juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Sita

In Hinduism, **Sita (सीता)** was the daughter of Janaka and wife of Rama, an avatar of god Vishnu. The word Sita means “furrow”, that is, the line created on the farm when it is ploughed. She is believed to be the daughter of Bhūmi in many legends.

There is a story about Sita's birth. Her father Janaka was ploughing the land and a furrow was formed. From that furrow a baby girl came out. Janaka took the girl as his daughter and named her Sita.

In Hinduism, Sita is considered a form of the goddess Lakshmi. Sita is worshiped for her greatness and for her loyalty. She was the goddess of loyalty and her responsibility.
Halimah bint Abi Dhuayb

**Halima Sadia**  was an Arabic Beduin woman. She was a foster mother and took care of the prophet Muhammad for the first four years of his life. Halimah and her husband were from the tribe of Sa'd b. Bakr (a large North Arabian tribe).

## Relationship with Muhammad

Foster mothers came to Mecca to feed children. It was the custom at that time in Makkah that families send their children to live for a while with a nurse who lived in the desert. This was healthier for their bodies to be around a natural environment instead of living in the city. They preferred that the fathers of the children they took care of were still alive. Although Muhammad's father was dead, Halimah took him just eight days after he was born. He grew up in Hudaybiyah, then in Medina before he was returned to his mother, Aminah bint Wahb.

Years after Muhammad's mother died and he became married to Khadijah, Halimah came to him complaining of her poverty. He asked Khadijah to give her 40 sheep. After Muhammad got his first revelation, Halimah and her husband came to Muhammad and embraced Islam. When she came to Muhammad on the day of Hunayn, he took off his robe and put it on the ground for her to sit.

When the group of foster mothers arrived at the Makkah city and they picked up most of the children, the last nurse arrived with her husband (Al-Harith) riding a donkey and old camel. She found only one orphan boy who had no father to pay her. She was ready to go back but she did not want to return without a baby. She decided to go back and pick up the orphan. As soon as she lifted that boy, her life changed and became filled with immense good fortune and blessings. The old camel, which had not given a drop of milk, was soon over flowing with milk. Although she was the last women leaving makkah on her donkey, she passed her friends. This was indeed a great blessing for her and for this poor Bedouin family.

After two years, Muhammad was returned to his mother Amina. She told Amina about the great blessings that she had received when Muhammad was in her care, but soon, Amina was persuaded by Halima and her husband (Al-Harith) to return the child back with them for another two years to protect him from a spreading disease in Makkah.
Khadijah bint Khuwaylid

**Khadijah bint Khuwaylid** () (555 - 619) was the first wife of Muhammad, an Islamic prophet. Her nickname was Khadijah al-Kubra. She was known by the special names Thahira and Ummu Hinth. She was the daughter of Khuwaylid ibn Asad and bint Za'idah. Khadijah is widely known as the first person to convert to Islam. Khadijah is known as **_Umm-al-mu'minin_ **which means "the Mother of the Believers".

## Children

Khadijah had six children with Muhammad.
- Qasim ibn Muhammad, died in 605 CE, before his second birthday
- Abd-Allah ibn Muhammad, died in childhood in 615 CE
- Zainab bint Muhammad, married to her maternal cousin Abu al-Aas ibn al-Rabee
- Ruqayyah bint Muhammad, married to Uthman ibn Affan
- Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad, also married to Uthman ibn Affan after Ruqayyah's death
- Fatimah, married to 'Ali bin Abi Talib
555

## Events

- King Chlothar I adds the Frankish territories of Metz and Reims.
- King Erb of Gwent dies; his kingdom is divided into Gwent and Ergyng in Southern Wales (approximate date).
- Chinese Liang Dynasty: Jing Di, age 12, succeeds his father Yuan Di.

- Birth of Khadijah bint Khuwaylid
619

## Events

- Heraclius prepares to leave Constantinople. He moves the Byzantine capital to Carthage.
- The Second Perso-Turkic War is fought. It ends with a strong Persian victory.
- Muhammad's wife, Khadija, dies after 24 years of marriage.
- Kubrat, ruler of the Bulgars, is baptised in Constantinople.
- December 23 – Pope Boniface V succeeds Adeodatus I as the 69th pope of Rome.

- Death of Khadijah bint Khuwaylid
Sarasvati (disambiguation)

**Sarasvati** may mean several things. Some of the meanings are written below:

- Sarasvati was a river of Ancient India: Saraswati River.
- Sarasvati is a goddess of Hindus: Sarasvati.
- Sarasvati is a common name of girls in India.
Sarasvati River

**Sarasvati River** was one of the major rivers of Ancient India. The river flowed through parts of western and northern India. Then in Allahabad, the river merged with the Jamuna River.

At one time, Sarasvati was a deep river. The river dried up and became lost over a few hundred years, possibly between 2000 and 1500 BC.
Saraswati

**Saraswati** is one of the Hindu goddesses. The Vedas also mention her name. She is the goddess of speech, learning and knowledge. The legend states that she created the Sanskrit language and invented the veena, a musical instrument similar to a lute. The legend also says that she is the wife of Brahma, one of the gods of the Hindus.

## Birth

Mata Saraswati was born from the Samudra Manthan that arranged between the Devatas and the Asuras. She was born from the sea and was married to Lord Brahma thereafter. In another legend, Brahma created her by his imagination. However, she turned out to be so beautiful that he could not takes his eyes off her. Since he had five heads - four in the four cardinal directions - and one on top, his head kept turning in whichever direction Saraswati went.

