juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Sunny Day Real Estate

**Sunny Day Real Estate** is an American rock band from Seattle, Washington. Sunny Day Real Estate formed in 1992 when they were originally called _Empty Set_. They broke up in 1995 because Goldsmith and Mendel were leaving to join Dave Grohl's band, the Foo Fighters. They reunited in 1997 and disbanded again in 2001. They reunited once again in 2009.

### Albums

- Diary (1994)
- Sunny Day Real Estate (1995)
- How It Feels to Be Something On (1998)
- The Rising Tide (2000)

## Other websites

- Sunny Day Real Estate's Official website

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Sunny Day Real Estate
- **img**: SunnyDayRealEstate2009.jpg
- **img capt**: Sunny Day Real Estate performing in The Crystal Ballroom in Portland, Oregon, on September 18, 2009.
- **landscape**: yes
- **background**: group_or_band
- **origin**: Seattle, Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America, USA
- **genre**: Alternative rock, indie rock
- **years active**: 1992-1995
1997-2001
2009-_present_
- **label**: Sub Pop Records, Sub Pop, Time Bomb Recordings, Time Bomb
- **associated acts**: The Fire Theft, Foo Fighters, Juno (band), Juno, Brotherhood
- **url**: [http://www.sunnydayrealestate.net Official website]
- **current members**: Jeremy Enigk
William Goldsmith
Dan Hoerner
Nate Mendel
- **past members**: Jeff Palmer
Joe Skyward
Volbeat

**Volbeat** is an Danish heavy metal band from Copenhagen. Volbeat formed in 2001 when singer Michael Poulsen formed a death metal band called Dominus. He became tired of the death metal genre and left the band. He then formed a new band called Volbeat with other members of Dominus.

### Albums

- The Strength / The Sound / The Songs (2005)
- Rock the Rebel / Metal the Devil (2007)
- Guitar Gangsters & Cadillac Blood (2008)
- Beyond Hell/Above Heaven (2010)
- Outlaw Gentlemen & Shady Ladies (2013)
- Seal the Deal & Let's Boogie (2016)
- Rewind, Replay, Rebound (2019)
- Servant of the Mind (2021)

## Other websites

- Volbeat's Official website

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Volbeat
- **img**: Volbeat 2013.jpg
- **landscape**: yes
- **background**: group_or_band
- **origin**: Copenhagen, Denmark
- **genre**: heavy metal music, Heavy metal, hard rock, rockabilly, punk rock, groove metal, blues rock, rock 'n' roll
- **years active**: 2001–_present_
- **label**: Rebel Monster Records (in he US)
Mascot Records (in the US)
Vertigo Records, Vertigo (in Europe)
Universal Records, Universal (in Europe)
- **associated acts**: Dominus (band), Dominus
- **url**: [http://www.volbeat.dk Official website]
- **current members**: Michael Poulsen
Thomas Bredahl
Anders Kjølholm
Jon Larsen
- **past members**: Franz Gottschalk
Teddy Vang
Alfred Hershey

**Alfred Day Hershey** (December 4, 1908 – May 22, 1997) was an American Nobel Prize-winning bacteriologist and geneticist.

He was born in Owosso, Michigan and received his B.S. in chemistry at Michigan State University in 1930 and his Ph.D. in bacteriology in 1934, taking a position shortly thereafter at the Department of Bacteriology at Washington University in St. Louis.

He began doing experiments with bacteriophages with Italian-American Salvador Luria and German Max Delbrück in 1940. He found that when two different strains of bacteriophage have infected the same bacteria, the two viruses may exchange genetic information.

He moved with his wife Harriet to Cold Spring Harbor, New York, in 1950 to join the Carnegie Institution for Science's Department of Genetics. There he performed the famous Hershey-Chase blender experiment with Martha Chase in 1952. This experiment provided additional evidence that DNA, not protein, was the genetic material.

He became director of the Carnegie Institution in 1962 and was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1969, shared with Luria and Delbrück for their discovery on the replication of viruses and their genetic structure.

## Other websites

- Nobel biography
- Biographical Memoir: Alfred Day Hershey by Franklin W. Stahl for the National Academy of Sciences
- Key Participants: Alfred D. Hershey  - _Linus Pauling and the Race for DNA: A Documentary History_

## Infobox (scientist)

- **name**: Alfred Hershey
- **image**: Alfred Hershey.jpg
- **image size**: 150px
- **caption**: Alfred D. Hershey in 1969
- **birth date**: December 4, 1908
- **birth place**: Owosso, Michigan
- **death date**: May 22, 1997
- **nationality**: United States
- **field**: bacteria, bacteriology
 genetics
- **alma mater**: Michigan State University
- **known for**: bacteriophages
- **prizes**: Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1969
Night terror

A **night terror**, also known as a sleep terror, is a sleep disorder that causes extreme terror and a temporary inability to regain full consciousness. The person having the night terror wakes up suddenly, usually gasping, moaning, or screaming while waking. It is often impossible to wake up the person fully because they are so concentrated on waking, and after the terror the subject normally settles back to sleep without waking. A night terror can rarely be recalled by the subject. They typically occur during non-rapid eye movement sleep.

## Other websites

- Night Terror Resource Center
- eMedicine Health: Night Terrors
- National Institutes of Health, Medline Plus: Night Terrors
- National Library of Medicine - Medical Subject Headings: Night Terrors
Sports Illustrated Stadium

**Sports Illustrated Stadium**, known before December 2024 as **Red Bull Arena**, is a soccer stadium in Harrison, New Jersey in the United States. It is home to two teams that each play in the top level of American soccer—the New York Red Bulls, a men's team playing in Major League Soccer, and Gotham FC, which plays in the National Women's Soccer League.

