juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Dsungaripterus

***Dsungaripterus*** ("Wing of Junggar Basin") was a pterosaur with a wingspan of 10 feet (3 m). It had an unusual bony crest running along its snout and long, narrow, curved jaws with a pointed tip. The crest may have acted as a rudder when flying or may have been a secondary sex characteristic.

_Dsungaripterus_'s head and neck were together almost a metre long. Its most notable feature are its long, narrow, upcurved jaws with a pointed tip, making the animal look like a pair of flying tweezers. It had no teeth in the front part of its jaws, which were probably used to remove shellfish and worms from cracks in rocks or from sandy, muddy beaches. It had knobbly flat teeth more to the back of the jaw that were well suited for crushing shellfish.
Brachychiton

***Brachychiton*** (also known as the **bottletree** or **kurrajong**) is a genus of 31 species of trees and large shrubs. They grow naturally in Australia and New Guinea. Fossils from New South Wales and New Zealand are believed to be 50 million years old. The name _Brachychiton_ is comes from the Greek _brachys_, meaning "short", and _chiton_, meaning "tunic". This refers to its loose seed coverings.

They grow to 4–30m tall. All species have separate male and female flowers on the same plant. The female flowers have five separate carpels that can each form a woody fruit that has several seeds.
Themisto (moon)

**Themisto** or ***', is a small prograde non-spherical moon of Jupiter. It was found in 1975, lost, and then refound in 2000.

## Discovery and naming

Themisto was first found by Charles T. Kowal and Elizabeth Roemer on September 30, 1975, reported on October 3, 1975 and designated ***'. However, not enough observations were made to establish an orbit and it was subsequently lost.

Themisto appeared as a footnote in astronomy textbooks into the 1980s. Then, in 2000, a seemingly new moon was found by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, Yanga R. Fernández and Eugene A. Magnier, and was designated ****. It was soon confirmed that this was the same as the 1975 object. The Sheppard et al. announcement was immediately correlated with an August 6 2000 observation by the team of Brett J. Gladman, John J. Kavelaars, Jean-Marc Petit, Hans Scholl, Matthew J. Holman, Brian G. Marsden, Philip D. Nicholson and Joseph A. Burns — an observation that was reported to the Minor Planet Center but not published as an IAU Circular (IAUC).

In October 2002 it was officially named after Themisto, daughter of the river god Inachus by Zeus (Jupiter) in Greek mythology.

## Characteristics

Themisto's orbit is unusual. Unlike most of Jupiter's moons, which orbit in groups, Themisto orbits alone, midway between the Galilean moons and the first group of prograde irregulars.

Themisto is about 8 kilometers in diameter (assuming an albedo of 0.04)

## References

1. <li value="7">Ephemeris IAU-MPC NSES
1. Mean orbital parameters NASA JPL

## Other websites

- David Jewitt's pages
- Scott Sheppard's pages

## Infobox (planet)

- **name**: Themisto
- **bgcolour**: #ffc0c0
- **discoverer**: Charles Kowal<small> (1975)</small>

