juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Criterium

A **criterium**, or **crit**, is a type of bicycle race held on a short course (usually less than 5 km), often run on closed-off city centre streets.

Race length can be either a time or a number of laps. Often a criterium lasts about one hour, which is shorter than that of a traditional road race – which can last many hours, sometimes of several days or even weeks, as in a Grand Tour. However, the average speed and is much higher. The winner is the first rider to cross the finish line without having been "lapped" (overtaken).

Events often have prizes (called _primes_, usually cash) for winning specific intermediate laps (for instance, every 10th lap).

Winning criteriums needs a mix of good technical skills – especially the ability to corner rapidly and sharply – and riding safely with a large group on a short circuit and exceptional fitness to attack other riders and repeatedly accelerate hard from corners.

Criteriums are relatively easy to organize and do not require a large amount of space. They are the most common type of bicycle racing in the continental United States.

## Equipment

Racing bicycles used for criteriums are typically no different than those used in other mass-start road events. However, some racers use shorter bicycles to help keep control when turning  and slightly shorter cranks (pedal levers) to help pedalling through sharp turns.

## Other websites

- Alto Velo Racing Club - Criterium Skills & Sprinting
- Extreme Fitness - Guide to Criterium Training
- Portsmouth, NH Criterium
Valence electron

In chemistry, **valence electrons** are the electrons in the outside or _valence_ electron shell of an atom. They determine the valency of the atom which is important in how a chemical element reacts with other elements. Elements which have eight valence electrons (noble gases) are inert and they do not tend to create chemical reactions with other elements in the Periodic table group.

The number of valence electrons is also important for determining the group of an element in the Periodic table, because an element's number of valence electron is the same as the number of its group in the periodic table. To calculate the amount of valence electrons present in an element you have to find the last number of the electron configuration.
Flamingo

**Flamingos** () are types of birds. They are noisy birds and they live in big groups called flocks. Flamingos are wading birds. This means they live by water, such as lakes.

They are in the genus ***Phoenicopterus*** and family **Phoenicopteridae**. There are six species of flamingo. Two of species are found in Africa, Europe and Asia. The other four are found in North America and South America.

Flamingos are pink or red. This is because of small bacteria that live in water which the flamingos eat. This small bacteria is known as carotenoids. This is a pigment that causes the plumage color you see on flamingos. They also eat small crayfish and algae. Baby flamingos are gray. Flamingos can fly. This is why they have wings. Flamingos are very tall birds and they have long legs. They often stand on only one leg. Scientsts found that they do this beacuse it takes less energy than standing on two legs. Flamingos have a curved bill that is shaped like a banana. This is because they feed in the mud on the bottom of lakes.

Flamingos can weigh up to 4 kg and be up to 145cm tall. They live up to around 47 years. A group of flamingos is called a flamboyance. Both flamingo and flamboyance come from the words referring to fire.

## Conservation

Many flamingos that live in Kenya and Tanzania are dying. Scientists do not know why. They think it may be because of bacteria in the water.

## Taxonomy

The **Phonenicopteriformes** is an order of birds, which contains the family of flamingos and two another families which are extinct.

## Living species

- Greater flamingo (_Phoenicopterus roseus_)
- Lesser flamingo (_Phoenicopterus minor_)
- Chilean flamingo (_Phoenicopterus chilensis_)
- James's flamingo (_Phoenicoparrus jamesi_)
- Andean flamingo (_Phoenicopterus andinus_)
- American flamingo (_Phoenicopterus ruber_)
Magnesium oxide

**Magnesium oxide**, or **magnesia**, is a white solid mineral, made of one part magnesium and one part oxygen. Its chemical formula is MgO. Magnesium oxide is used by libraries to make books last longer. It is also used as an insulator for some electrical wires, and to help crucibles resist high temperatures. Magnesium oxide is also made to treat heartburn and upset stomachs.
Movie studio

A **movie studio**, or **film studio**, is a place where movies are made. A movie studio can be an area where the movie is filmed; like an indoor (interior) stage or room, or an outdoor area in which only those making the movie are allowed to be.

The term _movie studio_ also means a production company because these companies often had - in the 1920s to the 1940s - their own studios in their own buildings. Even though most production companies do not now have their own studios, the term is still used in this way.
1998 Winter Olympics

The **1998 Winter Olympics**, officially known as the **XVIII Olympic Winter Games,** were held in 1998 in Nagano, Japan. Other possible host cities were Aosta, Italy; Jaca, Spain; Östersund, Sweden; and Salt Lake City, USA. The selection was held in Birmingham, United Kingdom in 1991.

