juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Visual system

The **visual system** is the part of the nervous system which allows organisms to see.
It interprets the information from visible light to build a representation of the world surrounding the body. The visual system has the complex task of (re)constructing a three dimensional world from a two dimensional projection of that world. The psychological manifestation of visual information is known as visual perception.

## Introduction

This article mostly describes the visual system of mammals, although other "higher" animals have similar visual systems. In this case, the visual system consists of:

- The eye, especially the retina
- The optic nerve
- The optic chiasma
- The optic tract
- The lateral geniculate nucleus
- The optic tectum (superior colliculus)
- The optic radiation
- The visual cortex
- The visual association cortex

Different species are able to see different parts of the light spectrum; for example, bees can see into the ultraviolet, while pit vipers can accurately target prey with their infrared imaging sensors.

## References

<div class="references-small">

</div>

- David H. Hubel 1989. _Eye, Brain and Vision_. New York: Scientific American Library.
- David Marr 1982. _Vision: A Computational Investigation into the Human Representation and Processing of Visual Information_. San Francisco: Freeman.
- R.W. Rodiek 1988. The Primate Retina. In _Comparative Primate Biology_. vol **4** of _Neurosciences_. eds H.D. Steklis and J. Erwin. pp. 203–278. New York: A.R. Liss.
- Matthew Schmolesky, The Primary Visual Cortex
- Martin J. Tovée 1996. _An introduction to the visual system_. Cambridge University Press.
- Andreas Vesalius 1543. _De Humani Corporis Fabrica_ (On the Workings of the Human Body)
- Torsten Wiesel and David H. Hubel 1963. The effects of visual deprivation on the morphology and physiology of cell's lateral geniculate body. _Journal of Neurophysiology_ **26**, 978-993.

## Other websites

- "Webvision: The Organization of the Retina and Visual System" - John Moran Eye Center at University of Utah
- VisionScience.com - An online resource for researchers in vision science.
- Journal of Vision - An online, open access journal of vision science.
Microform

**Microform** is a name given to special photographic films. Microforms contain reduced images of documents. Usually, documents stored on microform are reduced about 25 times. Microform is mainly used for archival purposes.

There are three common formats:
- **Microfilm**, which comes in reels of film.
- **Aperture card**, This contains additional digital data (as a punch card).
- **Microfiche**, a flat sheet with many pages.

Properly stored (room temperature, 50% humidity), microform should be able to last up to 500 years.
Analog signal

An **analog** or **analogue** signal is any continuous signal.

The difference from a digital signal is that also very small fluctuations in the signal are meaningful. When one speaks of analog one often means an electrical context, however mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic, and other systems may also convey analog signals.

An analog signal uses some property of the medium to convey the signal's information.
Any information may be conveyed by an analog signal, often such a signal is a measured change in physical phenomena, such as sound, light, temperature, position, or pressure.

For example, in sound recording, changes in air pressure (that is to say, sound) strike the diaphragm of a microphone which causes related changes in a voltage or the current in an electric circuit.  The voltage or the current is said to be an "analog" of the sound.

See digital for a discussion of _digital vs. analog_.
Microphone

A **microphone**, sometimes referred to as a **mike** or **mic** (both IPA pronunciation: ), converts sound into an electrical signal.

Microphones are used in many applications such as telephones, tape recorders, hearing aids, motion picture production, live and recorded audio engineering, in radio and television broadcasting and in computers for recording voice.

## Kinds of Microphones

Sound passes through the air in waves, and as was said above, the microphone turns the sound wave into an electrical wave.  Different kinds of microphones will turn the sound waves into electricity in different ways.

- **Carbon button** — This is the first kind to become commonplace, being used in most 20th century telephones. Sound waves, by compressing and decompressing a piece of carbon, change the amount of electric current flowing in the wire, thus creating electrical waves. This kind became rarer late in the century, due in part to lack of high fidelity.
- **Dynamic** — This uses a round plastic or rubber disk connected to a wire coil in order to turn sound into electricity.  The sound wave hits the disk which vibrates as a result.  This vibration moves the coil back and forth near a magnet very quickly in order to create an electrical current.  The dynamic microphone is the exact opposite of a speaker which uses an electrical current to move the coil, which moves the disk.  Then the disk makes sound.
    - **Ribbon** — This is similar to a Dynamic microphone.  A thin, small sheet of metal (tin or aluminum usually) hangs between two magnets.  When sound hits the thin piece of metal, the metal vibrates.  That vibration creates an electrical signal in the metal.
- **Condenser** — This uses two small metal plates to create an electrical current.  Basically, two small metal plates are placed very near to each other and electricity is run through the plates.  This creates an electric field between the two plates.  When sound hits these plates, the plates vibrate.  The vibration makes small changes in the electric field.  These changes create the electrical signal.
- Crystal or ceramic microphones use piezoelectricity.

## Equipment

A pop filter (or pop shield) is often used in recording studios.  It is an electronic filter that reduces or eliminates 'popping' sounds caused by fast moving air (such as air from the mouth).

## History

The first microphones were invented as telephone transmitters. They included liquid and dynamic designs. Carbon transmitters were later used in this and other applications.

## Related pages

- Loudspeaker — The inverse of a dynamic microphone

## Other websites

- Info, Pictures and Soundbytes from vintage microphones
- Microphone construction and basic placement advice
- History of the Microphone
- Microphone sensitivity conversion — dB re 1 V/Pa and transfer factor mV/Pa
- Large vs. Small Diaphragms in Omnidirectional Microphones
Digital signal

**Digital signal** can mean two different things:
1. _discrete-time signals_ that are digitized.
1. the waveform signals in a digital system.