The construction started in 2006, but through differences of the clubowner and the state of New Jersey there was a delay. After the former Metro Stars were bought by the Red Bull company, the stadium was opened on March 20, 2010 with a friendly match of the NY Red Bulls versus FC Santos from Brazil. One week later the first league match was held in the new stadium versus Chicago Fire. The stadium has 30 luxury suites and 1,000 premium seats. The design is customized to the design of the owner company, Red Bull.

On December 11, 2024, the Red Bulls announced that the stadium would be renamed Sports Illustrated Stadium. The renaming is part of a partnership between the team and Sports Illustrated Tickets, an online ticketing platform that licenses the name of the famed magazine from the magazine's owner.

## Other websites

- Red Bull Arena Homepage

- See also:Red Bull Arena (Salzburg)

## Infobox (stadium)

- **stadium name**: Sports Illustrated Stadium
- **image**:
- **location**: Harrison, New Jersey
- **built**: 2006 -2010
- **opened**: 20 March 2010, New York Red Bulls - FC Santos (3:1)
- **owner**: Red Bull GmbH
- **surface**: lawn
- **architect**: Rossetti Architects
- **former names**: Red Bull Arena (2010–2024)
- **seating capacity**: 25,000
Roger Wolcott Sperry

**Roger Wolcott Sperry** (August 20, 1913 – April 17, 1994) was an American neurobiologist and Nobel Prize winner.

He shared the 1981 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel. In 1989, Sperry also received the National Medal of Science.

Before Sperry's experiments, some research evidence seemed to indicate that areas of the cerebral cortex were largely interchangeable. In his early experiments, Sperry showed that the opposite was true: after early development, circuits of the brain are largely hardwired. That is, they are set with a particular function.

Sperry's work was on 'split-brain' research. In his Nobel-winning work, Sperry tested ten patients who had undergone an operation developed in 1940 by William Van Wagenen, a neurosurgeon in Rochester, NY.

The surgery, designed to treat epileptics with _grand mal_ seizures, severed (cut) the corpus callosum, the area of the brain used to transfer signals between the right and left hemispheres.

Sperry and his colleagues tested these patients with tasks that were known to be dependent on specific hemispheres of the brain and demonstrated that the two halves of the brain may each contain consciousness.  In his words, each hemisphere is

This research contributed greatly to understanding how each cerebral hemisphere works.

Some activities, such as naming objects or putting blocks together in a particular way, can only be done when using one side of the brain or the other. It seems the left hemisphere usually specializes in language processes and the right is dominant in visual-construction tasks.

## Infobox (scientist)

- **name**: Roger Sperry
- **birth name**: Roger Wolcott Sperry
- **image**: Roger Wolcott Sperry.jpg
- **birth place**: Hartford, Connecticut
- **death date**: (aged 80)
- **death place**: Pasadena, California
- **field**: Neuropsychology
- **thesis title**: Functional results of crossing nerves and transposing muscles in the fore and hind limbs of the rat
- **thesis url**: http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/48361305
- **thesis year**: 1941
- **doctoral advisor**: Paul Alfred Weiss, Paul A. Weiss
- **prizes**: Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1981)
Machair (TV series)

***Machair*** was a Scottish Gaelic television soap opera produced by Scottish Television Enterprises between January 1993 and April 1999.

_Machair_ was written in English and translated into Gaelic, then given English subtitles and broadcast during primetime.  At first, critics thought this process would not work, but when the show aired it got lots of praise from reviewers.  Kenneth Roy, television critic of Scotland on Sunday, described it as _"A credit to the company (Scottish Television) and a smack in the face to those of us who were doubtful"_ and after a few episodes said _"It is even better than it looked at first glance quite simply the best thing to have happened to television in Scotland for a long time."_ Audiences liked the show too. _Machair_ got 30% audience share and made it into the Top Ten of programmes viewed in Scotland, even though fewer than 2% of the Scottish population can speak Gaelic.  It was nominated for awards for production and writing from _The Celtic Film Festival_ and Writers Guild of Great Britain.
Oil refinery

An **oil refinery** or **petroleum refinery** is an industrial plant where crude oil is made into useful petroleum products by fractional distillation and other processes. Products include gasoline, diesel fuel, asphalt base, heating oil, kerosene, and liquefied petroleum gas.

## Other websites

- Searchable United States Refinery Map
- Interactive map of UK refineries
- Complete, detailed refinery description
- Petroleum Refinery Planning and Optimization Using Linear Programming
- Student's Guide to Refining
- Global refinery shortage shifts power balance
- Ecomuseum Bergslagen  - history of Oljeön, Sweden
- Detailed refinery description
- Fueling Profits: Report on Industry Consolidation (publication of the Consumer Federation of America)
- Price Spikes, Excess Profits and Excuses (publication of the Consumer Federation of America)
- Refinery study
- 2011 NACS Annual Fuels Report
- Basics of Oil Refining Overview of crude oil refining process
- Basics of Oil Refining  Overview of crude oil refining process with focus on Canadian crude oil
- Refinery Animations & Videos  Oil Refinery Process Animations,Videos & 360 Degree Views
- Chicago Bridge & Iron: Virtual Refinery
- Encyclopaedia of Hydrocarbons, ENI and Treccani ed., 5 volumes
IP Phone

An **IP Phone** is a VoIP-based telephone service. Because it uses the internet instead of a phone company, call costs are often lower.
Traveler's cheque

A **traveler's cheque** (also **traveller's cheque**, **travellers cheque**, **traveller's check** or **traveler's check**) is a preprinted  cheque for a fixed amount.  The person who buys it must sign it and then sign it again when he "cashes" it.  It is a good way for a traveller to take money when going on holiday.  If a traveler's cheque is stolen it can be replaced so long as the person still has a receipt to prove that he bought it.