## Related pages

- Sports in Japan

## Other websites

- IOC Site on 1998 Winter Olympics

## Infobox (olympic games)

- 1998
- Winter
- Olympics
- **host city**: Nagano (city), Nagano, Japan
- **motto**: _Coexistence with Nature_
(Japanese language, Japanese: 自然との共存, _Shizen to no Kyōzon_)
- **nations**: 72
- **athletes**: 2,176 (1,389 men, 787 women)
- **events**: 68 in 7 Olympic sports, sports (14 disciplines)
- **opening**: 7 February
- **closing**: 22 February
- **opened by**: Emperor of Japan, Emperor Akihito
- **cauldron**: Midori Ito
- **stadium**: Nagano Olympic Stadium
- **winter prev**: 1994 Winter Olympics, Lillehammer 1994
- **winter next**: 2002 Winter Olympics, Salt Lake 2002
- **summer prev**: 1996 Summer Olympics, Atlanta 1996
- **summer next**: 2000 Summer Olympics, Sydney 2000
- **image**: Olympic rings without rims.svg
- **image size**: 250px
Designated hitter

In baseball, a **designated hitter** (**DH**) is a person who bats in place of the pitcher in the American League of Major League Baseball. In the National League, the pitchers have to bat for themselves. The designated hitter is usually one of the best hitters on the team but is not a good defensive player.

The reason for the designated hitter is because many pitchers are not good hitters. Pitchers are chosen because they are good at pitching, not because they are good at hitting.
1968 Winter Olympics

The **1968 Winter Olympics**, officially known as the 38th **Olympic Winter Games**, were held in 1968 in Grenoble, France and started on February 6. Thirty-seven countries took part. Norway won the most medals, the first time a country other than the USSR had done so since the USSR first entered the Winter Games in 1956.

## Attention in the USA

Frenchman Jean-Claude Killy won three gold medals in all the alpine skiing events. In women's figure skating, Peggy Fleming won the only United States gold medal. The games have been credited with making the Winter Olympics more popular in the United States, largely because of ABC's coverage of Fleming and Killy, who became very popular among teenage girls.

## New practices

1968 was the first year that the International Olympic Committee (IOC) let East and West Germany enter separately, and the first time the IOC ever ordered drug and gender testing of the athletes.

## Other websites

- IOC page for the 1968 Winter Olympics

## Infobox (olympic games)

- 1968
- Winter
- Olympics
- **host city**: Grenoble, Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes, France
- **nations**: 37
- **athletes**: 1,158 (947 men, 211 women)
- **events**: 35 in 6 Olympic sports, sports (10 disciplines)
- **opening**: 6 February
- **closing**: 18 February
- **opened by**: President of France, President Charles de Gaulle
- **cauldron**: Alain Calmat
- **stadium**: Olympic Stadium (Grenoble), Opening Stadium
- **winter prev**: 1964 Winter Olympics, Innsbruck 1964
- **winter next**: 1972 Winter Olympics, Sapporo 1972
- **summer prev**: 1964 Summer Olympics, Tokyo 1964
- **summer next**: 1968 Summer Olympics, Mexico City 1968
1964 Winter Olympics

The **1964 Winter Olympics**, officially known as the **IX Olympic Winter Games**, were held in Innsbruck, Austria, from January 29 to February 9 1964. The games included 1091 athletes from 36 nations, and the Olympic Torch was carried by Joseph Rieder,

a former alpine skier who had participated in the 1956 Winter Olympics.

The games were affected by the deaths of Australian alpine skier Ross Milne and a British luge slider, during training, and by the deaths, 3 years earlier, of the entire US figure skating team and family members.

## Participating nations

36 nations sent athletes to compete in Innsbruck.  India, Mongolia, and North Korea participated in the Winter Games for the first time.  Athletes from West Germany (FRG) and East Germany (GDR) competed together as the United Team of Germany from 1956 to 1964.

## Medal count

These are the top ten nations that won medals at these Games:
|1||11|8|6|25|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|2||4|5|3|12|
|3||3|6|6|15|
|4||3|4|3|10|
|5||3|4|0|7|
|6||3|3|3|9|
|7||3|3|1|7|
|8||1|2|3|6|
|9||1|1|0|2|
|10||1|0|2|3|

## Infobox (olympic games)

- 1964
- Winter
- Olympics
- **host city**: Innsbruck, Austria
- **nations**: 36
- **athletes**: 1,091 (892 men, 199 women)
- **events**: 34 in 6 Olympic sports, sports (10 disciplines)
- **opening**: 29 January
- **closing**: 9 February
- **opened by**: President of Austria, President Adolf Schärf
- **cauldron**: Josl Rieder
- **stadium**: Bergisel
- **winter prev**: 1960 Winter Olympics, Squaw Valley 1960
- **winter next**: 1968 Winter Olympics, Grenoble 1968
- **summer prev**: 1960 Summer Olympics, Rome 1960
- **summer next**: 1964 Summer Olympics, Tokyo 1964
Counterculture

**Counterculture** is a term used in psychology and sociology. It describes a set of views that are not mainstream: they differ from what most people believe. For example, the hippie counterculture started in the 1960s in the United States. It advocated nonviolence and love, had a distinct clothing style, and supported recreational drug use.

## Filippinism

At the end of the 19th century, Italian art developed an independent trajectory from the French Impressionism, opposing the optical and mercantile vision of Claude Monet with an ethical, structural, and symbolic conception of the landscape, expressed with rigor and awareness by Francesco Filippini, considered the foremost representative of landscape painting.