Saraswati is mentioned in the Vedas, the Brahmans, the Aranyaks, the Upanishads and the Mahabharat. She is dressed in white. Her favorite instrument is a lute and she rides a swan. Generally, an image or a statue of Saraswati shows her with four arms. Two arms hold the veena. In other arms she holds a book and a lotus flower.

## Infobox (deity)

- **type**: Hindu
- **image**: Raja Ravi Varma, Goddess Saraswati.jpg
- **caption**: Saraswati by Raja Ravi Varma
- **name**: Saraswati
- **deity of**: Mother goddess;
goddess of knowledge, music, arts, speech, wisdom, learning and the Saraswati River
- **affiliation**: Devi, River deities in Hinduism, River goddess, Tridevi, Gayatri
- **abode**: Satyaloka, Manidvipa
- **siblings**: Shiva
- **consort**: Brahma
- **other names**: Sharada, Savitri, Brahmani, Bharadi, Vani, Vāc, Vagdevi
- **symbols**: White colour, lotus, Veena, Saraswati River, books
- **mount**: Hamsa (bird), Swan or peacock
- **mantra**: ॐ ऐं महासरस्वत्यै नमः, Saraswati Vandana Mantra, om shree mahasaraswatyai namaha.
- **festivals**: Vasant Panchami and seventh day of Navratri
- **member of**: Tridevi
- **script name**: Devanagari
- **script**: सरस्वती
- **sanskrit transliteration**: Sarasvatī
Holi

**Holi** is one of the major festivals of Hindus. It is celebrated in South Asian countries, especially in India and Nepal. Hiranyanaksap wanted to kill his son, so he called his sister, Holika. She had a magic robe. This robe had the power to save the wearer from burning in fire. Hiranyakashyap ordered his sister to sit on a burning fire along with Prahlad. He thought that his sister would not be harmed by the fire of the magic robe and Prahlad would be burnt to death. But the result was the opposite of what the evil demon king planned.

Thus Prahlad came out of the burning fire safely and Holika was burnt to death. Holi is the festival of colours. It is celebrated with colors to mark the victory of virtue and goodness over evil.

The festival is celebrated for two days. The 2nd day, Rang Panchami marks the closing day of the Holi festival.

People are seen with different varieties of colors on Holi. They put colors on each other, sing, dance. They worship Lord Krishna and put colors on his idol.

Families gather together and Parvi the whole day...

## Other websites

- History of Holi - Kamadahana Festival
- How to practice safe Holi , Government of India
- Holi in pictures from _The Guardian_
Beaminster

**Beaminster** is a town in Dorset, England. The town has a population of 3,000. Beaminster is known for a nine-day music and art festival called the Beaminster Festival. The festival is held every year.
Reggae

**Reggae** is a music genre that is from Jamaica that was developed in the late 1960s. Most music from Jamaica comes from the reggae style.

The music has regular chops on the back beat (off-beat).  These are called “skank”, and are played by a rhythm guitarist.  The bass drum hits on the second and fourth beat of each measure (each bar). These are called the “drop”. Reggae bands also use a bass, a keyboard or organ, and horns.

Reggae music is often used by Rastafarian groups. They are usually songs about religion, love and social problems. Bob Marley (1945-1981) was the most famous reggae artist. Other popular reggae artist are Peter Tosh, Bunny Wailer, Jimmy Cliff, Ziggy Marley, Burna Boy.

Famous instruments in reggae music are drums, guitar, saxophone, trumpet and trombone.

Reggae was started in 1960 but became famous in the 1970s.

Reggae songs often have lots of backing singers.

Rapper Snoop Dogg released an album of reggae music in 2013.

Som[
Bebop

**Bebop** or **bop** is a kind of jazz that became popular near the beginning of the Second World War, in the mid-1940s. Bebop is often fast.  The musicians improvise using a small group of chords which are repeated again and again. Charlie Parker (1920-1955), who was  famous for his saxophone playing, was a bebop artist. The famous trumpet player Dizzy Gillespie (1917-1993) was also a renowned artist of this genre.

The term "bebop" originates from a group of syllables used in **scat singing**, where random strings of sound were used in place of words.
Refugee camp

When there is a war or some other armed conflict in a country, many people will try to flee (run away) from that country. They will go to other countries, around the country where there is no war. Because they fled, they are called refugees.

If there are just a few refugees coming into a country it is generally no problem to get housing for them somewhere. However, if there are many (or if the government of a country expects many) refugees, it may build what is called a **refugee camp**. This is usually done by putting many tents, and a few toilets and showers on an unused plot (stretch) of land. This is usually land where no one wants to live.

Usually the governments hope that conflicts get resolved soon, and that those camps are only temporary.

This has not been the case for the refugee camps in the Gaza Strip, for example. Those camps have existed since the mid-1970s.

## Related pages

- Tent city
- Burj el-Barajneh refugee camp in the Lebanon
- United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)
- United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East

## Other websites

- Camp Management Toolkit  published by Norwegian Refugee Council
- Shelter Library  Resource for organisations responding to the transitional settlement and shelter needs of displaced populations
- U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants' Campaign to End Refugee Warehousing  in refugee camps around the world, people are confined to their settlement and denied their basic rights.
Argument

A **argument** is a way to persuade someone of something. Reasons are given to accept the conclusion. The general structure of an argument in a natural language is that premises (propositions or statements) support the claim or conclusion.