Traveler's cheques were a large part of the business of American Express.  Since 2005 the American Express have been issuing "American Express Travelers Cheque Cards".  These can be used in stores like a credit card.

## Other websites

- American Express Traveler's Cheques merchant site
Catscratch

***Catscratch*** is an American animated television series. It was broadcast on Nickelodeon and Nicktoons Network from 2005 to 2007.

## Infobox (television)

- **genre**: Children's television
- **animator**: Rough Draft Korea, Rough Draft Animation Studio
- **runtime**: 23 minutes
- **creator**: Doug TenNapel
- **starring**: Wayne Knight
Rob Paulsen
Kevin McDonald
- **country**: United States
- **company**: Nickelodeon Animation Studio, Nickelodeon Animation Studios
- **network**: Nickelodeon
- **num seasons**: 1
- **num episodes**: 20
- **list episodes**: List of Catscratch episodes
Nabarlek

The **nabarlek** (_Petrogale concinna_), also known as the **pygmy rock-wallaby** or the **little Rock-wallaby**, is a small marsupial, a type of wallaby from northern Australia. Nabarleks are small kangaroos. They can hop and jump with their powerful legs, and balance on their long tail.
Matthias Grünewald

**Mathias Grünewald** (c. 1470 in Würzburg, died 31 August 1528) was a German painter and artist. Today he is seen as one of the important German artists of the Renaissance. His real name was _Mathias Gothart_ or _Mathias Neidhardt_, his first name is also spelled _Mathis_. Sometimes he is called **Mathias of Aschaffenburg**. Today, only ten paintings and 35 drawings survive. At first many of his works were attributed to Albrecht Dürer, even though Dürer's style of paining is completely different. All the surviving works have religious motifs.
American Airlines Center

The **American Airlines Center** (also known as the **AAC** and **The Hanger**) is an indoor multi-purpose sports arena. It is in the Victory Park neighborhood, near downtown Dallas, Texas. It is currently used by the Dallas Stars and the Dallas Mavericks. It is also used for concerts and entertainment.

## Other websites

- Official Site

## Infobox (stadium)

- **stadium name**: American Airlines Center
- **nickname**: AAC
The Hangar
- **image**:
- **location**: 2500 Victory Avenue, Dallas, Texas 75201
- **broke ground**: September 1, 1999
- **opened**: July 17, 2001
- **owner**: Center Operating Company, L.P.
- **construction cost**: United States dollar, USD $ 420 million
- **architect**: David M. Schwarz/Architectural Services, Inc.
HKS, Inc.
Johnson/McKibben Architects, Inc.
- **tenants**: Dallas Mavericks (National Basketball Association, NBA) (2001–present)
 Dallas Stars (National Hockey League, NHL) (2001–present)
 Dallas Vigilantes (Arena Football League (2010), AFL) (2010–present)
- **seating capacity**: Ice hockey: 18,532, 18,584 (standing room only)
Basketball: 21,041
Concerts: 21,000
Torsten Wiesel

**Torsten Nils Wiesel** (born June 3, 1924) is a Swedish neuroscientist.

He and David Hubel won the 1981 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, for their discoveries of information processing in the visual system. The prize was shared with Roger Sperry for his independent research on the cerebral hemispheres.

After serving as president of the Rockefeller University, he is now director of the Shelby White and Leon Levy Center for Mind, Brain and Behavior at the same institution. He is also an advisor to several countries and organizations, mainly helping young scientists do research. He is a member of the President's Council of University of the People.

He was elected a member of the Academia Europaea in 1995.

Torsten was married to American editor Jean Stein from 1995 until they divorced in 2007.

Wiesel turned 100 in June 2024.

## Infobox (scientist)

- **name**: Torsten Wiesel
- **image**: Torsten Wiesel-7Nov2006.jpg
- **birth place**: Uppsala, Sweden
- **nationality**: Swedish
- **known for**: visual system
- **prizes**: Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1981
Yi Jun-yong

**Yi Jun-yong** (or **Lee Junyong**, , hanja: , June 25 1870  March 22, 1918) was a Korean politician. He was a member of the Joseon Dynasty royal family. He was the grandson of Heungseon Daewangun, and elder nephew of Emperor Gojong of the Korean empire. He was rival of his uncle Kojong 1874 to 1907. His title was 'Prince Yeongseon' ().

## Other websites

- http://terms.naver.com/entry.nhn?docId=536044
- http://100.naver.com/100.nhn?docid=128028
Keine Sorgen Arena

The **Keine Sorgen Arena** ("No Worries Arena") is a football stadium in Ried, Austria. It is the homeground of SV Ried. The stadium is named after a slogan used by one sponsor of SV Ried, an upper Austrian insurance company. Since 2018 it is called Josko-Arena. Josko is another sponsor of SV Ried.

The stadium replaced the former stadium of SV Ried which had only 1 100 places and was a multipurpose stadium with a running track. The new stadium is only used for football and has 7 700 seats of whom 120 are a VIP-area. The weststand and the awaystand offer only standingroom.

## Infobox (stadium)

- **stadium name**: Keine Sorgen Arena
- **image**:
- **location**: Ried im Innkreis, Austria
- **built**: 2003
- **opened**: October 19th, 2003
- **surface**: lawn
- **former names**: Fill Metallbau Stadion, HomeLife-Arena
- **seating capacity**: 7 700
Orlen

**Orlen S.A.** (formerly _Polski Koncern Naftowy Orlen S.A_., _PKN Orlen_) is a Polish oil and gas company. It has a lot of petrol stations in Poland, Germany, Czech Republic, Lithuania and Slovakia. It is the biggest company in Poland and one of the biggest oil and gas companies in Europe.