Elizabeth Roemer<small> (1975)</small>

Scott S. Sheppard<small> (2000)</small>

David C. Jewitt<small> (2000)</small>

Yanga R. Fernández<small> (2000)</small>

Eugene A. Magnier<small> (2000)</small>
- **discovered**: September 30, 1975

November 21, 2000<small> rediscovered</small>
- **mean orbit radius**: 7,391,650 kilometer, km (0.04941 Astronomical unit, AU)
- **eccentricity**: 0.2006
- **periapsis**: 5,909,000 kilometer, km (0.039 AU)
- **apoapsis**: 8,874,300 kilometer, km (0.059 AU)
- **period**: 129.82761 d (0.3554 year, a)
- **avg speed**: 4.098 kilometre per second, km/s
- **inclination**: 45.81° (to the ecliptic)
47.48° (to Jupiter's equator)
- **satellite of**: Jupiter (planet), Jupiter
- **mean radius**: 4 km
- **circumference**: ~25 km
- **surface area**: ~200 square kilometer, km²
- **volume**: ~270 cubic kilometre, km³
- **mass**: 6.89 kilogram, kg
- **density**: 2.6 g/cm<sup>3</sup> _assumed_
- **surface grav**: ~0.0029 Acceleration, m/s<sup>2</sup> (0.0003 g)
- **escape velocity**: ~0.0048 km/s
- **albedo**: 0.04 _assumed_
- **single temperature**: ~124 K
Thebe (moon)

**Thebe** or ***', is the fourth of Jupiter's known moons (by distance from the planet). It was found by Stephen P. Synnott in images from the _Voyager 1_ space probe taken on March 5, 1979 and was given the designation ***'. Later, it was found on images dating back to February 27, 1979. In 1983 it was officially named after the mythological nymph Thebe who was the daughter of the river god Asopus and a lover of Zeus (the Greek equivalent of Jupiter).

## Orbit

Thebe is the farthest of the inner Jovian moons. It orbits Jupiter at a distance of ~222,000 km (3.11 Jupiter radii). The orbit of Thebe has an orbital eccentricity of ~0.018 and an inclination of ~1.08° relative to the equator of Jupiter. These values are unusually high for a closer moon and can be explained by the past influence of the closest Galilean satellite Io; in the past, several mean motion resonances with Io would have passed through Thebe's orbit as Io gradually moved away from Jupiter, and these excited Thebe's orbit.

## Physical characteristics

Thebe is not a sphere, with the closest ellipsoidal approximation being 116x98x84 km. Its bulk density and mass are not known but assuming that it mean density is like that of Amalthea (~0.86 g/cm³) its mass can be estimated at ~4.3×10<sup>17</sup> kg.

The surface of Thebe is dark and appears to be reddish in color.

## Exploration

Thebe was found in _Voyager 1_ images by Steve Synnott, a member of the Voyager navigation team. However, before the _Galileo_ spacecraft arrived at Jupiter, little was known about it. _Galileo_ imaged almost all of the surface of Thebe and put constraints on its composition.

## Other websites

- Thebe Profile  by NASA's Solar System Exploration

## Infobox (planet)

- **name**: Thebe
- **image**: thebe.jpg
- **caption**: Image of Thebe taken by the Galileo spacecraft on January 4 2000.
- **bgcolour**: #a0ffa0
- **discoverer**: Stephen P. Synnott / Voyager 1
- **discovered**: March 5 1979
- **mean orbit radius**: 221889.0 ± 0.6 kilometer, km (3.11 R<sub>J</sub>)
- **periapsis**: 218,000 kilometer, km
- **apoapsis**: 226,000 kilometer, km
- **eccentricity**: 0.0175 ± 0.0004
- **period**: 0.674536 ± 0.000001 d (16 h 11.3 min)
- **avg speed**: 23.923 km/s
- **inclination**: 1.076 ±0.003° (to Jupiter's equator)
- **satellite of**: Jupiter (planet), Jupiter
- **mean radius**: 49.3 ± 2.0 km
- **dimensions**: 116×98×84 km
- **volume**: ~500,000 cubic kilometer, km³
- **mass**: 4.3 kilogram, kg
- **density**: 0.86 g/cm³ (assumed)
- **surface grav**: ~0.020 Acceleration, m/s² (0.004 g)
- **escape velocity**: ~0.040 km/s
- **rotation**: synchronous rotation, synchronous
- **axial tilt**: zero
- **albedo**: 0.047 ± 0.003
- **single temperature**: ~124 K
Antagonist

An **antagonist** is the character in a story who is against the protagonist. For example, in the Disney movie _The Lion King_, the main antagonist is Scar.

