) that happens both in the streets and inside homes.

## Transport

Richmond has a train station, called the Richmond Train Station, which has 10 tracks and 10 platforms. The Richmond Railway Station is on the following train lines: Alamein, Bairnsdale, Belgrave, Cranbourne, Frankston, Glen Waverley, Lilydale, Pakenham and Sandringham.

## In popular culture

The 1980s cult punk movie Dogs in Space made by Richard Lowenstein and starring Michael Hutchence was made in Richmond.

Songwriter Paul Kelly's song "Leaps and Bounds" mentions Richmond's 'clock on the silo'. Its real name is the Nylex Clock.

## Infobox (australian place)

- **name**: Richmond
- **image**: Swan Street, Richmond.jpg
- **caption**: Swan Street, Richmond with the Swan Street Rail Bridge to the right
- **state**: vic
- **type**: suburb
- **lga**: City of Yarra
- **alternative location map**: Australia Victoria metropolitan Melbourne
- **local map**: yes
- **zoom**: 12
- **area**: 3.8
- **city**: Melbourne
- **est**: 19th century
- **postcode**: 3121
- **pop**: 27705
- **fedgov**: Division of Melbourne, Melbourne
- **stategov**: Electoral district of Richmond (Victoria), Richmond
- **dist1**: 3
- **location1**: Melbourne city centre, Melbourne
- **near-nw**: Collingwood, Victoria, Collingwood
- **near-n**: Abbotsford, Victoria, Abbotsford
- **near-ne**: Kew, Victoria, Kew
- **near-w**: East Melbourne, Victoria, East Melbourne
- **near-e**: Hawthorn, Victoria, Hawthorn
- **near-sw**: Cremorne, Victoria, Cremorne
- **near-s**: South Yarra, Victoria, South Yarra
- **near-se**: Burnley, Victoria, Burnley
Deutschland Tour

The **Deutschland Tour** (English: _Tour of Germany_ and sometimes _Deutschland-Rundfahrt_ in German) is the most important stage race in Germany. Initially the race was held in May/June. Since 2005, it has been part of the UCI ProTour and has been moved to August.

## History

Already in 1911, a "national" cycling race of over 1,500 km was held in the German Empire (Germany was then lots of more or less independent kingdoms, duchies, and other little countries ). Until 1931 several Tours were held, organised by different groups. In 1931 the first _Deutschlandtour_ was held.  The race was well organised and exciting between 1937 and 1939, but stopped again at the start of World War II.

There was not a lot of road cycling in Germany, and the tour's popularity depended on German riders doing well in other races.   This resulted in several parallel tours of West Germany.

But after Jan Ullrich's 1997 Tour de France victory, cycling became more popular. Partly as because of Germany's new-found cycling enthusiasm, the _Bund Deutscher Radfahrer e.V._ (German Cyclists' Federation) and the company Upsolut founded the Deutschland Tour _gmbh_ (Ltd) 1999 the _Deutschlandtour_ restarted, but has not been run since 2008 because of a lack of interest from TV sponsors.

## Other websites

- Official Site
- Deutchland Tour at Cyclingpost

## Infobox (cycling race)

- **name**: Deutschland Tour
- **color**: #AAD0FF
- **image**:
- **date**: August
- **region**: Germany
- **english**: Tour of Germany
- **localnames**: Deutschland Tour
- **discipline**: Road
- **competition**: UCI ProTour
- **type**: Stage-race
- **first**: 1911
- **number**: 37 (as of 2023)
- **firstwinner**: Hans Ludwig
- **mostwins**: Jens Voigt (2)
- **mostrecent**: Ilan Van Wilder
Stage race

A bicycle **stage race** is a race held over several days.  Each day's race is called a _stage_.  Many countries have a racing tour of their country, for example the Deutschland Tour and the Tour of Britain.  The oldest and most famous stage race is the Tour de France.

A stage race does not have to be tour of a country.  The Bayern Rundfahrt is a stage race in Bavaria, Germany. In contrast the ENECO Tour  is a stage race around Belgium and the Netherlands.
Maki

**Maki** can mean:

- Maki Fumihiko, an architect and Pritzker Prize winner
- Maki Goto, a Japanese pop singer
- Maki Horikita, a Japanese actress
- Maki Ichinose, a fictional character in the anime and manga series _BLEACH_
- Maki Kagura, a video game character from the _King of Fighters_ series
- Maki Seiichiro, a Japanese soccer player
- Makizushi, a variety of sushi
- Markie (real name 翁長麻紀 Maki Onaga), the lead singer of HIGH and MIGHTY COLOR
- Ziro Maki, physicist
Edwards v. Aguillard

**Edwards v. Aguillard** was a 1987 United States Supreme Court case that said that creationism was not science. The Supreme Court said that it was religion, and could not be taught in American schools, because the United States Constitution (the set of rules that all American government must follow) does not allow the government to support one religion more than other religions, and so schools run by the government cannot teach religion as being true. This rule is known as the Establishment Clause.

## References

- Edwards v. Aguillard, 482 U.S. 578 (1987) US Supreme Court. Available at: https://www.oyez.org/cases/1986/85-1566 (Accessed: 5 Dec 2024).

