juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Flux

**Flux** is a term in physics and mathematics. It is broadly defined as "How much stuff goes through a thing" (or into an area). The word "flux" is similar to "flow".

For instance, in a butterfly net the amount of air passing through the net is the flux.

## Movement of substances

In the study of transport phenomena (heat transfer, mass transfer and fluid dynamics), **flux** is defined as flow per unit area, where flow is the movement of some quantity per time. Flux, in this definition, is a vector.

There are many fluxes used in the study of transport phenomena. Each type of flux has its own distinct unit of measurement along with distinct physical constants. Six of the most common forms of flux from the transport literature are defined as:
1. _Momentum flux_, the rate of transfer of momentum across a unit area (N·s·m<sup>−2</sup>·s<sup>−1</sup>). (Newtonian fluid, viscous flow)
1. _Heat flux_, the rate of heat flow across a unit area (J·m<sup>−2</sup>·s<sup>−1</sup>). (Fourier's Law) (This definition of heat flux fits Maxwell's original definition.)
1. _Chemical flux_, the rate of movement of molecules across a unit area (mol·m<sup>−2</sup>·s<sup>−1</sup>). (Fick's law of diffusion)
1. _Volumetric flux_, the rate of volume flow across a unit area (m<sup>3</sup>·m<sup>−2</sup>·s<sup>−1</sup>). (Darcy's law)
1. _Mass flux_, the rate of mass flow across a unit area (kg·m<sup>−2</sup>·s<sup>−1</sup>). (Either an alternate form of Fick's law that includes the molecular mass, or an alternate form of Darcy's law that includes the density).
1. _Radiative flux_, the amount of energy moving in the form of photons at a certain distance from the source per steradian per second (J·m<sup>−2</sup>·s<sup>−1</sup>). Used in astronomy to study and classify stars.  Also acts as a generalization of heat flux, which is equal to the radiative flux when restricted to the infrared spectrum.
1. _Magnetic flux_, the density of a magnetic field.

## Electromagnetism

In the field of electromagnetism, flux is usually the integral of a vector quantity over a finite surface. The result of this integration is a scalar quantity. The magnetic flux is  the integral of the magnetic vector field over a surface, and the electric flux is defined similarly. Using this definition, the flux of the Poynting vector over a specified surface is the rate at which electromagnetic energy flows through that surface. Confusingly, the Poynting vector is sometimes called the _power flux_,  which is an example of the first usage of flux, above. It has units of watts per square metre (W/m<sup>2</sup>).

## Related pages

- Fluid dynamics
Flux (disambiguation)

**Flux** comes from Latin and means _flow_; it may mean:
- Flux, a scientific term describing the rate of flow of something through a surface
- Flux (software), a free for non-commercial usage suite of VRML/X3D viewing/authoring software
- Flux (metallurgy), a material that aids in smelting and soldering by assisting the flow of the molten metal
- Flow (psychology), often referred to as _flux_
- Flux (biochemistry), the rate of turnover of molecules through a metabolic pathway
- _Flux (novel)_, a book by Stephen Baxter
- Flux Magazine (US), a short-lived American music, comic book & video game magazine from the mid-1990s
- Flux Of Pink Indians, the name of a British anarcho-punk band, originally known as Flux of Pink Indians
- Fluxx, a card game
- Flux Capacitor, a fictional device from _Back to the Future_ that "makes time travel possible"
- Fluxus, an art movement
- Flux Wildly, one of the main characters from the computer game Toonstruck
- Flux (magazine), a magazine published by students at the University of Oregon journalism school
- Flux (magazine), a magazine published in the United Kingdom
Neuroscience

**Neuroscience** (or neurobiology) is the scientific study of the nervous system. It is the branch of biology which investigates every aspect of the brain and nervous system.

The nervous system is made of billions of neurons connected together and to other systems in the body.  The central nervous system includes the brain, spinal cord and retina. It is connected to the rest of the body via the peripheral nervous system.

## Research themes

Neuroscience research focusses on a set of themes and questions.
- Behavior/cognition/language
- Biological rhythms
- Brain imaging or neuroimaging
- Cell biology
- Cell imaging & Electrophysiology
- Learning/memory
- Signal transduction
- Neurobiology of the neuron
- Neurotransmitter
- Sensation and perception
- Sleep
- Autonomic nervous system and homeostasis
- Arousal, attention and emotion
- Genetics of the nervous system
- Developmental biology of the nervous system
- Disease<nowiki/>s of the nervous system

## Related pages

- Agonist
- Biology
- Cognitive neuropsychology
- Ethology
- Neurology
- Neurolinguistic programming
- Neuropsychology
- Psychiatry

### Textbooks

- Squire, L. _et al._ (2003). _Fundamental Neuroscience, 2nd edition_. Academic Press;
- Byrne and Roberts (2004). _From Molecules to Networks_. Academic Press;
- Sanes, Reh, Harris (2005). _Development of the Nervous System, 2nd edition_. Academic Press;
- Siegel _et al._ (2005). _Basic Neurochemistry, 7th edition_. Academic Press;
- Rieke, F. _et al._ (1999). _Spikes: Exploring the Neural Code_. The MIT Press; Reprint edition

#### Online textbooks

- Neuroscience 2nd ed. Dale Purves _et al_. Published by Sinauer Associates, Inc., 2001.
- Basic Neurochemistry: Molecular, Cellular, and Medical Aspects 6th ed. by George J. Siegel _et al_. Published by Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, 1999.