Filippini's art can be considered a form of counterculture, as it rejected the growing commercialization and market-driven nature of art in the late 19th century. The French Impressionists, like Monet, were highly sought after by international art dealers, particularly in the United States, where their works were bought at high prices for the bourgeois salons. Filippini, however, distanced himself from these trends, choosing not to cater to the decorative tastes of wealthy patrons or the mass-market art world. Instead, his works were aimed at an exclusive, intellectually elevated, and aristocratic audience, with a focus on deep philosophical and moral values rather than shallow aestheticism.

This movement, known as Filippinism, lacked public artistic manifestos but was strongly conceptual and rigorously rooted in the values of work, suffering, and nature. Filippini's visual grammar reflects an educated and cultured consciousness: the use of light as architecture of meaning, the woman as a symbol of rural civilization, and the landscape as an inner, symbolic space. The peasant woman is never folkloric or picturesque, but an almost mythical figure, dressed daily as if in a civil ritual, with iconic red scarves and festive clothes, embodying a profound, non-spectacular ethical stance.

Filippini's masterpiece, _Verso sera_ (ca. 1888, 62 × 38.5 cm), represents the pinnacle of this intellectual and philosophical approach, foreshadowing La sera (1906) by Umberto Boccioni, who would later recognize Filippini as one of the most influential figures in his artistic formation. The Futurism movement would later retain elements from Filippini’s work, such as the moral centrality of the human figure, luminosity synthesis as the structure of meaning, and the landscape as a mental, non-phenomenal space.

As a high art movement, Filippinism was continued by students and followers of similar intellectual caliber – Achille Tominetti, Cesare Bertolotti, Carlotta Sacchetti, and Eugenio Amus – in select, academic, and morally grounded environments, where painting was never just a profession or a fashion, but an exercise of intellectual responsibility and social testimony.

## Related pages

- Bohemianism
Halakha

**Halakha** is the Hebrew word for the Jewish code of laws.

## History

A long time ago, these laws were oral (spoken, but not written down). Once they became written down they were called the Mishnah. The Mishnah was made by rabbis in the 1st and 2nd Century (CE).

## Related pages

- Law of Moses
Stereotype

A **stereotype** is a mistaken idea or belief many people have about a thing or group that is based upon how they look on the outside, which may be untrue or only partly true. Stereotyping is often seen as a form of prejudice because how someone looks on the outside is only a small part of who they are on the inside. In fiction and jokes, stereotypes are sometimes used to be funny. But like other false beliefs about race, stereotypes are part of racial stories that keep people with less power down, so the powerful group can stay on top and get better jobs and more money.

The term was invented in the late 18th century for a method of printing. In the mid-19th century it meant the faithful reproduction of everything which could be printed, whether words or pictures. It made the printing of cheap editions possible, and was used in printing newspapers. The term got its psychological meaning in the 20th century.

## Related pages

- Gender role
- Stereotype threat
- Women and video games
Electron cloud

**Electron cloud** is an informal way to describe an atomic orbital.

The electron cloud is not really a thing. An electron cloud  model is different from the older Bohr atomic model by Niels Bohr. Bohr talked about electrons orbiting the nucleus. Explaining the behavior of these electron "orbits" was a key issue in the development of quantum mechanics.

The electron cloud model says that we cannot know exactly where an electron is at any given time, but the electrons are more likely to be in specific areas. These areas are specified by orbitals. The orbitals are specified by shells and sub-orbitals. In the Bohr model, electrons are assigned to different shells. The shells, k,l,m,n,o,p,q, each represent different levels of energy, and are also called energy levels. The sub-orbitals; s,p,d,f, are regions where it will be more likely to find electrons, and can each hold a different number of electrons. the s,p,d,f orbitals are all shaped differently. This can be proven by the repeating patterns of chemical properties in the periodic table. Using quantum mechanics, chemists can use the electron cloud model to assign electrons to different atomic orbitals. Atomic orbitals also explain the patterns in the periodic table.

The electron cloud model was developed in 1926 by Erwin Schrödinger and Werner Heisenberg. The model is a way to help visualize the most probable position of electrons in an atom. The electron cloud model is currently the accepted model of an atom. The electrons were traveling at such a high speed that there was no predictable time or place for the electron to be. The electrons were like a blur which is where they got the 'Electron Cloud' from.

According to Bohr's calculations for a hydrogen atom, the electron under normal conditions always stays at a certain distance from the nucleus. This distance is called the Bohr radius and is approximately 0.529 Å (). But according to the wave mechanical or cloud concept model, the electron keeps on moving away or towards the nucleus and the maximum probability of locating it lies at a distance of 0.529 Å from the nucleus. In other words, the radius of the electron cloud or the radius of maximum probability is 0.529 Å.
9-1-1

**9-1-1** or **911** (a lot of times said as "nine-one-one" or "nine-eleven") is the emergency telephone number for the United States, Canada, Argentina, Anguilla, Bermuda, British Virgin Islands, and the Cayman Islands. This number can only be used for real emergencies. In other words, people use it when they are in serious trouble. The use of the number when there is no emergency may end in a criminal charge.