## Related pages

- Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District, a similar court case
Frýdlant

**Frýdlant** (-Czech, German: _Friedland_) is a town in the Czech Republic. About 7,600 people live there. It is located in the north of the historical region Bohemia.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Frýdlant
- **other name**: Frýdlant v Čechách
- **settlement type**: Town
- **image skyline**: File:Rathausturm - Kirche der Kreuzfindung - Schloss Friedland.jpg
- **image caption**: View of Frýdlant
- **image shield**: Frýdlant CoA CZ.svg
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision name**: Czech Republic
- **subdivision type2**: Regions of the Czech Republic, Region
- **subdivision name2**: Liberec Region, Liberec
- **subdivision type3**: Districts of the Czech Republic, District
- **subdivision name3**: Liberec District, Liberec
- **pushpin map**: Czechia
- **pushpin relief**: 1
- **pushpin map caption**: Location in the Czech Republic
- **leader title**: Mayor
- **leader name**: Dan Ramzer
- **established title**: Founded
- **established date**: 13th century
- **area total km2**: 31.62
- **elevation m**: 295
- **population as of**: 2019-01-01
- **population total**: 7531
- **population density km2**: auto
- **timezone1**: Central European Time, CET
- **utc offset1**: +1
- **timezone1 dst**: Central European Summer Time, CEST
- **utc offset1 dst**: +2
- **postal code type**: Postal code
- **postal code**: 464 01
- **website**: [http://www.frydlantvc.cz/ www.frydlantvc.cz]
Psychometrics

**Psychometrics** is a science that tries to measure educational and psychological levels of people and groups of people. Areas that are studied in people include intelligence, skills, and personality traits. The science is mainly a part of the science of psychology.

## Related pages

- Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory
- Data mining
- Educational psychology
- Factor analysis
- Standardized test
Consolevania

***Consolevania*** is an internet television program that is about video games. It also has funny stories, although not all of these are about games.  It is made by Rab Florence and Ryan Mcleod in Glasgow, Scotland. _Consolevania_ must be downloaded from the internet rather than watching it on a television set. _Consolevania_ is named after a video game called _Castlevania_ on the Super Nitendo video game console.

Rab and Ryan, also made a normal television show for BBC Scotland, called _videoGaiden_.  It has less swearing in it.

Some of the funny characters in _Consolevania_ are:

- John Gacy - A clown who pretends not to kill children
- Sammy Miller - A man who tries to make the show safer but ends up hurting himself
- Hitler - The Hitler in _Consolevania_ is angry about losing the war and tries to stop the show

_Consolevania_ has a good reputation because the presenters care about video games and they sometimes makes fun of certain people who make video games. People also like the funny stories and swearing.

## Other websites

- Consolevania  - The _Consolevania_ website
Drag (physics)

In fluid dynamics, **drag** (sometimes called **resistance**) is a force which tends to slow the movement of an object through a liquid or gas.
As a moving object pushes the liquid or gas out of its way, the fluid pushes back on the object. This drag force is always opposite to the object's motion, and unlike friction between solid surfaces, the drag force increases as the object moves faster.

Air resistance, also known as drag, is a force that is caused by air, the force acts in the opposite direction to an object moving through the air. It is where air particles hit the front of the object slowing it down. The more surface area, the more air particles hit it and the greater the resistance.

Things are often shaped to make less drag. That's called streamlining. For example, a truck with a flat front will experience high air resistance while a sports car with a curved shape will experience lower air resistance, allowing the car to go faster; because the air has less surface area to push against and therefore moves more smoothly across it. This is why airplanes and other fast machines are streamlined, and the same is true of fish. A snowflake falls more slowly than does a drop of water of the same weight.

Drag can affect the quickest falling speed (the terminal velocity) of an object. The higher the drag, the slower the object falls.
Manatee

**Manatees** are large, fully-aquatic marine mammals of the order Sirenia. They are sometimes known as **sea cows**. The manatees form the genus ***Trichechus***. There are three manatee species.

The name comes from the Spanish _manatí_, which itself comes from a Carib word meaning "breast".

## Early sightings

Christopher Columbus, who thought mermaids were real, went to the waters around Haiti, and wrote in his logbook that he had seen three mermaids. He said that they were not as beautiful as everybody said they were. Nowadays, people believe Christopher Columbus had actually seen three manatees. It is possible he saw them kissing one another, which is something they do when the meet each other in the water.

## Description

Manatees have thick pads around their lips and stiff bristles that help them grab food and move it towards the mouth. A manatee eats sea grass and all kinds of sea vegetables. All its teeth are shaped like a human's molars. The eight hours of chewing each day wears down on their teeth. In fact, its first two pairs of teeth get so worn out that they simply fall out sometimes. However, manatees can grow new teeth. New teeth are always growing in the back. When front teeth fall out, the back teeth move forward to take their place. In mammals, only elephants and (quite independently) kangaroos have this kind of system.

## Taxonomy

The Sirenia are thought to have evolved from four-legged land mammals over 60 million years ago. Their closest living relatives are the Proboscidea (elephants) and Hyracoidea (hyraxes).
- Family **Trichechidae**
    - Genus _Trichechus_
        - West Indian manatee, _Trichechus manatus_
        - Amazonian manatee, _Trichechus inunguis_
        - West African manatee, _Trichechus senegalensis_

## Habitat

Manatees live on the coasts of the Atlantic Ocean and the rivers.
The West African Manatee lives on the western side of Africa, on the shores from Senegal to Angola. They also live in some rivers like the Niger River and around Lake Chad.
The West Indian Manatee lives in the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean, and also on the shores of Brazil and Venezuela.
The Amazonian Manatee lives in parts of the Amazon Basin in South America.