While the most common practice is for a hero to be the protagonist and the villain to be the antagonist this is not always the case. As an example in the manga/anime series Death Note protagonist Light Yagami was the villain as it was his goal to rid the world of criminals in order to create his own ideal "utopia" and rule it like a god while antagonist L was the hero as it was his goal to end Light's psychotic killing spree. Also a good example is the animated series Invader Zim where titular protagonist Zim is the villain as it was his ultimate goal to conquer and take over Earth while antagonist Dib is the hero as it was his goal to stop Zim's diabolical plans. Another example is Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street where the titular protagonist and the antagonist Judge Turpin were both villains.

A story may also have secondary antagonist, either a partner/accomplice of the main antagonist or an entirely separate threat altogether (though a lesser one). Just like the main antagonist they aren't always villains but they are obstacles towards the goal(s) of the protagonist(s).

It is possible for a protagonist to become an antagonist. A well-known example of this is in the _Star Wars_ movie series, when Anakin Skywalker turns from a Jedi to a Sith, to become Darth Vader.
Joe Grant

**Joe Grant** (May 15, 1908 - May 9, 2005) was an American animator, writer and illustrator. He worked for Walt Disney between 1933 and 1949 and again from 1989 until his death just a few days before his 97th birthday.

Joe Grant was born at 1908 in New York City. After school, he began his career as a caricaturist. In 1933, he was hired by Disney for the Mickey Mouse short movie _Mickey's Gala Premiere_. In the next years, he, Albert Hurter, Dick Huemer and Fred Moore were the studios' most important character animator. He created the witch in _Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs_ (1937). Grant and Huemer created books for _Fantasia_ and _Dumbo_. Later, he was the head of the "Character Animation Department" at Disney. This department was closed in 1949 and Grant left Disney.

40 years later, in 1989, Grant began working for Disney again. He created characters and sketches for Disney's _Beauty and the Beast_, (1991). The movie was the first animated movie which was nominated for the Academy Award for "Best Picture". He was the only person who worked on _Fantasia_ (1940) and _Fantasia 2000_.

In 2005, his animation short movie _Lorenzo_ was nominated for an Academy Award. Just a few weeks later, Joe Grant died while working with his drawing board at the age of 96 in Glendale, California.
Ganymede (moon)

**Ganymede**<sup>[p]</sup> is the largest of the 95 known moons of the planet Jupiter. It is also the largest moon in the Solar System. Ganymede is larger in diameter than the planet Mercury, but has only about half of its mass as Ganymede is much less dense. Ganymede is part of a group called the Galilean Satellites. These also include Io, Europa and Callisto.

Galileo Galilei discovered this moon in 1610. Simon Marius suggested the name "Ganymede" soon after. In Greek mythology, Ganymede was Zeus' cup-bearer. This name and the names of the other Galilean satellites were not favoured for a long time, and were not put into common use until the mid-20th century. Instead, it is simply referred to by its Roman numeral designation (a system that was introduced by Galileo) as  or as the "third satellite of Jupiter".  Ganymede is the only Galilean moon of Jupiter named after a male figure.

## Structure

Ganymede is composed of roughly equal amounts of silicate rock and water ice. Its body has an iron-rich, liquid core, and an internal ocean that may contain more water than all of Earth's oceans together. Its surface has dark regions, with impact craters dated to four billion years ago. This covers about a third of the satellite. Lighter regions, crosscut by grooves and ridges and only slightly less ancient, cover the rest. The cause of the light terrain's disrupted geology is not fully known, but was likely the result of tectonic activity caused by tidal heating. Ganymede is also the only known moon to have a magnetic field of its own.

## Notes

- <sup>[p] ^</sup> The name "Ganymede" is said as /_Gan-ee-Meed_/.