## Related pages

- Emergency telephone number
- 1-1-2
- 9-9-9
- 000 Emergency
- _Rescue 911_
- 3-1-1

## Other websites

- Fact sheets on using 911 in Simple English for children , teenagers , adults , and parents
- How to Use 911 - from KidsHealth.org (in Simple English)
911

#### Africa

- Rebellion of the Kutama Berbers against the Fatimid Caliphate. The Kutama tribesmen have previously been the main supporters of the new Shi'ite regime.

#### Europe

- July 11 – The Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte is signed between Charles the Simple, King of France and Rollo, leader of the Vikings, allowing the latter to settle in Neustria, the origin of the Normans.
- September – Following the death of Louis the Child, last Carolingian ruler of the East Franks, Charles the Simple of France, is elected King of Lotharingia.
- The Fatimids begin the conquest of Sicily over their Aghlabid arch-rivals.

#### Religion

- April – Pope Anastasius III succeeds Pope Sergius III as the 120th pope.

## Deaths

- April 14 – Pope Sergius III, pope of the Roman Catholic Church
Emergency

An **emergency** is a situation in which a risk to health, life, property or environment is about to happen. Most emergencies need quick attention to prevent it from becoming worse. Even though some emergencies are easy to see, like a natural disaster, many smaller incidents need the opinion of someone who is watching in order to decide whether it is really an emergency. The exact definition of an emergency, the agencies involved and the rules followed, depend on the jurisdiction, and this is usually set by the government, whose agencies (emergency services) are responsible for emergency planning and handling.

## Related pages

- Civil defence
- Crisis
- Emergency department
- Emergency medicine
- Emergency communication system
- State of emergency
- 9-1-1
German Jews

**German Jews** are Jews of German descent, or Jews living in Germany.

## Infobox (ethnic group)

- **group**: German Jews
<small> (German language, German)</small>
<small> (Hebrew language, Hebrew)</small>
<small>דײַטשע ייִדן (Yiddish)</small>
- **image**: EU-Germany (orthographic projection).svg
- **caption**: The location of Germany (dark green) in the European Union (light green)
- **population**: 116,000 to 225,000
- **regions**: Germany

Israel, United States, Chile, Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, and the United Kingdom
- **langs**: English language, English, German language, German, Russian language, Russian, Hebrew language, Hebrew, Yiddish, and others
- **rels**: Judaism, agnosticism, atheism, and others
- **related-c**: Ashkenazi Jews, Sephardi Jews, Mizrahi Jews, Israel, Israelis
Agriculture

**Agriculture** is made up of  livestock production, aquaculture, fisheries, forestry, animal husbandry and farming (or crop production). From agriculture one can get food and non-food products.

## Origin

The word agriculture comes from late Middle English which formed it partly from Middle French from the Latin word agricultura. Agricultura comes from the ager/agr meaning “field” and cultura meaning “growing, cultivation”.

## Examples

Some forms of agriculture are:
- Fish hatchery
- Oyster farming, a kind of aquaculture
- Growing cotton
- Growing tobacco
- Growing trees for lumber (or forestry) and logging
- Raising cattle or other livestock
- cereals (grains),
- vegetables,
- fruits,
- meat,
- milk,
- eggs, and
- mushroom

Important kinds of agricultural products are:
- fibers
- fuels
- raw materials (such as rubber).
- classes (or kinds) of food

There are views about what is different between farming and agriculture.

## Disciplines

- Agricultural economics
- Agricultural science
    - Agronomy

In at least one country, education is available to become an Agricultural scientist; People with that job, do "implementation of [... things like] crop production, livestock management, and sustainable farming methods".
The Sexual Revolution

The term **Sexual revolution** was coined by Wilhelm Reich in his book _The Sexual Revolution_. That book was first published in 1936 in German, translated into English. The English edition was 1945.

Reich wrote in the book what he saw as wrong, namely the double standard regarding morals in the society of his time. These double standards and the suppression of the sex drive would make people different. This would lead to a buildup of aggressions and frustration. Freeing the sex drive would lead to a peaceful change of society, according to Reich.

Reich dies in prison 1957, but his ideas had their effect in the 1960s when people changed their views about sex. They were more open-minded about it. The publications of people like Alfred Kinsey helped give wings to the movement.

## First wave of sexual emancipation

The sexual revolution was prepared by a "first wave" of pioneers who campaigned against the sexual repression which was common in the 19th century. This change began, roughly,  at the end of the 19th and start of the 20th century. One impetus came from the pioneers of birth control and family planning. The books and publicity of Marie Stopes in England and Margaret Sanger in the United States, changed the lives of many women.

Attitudes towards homosexuality and masturbation were altered by the publications of Havelock Ellis. Ellis was the first person to say in print that masturbation was normal, and did not cause any medical problems. The ideas of Sigmund Freud were also influential. He believed that people's strong instincts toward sexuality were repressed in order to meet the constraints imposed on them by civilized life.

## Infobox (book)

- **name**: The Sexual Revolution
- **image size**: 213px
- **author**: Wilhelm Reich
- **title orig**: Die Sexualität im Kulturkampf
- **language**: German
- **subject**: Sexual ethics
- **publisher**: Sexpol-Verlag
- **pub date**: 1936
- **pages**: 247 pp.
- **oclc**: 2391549
Peter Martyr d'Anghiera

**Peter Martyr d'Anghiera** (2 February 1457 – October 1526) was an Italian-born historian of Spain and of the discoveries and explorations in the Americas.