## History

Orlen was founded in People's Repubic of Poland. In 1999, it was privatized.

## Brands of Orlen Group

- Basell Orlen Polyolefins
- Petrochemia Płock
- UniPetrol
- Benzina
- Solino
- Anwil
- Orlen KolTrans
- Orlen Lietuva
- Polkomtel
- Orlen Transport
- Orlen Oil
- Orlen Gaz
- CPN
- Bliska
- Star
- Benzina Plus
- Ventus
- Orlen Petrocentrum
- Orlen Wir
- Orlen Medica
- Orlen Budonaft
- Spolana
- Orlen International Exploration and Production Company
- Orlen Upstream

## Infobox (_company)

- **name**: Orlen S.A.
- **type**: Public (WSE:PKN)
- **foundation**: 1999
- **location city**: Płock
- **location country**: Poland
- **key people**: Dariusz Jacek Krawiec
<small>(Chairman)</small>
- **area served**: Europe
- **industry**: Oil and Natural Gas
- **num employees**: 24,113
- **revenue**: PLN 83.547 billion
- **net income**: PLN 3.070 billion
Richard Roberts

**Sir Richard John Roberts** FRS (born 6 September 1943, Derby) is a British biochemist and molecular biologist.

He was awarded the 1993 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Phillip Sharp for "the discovery that genes in eukaryotes are not contiguous strings but contain introns, and that the splicing of messenger RNA to delete those introns can occur in different ways, yielding different proteins from the same DNA sequence".

Roberts has worked at Harvard University, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory and New England Biolab. He was knighted in the 2008 Birthday Honours.

## Work

It used to be thought that each gene on DNA coded for a single protein in a continuous strip. Roberts and Sharp independently found out that the genes in adenovirus (which causes the common cold), were split into segments that were combined later in RNA processing.

In 1997 Roberts proved that in the adenovirus coding DNA is separated by stretches of DNA which are non-coding. The coding sections are ***exons***, and the non-coding sections are ***introns***.

Furthermore, it turned out that this structure occurs in all higher organisms. The discovery that a gene in could be present in the genetic material as several distinct and separate segments was revolutionary.

The second part of Robert's work was in gene-splitting and gene splicing. This means to cut pieces out of, and add pieces to, a coding sequence. This creates a protein which works differently from the original version. This is now used in genetic engineering.

### Suggested effect on evolution

This kind of structure may allow more flexible responses to environmental change, and so speed up evolution. The structure may also be responsible for a number of inherited genetic defects.

Here's a key part of the Nobel presentation speech by Professor Bertil Daneholt of the Nobel Assembly of the Karolinska Institute:

- "Earlier it was believed that genes evolve mainly through the accumulation of small discrete changes in the genetic material. But their mosaic gene structure also permits higher organisms to restructure genes in another, more efficient way. This is because during the course of evolution, gene segments - the individual pieces of the mosaic - are regrouped in the genetic material, which creates new mosaic patterns and hence new genes. This reshuffling process presumably explains the rapid evolution of higher organisms".

## Infobox (scientist)

- **name**: Richard Roberts
- **image**: Roberts, Richard John (1943).jpg
- **caption**: Richard Roberts
- **birth place**: Derby, England, UK
- **nationality**: United Kingdom, British
- **field**: molecular biology, molecular biologist
- **known for**: introns
- **prizes**: 1993 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
Asseco

**Asseco Poland S.A.** is a Polish company in the technology sector, the biggest in Warsaw Stock Exchange.

Its headquarters are in Rzeszów, Poland.

## History

It was founded in 1991.

The company works in Poland, Slovakia, the Czech Republic, Austria, Lithuania, Germany, Romania, Hungary, Spain, United States, Israel, Japan, Turkey and the Balkans.

## Infobox (company)

- **name**: Asseco Poland S.A.
- **logo**: Asseco Poland Logo.svg
- **type**: Public (WSE:ACP)
- **foundation**: 1991
- **location city**: Rzeszów
- **location country**: Poland
- **key people**: Adam Góral
<small>(President)</small>
- **area served**: Worldwide
- **industry**: Computer software
- **num employees**: 8,500
- **revenue**: PLN 168 million
- **net income**: PLN 56 million
Etta Baker

**Etta Baker** (March 31, 1913 – September 23, 2006) was an American blues guitarist and singer from North Carolina, United States. She played in the Piedmont blues style.

Baker was born **Etta Lucille Reid** in Caldwell County, North Carolina of African American, Native American, and European American origin. Since the age of three she played 6- and 12-string guitar and Banjo. She was thought by her father, who was also a Piedmont blues musician. She did her first recording in 1956, when folk singer Paul Clayton was asked by her father to listen to his daughter. She played "One Dime Blues" and Clayton was very impressed. Next day he did some recordings with his taperecorder in Etta Bakers home.

Over the years she played with different musicians like Bob Dylan, Taj Mahal, and Kenny Wayne Shepherd. Etta Baker had nine children, one of them died in the Vietnam War. She died at the age of 93 in Fairfax, Virginia, while visiting a daughter who had suffered a stroke.

