juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
President of Iran

The **President of Iran** is the head of government of the Islamic Republic of Iran. The president is chosen by direct popular vote, that is the voters choose the president, they do not vote for other people to choose as in the USA. Unlike other countries, in Iran, the President is not the leader of the country. The President does many of the things that are normally done by a head of state but the Supreme Leader is the person who is actually in control of the country.

The current President of Iran is Masoud Pezeshkian since 28 July 2024.

## List

|rowspan=2||rowspan=2|Portrait|rowspan=2|Name|colspan=3|Term of office|rowspan=2|Political party|rowspan=2|Election|rowspan=2|Previous office|rowspan=2|Prime minister|rowspan=2|Cabinet|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|colspan=11|===Islamic Republic of Iran (from 1979)===|||||||||||||||||
|colspan=11|====1st Constitution (19791989)====|||||||||||||||||
|colspan=11|The _Council of the Islamic Revolution_ deputised during the interim (3 December 1979  4 February 1980).|||||||||||||||||
|colspan="11"|The _Presidential Council_ deputised during the interim (22 June 1981  2 August 1981).|||||||||||||||||
|colspan=11|The _Presidential Council_ deputised during the interim (30 August 1981  9 October 1981).|||||||||||||||||
|colspan=11|====2nd Constitution (from 1989)====|||||||||||||||||

## Other websites

- The President's Office
- Iran Electoral Archive - President

## Infobox (official post)

- **post**: President
- **body**: the
Islamic Republic of Iran
- **insignia**: Office of the President of the Islamic Republic of Iran Seal.svg
- **insigniacaption**: Seal of the Presidential Administration of Iran
- **image**: Masoud Pezeshkian 20250202 (cropped).jpg
- **incumbent**: Masoud Pezeshkian
- **incumbentsince**: 28 July 2024
- **department**: Presidential Administration of Iran, Presidential Administration
- **style**: Mr. President (title), Mr. President
- **type**: Head of government
- **seat**: Pasteur Street, Pasteur, Tehran
- **appointer**: Direct election, Direct vote
- **termlength**: Four years, renewable once consecutively
- **first**: Abolhassan Banisadr
- **deputy**: Vice President of Iran, First Vice President
- **salary**: 538,592,400 Iranian rial, ﷼ annually
Theocracy

In **Theocracy**, a form of government, the institutions and people that govern the state are very close to the leaders of the main religion or are religious leaders themselves. If the religious leaders do not directly run some bodies of the state, they influence them very much. The word theocracy comes from two Greek words literally meaning God-government, and meaning the government is run by "The Church".

### Andorra

The Roman Catholic Bishop of Urgell as the Co-Prince, is one of the two heads of states of Andorra (the other Co-Prince as head of state is the President of France). His role is mostly ceremonial, and while Roman Catholicism is the official religion of the country, it is not a theocracy.

### Iran

Iran is a theocratic Islamic republic. In Iran, two bodies, the Supreme Leader and Guardian Council consist of members who are not elected by the people. These two bodies are staffed by Shia clerics. The highest elected official is the President of Iran.

Mohammad Khatami, the former president, said that this model is an alternative to democracy, as it brings in religious elements. He called it a religious democracy.

### Vatican City

The Vatican City is a true theocracy, with no separation of church and state. The head of the Catholic Church is the leader of the country.  The pope is elected by the Papal Conclave.   Most popes have stayed for the rest of their lives, but some have resigned.  One who resigned was Pope Benedict XVI.

## State religion

Many states have a state religion (also called official religion). Israel, for example mixes some aspects of Halakha and civil law, even though Judaism is not a state or official religion of the country. Also, the state hires rabbis. In some such states, religious leaders also have civil duties, not only religious ones.

## Some historic theocratic states

Some (now extinguished) states throughout history had characteristics of a Theocracy, as for example:

- In Ancient Egypt the Pharaoh was a god.
- In the Empire of Japan (1868 - 1947), Shinto, the indigenous religion of Japan, was the official state religion (State Shinto), besides, the Emperor of Japan was worshipped, and viewed as, a living deity.
- Bhutan was formerly governed as a Buddhist theocracy.
- Though the Byzantine Empire was not _de facto_ a theocracy, it was caesaropapist. In matters where the interests of the Greek Orthodox Church had a considerable interest, its concerns would have been taken into account and influenced the ruler's decision.
- The Holy Roman Empire had many Prince-Bishop<nowiki/>s.
Ahmad Jannati

**Ayatollah Ahmad Jannati** (born 23 February 1927) is an Iranian politician and cleric. He has been the secretary of the Guardian Council of the Islamic Republic of Iran since 1988. He is the oldest Iranian official currently in power and one of the oldest living clerics.