The international form of his name is **Pietro Martire d'Anghiera**. In different languages, his name is written:
- English - Anghiera, Peter Martyr d'
- French - Martyr d'Anghiera, Pierre
- German - Anghiera, Peter Martyr von
- Italian - Martire d'Anghiera, Pietro
- Latin - Anglerius, Petrus Martyr
- Spanish - Anglería, Pedro Mártir de

He was born on February 2, 1457 at Arona, near Anghiera (called now Angera) on Lake Maggiore, Lombardy, Italy. He went to Rome in 1477, at the age of twenty, and there he met important persons of the Catholic Church. In 1486, Anghiera met the Spanish ambassador in Rome, and with him to Spain in August, 1487, to the court of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella of Castile.

He wrote in Latin the first accounts of explorations in the Americas in a series of letters and reports that were published from 1511 to 1530 in chapters called "Decades". The first three "Decades", together with a description of his experiences in Egypt, were published in 1516 under the title: _De orbe novo decades cum Legatione Babylonica_ or, for short, _De orbe novo_ ("On the New World").

He was the first writer to use the word _Hispaniola_ to name the island that Columbus named _La Española_. He also wrote that the Taíno name of the island was _Quizqueia_, a name that no other historian of that time mentioned. Quizqueia is used now as _Quisqueya_ or _Kiskeya_ for the whole island (in Haiti) or for the eastern part (in the Dominican Republic).

He died in October 1526 at Granada, Spain.
Wilhelm Reich

**Wilhelm Reich** (March 24, 1897 – November 3, 1957) was an Austrian-American psychiatrist and psychoanalyst. In the 1920s he was a pupil of Sigmund Freud in Vienna and made important contributions to psychoanalysis (_Charakteranalyse_ 1933; engl. 1945ff). His work was rediscovered by the activists of the sexual revolution of the 1960s and 1970s.

During the 1920s Reich became involved in the social struggles of the time. In 1927 he joined the Communist Party. There he founded "SexPol", short for Sexual Politics. In 1933 he was kicked off from the Party, and in 1934 from the organisations of Psychoanalysis. At this time he started his own research on the biological foundations of psychoanalysis, later on called "orgonomy". Orgonomy was to be the science of orgone, a "primordial energy" Reich claimed to have discovered.

The other side of Reich's story is that he was blamed to have invented a pseudoscience method for treating cancer. He was exposed as a fraud in 1947 articles by journalist Mildred Edie Brady, published in the magazines _Harper's_ and _The New Republic_, the latter titled "The Strange Case of Wilhelm Reich," with the subhead, "The man who blames both neuroses and cancer on unsatisfactory sexual activities has been repudiated by only one scientific journal". The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) decided that they were dealing with a "fraud of the first magnitude".

Finally, in 1956 Reich violated an injunction got by the FDA, and was arrested. All his research equipment including his books was destroyed. He was sentenced to two years prison. Reich died on 3 November 1957 (aged 60) in the United States Penitentiary, Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, Opinions about him remain very divided.

Reich had founded "Orgonon" in Rangeley, Maine after immigrating to the US. It was his  home, laboratory and research center, and also Reich's burial place. It is now open to the public as the **Wilhelm Reich Museum**.

## Infobox (scientist)

- **name**: Wilhelm Reich
- **image**: Wilhelm Reich in his mid-twenties.JPG
- **birth place**: Dobrzanica, Galicia, Austria-Hungary
- **death place**: Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, Lewisburg, Pennsylvania
- **citizenship**: Austria, United States
- **field**: Psychiatry, Psychoanalysis
- **alma mater**: University of Vienna
- **known for**: _The Sexual Revolution_
- **influences**: Sigmund Freud, Karl Marx
- **influenced**: Alexander Lowen, Fritz Perls, Ronald Laing
Tokyo Game Show

The **Tokyo Game Show** is one of the biggest conferences for video games in the world. held in the Makuhari Messe, in Chiba Prefecture, Japan.

## Other websites

- Tokyo Game Show
Choline

**Choline** is an organic compound. It is the precursor molecule (~building block) for the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Acetylcholine is involved in many functions including memory and muscle control.

Some animals cannot produce choline, but must have it in their diet to stay healthy. Humans make a small amount of choline in the liver. In the United States, choline is recommended as an essential nutrient after research showed that humans need to get it. They need to have choline in their diet or take a supplementation for proper health. Possible benefits include reducing the risk of neural tube defects and fatty liver disease. It has also been found that intake of choline during pregnancy can have long-term beneficial effects on memory for the child.

Choline is usually grouped with the Vitamin B complex. It is a vitamin that is needed by the human body. Adults should take between 425 and 550 milligrams of it daily. Choline is used by the body in the walls of cells and as a neurotransmitter. It also helps to prevent heart disease. There are claims that it helps reduce body fat, but this has not been proven.

## History

Choline was discovered by Andreas Strecker in 1864. In 1998 choline was classified as an needed nutrient by the Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine (USA).