## Honours

- North Carolina Folk Heritage Award from the North Carolina Arts Council (1989)
- National Endowment for the Arts' National Heritage Fellowship (1991)
- North Carolina Award (2003)
- North Carolina Folklore Society's Brown-Hudson Folklore Award (1982 - together with her sister Cora Philips)

## Discography

- 1956 : _Instrumental Music From the Southern Appalachians_ (1956, Tradition Records; reissued 1997)
- 1990 : _One Dime Blues_
- 1998 : _The North Carolina Banjo Collection_ (various artists) (1998, Rounder)
- 1999 : _Railroad Bill_
- 2004 : _Etta Baker with Taj Mahal_ (Music Maker 50)
- 2005 : _Carolina Breakdown_  with Cora Phillips (Music Maker 56)
- 2006 : _Knoxville Rag_ with Kenny Wayne Shepherd (CD Title: "10 Days Out- Blues From The Backroads", it also includes a DVD that shows Kenny & Etta playing guitar in her kitchen), Reprise Records, 2006

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **image**: Etta Baker (cropped).jpg
- **caption**: Etta Baker
- **name**: Etta Baker
- **background**: solo_singer
- **birth name**: Etta Lucille Reid
- **birth place**: Caldwell County, North Carolina, United States, US
- **death place**: Fairfax, Virginia, Fairfax, Virginia, United States
- **instrument**: guitar, banjo, vocals
- **genre**: Piedmont blues
- **years active**: 1950s - 2000s
- **label**: Rounder, Tradition, Reprise, Music Maker
- **url**: [http://www.musicmaker.org/artists/index.php?bandid=2 Etta Bakers page]
Susumu Tonegawa

**Susumu Tonegawa** (born 6 September 1939) is a Japanese scientist who won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1987.

He discovered the genetic mechanism that produces antibody diversity. Although he won the Nobel Prize for his work in immunology, Tonegawa is a molecular biologist by training. In his later years, he has turned his attention to the molecular and cellular basis of memory.

Tonegawa is best known for elucidating the genetic mechanism in the adaptive immune system. If each antibody was coded by one gene, it would take millions of genes to protect against antigens.

Instead, as Tonegawa showed in a landmark series of experiments beginning in 1976, genetic material can rearrange itself to form the vast array of available antibodies. The main mechanism is called RNA splicing.

Antibodies have a 'variable region' in their structure. Tonegawa compared the DNA of B cells (a type of white blood cell) in embryonic and adult mice. He found that genes in the mature B cells of the adult mice are moved around, recombined, and deleted to make the many versions of the variable region of antibodies.

## Early life and education

Tonegawa was born in Nagoya, Japan and attended Hibiya High School in Tokyo. While a student at Kyoto University, Tonegawa became fascinated with operon theory after reading papers by François Jacob and Jacques Monod, whom he credits in part for inspiring his interest in molecular biology.

## The critical work

The critical work was started in Basle, Switzerland, and later at MIT. "Our work resolved the long held debate on the genetic origin of antibody diversity. It turned out that this diversity is generated by somatic recombination of the inherited gene segments and by somatic mutation".

## Related pages

- List of Nobel Prize winners by country

## Infobox (scientist)

- **name**: Susumu Tonegawa
- **image**: Susumu-Tonegawa.png
- **caption**: Susumu Tonegawa
- **birth place**: Nagoya, Japan
- **nationality**: Japanese
- **alma mater**: Kyoto University, University of California, San Diego
- **known for**: antibody diversity
- **prizes**: Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1987
Edexcel

**Edexcel** is a UK examination board. It is one of England, Wales and Northern Ireland's five main examination boards. Edexcel is owned by the private-sector Pearson PLC.  The company offers many qualifications including A levels and GCSEs. Edexcel's name is from the words _education_ and _excellence_.

## Infobox (organization)

- **name**: Edexcel
- **formation**: 1996
- **purpose**: Examination board
- **headquarters**: London, United Kingdom, UK
- **region served**: England, Wales and Northern Ireland
- **parent organization**: Pearson PLC, Pearson
- **website**: [http://www.edexcel.com/ www.edexcel.com]
Chamber pot

A **chamber pot** (also a **chamberpot**), a **piss pot**, a **potty**, a **po**, a **gazunder**, or a **thunder pot**) is a container with a handle, usually used as a urinal at night. It is kept in a bedroom under a bed or in a nightstand.

During Victorian times, some chamber pots were built into a cabinet with a closeable cover.

## History

The chamber pot was originally designed for females. Called the _Bourdaloue_, it allowed women to urinate squatting or sitting without accidents. It was supposedly named after the French Catholic priest Louis Bourdaloue, whose sermon were so long that women brought _Bourdaloue_ so they could urinate without having to leave.

In the 19th century, water closets started to be more common than chamber pots, but chamber pots were still used until the mid-20th century. Today, they are used in countries that have no indoor plumbing.

In North America and the UK, "potty" refer to the toilets made especially for potty training. These toilets are similar to chamber pots.

In the Philippines, chamber pots are used as urinals and are commonly called "Arinola" in Philippine languages like Tagalog and Cebuano.

In Korea, chamber pots are referred to as **yogang** (**요강**). Currently, they are still used in some country regions in the North.
SimCity 2000

***SimCity 2000*** is a city building computer game released in 1994. It is the sequel to _SimCity_. It had a lot of new things such as more power plants, hills and mountains, subways, water pipes, prisons, schools, libraries, museums, and hospitals. There were also roads, highways, and other buildings.

The game also had different scenarios.

## Infobox (video game)

- **title**: SimCity 2000
- **designer**: Will Wright (game designer), Will Wright
Fred Haslam
- **artist**: Jenny Martin
- **composer**: Brian Conrad
Sue Kasper
Justin McCormick
- **series**: _SimCity_
- **genre**: City-building game, City-building
- **modes**: Single player
- **platforms**: Mac OS
 DOS
  Amiga
  Microsoft Windows
  #Ports and special editions, various
  Super Nintendo Entertainment System, SNES
  Sega Saturn
  PlayStation (console), PlayStation
  Nintendo 64
  Game Boy Advance
  PlayStation Network, PSN
  OS/2
  FM Towns
  NEC PC-9801, PC-98
- **caption**: Cartridge of SimCity 2000
Jonathan Dickinson State Park

**Jonathan Dickinson State Park** is a Florida State Park and historic site in Martin County, Florida, between Hobe Sound and Tequesta. The park has many kinds of areas, such as sand pine scrub, pine flatwoods, mangroves, and river swamps. The Loxahatchee River, which was named a National Wild and Scenic River in 1985 (the first in Florida), runs through the park. The address is 16450 S.E. Federal Highway, Hobe Sound.