### Popular works

- Damasio, A. R. (1994). _Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain._ New York, Avon Books.  (Hardcover)  (Paperback)
- Gardner, H. (1976). _The Shattered Mind: The Person After Brain Damage._ New York, Vintage Books, 1976
- Luria, A. R. (1997). _The Man with a Shattered World: The History of a Brain Wound._ Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press.  (Hardcover)  (Paperback)
- Sacks, O. _The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat_. Summit Books  (Hardcover)  (Paperback)
- Sacks, O. (1990). _Awakenings._ New York, Vintage Books. (See also Oliver Sacks)  (Hardcover)  (Paperback)
- Sternberg, E. (2007) _Are You a Machine? The Brain, the Mind and What it Means to be Human._ Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books.

## Other websites

- High-Resolution Cytoarchitectural Primate Brain Atlases
- Society for Neuroscience
- Neural Plasticity-Open Access Journal (Hindawi Publishing)
- Neuroscience. 2nd ed. by Purves _et al._ (online textbook)
- Neuroscience for Kids
Conversation analysis

**Conversation analysis** (commonly abbreviated as **CA**) is the study of talk in social interaction. CA tries to describe the structure and patterns of interaction, whether this is institutional (in the school, doctor's surgery, courts or elsewhere) or casual conversation.

The term “conversation” to label this disciplinary movement is misleading if read in a colloquial sense, as many have.

## Other websites

- An Introduction to Conversation Analysis  (by  Discourse and Rhetoric Group,  Loughborough University)
- Online bibliography of pre-1990 CA literature
- Online bibliography of post-1989 CA literature
- Online clearinghouse for the CA community
Mark-Anthony Turnage

**Mark-Anthony Turnage** (born Grays, Essex, 10 June 1960) is an English composer.  He is one of the most original composers in his country today.

Turnage studied at the Royal College of Music and won all the major prizes.  He became famous when he wrote an opera called _Greek_.  It is typical of his musical style: quite lyrical but also very dramatic and aggressive.  His music is often inspired by jazz.  Other works include _Kai_, _Rockaby_, _Blood on the Floor_, _Dispelling the Fears_, _Drowned Out_ and _Three Screaming Popes_.  He has written music for the English National Opera, City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra and the Chicago Symphony Orchestra.

## Other websites

- http://www.boosey.com/pages/cr/composer/composer_main.asp?composerid=16405
Guava

**Guavas** are plants in the genus _Psidium_ of the family Myrtaceae. There are about 100 species of tropical shrubs and small trees in the genus.

They are native to Mexico, the Caribbean, Central America and the northern part of South America. Now they are found in all the tropical, and in some subtropical, regions because they are edible fruits.

Guava are also a kind of berry fruit on those plants. There are many kinds of guavas. The most common guava is the apple guava (_Psidium guajava_): it is so common that the word 'guava' usually refers to this species. Red guavas are called marooonguava. In 100 g of guava are 200 mg of vitamin C, which means that guavas have five times more vitamin C than oranges.
Resting potential

The **resting potential** of a cell is the membrane potential that would be maintained if there were no action potentials, synaptic potentials, or other active changes in the membrane potential. In most cells the resting potential has a negative value, which by convention means that there is excess negative charge inside compared to outside. The resting potential is mostly determined by the concentrations of the ions in the fluids on both sides of the cell membrane and the ion transport proteins that are in the cell membrane.

## Other websites

- Neuroscience - online textbook by Purves, _et al._
- Basic Neurochemistry Molecular, Cellular, and Medical Aspects by Siegel, _et al._
- Bertil Hille _Ion channels of excitable membranes_, 3rd ed., Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA (2001).
- Generation of resting membrane potential Wright, S.H., _Advances in Physiology Education_, **28**(1-4): 139-142, 2004,
Thrust (disambiguation)

**Thrust** is a reaction force described by Newton's Second and Third Law. For this meaning, see Thrust.

This word has other uses:
- For the land-speed record breaking car, see ThrustSSC and Thrust2
- For the computer game, see Thrust (computer game)
- For the rapper, see Thrust (rapper)
- For the Transformers characters, see Thrust (Transformers)
- For the Herbie Hancock fusion album, Thrust (album)
- For the semi-professional magazine which later changed its name to _Quantum_, see _Thrust (magazine)_
- Thrust fault in geology
Robert A. Heinlein

**Robert Anson Heinlein** (July 7, 1907 – May 8, 1988) was an American writer. He mostly wrote science fiction books. He won the Hugo Award four times. Probably his best-known novels are Starship Troopers (1959, Hugo Award, was made into a film), and Stranger in a Strange Land (1961, Hugo Award). Two other Hugo awards were for Double Star (1956) and The Moon is a Harsh Mistress (1966). Together with Isaac Asimov and Arthur C. Clarke he is seen as one of the _Big Three of Science Fiction_.

Heinlein employed his concept of the "World as Myth" in various works, notably his science fiction novel _The Number of the Beast,_ which features a device which navigates through Block Time (aka Eternalism) in a plenum of innumerable alternate universes.
Fable

A **fable** is a type of story which shows something in life or has a meaning to a word. A fable teaches a lesson or suggests a moral from it. A fable starts in the middle of the story, that means, jumps into the main event without detailed introduction of characters. The characters of a fable may be animals, plants and legendary creatures. When animals are used in fables, they think and talk like people, even though they act like animals. For example, in a fable a clay pot might say that it is frightened of being broken.

The stories told by fables are usually very simple. To understand a fable, the reader or listener does not need to know all about the characters, only one important thing. For this reason animals are often used in fables in a way that is easily understood because it is always the same. They keep the same _characteristics_ from story to story.
- A lion is noble
- A rooster is boastful
- A peacock is proud
- A fox is cunning
- A wolf is fierce
- A horse is brave
- A donkey is hard-working

The most famous fables are those attributed to Aesop (6th century B.C.). Many fables are so well known that their morals have become English sayings.