## Other websites

- Ganymede

## Infobox (planet)

- **name**: Ganymede
- **image**: Ganymede g1 true.jpg
- **caption**: Click image for description
- **bgcolour**: #a0ffa0
- **discoverer**: Galileo Galilei, G. Galilei
Simon Marius, S. Marius
- **discovered**: January 11, 1610
- **mean orbit radius**: 1,070,400 kilometre, km (0.007155 astronomical unit, AU)
- **eccentricity**: 0.002
- **periapsis**: 1,069,200 km (0.007147 AU)
- **apoapsis**: 1,071,600 km (0.007163 AU)
- **period**: 7.15455296 day, d (0.019588 year, a)
- **avg speed**: 10.880 km/s
- **inclination**: 2.21° (to the ecliptic)
0.20° (to Jupiter's equator)
- **satellite of**: Jupiter (planet), Jupiter
- **mean radius**: 1 E6 m, 2631.2 km (0.413 Earths)
- **surface area**: 1 E13 m², 87.0 million square kilometre, km² (0.171 Earths)
- **volume**: 7.6 cubic kilometre, km³ (0.0704 Earths)
- **mass**: 1.4819 kilogram, kg (0.025 Earths)
- **density**: 1.942 Gram, g/cubic centimetre, cm³
- **surface grav**: 1.428 acceleration, m/s<sup>2</sup> (0.146 _g-force, g_)
- **escape velocity**: 2.741 km/s  (6,130 mph)
- **rotation**: synchronous rotation, synchronous
- **axial tilt**: zero
- **albedo**: 0.43 ± 0.02
- **magnitude**: 4.61 (Opposition (astronomy), opposition)
- **single temperature**: ~109 kelvin, K (−172 °C)
- **atmosphere**: yes
- **surface pressure**: trace
- **atmosphere composition**: oxygen
Garth Brooks

**Troyal Garth Brooks**, commonly known as Garth Brooks, (born February 7, 1962) is an American country music singer and songwriter. He uses rock elements in his recordings and live performances. Brooks was successful in the country singles and country album charts and later also proved popular in the mainstream pop arena, exposing country music to a larger audience.

Brooks has had one of the most successful careers in popular music history, with over 70 hit singles and 15 charted albums to his credit. Throughout the 1990s he broke records for both sales and concert attendance. In 1999, looking to expand his career boundaries, Brooks began a multimedia project involving a fictitious alter ego known as Chris Gaines.

He started performing at bars while studying advertising in college and also working as a bouncer. In 2001, Brooks officially retired from recording and performing, after having conflicts between his career and family. During this time he has sold millions of albums through an exclusive distribution deal with Walmart and has released new singles from time to time.

On November 6, 2007, _The Ultimate Hits_ was released. Brooks came out of retirement in 2007 when he opened a new arena in Kansas City, Missouri. He left retirement again in 2013 to play at the Encore Casino in Las Vegas.

### Studio albums

|Year|Album details|
| --- | --- |
|1989|_Garth Brooks_ * Release date: April 12, 1989 * Label: Capitol Nashville|
|1990|_No Fences_ * Release date: August 27, 1990 * Label: Capitol Nashville|
|1991|_Ropin' the Wind_ * Release date: September 10, 1991 * Label: Liberty Records|
|1992|_The Chase_ * Release date: September 22, 1992 * Label: Liberty Records|
|1993|_In Pieces_ * Release date: August 31, 1993 * Label: Liberty Records|
|1995|_Fresh Horses_ * Release date: November 21, 1995 * Label: Capitol Nashville|
|1997|_Sevens_ * Release date: November 25, 1997 * Label: Capitol Nashville|
|2001|_Scarecrow_ * Release date: November 13, 2001 * Label: Capitol Nashville|
|2005|_The Lost Sessions_ * Release date: November 25, 2005 * Label: Pearl Records|
|2014|_Man Against Machine_ * Release date: November 11, 2014 * Label: Pearl Records|
|2016|_Gunslinger_ * Release date: November 25, 2016 * Label: Pearl Records|
|2020|_Fun_ * Release date: November 20, 2020 * Label: Pearl Records|
|2023|_Time Traveler_ * Release date: November 7, 2023 * Label: Pearl Records|