The strength and validity of arguments can be evaluated based on the factors such as relevance and truth of the premises, the logical structure connecting premises to the conclusion, and the overall coherence of the argument.

## Reason

An argument is a Reason to support an opinion.

There can be a "strong argument" or a "convincing argument" (for example, a good reason for why something should be done). **Arguing** is the process of conducting an argument.

The opposite is a "weak argument" or an "unconvincing argument". Arguments can be valid or invalid or a combination of both.  Some arguments may appear reasonable, but they turn out to be misleading or wrong.

## Related pages

- Implication and inference
- Cosmological argument
- Dialectic
- Deductive reasoning
- Inductive reasoning
- Fallacy
- Reasoning
Helmet

A **helmet** is a hard or cushioned hat which is worn to protect a person's head. There are many different types of helmets. Some helmets are made from leather or other natural materials. Other helmets are made from metal or plastic. Helmets often have fabric cushions inside and fabric straps to hold the helmet on a person's head.

Soldiers wear steel helmets to protect their heads from explosions and flying bits of metal. Construction workers wear plastic helmets to protect their heads from falling objects. Welders wear special helmets with a dark window that lets less light through. This protects their eyes from the bright light of welding. People who ride bicycles or horses wear plastic helmets with foam, to protect their heads in case they fall. Motorcycle riders wear similar but stronger helmets. People who rock climb wear helmets in case they fall. Cavers wear helmets to protect their heads from bumping into rocks in a cave. Helmets are also worn for protection by participants of numerous sports including horse racing, baseball, ice hockey, and cricket.
Coonskin cap

A **coonskin cap** is a hat made from the fur of a raccoon. Usually, the tail of the racoon is attached to the back of the hat. The coonskin cap is a symbol of the early United States frontier. Coonskin caps were first worn by the Native Americans who lived around Tennessee and Kentucky. The American settlers who moved to this area liked the caps and wore them themselves.  Some famous American pioneers who wore coonskin caps are Davy Crockett and Daniel Boone.

## Other websites

http://www.coonskincap.com/
Crazy Horse Memorial

The **Crazy Horse Memorial** is the world's largest mountain sculpture in progress. It is in the Black Hills of South Dakota, USA. The statue depicts Crazy Horse, a famous Lakota warrior. Korczak Ziolkowski started the project in 1948 at the request of Chief Henry Standing Bear and other Native American elders. The statue is meant to be a memorial to the spirit of Crazy Horse as well as the Native American people.

Ziolkowski believed in individual initiative and private enterprise, and as such, never accepted government funding. He continued to work on the memorial until his death in 1982.

## Today

Ziolkowski's wife and family have continued to work the Crazy Horse Memorial. Completion of the project is currently unknown because of several factors including weather, the availability of financing and the challenges of the mountain engineering.

The face of Crazy Horse was completed and dedicated in 1998. Work on the memorial continues today and current plans include blocking out the face of the horse itself.

## Other websites

- The official website
1727

## Events

- **1727** to 1800 – Lt. Col. Francisco de Melo Palheta smuggles coffee seeds to Brazil in a bouquet starting a coffee empire.
- June 11 – George, Prince of Wales becomes King George II of Great Britain.
- November 18–Earthquake in Tazriz, Persia – about 77,000 dead
- Last execution for witchcraft in Scotland
- First Amish move to America
- The Royal Bank of Scotland is founded by royal charter in Edinburgh.
- Catholic Charities is founded in New Orleans, United States, by the French Ursuline Sisters.

## Deaths

- – Isaac Newton, English scientist (b. 1643)
1720

## Events

- The Town on Queen Anne's Creek, North Carolina is renamed Edenton in honor of North Carolina Governor Charles Eden.  It is later incorporated in 1722.
- The Tuscarora fled North Carolina as a result of European colonisation
- Edmond Halley appointed Astronomer Royal
- The Academia Real da Historia is founded in Lisbon, Portugal
- Jonathan Swift begins Gulliver's Travels
- Emperor Kangxi announced that all western businessmen could only trade in Guangzhou.
Dwarka

**Dwarka** (with other spelling as **Dvarka**) was a city of Ancient India. The city was one of seven holy cities of the Hindus. It is regarded as one of the four most important places of pilgrimage for the Hindus. Hindus call such Holy places known as Dhams. Dwarka is located in the western part of India in Gujarat state. During the birth day of Krishna, and the Hindu festivals of Holi and Divali, thousands of Hindus visit the place. In Ancient India, the place was the capital of the kingdom ruled by Krishna. Soon after the death of Krishna, this city went below the sea.

## Other websites

- http://www.dwarkadhish.org/
Ramayana

The ***Ramayana (रामायण)*** is an ancient Hindu epic about Rama and Sita. It is one of the two most important ancient epics of [India], the first one being the ancient Mahabharata.. The epic was originally written by sage (rishi) Valmiki of Ancient India. The book has about 24,000 verses and is divided into six parts.

The story of the Ramayana is about Prince Rama who has been exiled from his kingdom of ([Ayodhya]) with his wife Sita and his brother Lakshman. He goes on to kill [king] Ravana of Lanka in a long battle to get back his wife Sita.

Seven different versions of the book are available. It has been translated into all the major languages of the world.

The different parts of the Ramayana are also called books. These seven parts or books are noted below:

1. The first book is _Balakand_, meaning the book of childhood.
1. The second book is _Ayodhyakanda_, meaning the book of Ayodhya.
1. The third book is _Aranyakanda_, meaning the book of the forests.
1. The fourth book is _Kishkindhakanda_, meaning the book of Kishkindha.
1. The fifth book is_ Sundarakanda_, meaning the book beautiful.
1. The sixth book is _Yuddhakanda_, meaning the book of the war.

