juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
1387

## Events

- Sigismund, the future Holy Roman Emperor and husband of Queen Mary of Hungary, orders the murder of his mother-in-law, Elizabeta Kotromanic, and declares himself joint ruler of Hungary.
- Timur conquers the Muzaffarid Empire in central Persia and appoints three puppet rulers.
- Khan Tokhtamysh of the Golden Horde invades the Timurid Empire but has to soon after withdraw due to heavy snow.
- August 23 – Death of Olaf, King of Norway and Denmark and claimant to the throne of Sweden. The vacant thrones come under the regency of his mother Margaret I of Denmark who would soon become Queen in her own right.
- December 19 – Battle of Radcot Bridge: forces loyal to Richard II of England defeated by a group of rebellious barons known as the Lords Appellant. Richard II is imprisoned until he agrees replace all the councillors in his court.
- Geoffrey Chaucer begins writing The Canterbury Tales.
- Battle of Castagnaro between the Italian cities of Verona and Padua. Padua, led by John Hawkwood, is victorious over Giovanni Ordelaffi led Verona.
- Charles III ascends to the throne of Navarre after the death of his father, Charles II.
- John I succeeds his father, Peter IV, as King of Aragon and Valencia, and forms an alliance with France and Castille.
- Magha II succeeds his brother, Musa II, as Mansa of the Mali Empire.
- June 2 – John Holland, a maternal half-brother of Richard II of England, is created Earl of Huntingdon.

## Births

- August 9 – King Henry V of England (died 1422)
- Henriette of Mömpelgard, countess of Mömpelgard and regent of Württemberg (died 1444)
- Isabella of Valois, Princess of France (died 1410)

## Deaths

- July 20 – Robert IV of Artois, Count of Eu (poisoned) (b. 1356)
- July 22 – Franz Ackerman, Flemish statesman (born 1330)
- August 23 – King Olaf IV of Norway/Olaf III of Denmark (born 1370)
- Peter IV of Aragon (born 1319)
- Richard Og Burke, second Clanricarde
- Peter de la Mare, English politician
- King Charles II of Navarre (born 1332)
- Elizabeta Kotromanic, regent of Hungary
London County Council

**London County Council (LCC)** was the principal local government body for the County of London, during its whole existence (1889-1965), and the first London-wide general municipal authority that was directly elected. It covered the area today known as Inner London and was replaced by the Greater London Council. The LCC was the largest, most significant and ambitious municipal authority of its day.

## History

The creation of the LCC in 1889, as part of the Local Government Act 1888, was forced by a succession of scandals involving the Metropolitan Board of Works (MBW), its predecessor, which had not been directly elected. While the Conservative government of the day would have preferred not to create a single body covering the whole of London, their election promise to the Liberal Unionists led them to this policy. A later Government created the 28 metropolitan boroughs as lower tier authorities to replace the various local authorities in 1899; they assumed some powers of the LCC and shared others.

The LCC inherited the powers of its predecessor the MBW, but also had wider authority over matters such as education, city planning and council housing.  It took over the functions of the London School Board in 1903, and Dr C W Kimmins was appointed chief inspector of the education department in 1904.
Denomination (currency)

When dealing with money, **denomination** is the value of the individual currency.

For example a one dollar bill, a 100 dollar bill, a penny and a quarter are all different denominations of money. A one dollar bill and a one dollar coin are the same denomination as they are the same value.

## Monetary union

When countries form a monetary union, redenomination may be required and the conversion ratio is often not a nice even number, or even less than 1.
|New unit|=|x|Old unit|year|Monetary union|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Austro-Hungarian krone|=|0.5|gulden/forint|1892|Latin Monetary Union|
|euro|=|0.787564|Irish pound|1999/2002|Eurozone|
|euro|=|40.3399|Luxembourgish francs|1999/2002|Eurozone|
|colspan=6|<small>This table is not exhaustive.</small>|||||

## Decimalisation

When countries that had a "pound (£) - shilling (s) - pence (d)" (£sd) currency system converted to a system which had pounds (£) and pennies (p) or dollars ($) and cents (¢) it was called decimalisation. In the £sd system, £1 = 20s and 1s = 12d, so £1 = 240d. However in the new systems £1 = 100p or $1 = 100¢ or 100c - a decimal-based system, hence the word "decimalised".

|Country|New unit|=|x|Old unit|=|New minor unit|year|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Australia|Australian dollar|=|0.5|Australian pound|=|100¢|1966|
|Ireland|Irish pound|=|1.0|Irish pound|=|100p|1971|
|New Zealand|New Zealand dollar|=|0.5|New Zealand pound|=|100¢|1967|
|South Africa|South African rand|=|0.5|South African pound|=|100c|1961|
|United Kingdom|British pound|=|1.0|British pound|=|100p|1971|
|colspan=8|<small>This table is not exhaustive.</small>|||||||

## Related pages

- Inflation
Episcopalian

**Episcopalian** and **Episcopal** could mean:

- Episcopal Church
- Anglican Communion, Anglican Churches worldwide
- Anglicanism, people, institutions and concepts of the Anglican Communion (UK and Commonwealth common usage)
Simulation

A **simulation** is a way of seeing a thing happen without it actually taking place in the same way. A simulation can be used to predict what might happen without doing it, in case it is dangerous or too expensive or difficult. It can also be used to show people what will happen next, or what happened in the past. It can also show what people believe is happening in a place or time where it is impossible to know what really happens.

There are research institutions just devoted to simulations, like, e.g., _The George E. Brown, Jr. Network for Earthquake Engineering Simulation_ or NEES.