## Sources

Sources of Choline are egg yolks, soy and cooked beef, chicken, veal and turkey (bird) livers. Many foods contain small amounts of choline, even iceberg lettuce.
La Borinqueña

"**La Borinqueña**" ( is the national anthem of Puerto Rico. The current official music and words were made up in 1903 and have been taught in schools and accepted by the public. The music was officially made the national anthem by the government in 1952, and the words in 1977. The title refers to the Taíno (Native American) name for the island of Puerto Rico, _Boriken_ or _Borinquen_.

## References

- National Symbols of Puerto Rico , from the official governor's website.
Ergastic substance

An **ergastic substance** is a non-protoplasm material that one can find in cells. These are usually products of metabolism.

Ergastic substances include crystals, oil drops, gums, tannins, resins and other compounds. Some of these substances help the organism function, keep up cell structure, or are just stored food material such as oil or fat.  During the life of a cell, they can appear and disappear. Ergastic substances may appear in the protoplasm, in vacuoles, or in the cell wall.

Ergastic substances are usually absent in tissue with dividing cells, such as meristem tissue in plants. Plant cells often store noxious substances in leaf cells as a kind of defence against herbivory. In animals storing noxious substances is done as defence against predation. Storing venom for use in biting or stings is common in some groups of animals.

In general, if animals need quantity of a liquid substance they produce it with special cells in a gland, and send the product to where it is needed or stored.
Adenine

**Adenine** is one of the nucleobases or basic molecules which form DNA and RNA. They are usually called **bases** in genetics.

## Function

In DNA, adenine sticks to thymine with two hydrogen bonds to help in making the nucleic acid structures stronger. In RNA, which is used in the cytoplasm for protein synthesis, adenine sticks to uracil.

## History

Adenine was sometimes called **Vitamin B<small>4</small>**, but no longer. However, two B vitamins, niacin and riboflavin, bind with adenine to form the essential cofactors NAD and FAD respectively.

Adenine when bonded to ribose forms adenosine, part of molecules such as adenosine triphosphate.

Some think that, at the origin of life on Earth, the first adenine was formed by the polymerization (joining) of five hydrogen cyanide (HCN) molecules. This is not generally accepted.

## Other websites

- Computational Chemistry Wiki
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## Events

- Odo of France becomes King of the Franks.

## Deaths

- Charles the Fat dies.
Trial and error

**Trial and error** is a primitive method of solving problems. It is characterised by repeated, varied attempts which are continued until success, or until the agent stops trying. It is an unsystematic method, which does not employ insight, theory or organised methodology.

According to W.H. Thorpe, the term was devised by C. Lloyd Morgan after trying out similar phrases "trial and failure" and "trial and practice". Under Morgan's canon, animal behaviour should be explained in the simplest possible way. Where behaviour seems to imply higher mental processes, it might be explained by trial and error learning. An example is the skilful way in which his terrier Tony opened the garden gate, easily misunderstood as an insightful act by someone seeing the final behaviour. Lloyd Morgan, however, had watched and recorded the series of approximations by which the dog had gradually learned the response, and could demonstrate that no insight was required to explain it.

Edward Thorndike showed how to manage a trial and error experiment in the laboratory. In his famous experiment, a cat was placed in a series of puzzle boxes in order to study the law of effect in learning. He plotted learning curves which recorded the timing for each trial. Thorndike's key observation was that learning was promoted by positive results, which was later refined and extended by B.F. Skinner's operant conditioning.
Harris Scarfe

**Harris Scarfe** is an Australian department store. It sells items including clothing, pots and pans, cutlery. The store went bankrupt in 2001, but has since bounced back.

In 2004, Harris Scarfe bought the Allens group of seven department and five homewares stores. They continued to trade under the Allens name in New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory, until 2008 when they got merged with Harris Scarfe.

## Stores

Harris Scarfe has stores located in most Australian states. In New South Wales and the ACT they used to trade as **Allens**. They were acquired by Harris Scarfe in 2004, but continued to trade under the Allens name. In late 2008, the name of these stores was being changed from Allens to Harris Scarfe.

The main store for the company is located in Rundle Mall, Adelaide. The store is five stories tall. The main store for Tasmania is in Hobart and it is three stories tall.

|State|Number of stores|Main store|
| --- | --- | --- |
|ACT|3|Tuggeranong|
|NSW|12|Goulburn|
|QLD|2||
|SA|7|Rundle Mall, Adelaide|
|TAS|6|Hobart|
|Victoria|13|Cranbourne Park|

## Items stocked

Harris Scarfe sells items in two main groups, _In Style_ (which includes all clothing) and _At Home_ (all other goods, such as homewares & linen). The Adelaide store sells more goods than the other stores. Many of the Allens stores sell less goods than other stores.
Flushing, Queens

**Flushing** is a neighborhood in the Queens borough of New York City. Flushing is the largest urban center in New York. New York's second-biggest Chinatown is there.
T-Mobile

**T-Mobile** is a mobile (cell phone) network operator headquartered in Bonn, Germany. It was founded in 1990 and is a part of Deutsche Telekom and belongs to the FreeMove alliance.