There are different views about the time the Ramayana was written. Some people believe that it was written 2,500 years ago. Others think that it was written around 1,800 years ago. All agree that the book is very old and was written before the Mahabharata.

The Ramayana is still very popular today. Every autumn the _Ramlila_ (_Rama play_) is performed at the festival of Dassehra. A huge model of Ravana is set alight. This symbolizes the triumph of light over darkness. It is also believed that he turned in to Krishna and also many more things are believed.

A Tamil version of the book was written between the 9th and 10th centuries. The writer of this book was Kamban. This version is known as Iramavataram, which means the coming of Rama. In the 16th century, Tulasidas wrote a Hindi version of Ramayana. This was named Ramacharitmanasa. Over many centuries, the story of Rama reached places in other countries like Indonesia and Malaysia. The Ramayana has been translated into most of the major languages of the world.

The Ramayana was used in Ancient India for the teaching of young children. It was mainly used for acting out their Dharma so that their children knew that they were to worship the main Hindu beliefs that were: Brahman, Multiple Gods, Dharma, Samsara, and Karma.

There is a series of the Ramayana played on television in major parts of India and goes into the detail of the Ramayana, if you don't like reading books.

The short and basic story of the Ramayana is, a prince named Rama tries to rescue his wife from the clutch of Ravana with an army of bears and several "vanaras" who are like apes.
Hajj

The **Hajj** ("pilgrimage") is an annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, the most holy city of the Muslims. It is a Fard, a religious duty for Muslims that must be carried out at least once in their lifetime by all adult Muslims who are physically and financially capable of undertaking the journey, and can support their family during their absence. It is one of the five pillars of Islam, alongside Shahadah, Salat, Zakat, and Sawm. The Hajj is the largest annual gathering of people in the world. The state of being physically and financially capable of performing the Hajj is called _istita'ah_, and a Muslim who fulfills this condition is called a _mustati_. The Hajj is a demonstration of the solidarity of the Muslim people, and their submission to God (Allah). The word Hajj means "to intend a journey", which connotes both the outward act of a journey and the inward act of intentions.

The pilgrimage occurs from the 8th to 12th (or in some cases 13th) of Dhu al-Hijjah, the last month of the Islamic calendar. Because the Islamic calendar is lunar and the Islamic year is about eleven days shorter than the Gregorian year, the Gregorian date of Hajj changes from year to year. Ihram is the name given to the special spiritual state in which pilgrims wear two white sheets of seamless cloth and abstain from certain actions.

The Hajj is associated with the life of Islamic prophet Muhammad from the 7th century, but the ritual of pilgrimage to Mecca is considered by Muslims to stretch back thousands of years to the time of Abraham. During Hajj, pilgrims join processions of hundreds of thousands of people, who all go to Mecca for the week of the Hajj, and perform a series of rituals: each person walks counter-clockwise seven times around the Ka'aba (the cube-shaped building and the direction of prayer for the Muslims), runs back and forth between the hills of Al-Safa and Al-Marwah, drinks from the Zamzam Well, goes to the plains of Mount Arafat to stand in vigil, spends a night in the plain of Muzdalifa, and performs symbolic stoning of the devil by throwing stones at three pillars. The pilgrims then shave their heads, perform a ritual of animal sacrifice, and celebrate the three-day global festival of Eid al-Adha.

Pilgrims can also go to Mecca to perform the rituals at other times of the year. This is sometimes called the "lesser pilgrimage", or Umrah. However, even if they choose to perform the Umrah, they are still obligated to perform the Hajj at some other point in their lifetime if they have the means to do so, because Umrah is not a substitute for Hajj.

## As an industry

Saudi Arabia's economy greatly benefits from Hajj tourism and has invested in hotel businesses as well as infrastructure to accommodate and profit from Hajj and Ummrah tourism.
Zakat

**Zakat** () is one of the five most important aspects of Islam. Zakat means giving charity to the poor. Generally, a Muslim is expected to give _zakat_ as long as they are able. Through Zakat wealth reaches to the poor class of the society. It is considered to be a personal responsibility for Muslims to help those in need and eliminate inequality. It is often 2.5% of what the Muslim has.

## Related pages

- Altruism
- Five Pillars of Islam
Salat

**Ṣalāt** (, __) is the practice of prayer in Islam. It is one of the five most important duties for Sunni Muslims. To perform Salat, a person's mind must be ritually pure, which comes from ritual ablution, _wuḍūʾ_, or the washing and cleansing of his or her body. The salat is observed three or (most commonly) five times every day at prescribed times, depending on the sect.
Salawat is plural, and Salat is singular.

## Name

Salat is an Arabic word that means to pray. Outside the Arab world, the most widespread and common term is the Persian word namāz.

## Sunni

For Sunni Muslims, salat must be performed at five periods each day. These periods are measured according to the Sun’s movement. The call to prayer is essential before every obligatory prayers. Muhammad said: "The one who responds to Azan out of faith and seeking Allah's pleasure will be admitted to paradise."

In the ritual prayers each Muslim is in direct contact with Allah. There is no need of a priest as a middleman (While there is a prayer leader in the mosque - the imam - they are not a priest, but simply a person who knows a great deal about Islam.) Muslims can pray anywhere, but it is especially good to pray with others in a mosque. Praying together in a congregation helps Muslims to realise that all humanity is one, and all are equal in the sight of Allah. The prayer ritual, which is over 1400 years old, is repeated five times a day by hundreds of millions of people all round the world.