## Other websites

- Ayatollah Ahmad Jannati to U.S.: Invade Iran, If You Dare

## References

</references>

## Infobox (officeholder)

- **honorific-prefix**: Ayatollah
- **name**: Ahmad Jannati
- **native name lang**: fa
- **image**: احمد جنتی.jpg
- **caption**: Jannati in 2016
- **office**: List of chairmen of the Assembly of Experts, Chairman of the Assembly of Experts
- **term start**: 24 May 2016
- **1blankname**: Supreme Leader
- **1namedata**: Ali Khamenei
- **term end**: 21 May 2024
- **predecessor**: Mohammad Yazdi
- **successor**: Mohammad-Ali Movahedi Kermani
- **office1**: Member of Expediency Discernment Council
- **term start1**: 17 March 1997
- **term end1**: 20 September 2022
- **appointer1**: Ali Khamenei
- **1blankname1**: Chairman
- **1namedata1**: Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani
Ali Movahedi-Kermani (acting)
Mahmoud Hashemi Shahroudi
Sadeq Larijani
- **order2**: Secretary of the Guardian Council
- **term start2**: 17 July 1992
- **appointer2**: Ali Khamenei
- **predecessor2**: Mohammad Mohammadi Gilani
- **office6**: Guardian Council, Member of the Guardian Council
- **term start6**: 20 February 1980
- **appointer6**: Ruhollah Khomeini
Ali Khamenei
- **office4**: Assembly of Experts, Member of the Assembly of Experts
- **term start4**: 23 February 1999
- **term end4**: 20 May 2024
- **constituency4**: Tehran Province
- **majority4**: 1,321,130 (29.35%)
- **term start5**: 15 August 1983
- **term end5**: 22 February 1999
- **constituency5**: Khuzestan Province
- **office3**: List of Tehran's Friday Prayer Imams, Tehran's Temporary Friday Prayer Imam
- **term start3**: 3 April 1992
- **appointer3**: Ali Khamenei
- **term end3**: 11 March 2018
- **birth place**: Isfahan, Pahlavi Iran, Imperial State of Persia
- **residence**: Tehran, Iran
- **party**: Combatant Clergy Association
Society of Seminary Teachers of Qom
- **spouse**: Unnamed
 Sediqeh Mazaheri
 Unnamed
- **children**: 4, including Ali Jannati, Ali
- **profession**: Politician, cleric
Guardian Council

The **Guardian Council** is part of the government of Iran. It ensures the laws passed by Iran's legislature conform to Islam. It was created in 1979.
Incumbent

An **incumbent** is the current holder of a  political office or position.  This word is usually used when talking about elections, which are often between the incumbent and one other person or several other people.  For example, Donald Trump is the incumbent President of the United States since he is still president. It can also be used in sports to let people know if a sportsman still holds the position or award in question.

## Related pages

- Inauguration
Assembly of Experts

The **Assembly of Experts** was created after the Islamic Revolution in Iran.  It is an assembly of Islamic clerics who have the power to choose the successor of the Supreme Leader of Iran.

## Other websites

- Assembly of Experts - Official website
- Assembly of Experts in the Constitution of Islamic Republic of Iran
- Understanding Iran's Assembly of Experts
- Results of Assembly of Experts elections in 6 provinces
- Results of Assembly of Experts elections in four provinces
- Results of Assembly of Experts elections in some provinces
Ali Meshkini

**Ayatollah Ali Meshkini** (1922-30 July 2007) was the chairman of the Assembly of Experts of the Islamic Republic of Iran from 1984 to 2007.

## Other websites

- Ayatollah Meshkini In A Friday Sermon in Qom: An Islamic Rule Under Ayatollah Sistani Is Required in Iraq , video clip, 2004
Judiciary

The **judiciary** or **judicial system** is the system of courts that administers (or makes decisions about) justice. This kind of system, does its work in the name of the state (or country) or the sovereign. A judicial system is used to resolve disputes.

The term is also used to refer collectively to the judges and magistrates who form the basis of the judiciary, as well as the other people who help keep the system running properly.

## Separation of powers

Separation of powers causes separate branches of government that each has a different purpose. The judiciary is the branch of government that interprets the law. Such systems may have three branches: Legislature, Executive and Judiciary. Often the judiciary branch has courts of first resort, appellate courts, and a supreme court or constitutional court. Decisions of the lower courts may be appealed to the higher courts.

## Judiciary in the USA

In the United States the federal Judicial Branch is an integrated system of courts headed by the Supreme Court of the United States. Each state also has a judicial system.
Mahmoud Hashemi Shahroudi

**Ayatollah Seyyed Mahmoud Hashemi Shahroudi** (15 August 1948 – 24 December 2018) was an Iranian politician. He was the Chief Justice of Iran from 1999 to 2009. He was born in Najaf, Iraq.

Ayatollah Shahroudi was best known for ordering a moratorium on stoning as a form of the death penalty. However, later it was shown that executions by stoning are still being carried out, in spite of his claims that they have stopped. Stoning is still happening inside prisons, where the public cannot see it.

From August 2017 to December 2018, Shahroudi was Chairman of Expediency Discernment Council.

He died on 24 December 2018 from cancer in Tehran at the age of 70.

## Other websites

- Text: Human Rights Watch Protests Media Crackdown, Detentions in Iran  (April 2000)
- Iran veil crackdown criticised APRIL 24, 2007
Expediency Discernment Council

The **Expediency Discernment Council** is a governmental body for resolving disputes between the Guardian Council and the legislature in the Islamic Republic of Iran.

## Other websites

- Official Website
- GlobalSecurity.org on the Expediency Discernment Council
Mata Hari

**Mata Hari** was the stage name of Margaretha Geertruida (Grietje) Zelle (7 August 1876, Leeuwarden, The Netherlands – 15 October 1917, Vincennes, France).

She was  a Dutch-Frisian exotic dancer and spy. She was executed by a firing squad of the French Army. French authorities thought she was a spy during World War I. Because she had relationships with both German and French officers, they thought she was a double agent (working for both sides). Her dossier (file) was released in 2017, a hundred years after her death.

## Guilty

German documents unsealed in the 1970s proved that Mata Hari was truly a German agent. In the autumn of 1915, she entered German service.