## History

The park is named after Jonathan Dickinson, a Quaker merchant who was shipwrecked in 1696, with his family and others, on the Florida coast near the present-day park. He wrote a journal about their encounters with local tribes, and their journey up the coast to St. Augustine.

A man known as Trapper Nelson lived on the banks of the Loxahatchee River after coming to the area in the 1930s, living off the land trapping and selling furs. He soon became known as the _Wildman of the Loxahatchee_. After he died in 1968 the state got his land, and gave it to the park.

The United States Army established Camp Murphy, a top-secret radar training school, in the area that is now the park, in 1942. The camp included over 1,000 buildings, and housed more than 6,000 officers and soldiers. The camp stopped being used in 1944, after only two years. Most of the camp buildings were torn down, but some of the building foundations remain. The property was given to the State of Florida in 1947, and opened as a state park in 1950.

## Recreational activities

The park has such activities as bicycling, boat tours, boating, cabins, canoeing, fishing, hiking, horse trails, kayaking, picnicking areas, swimming, wildlife viewing and full camping facilities. It also has the **Elsa Kimbell Environmental Education and Research Center**, with exhibits about the park's natural and cultural history.  The park operates a 44-passenger boat for tours of Trapper Nelson's homestead.

## Other websites

- Jonathan Dickinson State Park  – official site
- Jonathan Dickinson State Park at State Parks of the United States
- Jonathan Dickinson State Park  at Absolutely Florida

## Infobox (protected area)

- **name**: Jonathan Dickinson State Park
- **iucn category**: V
- **map**: Florida
- **location**: Martin County, Florida, United States
- **nearest city**: Hobe Sound, Florida, Hobe Sound / Tequesta, Florida, Tequesta, Florida
- **area acre**: 11500
- **established**: 1950
- **visitation num**: 172,000
- **visitation year**: 2004
- **governing body**: Florida Department of Environmental Protection
Anti-Comintern Pact

The **Anti-Comintern Pact** was a pact between Nazi Germany and the Empire of Japan, which would later joined by more countries, in Berlin, Germany, on November 25, 1936. It was set up directly against the Comintern, or Communist International, an organization that was led by the Soviet Union. On November 6, 1937, Fascist Italy joined the pact, which was the beginning of the Axis Powers. Spain and Hungary joined in 1939.
Reichstag fire

The **Reichstag fire** () was an arson on the Reichstag building, the meeting place of the German Parliament, in Berlin on 27 February 1933. It was an important event in the creation of Nazi Germany.

A Berlin fire station was called, and by the time the police and firefighters had arrived, most of the building was covered in flames. Inside the building, Marinus van der Lubbe was found. He was a Dutch communist. The Nazis said it proved that communists were beginning a plot against the German government. Van der Lubbe and four Communist leaders were arrested shortly after that. Adolf Hitler, who had become Chancellor four weeks before, urged President Paul von Hindenburg to pass an emergency law to fight back "the confrontation of the Communist Party of Germany".

As a result, Enabling Act of 1933 was passed. The Reichstag Fire Decree was issued by President von Hindenburg on the advice of Chancellor Adolf Hitler on 28 February 1933 in response to the Reichstag fire. _The decree suspended most civil liberties in Germany_. Many Communists were arrested, including all the Communist Party members of Parliament. This made the Nazis the majority of the Parliament, and made Hitler's the dictator in effect. The following elections gave Hitler more power.

More investigation continued. In early March 1933, three men were brought to the court. All of them were senior Bulgarian Comintern agents. One Communist was found guilty and executed; the others were acquitted and went to the Soviet Union.

Historians still do not know who planned the fire or who did it. It is still an ongoing topic of research.

## Infobox (historical event)

- **name**: Reichstag fire
_Reichstagsbrand_
- **image**: Reichstagsbrand.jpg
- **caption**: Firefighters struggling to stop the fire
- **participants**: Marinus van der Lubbe
- **location**: Reichstag building, Berlin, Weimar Republic, Germany
Operation Sea Lion

**Operation Sea Lion** () was the plan to invade the United Kingdom by Nazi Germany during World War II. However, Germany first had to control the sky and sea of the English Channel before a land invasion.

With the _Kriegsmarine_ weakened during the German invasion of Norway and the _Luftwaffe_ defeated at the Battle of Britain, the invasion was "suspended indefinitely" on 17 September 1940 and ended up never happening.

Some historians think Germany could have invaded Great Britain with the help of friendly countries and unity within the German military. Most historians, however, believe that the German plans would have had little chance of success.
Max Perutz

**Max Ferdinand Perutz** FRS OM CBE (19 May 1914 – 6 February 2002) was an Austrian-born British molecular biologist.

He shared the 1962 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with John Kendrew, for their studies of the structures of haemoglobin and globular proteins. The method used was mainly X-ray crystallography.

He went on to win the Royal Medal of the Royal Society in 1971 and the Copley Medal in 1979.  At Cambridge he founded and chaired (1962–79) The Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology, fourteen of whose scientists have won Nobel Prizes. Perutz's contributions to molecular biology in Cambridge are documented in _The History of the University of Cambridge: Volume 4 (1870 to 1990)_ published by the Cambridge University Press in 1992.