Simulations are used for many purposes, because in a simulation things can be controlled that might not be easy to control in real life.  They can use smaller versions of an object or system for testing or practice.  Smaller versions of things, like space ships or rooms, can simulate the real thing.  They can also be safer, in place of a thing that is dangerous, like when astronauts practice in a swimming pool rather than in outer space. Astronauts practiced in simulations of the moon before they went and landed there.  They use simulations of spaceships that move the way real spaceships do.  Simulations often use computers.  Computers are used to make simulations of what a spaceship's route might be on the way to the moon, to help plan the mission.

## Video games

One type of video game is called _simulator games". These games let the player simulate doing different things. For example, in the game _Theme Hospital_, players perform simulated surgery. _SimCity'' lets players design and build their own simulated city.

## Related pages

- Scientific model

- International Association for Mathematics and Computers in Simulation
- Monte Carlo algorithm
Peter, Paul and Mary

**Peter, Paul and Mary** were an American folk music group, most famous during the 1960s. The members are Peter Yarrow, Paul (Noel) Stookey and Mary Travers.

Their songs include "If I Had a Hammer" (also called "The Hammer Song"), "Puff, the Magic Dragon", "Leavin' On a Jet Plane" written by John Denver, and "Blowin' in the Wind", written by Bob Dylan. They recorded other Dylan songs, helping his early career. They made records, toured to perform, and appeared on television shows, including _The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour_.

Peter, Paul and Mary disbanded in 1970, but reunited later, made tours and recorded new music.

Mary Travers died on September 16, 2009, after chemotherapy treatments for leukemia.

On January 7th, 2025, Yarrow died at age 86.

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Peter, Paul and Mary
- **img**: Peter, Paul and Mary 2006.jpg
- **img capt**: Peter, Paul and Mary at New York's Westbury Music Fair, NYCB Theater at Westbury in 2006. Left to right: Travers, Stookey and Yarrow.
- **img size**: 250
- **background**: group_or_band
- **origin**: New York City, United States
- **genre**: Folk music, Folk, folk-rock
- **years active**: 19611970; 19782009
- **label**: Warner Bros. Records, Warner Bros.
- **associated acts**: Peter & Noel Paul
- **current members**: Peter Yarrow (deceased)
Paul Stookey
Mary Travers (deceased)
Jennifer Warnes

**Jennifer Warnes** (born March 3, 1947) is an American singer. She first became famous during the late 1960s, and was a regular performer on _The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour_. She performed alongside Leonard Cohen in his 1984 album _Various Positions_.

In the late 1970s, she had hit records including "Right Time of the Night" and "I Know a Heartache When I See One". In the 1980s, she sang duets with Joe Cocker ("Up Where We Belong") and Bill Medley ("(I've Had) The Time of My Life"), which were also hits. The singer was born March 3, 1947.
Super Friends

***Super Friends*** is an American cartoon television series about a team of superheroes which ran from 1973 to 1986 on ABC as part of its Saturday morning cartoon lineup. It was produced by Hanna-Barbera and was based on the Justice League of America and related comic book characters published by DC Comics.
Warrabah National Park

**Warrabah** is a national park in New South Wales (Australia), 371 km north of Sydney.

## Fact sheet

- _Area:_ 34.71 km²
- _Coordinates_:
- _Date of establishment:_ July 6, 1984
- _Managing authorities:_ New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service
- _IUCN category:_ II
Shepreth

**Shepreth** is a small village in South Cambridgeshire on the main line between Cambridge and London.

It contains a wildlife park (Willers Mill, a.k.a. Shepreth Wildlife Park), a nature reserve (Shepreth L-Moor) and one of the UK's only insect research laboratories.
Everest College

**Blair College** is now **Everest College** a for-profit college in Colorado Springs, Colorado.  Everest College offers career college programs in many areas. The College was founded in Pueblo, Colorado as Brown's School of Business in 1897, changing its name to Blair's Business College in 1918. In 1981, Blair Business College changed its name to Blair Junior College.  In 1996, the College was bought by Rhodes Colleges, Inc., a division of Corinthian Colleges, Inc. and the name was changed to Blair College.  In 2006, the name was finally changed to the current Everest College.
Ilocos

**Ilocos Region** is a region in the Philippines. Its regional center is San Fernando, La Union. The region has four provinces: Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, La Union and Pangasinan.

Inhabitants are called _Ilocanos_ and they speak the Ilocano language.

The term **Ilocos Region** is derived from this term. However, the designation of **Ilocos** as the basis of the name of the region promotes the wrong notion that all the residents of Region 1 are Ilocanos. Because 28% of the inhabitants are Pangasinan people, who belong to a different ethno-linguistic group from the Ilocanos. Pangasinan was moved from Central Luzon (Region III) to the Ilocos Region on June 22, 1973.
Bill Medley

**Bill Medley** (born September 19, 1940 in Los Angeles, California) is an American singer and songwriter. He was a founding member of the Righteous Brothers. He also had a solo career.

In 1987, Medley had a hit record with a duet he sang with Jennifer Warnes, "(I've Had) The Time of My Life". It was the theme to a popular movie, _Dirty Dancing_.

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Bill Medley
- **image**: Bill Medley in 2012.JPG
- **caption**: Medley in 2012 at The Big E, West Springfield, Massachusetts
- **background**: solo_singer
- **birth name**: William Thomas Medley
- **birth place**: Santa Ana, California, U.S.
- **instrument**: Human voice, Vocals, piano
- **genre**: Blue-eyed soul, Country
- **years active**: 1959–present
- **label**: United Artists Records, United Artists, RCA Records, Reprise Records
- **associated acts**: The Righteous Brothers
 Bobby Hatfield
Adventure

An **adventure** is something exciting that happens to someone.  An adventure can be a made-up story, or it can be something that happens in real life. People often like stories about a person or a group of people who go off and have an adventure.  There is often some danger in the story. Enid Blyton and Edgar Rice Burroughs wrote stories about people who have exciting adventures. _Harry Potter_ has lots of adventures: he meets strange people and gets into lots of dangerous situations. People in real life like to have adventures. They may be explorers who like to go to far-away places where no one has ever been before.