On the orders of section III B-Chief Walter Nicolai, she was instructed about her duties by Major Roepell during a stay in Cologne. Her direct handler was Captain Hoffmann, who gave her the code name H-21.
Father Damien

**Father Damien**, also **Saint Damien of Molokai**, born as **Joseph de Veuster** in Belgium on January 3, 1840 and died on April 15, 1889, was a Roman Catholic Priest and missionary. He was known for helping people with leprosy in the colony of Kalaupapa on the island of Molokai in Hawaii. Father Damien came to Hawaii in 1864. During this time, many Native Hawaiians were dying from many of the diseases they caught from the white settlers. The King of Hawaii, made the people who had leprosy live in a colony away from other people. Father Damien went to help the sick people and gave them hope. Father Damien also died from leprosy, but what he did helped many people.

In 1995, he was beatified (made an important person) by the Pope, and he is recognized by both the Catholic and Anglican churches. Father Damien was canonized by Pope Benedict XVI on Sunday October 11, 2009.

His is Patron Saint of the Diocese of Honolulu, as well as all of 🌋, of  people with leprosy, and of outcasts, as well as people suffering from HIV and AIDS as well.
Jack Dempsey

**William Harrison "Jack" Dempsey** (June 24, 1895 – May 31, 1983) was an American boxer who held the world heavyweight title between 1919 and 1926  Known as "The Manassa Mauler", Dempsey was a tremendous puncher famous for his exciting fights, many of which set financial and attendance records.

He won the title by beating Jess Willard on July 4, 1919. He defended the title six times before losing it to Gene Tunney in 1926. They had a rematch in 1927 and Tunney again beat Dempsey. It was during this fight where the "Long Count" took place. Dempsey knocked Tunney down in the seventh round. The referee would not start counting until Dempsey went to a neutral corner, so it is estimated that Tunney had as many as fourteen seconds to rise (instead of the usual ten).

Dempsey retired in 1928. He fought exhibitions after his retirement, served as a commander in the Coast Guard during World War II, and opened a restaurant in New York City.

Dempsey died in 1983.

## Other websites

- Boxing record
Jess Willard

**Jess Willard** (December 29, 1881–December 15, 1968) was an American boxer. He was the heavyweight best puncher in the world from 1915 to 1919. When Jack Johnson was the Black world champion, Willard was one of the many "White Hopes" who wanted to take the title. He succeeded when he beat Johnson by a 26th round out-cold punch in Cuba in 1915. He fought to keep the title and won once before losing it to Jack Dempsey in 1919.

## Other websites

- Boxing record
- Biography of Jess Willard
William Tell

**William Tell** was a folk hero from Switzerland. In the story, William Tell is a man who refused to bow down to pole that was set up by an army who had taken over the place where he lived. He was arrested and forced to shoot an apple off his son's head with a crossbow. If he did not, both he and his son would be killed. So he shot the apple off the son's head and did not harm his son. He is considered a legend and his actions helped form Switzerland as a nation.

## Adaptions

- _Wilhelm Tell_ (_William Tell_), a play by Friedrich Schiller
- _Guillaume Tell_ (_William Tell_), an opera by Gioachino Rossini, based on Schiller's play
Board

**Board** could mean:
- Board (wood), a piece of lumber, or other rigid material made of wood, milled or sawn flat
- Surfboard
- Skateboard
- Snowboard (often made of fibreglass)
- Board of directors or a similar governing or advisory committee
- Sound Board, an audio mixing console
- Bulletin board system or Internet forum
- Board (bridge), a device used in playing duplicate bridge
- Board or level, a distinct area in or stage of a video game
- Chalkboard, Blackboard or whiteboard, a reusable writing surface
- Board, use accommodation in a house or hotel; to stay at school during term time, and sleep in a dormitory
Pitman arm

The **Pitman arm** is a part used in automobiles, trucks, SUVs and other vehicles to steer the wheels. When the steering wheel is turned right or left the pitman transmits the motion it receives from the steering gearbox to the tie rod. A "drop pitman arm" is used to correct the steering when a vehicle has a suspension lift.
F1

**F1** is a function key on the keyboard. It is mainly used to open help pages about an application or a part of it. On some keyboards and computers, it's also a volume key muting the computer.
Chemically inert

In chemistry, the term **inert** is used to describe something that is not chemically active.  The noble gases were described as being inert because they did not react with the other elements or themselves.

Inert gases are completely inert to basic chemical reactions (such as combustion, for example) because their outer valence shell is completely filled with electrons. With a filled outer valence shell, an inert atom is not able to acquire or lose an electron, and is therefore not able to participate in most chemical reactions. For inert atoms or molecules, a lot of energy is involved before it can combine with other elements to form compounds. A high temperature and pressure is necessary, and sometimes requires the presence of a catalyst.

For example, elemental nitrogen is inert under standard room conditions and exists as a diatomic molecule, N<sub>2</sub>. The inertness of nitrogen is due to the presence of the very strong triple covalent bond in the N<sub>2</sub> molecule.

Inert atmospheres of gases such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen and argon are routinely used in working with processes that will go wrong if air or water is present. For example, some welding must be done in argon so the material will not burn.
Electron shell

An **electron shell**, or main energy level, is the part of an atom where electrons are found orbiting the atom's nucleus.

In chemistry and atomic physics, an electron shell may be thought of as an orbit followed by electrons around an atom's nucleus. All atoms have one or more electron shell(s), all of which have varying numbers of electrons.