For example:
- If a person says "sour grapes!" then they are referring to "The Fox and the Grapes". This fable is about a fox who saw a beautiful bunch of grapes hanging on a vine. He wanted to eat them but they were high up. He tried and tried to jump high enough to pull them down. When he was too tired to jump anymore, he went away saying "I'll bet those grapes were sour!"

- So, if a person sees a beautiful thing that they want, but cannot have, sometimes they say "I don't want it, anyway! I'll bet it is really no good!" This way of thinking is called _"sour grapes"._

"Crying wolf" is another well-known English saying. This comes from "The Boy Who Cried Wolf". This fable is about a boy who was sent to mind the sheep. The boy got lonely while minding the sheep, so he shouted "Wolf! Wolf!" The people came running. The next day, he did it again and they were very angry. On the third day the boy saw a wolf. He cried "Wolf! Wolf!" but no one came and the wolf ate him.

- So if a person always makes a great fuss to get attention, or if a person says something bad has happened when it has not, then it is called "crying wolf" and people will stop bothering to pay attention, even when things go really wrong.

## Related pages

- Children's literature
- Jean de La Fontaine
- Myth
- Fairy tale

## Other websites

- Animal Symbolism  List of frequently described animals and their characteristics
- The Dragon-Tyrant
- Fables - Collection and guide to fables for children
- Imaginexus  A collection of interconnected stories that anyone can edit
- Beast Fable Society  An academic society focused on fables and related genres
Drainage

**Drainage** is the natural or artificial removal of surface and sub-surface water from a given area.  Many agricultural soils need drainage to improve production or to manage water supplies.

## Early history

The earliest archaeological record of an advanced system of drainage comes from the  Indus Valley Civilization from around 3100 BC in what is now Pakistan and North India. The ancient Indus systems of sewerage and drainage that were developed and used in cities throughout the civilization were far more advanced than any found in contemporary urban sites in the Middle East and even more efficient than those in some areas of modern Pakistan and India today. All houses in the major cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro had access to water and drainage facilities. Waste water was directed to covered drains, which lined the major streets.

## Reasons for artificial drainage

Wetland soils may need drainage to be used for agriculture. In the northern USA and Europe, glaciation created numerous small lakes which gradually filled with humus to make marshes. Some of these were drained using open ditches and trenches.

The largest project of this type in the world has been in process for centuries in the Netherlands. The area between Amsterdam, Haarlem and Leiden was, in prehistoric times swampland and small lakes. Turf cutting (Peat mining), subsidence and shoreline erosion gradually caused the formation of one large lake, the Haarlemmermeer, or lake of Haarlem. The invention of wind powered pumping engines in the 15th century permitted drainage of some of the marginal land, but the final drainage of the lake had to await the design of large, steam powered pumps and agreements between regional authorities. The elimination of the lake occurred between 1849 and 1852, creating thousands of km<sup>2</sup> of new land.

## Other websites

- WebCom Systems , software created for designing soakaways and filter trenches.
- NDS , drainage calculator.
- Ancient drains, a series of images of the earliest drainage systems in the ancient Indus city of Mohenjo daro
- Stormwater DesignInformation on stormwater design
- _Draining for Profit, and Draining for Health_ by George E. Waring, 1867, from Project Gutenberg
- Drainage photos
Polder

**Empoldering** is a method of reclaiming land from the sea or from inland lakes, and a way to control flood<nowiki/>s.  Empoldering involves the use of a polder, a piece of land in a low-lying area that has been reclaimed from a body of water by building dikes and drainage canals.

Although empoldering is usually carried out in low-lying coastal areas, it can also be done in inland areas such as lakes and rivers.  It is common in countries like the Netherlands, where much of the country is below sea level and subject to flooding.  About one-fifth of the land in the Netherlands has been reclaimed from the sea.  Their largest and most successful project is the Zuiderzee Works.

Polders have two distinct features.  Firstly, they are enclosed by dikes to keep the water out.  The dikes also serve to protect the polder from erosion.  Secondly, polders are continually maintained by systems of drainage canals and pumps which prevent them from becoming waterlogged and hence, suitable for cultivation.

## Process

Stage 1: Dike constructed around the area to be reclaimed to keep water from coming in.

Stage 2: The area is drained using pumps and drainage canals.

Stage 3: "Reed<nowiki/>s" (a type of salt tolerant plant) are sown by aircraft to help the soil form.

Stage 4: After 3 years, reeds are burnt and the ash is used as fertilizers for the soil.

Stage 5: After a period of up to 15 years, the polder is ready for growing crops, building houses and constructing roads.

## Limits of land reclamation

1. Cost of reclaiming from deeper waters

2. Availability of sand

3. Dispute over territorial boundaries
Doctor of Philosophy

The **Doctor of Philosophy**, (**PhD, Ph.D., DPhil** or **D.Phil.**) is a degree which a person gets from a university by finishing a doctorate program. In many areas of study, the PhD / DPhil is the highest degree that a person can earn. This is called the "terminal degree". There are PhD / DPhil degrees for many different fields. Examples of these include PhDs / DPhils in literature, philosophy, history, science, mathematics and engineering. Some PhD / DPhil degrees have existed for hundreds of years, such as a PhD / DPhil in Canon Law. Other PhD / DPhil degrees were developed in the 1970s and 1980s, such as the PhD / DPhil in computer science.