## Discrete-time signals

**Digital signals** are digital representations of _discrete-time signals_, which are often produced by changing an analog signal.

An analog signal is a datum that changes over time (for instance the temperature at a given place; the depth of a certain point in a pond; or the amplitude of the voltage at some node in a circuit). A discrete-time signal is a sampled version of an analog signal: the value of the datum is noted at fixed intervals (for example, every microsecond) rather than continuously.

In short, a digital signal is a quantized discrete-time signal; a discrete-time signal is a sampled analog signal.

In the digital revolution the usage of digital signals has increased significantly.
Many modern media devices, especially the ones that connect with computers use digital signals to represent signals that were traditionally represented as analog signals; cell phones, music and video players, personal video recorders, and digital cameras are examples.

In most applications, digital signals are represented as binary number<nowiki/>s, so their precision of quantization is measured in bits.

## Waveforms in digital systems

In computer architecture and other digital systems, a waveform that switches between two voltage levels representing the two states of a Boolean value (0 and 1) is referred to as a **digital signal.**

The clock signal is a special digital signal that is used to synchronize digital circuits.
The image shown can be considered the waveform of a clock signal.
Logic changes are triggered either by the rising edge or the falling edge.
Pneumatics

**Pneumatics** is the use of compressed air for mechanical motion.  It has many uses.

Pneumatic transfer systems are employed in many industries to move powders and devices. Pneumatic devices are also used where electric motors cannot be used for safety reasons, such as deep in a mine where explosive dust or gases may be present.

## Examples of pneumatic tools

- Pneumatic drill (jackhammer) used by road workers
- Pneumatic nailgun
- Pneumatic switches
- Pneumatic actuators
- Air compressors
- Vacuum pumps
- Barostat systems used in Neurogastroenterology and for researching
electricity
- Cable Jetting - a way to install cables in ducts
- Pneumatic mail systems
- Air brakes on buses, trains, and trucks

## Comparison to Hydraulics

Both pneumatics and hydraulics are applications of fluid power. Pneumatics uses air, which is compressible, while hydraulics uses relatively incompressible liquid media such as oil or water.

### Advantages of pneumatics

- The working fluid is very light in weight so supply hoses are not heavy.

- Because the working fluid is (mostly) just air, there is usually no need for a return line for the working fluid and leaks of the working fluid tend not to be messy.

- Because air is compressible, the equipment is less likely to be damaged by shock.  The air in pneumatics absorbs excessive force, whereas the fluid of hydraulics directly transfers force.

### Advantages of hydraulics

- Higher energy density owing to the much higher working pressures usually employed.

- The hydraulic working fluid is basically incompressible, leading to a minimum of spring action. When hydraulic fluid flow is stopped, the slightest motion of the load releases the pressure on the load; there is no need to "bleed off" pressurised air to release the pressure on the load...

## Other websites

- www.pneumatics.be  - didactic website - for students - how pneumatics works
- U.S. Department of Energy  - Improving Compressed Air System Performance
- Fluid Power Educational Foundation  - Advancing and Supporting Hydraulic & Pneumatic Education
- Pneumatics Glossary  - Glossary of Pneumatic Terms
Duchy of Saxe-Gotha

**Saxe-Gotha** () was a state in today's Thuringia, Germany.

It was created in 1640 for Duke Ernest I and ended in 1680 when his lands were divided after his death in 1675. The area around Gotha passed to Ernest's eldest surviving son, Frederick of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg, who also inherited Altenburg (which Ernest had inherited through his wife Elisabeth Sophie) and became Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg.

## Dukes of Saxe-Gotha

- Ernest I _the Pious_ (1640 – 75, also Duke of Saxe-Altenburg from 1672)
- _Divided into Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg, Saxe-Coburg, Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-Römhild, Saxe-Eisenberg, Saxe-Hildburghausen and Saxe-Saalfeld in 1680_

When the house of Saxe-Gotha and Altenburg became extinct in 1825, Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg was split. Saxe-Gotha passed to the Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld who in turn gave Saalfeld to Saxe-Meiningen. The Duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen became Duke of Saxe-Altenburg, and gave Saxe-Hildburghausen to Saxe-Meiningen.

After the abolition of German monarchies at the end of the First World War it became a part of the newly created state of Thuringia in 1920.

## References

- Saxe-Gotha , _Columbia Encyclopedia_, Sixth Edition, Columbia University Press (2001 – 05), accessed January 27 2007

## Infobox (former country)

- **native name**: _Herzogtum Sachsen-Gotha_
- **conventional long name**: Duchy of Saxe-Gotha
- **common name**: Saxe-Gotha
- **region**: Central Europe
- **era**: Middle Ages
- **status**: Vassal
- **empire**: Holy Roman Empire
- **government type**: Principality
- **year start**: 1553
- **year end**: 1680
- **life span**: 1553 – 1572
 1640 – 1680
- **event start**: Split from Saxe-Thuringia
- **date start**: 1553
- **event1**: Split into Saxe-Coburg and Saxe-Eisenach
- **date event1**: 1572
- **event2**: Split from Saxe-Weimar
- **date event2**: 1640
- **event end**: Partitioned in seven
- **p1**: Saxe-Thuringia
- **image p1**:
- **p2**: Saxe-Weimar
- **image p2**:
- **s1**: Saxe-Coburg
- **image s1**:
- **s2**: Saxe-Eisenach
- **image s2**:
- **s3**: Saxe-Eisenburg
- **image s3**:
- **s4**: Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg
- **image s4**:
- **s5**: Saxe-Hildburghausen
- **image s5**:
- **s6**: Saxe-Meiningen
- **image s6**:
- **s7**: Saxe-Römhild
- **image s7**:
- **s8**: Saxe-Saalfeld
- **image s8**:
- **image map**: SajoniaGotha1.jpg
- **image map caption**: Thuringia, showing the combined territory of Saxe-Gotha and Saxe-Altenburg, before it was again divided (1672 – 1680, 80)
- **capital**: Gotha (town), Gotha
Comendador, Dominican Republic

The Dominican city of **Comendador** is the head municipality of the Elías Piña province, on the border with Haiti.