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Garth Brooks
- **image**: Garth Brooks 2019 By Glenn Francis.jpg
- **caption**: Garth Brooks in Los Angeles, California March 2019
- **background**: solo_singer
- **birth name**: Troyal Garth Brooks
- **origin**: Tulsa, Oklahoma, United States, U.S.
- **instrument**: Singing, Vocals, guitar (primary instruments)
Piano
Saxophone
- **genre**: Country music, Country
- **occupation**: Singer-songwriter
- **years active**: 1985–2001
2005–present
- **label**: Capitol Records, Capitol, Liberty, Pearl, RCA Records Nashville, RCA Nashville
- **associated acts**: Carrie Underwood
Baden

**Baden** is a historical state in south-west Germany.

The Margraviate of Baden () was made in 1112. From 1190 to 1771, Baden was broken up into different smaller states. When the Holy Roman Empire ended in 1806, the Margraviate of Baden became the larger and more powerful Grand Duchy of Baden (). After World War I ended in 1918, the monarchy in Baden ended so Baden became a republic.

After World War II ended in 1945, Baden was cut in half: the north half became part of Württemberg-Baden and the south half became South Baden. South Baden changed its name to "Baden" in 1947. Baden was one of the original states of the Federal Republic of Germany. In 1952, it joined with Württemberg-Baden and Württemberg-Hohenzollern to make the state of Baden-Württemberg.
Hüttlingen, Switzerland

**Hüttlingen** is a municipality of the district of Frauenfeld, in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.

## Infobox (swiss town)

- **subject name**: Hüttlingen
- **municipality name**: Hüttlingen
- **municipality type**: municipality
- **imagepath coa**: Hüttlingen-blazon.svg
- **languages**: German
- **canton**: Thurgau
- **iso-code-region**: CH-TG
- **district**: Frauenfeld (district), Frauenfeld
- **postal code**: 8553
- **municipality code**: 4590
- **area**: 11.6
- **elevation**: 411
- **population**: 841
- **populationof**: December 2005
- **website**: www.huettlingen.ch
- **neighboring municipalities**: Amlikon-Bissegg, Felben-Wellhausen, Müllheim, Switzerland, Müllheim, Pfyn, Thundorf, Thurgau, Thundorf, Wigoltingen
Hüttwilen

**Hüttwilen** is a municipality of the district of Frauenfeld in the canton of Thurgau in  Switzerland.

The lakes Nussbaumersee, Hüttwilersee and Hasensee are found in the municipality.

## Infobox (swiss town)

- **subject name**: Hüttwilen
- **municipality name**: Hüttwilen
- **municipality type**: municipality
- **imagepath coa**: Hüttwilen-blazon.svg
- **languages**: German
- **canton**: Thurgau
- **iso-code-region**: CH-TG
- **district**: Frauenfeld (district), Frauenfeld
- **postal code**: 8536
- **municipality code**: 4821
- **area**: 17.6
- **elevation**: 455
- **population**: 1371
- **populationof**: December 2005
- **website**: www.huettwilen.ch
- **places**: Hüttwilen, Nussbaumen, Uerschhausen
- **neighboring municipalities**: Eschenz, Herdern, Mammern, Neunforn, Oberstammheim (ZH), Uesslingen-Buch, Wagenhausen, Warth-Weiningen
Kemmental

**Kemmental** is a municipality of the district of Kreuzlingen in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.

## History

The municipality was created on January 1, 1996 by mergxer of the formar municipalities of Alterswilen, Altishausen, Ellighausen, Lippoldswilen, Neuwilen, Siegershausen, Dotnacht and Hugelshofen.