## Requirements for degree

To be admitted to a PhD / DPhil program, a person usually has to have completed their Bachelor's degree or master's degree that is related to the PhD / DPhil degree. For example, a person applying to be admitted to a PhD / DPhil degree in theater would normally have to have a master's degree such as a Master of Arts (MA) degree in theater, English literature or a related area.

## Elements of a PhD / DPhil degree

The PhD / DPhil degree usually takes between three and six years of full-time study to complete. They may or may not require a master's degree beforehand. Many PhD / DPhil degrees begin with a period of graduate courses. After the PhD / DPhil student has taken these courses, they take examinations to test what the student knows about their area of study. After the student passes the exams, they begin to do original research. The product is a long research report called a dissertation (or a "thesis"). Some PhD / DPhil degrees also require students to pass exams in languages (such as French, German or other languages). Many PhD / DPhil students teach undergraduate students or assist professors with research during their PhD / DPhil studies.

## As a requirement for university teaching

Requirements for university teaching vary in different subjects and in different countries. A PhD / DPhil is necessary or usual to become a university professor in many fields, especially in science. However, many famous professors have not had higher degrees, though that is less common today. In some fields, there is no PhD / DPhil, and so another degree is required to become a university professor. For example, the highest degree in Fine Arts fields such as printmaking or graphic design is the Master of Fine Arts (MFA) degree. A person with an MFA degree can become a university professor in some Fine Arts fields.

## Other websites

- The Mathematics PhD in the United Kingdom: Notes on its History Contains information/links of more general relevance than mathematics.
Marsh

In geography, a **marsh** is a type of wetland. It has grasses, rushes, reeds, typhas, sedges, and other herbaceous plants (possibly with low-growing woody plants) in a context of shallow water.  A marsh is different from a swamp, which has a greater proportion of open water surface, which is generally deeper than a marsh. In the US, the term 'swamp' is used for wetland dominated by trees rather than grasses and low herbs.

The water of a marsh can be fresh, brackish or saline. Coastal marshes may be associated with estuaries and along waterways between coastal barrier islands and the inner coast.  Estuarine marshes often are based on soils consisting of sandy bottoms or bay muds.

Marshes are critically important wildlife habitat, often serving as breeding grounds for a wide variety of animal life.

## Related pages

- Fen
- Swamp
- Ecoregion

## Other websites

- Marshes of the Lowcountry (South Carolina) -- Beaufort County Library
Ulan-Ude

**Ulan-Ude** (Russian:Ула́н-Удэ́; Buryat: Улаан-Үдэ), formerly **Verkhneudinsk** (), the capital city of the Buryat Republic, Russia. The city is located about 100 km south-east of Lake Baikal. It sits at the foot of the Khamar-Daban and Khrebet Ulan-Burgasy mountain ranges, next to the confluence of the Selenga River and its tributary, the Uda. The city is divided into two parts by the Uda. Population 359,391 (2002 Census); 352,530 (1989 Census). It is the third largest city in East Siberia.  It is served by Ulan-Ude Airport (Mukhino) as well as the smaller Ulan-Ude Vostochny Airport.

Ulan-Ude was founded in 1666 by the Russian Cossacks. Due to its geographical position, the city grew rapidly and became a large trade centre which connected Russia with China and Mongolia. There are old merchants' mansions richly decorated with wood and stone carving in the historical center of Ulan-Ude, along the river banks. They represent beautiful examples of Russian classicism.  There is also a large and highly unusual head of Lenin in the central square.

## Infobox (russian inhabited locality)

- **en name**: Ulan-Ude
- **ru name**: Улан-Удэ
- **loc name1**: Улаан Үдэ
- **loc lang1**: Buryat
- **image skyline**: Центр Улан-Удэ.JPG
- **image caption**: Ulan-Ude City Center
- **image flag**: Flag of Ulan-Ude (Buryatia).png
- **flag caption**: Flag
- **image coa**: Gerb u u.jpg
- **coa caption**: Coat of arms
- **holiday**: September's first Saturday
- **federal subject**: Republic of Buryatia
- **adm inhabloc jur**: city of federal subject significance, city of republic significance of Ulan-Ude
- **capital of**: Republic of Buryatia
- **adm ctr of1**: city of republic significance of Ulan-Ude
- **inhabloc cat**: City
- **urban okrug jur**: Ulan-Ude Urban Okrug
- **mun admctr of1**: Ulan-Ude Urban Okrug
- **leader title**: Mayor
- **leader name**: Alexander Golkov
- **representative body**: City Council of Deputies
- **area km2**: 347.6
- **pop 2010census**: 404426
- **pop 2010census rank**: 45th
- **established date**: 1666
- **current cat date**: 1775
- **postal codes**: 6700xx
- **dialing codes**: 3012
- **website**: ulan-ude-eg.ru
Pelagic zone

The **pelagic zone** is the open sea or ocean that is not near the coast. The name comes from the Greek πέλαγος (_pélagos_), which might be translated as "open sea".

To make this clear, seas around continents have continental crust beneath them. They are shallow. Seas away from continents can be very deep, and do not have continental shelves beneath them.