## Population

The municipality had, in 2010, a total population of 19,344: 9,675 men and 9,669 women. The urban population was  of the total population.

## History

The city was founded in 1868, and named after Nicolás de Ovando, the "Comendador of Lares" (_Comendador_ was the chief of a military or religious order). It was founded where there was a military post close to the border with Haiti. The Taíno name of the region was _Duan_.

There was several fights between Haitian and Dominican soldiers during the Dominican-Haitian War after 1844. The most important fight was the _La Estrelleta Battle_ in a savanna near Comendador.

The old military post was made a _Cantón_ (now called Municipal District) of the Azua province in 1907. The next year, in 1908, it was elevated to the category of municipality of the same province.

Its name was changed to Villa Elías Piña on 29 November 1930. In 1972, its name was changed back to Comendador..

## Geography

Comendador is at  to the west of Santo Domingo and    of San Juan de la Maguana. The limits of the municipality are the municipality of Bánica to the north, the San Juan province to the east, the municipality of El Llano to the south and Haiti to the west.

The average daily temperature in the city is  and the average rainfall for the year is .

## Administrative division

The municipality of Comendador has two municipal districts; these are:

|Code|Municipal district|Population <small>(2010)</small> !! Area <small>(km<sup>2</sup>)</small> !! Density|||
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|070102|Sabana Larga|2,056|101.1||
|070103|Guayabo|4,524|28.1||

## Economy

The main economic activity of the municipality is agriculture. Commerce with Haiti is also an important economic activity in the city.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Comendador
- **settlement type**: Municipality
- **image skyline**: Comendador, Elias Piña.jpg
- **image caption**: A street in Comendador
- **pushpin map**: Dominican Republic
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision type1**: Provinces of the Dominican Republic, Province
- **subdivision name1**: Elías Piña Province, Elías Piña
- **established title**: Founded
- **established date**: 1868
- **established title2**: Municipality since
- **established date2**:
1908
- **parts type**: Provinces of the Dominican Republic, Municipal Districts
- **parts style**: para
- **p1**: Sabana Larga, Elías Piña, Sabana Larga
- **p2**: Guayabo, Elías Piña, Guayabo
- **area total km2**: 126.9
- **area urban km2**: 2.90
- **elevation m**: 395
- **population total**: 19344
- **population as of**: 2010
- **total type**: Total
- **population density km2**: auto
- **timezone**: Atlantic Standard Time Zone, AST
- **utc offset**: -4
- **timezone dst**: Atlantic Standard Time Zone, AST
- **utc offset dst**: -4
- **blank name sec1**: Distance:
- **blank info sec1**: to San Juan de la Maguana, San Juan
 to Santo Domingo
Emily Greene Balch

**Emily Greene Balch** (1867–1961) was an economist and pacifist, who shared the Nobel Peace Prize in 1946 with John Raleigh Mott (1865–1955). Both laureates were American.

She was born in Massachusetts, U.S., and after graduated from Bryn Mawr College in 1889, she began teaching at Wellesley College in 1896.

## Infobox (person)

- **name**: Emily Greene Balch
- **image**: EmilyGreeneBalch.jpg
- **birth place**: Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.
- **death place**: Cambridge, Massachusetts, Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.
- **nationality**: American
- **occupation**: Writer, economist, professor
- **known for**: Nobel Peace Prize in 1946
Curie (unit)

The **curie** (symbol **Ci**) is a unit of measurement. It measures  radioactivity. It is defined as

- 1 Ci = 3.7×10<sup>10</sup> decays per second.

This is roughly the activity of 1 gram of the radium isotope <sup>226</sup>Ra. Radium was studied by the pioneers of radiology, Marie and Pierre Curie so the unit is named after them. The curie has since been replaced by an SI derived unit, the becquerel (Bq), which is decay per second. Therefore:

- 1 Ci = 3.7×10<sup>10</sup> Bq or 37 Gigabecquerel (Gbq)

and

- 1 Bq = 2.70×10<sup>−11</sup> Ci

In 1962, the International Commission on Radiological Units suggested the usage of this unit named after Marie Curie.
Curie

The **Curies** were a family of distinguished scientists:

- Marie Curie (1867-1934), a Polish-French chemist, physicist, and two time Nobel Prize winner
- Pierre Curie (1859-1906), Marie's husband, French physicist and Nobel Prize winner
- Irène Joliot-Curie (1897-1956), Marie and Pierre's daughter, French physicist and Nobel Prize winner
- Frédéric Joliot-Curie (1900-1958), Irène's husband, French physicist and Nobel Prize winner
- Ève Curie (1904-2007), Marie and Pierre's second daughter, French-American writer and journalist

Things and ideas named after the Curies:

- Curie (unit) (Ci), a unit of radioactivity
- Curie point
- Curie's law
- Curium (Cm), a chemical element
- Curie (lunar crater)
- Curie Institute (Paris)
- Curie Institute (Warsaw)
- Curie (Q 87), a French submarine in the First World War
- French submarine Curie (P67), a French submarine in the Second World War

CURIE:

- CURIE, a syntax for Compact URIs.
Fjord

A **fjord** or **fiord** is a type of gulf. Fjords are narrow with steep sides and are created by large glaciers (masses of snow) moving over land. They can be found in Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Canada, Germany, and New Zealand. In German, they are called _Fjorde_.