## Infobox (swiss town)

- **subject name**: Kemmental
- **municipality name**: Kemmental
- **municipality type**: municipality
- **imagepath coa**: CHE Kemmental COA.svg
- **languages**: German
- **canton**: Thurgau
- **iso-code-region**: CH-TG
- **district**: Kreuzlingen (district), Kreuzlingen
- **postal code**: 8565, 8566, 8573
- **municipality code**: 4666
- **area**: 28.4
- **elevation**: 548
- **population**: 2137
- **populationof**: December 2005
- **popofyear**: 2005
- **website**: www.kemmental.ch
- **places**: Alterswilen, Altishausen, Bommen, Dotnacht, Ellighausen, Engelswilen, Hugelshofen, Lipperwilen, Lippoldswilen, Neuwilen, Schwaderloh, Siegershausen
- **neighboring municipalities**: Berg, Thurgau, Berg, Kreuzlingen, Lengwil, Märstetten, Tägerwilen, Wäldi, Weinfelden, Wigoltingen
Kesswil

**Kesswil** is a municipality of the district of Arbon in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.

The village was the birthplace of the psychiatrist Carl Jung.

## Infobox (swiss town)

- **subject name**: Kesswil
- **municipality name**: Kesswil
- **municipality type**: municipality
- **imagepath coa**: Kesswil-blazon.svg
- **languages**: German
- **canton**: Thurgau
- **iso-code-region**: CH-TG
- **district**: Arbon (district), Arbon
- **postal code**: 8593
- **municipality code**: 4426
- **area**: 4.4
- **elevation**: 412
- **population**: 926
- **populationof**: December 2005
- **popofyear**: 2005
- **website**: www.kesswil.ch
- **neighboring municipalities**: Dozwil, Güttingen, Hagnau am Bodensee (DE-BY), Hefenhofen, Immenstaad am Bodensee (DE-BY), Sommeri, Uttwil
Kradolf-Schönenberg

**Kradolf-Schönenberg** is a municipality of the district of Weinfelden in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.

## Infobox (swiss town)

- **subject name**: Kradolf-Schönenberg
- **municipality name**: Kradolf-Schönenberg
- **municipality type**: municipality
- **imagepath coa**: KradolfSchönenberg-blazon.svg
- **languages**: German
- **canton**: Thurgau
- **iso-code-region**: CH-TG
- **district**: Weinfelden (district), Weinfelden
- **postal code**: 9214, 9215
- **municipality code**: 4506
- **area**: 10.9
- **elevation**: 455
- **population**: 3181
- **populationof**: December 2005
- **popofyear**: 2005
- **website**: www.kradolf-schoenenberg.ch
- **neighboring municipalities**: Bischofszell, Bürglen, Thurgau, Bürglen, Hohentannen, Niederhelfenschwil (SG), Schönholzerswilen, Sulgen, Wuppenau
Langrickenbach

**Langrickenbach** is a municipality of the district of Kreuzlingen in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.

## Infobox (swiss town)

- **subject name**: Langrickenbach
- **municipality name**: Langrickenbach
- **municipality type**: municipality
- **imagepath coa**: Langrickenbach-blazon.svg
- **map**: Karte Gemeinde Langrickenbach 2011.png
- **languages**: German
- **canton**: Thurgau
- **iso-code-region**: CH-TG
- **district**: Kreuzlingen (district), Kreuzlingen
- **postal code**: 8585
- **municipality code**: 4681
- **area**: 10.9
- **elevation**: 522
- **population**: 1070
- **populationof**: December 2005
- **popofyear**: 2005
- **website**: www.langrickenbach.ch
- **neighboring municipalities**: Altnau, Birwinken, Erlen, Güttingen, Lengwil, Münsterlingen, Sommeri
Lengwil