Manatees live in salt water and in fresh water. On the sea shores they mostly live in shallow water, like lagoons and mangroves. They also live in brackish water and rivers. Manatees like bodies of water with a temperature of over 20 °C.

## Life

They are mainly herbivores, spending most of their time grazing in shallow waters at depths of 1-2 metres (3–7 ft).
Natural history

**Natural history** is the study of plants and animals in the wild, and the environments they live in. This includes the geology of the places in which they live.

The work of naturalists is observation, interpretation, collecting and classification, rather than experiments. People who study natural history are called **naturalists**. They were among the first to explore the world. They were the first to study the Amazon and other tropical places. Naturalists find new species and classify plants and animals. They study ecology.

Naturalists developed some theoretical ideas which were valuable. They noticed that living things fitted the lives they led. This was adaptation. They noticed a struggle for existence between animals. They thought they could see a chain of being from lower animals to higher, which they thought was the work of God. The idea that such things might happen by natural means began to surface in the 18th century, and become the majority view in time of Charles Darwin.

Before Darwin, most naturalists did not think of themselves as scientists. When they looked at nature, perhaps as explorers, they looked at everything. They looked at the land, the people, the plants and animals. After Darwin, they did see themselves as scientists. Early on, Darwin called himself a geologist. Thomas Henry Huxley was an anatomist. Joseph Dalton Hooker was a botanist. Charles Lyell was a geologist. They changed the way in which they were educated as well. They often took degrees in science. That sort of education was rare before Darwin.

Naturalists were educated amateurs; scientists are trained professionals. The change happened slowly, during the 19th century. The very word _scientist_ was invented in 1837 by William Whewell. Before then, the term was _natural philosopher_ (for the physical sciences) or _natural historian_ (for the biological sciences and geology). _Naturalist_ is short for _natural historian_.

## Important naturalists

Some of the people who are important because they were interested in natural history are:

- Aristotle
- Pliny the Elder
- Conrad Gessner
- John Ray
- Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon
- Gilbert White
- Alexander von Humboldt
- Charles Darwin
- Alfred Russel Wallace
Theistic evolution

**Theistic evolution**, or  **evolutionary creationism**, is the belief that God, or another higher power, used evolution as a tool to create the different species of living creatures on Earth. It says that evolution does not deny the existence of God.
Queer

The term **queer** is a word that describes any person who does not fit into what is considered normal by society when talking about their gender and/or sexuality.

It is a word that has been reappropriated by social and political LGBT rights activists and is the word that a lot of academic studies use to describe non-heterosexual identities. It is also used as a word which talks about someone's sexuality or gender in a deliberately non-specific way.

Queer is mostly used by younger LGBT people to describe themselves and is usually described as a "fluid" label. Many people like the term in the LGBT community as it focuses on what that community has in common and not its differences. But many older LGBT people may find the term "queer" to be offensive due to its use as a homophobic insult. Some queer folks may or may not be genderqueer (of non-binary gender).

## Other meanings

The term "queer" entered English in the 16th century, meaning _strange_ or a word describing someone who is sick. The word was used a lot in the 20th century to refer to gay men, as it still does a lot today.

## Related pages

- Queer anarchism
Abdus Salam

**Mohammad Abdus Salam**  (29 January 1926; Santokdas, Sahiwal Punjab – 21 November 1996; Oxford, England) was a Pakistani theoretical physicist. He was awarded the 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics.

He was initially educated at the Government College Lahore and the University of the Punjab, Lahore. For a time also worked at the Government College as a lecturer, adding considerably to its intellectual life. Later he went to Cambridge University, England for PhD studies. In 1951 he returned to Pakistan, but he found that he was cut off from the rest of the scientific world there. In 1953, he again went to England where he started to teach and research, having interest in the Grand Unified Theory.

He believed that if the Creator of the universe was one then the origin of all the forces had to be single also. He then set off to unify the electromagnetic and the weak nuclear force.
According to another scientist, Peter Higgs, a field existed i.e. the Higgs field. Salam successfully showed that weak nuclear forces are not really different from electromagnetic forces, and two could inter-convert. Salam provided a theory that shows the unification of two fundamental forces of nature, weak nuclear forces and the electromagnetic forces, one into another.
Livermorium

**Livermorium** is a radioactive chemical element that has the chemical symbol **Lv** and the atomic number 116. Its longest half-life lasts only 47 milliseconds.
The element is named in honor of the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.

It was first discovered in 2000 by the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Russia. Its name was originally "Ununhexium" (Uuh) as a placeholder name meaning "one-one-six-ium" in Latin, but it changed on May 30st, 2012, when the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry changed it.

## Uses

It currently has no use as chemists are researching it now.

## Other websites

- WebElements.com - Livermorium
- Apsidium - Livermorium
- Second postcard from the island of stability
UCI ProTour

The **UCI ProTour** is a series of bicycle road races organised by the world governing body the International Cycling Federation (_Union Cycliste Internationale_ - the UCI)

The ProTour is the top grade of races for the top 20 cycling teams.

The ProTour includes one day races, time trials, and stage races. It started in 2005 and replaced the old world championship series which did not include stage races.

All of the ProTour races are in Europe, but the teams come from Europe and the United States. At the moment it is hard to move up from the Continental circuits to the ProTour, but in the future teams from Africa, Australia or Asia could take part in the ProTour.