## Cities

Most cities near fiords are sea ports. Some cities near fjords are listed below:

- Lübeck, Germany
- Kiel, Germany
- Flensburg, Germany
- Schleswig, Germany
- Orebro, Denmark
- Vaile, Denmark
- Horsens, Denmark
- Kungsbacka, Sweden
- Nykarleby, Finland
- Tornio, Finland
- Sangi, Sweden
- Tore, Sweden
- Hudiksval, Sweden
- Hopedale, Canada
Raccoon

The **raccoon** (_Procyon lotor_, **common raccoon**,) is a mammal. Raccoons are curious, clever, and solitary. They are originally from North America. They have spread through Central America, and live in various habitats. They have escaped in some parts of Eurasia (see map), and now live there as well. Raccoons are in the family Caniformia, and are related to the mustelids.

The raccoon has short legs, a pointed nose, small ears, grayish-brown fur, and a bushy tail.

The raccoon's most distinctive features are its multi-purpose front paws, its facial 'mask', and its striped tail. Moreover, raccoons are noted for their intelligence. Studies show they are able to remember the solution to tasks for up to three years. Raccoons are usually nocturnal. Their food is about 40% invertebrates, 33% plant foods, and 27% vertebrates. Raccoons are omnivores.  They feed on mice, squirrels, rabbits, birds, fish, frogs, turtles, lizards, snakes, eggs, insects, worms, fruit, and nuts. Their predators are red foxes, wolves, coyotes, bears, eagles, hawks, owls, cougars, and lynxes.

Most raccoons live in the wild. Being around humans does not bother them. They often nest in empty buildings, garages, sheds, and even the attics of houses. Raccoons do not hibernate in the winter. Those that live further north where it is colder, grow thick coats to keep them warm and spend long periods sleeping. Raccoons that live in captivity can survive up to 20 years. In the wild, they usually live only 1–3 years.

Two other species of raccoon, the crab-eating raccoon (_P. cancrivorus_) and the Cozumel Island raccoon (_P. pygmaeus_), are extremely similar to the common raccoon. The crab-eating raccoon is quite widespread in eastern South America.

After a gestation period (pregnancy) of about 65 days, two to five young are born in spring. Newborn raccoons are called "kits".

- A raccoon climbed a building in Minnesota.
Sandy Robson

**Sandy Wayne Robson** (born November 6, 1973 in Peterborough, Ontario) is a Canadian actor. He is probably best known for hosting the game show _Trash to Treasure_ and his role as "Dude" in The N's television series _About a Girl_.

## Biography

A Toronto native, Robson's breakthrough role was in _Crazy Canucks_, the story of the 1974 World Cup ski champions. (His background as a giant slalom down hill skier was useful for the film.) More recently, he has acted in _Cow Belles_ and _The Cheetah Girls_, and the television series _Kevin Hill_, _Sue Thomas: F.B.Eye_, and _Instant Star_. Sandy has starred in many theatrical productions, including the one man show _Full Committed_, in which he played 40 characters.

## Television

- _About a Girl_ (2007) - Dude.
- _Trash to Treasure_ (2003) - Host.

### Guest appearances

- _Twice in a Lifetime_ (1999) - Handler #1.
- _In a Heartbeat_ (2000) - Guttman.
- _Sue Thomas: F.B.Eye_ (2004) - Justin.
- _Kevin Hill_ (2005) - Major Paul Cahan.
- _Instant Star_ (2006) - Ken.
- _Psych_ (2008) - Logan.

## Filmography

- _The Impossible Elephant_ (2001) - Lenny.
- _Twas the Night_ (2001) - Harry.
- _Out of the Ashes_ (2003) - Leiku's husband.
- _The Cheetah Girls_ (2003) - Firefighter.
- _Crazy Canucks_ (2004) - Jungle Jim Hunter.
- _The Winning Season_ (2004) - Dots Miller.
- _Cow Belles_ (2006) - Thomas.

## Infobox (actor)

- **name**: Sandy Robson
- **birthname**: Sandy Wayne Robson
- **birth place**: Peterborough, Ontario, Canada
- **yearsactive**: 1999-present
- **known for**: Playing "Dude" on _About a Girl (TV series), About a Girl_
Hosting _Trash to Treasure_
Service (music)

In Anglican church music, a **Service** is a piece of music for the choir to sing during a service of worship.   It uses the words which are a traditional part of the service.  The choir is usually accompanied by the organ, but sometimes it can be just for choir without organ.

In Morning Prayer the words which are set to music for the choir are the words of the Venite (Psalm 95), the Te Deum and the Jubilate (Psalm 100) or Benedictus.

For a Holy Communion the set words will usually be the Gloria, sometimes the Creed, Sanctus, Agnus Dei as well as responses.