Perutz was born in Vienna, Austria. His family was Jewish. He had worked in Cambridge (Peterhouse College) since 1936, and moved to Britain permanently after the Anschluss, the Nazi takeover of Austria. He did his war work in Canada, and returned to Cambridge after the war. Max did some of his most important work after winning the Nobel award, and is still held in the highest esteem.

## Books by Perutz

- 1989. _Is science necessary? Essays on science and scientists_. London. Barrie and Jenkins.
- 1997. _Science is not a quiet life : unravelling the atomic mechanism of haemoglobin_. Singapore. World Scientific.
- 2002. _I wish I’d made you angry earlier: essays on science, scientists and humanity_. Cold Spring Harbor, New York. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press.

## Infobox (scientist)

- **image**: Max Perutz 1962.jpg
- **caption**: Perutz in 1962
- **birth name**: Max Ferdinand Perutz
- **birth date**: 19 May 1914
- **birth place**: Vienna, Austria-Hungary
- **nationality**: British
- **death place**: Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, England
- **field**: Molecular biology
Crystallography
- **work institution**: University of Cambridge
Laboratory of Molecular Biology
- **doctoral advisor**: John Desmond Bernal
- **known for**: Heme-containing proteins
- **spouse**: Gisela Clara Peiser (m. 1942; 2 children)
Battle of Moscow

The **Battle of Moscow** (, ) is a name given by Soviet historians to two periods of fighting on a 600 km area of the Eastern Front during World War II. It took place between October 1941 and January 1942. The Soviet defenses stopped the German attack on Moscow, the Soviet capital, which was one of the Axis's primary military and political objectives in the invasion of the Soviet Union.

The German strategic offensive named **Operation Typhoon** was planned to attack Moscow from the north and south. The Soviets reacted by sending in more reserve from the Far East. Shortly, German attacks were stopped, and the Soviets began counter-attack and were forced to push the Axis back.

## Infobox (military conflict)

- **conflict**: Battle of Moscow
- **partof**: the Eastern Front (World War II), Eastern Front of World War II
- **image**: RIAN archive 429 Fresh forces going to the front.jpg
- **caption**: December 1941. Fresh forces going to the front from Moscow.
- **place**: Moscow region, Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union
- **date**: 2 October 1941 – 7 January 1942
- **result**: Decisive Soviet victory
- **combatant1**: Nazi Germany
- **combatant2**: Soviet Union
- **commander1**: Fedor von Bock
Heinz Guderian
Albert Kesselring
- **commander2**: Georgy Zhukov
Aleksandr Vasilevsky
- **strength1**: **As of 1 October 1941:**
1,000,000 men,
1,700 tanks,
14,000 guns,
Aircraft at first: 549 can be used At time of Counter offensive: 599
- **strength2**: **As of 1 October 1941:**
1,250,000 men,
1,000 tanks,
7,600 guns,
Aircraft at first: 936 (545 can be used) At time of Counter offensive: 1,376
- **casualties1**: 280,000-400,000
- **casualties2**: 650,000–1,280,000 (mostly captured)
Second Battle of El Alamein

The **Second Battle of El Alamein** was a great turning point in the Western Desert Campaign of the Second World War. The battle lasted from 23 October to 5 November 1942. The First Battle of El Alamein had stopped the Axis from attacking deep into Egypt further. Thereafter, Lieutenant-General Bernard Montgomery took command of the British Eighth Army in August 1942. In the second battle he took the offensive, with great success.

The Allied victory turned the tide of the North African Campaign. It ended Axis' hopes of occupying Egypt, taking control of the Suez Canal, and reaching the Middle Eastern oil fields.

The battle forced Erwin Rommel and his Afrika Korps to retreat back to the former French fortifications in the Mareth Line in the border between Tunisia and Libya.

## Infobox (military conflict)

- **conflict**: Second Battle of El Alamein
- **partof**: the Western Desert Campaign
- **image**: El Alamein 1942 - British infantry.jpg
- **caption**: 24 October 1942: British soldiers on the attack.
- **date**: 23 October – 5 November 1942
- **place**: El Alamein, Egypt
- **result**: Decisive Allied victory
- **combatant1**: **Allies of WWII, Allies**:

- **combatant2**: **Axis powers, Axis**:

- **commander1**: Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis, Harold Alexander
 Bernard Montgomery, 1st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein, Bernard Montgomery
- **commander2**: Erwin Rommel
  Georg Stumme
 Ettore Bastico
- **strength1**: 195,000 men
1,029 tanks
435 armoured cars
730 – 750 aircraft (530 serviceable)

892 – 908 artillery pieces

1,451 Anti Tank guns
- **strength2**: 116,000 men
547 tanks

192 armoured cars

770 – 900 aircraft (480 serviceable)
552 artillery pieces
496 Anti Tank Guns – 1,063
- **casualties1**: 13,560 casualties
332 – ~500 tanks
111 guns
97 aircraft
- **casualties2**: 30,542 casualties
~500 tanks
254 guns
84 aircraft
John Kendrew

Sir **John Cowdery Kendrew** CBE FRS (24 March 1917– 23 August 1997) was an English biochemist and crystallographer.

He shared the 1962 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Max Perutz. Their group in the Cavendish Laboratory was the first to determine the structure of proteins, using X-ray crystallography. He was also a Fellow (teacher) at Peterhouse College in Cambridge.

In what became the MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Kendrew determined the structure of the protein myoglobin, which stores oxygen in muscle cells.

He spent the early months of World War II doing research on radar. In 1940 he became engaged in operational research at the Royal Air Force headquarters, holding the honorary rank of Wing Commander R.A.F.

- John Finch 2008. _A Nobel Fellow on every floor_. Medical Research Council 2008. ; this book is about the MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge.