## List of current UCI ProTour teams

|Code|Official Team Name|Country|Website|
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|AGR|AG2R Prévoyance||ag2r-cyclisme.com|
|AST|Astana Team||team-astana.eu|
|BTL|Bouygues Télécom||equipebouyguestelecom.fr|
|GCE|Caisse d'Epargne||cyclisme-caisse-epargne.fr|
|COF|Cofidis, Le Crédit par Téléphone||equipe-cofidis.com|
|C.A|Crédit Agricole||credit-agricole.fr|
|CSC|Team CSC||team-csc.com|
|DSC|Discovery Channel Pro Cycling Team||team.discovery.com|
|EUS|Euskaltel-Euskadi||fundacioneuskadi.com|
|FDJ|Française des Jeux||fdjeux.com|
|GST|Gerolsteiner||gerolsteiner.de|
|LAM|Lampre-Fondital||lampre-fondital.com|
|LIQ|Liquigas||teamliquigas.it|
|MRM|Team Milram||team-milram.de|
|PRL|Predictor-Lotto||davitamon-lotto.com|
|QSI|Quick Step-Innergetic||qsi-cycling.com|
|RAB|Rabobank||rabobank.nl  <small></small>|
|SDV|Saunier Duval-Prodir||saunierduvalteam.com|
|TMO|T-Mobile Team||t-mobile-team.com|
|UNI|Unibet.com Cycling Team||unibetcycling.com|

|-
!style="background:#ccf;"|

|- style="text-align:center;"
|
2005 |
2006 |
2007

Paris-Nice |
Tirreno-Adriatico |
Milan-Sanremo |
Ronde van Vlaanderen |
Vuelta al País Vasco |
Gent-Wevelgem |
Paris-Roubaix |
Amstel Gold Race |
La Flèche Wallonne |
Liège-Bastogne-Liège |
Tour de Romandie |
Giro d'Italia |
Volta a Catalunya |
Critérium du Dauphiné Libéré |
Tour de Suisse |
Eindhoven TTT |
Tour de France |
Clásica de San Sebastián |
Deutschland Tour |
Vattenfall Cyclassics |
Eneco Tour of Benelux |
Vuelta a España |
GP Ouest-France |
Tour de Pologne |
Züri-Metzgete |
Paris-Tours |
Giro di Lombardia
Ohana

**Ohana** is an idea in Hawaiian culture.  The word _ohana_ means family in the Hawaiian language, but in a much wider sense, to include not only one's closer relatives, but also one's cousins, in-laws, friends, race, and other neighbours.  The idea is also that family and friends are bound together and everyone must work together and not forget each other.

## Origin

The word is related to the word _whānau_ meaning the same, used by the Maori of New Zealand.  It comes from the Hawaiian word _ohā_ meaning the root of the taro plant, the most important plant in Hawaiian culture.

## Popular culture

_Ohana_ is also one of the main ideas of the Disney animated movie Lilo & Stitch. ("Ohana _means family, and family means nobody gets left behind. Or forgotten._") The director of the movie, Dean DeBlois, says the movie's makers learned about this from their tour guide when they went to Hawaii to get ideas for the movie.  He said that everywhere they went, the guide seemed to know people, and that he explained about _ohana_ to them.  They liked the idea so much that it became one of the main ideas for the story, the one thing that changes the character of Stitch, even though he was created to destroy.

"Ohana API" is a US website with the goal of extending the concept of "Ohana" to the larger context of the US as a whole. This is relevant and important because Hawaii and the Hawaiian culture is an integral part of the cultural diversity and interconnection that exists and is a very unique and cherished part and benefit of the great and expanding intermingled cultures that embody the United States of America.
Grand Tour (cycling)

There are three Grand Tour cycling races:-

1. In Italy, the Giro d'Italia
1. In France, the Tour de France
1. In Spain, the Vuelta Ciclista a España

This is the order they are raced in each year.

All three are in the "ProTour Calendar", that is they are part of the UCI ProTour.

They got the name of Grand Tour because they are some of the oldest, hardest and longest stage races in the calendar.

Seven cyclists have won all three of the Grand Tours during their career:
- : 5 Tours (1957, 1961, 1962, 1963, 1964), 2 Giros (1960, 1964), 1 Vuelta (1963).
- : 1 Tour (1965), 3 Giros (1967, 1969, 1976), 1 Vuelta (1968)
- : 5 Tours (1969, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1974), 5 Giros (1968, 1970, 1972, 1973, 1974), 1 Vuelta (1973)
- : 5 Tours (1978, 1979, 1981, 1982, 1985), 3 Giros (1980, 1982, 1985), 2 Vueltas (1978, 1983)
- : 2 Tours (2007, 2009), 2 Giros (2008, 2015), 3 Vueltas (2008, 2012, 2014)
- : 1 Tour (2014), 2 Giros (2013, 2016), 1 Vuelta (2010).
- : 4 Tours (2013, 2015, 2016, 2017), 1 Giro (2018), 2 Vueltas (2011, 2017).
Mammoth

A **mammoth** is any species of the extinct elephantid genus ***Mammuthus***.

## Overview

The various species of mammoth were commonly equipped with long, curved tusks.

They lived from the Pliocene epoch into the Holocene until about 4,000 years ago, and various mammoth species existed in Africa, Europe, Asia, and North America.

Mammoths are more closely related to living Asian elephants than African elephants.