For Evening Prayer the words will be the Magnificat and the Nunc Dimittis.  Singers in the choir often call these "Mag and Nunc" for short.  Many composers have set these words.  They make them into a piece for choir which is like an anthem.

In the Tudor and early Stuart periods, services were described as "Short", "Great" or "Verse" services.  Short services were short, the words were only sung once and it was often unaccompanied (no organ).  A Great service was longer: some of the words were often sung many times.  William Byrd wrote a famous Great Service.  A Verse service was also long: there were several verses which need to be sung by a solo choir member.  In between each verse there is some music for the whole choir to sing.
Van de Graaff Generator

A **Van de Graaff generator** is an electrostatic machine.  It uses a moving, nonmetallic belt to accumulate very high voltages on a hollow metal globe.  Voltage differences achieved in modern Van de Graaff generators can reach 5 megavolts.  Applications for these high voltage generators include driving X-ray tubes, accelerating electrons to sterilize food and process materials, and accelerating protons for nuclear physics experiments.  The Van de Graaff generator can be thought of as a constant-current source connected in parallel with a capacitor and a very large electrical resistance. It is named after the American physicist Robert Jemison Van de Graaff, who built the first generators of this style in 1929.
Time server

A **time server** is a special computer in a computer network.

It is important that computers on a network use the same time. Time servers use an atomic clock, or they ask other computers on the network about the time. They then tell this time to all the other computers in the same network. Common protocols to do this are the Daytime Protocol and the Network Time Protocol (NTP).

NTP calls the quality of a time server its stratum.  Stratum can be anything form 0 to 255 and lower is better. It is rare to see a network with a source worse than stratum 5.
- Stratum 0 time sources are the actual clocks that track the time, usually an atomic clock or GPS receiver.
- Stratum 1 time sources are what most people mean when they talk about a time server.  They get their timing information from a master clock and send it out to the network.
- Stratum 2 time sources are computers that get their clock information from a stratum 1 time server.  They use NTP to talk to each other as well as their stratum 1 servers so they can have the best time information possible.

Every level that is added of time servers getting information from a source close to the master clock and passing it farther away from the master clock increases the stratum level.
Laura Prepon

**Laura Prepon** (born March 7, 1980) is an American actress. She is best known for her roles as Donna Pinciotti on the Fox television series _That '70s Show_ and as Hannah Daniels on the ABC television series _October Road_. She plays Alex in _Orange Is the New Black_.

## Personal life

Prepon and Ben Foster were married in 2018. The couple have two children, a daughter born in August 2017 and a son born February 2020. The couple got separated in November 2024, finalized their divorce.

## Other websites

- Biography  from the _That '70s Show_ website
Ashley Massaro

**Ashley Marie Massaro** (May 26, 1979 – May 16, 2019), also known simply as **Ashley**, was an American pictorial model and professional wrestler. She is best known for her time with World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) while wrestling on its _Raw_ brand.

She was the winner of the Raw Diva Search 2005 and was on the cover of the April 2007 issue of _Playboy Magazine_. She was a contestant on the fifteenth season of _Survivor_ in China, but was the second contestant to be eliminated.

Massaro was found dead at her home on May 16, 2019 in Long Island, New York at the age of 39. The cause of death was suicide by hanging.

## Infobox (wrestler)

- **name**: Ashley Massaro
- **names**: Ashley
Ashley Massaro
- **image**: Ashley Massaro 2011.jpg
- **caption**: Massaro in 2011
- **weight**: 112 lbs
- **birth place**: New York City, New York (state), New York, U.S.
- **death place**: Long Island, New York, Long Island, New York, U.S.
- **billed**: New York City
- **trainer**: Ricky Steamboat
Dave Finlay
Matt Hardy
Trish Stratus
- **debut**: June 27, 2005
- **retired**: July 9, 2008
Mafic

**Mafic** is an adjective describing a silicate mineral or igneous rock which is rich in magnesium and iron. The term is a portmanteau, made up from "magnesium" and "ferric".

Mafic minerals are usually dark in color and have a specific gravity greater than 3. Common rock-forming mafic minerals include olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, biotite and other micas, augite and the calcium-rich plagioclase feldspars. Common mafic rocks include basalt and gabbro.

In terms of chemistry, mafic rocks are on the other side of the rock spectrum from the so-called felsic rocks. The term roughly corresponds to the older _basic_ rock class.

Mafic lava, before cooling, has a lower viscosity than felsic lava due to its lower silica content. Water and other volatiles can more easily and gradually escape from mafic lava, so eruptions of volcanoes made of mafic lavas are less explosively violent than felsic lava eruptions. Most mafic lava volcanoes are oceanic volcanoes, like Hawaii.

|**Rock Texture**|**Name of Mafic Rock**|
| --- | --- |
|Pegmatitic|Gabbro pegmatite|
|Coarse grained (phaneritic)|Gabbro|
|Coarse grained and porphyritic|Porphyritic gabbro|
|Fine grained (aphanitic)|Basalt|
|Fine grained and porphyritic|Porphyritic basalt|
|Pyroclastic|Basalt tuff or breccia|
|Vesicular|Vesicular basalt|
|Amygdaloidal|Amygdaloidal basalt|
|Many small vesicles|Scoria|
|Glassy|Tachylyte, sideromelane, palagonite|

## Related pages

- List of minerals
- Granite
Specific gravity

**Specific Gravity** (SG) is a special case of relative density.

It is defined as the ratio of the density of a given substance, to the density of water (H<sub>2</sub>O). Substances with a specific gravity greater than 1 are heavier than water, and those with a specific gravity of less than 1 are lighter than water.