Each electron shell has one or more electron sub-shells, or sub-levels. Electron shells make up the electron configuration of an atom. The number of electrons that can be in a certain shell is equal to , where  is the number of a shell.

The name for electron shells came from the Bohr model, which states that electrons orbit the nucleus at certain distances so that their orbits form "shells". This term was presented by Niels Henrik David Bohr.

## Valence shell

The valence shell is the outermost shell of an atom in its neutral state. The valence shell contains the electrons most likely to be involved in reactions.

In a noble gas, an atom tends to have eight electrons in its outer shell (except helium, which is only able to fill its shell with two electrons). Noble gases serve as the model for the octet rule, which states that atoms tend to form bonds or create ions so that they can have eight electrons in their outermost shell. This is mostly applicable to the main-group elements of the second and third periods.

For coordination complexes containing transition metals, the valence shell consists of 18 electrons. This is referred to as the _eighteen electron rule_.

|Shell|Electrons|
| --- | --- |
|1|2|
|2|8|
|3|18|
|4|32|
|5|32|
|6|18|
|7|8|

## Sub-shells

Electron sub-shells are identified by the letters s, p, d, f, g, h, i, etc., corresponding to the azimuth quantum numbers: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, etc. Each shell is able to hold 2, 6, 10, 14, and 18 electrons respectively.

## References

- Tipler, Paul & Ralph Llewellyn (2003).  _Modern Physics_ (4th ed.).  New York: W. H. Freeman and Company.
Wheelchair

A **wheelchair** is a type of chair usually used by disabled people.

A wheelchair is moved either manually (by pushing the wheels with the hands, or pushed from behind with handles by somebody who is not sitting in the wheelchair) or by automated systems such as electric motors which can be controlled by the wheelchair user (the person sitting in the chair) or by somebody walking behind or beside the wheelchair if the wheelchair user needs help to move their wheelchair.

Wheelchairs are used by people for whom walking is difficult or impossible due to illness, injury, or disability. Wheelchairs can have extra cushions and other parts added to improve support if the wheelchair user cannot keep their body in a good sitting position, or to make the wheelchair more comfortable to sit in. The earliest record of the wheelchair in England dates from the 1670s [Oxford English Dictionary, (2nd Ed.), 1989, Vol. XX., p. 203.], and in continental Europe this technology dates back to the German Renaissance.

In 1655, Stephan Farffler, a 22-year-old paraplegic watchmaker, built the world's first self-propelling chair on a three-wheel chassis using a system of cranks and cogwheels. However, the device resembled a hand bike more than a wheelchair since the design included hand cranks mounted at the front wheel.

## Other websites

- Rehabilitation Engineering Research Center on Wheeled Mobility
- Dept of Transportation   Information for air travelers with disabilities and their rights in the US
- Etiquette: Wheelchair users  Suggestions for better communication with people who use wheelchairs
Fuel oil

**Fuel oil** is a fraction obtained from petroleum distillation, either as a distillate or a residue at the oil refinery.

Broadly speaking, fuel oil is any liquid petroleum product that is burned in a furnace or boiler for the generation of heat or used in an engine for the generation of power, except oils having a flash point of approximately +40 °C and oils burned in cotton or wool-wick burners. In this sense, diesel is a type of fuel oil. Fuel oil is made of long hydrocarbon chains, particularly alkanes, cycloalkanes and aromatics. The term _fuel oil_ is also used in a stricter sense to refer only to the heaviest commercial fuel that can be obtained from crude oil, heavier than gasoline and naphtha.

## Six classes

Fuel oil in the United States is classified into six classes, according to its boiling temperature, composition and purpose. The boiling point, ranging from 175 to 600 °C, and carbon chain length, 20 to 70  atoms, of the fuel increases with number. Viscosity also increases with fuel oil number and the heaviest oil has to be heated to get it to flow. Price usually decreases as the fuel number increases.

**No. 1 fuel oil**, **No. 2 fuel oil** (heating oil), and **No. 3 fuel oil** are referred to as **distillate fuel oils**, **diesel fuel oils**, **light fuel oils**, **gasoil** or just **distillate**. For example, No. 2 fuel oil, No. 2 distillate and No. 2 diesel fuel oil are almost the same thing. Diesel is different in that it also has a cetane number limit which describes the ignition quality of the fuel. Distillate fuel oils are distilled from crude oil.

## Related pages

- Diesel
- Gasoline
- Kerosene
- Naphtha

## Sources

- Bunkerworld - media site for the marine fuels industry
- National Park Service - Fuel Oil
- How Stuff Works - Oil Refining
- The True Cost of #6 Oil
- Burning #6 Fuel Oil
- Identity and Analysis of Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons
- Poten & Partners: Advisors to the Fuel Oil Industry
- Classification of Fuel Oils
- Marine Fuel Oil (ISO 8217)
Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center

**Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center** is a large wind farm with 735.5 megawatt (MW) capacity.  It consists of 291 GE 1.5 MW wind turbines and 130 Siemens 2.3 MW wind turbines spread over nearly 47,000 acres (190 km²) of land in Taylor and Nolan County, Texas.

The first phase of the Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center consisted of 213 MW and was completed in late 2005; phase two consisted of 223.5 MW and was completed in the second quarter of 2006; phase three which consisted of 299 MW, was completed by the end of 2006.