## Types

- **Adventure sports** are sports that are exciting and can be rather dangerous. Skydiving, gliding and rock climbing are adventure sports.

- An **adventure playground** is a playground for children where they can climb, swing and jump on things. They have been made by adults for children to use and are normally quite safe.

- An **adventurer** is someone who goes on adventures or does things that are risky.
    - Space travel is an example of a modern adventure.

- An **adventure game** is a video game about adventures.
    - The word **venture** is a short form of "adventure".  A "business venture" is a business project, involving a lot of risks. _Venture_ can also be a verb, e.g. "They ventured out into the storm."
Broom (shrub)

**Brooms** are a group of evergreen, semi-evergreen, and deciduous shrubs.

All the brooms and their relatives (including _Laburnum_ and _Ulex_) grow in Europe, north Africa and southwest Asia. The greatest diversity one can find in the Mediterranean region. Many brooms (though not all) are fire-climax species, adapted to regular stand-replacing fires which kill the above-ground parts of the plants, but create conditions for regrowth from the roots and also for germination of stored seeds in the soil.

The most familiar is **common broom**, that grows in northwestern Europe. One can find it in sunny sites, usually on dry, sandy soils. Like most brooms, it has apparently leafless stems that in spring and summer are covered with golden-yellow flowers. In late summer, its pea-pod like seed capsules burst open, often with an audible pop, spreading seed from the parent plant. It makes a shrub about 1–3m tall, rarely to 4m. It is also the hardiest broom, tolerating temperatures down to about -25 °C.

The brooms belong to the subfamily Faboideae of the legume family Fabaceae, mainly in the three genera  ***Chamaecytisus***, ***Cytisus*** and ***Genista***, but also in five other small genera (see box, right). All genera in this group are from the tribe Genisteae (syn. Cytiseae). These genera are all closely related and share similar characteristics of dense, slender green stems and very small leaves, adaptations to dry growing conditions. Most of the species have yellow flowers, but a few have white, orange, red, pink or purple flowers.

## Folklore

A traditional rhyme from Sussex says: "Sweep the house with blossed broom in May/sweep the head of the household away." Despite this, it was also common to include a decorated bundle of broom at weddings. Ashes of broom were used to treat dropsy, while its strong smell was said to be able to tame wild horses and dogs.

## References

- Mabey, Richard _Flora Britannica_, Sinclair-Stevenson, London, 1996,
- Royal Horticultural Society's plant database  (Accessed 20:53, 29 October 2006 (UTC))
Broom

A **broom** is a cleaning tool. It consists of stiff fibres attached to, and roughly parallel to, a cylindrical handle, the **broomstick**.  In the context of witchcraft, "broomstick" is likely to refer to the broom as a whole. A smaller whisk broom or brush is sometimes called a duster.

## History of broom design

Brooms have changed very much in their construction, since they developed from ad-hoc use of branches and bundles of several natural fibres. Originally, all brooms were round, a shape that is easy to construct but inefficient for actually sweeping. Brooms could be attached to a handle, either short for a whisk broom, or long for a broom used to sweep the floor or fireplace. The word for the tool was originally _besom_, _broom_ simply being the material of which it was normally made. The fibres used in modern brooms are from broom corn. They are long, straight, durable, and bound together  in the plant. The newest major change is the _flat broom_, invented by the Shakers in the 1800s, which has far more width for pushing dirt and nearly all brooms produced today are flat brooms.

## Brooms and witchcraft

Brooms have long been connected with witchcraft, almost universally portrayed as medieval-style round brooms and associated with female witches. Despite the association with women, in 1453, the first known case of claiming to have flown on a broomstick is recorded, confessed by the male witch Guillaume Edelin.

### In Literature and Poetry

- In the Bible, Luke 15:8 "The Parable of the Lost Coin", the broom is used as a symbol for women's work.  "Or suppose a woman has ten silver coins and loses one.  Does she not light a lamp, sweep the house and search carefully until she finds it?"

- In many works of fiction, broomsticks are pictured as a means of air transport for witches. A broom is usually flown with the brush behind the rider.

- The Harry Potter book series is distinctive in portraying magical flying brooms as used equally by both sexes, and especially prominently by Quidditch players as analogues of polo ponies.

- Many toys and costume accessories have been made in the form of brooms.

## Related pages

- Mop

## References

- Dundes, A. (1996) "Jumping the Broom": On the origin and meaning of an African American Wedding Custom.  _The Journal of American Folklore_. 109 (433) p. 324-329.  Retrieved from JSTOR
- Gabriel Dumont Institute. (2001). Broom Dance, Metisfest 2001. Retrieved on  May 18, 2007 from http://www.metismuseum.ca The Virtual Museum of Metis History and Culture. Gabriel Dumont Institute of Native Studies and Applied Research.

## Other websites

- A history of brooms's use in witchcraft
- Unclean Sweep
Broom (disambiguation)

A broom is a cleaning tool which also had other uses, e.g. magical and for punishment.

**Broom** may also mean:

- Broom (shrub), a group of evergreen, semi-evergreen, and deciduous shrub genera from the Cytiseae tribe
- Broom (album), an album by the American indie band Someone Still Loves You Boris Yeltsin
- Broom-Hilda, U.S. newspaper comic strip created by Russell Myers
- **Broomstick Scientists** - The 9393 Technical Service Unit at White Sands Proving Grounds launched three V-2 rockets after Operation Hermes, beginning with TF-1 on August 22, 1951

## Places

- Broom, Bedfordshire
- Broom, South Yorkshire
- Loch Broom, Scotland

## Surname

- Jacob Broom
- James M. Broom
- Neil Broom
- Robert Broom (1866 - 1951), South African physician and paleontologist

## Homophones

- Brome
- Broome
Cleanliness

**Cleanliness** means that there is no dirt, no dust, no stains, no bad smells. The goals of cleanliness are health, beauty, no offensive odor and to avoid the spreading of dirt and contaminants to oneself and others. In the case of glass objects such as windows or windshields, the purpose can also be transparency. Washing is one way of achieving cleanliness, usually with water and often some kind of soap or detergent.