SG is by definition dimensionless and therefore not dependent on the system of units used (e.g. slugsft<sup>−3</sup> or kgm<sup>−3</sup>), assuming that the units are consistent. Based on the SG-value of a given substance, the density of that substance can be calculated.

## Related pages

- Buoyancy
- Fluid mechanics
- Relative density

## Other websites

- Specific Gravity Calculator

## References

- _Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics_ Wiley, B.R. Munson, D.F. Young & T.H. Okishi
- _Introduction to Fluid Mechanics_ Fourth Edition, Wiley, SI Version, R.W. Fox & A.T. McDonald
- _Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach_ Second Edition, McGraw-Hill, International Edition, Y.A. Cengel & M.A. Boles
Rosetta Stone

The **Rosetta Stone** is a stone with writing carved into it. There are 3 types of writing on the Rosetta stone; Greek, Egyptian, and another form of Egyptian writing. French soldiers found it in Egypt in 1799. It helped people get a better understanding of the Ancient Egyptian writing system called hieroglyphics. Its discovery led to the translation of Ancient Egyptian writing. The stone is named after the city where it was found, Rosetta (also called Rashid). The stone is now in the British Museum in London.

It had three pieces of writing on it that said the same thing in two different languages. Two pieces of writing were written in Ancient Egyptian, but in two different scripts: Demotic and hieroglyphics. The third writing was written in Ancient Greek.

The historians could already read the Greek. Using this knowledge they were able to work out how to read the Egyptian scripts.

The complete Greek text, in English, is about 1600–1700  words in length. The text is a royal decree from the Hellenistic period about the taxes of temple priests. It gives them back the tax privileges they had earlier. Some scholars believe that several copies of the Rosetta Stone might exist, as this proclamation must have been made at many temples.

## The discovery of the stone

The soldiers who discovered the stone were part of Napoleon Bonaparte's 1798 campaign in Egypt. It was given to the British as part of the surrender arrangements when French forces were caught in Alexandria by the Battle of the Nile and a larger force of British and Ottoman troops. The surrender and treaty is called the Capitulation of Alexandria. Under the treaty, the French had to hand over their archaeological discoveries to the British, and that included the Rosetta Stone.

The discovered part of the stone is 114.4 centimeters (45 in) high at its tallest point, 72.3 centimeters (28.5 in) wide, and 27.9 centimeters (11 in) thick.

## Part of the text

These are some of the translated words on the stone:

## Other websites

- A Rosetta Stone website
- Rosetta Stone -Citizendium
Curtain

A **curtain** is a piece of cloth used to block light, water, or cold air from entering a place (some curtains are better at blocking than others because of the type of fabric used). Curtains are hung around showers to keep water off the floor around the shower.  Curtains are also hung around windows to keep light from coming in. A curtain is raised and lowered during a play or other theatrical production. Curtains can come in many different colors and different types of fabric. It is also originally a French word.

Curtains can also be made from air.
Criminal record

A **criminal record** is a list of crimes that a person has done in the past. These records are kept by different law enforcement agencies.
People can get a criminal record by things like speeding, robbery, breaking and entering and murdering. Getting a criminal record can stop people from getting certain jobs and going overseas.
Visitor

A **visitor** is someone who does not permanently live in a place. When someone says "I am a visitor here", that means that they do not live in that place all the time. In English and Welsh law, it also means a person who can look at the working of a church, charity or university.

## Related pages

- Tourism
- Hospitality
Espresso

**Espresso** is a type of Italian coffee that is concentrated. In order to make espresso, coffee beans are powdered and hot water is added under high pressure. This is done using an espresso machine or a macchinetta. Usually, espresso is made using 1 part coffee beans to 2 parts water. This gives espresso a very strong flavor. Because espresso is so strong, it is often mixed with milk or water.

## Drinks that use espresso

There are many drinks that use espresso, such as latte, cappuccino, caffe mocha and caffe macchiato.

## Alternative spelling

It is sometimes spelled expresso, with an X. There is some debate as to whether this is an acceptable spelling.

## Related pages

- Coffee
Damson

A **damson** is a kind of plum. Like the plum, it comes from the Rosaceae family. Originally, the fruit comes from the Mediterranean. Damsons are thought to be members of the 'European Plum' family, which also includes greengage, mirabelle, quetsche, and Italian prune plums. The damson is generally less sweet than other kinds of plum and is used in jams, jellies, and liqueurs.
Half-time

**Half-time** is the name of a break in the middle of a sports game. This break gives players a chance to rest. It also gives watchers of the game time to stretch, eat, or go to the bathroom without missing the game. During half-time, there is usually a show on the field of play. It may include a marching band or something like it. This is called a half-time show. There is a half-time show in the Super Bowl. Half time is usually 15 minutes, but in the Super Bowl it is usually about 30 minutes to give time for advertisements and performances. In Football, teams usually switch sides at the beginning of the next half. This also applies to Basketball.

## Sports with half-time

- American football
- Field hockey
- Lacrosse
- Football (soccer)
- Rugby football
- Basketball
- Netball
Fluid mechanics

**Fluid mechanics** is the study of how fluids move and the forces on them. (Fluids include liquids and gases.)

Fluid mechanics can be divided into fluid statics, the study of fluids at rest, and fluid dynamics, the study of fluids in motion. It is a branch of continuum mechanics, a subject which models matter without using the information that it is made out of atoms.