## Shia

There are different subsets of Shia Islam. Some of them pray 3 times combined, others 5 times. Allah does not need human prayers because he has no needs at all. Muslims pray because God has told them that they are to do this, and because they believe that they obtain great benefit in doing so.

## Hadith rejectors and Quranists

Most Hadith rejectors pray two units of Salat three times a day, deriving this structure from their interpretation of Qur'anic verses.

Quranists who follow the Ahl al-Qur'an movement founded by Ahmed Subhy Mansour and members of the Submitters movement founded by Rashad Khalifa (d. 1990 CE) perform five daily prayers. They claim that acts of worship—including the five daily Salat and the Hajj—were preserved through consecutive generational practice rather than through reliance on written hadith collections.

The Bida'iyya, a branch of the extremist Kharijite sect known as the Azariqa—emerging specifically through the sub-lineage of the Khazimiyya—rejected the five prayers and prayed only two or three times a day. Ibn Hazm (d. 1064 CE) also credits this practise to another Azariqa offshoot known as the _Bittikhiyya_ (or _Batihiyya_). The Bida'iyya further rejected the hadith altogether.

## Ritual washing

Muslims must be clean before they pray. They make sure of this by performing ritual washing, called wudhu. Mosques have washing facilities for Muslims to clean their body before they begin prayer.
Fasting in Islam

**Fasting in Islam** or ***Sawm*** () or **Roza** (Farsi: روزہ) is the practice of abstaining, usually from food, drink, smoking, and sexual activity. Fourth of the Five Pillars of Islam, _Sawm_ is observed between dawn and nightfall during the holy month of Ramadan.

Some exceptions or accommodations for _Sawm_ are made in the case of pregnancy, illness, travel, and for young children.
Cowpox

**Cowpox** is a disease that affects the skin and causes red blisters. It can affect people or animals. It is caused by the cowpox virus, which is related to the _Vaccinia virus_. It can be spread by touch from cows to humans.

Edward Jenner used the cowpox virus to make the world's first successful vaccination against smallpox, an extremely deadly disease. Smallpox is caused by the related _variola virus_. Therefore, the word "vaccination" has the Latin root _vaca,_ meaning _cow_.

## Epidemiology

The Cowpox virus (also called Catpox) is found in Europe, mainly in the United Kingdom.

Despite its name, the virus is not commonly found in cows. Usually woodland rodents, particularly voles, carry and spread the virus.  When domestic cats get the virus from these rodents, they can pass it along to humans.  Most human cases are caused by contact with infected domestic cats.

## Symptoms

Symptoms in cats include lesions on the face, neck, forelimbs, and paws. Less commonly, cowpox can cause upper respiratory tract infections in cats.

In humans, symptoms of cowpox infection occur only in the body part where the virus was introduced. Usually, this is the hands, and pustular lesions form there.

The incubation period (the time between an infection and the first signs of the disease) is 9–10 days.  The virus can be found mostly in late summer and autumn.

## Historical use

Cowpox was the original vaccine of sorts for smallpox. In 1798, the English physician Edward Jenner noticed that farmers who had recovered from cowpox usually did not get cowpox again - or smallpox. So he used the fluid he got from cowpox lesions, and scratched it into healthy people. That way, he could make those people immune against smallpox.

After infection with cowpox, the body (usually) gains the ability recognise the similar smallpox virus from its antigens. Because it recognizes the virus, the body can fight smallpox much more efficiently.

Later, and still today, another vaccine was used: _vaccinia_. Vaccinia is similar to cowpox, but not the same.

## Related pages

- Chickenpox
- List of diseases
1535

## Events

- January 18 – Lima, Peru founded by Francisco Pizarro
- April – Jacques Cartier discovers the Iroquois city of Stadacona, Canada (now Quebec) and in May, the even greater Huron city of Hochelaga
- June 24 – The Anabaptist state of Münster (see Münster Rebellion) is conquered and disbanded.
- May 19 – French explorer Jacques Cartier sets sail for his second voyage to North America with 3 ships, 110 men, and Chief Donnacona's 2 sons  (who Cartier kidnapped during his first voyage).
- October 2 – Jacques Cartier discovers Montreal, Quebec.
- October 4 – The first complete English-language Bible is printed, with translations by William Tyndale and Miles Coverdale.
- Combined Swedish and Danish fleets defeat the Hanseatic navy.
- Manco II appointed puppet Inca Emperor by Spanish Conquistadors
- Second unsuccessful attempt by Spanish forces to conquer Yucatán
- Carlos Quinto conquers Tunis
- Anabaptist rebellion in some cities in the Netherlands, including a famous incident of seven men and five woman walking nude in the streets of Amsterdam.
- The Charterhouse London is closed, as part of Henry VIII's Dissolution of the Monasteries.
1689