### Fossil works

The term mammoth may refer to a number of organisms, but is used here to describe the hairy proboscidean of the genus _Mammuthus_. They lived in Europe until 4,500 years ago, and were adapted to cold climate. They were killed off by hunters and climate change.

They lived in the Pliocene and Pleistocene epochs. In the Pleistocene, northern Europe was covered with ice and tundra. There were a series of ice ages, which allowed the mammoths to spread across the land.

Mammoths were hunted by early humans, who used spears, and cut them up with hand axes. Their frozen flesh has been analysed for its DNA sequence.

## Related pages

- Mastodon
- Elephant

## Other websites

- Mammoth Site in Hot Springs, South Dakota
Right-wing politics

**Right-wing politics** is a kind of politics that supports social or economic conservatism.

## Beliefs

Someone who is "right-wing" usually supports tradition and keeping things the way that they already are. The right-wing supports tradition and authority.  The right-wing in some countries, like the United States, often supports social conservatism and a capitalist economy where the government has little influence.  Usually the right-wing thinks of society as similar to a living thing, what is called "organic society".  They believe that society's customs and traditions are a collection of things that we have learned from the past and are useful and should be maintained as much as possible.

## Types

People who are very right-wing are called "reactionary", and want to either return to the way things were before, such as neoreaction, or more often start as a reaction against left-wing ideas which are spreading in a country or two.

## Famous right-wing politicians

- Silvio Berlusconi
- Boris Johnson
- Giorgia Meloni
- Benjamin Netanyahu
- Ronald Reagan
- Margaret Thatcher
- Donald Trump
- Janez Janša
- Jair Bolsonaro
- Rishi Sunak
- Narendra Modi

## Related pages

- Centrism
- Fascism
- Left-wing politics
- Nationalism
- Neoconservatism
- Paleoconservatism
Polka dot jersey

The **polka dot jersey** is the special cycling jersey given to the "King of the Mountains" in the Tour de France. The jersey is white with red spots, called polka dots. There is also space for the logo of the cycling team the winner belongs to.

The King of the Mountains is the rider who has collected the most points in the hill-climbing sections of each stage. Points are given to the first riders to reach the top. More points are given for difficult climbs. Difficulty is judged by the length of the climb and the average steepness of the climb.

The King of the Mountains competition at the Tour de France was started in 1933. The polka dot jersey for the winner was introduced in 1975.

Richard Virenque has won the jersey seven times, more than any other cyclist. In 2014 the winner was Rafał Majka. In 2015 an Eritrean rider, Daniel Teklehaimanot, became the first African who won a Polka dot jersey.
Pleistocene

- _"The Ice Age" redirects here. For other uses, see Ice Age (disambiguation)._

The **Pleistocene** stage or epoch was a long period of time. It stretched from 2.58 million years ago to 11,700 years ago. It is the first epoch of the Quaternary period and the sixth in the Cainozoic. It came after the Pliocene epoch, and before the modern-day Holocene.

## Ice ages

The Pleistocene was a time of ice ages: cold glacial periods with shorter, warmer, interglacials. During these ice ages, the world became much colder for a long time.

For much of the 20th century, geologists believed there were four "major" ice ages. Nowadays scientists think there were at least five.

During these glaciations, much of the world we know was covered by ice: North America down to and past the Great Lakes; all of northern Russia and Europe; and England down to the Thames.

## Animals

Many animals that lived during the Pleistocene have become extinct because of climate change and hunting by humans.

Many Pleistocene mammals were larger, cold-adapted versions of animals that live now. Mammoths were a species of elephant in the ice age. Their popular name of woolly mammoth suggests the long hair which was an adaptation to the cold.

Glyptodon was something like a giant armadillo.

## Ancient humans

Ancient human species lived during the Pleistocene. In Europe and Asia the large-brained Neanderthal (_Homo neanderthalensis_) lived until about 30,000 years ago. Modern man did not descend from Neanderthals, but originated in Africa from another branch of the genus _Homo_.

## Related pages

- Ice age
- Global warming
- Human evolution
- Human timeline
- Palaeolithic
Ram Dass

Dr. **Richard Alpert** (April 6, 1931 – December 22, 2019), also known as **Baba Ram Dass**, was a spiritual teacher. He was the writer of _Be Here Now_, the bestseller book of 1971.

In the 1960s, professors Timothy Leary, Ralph Metzner and Richard Alpert collaborated on a book titled _The Psychedelic Experience_, which adapted portions of the _Tibetan Book of the Dead_ as a guide for use in LSD experiences. They hoped to give users of LSD a simulation of death and rebirth, to "liberate" them from past problems or mistakes in their lives.

Dass died on December 22, 2019 in Maui, Hawaii at the age of 88.
Psychedelic

The word **psychedelic** is a word invented in the 20th century by joining the Greek words for "mind," ψυχή (psyche), and "manifest," δήλος (delos).

A person in a "psychedelic state" is supposed to be able to feel new ways of looking at his mind that were unknown to him before. This can be caused by taking psychedelic drugs, like LSD. In medicine, the new feelings a patient has when he is in psychedelic state are called hallucinations and synesthesia; these are also seen in patients with psychosis.