T-Mobile is a group of mobile phone companies (all owned by Deutsche Telekom) that operate GSM and UMTS networks in Europe and the United States. The "T" stands for "Telekom". Most subsidiaries (companies) of Deutsche Telekom have names beginning with "T-" like T-Home and T-Online. T-Mobile also owns parts of mobile operators in Eastern Europe. T-Mobile has 101 million subscribers, making it the world's sixth-largest mobile phone service provider by subscribers and the third-largest multinational after the United Kingdom's Vodafone and Spain's Telefonica.

T-Mobile International has a large presence in eleven European countries: Austria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, North Macedonia, Montenegro, the Netherlands, Poland, Slovakia and the United Kingdom as well as in the United States.

Deutsche Telekom recently tried to buy rival mobile network operator O2, but it was eventually bought by Spain's Telefonica.

As well as football kit sponsors for FC Bayern Munich, Ferencvárosi TC, The Blues City and Borehamwood, T-Mobile is also a sponsor of several sports events, some of which carry the company name. It sponsors its own cycling team, the T-Mobile Team, and the Austrian first division football competition, the T-Mobile Bundesliga. It was also the official global mobile phone carrier for the 2006 FIFA World Cup (football) in Germany.
Simplified English

**Simplified English** is a set of approved words and writing rules. Its makers made it to help engineers write manuals (instruction books) so that people all over the world can read them.

Some people think that:
- It can decrease doubt.
- It can make reading faster.
- It can help understanding for people whose first (native) language is not English.
- It can make translation easier for humans.
- It can make computer-helped translation and machine translation better.

The rules say to only use the words in simplified English in approved ways. This decreases misunderstanding. For example, the rules approve the use of the verb _close_ ("Do not close the door"). The rules approve the use of the adjective _closed_, meaning "not open" ("The door is not closed"). The adjective _close_ means near ("Do not go close to the door"). The rules disapprove the use of the adjective _close_. The rules approve the use of the adjective _near_ ("Do not go near the door") for this meaning. The rules specify the use of the adjective _near_ instead of the adjective _close_. This way, the reader can be sure if the instructions say to keep the door open or to stay far from the door.

People started developing simplified English in the 1970s. People continue developing simplified English today. AECMA is the "European Association of Aerospace Manufacturers". AECMA began work on simplified English. ASD is the "AeroSpace and Defence Industries Association of Europe". ASD has a Maintenance Group called STEMG that continues work on simplified English. STEMG is the "Simplified Technical English Maintenance Group". STEMG maintains the ASD-STE100, the latest simplified English.

## Related pages

- Basic English
- Constructed language
- Special English

## Other websites

- Official page of ASD Simplified Technical English Maintenance Group (STEMG)
- A brief overview of Simplified English with a selection of links
- World English Organization
- Simplus - Simplified English Checker
- Plain Language
Thymine

**Thymine**, or 5-methyluracil, is a pyrimidine base found in the nucleic acid DNA.

In RNA thymine is swapped for uracil to represent the same genetic information.  In DNA, thymine (T) connects to adenine (A) by two hydrogen bonds. These pair bonds hold the two strands of the DNA double helix structure together.

## Other websites

- Computational Chemistry Wiki
Probability distribution

**Probability distribution** is a term from mathematics. Suppose there are many events with random outcomes. A probability distribution is the theoretical counterpart to the frequency distribution. A frequency distribution simply shows how many times a certain event occurred. A probability distribution says how many times it _should_ have occurred in the long run (that is, its probability). The probability distribution of a random variable  is often written as  (or simply ). Such a distribution can either be discrete, taking a discrete (or countable) amount of values, or continuous, taking an uncountable amount of values (as from a continuous interval).

As an example, the probability distribution for a single roll of a normal 6-sided dice can be presented by:

where result is the outcome of the dice roll, and the probability shows the chances of that result occurring. If we roll a dice 60 times, then in the long run, we should expect to have each side appear 10 times on average.

There are different probability distributions. Each of them has its use, its benefits and its drawbacks. Some common probability distributions include:

- Binomial distribution
- Cauchy distribution
- Chi-square distribution
- Exponential distribution
- Gumbel distribution
- Normal distribution
- Poisson distribution
- Student's t-distribution

## Related pages

- Probability density function
Exponential distribution

The **exponential distribution** with rate , written , is a probability distribution defined only on the positive real numbers. It is the continuous analogue of geometric distribution. Exponential distribution is used in reliability applications, and its main use is to assess the duration of random time intervals. Examples where it can be used include:
- Time length of a telephone call
- How long does it take to perform a service (for example, to fix something at a service point)
- Amount of time between two phone calls
- Half life of atoms (radioactive decay)
- Expected lifetime of electronic (or other) parts, if wearing is not considered (this is called _Mean Time Between Failures_, _MTBF_)
- Age of plants or animals
- Very simple model used by insurance companies

## Related pages

- Normal distribution

## Other websites

- Online calculator of Exponential Distribution
Binomial distribution

In probability and statistics, the **binomial distribution** is a probability distribution which models the probabilities of having a certain number of successes among _n_ identical trials (each having _p_ as the probability of success). It is also written as . The variables n and p are thus the two parameters of a binomial distribution.