Since the germ theory of disease, it has also now means no germs and other waste. In industry, certain processes need conditions of exceptional cleanliness which are achieved by working in _cleanrooms_. A very new idea is that ‘dirt’ may play a useful role in our immune systems. It is estimated that washing hands with soap and water could reduce diarrheal disease-associated deaths by up to 50%. A large percentage of foodborne disease outbreaks are spread by contaminated hands. Appropriate hand washing practices can reduce the risk of foodborne illness and other infections. It is estimated that washing hands with soap and water could reduce diarrheal disease-associated deaths by up to 50%. A large percentage of foodborne disease outbreaks are spread by contaminated hands. Appropriate hand washing practices can reduce the risk of foodborne illness and other infections.

## Related pages

- Sanitation

## Notes

- Boy Scouts. 2007. "Boy Scout's Oath, Law, Motto, and Slogan." Retrieved May 10, 2007, http://www.scouting.org/factsheets/02-503a.html
- Cleaning Network. 2008. "Cleanliness Article" Retrieved March 10, 2008, http://www.cleaning-services.org/cleaningnews.html
- Pressure Washerify. 2017. "House Cleaning Guide & Tips" Retrieved December 28, 2017, https://pressurewasherify.com/blog/house-cleaning/
Washing

**Washing** is one way of cleaning, with water and often some kind of soap or detergent.  Washing is an essential part of good hygiene and health.

Soaps and detergents help to spread the oils and dirt particles through the water, so they can be washed away. The spreading of oil through water is called emulsification.

People usually wash themselves periodically.

## Related pages

- washing machine
- Cleanliness
- Hand washing
Car wash (disambiguation)

**Car Wash** can mean:

- Car wash, a facility for cleaning automobiles
- Car Wash (movie), a 1976 film
- Car Wash (album), a soundtrack album to the film
- Car Wash (song), a song by Rose Royce from the soundtrack (later covered by Christina Aguilera featuring Missy Elliot on the sound track of the movie 'Shark Tale'
The Wash

**The Wash** is the square-mouthed estuary on the northwest margin of East Anglia on the east coast of England, "where Norfolk meets Lincolnshire". It is among the largest estuaries in the United Kingdom. It is listed as a Ramsar site as being an important wetland area.http://www.jncc.gov.uk/pdf/RIS/UK11072.pdf

## Geography

The Wash looks on the map like a large bite out of the coastline in eastern England.  It separates the curved coast of East Anglia from Lincolnshire. It is formed by a large bay with three roughly straight sides meeting at right angles, each about 25 kilometres (15 miles) in length. All the eastern coast of the Wash is in Norfolk, and goes from Hunstanton in the north to the mouth of the River Great Ouse at King's Lynn in the south. The coast on the opposite side goes from Gibraltar Point to the mouth of the River Welland and is all in Lincolnshire. The southern coast goes roughly northwest-southeast, joining these two river mouths.  In the middle is the mouth of a third river, the River Nene.

## Historical story

The most famous thing that people remember about the Wash is that "King John lost his crown in the Wash".  This is because, according to reports from the time, King John travelled from Spalding in Lincolnshire to Bishop's Lynn, in Norfolk in the year 1216.  He became ill and decided to go back.  While he took the longer route through Wisbech, he sent his luggage, including his crown jewels, along the seashore and across the mouth of the Wellstream where the water was not deep. This route was only safe when the tide was low.  The horse-drawn wagons moved too slowly for the incoming tide, and many were lost. The whole area at the time was an extensive wetland known as The Fens, which was later drained. It is close to sea level.

## Other websites

- Flood warning status
Thar Desert

The **Thar Desert** (, ), also known as the **Great Indian Desert**, is a big desert in western parts of India and eastern parts of Pakistan.

It is mostly in the Indian state of Rajasthan. It extends into the southern portion of Haryana and Punjab states and into northern Gujarat state. In Pakistan, the desert covers eastern Sindh province and the southeastern portion of Pakistan's Punjab province. In Pakistan's Punjab province it is known as the Cholistan desert. Tharparkar District of province Sindh Pakistan is also a part of Thar desert. The Thar Desert is bounded on the northwest by the Sutlej River, on the east by the Aravalli Range, on the south by the salt marsh known as the Rann of Kachchh (parts of which are sometimes included in the Thar), and on the west by the Indus River.The Thar Desert, also known as the Great Indian Desert, is an arid region in the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent that covers an area of 200,000 km2 (77,000 sq mi) in India and Pakistan. It is the world's 20th-largest desert, and the world's 9th-largest hot subtropical desert.

Its boundary to the large thorny steppe to the north is not well defined. Depending on what areas are included or excluded, the nominal size of the Thar can vary.
Distribution

**Distribution** is the action of sharing something out among a number of recipients.

The word **distribution** has several usages:

## Mathematics

- In mathematics a distribution is a generalization of a function to be able to model certain systems, inspired by physics, see distribution (mathematics).

## Probability theory and statistics

- In Probability theory, it refers to the way a certain number of samples can be assigned to different categories, see Frequency distribution.
- In Statistics, it refers to the probability that a random variable has a certain value, or falls inside a given interval, see Probability distribution. This is the theoretical counterpart behind frequency distributions.