## Related pages

- Psychedelic art
- Psychedelic rock
Ice age (disambiguation)

**Ice age** could mean:

- Ice age, a period of lower temperatures, resulting in an expansion of ice sheets and glaciers
    - Pleistocene, the last ice age, from 1.81 million to 11,550 years before the present
        - Wisconsin glaciation, refers to the world's last glaciations of the last ice age, from about 72,000 to 11,550 years before the present
- Ice Age (movie), a computer-animated movie released in 2002
    - _Ice Age: The Meltdown_, the sequel released in 2006
    - _Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs_, the second sequel released in 2009
    - _Ice Age: Continental Drift_, the third sequel released in 2012
    - _Ice Age: Collision Course_, the fourth sequel released in 2016
- Ice Age Entertainment, a record label
- Ice Age, an expansion set released in 1995 for the collectible card game, Magic: The Gathering
Try

A **try** is one of the ways to score points in rugby league and rugby union. A try is scored when a player grounds the ball in the opposition's in-goal area or behind the try line or touches the base of the goalposts and ground at the same time. The scoring player must be holding onto the ball and should be applying downward pressure on it when it is grounded.
Avalon Peninsula

The **Avalon Peninsula** is a large peninsula (9,270 km²) that makes up the southeast portion of the island of Newfoundland.

The peninsula is home to forty percent of Newfoundland's population, and is the location of the provincial capital, St. John's. It is connected to the main section of the island by the 5 km/3 mile wide Isthmus of Avalon. The peninsula sticks out into the rich fishing zones near the Grand Banks. Its four major bays–Trinity Bay, Conception Bay, St. Mary's Bay, and Placentia Bay–have long been the center of Newfoundland's fishing industry.

## Related pages

- British colonization of the Americas
- Conception Bay
- Newfoundland and Labrador

## Other websites

- Heritage of Newfoundland - Colony of Avalon
Cape Cod

**Cape Cod** (or simply **the Cape**) is an arm-shaped peninsula in the eastern part of Massachusetts.

Cape Cod's population is around **228,000** (2021).
Chatham, Massachusetts

**Chatham** is a New England town in Barnstable County, Massachusetts. The population was 6,594 at the 2020 census. Chatham is home to the _Monomoy National Wildlife Refuge_, located on Monomoy, and to _Monomoy Theatre_.

## Other websites

- Official website

## Infobox (settlement)

- **official name**: Chatham, Massachusetts
- **image seal**: Seal of Chatham, Massachusetts.png
- **image flag**: Flag of Chatham, Massachusetts.gif
- **image map**: Barnstable County Massachusetts incorporated and unincorporated areas Chatham highlighted.svg
- **mapsize**: 260px
- **map caption**: Location in Barnstable County, Massachusetts, Barnstable County and Massachusetts
- **subdivision type**: List of sovereign states, Country
- **subdivision name**: United States
- **subdivision type1**: U.S. state, State
- **subdivision name1**: Massachusetts
- **subdivision type2**: List of counties in Massachusetts, County
- **subdivision name2**: Barnstable County, Massachusetts, Barnstable
- **parts type**: Communities
- **established title**: Settled
- **established date**: 1664
- **established title2**: Incorporated
- **established date2**: 1712
- **established title3**: Named After
- **established date3**: Chatham, Kent, Chatham, Kent
- **government type**: Open town meeting
- **area total km2**: 63.2
- **area land km2**: 41.8
- **area water km2**: 21.4
- **population as of**: 2020
- **settlement type**: New England town, Town
- **population total**: 6594
- **population density km2**: 157.8
- **elevation m**: 14
- **elevation ft**: 46
- **timezone**: Eastern Standard Time Zone, Eastern
- **utc offset**: −5
- **timezone dst**: Eastern Standard Time Zone, Eastern
- **utc offset dst**: −4
- **postal code type**: ZIP Code
- **postal code**: 02633
- **area code**: Area code 508, 508/Area code 774, 774
- **blank name**: Federal Information Processing Standard, FIPS code
- **blank info**: 25-12995
- **blank1 name**: Geographic Names Information System, GNIS feature ID
- **blank1 info**: 0618250
Whitbourne, Newfoundland and Labrador

**Whitbourne** is a town on the Avalon Peninsula in Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada.

Whitbourne, Newfoundland’s first inland town, is named after Sir Richard Whitbourne, one of the most colorful early settlers of the province of Newfoundland and Labrador who wrote a book about Newfoundland that was published in 1620. Sir Richard was selected by the High Court of the Admiralty to set up the first English law court in the New World in 1615 in Trinity. He was kidnapped and held by the infamous Pirate Peter Easton in Harbour Grace. He also described a mermaid that he saw in St. John's harbour. Later, he became governor of Renews on the Southern Shore.

Whitbourne, unlike most communities on the Island of Newfoundland is inland. It was founded in about 1880 during the construction of the Newfoundland Railway. The railway continued to be an important employer in the Town until its abandonment in 1988, although its economic importance weakened slowly throughout the twentieth century.

Sir Robert Bond, the Prime Minister from 1900 to 1909, played a role in the expansion and planning of the Town and developed a complex country home, the "Grange", there.

The town of Whitbourne is located just off the Trans-Canada Highway on Route 81. It is located at the center of three possible routes to visit the Avalon Peninsula. Route 80 is one of the two entrances to the Baccalieu Trail, Route 100 and Route 81 lead to the Marine Atlantic Ferry Service in Argentia and other parts of Placentia and St. Mary's Bays, and Route 1, the Trans Canada leads towards the second entrance to the Baccalieu Trail and the capital city of St. John's. As a result, there is a Provincial Visitor Information Center on the Trans Canada near the town.