## Related pages

- Wind power
- List of large wind farms

## Other websites

- Jury Sides With Horse Hollow Wind Farm

## Infobox (power station)

- **name**: Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center
- **country**: United States
- **location**: Texas
- **status**: Operational
- **commissioned**: 2005
- **owner**: InvestEnergyGroup
- **ps units operational**: 421
- **ps units manu model**: GE Wind Energy: GE 1.5 MW
Siemens: Siemens 2.3 MW
- **wind farm type**: Onshore
- **ps electrical capacity**: 735.5 Megawatt, MW
- **ps electrical cap fac**: 29.8% <small>(average 20072018)</small>
Andasol Solar Power Station

**Andasol Solar Power Station** is a large solar thermal power plant, near Guadix in Andalusia, in the province of Granada, one of the sunniest regions in Spain. The plant will cost 310 million euros and is currently under construction.

Andasol will have a generating capacity of 50 megawatts and liquid salt heat storage will allow for electricity to be generated for seven hours after the sun has gone down. Annual electricity production will be 179 gigawatt hours which will cover the electricity demands of 50,000 households or 200,000 people.

Andasol should be completed in mid-2008 and a second plant, Andasol 2, is planned.

## Related pages

- List of Solar thermal power stations
- Renewable energy
- Solar power in Spain

## Other websites

- Pictures

## Infobox (power station)

- **name**: Andasol Solar Power Station
- **image**: 12-05-08 AS1.JPG
- **image caption**: Andasol Solar Power Station
- **country**: Spain
- **location**: near Guadix, province of Granada, Granada
- **status**: O
- **commissioned**: 2009
- **owner**: Cubico Sustainable Investments (Andasol 1&2)
Stadtwerke München
MAN Ferrostaal
Innogy
- **solar type**: CSP
- **solar csp technology**: P
- **solar site resource**: 2,136 kWh/m<sup>2</sup>/yr
- **ps electrical capacity**: 149.7
- **ps electrical cap fac**: 37.7%
- **ps storage capacity**: 1,123 MW·h<sub>e</sub>
- **ps annual generation**: 495 Gigawatt-hour, GWh
African slave trade

The **African slave trade** was a trade in slaves and, like most of the world, has carried on for thousands of years in Africa. The first three main routes were passed through the Sahara, the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean, which became part of the Arab slave trades. During and after the Age of Exploration, African slaves became part of the Atlantic slave trade, from which comes the modern, Western and American type of slavery. Despite being against the law, slavery continues in all parts of the world, including Africa. In Mauritania, people could not be punished for having slaves until August 2007.
Pocking Solar Park in Germany

The **Pocking Solar Park** is a 10-megawatt (MWp) solar photovoltaic plant which is among the largest in the world. Construction of the power plant started in August 2005 and was completed in March 2006. On the former military training area in the Lower-Bavarian town of Pocking, sheep are now grazing under and around the 57,912 photovoltaic modules.

## Related pages

- Photovoltaics
- Renewable energy
- Solar cell
- Solar power station in Victoria
- Waldpolenz Solar Park in Germany
Fractional distillation

**Fractional distillation** is a process of separating a mixture of chemical compounds. This means that each part (called a "fraction") of the mixture can be kept apart from the other chemicals. Different chemicals have different boiling points. Fractional distillation is done by heating the mixture so that it evaporates and then each fraction condenses in its own separate compartment. The reason we don't use simple distillation is because for liquids that boil at less than 25 °C from each other, some of the other liquid(s) may evaporate and so part of the separated liquid may have part of the other liquid(s).

It is a special type of distillation. Generally, the component parts boil at less than 25 °C from each other under a pressure of one atmosphere. If the difference in boiling points is greater than 25 °C, a simple distillation is used.

Fractionation is done by boiling a mixture in a fractionating column. The mixture evaporates at different times and is caught in a container as a pure compound.

Fractional distillation is the main activity of oil refineries, and is done in a large fractionating column known as a "fractionation tower".

Industrially, crude oil is heated and sent up along the fractionating column that has decreasing temperatures with height and several platforms at different levels to collect the condensate. Different components of crude oil have different boiling points. High molecular weight components have higher boiling points and condense at lower portions of the column while fractions with lower boiling points rise to the top of the column to condense.

The main fractions include refinery gases, gasoline (petrol), naphtha, kerosene, diesel oil, fuel oil, and a residue that contains bitumen. These fractions are mainly used as fuels, although they do have other uses too. Hydrocarbons with small molecules make better fuels than those with large molecules because they are volatile, flow easily and are easily ignited

## Other websites

- Continuous distillation -Citizendium
Monte Alto solar power plant

The **Monte Alto photovoltaic power plant** in Spain has a generating capacity of 9.55 megawatts peak (MWp) and will generate 14 million kilowatt-hours of electricity per year.  It cost 65 million Euros [US$87 million].

The plant covers an area of 51 hectares on agricultural land near the locality of Milagro (Navarre) and contains 889 solar structures, of which 864 have automated solar tracking. The rest are fixed structures adapted to the terrain.

## Related pages

- Photovoltaics
- Renewable energy
- Solar power in Spain
- Solar cell
Odor

**odor** or **odour** is a volatilized chemical compound, usually at a very low concentration, which humans and other animals perceive by the sense of olfaction.

Odors are also called **smells**, which can be used to describe both pleasant and unpleasant odors. The words **fragrance**, **scent**, or **aroma** are used mostly by the food and cosmetic industry to describe a pleasant odor, and is sometimes used to refer to perfumes. On the other hand, the words **stench**, **reek**, and **stink** are used specifically to describe unpleasant odors.