The binomial distribution has discrete values. It counts the number of successes in yes/no-type experiments. Each of these experiment, also called Bernoulli trial, either results in success or failure. Examples of binomial distribution include:
- Tossing a coin 10 times, and counting the number of _face-up_s. (n=10, p=1/2)
- Rolling a dice 10 times, and counting the number of sixes. (n=10, p=1/6)
- Counting the number of green-eyed people among 500 randomly chosen people (assuming that 5% of all people have green eyes). (n=500, p=0.05)
In order to use the binomial distribution, the following must be true about the problem:
1. The outcomes are **mutually exclusive**, that is, there are two possible outcomes which cannot occur simultaneously (for example. in flipping a coin, there are two possible outcomes: **heads** or **tails**. It is always one or the other, never both or a mix of outcomes).
1. The probability of a success (p) is consistent throughout the problem (for example, a basketball player makes 85% of his free throws. Each time the player attempts a free throw, 85% is assumed to be the likelihood of a made shot).
1. The trials are **independent** of each other (for example, on the second flip of a coin, the first outcome does not impact the chance of the next toss: the chance of tossing a heads (or tails) is still 50%).

## Related pages

- Bernoulli distribution
- Poisson distribution
Poisson distribution

In probability and statistics, **Poisson distribution** is a probability distribution. It is named after Siméon Denis Poisson. It measures the probability that a certain number of events occur within a certain period of time. The events need to be unrelated to each other. They also need to occur with a known average rate, represented by the symbol  (lambda).

More specifically, if a random variable  follows Poisson distribution with rate , then the probability of the different values of  can be described as follows:

- for

Examples of Poisson distribution include:
- The numbers of cars that pass on a certain road in a certain time
- The number of telephone calls a call center receives per minute
- The number of light bulbs that burn out (fail) in a certain amount of time
- The number of mutations in a given stretch of DNA after a certain amount of radiation
- The number of errors that occur in a system
- The number of Property & Casualty insurance claims experienced in a given period of time

## Related pages

- Binomial distribution
- Exponential distribution
Interpreter (computing)

In computer science, an **interpreter** is a computer program that performs commands written in a computer programming language. Interpreters are one of the two most important ways a program can be run, the other being compilation.

## Function

The interpreter is a language processor which converts a high-level programming language like JavaScript into machine language by _converting and executing it line-by-line._ If there is any error in any line, it reports it at the same time and program execution cannot resume until the error is rectified.
Flag of the United Arab Emirates

The **flag of the United Arab Emirates** () is used to represent, or show, the United Arab Emirates. It contains the Pan-Arab colors, which are red, green, white, and black, to show Arab unity. The Flag was designed by a Young Emirati boy named as Abdullah Mohammed Al Maainah  in 1971.

## Red

Red represents hardiness, bravery, strength and courage. The vertical red band can also be interpreted as binding all the other meanings together in unity.

## Green

Green represents hope, joy, optimism, and love. It can also symbolize the countries prosperity.

## White

White represents peace and honesty. White is the purest colour, and is interpreted by some to symbolise cleanliness.

## Black

Black is the colour of solidarity and also the colour of mental strength. It signifies the defeat of enemies.

## Infobox (flag)

- **name**: United Arab Emirates
- **image**: Flag of the United Arab Emirates.svg
- **use**: 111010
- **proportion**: 1:2
- **adoption**: December 2, 1971
- **design**: A horizontal tricolour (flag), tricolour of green, white and black with a vertical -width red bar at the hoist
- **designer**: H.E. Abdulla Mohamed Almaainah, current Ambassador of the UAE to the Czech Republic
The Donna Reed Show

***The Donna Reed Show*** is an American sitcom television series. It aired on ABC from 1958 to 1966. The show stars Donna Reed as Donna Stone, a housewife, Carl Betz as Alex Stone, a pediatrician (baby doctor), Shelley Fabares as their teenage daughter Mary, and Paul Petersen as their son Jeff. Mary left for college in the show's fifth year and Paul Petersen's real life little sister Patty Petersen joined the show as Trisha, a child the Stones adopt. Bob Crane and Ann McCrea joined the show in its last years as Stone family friends Dave and Midge Kelsey.

The show is about an upper middle class American family. Donna is a somewhat idealized housewife who capably handles any problems or situations that come her way. The show had many famous guest stars: singers James Darren and Lesley Gore, actor George Hamilton, swimmer and actress Esther Williams, Lassie as her TV character, sports stars Don Drysdale and Willie Mays, Buster Keaton, and Jay North as his TV character Dennis the Menace. Reed won the 1963 Golden Globe Best Female TV Star Award.

## Infobox (television)

- **image**: Donna Reed Show cast 1958.JPG
- **caption**: Cast of _The Donna Reed Show_ (1958, first season)
- **runtime**: 30 minutes
- **starring**: Donna Reed
Carl Betz
Shelley Fabares
Paul Petersen
- **opentheme**: Happy Days
- **endtheme**: Happy Days
- **country**: United States
- **language**: English language, English
- **network**: American Broadcasting Company, ABC
- **num episodes**: 275
- **num seasons**: 8