The study of fluid mechanics goes back at least to the days of ancient Greece, when Archimedes made a beginning on fluid statics. However, fluid mechanics, especially fluid dynamics, is an active field of research with many unsolved or partly solved problems. Fluid mechanics can be mathematically complex. Sometimes it can best be solved by numerical analysis, typically using computers. A modern discipline, called _Computational Fluid Dynamics_ (CFD), is devoted to this approach to solving fluid mechanics problems.

## Relationship to continuum mechanics

Fluid mechanics is a subdiscipline of continuum mechanics, as illustrated in the following table.
|rowspan=4|Continuum mechanics: the study of the physics of continuous materials.|rowspan=2|Solid mechanics: the study of the physics of continuous materials with a defined rest shape.|colspan=2|Elasticity: which describes materials that return to their rest shape after an applied stress.|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Plasticity: which describes materials that permanently deform after a large enough applied stress.|rowspan=2 bgcolor=pink|Rheology: the study of materials with both solid and fluid characteristics||||
|rowspan=2 bgcolor=pink|**Fluid mechanics**: the study of the physics of continuous materials which take the shape of their container.|bgcolor=pink|Non-Newtonian fluids|||
|colspan=2 bgcolor=pink|Newtonian fluids|||||

## Related pages

- Applied mechanics
- Hydraulics

## Further reading

- White, Frank M. (2003). _Fluid Mechanics._ McGraw-Hill.
- Cramer, Mark. "The Gallery of Fluid Mechanics"

## Other websites

- CFDWiki—the Computational Fluid Dynamics reference wiki.
Fluid statics

**Fluid statics** (also called **hydrostatics**) is the science of fluids at rest, and is a sub-field within fluid mechanics. The term usually refers to the mathematical treatment of the subject. It embraces the study of the conditions under which fluids are at rest in stable equilibrium. The use of fluid to do work is called hydraulics, and the science of fluids in motion is fluid dynamics. Hydrostatic pressure is pressure that a fluid exerts when pushing against the sides of a vessel.

## Related pages

- Fluid dynamics
- Fluid mechanics
- Hydraulics
Meroë

**Meroë** (Meroitic: _Medewi_ or _Bedewi_) is the name of an ancient city. What remains of the city is on the east bank of the Nile  about 6 km north-east of the Kabushiya station near Shendi, Sudan. It lies about 200 km north-east of Khartoum.
There are a few villages nearby. They are called  **Bagrawiyah**.

Meroë was the capital of the Kingdom of Kush for several centuries. The Kushitic Kingdom of Meroë gave its name to the "Island of Meroë", which was the modern region of Butana, a region bounded by the Nile (from the Atbarah River to Khartoum), the Atbarah, Ethiopia, and the Blue Nile.  The city of Meroë was on the edge of Butana and there were two other Meroitic cities in Butana, Musawwarat es-Sufra and Naqa.

The site of the city of Meroë is marked by over two hundred pyramids in three groups. Of many of these pyramids, there are only ruins left.

In June 2011, the archaeological site of Meroë was listed by UNESCO as World Heritage Sites.
Laxative

A **laxative** is a food or drug taken to make bowel movements easier, or to treat constipation. Sometimes taking powerful or lots of laxatives can cause diarrhea or a flatulence.

Laxatives work by helping your intestines digest undigested food, and do not make you lose weight. Despite this, some people with eating disorders take laxatives in an attempt to lose weight.
Jebel Barkal

**Jebel Barkal**, also called **Gebel Barkal**, is a small mountain in Sudan. It is about 400 kilometers (248.6 miles) north of a city called Khartoum.  This mountain is about  high and has a flat top.
Dassault Mirage III

The **Mirage III** is a fighter aircraft made by French airplane company Dassault Aviation. If first flew in 1956 and was introduced in 1961. It used a triangle wing (called a delta wing). It had 2 cannons and some missiles. Because it was an interceptor, an airplane made to shoot down enemy airplanes at high speed, it could go Mach 2.2. It was used by Israel in the Six-Day War.
Herbaceous plant

A **herbaceous plant** is a plant that does not have much wood and its stems are green and soft. These plants grow fast and produce flowers and many seeds in a short period of time.

In botany, the word for a herbaceous plant is **herb** (from Latin _herba_, "grass") but it is common to use the word herb only for plants that are used in perfumes, medicines and for cooking, even if they are not herbaceous plants.

Herbaceous plants may be annuals, biennials or perennials. Most are annuals and die at the end of their growing season (the time when they produce flowers, fruits and seeds), leaving their seeds on the soil. Those seeds will produce new plants with good weather. Wheat and pea are annual herbaceous plants.

Biennial and perennial herbaceous plants will live for two or more years, but the stems that are in the air will die every year. The underground stems will form the new aerial stems (stems that are above the ground). Underground roots and stems can better resist bad weather (winter or a very dry season) than leaves and stems that are above the ground. Bulbs are biennial and peonies are perennial herbaceous plants.

Most herbaceous plants are small and their stems are not thick because they do not have much wood, but there are some big herbaceous plants. Bananas and papaya (a tropical fruit) are herbaceous plants but they look like trees. Papaya has a thick stem but without much wood.

Herbaceous plants are the first plants with flower that come to live in barren lands (lands without plant life), because they are small and produce many seeds. They are also found in places where the weather conditions are not good for most plants. They can use the little rain that falls in deserts. They can get enough heat to grow where the soil is covered with snow and ice most of the year, like in very high mountains.
Trophy

A **trophy** is an object given to someone because of an accomplishment. These are often given out through sporting events.