## Basics

Odor is a sensation caused by molecules dissolved in air.
The widest range of odors are made up of organic compounds although some inorganic substances, such as hydrogen sulfide and ammonia, are also odorants.
The perception of an odor effect is a two step process.
First, there is the physiological part; the sense of the stimulus by receptors in the nose.
After that the psychological part follows. The stimuli are processed by the region of the human brain which is responsible for smelling.

Because of this, an objective and analytical measure of odor is impossible.
While odor feelings are very personal perceptions, individual reactions are related to gender, age, state of health and private affectations. Common odors that people are used to, such as their own body odor, are less noticeable to individuals than external or uncommon odors.

For most people, the process of smelling gives little information concerning the ingredients of a substance. It only offers information related to the emotional impact. However, experienced people, such as flavorists and perfumers can pick out individual chemicals in complex mixes through smell alone.

## Odor analysis

The concentrations of odorant in Germany are defined by the “Olfaktometrie” since the 1870s. In this connection it's about the standard method to define the sense barrier of odors on basis the thinner of concentrated odor loaded assays. Following parameters are defined: odor substance concentration, intensity of odor and hedonism assessment.

## Pheromones

Pheromones are odors that are deliberately used for communication. A female moth may release a pheromone that can entice a male moth that is several kilometers away. Honeybee queens constantly release pheromones that regulate the activity of the hive. Workers can release such smells to call other bees into an appropriate cavity when a swarm moves in or to "sound" an alarm when the hive is threatened.

In mammals, some pathway of pheromones identification are in the vomeronasal organ and some in olfactory receptors.

## Related pages

- Incense
- Olfaction

## Other websites

- Odors categorized by main chemical constituent and organized by odor class, percept, etc.
European ash

The **European ash** (_Fraxinus excelsior_) is a kind of ash tree. It is found throughout Europe and not just Scandinavia. It is a deciduous tree that grows to a height of 20–35 metres.

## Uses

Ash wood is very easy to bend. It is therefore the material of choice to make bows. Tennis rackets, and the long poles used for snooker are sometimes made from it.

### Religion

In Norse mythology, the tree Yggdrasil was a European ash. The tree linked all the nine world, Niflheim and Asgard, amongst others. Below the tree resides Hel as well as the Well of Urd.
Instant soup

**Instant soups** are a kind of soup. They are produced on an industrial scale. Later they are treated in different ways to preserve them. Usually they are dried, canned, or treated by freezing.

Packaged instant soups come in two varieties:
- A packet of dry soup (like the ramen image below). These do not contain water. They are prepared by adding water and heating, or by adding hot water.
- A tin (or can) containing cold soup. To prepare those need to only be heated (for 3–5 minutes usually). There is another type of canned soup where the liquid is condensed and needs water added to it to make an edible soup.
Sensation (disambiguation)

**Sensation** may refer to any of the following:

- Sensation, psychological term relating to perception
- Sensation and perception psychology
- Sensation (song), by The Who
- The Sensations, an American musical R&B/pop quartet of the 1950s and early 1960s
- The Sensations (television), a popular television show of the Philippines
- Sensations of 1945, American film
- Sensation (ship), Carnival Cruise Line ship
- Sensation Comics, comic book series
- Sensation (event), indoor dance event which includes:
    - Sensation Black
    - Sensation White
- Sensation exhibition, controversial British art exhibition
- Sensation novel, British literary genre
- Sensation Animation, subsidiary group of the Walt Disney Corporation
- Sensation play (BDSM), BDSM term
- Walkers Sensations, Type of potato crisp

## Related pages

- Sense
Carmen Basilio

**Carmen Basilio** (born April 2, 1927 – November 7, 2012) was an American boxer who held the welterweight and middleweight world championship. He won the welterweight title from Tony DeMarco in 1955. He then fought Sugar Ray Robinson for the middleweight title. He won the belt from Robinson in 1957, but lost it when they fought again.

He is the uncle of former welterweight boxing champion Billy Backus.

## Other websites

- Boxing record
Johnny Saxton

**Johnny Saxton** (July 4, 1930, Newark, New Jersey – October 4, 2008) was an American boxer who won the welterweight championship.

### Career

Saxton beat Kid Gavilan in 1954 to become the welterweight champion. The lost the title the following year to Tony DeMarco. In 1956, he won the title again by beating Carmen Basilio, but lost the title in a rematch with Basilio later in the year. He retired in 1958.

## Other websites

- Boxing record
Weber-Fechner law

The **Weber–Fechner law** is a proposed relationship between the magnitude of a physical stimulus and the intensity or strength that people feel.

## The case of weight

In one of his classic experiments, Weber gradually increased the weight that a blindfolded man was holding and asked him to respond when he first felt the increase. Weber found that the response was proportional to a relative increase in the weight. That is to say, if the weight is 1 kg, an increase of a few grams will not be noticed. Rather, when the mass is increased by a certain factor, an increase in weight is perceived. If the mass is doubled, the threshold is also doubled.

The relationship between stimulus and perception is logarithmic. This logarithmic relationship means that if a stimulus varies as a geometric progression (i.e. multiplied by a fixed factor), the corresponding perception is altered in an arithmetic progression (i.e. in additive constant amounts). For example, if a stimulus is tripled in strength (i.e., 3 x 1), the corresponding perception may be two times as strong as its original value (i.e., 1 + 1). If the stimulus is again tripled in strength (i.e., 3 x 3 x 1), the corresponding perception will be three times as strong as its original value (i.e., 1 + 1 + 1). Hence, for multiplications in stimulus strength, the strength of perception only adds.