## Economics

- In Economics, it talks about getting a product from the producer to the client. See distribution (economics).
- This incudes things like movies and video games

## Computer science

- In Computer science, it may refer to the practice of allocating a number of tasks to different machines, scattered over a network. See distributed computing.

## Computing

- With Software, a distribution is something that puts different applications in the same package. See Linux distribution for an example.

## Biology

- The study of the distribution of living things on the Earth is called biogeography.

## Power system

- In power system, the process of delivering electricity to customer is called Electric power distribution.
Distributed computing

**Distributed computing** is a word from computer science, about using many computers to solve a big problem. One way to solve a big problem is to use a very fast computer called a supercomputer. Supercomputers are very expensive, and many scientists can not buy them. A cheaper way to solve a big problem is to split it into smaller problems, when possible. These smaller problems can then be solved by different computers (or processors), which talk to each other over a computer network. Because many computers work together, this makes them as powerful as a supercomputer. One example where distributed computing is used is the Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search.

## Other page

- Grid computing
Thymus

The **thymus** is a specialized lymphoid organ of the immune system. The thymus is in front of the heart and behind the breastbone.

In the thymus, T cells or T lymphocytes mature. T cells are critical to the adaptive immune system, where the body adapts specifically to foreign invaders.

The thymus is where T cells develop from hematopoietic (blood-forming) cells. In addition, this is where the T cells get tolerant to cells of the body.

The thymus is largest and most active during the newborn and pre-adolescent periods.  By the early teens, the thymus begins to slow down. However, it continues to make lymphocytes throughout adult life.
Frequency distribution

In statistics, a **frequency distribution** is a list of the values that a variable takes in a sample. It shows the number of times each value appears.

For example, imagine that 100 people are asked whether they agree with a statement, and have to give an answer on a scale from 1 to 5, where 1 means they strongly agree and 5 means they strongly disagree. The frequency distribution of their responses might look like this:

|Answer|Degree of agreement|Number|
| --- | --- | --- |
|1|Strongly agree|25|
|2|Agree somewhat|35|
|3|Not sure|20|
|4|Disagree somewhat|15|
|5|Strongly disagree|5|

A simple table like this might not work well in some cases. For example, if a variable can take any value within a range (for example, a measurement like height), or if the number of possible values is too large, making a simple table would be difficult or even impossible. In this case, we could instead use ranges of values. For example, the frequency table for the heights of the students in a class might look like the table below.

|Height range|Number of students|
| --- | --- |
|4.5–5.0 feet|25|
|5.0–5.5 feet|35|
|5.5–6 feet|20|
|6.0–6.5 feet|20|

## Applications

It can be simpler to work with a frequency distribution of data instead of the raw data. There are simple algorithms that can calculate median, mean (statistics) and standard deviation using these tables.

Statistical hypothesis testing is based on the assessment of differences and similarities between frequency distributions. This assessment involves measures of central tendency or averages, such as the mean and median, and measures of variability or statistical dispersion, such as the standard deviation or variance.

A frequency distribution is said to be skewed when its mean and median are different. The kurtosis of a frequency distribution is the concentration of scores at the mean, or how peaked the distribution appears if depicted graphically—for example, in a histogram. If the distribution is more peaked than the normal distribution it is said to be leptokurtic; if less peaked it is said to be platykurtic.

Frequency distributions are also used in frequency analysis to crack codes and refer to the relative frequency of letters in different languages.
Promenade concert

- _This article is about concerts in the parks in London in the 18th and 19th centuries. For the Promenade Concerts in the Royal Albert Hall see BBC Proms.

The word **Promenade Concert** today usually refers to one of the concerts in the series started by Henry Wood in 1895, known today as the BBC Proms.  However, before these concerts started there had for many years been promenade concerts in the parks of London. These concerts took place in the leisure gardens (parks) where people could walk about while listening to the music (French se promener = to walk).

People had to pay to go into the leisure gardens.  There were lots of entertainments there, e.g. fireworks, dancing, acrobatics and music.  The music was played by orchestras. Sometimes these orchestras played in bandstands, sometimes in proper buildings.

Vauxhall Gardens and Ranelagh Gardens were the most famous of these gardens.  The composer George Frideric Handel had his music played there in the 18th century. The gardens were very fashionable until the 19th century.  Aristocratic people, royalty and ordinary people all mixed there.  Handel's _Music for the Royal Fireworks_ was performed in Vauxhall Gardens to celebrate the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle.  The composer Dr Thomas Arne was appointed composer of Vauxhall Gardens in 1745.  It was here that many of his songs became popular, including _Rule Britannia''.  Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Joseph Haydn performed in Ranelagh Gardens on their visits to London.

In the 19th century concerts of classical music became very popular.  The conductor Louis Antoine Jullien conducted many concerts.  His orchestra were even joined by the bands of the Royal Artillery or drummers from the French National Guard.  Concerts were also given in Crystal Palace, the huge glass building which was built for the Great Exhibition in 1851.

Many English composers had their music played in these parks.  The music was often long songs (ballads), or drinking songs.  Sometimes choirs sang choruses from oratorios by Handel.  Later in the 19th century the programmes included more music by famous composers such as Brahms, Liszt, Mendelssohn, Schubert, Schumann, Smetana and Wagner.

In 1895 Henry Wood started his series of promenade concerts.  He wanted to educate audiences so that they liked good music.  This series of concerts continues today in the Royal Albert Hall as the BBC Proms.