A trophy can be in the shape of a cup, a bowl, a plaque, a mug (these usually painted or engraved with something), a human shape (like the Emmy Award), or a spaceship (like the Hugo Award for science-fiction).

Trophies can also be an animal head. These are often taken as trophies by hunters.

## History

In ancient times people would take heads or other body parts of enemies they had killed in a battle to show how good a warrior they were.
Many years ago (in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome) the winners did not get any trophy, only a wreath (a wreath is made of flowers and looks like a crown). The winner also got olive oil in a container that was similar to today trophies. In local games, the winners got different trophies, such as a vase or a silver cup.
In ancient Rome, the tradition of getting a trophy was slowly forgotten and money were given instead.
Trophies were introduced back in the world on large scale in last century. Football, rugby and baseball trophies were introduced.
Today trophies are mostly made from plastic and are easily accessible to public thanks to low prices.
Nakalipithecus

***Nakalipithecus nakayamai*** is a fossil ape species. It was a discovery of a 10-million-year-old jawbone with teeth, in a volcanic mud in Nakali, Kenya. _N. nakayamai_ is thought to have lived around 9.9 million to 9.8 million years ago. More teeth were found in the same place; eleven of them are thought to belong to this specimen.

## Other websites

- New ancient ape species discovered
- Jawbone sheds light on divergence of humans and apes
Defoliant

**Defoliants** are a type of chemical that destroys plants like trees, bushes and grass .

A very common defoliant is Agent Orange used by the US Airforce in the Vietnam War to destroy cover of the enemy. It killed the rainforest and caused birth defects as well as other illnesses among Vietnamese and US soldiers
Phoenix lights

The **Phoenix Lights** (sometimes called the "**Lights over Phoenix**") were a light phenomenon that occurred on March 13, 1997 over Arizona and Nevada, in the Southwestern United States. Some claim that they were UFOs. The governor of Arizona also said he thought they could be UFOs. The thing was V-shaped with 5 lights at the bottom of it in V-formation.
909

## Events

- The Maya leave their biggest towns and cities.

## Births

- Saint Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury
Eumetazoa

**Eumetazoa** is a clade which includes all major animal phyla except sponges, and a few other groups of animals, such as the Placozoa. The Eumetazoa have true tissues, neurons, and an embryo that goes through a gastrula stage.

## Subgroups

- Radiata
- Bilateria

## References

- Borchiellini C. _et al._  2001.  _Journal of Evolutionary Biology_ **14** (1): 171-179.
- Peterson, Kevin J. _et al._ 2005. Tempo & mode of early animal evolution: inferences from rocks, Hox, & molecular clocks.  _Paleobiology_ **31**(2, Supplement): 36-55.
Bilateria

The **Bilateria** are animals which are bilaterally symmetrical. They have front and a back end, an upside and downside, and a left and right side. Most animals are bilateral.

## Main subgroups

- Deuterostomia
    - Echinodermata (20,000 species, 7000 living)
    - Chordata. mostly Vertebrata  (63,000 species)
    - Hemichordata
- Protostomia
    - Ecdysozoa (6 to 20 million species)
        - Nematoda (20,000 species known +many more)
        - Arthropoda (one to 10 million species)
    - Lophotrochozoa
        - Annelida (17,000 species)
        - Platyhelminthes (20,000+ species)
        - Mollusca (85,000+ species)
        - Brachiopoda (5,000 fossil species)
        - Rhombozoa
    - Platyzoa
    - Minor phyla (like Chaetognatha)
Numbers are approximate; extinct species numbers cannot be known for most phyla.

## Related pages

- List of animal phyla
Lyre

A **lyre** (pronounced to rhyme with "fire") is a musical instrument which is like a mixture between a harp and a guitar. It is held in one hand and the strings are strummed using the other hand. The lyre is classified as a plucked string instrument and a member of the lute family.

Lyres were among the first string instruments to be invented. People played them in various ancient cultures (including the Sumerian, Egyptian, and Greek) to accompany music, poetry, and dance. The lyre's origins can be traced back over 4,500 years to the ancient Middle East, with notable examples found in the Sumerian culture of Babylonia.

Lyres are typically plucked, though some are bowed, and they come in different forms, such as box lyres and bowl lyres, with varying numbers of strings and materials.  A lyre has two arms and a crossbar, with strings stretched between the crossbar and a tailpiece or soundbox.

Lyres are crafted from various materials, including wood, animal shells, and metal. The strings are plucked to produce sound, creating a peaceful, relaxing, and beautiful tone.
Oceanic crust

The **oceanic crust** is the part of Earth's lithosphere that is under the ocean basins.

Oceanic crust is primarily composed of mafic rocks, or sima which is named for its magnesium silicate mineral<nowiki/>s. It is thinner than continental crust, and is about 7-10 kilometers thick, however it is more dense, having a mean density of about 3.3 g/cm<sup>3</sup>.

Oceanic crust generally does not last longer than 200 million years. In the rock cycle, it is continuously created at oceanic ridges. At these ridges, hot magma rises into the crust and cools, pushing the crust apart at the ridge. The continuous formation of new oceanic crust pushes the older crust away from the mid-ocean ridge. As it moves away from the ridge, the crust becomes cooler and denser, while the sediment may build on top of it.

## Related pages

- Continental crust

## Sources

- Marshak, Stephen. (2005) Earth: Portrait of a Planet (41-87)

## Other websites

- Testing the Sea-Floor Spreading Hypothesis