This logarithmic relationship is valid, not just for the sensation of weight, but for other stimuli and our sensory perceptions as well.

## Related pages

- Stevens' power law
- Nervous system
Logarithmic scale

A **logarithmic scale** is a scale used when there is a large range of quantities. Common uses include earthquake strength, sound loudness, light intensity, spreading rates of epidemics, and pH of solutions.

It is based on orders of magnitude, rather than a standard linear scale. The value of each mark on the scale is the value at the previous mark multiplied by a constant.

Logarithmic scales are also used in slide rules for multiplying or dividing numbers by adding or subtracting lengths on the scales.

The logarithmic scale can be helpful when the data cover a large range of values – the logarithm reduces this to a more manageable range.

Some of our senses operate in a logarithmic fashion (multiplying the actual input strength adds a constant to the perceived signal strength, see: Stevens' power law). That makes logarithmic scales for these input quantities especially appropriate. In particular, our sense of hearing perceives equal _multiples_ of frequencies as equal _differences_ in pitch.

On most logarithmic scales, _small_ multiples (or ratios) of the underlying quantity correspond to _small_ (possibly negative) values of the logarithmic measure.

## Examples

Well-known examples of such scales are:

- Richter magnitude scale and moment magnitude scale (MMS) for strength of earthquakes and movement in the earth.
- bel and decibel and neper for acoustic power (loudness) and electric power;
- counting f-stops for ratios of photographic exposure;
- rating low probabilities by the number of 'nines' in the decimal expansion of the probability of their not happening: for example, a system which will fail with a probability of 10<sup>−5</sup> is 99.999% reliable: "five nines".
- Entropy in thermodynamics.
- Information in information theory.
- Particle size distribution curves of soil

Some logarithmic scales were designed such that _large_ values (or ratios) of the underlying quantity correspond to _small_  values of the logarithmic measure. Examples of such scales are:

- pH for acidity;
- stellar magnitude scale for brightness of stars;

A logarithmic scale is also a graphical scale on one or both sides of a graph where a number _x_ is printed at a distance _c_·log(_x_)  from the point marked with the number 1. A slide rule has logarithmic scales, and nomograms often employ logarithmic scales. On a logarithmic scale an equal difference in order of magnitude is represented by an equal distance. The geometric mean of two numbers is midway between the numbers.

**Logarithmic graph paper**, before the advent of computer graphics, was a basic scientific tool. Plots on paper with one log scale can show up exponential laws, and on log-log paper power laws, as straight lines (see semilog graph, log-log graph).
Noodle soup

**Noodle soup** is a kind of soup. It contains the normal soup stock, together with noodles, and sometimes other ingredients. This kind of soup is very popular in Asia, where it originally came from.  There are also many instant soups of this kind.

Some of the varieties are:

- _Beef noodle soup_ - popular in China; noodles in a beef soup
- _Ban mian_ - popular in China, Malaysia and Singapore; a noodle soup with flat noodles, egg, and usually vegetables.
- _Soba_ - popular in Japan; noodles are made of buckwheat
- _Udon_ - popular in Japan; noodles are made of wheat, toppings can be added, broth is usually dashi
- _Mie ayam_ - popular in Indonesia; a chicken noodle soup.
- _Ramen_
Scale (ratio)

The scale of a map shows the ratio between the distances on the map and the corresponding distances in reality. For example, a map of scale 1:50,000 shows a distance of 50,000 cm (or 500 m) as 1 cm on a map. A 1:25 scale model of a building with a height of 30 m has a model height of 1.20 m.

When a drawing or model or photograph of an object is larger or smaller than the original, the **scale** represents how much the object has been "grown" or "shrunk".

## Scale bars

**Scale bars** for microscopic or unusual objects are necessary. They help readers  to understand the diagram.

## Related pages

- Proportionality
- Scale (map)
Scale (map)

A map **scale** is the size of an object compared to the size of the object's smaller representative on a map. This can be shown by a scale bar and a ratio 1:_n_. The reader can measure a distance on the map to know what is the distance on the ground.

People sometimes speak of a map as one with a "large scale" or "small scale".  A "large scale" map makes things look large, and a "small scale" map makes things look small.  For example, an island displayed on a 1:10,000 map will appear larger than if it were displayed on a 1:25,000 map.  Thus, the former is "large scale". What can be confusing is that for a map of a given physical size, say 11 by 17 inches, a "large scale" map will have a smaller geographic extent than a "small scale" map centred on the same point.

Maps with a ratio of 1:50 000 or larger (for example, 1:40 000 would be larger) are considered large scale. Maps with a ratio of 1:50 000 to 1:250 000 are considered intermediate scale. Any maps with a smaller scale (for example 1:300 000) are considered small scale.

## Related pages

- Scale (ratio)
Midnight sun

**Midnight sun** is a phenomenon that exists north of the Arctic Circle and south of the Antarctic Circle, where the Sun won't set at all and remains above the horizon at solar midnight. It means that the sun, on parts of the year, is visible the whole night long. The sun above the horizon at midnight in the Arctic or Antarctic summer.

There are no people living permanently south of the Antarctic Circle (like Antarctica), but in Alaska, Canada, Norway, Greenland, Sweden, Finland, Russia, and some other countries north of the Arctic Circle, it is possible to watch the Midnight sun in the summer.