## Sub-zones

The pelagic (or open ocean) zone is divided into a number of sub-zones:

- **Epipelagic** (surface to 200m): the illuminated surface zone where there is enough light for photosynthesis. Because of this, plankton, and the food chain which feeds on it, are in this zone. The top predators are fish such as tuna and many sharks.
- **Mesopelagic** (from 200m to 1000m): the twilight zone.  Although some light penetrates this deep, it is insufficient for photosynthesis. The name comes from Greek μέσον, _middle_.
- **Bathyal zone** (from 1000m to 4000m): by this depth the ocean is almost entirely dark (with only the occasional bioluminescent organism). There are no living plants, and most animals survive by consuming the snow of detritus falling from the zones above, or (like the marine hatchetfish) by preying upon others. Giant squid live at this depth, and here they are hunted by deep-diving sperm whales. From Greek βαθύς (bathys), _deep_.
- **Abyssal zone** (from 4000m to the ocean floor): no light penetrates to this depth, and some creatures are blind and colourless. Bioluminescence also occurs in this zone.
- **Hadal zone** (the deep water in ocean trenches) – the name comes from _Hades_, the classical Greek underworld. This zone is less well known. Very few species live in the open areas, but many organisms live in hydrothermal vents.

The last three zones are similar in character, and some marine biologists count them as a single zone or consider the latter two to be the one zone. Some define the hadopelagic as waters below 6000 meters, whether in a trench or not.

## Other features of the deep ocean

- Seamounts
- Ocean ridges

## Other websites

- The Deep Sea pages at Oceanlink
Vitamin A

**Vitamin A** is a vitamin, a group of organic chemicals including retinal and several carotenoids. The human body does not make these chemicals, and must take them from food. Egg yolks and liver are both rich in vitamin A. Many parts of the body need vitamin A. For example, vitamin A helps sight and is good for the immune system. It is also important for a growing embryo.

β-carotene, a provitamin found in foods like carrots can be converted to vitamin A. The efficiency of the conversion depends on genetics and fat consumption.

Too little vitamin A is dangerous to health. People who do not get enough of the vitamin may lose the ability to see in poor light and suffer from a weakened immune system. They may also have problems with memory, because vitamin A is important for the brain. People with malnutrition often have too little vitamin A. This is common in poor countries.

## Hypervitaminosis A

Too much vitamin A is also dangerous to one's health. It is a condition known as hypervitaminosis. Vitamin A is not soluble in water, and the human body can not get rid of the excess vitamin A easily by urination.  Too much vitamin A can make someone very sick.  People may get too much vitamin A from taking too many vitamin pills or from eating too much A-rich food like liver.

What applies to humans applies to all mammals at least. Some large predators, such as the big cats, seem not to eat their preys' livers. On the other hand, polar bears apparently do so, and they store vitamin A in their liver cells. However, they have long, sometimes very long, periods between kills. In contrast, African big cats kill about every three or four days, and they do seem to avoid eating the preys' livers.
Vitamin D

**Vitamin D** is a hormone. It is a steroid which is made in the body under the right conditions. To make it, the body needs sunlight, which acts on the lower layers of the skin.

However, if the body does not make enough, it can be found from food sources in tiny amounts.  In fact, many countries add it automatically to certain foods like milk. Supplements can be easily found in most developed countries.

Vitamin D is a fat-soluble nutrient. This means that any portion not used immediately is stored in fat tissue for future use.

## What it does

As a hormone, Vitamin D does many things in the body.  It was first discovered as the substance which could prevent and cure rickets. It controls the levels of calcium ions and phosphates in the blood, as well as calcium and magnesium absorption in the intestines. It helps bones grow and form. It is also good for the immune system.

## Different kinds

In total, there are 5 different forms, D<sub>1</sub> to D<sub>5</sub>. The most common ones are D<sub>2</sub> and D<sub>3</sub> (see images).

D<sub>3</sub> (also called cholecalciferol) is the kind produced by the body. It is also found naturally in marine oils and in lanolin (oil from sheep's wool), the most common source for supplements.

D<sub>2</sub> (also called ergocalciferol) is produced by fungi. It is similar to D<sub>3</sub>, but not exactly the same.

## Getting enough

D<sub>3</sub> is made in the skin from cholesterol, and changed into a more active form by the liver. However, the skin will not make it unless enough ultraviolet light shines on it. As sunlight contains ultraviolet light, getting enough sun is one way of getting enough D<sub>3</sub>.

Many things can keep the skin from making enough D<sub>3</sub>. Winter sunlight may be too weak. Melanin, which protects skin from damage, also keeps it from making D<sub>3</sub>, which is why people with darker skin are more prone to deficiency. Older people are also prone, because aging skin makes less D<sub>3</sub>, even with enough sunlight. Clothing, glass, sunscreens and sunblocks also shield the skin from getting enough ultraviolet light to make D<sub>3</sub>.

It is hard to know how much supplemental Vitamin D, if any, is needed. Less than 25 micrograms (1000 IU) per day, but up to 100 mcg (4000 IU) per day is considered safe. A recent panel of Vitamin D researchers concluded that _at least_ 20-25 mcg (800-1000 IU) per day would help most adults.

Few foods naturally contain much D<sub>3</sub>. Fish do, especially oily ones, such as salmon, sardine and mackerel. Many kinds of edible mushrooms contain some D<sub>2</sub>, like shiitake. Mushrooms grown in full sunlight tend to have more.

## Other websites

- Benefits and sources of Vitamin D
- Benefits of Vitamin D
- Factsheet on Vitamin D
- FDA takes Vitamin D drugs and feeds them to prisoners
Vitamin E

**Vitamin E** (which is also called **Tocopherol** or **Tocotrienol**, **E307**, **E308**,**E309**) is a vitamin. There are eight forms of it, E<sub>1</sub> to E<sub>8</sub>. It can be found in vegetable oils. Very often it is also added to lotions and creams for the skin. It is supposed to help the healing of the skin, after burns and injuries, and lower the risk of heart disease and cancer.