## Related pages

- BBC Proms
1381

## Events

- June 12– Peasants' Revolt: In England, rebels from Kent and Essex, led by Wat Tyler and Jack Straw, meet at Blackheath. There the rebels are encouraged by a sermon by renegade priest John Ball.
- June 14– Peasants' Revolt: Rebels destroy John of Gaunt's Savoy Palace and storm the Tower of London, killing the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Lord Chancellor. King Richard II of England meets the leaders of the revolt and agrees to reforms such as fair rents and the abolition of serfdom.
- June 15– Peasants' Revolt: During further negotiations, Wat Tyler is murdered by the King's entourage. Noble forces subsequently overpower the rebel army. The rebel leaders are eventually captured and executed and Richard II revokes his concessions.
    - The revolt is discussed in John Gower's _Vox Clamantis_ and _Froissart's Chronicles_.
- Kęstutis overthrows his nephew, Jogaila, as Grand Duke of Lithuania. Jogaila is allowed to remain as governor of eastern Lithuania.
- Due to Joan I of Naples' support for Antipope Clement VII, Pope Urban VI bestows Naples upon Charles of Durazzo. With the help of the Hungarians, Charles advances on Naples and captures Joan.
- James of Baux, the ruler of Taranto and the Latin Empire, claims the Principality of Achaea after the imprisonment of Joan I of Naples.
- Sonam Drakpa deposes Drakpa Changchub as ruler of Tibet.
- Hajji I succeeds Alah-ad-Din Ali as Mamluk Sultan of Egypt. The Egyptian government continues to be controlled by rebel leader, Berkuk.
- After a naval battle, Venice wins the three-year War of Chioggia against Genoa. The Genoans are permanently weakened by the conflict.
- Timur conquers east Persia, ending the rule of the Sarbadar Dynasty.

## Births

- May 9– Johann Schiltberger, German traveller and writer (died 1440)
- October 13 – Thomas FitzAlan, 12th Earl of Arundel, English politician (died 1415)
- John I, Duke of Bourbon (died 1434)
- Saint Rita of Cascia (died 1457)

## Deaths

- March 24– Catherine of Sweden, Swedish saint
- May 15– Eppelein von Gailingen, German robber baron
- June 14– Simon Sudbury, Archbishop of Canterbury
- June 15– John Cavendish, Lord Chief Justice of England
- June 15– Wat Tyler, English rebel
- July 15– John Ball, renegade priest
- December 2– John of Ruysbroeck, Flemish mystic
- December 27– Edmund de Mortimer, 3rd Earl of March, English politician
1388

## Events

- The completion of the Wyclif Bible by John Purvey and the beginning of prosecution of Wyclif's followers, known as the Lollards.
- Battle of Otterburn: a Scottish army, led by James Douglas, defeats an English army, capturing the their leader, Harry Hotspur. Douglas is killed during the battle.
- John of Gaunt, the uncle of Richard II of England, makes peace with Castile and gives up his claim to the Castilian thrown by allowing his daughter Katherine of Lancaster to marry Prince Henry, the eldest son of John I of Castile.
- The entire court of Richard II of England are convicted of treason by the Merciless Parliament, under the influence of the Lords Appellant, and are all either executed or exiled. Richard II effectively becomes a puppet of the Lords Appellant.
- Ramesuan is reinstated as King of Ayutthaya (now southern Thailand) after dethroning and executing 17 year-old King Thong Chan.
- Goryeo Revolution: General Yi Seonggye begins a four-year revolution in Goryeo (now Korea) after being ordered by King U of Goryeo to attack the superior Chinese army.
- Goryeo Revolution: King U of Goryeo is forced from power and replaced by his son Chang.
- A Chinese invasion force under General Lan Yu defeats a large Mongolian army under Khan Toghus Temur and captures 100 members of the Yuan royal family. Toghus Temur is killed whilst trying to escape and is succeeded as Khan of Mongolia by his rival, Jorightu.
- An invading Chinese army under General Xu Da destroys Karakorum, the capital city of the Mongolian Empire.
- Battle of Plocnik: A combined force of Serbians, Bosnians and Bulgarians defeat an Ottoman invasion force.
- Tran Ngung overthrows Tran Hien as King of Vietnam.
- Omar I is succeeded by Sa'id as King of the Kanem-Bornu Empire (now east Chad and Nigeria). Sa'id is succeeded in the same year by Kade Alunu. Omar and Sa'id are both killed by Bilala invaders from the west.
- Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughluq II succeeds Firuz Shah Tughluq as Sultan of Delhi.
- Charles VI of France reaches maturity, ending the regency of his uncle, Philip the Bold.
- The University of Cologne is established (now the largest university in Germany).
- Cozia Monastery is built in Wallacia.
- Ljubostinja Monastery is built in Serbia.

## Births

- September 14 – Claudius Clavus, Danish geographer
- September 29 – Thomas of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Clarence, second son of Henry IV of England (d. 1421)
- Juliana Berners, English writer
- Thomas Montacute, 4th Earl of Salisbury (died 1428)
- Dai Jin, Chinese painter (d. 1462)

## Deaths

- Simon de Burley, Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports
- James Douglas, 2nd Earl of Douglas
- Thomas Usk, English writer
- Sultan Firuz Shah Tughluq of Delhi
- King Thong Chan of Ayutthaya
- Khan Toghus Temur of Mongolia
- King Omar I of the Kanem-Bornu Empire
- King Sa'id of the Kanem-Bornu Empire
- Firuz Shah Tughluq
1390