The opposite of the Midnight sun is the Polar night, where the Sun won't rise at all and remains below the horizon even at solar noon.
Eight Below

***Eight Below*** is a 2006 Walt Disney Pictures movie. It was directed by Frank Marshall and written by David DiGilio. The movie was released on February 17, 2006 in the United States.

## Infobox (movie)

- **name**: Eight Below
- **director**: Frank Marshall (movie producer), Frank Marshall
- **writer**: David DiGilio
- **starring**: Paul Walker
Bruce Greenwood
Jason Biggs
Moon Bloodgood
- **cinematography**: Don Burgess
- **editing**: Christopher Rouse
- **distributor**: Buena Vista Distribution
- **released**: February 17, 2006
- **runtime**: 120 min.
- **language**: English
Order of the Garter

**The Most Noble Order of the Garter** is an English order of chivalry. It was started in 1348, by King Edward III of England. The Order is the highest level of knighthood that can be given by the English monarch. It is the world's oldest national order of knighthood. Membership in the Order is limited to those people who have done many great things for the United Kingdom.

The Order of the Garter is made up of a very small number of people. This group includes the Sovereign (the King or Queen of Britain) and no more than 25 full members. These members are called "Companions". Male companions are called "Knight Companions". Female members are called "Lady Companions". There are also a number of extra members known as "Supernumerary" Knights and Ladies. These members are usually members of the British royal family, and monarchs of other countries.

The monarch alone can grant membership to the order. He or she is known as the _Sovereign of the Garter_, and the Prince of Wales is known as a _Knight Companion of the Garter_.

Knights of the Order use the post-nominal letters (KG) and Ladies of the Order (LG). Knights Companion can use the title "Sir" before their first name, and their wives can use the title "Lady" before their surnames. Ladies Companion can use the title "Lady" before their first name, but their husbands cannot use any title.

## Current Members

- **Sovereign:** Charles III
- **Royal Knight:** The Prince of Wales <small>KG KT GCB PC</small>

**Knights and Ladies Companion:**

1. The Duke of Abercorn <small>KG</small>
1. The Lord Butler of Brockwell <small>KG GCB CVO PC</small>
1. Sir John Major <small>KG CH PC</small>
1. The Lord Luce <small>KG GCVO PC</small>
1. Sir Thomas Dunne <small>KG KCVO</small>
1. The Lord Phillips of Worth Matravers <small>KG PC</small>
1. The Lord Stirrup <small>KG GCB</small>
1. The Baroness Manningham-Buller <small>LG DCB</small>
1. The Lord King of Lothbury <small>KG GBE</small>
1. The Lord Shuttleworth <small>KG KCVO</small>
1. Sir David Brewer <small>KG CMG CVO</small>
1. Lady Mary Fagan <small>LG DCVO</small>
1. The Viscount Brookeborough <small>KG</small>
1. Lady Mary Peters <small>LG CH DBE</small>
1. The Marquess of Salisbury <small>KG KCVO PC</small>
1. The Baroness Amos <small>LG CH PC</small>
1. Sir Tony Blair <small>KG</small>
1. The Baroness Ashton of Upholland <small>LG GCMG PC</small>
1. The Lord Patten of Barnes <small>KG CH PC</small>
1. The Lord Lloyd-Webber <small>KG</small>
1. The Lord Kakkar <small>KG KBE PC</small>
1. The Lord Peach <small>KG GBE KCB</small>

**Royal Knights and Ladies Companion:**

1. The Duke of Kent <small>KG GCMG GCVO</small>
1. The Princess Royal <small>KG KT GCVO QSO</small>
1. The Duke of Gloucester <small>KG GCVO</small>
1. Princess Alexandra, The Honourable Lady Ogilvy <small>KG GCVO</small>
1. The Duke of Edinburgh <small>KG KT GCVO</small>
1. The Queen <small>LG LT GCVO GBE PC</small>
1. The Duchess of Gloucester <small>LG GCVO</small>
HD DVD

**HD DVD**, also known as **High-Definition DVD** or **High Density Digital Versatile Disc**, is an optical disc that is able to store large amounts of data, such as high-definition videos. Now, the HD DVD type is now considered dead.
The disc was released in 2006 and fought a format war with rival Blu-ray. On February 19, 2008, Toshiba abandoned the format, announcing it would no longer make HD DVD players and drives. The HD DVD Promotion Group was dissolved on March 28, 2008.

## Related pages

- DVD
- Blu-ray Disc

## Other websites

- Official HD DVD site (for the US)
- CDfreaks Article On HD DVD vs Blu-ray
- Projector Central article comparing HD DVD to Blu-ray
- Volume Unique Keys for Released HD DVD titles

- News
- HD-DVD Winning the European Race at Next Generation - Interactive Entertainment Today (Tuesday, 10 April 2007)
- HD DVD goes beyond 50GB with new disc  at DVD Town
- Next-generation DVD battle begins at BBC
- ProjectorCentral first impressions on HD DVD at Projector Central
- Microsoft and Intel Supporting HD DVD at Beta News
- HD DVD Ships 1.5 Million Movie Titles as of November 16, 2006 at Beta News
Bruges

**Bruges** (Dutch: _Brugge_) is a city in the northwest of Belgium.

It is the capital and largest city of West Flanders. In 2007, 116,982 people lived there.

Bruges is at 51° 12 North, 03° 13 East.

It is a centre of tourism because of its historic medieval city centre. The centre was named a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. It is a center of commerce because of its port, Zeebrugge. The movie _In Bruges_ with Colin Farrell, Brendan Gleeson and Ralph Fiennes was made there in 2008.