Some research suggests that vitamin E has anti-aging benefits.
Vitamin K

**Vitamin K** is a vitamin which is soluble in fat. It is probably best known for its role in the coagulation (clotting) of blood. However, it also serves other important functions in the body.

Vitamin K was discovered by a Danish chemist named Henrik Dam. He won the 1943 Nobel Prize in  Physiology or Medicine for discovering its key role in the coagulation of blood. Since that time, Vitamin K's role in other physiologic functions has become known. One of the most important is its role in controlling where calcium goes in the body.

Without Vitamin K, there would be a loss of blood when a person bleeds, which can lead to unconsciousness or even death. Vitamin K can be found in green vegetables, such as spinach, lettuce, broccoli or cabbage.
B vitamins

The **B vitamin complex** (also called **B vitamins**) are a group of 8 vitamins. They have an important job in the metabolism of cells. Each B vitamin is a cofactor (a coenzyme) for some key metabolic processes or it is a precursor needed to make one.

Originally, people thought they were just different forms of one vitamin (as with Vitamin D, for example). Later it turned out that they are separate vitamins that often can be found together. They are Vitamin B1/Thiamine, Vitamin B2/Riboflavin, Vitamin B3/Vitamin P/Vitamin PP/Niacin,Vitamin B5/Pantothenic acid, Vitamin B6, Vitamin B7/Vitamin H/Biotin, Vitamin B9/Vitamin M/Vitamin B-c/Folate and Vitamin B12. They are required for growth, and proper functioning of nerves and muscles. B vitamins are found in meat, milk, whole grains and fresh vegetables.

Vitamin B deficiencies have been shown to cause the following symptoms:

- mental problems
- heart palpitations
- heart arrhythmias
- exhaustion
- paranoia, vague fears, fear that something dreadful is about to happen, nervousness, ADD (attention deficiency), inability to concentrate
- thoughts of dying
- frustration
- inability to sleep
- restlessness
- tingling in hands
- tingling fingers and toes
- crying spells, inability to cope
- soreness all over

Well-known medical syndromes caused by thiamine deficiency are beri-beri, Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome (WKS), and optic neuropathy.
ONS coding system

The **ONS coding system** is a system used in the United Kingdom for dealing with census and other statistical data. It is used by the Office for National Statistics as a way to label each area of England and Wales. It is also used for parts of Northern Ireland.  The system uses a code for the larger census areas, counties and districts. It then breaks those areas down into smaller areas within the larger areas. Each of the smaller areas get a code that is based on the larger area. Areas are divided in this way until they get to the smallest size used for census data. An area must have at least 40 households, but they try to not divide an area into a size smaller than 100 households.

## Example

|12|Cambridgeshire county|
| --- | --- |
|12UB|Cambridge district|
|12UBGA|Petersfield Ward|
|12UBGA0001|Gwydir Street (north of junction with Hooper St)|

## Other websites

- ONS Open Geography Portal
- ONS Census 2021 Geographies
Max and Moritz

**Max and Moritz** (German: **Max und Moritz**) are two naughty little boys in a story by Wilhelm Busch.  The stories were written in 1865 and are still extremely popular in Germany.

Wilhelm Busch was an artist as well as a writer.  He wrote a lot of stories in rhyme and made drawings to go with them.  _Max and Moritz_ are stories like these.  The two boys get up to lots of naughty pranks.  There are seven stories (seven pranks).  In the final prank they are caught and come to a sad end.  In the 19th century writers had to show that bad behaviour would be punished in the end.  The seven stories are stories with a moral.

## The seven stories

In the first story the boys tie pieces of bread onto pieces of string and put it down where an old woman, Widow Bolte, keeps her hens.  The hens each try to swallow a piece of bread, which sticks in their throats and they end up hanging in the tree and die.

In the second story Widow Bolte, who is still crying, decides she might as well roast the hens.  The boys take fishing rods, climb onto the roof and pull the frying chickens up with their rods.  Widow Bolte finds the chickens gone, thinks her little dog has eaten them, and gives the poor dog a beating.

In the third story they take a saw and make a hole in the tiny wooden bridge outside the tailor’s house.  They shout at the tailor, calling him names.  He is furious and comes running out, the bridge breaks and he falls into the stream.  Two flying geese save him.  He has a terrible tummy ache but his wife puts a hot iron on his tummy and he feels better.

In the fourth story the boys put gunpowder in the pipe of the schoolmaster while he is in church.  When he lights his pipe there is an explosion.

In the fifth story the boys collect beetles and put them under the mattress in their uncle’s bed.  In the middle of the night, when the uncle is asleep, the beetles creep up on him.  He wakes up and fights with them until he has killed them all.

In the sixth story the boys try to steal some pretzels (German rolls) from the bakery, but they fall into the tub of dough.  The baker comes in and finds them.  He bakes them in the oven, but when they are taken out they eat their way through the dough and escape.

In the seventh story the boys cut a hole in the farmer’s sacks.  When the miller picks one of these sacks up he realizes the grain is spilling.  He sees the boys, puts them in the sack and takes them to the mill, where the miller grinds them into corn and feeds them to his ducks.
Sexual abstinence

**Sexual abstinence** is the practice of not having sex. It is a choice that some people make. As well as sex itself, they may also choose to abstain from other sexual activities. Sexual abstinence has been debated since ancient history, both in terms of same-sex and opposite-sex relationships. Some people take anaphrodisiacs to help them stay abstinent. Someone who decides to avoid sex is called a celibate or volcel.