Whitbourne has many of the facilities of a small town that has traditionally been a regional service centre. The town’s Wetlands Conservation Trail is of interest to many visitors.
According to the 2021 Statistics Canada Census:
- Population: 955
- % Change (2016-2021):  7.3%
- Dwellings: 584
- Area (km²): 21.51
- Density (persons per km²): 44.4

## Related pages

- Newfoundland and Labrador
Wind power in South Australia

**Wind power in South Australia** is a big energy source for the state and South Australia is well suited to wind farms as it is close to the Roaring forties winds.

As of June 2014, South Australia has 16 wind farms, with an installed capacity of 1,473 megawatts (MW). Wind power represented 27% of the state's energy production.

Wind farms do not emit greenhouse gases in the generation of electricity, and so wind power is considered a highly desirable form of renewable energy which assists in the reduction of the State’s reliance on coal and gas fired electricity generation.
Solar power plants in the Mojave Desert

There are several **Solar power plants in the Mojave Desert** which supply power to the electricity grid.   Solar Energy Generating Systems (SEGS) is the name given to nine solar power plants in the Mojave Desert which were built in the 1980s. These plants have a combined capacity of 354 megawatts (MW) making them the largest solar power installation in the world. Nevada Solar One is a new solar thermal plant with a 64 MW generating capacity, near Boulder City, Nevada. There are also plans to build other large solar plants in the Mojave Desert.  The Mojave Solar Park will deliver 553 MW of solar thermal power when fully operational in 2011.

Insolation (solar radiation) in the Mojave Desert is among the best available in the United States, and some big groups of people are in the area.  This makes the Mojave Desert particularly suitable for solar power plants. These plants can generally be built in a few years because solar plants are built almost entirely with modular, readily available materials.
Discovery Channel Pro Cycling Team

The **Discovery Channel Pro Cycling Team** was a professional bicycle racing team.

The US Postal Service stopped was the sponsor of the team until 2004. The Discovery Channel took over sponsorship in June 2004 in time for the new UCI ProTour

On February 10 2007 Discovery Channel ended its sponsorship of the team at the end of the 2007 season. The decision to end its sponsorship is believed to be related to the firing  of Discovery Networks president Billy Campbell by David Zaslav, Zaslav became the new president of Discovery Communications that same day.

On 10 August 2007, the team's licence holders, Tailwind Sports, said that the team would stop racing at the end of the year. They could not find a new sponsor and blamed that on bad publicity about doping in the 2007 Tour de France.

## Members

The most well known member of the Discovery Channel team was Lance Armstrong. He won the Tours de France seven times before he retired in 2005.

## Other websites

- Discovery Channel Pro Cycling Team
- Discovery Channel Pro Cycling Team
- The Official Fan Club of Lance Armstrong and the Discovery Channel Pro Cycling Team
- Discovery Channel team page at Cyclingpost
- U.S. Postal Service Pro Cycling Team
- USPS Pro Cycling Team Website
- Letter arguing that Postal Watch has no case against the USPS
- Inspector General criticisms of sponsorships
Alkane

**Alkanes** are chemical compounds, made of carbon and hydrogen. The simplest alkane is methane, which is made of one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms. Larger alkanes have two or more carbon atoms connected or bonded together in a chain. The carbon atoms of alkanes are joined together by single bonds, which is what makes them different from alkenes. The alkane's general formula is C<sub>n</sub>H<sub>2n+2</sub>.

## Physical structure

In an alkane, each carbon atom is sp<sup>3</sup>-hybridized with 4 sigma bonds (either C–C or C–H), and each hydrogen atom is joined to one of the carbon atoms (in a C–H bond). The longest link of carbon atoms in a molecule is known as its carbon skeleton or carbon backbone. The number of carbon atoms may be thought of as the size of the alkane.

An alkyl group is an alkane-based molecular fragment that has one open valence for bonding. They are generally abbreviated with the symbol for any organyl group, R. Although Alk is sometimes used to abbreviate an alkyl group.

## List of alkanes

Here is a list of the first 20 alkanes:

- Methane (CH<sub>4</sub>)
- Ethane (C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>6</sub>)
- Propane (C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>8</sub>)
- Butane (C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>10</sub>)
- Pentane (C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>12</sub>)
- Hexane (C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>14</sub>)
- Heptane (C<sub>7</sub>H<sub>16</sub>)
- Octane (C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>18</sub>)
- Nonane (C<sub>9</sub>H<sub>20</sub>)
- Decane (C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>22</sub>)

- Undecane (C<sub>11</sub>H<sub>24</sub>)
- Dodecane (C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>26</sub>)
- Tridecane (C<sub>13</sub>H<sub>28</sub>)
- Tetradecane (C<sub>14</sub>H<sub>30</sub>)
- Pentadecane (C<sub>15</sub>H<sub>32</sub>)
- Hexadecane (C<sub>16</sub>H<sub>34</sub>)
- Heptadecane (C<sub>17</sub>H<sub>36</sub>)
- Octadecane (C<sub>18</sub>H<sub>38</sub>)
- Nonadecane (C<sub>19</sub>H<sub>40</sub>)
- Eicosane (C<sub>20</sub>H<sub>42</sub>)

## Production

The alkanes have two main commercial sources: petroleum (crude oil) and natural gas.

Alkanes come from crude oil. Crude oil is a natural resource, a thick black fluid found by drilling underground. Crude oil is a mixture of alkanes of different chain length - composed of different numbers of carbon atoms. It also has laboratory method of production.