## Infobox (scientist)

- **image**: John Kendrew Nobel.jpg
- **image size**: 250px
- **name**: John Kendrew
- **caption**: John Kendrew
- **birth date**: 24 March 1917
- **birth place**: Oxford, England
- **death place**: Cambridge, England
- **nationality**: United Kingdom
- **field**: Crystallography
- **work institution**: Royal Air Force
- **alma mater**: University of Cambridge
- **doctoral advisor**: Max Perutz
- **known for**: Haeme-containing proteins
- **prizes**: Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1962)
Common marmoset

The **common marmoset** (_Callithrix jacchus_) is a very small New World monkey that lives in Brazil. Marmosets can found in many forest habitats. Common marmosets eat gum, sap, latex, and resin from trees the most out of all the members of the _Callithrix_ family.

A common group of marmosets is made up of 15 members, but usually has nine members. Common marmosets have a complex mating system. In a group of marmosets, there will usually be one or two females that will have babies and one male to be the father. The females are usually closely related, while the male is distantly related. If the male dies, the group will break up and form new groups. When marmosets get older, they leave the group they were raised with. It is not known why.

To show fear or submission, marmosets flatten their ear-tufts close to their heads. Marmoset alarm calls tend to be brief and high-pitched. Marmosets monitor and find group members with calls called "trills".
Intron

An **intron** is a non-coding sequence in a gene.

It is any nucleotide sequence within a gene that is removed by RNA splicing to get the final RNA product of a gene. The term _intron_ refers to both the DNA sequence within a gene, and the corresponding sequence in RNA transcripts.

Sequences of coding DNA which are joined together in the final RNA after RNA splicing are **exon**s. They code for amino acids in the final polypeptide.

Introns are in the genes of most organisms and many viruses. They can be in a wide range of genes, including those that generate proteins, ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and transfer RNA (tRNA). RNA splicing takes place after transcription and before translation.

- Introns: parts of a gene which are discarded: non-working bits.
- Exons: parts of a gene which are expressed: bits of a gene which code for amino-acid sequences in a protein.

The discovery of introns led to the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1993 for Phillip Sharp and  Richard Roberts. The term _intron_ was introduced by American biochemist Walter Gilbert.

## Biological meaning

There are many unanswered questions about introns. It is unclear whether introns serve some specific function, or whether they are selfish DNA which reproduces itself as a parasite.

Recent studies of entire eukaryotic genomes have now shown that the lengths and density (introns/gene) of introns varies considerably between related species. There are four or five different kinds of intron. Some introns represent mobile genetic elements (transposons).

Alternative splicing of introns within a gene allows a variety of protein isoforms from a single gene. Thus multiple related proteins can be generated from a single gene and a single precursor mRNA transcript. The control of alternative RNA splicing is performed by complex network of signalling molecules. In humans, ~95% of genes with more than one exon are alternatively spliced.
Sacramento (disambiguation)

**Sacramento** may refer to:

- Sacramento County, California, a county in California
- Sacramento, California, the state capital of California
New Haven (disambiguation)

**New Haven** may refer to:

- New Haven, Connecticut, a city in the state Connecticut
- New Haven, Indiana, a city in the state of Indiana
- New Haven, Kentucky, a city in the state of Kentucky
- New Haven, Missouri, a city in the state of Missouri
- New Haven, Vermont, a town in the state of Vermont
Harrisburg

**Harrisburg** may refer to:

- Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, the state capital of Pennsylvania
- Harrisburg, Illinois, a city in Illinois
Davis

**Davis** may refer to:

- Davis, Oklahoma, a city in Oklahoma
- Davis City, Iowa, a city in Iowa
North Las Vegas, Nevada

**North Las Vegas** is a suburban city in Clark County, Nevada, United States, in the Las Vegas Valley. As of the 2020 census, 262,527 people lived here. The city was founded on May 1, 1946. It is the fourth-largest city by population in the state.
Spliceosome

A **spliceosome** is a complex of special RNA and protein subunits. Spliceosomes are amazingly complex molecular machines. They remove introns from a transcribed pre-mRNA segment. This process is generally referred to as splicing.

Each spliceosome is composed of five small nuclear RNAs, (snRNA)s, and more than 50 proteins.
RNA splicing

**RNA splicing** is a stage in gene transcription. Messenger RNA (mRNA), which transfers the code from DNA to proteins, is built in two stages.

In the first stage, each gene is translated into a pre-mRNA. Then the exons in pre-mRNAs are joined by splicing, which is done in the spliceosomes.

This is needed because the gene is split into code sections called exons and non-coding sections called introns. The exons are brought together by splicing.

So, in molecular biology, **splicing** is a process where introns are removed and exons are joined. This makes the final mRNA. This messenger RNA is then used to produce a correct protein by translation.

## Alternative splicing

In many cases, the splicing process creates a range of unique proteins by varying the exon composition of the same messenger RNA. This phenomenon is called alternative splicing. Alternative splicing can occur in many ways. Exons can be extended or skipped, or introns can be retained.

## Eukaryotes vs prokaryotes

Splicing occurs in all the kingdoms or domains of life, however, the extent and types of splicing can be very different between the major divisions.  Eukaryotes splice many protein-coding messenger RNAs and some non-coding RNAs. Prokaryotes, on the other hand, splice rarely. Another important difference is that prokaryotes completely lack spliceosomes.

## Discovery

Phillip Sharp and Richard Roberts were awarded the 1993 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of introns and the splicing process.

In 1977, work by the Sharp and Roberts labs showed that genes of higher organisms are "split" or present in several distinct segments along the DNA molecule.

The coding regions of the gene are separated by non-coding DNA which is not involved in protein expression.  The non-coding regions, the introns, are cut from the precursor mRNAs in a process Sharp called "splicing".  The split gene structure was found to be common to most eukaryotic genes.