## Events

- Louis XIV of France passed the "_Code Noir_," allowing the full use of slaves in the French colonies.
- January 11 – The Parliament of England declares King James II of England deposed.
- February 13 – William III and Mary II are proclaimed co-rulers of England, Scotland and Ireland. Scotland and Ireland do not yet recognize them.
- April 11 – The Estates of Scotland declare King James VII of Scotland deposed.
- April 11  – Crowning of co-rulers King William III and Mary II as King and Queen of England, Scotland and Ireland. Ireland does not recognize them yet.
- May 12 – King William's War: William III of England joins the League of Augsburg starting the war.
- May 24 – The Act of Toleration passes the English Parliament protecting Protestants (Roman Catholics are intentionally excluded).
- May 25 – Last collection of the Hearth Tax n England and Wales. It was abolished by William III of England
- May 31 – Leisler's Rebellion – Calvinist Jacob Leisler deposes lieutenant governor Francis Nicholson and assumes control of New York colony
- July 27 – Glorious Revolution: Battle of Killiecrankie ends
- August 5 – 1,500 Iroquois attack village of Lachine, in New France.
- August 27 – China and Russia signed the Treaty of Nerchinsk.
- December 16 – The official declaration of the English Bill of Rights
532

## Events

- January 11 – Nika riots in Constantinople; the cathedral is destroyed. They are put down a week later by Belisarius and Mundus; up to 30,000 people are killed in the Hippodrome.
- Justinian I orders the building of a new cathedral – beginning of the construction of the Hagia Sophia.
- Justinian  signs a peace treaty with the Sassanian shah Chosroes I.

## Births

- Áedán mac Gabráin, king of Dál Riata

## Deaths

- October 17 – Pope Boniface II
1658

## Events

- January 13 – Edward Sexby, who had plotted against Oliver Cromwell, dies in Tower of London
- February 6 – Swedish troops of Charles X Gustav of Sweden cross The Great Belt (Storebælt) in Denmark over frozen sea
- May 1 – Publication of _Hydriotaphia, Urn Burial_ and _The Garden of Cyrus_ by Thomas Browne
- September 3 -Oliver Cromwell dies. His son Richard assumes his father's former position as Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland.
- The peace between Sweden and Denmark was concluded in Roskilde with Treaty of Roskilde.
- France joins England in the war against Spain, which began in 1654. The Spanish were defeated at the Battle of the Dunes in June. England was then given Dunkirk for their assistance in the win.
- Portuguese traders are expelled from Ceylon by Dutch invaders.
- After his father Shah Jahan completes the Taj Mahal, his son Aurangzeb deposes him as ruler of the Mughal Empire.
408

## Events

- In the summer of this  year, the usurper Constantine III captures Spain, destroying the loyalist forces defending it.
- September – Alaric, king of the Visigoths, lays siege to Rome.
1696

## Events

- April – Fire destroys the Gra Bet (or Left Quarter) of Gondar, the capital of Ethiopia.
- August 22 – Forces of Venice and Turkish troops clash near Molino
- October 29 – Fuller Baptist Church founded in Kettering, England.
- December 24 – Inquisition burns number of Marrano Jews in Evora, Portugal
- Peter the Great becomes sole tsar of Russia.
- Polish replaces Ruthenian as an official language of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
- A famine wipes out almost a third of the population of Finland.
- Abington, Pennsylvania, is settled.
- William Penn offers an elaborate plan for intercolonial cooperation largely in trade, defense, and criminal matters.
- The Second Pueblo Revolt took place
- Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville captured and destroyed St. John's, Newfoundland.
1647

## Events

- March 14 – Thirty Years' War: Bavaria, Cologne, France and Sweden sign the Truce of Ulm.
- April 3 – In England, letter from the Agitators of the New Model Army, protesting delay of pay, is read in the House of Commons
- May 29 – The Rhode Island General Assembly drafts a constitution that separates church and state, and permits public  referenda and initiatives on legislation.
- August 8 – The battle of Dungans Hill, Irish forces are defeated by British Parliamentary forces.
- August – Peter Stuyvesant appointed Director of New Amsterdam by the Dutch West India Company.
- Johann von Werth tried to take his troops over the Austrian border, but they refused
1698

## Events

- January 4 – Palace of Whitehall in London is destroyed by fire.
- June 19 – Volcano of Carguarazon erupts in the Andes and causes a rain of fish
- August 25 – Peter the Great arrives back to Moscow – general Patrick Gordon has already crushed the streltsy rebellion – 341 rebels sentenced to be decapitated. Tradition holds that tsar Peter decapitated some of them himself
- September 5 – In an effort to move his people away from Asiatic customs, Tsar Peter I of Russia imposes a tax on beards; All men except priests and peasants, are required to pay a tax of one hundred rubles a year and the commoners had to pay one kopek each

- Whigs sponsor Captain Kidd of New York as a privateer against French shipping
- Darien Scheme – First Scottish settlers leave for an ill-fated colony in Panama
- Isaac Newton calculates the speed of sound
- Tani Jinzan, astronomer and calendar scholar, observes a fire destroy Tosa (now Kochi) in Japan at the same time as a Leonid Meteor storm, taking it as evidence to reinforce belief in the "Theory of Areas".
- Thomas Savery patents an early steam engine.
- A congress begins in Sremski Karlovci to discuss a treaty between the Ottoman Empire and the Holy League.
- Humphrey Hody is appointed regius professor of Greek at Oxford.
- Bucharest becomes capital of Wallachia (now part of Romania).
- Mombasa and Zanzibar are captured by Oman.
- George Louis (who would in 1714 become King George I of Great Britain) becomes Elector of Hanover.
Margaret Atwood

**Margaret Eleanor Atwood**  (born November 18, 1939) is a Canadian writer. She is best known for writing novels. She has also published 15 books of poetry. _The Edible Woman_ was her first novel, published in 1969.

Her novel _The Handmaid's Tale_ was the first winner of the Arthur C. Clarke Award, in 1987. The sequel, _The Testaments_, was released on September 10, 2019.