Fractional distillation is the method used to separate the different hydrocarbons in crude oil, used to get a purer or more distilled, sample of a single alkane.
Operación Puerto doping case

The **Operación Puerto doping case** (meaning _Operation Mountain pass_) is a doping investigation in Spain. It started in May 2006.

Dr. Eufemiano Fuentes is accused of giving banned doping drugs to 200 professional athletes.

Fuentes doped a lot of well known tennis and football stars but most attention was on the fairly small number of professional road cyclists that were named in the investigation.

By May 2007, fifteen have been proved not guilty, but three have admitted doping or have had very much evidence of blood doping placed before them.
Rugby sevens

**Rugby sevens** is the shortened version of rugby union in which only seven players per side feature, instead of the full fifteen. The version of rugby union is very popular, with notable comptitions including the IRB Sevens World Series and the Rugby World Cup Sevens. It is also played at events such as the Commonwealth Games and rugby league has also adopted the sevens format.

Rugby sevens was invented in Melrose, a small town in Scotland.

It is played under the same rules and on a field of the same dimensions as the 15-player game, but a rugby sevens match lasts approximately 15 minutes (7 minutes aside with 1 minute half-time break). However, the finals last somewhat more than 20 minutes; each half in a final is ten minutes, instead of the normal seven minute. Also the game ends when the ball goes of the pitch or points are scored. The point system is similar to rugby union in which a try gets a team five points and conversion gets it two points, with three points for penalties and drop goals (drop goals are very uncommon in sevens).

Points scoring occurs with much greater regularity in sevens than in fifteens since there are more spaces for players to run. Scrums still exist within sevens, which are composed of just three players from each team. The speedy nature of the game causes players to be usually from the backline or the trio of loose forwards in fifteens rugby.

All sevens players in the forwards or otherwise must be fit, agile and relatively strong and demonstrate a high level of fitness to compete at an optimum level. Places such as New Zealand, Fiji, South Africa, England and Samoa have very successful sevens teams. Rugby sevens have also been played in the Commonwealth Games since 1998 with only men's teams. New Zealand is ranked as the top in the Commonwealth Games and has won four gold medals and one silver medal.
Rugby World Cup Sevens

The **Rugby World Cup Sevens** was the world's premier international contest in the Sevens version of rugby union before the sport was added to the Olympics starting in 2016. The World Cup was first held for men's teams only in Scotland in 1993; a women's World Cup was added in 2009 when the event was held in Dubai. Since 2013, the World Cup has been held every four years; after a five-year break for the next tournament in 2018, the four-year cycle will restart. The trophy for the winners of the men's tournament is the **Melrose Cup**, named after the Scottish town of Melrose where the first sevens game was played. The current holders for both men and women are New Zealand, who won in 2013.

The tournament's most recent edition, in Russia in 2013, was planned to be the last. In October 2009, the International Olympic Committee voted to add men's and women's rugby sevens to the Summer Olympics starting in 2016. World Rugby (then known as the International Rugby Board, or IRB), which runs rugby union around the world, said in September 2009 that it would no longer hold a World Cup if the sport would be part of the Olympics. However, the IRB changed its mind, saying in 2013 that the World Cup would be kept. The next World Cup will be held in 2018, and from that point will continue every four years.

## Men's tournaments

|rowspan=2 width=5%|Year|rowspan=2 width=10%|Host||
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|width=1% rowspan=9|||||
|width=1% rowspan=9|||||
|1993|Scotland|England|**21 - 17**|Australia|
|1997|Hong Kong|Fiji|**24 - 21**|South Africa|
|2001|Argentina|New Zealand|**31 - 12**|Australia|
|2005|Hong Kong|Fiji|**29 - 19**|New Zealand|
|2009|Dubai|Wales|**19 - 12**|Argentina|
|2013|Russia|New Zealand|**33 - 0**|England|
|2018|United States|New Zealand|**33 - 12**|England|

## Women's tournaments

|rowspan=2 width=5%|Year|rowspan=2 width=10%|Host||
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|width=1% rowspan=7|||||
|width=1% rowspan=7|||||
|2009|Dubai|Australia|**15 - 10**|New Zealand|
|2013|Russia|New Zealand|**29 - 12**|Canada|
|2018|United States|New Zealand|**29 - 0**|France|
Romain Maes

**Romain Maes** (10 August 1912 in Zerkegem– 22 February 1983 in Groot-Bijgaarden) was a Belgian cyclist. He won the 1935 Tour de France. Some claim that he also won the 1936 Paris-Roubaix race, and that Georges Speicher was credited as winning by mistake.
Heir apparent

An **heir** (female: _heiress_) is a person who has inherited something after the original owner's death. It is often a child after a parent dies.

_Heir apparent_ and _heir presumptive_ usually refer to someone who will inherit a royal or noble title:

- An **heir apparent** is someone who will inherit at the death of the present title-holder.
    - A **Crown Prince** is an heir apparent to the throne in a monarchy.

- An **heir presumptive** is someone who may inherit unless someone with a better claim under the rules of succession is found.

- King Charles III's oldest son is Prince William, who is thus the heir apparent of the British monarchy.

- Prince Bertil of Sweden was the heir presumptive to his nephew King Carl XVI Gustav. The King's son, Prince Carl Philip became heir apparent when he was born, but when in 1980 the law of succession changed, his sister Princess Victoria became the world's first heiress apparent.

## Monarchies that have used the title

- Prussia
- Japan
- Sweden
- Denmark
- Greece