## Events

- Robert III succeeds his father, Robert II, as King of Scotland.
- Henry III succeeds his father, John I, as King of Castile and León.
- John VII Palaiologos overthrows his grandfather, John V Palaiologos, as Byzantine Emperor. John V Palaiologos is restored later in the year by his son, Manuel, and the Republic of Venice.
- The Turks take Philadelphia, the last Byzantine enclave of any significance in Anatolia.
- With the help of the Teutonic Knights, Vytautas begins a revolt against his cousin, Jogaila the Supreme Prince of Lithuania.
- Barquq is restored as Mamluk Sultan of Egypt after overthrowing Sultan Hadji II.
- Nasir ud din Muhammad Shah III overthrows his brother, Abu Baker, as Sultan of Delhi.
- Manuel III succeeds his father, Alexios III, as Emperor of Trebizond (now north eastern Turkey).
- Sikandar But-shikan succeeds Sikandar Shah as Sultan of Kashmir.
- Ko Cheng succeeds Che Bong Nga as King of Champa (now eastern Vietnam).
- Mahmud succeeds Sandaki as Mansa of the Mali Empire.
- N'Diklam Sare succeeds Sare N'Dyaye as ruler of the Jolof Empire (now part of Senegal).
- (circa 1390) The Kingdom of Kaffa is established in present-day Ethiopia.
- Building of Templo Mayor, the main temple of the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan (now Mexico City).
- Building of the Candi Surawana temple in the Majapahit Kingdom (now Indonesia).
- San Petronio Basilica begins to be built in Bologna.

## Births

- December 27 – Anne de Mortimer, claimant to the English throne (died 1411)
- Domenico da Piacenza, Italian dancemaster (died 1470)
- John Dunstaple, English composer (died 1453)
- Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson, Swedish statesman and rebel leader (died 1436)
- Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester (died 1447)
- John VIII Palaeologus Byzantine Emperor (died 1448)

## Deaths

- April 19 – King Robert II of Scotland (born 1316)
- August 14 – John FitzAlan, 2nd Baron Arundel, English soldier (b. 1364)
- September 23 – John I, Duke of Lorraine (born 1346)
- October 9 – King John I of Castile (fall from a horse) (born 1358)
- Altichiero, Italian painter (born 1330)
- Sultan Sikandar Shah of Kashmir.
- Towtiwil, Prince of Black Ruthenia
1391

## Events

- July 18 – Tokhtamysh-Timur War: Battle of the Kondurcha River – Timur defeats Tokhtamysh of the Golden Horde in present-day southeast Russia.
- Manuel II Palaiologos becomes Byzantine Emperor after his father, John V Palaiologos, dies of a nervous breakdown due to his continued humiliation by the Ottoman Empire.
- Yusuf II  succeeds Muhammed V as Nasrid Sultan of Granada (now southern Spain).
- Stjepan Dabiša succeeds his uncle, Stefan Tvrtko I, as King of Bosnia.
- Shah Mansur becomes leader of the Timurid occupied Muzaffarid Empire in central Persia.
- A group of Muzaffarids under Zafar Khan Muzaffar establish a new Sultanate at Gujarat in western India.
- August 5 – Anti-Jewish riots erupt in Toledo, Spain and Barcelona. Many Jews leave Barcelona after the following massacres, though a large number remain in the city.
- Vytautas the Great, claimant to the thrown of Lithuania, forms an alliance with Muscovy.
- Roman I succeeds Petru I as Prince of Moldavia (now Moldova and eastern Romania).
- Konrad von Wallenrode succeeds Konrad Zöllner von Rotenstein as Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights.
- Bridget of Sweden is canonized by Pope Boniface IX.
- Ushkuinik pirates from Novgorod sack the Muscovy towns of Zhukotin and Kazan.
- The Chinese invent toilet paper for use by their Emperors.
- Henry I Sinclair, Earl of Orkney, takes control of the Shetland Islands and the Faroe Islands.
- University of Ferrara is founded in present-day Italy.

## Births

- October 31 – King Edward of Portugal (†1438)
- November 6 – Edmund Mortimer, 5th Earl of March, English politician (died 1425)
- Gedun Drub, 1st Dalai Lama (died 1474)
- Michelozzo, Italian architect and sculptor (died 1472)
- Zhu Quan, Chinese military commander, historian and playwright (died 1448)
- Thomas West, 2nd Baron West (died 1415)

## Deaths

- February 16 – John V Palaeologus, Byzantine Emperor (born 1332)
- Muhammed V, Sultan of Granada
- King Stefan Tvrtko I of Bosnia.
- November 1 – Amadeus VII of Savoy (born 1360)
- Nicholas Cabasilas, Byzantine mystic and theological writer
1392

## Events

- December 16 – Emperor Go-Kameyama of Japan abdicates in favor of rival claimant Go-Komatsu, in order to end the _nanboku-cho_ period of conflict between the Northern and Southern imperial courts.
- Goryeo Revolution 1388-1392: In present-day Korea, rebel leader General Yi Seonggye overthrows King Gongyang and crowns himself King Taejo, ending the Goryeo Dynasty and establishing the Joseon Dynasty. King Gongyang is exiled and later secretly murdered.
- King Jogaila of Poland and Lithuania appoints his cousin Vytautas the Great as regent of Lithuania in return for Vytautas giving up his claim to the Lithuanian throne. Vytautas replaces Jogaila's unpopular brother Skirgaila as regent.
- King Charles VI of France, later known as Charles the Mad, begins experiencing bouts of psychosis which will continue throughout his life.
- Muhammed VII succeeds Yusuf II as Nasrid Sultan of Granada (now southern Spain).
- Franciscan friar James of Jülich is boiled alive for impersonating a bishop and ordaining his own priests.
- Queen Mary of Sicily defeats an army of rebel barons.
- William Le Scrop succeeds William II de Montacute as King of the Isle of Man.
- Seoan mac Pilib succeeds Tomas mor mac Mathghamhna as King of East Breifne in present-day north-central Ireland.
- The city of Afyonkarahisar (now in western Turkey) is conquered by Sultan Beyazid I of the Ottoman Empire.
- Louis de Valois is created the 1st Duke of Orléans, the second time this title was created.
- Erfurt University is founded in Erfurt, central Germany.
- Penistone Grammar School, which was one of the first comprehensive schools in England, is founded near Barnsley, England.