## Culture

Abstaining from sex before marriage can be called chastity. In some countries, it is illegal to have sex before marriage. Many religious and ethical systems forbid sexual activities between a person and anyone other than a spouse. These  include most denominational variations of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Other legal systems and societal norms  can promote abstinence. People who are abstinent even though they do not want to be are sometimes called incels or TFL (true forced loneliness). One form of sexual abstinence is fapstinence, avoiding masturbation.

## Reasons

People may choose to practice abstinence for other reasons. A common reason is because of the person's religious or philosophical beliefs. When done for religious reasons, it is called **celibacy**. Other people may choose abstinence in order to prevent pregnancy or sexually transmitted diseases. When someone is abstinent from sex but they don't want to be, its sometimes called _incel_, short for _involuntary celibacy_.

## Related pages

- Chastity
- Fornication
- Asexuality

## Other websites

- Chastity in Catholic Encyclopedia — a Christian view on chastity
Council of Jerusalem

The **Council of Jerusalem** or **apostolic council** is a common name for a meeting of early Christian leaders reported in the _Acts of the Apostles_ chapter .  The meeting must have happened about  the year 50, at the latest some time before the death of James the Just in 62.

## The issues

A common interpretation is that the council came together because there was disagreement within the Early Christian community between those who believed the church must observe the rules of traditional Judaism, and Paul of Tarsus, who believed there was no such necessity. The "rules of traditional Judaism," the Halakha of Rabbinic Judaism, were not finished at this time.

The central issue was circumcision, as the author of _Acts_ relates the initial confrontation in Antioch, where Paul had been preaching:
- "And certain men which came down from Judaea taught the brethren, [and said], Except ye be circumcised after the manner of Moses, ye cannot be saved." (_Acts_ 15:1) KJV

## Other websites

- Acts 15
- JersualemCouncil.org
- NA26 Greek Acts 15
- Catholic Encyclopedia: Judaizers
- Catholic Encyclopedia: Apostolic Canons
- Didache
- Apostolic Constitutions
- Didascalia Apostolorum
- Jewish Antiquities 20
- New Perspective on Paul
- Early Christian Writings
- Jewish Encyclopedia: Hillel v. Shammai
- Jewish Encyclopedia: Didascalia
- Gentiles and Circumcision

## Further reading

- Ehrman, Bart D. _Lost Christianities: The Battle for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew_ 2003
- Eisenman, Robert, 1997. _James the Brother of Jesus : The Key to Unlocking the Secrets of Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls._  A cultural historian's dissenting view based on contemporary texts.
- Westerholm, Stephen. _Perspectives Old and New on Paul: The "Lutheran" Paul and His Critics_ 2003
Ironing

**Ironing** means getting the creases out of clothes after they have been washed and dried.  Ironing is done with a tool called an "iron".  It is called an iron because in past centuries it was made of iron, a type of metal.  The iron is heated before it is used.  This used to be done by putting the iron on a fire. Nowadays electricity is used to warm the iron.  The user can put water inside, which becomes steam.

Ironing clothes is usually easiest when the clothes are still very slightly damp, but it depends on the material of the clothes.  There is normally a label on the clothes which shows whether it can be ironed, and at what temperature. Ironing is usually done with a padded ironing board. The clothes to be ironed are put on the ironing board and the iron is pushed carefully along the cloth to get all the wrinkles out.
Central European Time

**Central European Time** is a time zone. It is one hour ahead of Coordinated Universal Time (what used to be called Greenwich Mean Time). Most countries in the central part of Europe and some countries in Africa follow it.

In Europe, the countries of Ireland, Great Britain, Iceland and Portugal use Western European Time. All the other countries, up to Norway, Poland, Slovakia, Hungary, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia and North Macedonia use Central European Time.

Algeria and Tunisia in Africa use CET but do not observe daylight saving time.
Central European Summer Time

**Central European Summer Time** (**CEST**, UTC+02:00) (sometimes called **Central European Daylight Time**) is the name for a time zone. It is a daylight saving time. Some of the countries that have Central European Time shift their clocks forward one hour, during the summer months and shift it one hour backwards during winter months.

A research station called Troll in Antarctica uses this time zone in the winter, but uses Greenwich Mean Time in the summer.

The part of Europe using this time zone has had many changes from Central European Summer Time. It is because the Sun is not matching with the time in their areas. They have also stopped using the timezone multiple times.

## Where it is used

The following countries and territories use Central European Summer Time:
- Albania, since 1974
- Andorra, since 1985
- Austria, since 1980
- Belgium, since 1980
- Bosnia and Herzegovina, since 1983 when part of Yugoslavia
- Croatia, since 1983 when part of Yugoslavia
- Czech Republic, since 1979 when part of Czechoslovakia
- Denmark (metropolitan), since 1980
- France (metropolitan), since 1976
- Germany, since 1980
- Gibraltar, since 1982
- Hungary, since 1980
- Italy, since 1968
- Kosovo, since 1983 when part of Yugoslavia
- Liechtenstein, since 1981
- Luxembourg, since 1981
- Malta, since 1974
- Monaco, since 1976
- Montenegro, since 1983 when part of Yugoslavia
- Netherlands, since 1977
- North Macedonia, since 1983 when part of Yugoslavia
- Norway, since 1980
- Poland, since 1977
- San Marino, since 1966
- Serbia, since 1983 when part of Yugoslavia
- Slovakia, since 1979 when part of Czechoslovakia
- Slovenia, since 1983 when part of Yugoslavia
- Spain, since 1974 (except Canary Islands, which instead apply Western European Summer Time)
- Sweden, since 1980
- Switzerland, since 1981
- Vatican City, since 1966

The following countries have also used Central European Summer Time in the past:
- Libya, 1951–1959, 1982–1989, 1996–1997, 2012–2013
- Lithuania, 1998–1999
- Portugal, 1993–1995
- Tunisia, 2005–2008
Ahmed Jibril

**Ahmed Jibril** (1938 – July 7, 2021) was the founder and co-leader of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine-General Command (PFLP-GC). He founded it in 1968. His son Jihad Ahmed Jibril was to take over, but was killed by a car bomb in Beirut in 2002.