**Lengwil** is a municipality of the district of Kreuzlingen in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.

## Infobox (swiss town)

- **subject name**: Lengwil
- **municipality name**: Lengwil
- **municipality type**: municipality
- **imagepath coa**: Lengwil-blazon.svg
- **languages**: German
- **canton**: Thurgau
- **iso-code-region**: CH-TG
- **district**: Kreuzlingen (district), Kreuzlingen
- **postal code**: 8574
- **municipality code**: 4683
- **area**: 8.8
- **elevation**: 470
- **population**: 1239
- **populationof**: December 2005
- **popofyear**: 2005
- **website**: www.lengwil.ch
- **neighboring municipalities**: Berg, Thurgau, Berg, Birwinken, Bottighofen, Kemmental, Kreuzlingen, Langrickenbach, Münsterlingen
Mitsubishi Model A

The **Mitsubishi Model A** is the only car built by the Mitsubishi Shipbuilding Company, a member of the Mitsubishi _keiretsu_ which would later become Mitsubishi Motors, and the first automobile made in Japan. Based on the Fiat _Tipo 3_, it was a four-door seven-seat sedan powered by a front-mounted 26kW 2.8 litre straight-4 engine driving the rear wheels, and could drive as fast as 20 mph. 22 were built at the company's Kobe shipyard between 1917 and 1921.
Gopher (protocol)

**Gopher** is a protocol. It was designed for distributing, searching, and retrieving documents over the Internet.  Gopher represented an early alternative to the World Wide Web.

The gopher protocol has some things HTTP-based clients do not have. It is based on menus. An item selected from a menu will either open another menu, or a document.

Because of concern over possible licensing fees, and the relative flexibility of the World Wide Web, the protocol did not get much use. There are less than 200 gopher servers still actively maintained. Many of the remaining gopher servers are run by individuals. Most of them are rarely updated except for the ones run by enthusiasts of the protocol. A handful of new servers are set up every year by hobbyists - over 50 have been set up and added to Floodgap's list since 1999. Today Gopher exists as an almost forgotten corner of the Internet. - one can publish email addresses in plaintext without having to worry about spam, and publish large amounts of data without the risk of the server's bandwidth becoming saturated by overuse.

In the early stages of mobile Internet access, some suggested that the simple interface of Gopher would be a good match for mobile phones and Personal digital assistants (PDAs). Web-based solutions also won in the mobile space, with technologies like Wireless Markup Language (WML)/Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), DoCoMo i-mode, XHTML Basic or other adaptations of HTML and XML.

Several server software packages are still maintained and updated for the Gopher protocol. For example, the PyGopherd Gopher server provides a built-in WML front-end to Gopher sites served with it. The Motsognir Gopher server provides PHP5 and Plugin support.

Many current web-browsers have stopped supporting the gopher protocol directly, such as Mozilla Firefox. But 3rd-party addons and plugins are still available to replace browser-based Gopher functionality.

## Other websites

- [gopher://home.jumpjet.info/1\Gopher_Jewels_2 Gopher Jewels 2] (gopher link)
- The Gopher Project
- The state of Gopher support for common Web browsers
- [gopher://gopher.floodgap.com/1/new List of new Gopher servers since 1999] (gopher link)
- List of Gopher servers
- Gopher Clients
- An announcement of Gopher on the Usenet  Oct 8 1991
- Old Gopher guide
- See what gopher looked like.
- This is another website that looks almost like Gopher used to look. You can see what fun it is to move around on a simple website like this.
Inner moons of Jupiter

The **inner moons of Jupiter**  are four small moons that orbit close to Jupiter. These moons are closely interconnected with the rings of Jupiter and serve as both sources and sinks of the ring's material. Their semi-major axes range between 128,000 and 222,000 km.

The members of the group are (in order from closest to farthest):
- Metis
- Adrastea
- Amalthea, the biggest, after which the group is sometimes named
- Thebe

Metis and Adrastea each orbit Jupiter in less than one Jovian day (the time it takes for Jupiter to rotate once).  Phobos, a moon of Mars, is the only other moon known to orbit its planet in less than the length of that planet's day.

## Related pages

- List of Jupiter's moons
Passion cantata

A **Passion cantata** is a cantata. The cantata takes its theme from the Passion of Jesus Christ, in other words his suffering until his death at the cross. Larger cantatas with this theme are known as oratorios.