## Births

- February 3 – Henry Percy, 2nd Earl of Northumberland (died 1455)
- Alain Chartier, French poet and political writer (approximate date; died c. 1430)
- Flavio Biondo, Italian humanist and historian (died 1463)
- John de Mowbray, 2nd Duke of Norfolk (died 1432)
- Filippo Maria Visconti, Duke of Milan (died 1447)

## Deaths

- Abbot Methodius of Peshnosha, Eastern Orthodox saint
- Jeong Mong-ju, Goryeo diplomat and poet (born 1337)
1393

## Events of 1393

- In central Persia, the Muzzafarid Empire, led by Shah Mansur, rebels against their Timurid occupiers. The rebellion is squashed and the Muzaffarid nobility are executed, ending the Muzaffarid Dynasty in Persia.
- George VII succeeds his popular father, Bagrat V, as King of Georgia.
- Abdul Aziz II becomes Sultan of the Marinid dynasty in present-day Morocco after the death of Sultan Abu Al-Abbas.
- Raimondo del Balzo Orsini succeeds Otto of Brunswick as Prince of Taranto (now south-eastern Italy).
- Samsenethai succeeds his father, Fa Ngum, as King of Lan Xang (now Laos).
- King James I of Cyprus inherits the title of King of Armenia after the death of his distant cousin Leo VI. Although, the Mamluk conquerors from Egypt remain the true rulers.
- A Ming Dynasty Chinese record stated that 720,000 sheets of toilet paper (two by three ft. in size) alone were produced for the various members of the imperial court at Beijing, while the Imperial Bureau of Supplies also reported that 15,000 sheets of toilet paper alone were designated for the royal family (made of fine soft yellow tissue and perfumed).
- Bosnia resists an invasion by the Ottoman Empire.
- The Ottoman Turks capture Turnovgrad (now Veliko Tarnovo), the capital city of east Bulgaria. Emperor Ivan Shishman is allowed to remain as a puppet ruler of east Bulgaria.
- Sikander Shah I succeeds Muhammad Shah III as Sultan of Delhi. Sikander Shah I is succeeded two months later by Mahmud II.
- Abu Thabid II succeeds, Abu Tashufin II, as ruler of the Abdalwadid dynasty in present-day eastern Algeria. Abu Thabid II is succeeded in the same year by his brother, Abul Hadjdjadj I.
- Konrad von Jungingen succeeds Konrad von Wallenrode as Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights.
- Maelruanaidh MacDermot succeeds Aedh MacDermot as King of Moylurg in north-central Ireland.
- King Stjepan Dabiša of Bosnia signs the Contract of Djakovice, establishing peace with King Sigismund of Hungary.

## Births

- August 24 – Arthur III, Duke of Brittany (died 1458).
- John Capgrave, theologian (died 1464).
- Giovanni Antonio del Balzo Orsini, Prince of Taranto (died 1463).

## Deaths

- June 6 – Emperor Go-En'yu of Japan, former Pretender to the thrown of Japan (born 1359).
- Fa Ngum, creator of the Lao Kingdom of Lan Xang.
- King Leo VI of Armenia.
- King Bagrat V of Georgia.
- Sultan Abu Al-Abbas of the Marinid dynasty.
- Konrad von Wallenrode, Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights.
1396

## Events of 1396

- May 19 – Martin I succeeds his brother, John I, as King of Aragon (now north-east Spain).
- September 25 – Battle of Nicopolis: The Ottomans defeat a joint crusade by Hungary, France, the Holy Roman Empire, England and Wallacia, led by King Sigismund of Hungary. This was last large-scale crusade of the Middle Ages.
- November 24 – Transit of Venus – the last not to be part of a pair. Possibly observed by Aztec astronomers.
- November 29 – Ralph de Neville, 1st Earl of Westmorland, marries Joan Beaufort
- Temporary peace is declared between England and France with the marriage of Richard II of England and Isabella of Valois, the daughter of Charles VI of France.
- France conquers the Republic of Genoa.
- After a fourteen-year period of interregnum, Peter of Saint Superan is declared as ruler of the Principality of Achaea (now southern Greece).
- In the "Battle of the Thirty", a mass trial by combat, the Clan Cameron defeat the Clan MacKintosh on the North Inch of Perth, Scotland.
- Queen Margaret of Norway, Denmark and Sweden makes her adopted son Eric of Pomerania joint ruler of Sweden. Eric had already been made joint ruler of Norway.
- Abu Amir succeeds Abdul Aziz II as ruler of the Marinid dynasty in present-day Morocco.
- Timur appoints his son Miran Shah as Timurid viceroy of Azerbaijan.
- The Kartid Dynasty is brought to an end in east Persia after its remaining rulers are murdered at a banquet by Miran Shah, son of Timur Lenk.
- Philibert de Naillac succeeds Juan Fernández de Heredia as Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller.
- The Ulu Camii mosque is built in Bursa by the Ottomans.

## Births

- July 31 – Philip III, Duke of Burgundy (died 1467)
- October 16 – William de la Pole, 1st Duke of Suffolk (died 1450)
- _date unknown_
    - Alfonso V of Aragon (died 1458)
    - Ambroise de Loré, baron of Ivry in Normandy (died 1446)
    - John de Ros, 8th Baron de Ros (died 1421)
    - Paolo Uccello, painter (died 1475)

## Deaths

- July 31 – William Courtenay, Archbishop of Canterbury
- November 29 – Robert Ferrers, 3rd Baron Ferrers of Wemme (born 1373)
- _date unknown_
    - John Beaumont, 4th Baron Beaumont, Constable of Dover Castle (born 1361)
    - Frederick II, margrave of Saluzzo
    - Saint Stephen of Perm (born 1340)