Her book _The Blind Assassin_ won the 2000 Booker Prize.

## Related pages

- List of poets from North America

## Infobox (writer)

- **image**: Margaret Atwood - Foire du Livre de Francfort (37025811914).jpg
- **caption**: Atwood at the 2017 Frankfurt Book Fair
- **birth name**: Margaret Eleanor Atwood
- **birth place**: Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
- **residence**: Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- **period**: 1961–present
- **partner**: Graeme Gibson (1973–2019; his death)
- **children**: 1
- **signature**: Margaret Atwood signature.svg
Rainbow Brite (1984 TV series)

***Rainbow Brite*** was a 1980s animated television show in the United States based on a series of Hallmark cards. It involves a girl called "Rainbow Brite" and the "Color Kids" who are in charge of bringing color to the world. It was produced by DiC Entertainment, Cookie Jar Entertainment, Optix Digital Pictures, Super Sonics Productions, The Canadian Film or Production Tax Credit, Shaw Rocket Fund, Canadian Television Fund, and Nick Jr. Productions in its _Kideo TV_ package.

A tie-in movie, _Rainbow Brite and the Star Stealer_, came out in 1985. And Rainbow Brite
Chickenpox

**Chickenpox**, also known as **chicken pox**, is a disease. Usually, it is children who get the disease, but adults can also get it.  People who have it get blisters or spots, mostly on the body and in the face. Those blisters are filled with a liquid. At some point, the blisters will drain, and the person will want to scratch them. Burst blisters usually become healthy without leaving scars, unless they become infected.  The symptoms come in two or three waves, and they usually include fever. If there are no complications, the disease will last between three and five days in children. Chickenpox is very common and by the age 14, more than 90% of children will have had the disease.

Getting chickenpox during a pregnancy is dangerous, as it can hurt both the mother and the child.

Chickenpox is caused by a virus of the herpes family. People who had chickenpox in the past can also get a related disease called shingles later.  Shingles are caused by the same virus but usually is only one part of the body.

There is a vaccine against chickenpox. Usually, the vaccine is given to children if they did not have the disease before the start of puberty, that is aged 9–13 years old. Sometimes to help your child not to scratch when they have chicken pox, you can get a special cream for it such as e45.
1742

**1742** (MDCCXLII) was a common year starting on Monday in the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Friday in the Julian calendar.

## Events

- January 24 – Charles VII Albert becomes Holy Roman Emperor.
- February 16 – Spencer Compton, Earl of Wilmington, becomes Prime Minister of Great Britain.
- February 18 – British attack La Guayra.
- April 13 – The first performance of George Frideric Handel's oratorio _Messiah_, in Dublin.
- May 17 – Frederick the Great's army defeats Austrians in Chotusitz; later Austria cedes Silesia to Prussia
- May 25 – A battle is fought at Sahay.
- December 2 – _The Pennsylvania Journal_ first appears in print.
- Daniel le Pelley succeeds Nicolas le Pelley as Seigneur of Sark.
- Kingdom of Prussia captures Jihlava.
- Christian Goldbach formulates Goldbach's conjecture.
- Colin Maclaurin publishes his _Treatise on Fluxions_.
- Anders Celsius proposes the Celsius temperature scale.
- James Bradley succeeds Edmond Halley as Astronomer Royal.
- Henry Fielding publishes _Joseph Andrews_.
- John Carteret, 2nd Lord Carteret becomes Secretary of State for the Northern Department.
- Rigging of Chippenham by-election causes a political scandal.
- William Pulteney created as 1st Earl of Bath.
- Robert Walpole was elevated to the peerage and thus moved from the House of Commons to the House of Lords, (see February 16, above).
- University of Erlangen is founded.
- Lopukhina Conspiracy at the Russian court.
- Molde in Norway becomes a city.
- Construction starts on the Foundling Hospital in London.
- Eisenach builds its _Stadtschloss_ (city castle).
- In Peru, Juan Santon takes the name Atahualpa II and begins an ill-fated rebellion against the Spanish rule
- Afghan tribes unite as a monarchy.
1624

**1624** (MDCXXIV) was a leap year starting on Monday in the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Thursday in the Julian calendar.  The Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar.  The Julian calendar remained in localized use until 1923.

## Events

- January 24 – Alfonso Mendez, appointed by Pope Gregory XV as Prelate of Ethiopia, arrives at Massawa from Goa.
- The Netherlands establish a trading colony at Kaohsiung on Taiwan.
- Thirty Walloon families settle in the New Netherland colony.
- Oslo is destroyed by fire. When rebuilt by Christian IV, it would be renamed Christiania.
- Claudio Monteverdi publishes _Tancredi e Clorinda_.
- Jean Louis Guez de Balzac publishes his _Lettres_.
- Bernardo de Balbuena publishes _El Bernardo_.
- Santa Rosalia makes a miraculous appearance during a plague in Palermo.
- Kalmia latifolia (mountain laurel) first recorded in America.
- Jakob Bartsch records the constellation Camelopardalis.
- Dr Challoner's Grammar School is founded.
- The Palace of Versailles is first built, as a hunting lodge.
- Chateau Cheverny begins construction.
- Pembroke College, Oxford founded.
- The Japanese Shogun expels Spanish from the land and severs trade with the Philippines
- Mail service begins in Denmark
- University founded in Bolivia
- War between England and Spain
- Cornelius Drebbel discover gases
- Cardinal Richelieu appointed by Louis XIII to be his advisor
- Henry Briggs publishes _Arithmetica Logarithmica_
1279