## Infobox (person)

- **name**: Ahmed Jibril
- **birth name**: Ahmed Jibril
- **birth date**: 1938
- **birth place**: Yazur, Mandatory Palestine
- **death place**: Damascus, Syria
- **nationality**: Palestinians, Palestinian
- **children**: Jihad Ahmed Jibril
Jihad Ahmed Jibril

**Mohammed Jihad Ahmed Jibril** (March 3, 1961 in Damascus - May 20, 2002 in Beirut) was the son of Ahmed Jibril, founder of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine-General Command (PFLP-GC). He was killed by a car bomb. He was assassinated on May 20, 2002.

Jihad Ahmed Jibril was the leader of the military wing of the PFLP-GC and was the heir apparent of the organization before he was killed in a car bombing in Beirut in 2002. The assassination was blamed on Israel, although Jibril had many other enemies, including the Lebanese Christian militia and other Palestinian nationalist organizations.

Ahmed Jibril was co-leader of the militant Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine-General Command. Israeli radio reports said that the son, Jihad Ahmed Jibril, was involved in smuggling arms and explosives to Palestinian militants in the West Bank and Gaza Strip but there was no evidence to directly link him with terrorist attacks.

Ahmed Jibril accused the Israeli intelligence agency, Mossad, of responsibility for the killing, but a spokesman for Defense Minister Benjamin Ben-Eliezer said Israel was not involved.

In mid-June 2006, Lebanon authorities arrested a group of alleged spies who reportedly confessed to working for Israel and carrying out the attacks.
Acts of the Apostles

The **Acts of the Apostles** (Greek _Praxeis Apostolon_) is a book of the Bible, which now is the fifth in the New Testament. It is often simply called **Acts**.

Acts tells the story of the Early Christian church, with particular interest for the ministry of the Twelve Apostles and of Paul of Tarsus. The early chapters in Jerusalem, report Jesus's Resurrection, his Ascension, the Day of Pentecost, and the start of the Twelve Apostles' ministry. The later chapters report Paul's conversion, his ministry, and finally his arrest and imprisonment and trip to Rome.

Most people think that the author of Acts also wrote the Gospel of Luke, as Acts 1:1 refers to 'the former treatise have I made, Theophilus, of all that Jesus began both to do and teach'. The traditional view is that both the two books were written _c._ 60 by a companion of Paul named Luke. Many theologians still think so. But some think the books were written by an unknown author at a later date, sometime between 80 and 150.

## Other websites

- _Bible Gateway 35 languages/50 versionsy_ at GospelCom.net
- Dating Acts
- _Unbound Bible 100+ languages/versions_ at Biola University
- _Online Bible_ at gospelhall.org
- _Book of Acts_ at Bible Gateway
- Acts from the Biblical Resource Database
- The Apostle Paul's Shipwreck: An Historical Investigation of Acts 27 and 28
- Catholic Encyclopedia: Acts of the Apostles
- Encyclopedia Britannica: Acts of the Apostles
- Jewish Encyclopedia: New Testament - The Acts of the Apostles
- Tertullian.org: The Western Text of the Acts of the Apostles (1923) J. M. WILSON, D.D.
Firebreak

A **firebreak** is a way to fight wildfires by allowing no vegetation or other material that can burn. That makes it hard for a fire to jump across the break. Therefore, the spread of a possible fire is delayed.
Slum

A **slum** is a part of a city or a town where many poor people live. It is a place where people may not have basic needs, such as running water, electricity, toilets, telephones, etc. Some of these people may also have social disadvantages, such as unemployment, no access to education, no access to health care, no municipal services, etc. There are slums in most of the big cities of developing countries and least developed countries (which are also labelled as the "Third World"). They may not be called _slum_, however; see shanty town.

## Victorian London

Charles Dickens was a great author of Victorian London. His account of the St Giles **rookery** was:
- "Wretched houses with broken windows patched with rags and paper; every room let out to a different family, and in many instances to two or even three – fruit and ‘sweetstuff’ manufacturers in the cellars, barbers and red-herring vendors in the front parlours, cobblers in the back; a bird-fancier in the first floor, three families on the second, starvation in the attics, Irishmen in the passage, a ‘musician’ in the front kitchen, a charwoman and five hungry children in the back one – filth everywhere – a gutter before the houses, and a drain behind – clothes drying, and slops emptying from the windows; (…) men and women, in every variety of scanty and dirty apparel, lounging, scolding, drinking, smoking, squabbling, fighting, and swearing".

Dickens, _Sketches by Boz_, 1839.

## Sources

- Mike Davis, Planet of Slums, 2006
- Elizabeth Blum/ Peter Neitzke Favela Metropolis 2004

## Other websites

- http://skyscrapercity.com/showthread.php?t=131517
- South Africa slum dwellers' movement
- Slums of Victorian London
- Slums of New Delhi, India
- Every third person will be a slum dweller within 30 years, UN agency warns; John Vidal; The Guardian; October 4, 2003.
- Mute Magazine Vol 2#3, Naked Cities - Struggle in the Global Slums