## Events

- March 5 – Lithuanian forces led by Traidenis defeat the Teutonic Knights in the Battle of Aizkraukle.
- The first of the Statutes of Mortmain are passed under king Edward I of England, which prevents land from passing into possession of the church.
- The second of two main surveys of the Hundred Rolls, an English census seen as a follow up to the Domesday Book completed in 1086, is begun; it lasts until 1280.
- Al-Razi's important medical writings are translated into Latin by Faraj ben Salim some 350 years after Al-Razi's death.
- The Royal Mint of England moves into the Tower of London.
- Haapsalu town (Estonia) is founded.
1046

## Events

- First contact between the Byzantine Empire and the Seljuks.
- Vatha Pagan Revolt in Hungary – Gerard Sagredo martyred in Budapest.
- Pope Gregory VI accused of simony at Council of Sutri – abdicates
- Henry III crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Clement II.
- March 5, Naser Khosrow begins the seven-year Middle Eastern journey which he would later describe in his book _Safarnameh_.

## Births

- Margaret Atheling, Queen of Scotland; Wife of King Malcolm III of Scotland and second daughter of Edward the Exile (died 1093)
- _probable date_
    - Pope Paschal II (died 1118)
Tonality

Music has **tonality** if it uses the notes of a major or minor scale. Such music is **tonal**. It is in a particular "key". Nearly all Western music is tonal.

All tonal music is based on a major or minor scale. If the tune “Twinkle, twinkle little star” is played starting on the note C, the notes of a C major scale will be used. The note C will sound like the home note (the “tonic”) and, indeed, the tune finishes on a C. The tune could have started on any other note (C sharp, D, E flat, E etc.) but a knowledge of scales would be needed as some sharps or flats (black notes) will be required. When singing the tune there is no need to think about the sharps and flats: the singer does them quite naturally.

A piece of tonal music will usually modulate after a while. This means that it changes key. But the music will not sound finished until it goes back to the original key. If one sings The Star-Spangled Banner and stops after the words “our flag was still there” the song sounds as if it has stopped in mid-air. It will not sound finished until it goes back to the first key in the last two lines.

Most Western music from about 1600 onwards is based in a major or minor key. This system of tonality was used by all the great composers up to the 20th century and in popular music and most folk music. Listening to a symphony by Beethoven is like going on a journey through various key areas, always returning to the original tonic at the end. In some cases, such as Beethoven’s _Fifth Symphony_, it may start in the minor and finish in the major. This is because minor keys can sound disturbed, full of tension, but major keys sound happier and more relaxed.

The opposite of “tonality” is **atonality**. An **atonal** piece is one where there is no feeling of a home key. Playing lots of random notes and of chromatic scale will sound atonal. Schoenberg was one of the most famous composers of atonal music. Of course, his music is not just random notes (although it may sound like it to the listener at first), so he had to find another way of giving his music shape. That is why he invented the twelve-tone system.

## Related pages

- Polytonality
Toucan

Toucans are a South American bird in the family Ramphastidae. This bird lives in small flocks in lowland rainforests in countries such as Costa Rica. It flies short distances between trees. Toucans rest in holes in trees. They mostly eat fruit, but sometimes they also eat insects and small lizards.

They are brightly marked and have large, often-colorful bills. The family includes five genera and over forty different species.

Toucans are resident breeders and do not migrate. Toucans are usually found in pairs or small flocks. They sometimes fence with their bills and wrestle, which scientists think is to find out who is the top bird amongst them.

## Beak

Toucans are known for their huge beaks, which can grow larger than their bodies. The beak may also be used to cool the bird off. They use their beaks for reaching over and plucking fruit from branches of trees. The bright colors (usually orange) on the beak may help the toucans to recognize each other, and to scare off other birds. The structure of their beaks consists of a keratin exterior and a bony foam interior. The beak is loaded in bending and foraging and fencing activities, although it has a low compressive strength.

## Diet

The diet of toucans consists mainly of fruit, they are frugivorous. Although they sometimes consume small animals such as small birds, insects, and lizards. They also eat eggs from nests, and nestlings.
Elbow

The **elbow** is a hinge-joint between the bones of the upper and lower arm. It joins the humerus of the upper arm and the radius and ulna of the forearm together. Everyone has 2 elbows. It allows the lower arm to be extended or retracted (moved in). The elbow also allows the arm to turn. It moves by using three ligaments: the _anterior, posterior, ulnar collateral_ and _radial collateral_ ligaments.

## Infobox (anatomy)

- **name**: Elbow
- **latin**: articulatio cubiti
- **image**: Elbow on gray background.jpg
- **image2**: En-elbow joint.svg
- **caption2**: Anatomy of the elbow.
Wrist

The **wrist** is the joint that links together the lower arm and the hand.

## Other websites

- The ligaments in the wrist
Knee

The **knee** is the joint that links 4 of the upper and lower bones of the leg, which are called the femur, tibia, fibula and the patella. The knee joint is the largest joint in the body and is an extensive network of ligaments and muscles. Basically, it is a hinge which allows movement of the lower leg in only one direction. The lower leg (tibia+fibula+foot) can swing back from the knee, and that is all.

The knee is held together by ligaments which connect the bones and produces fluid which lubricates the movement at the joint. The meniscus is a cartilage
that lies on the inner and outer edges of the upper surface of the tibia. These are the shock
absorbers of the knee and supply proper weight distribution.