Today, most of them are performed in the week before Easter.

### English

In the English repertoire, the two classics are _The Crucifixion_ (1887) by Sir John Stainer and _Olivet to Calvary_ (1904) by John Henry Maunder. Other works include Sir Arthur Somervell's _The Passion of Christ_ (1914), Charles Wood's _St. Mark Passion_ (1921), Eric Thiman's "The Last Supper" (1930) and William Lloyd Webber's "The Saviour" (1942).

### German

The most famous Passion cantatas are probably the two composed by Johann Sebastian Bach: the _St John Passion_ (1724) and the _St Matthew Passion_ (1727).

### Latin

One notable work in Latin is Arvo Pärt's _Passio Domini Nostri Jesu Christi secundum Joannem_ (_The Passion of Our Lord Jesus Christ according to John_) of 1982.
Aberdeen Grammar School

**Aberdeen Grammar School** is one of the twelve secondary schools run by the government in the City of Aberdeen, Scotland. It is run by the Aberdeen City Council education department. It is the oldest school in the city. It is around 750 years old. Lord Byron went to the Aberdeen Grammar School. A statue of him has been placed in front of the school.
Wireless Application Protocol

The **Wireless Application Protocol** (_WAP_) is a protocol. It was made to allow devices like mobile phones to access the internet.
Himalia group

The **Himalia group** is a group of prograde non-spherical moons of Jupiter that follow similar orbits to Himalia and are thought to have a common origin.

The known members of the group are (in order from closest to farthest from Jupiter):
- Leda
- Himalia (the biggest, which gives its name to the group)
- Lysithea
- Elara
The orbit estimate of the recently found moon S/2000 J 11 also qualified it as a member of the group (it appeared to have the same inclination, and a slightly bigger semi-major axis)
but its orbit is not known exactly and the mean orbital elements have not yet been calculated.

The International Astronomical Union (IAU) reserves names in **-a** for the moons in this group.

## Characteristics and origin

The objects in the Himalia group have semi-major axes (distances from Jupiter) in the range of 11,150,000 and 11,750,000 km, inclinations between 26.6° and 28.3°, and eccentricities of between 0.11 and 0.25.
All moons in the group are grey similar to C-type asteroids. It has been suggested that the group could be a remnant of the break-up of an asteroid from the main asteroid belt. The radius of the parent asteroid was probably about 89 km, only a bit bigger than that of Himalia, which retains approximately 87% of the mass of the original body. This indicates the asteroid was not heavily disturbed.
Naturalization

**Naturalization** is when a person changes their nationality.

## Overview

Most people have the nationality of the country where they are born and grow up. In other cases, one can be a citizen of a country when the person has a parent or grandparent who was/is a citizen of a different country. If they move to another country, they would keep their own nationality. However, if they stay there for a certain number of years, they may be able to change their nationality.

## Regional differences

Different countries have different laws about naturalization. Usually the person must make a promise in a court of law. He will have to promise to be a good citizen and obey the country's laws. A country may grant citizenship to someone who has not asked for it.

Usually, a person can keep their first nationality when getting a new one. This is called _dual nationality_. Sometimes children whose parents have different nationalities are allowed to have dual nationality. Someone who has been naturalized will normally have all the rights that any other person who belongs to that country has.

## Denaturalization

The reverse also happens. States sometimes remove the citizenship of certain naturalized citizens, which can leave the former citizen stateless.

## Related pages

- Civil rights
- Immigration
- Human rights
- Egalitarianism
Semaphore line

A **semaphore line** is an installation used to send optical signals. It is also known as **optical telegraph**.  Common system include signal towers with special installations on them or hand-held flags. The meaning of the signal is determined by the position of the elements, for example the flags. The signal can be read when it is in a stable position. In modern usage, it refers to signalling with a set of flags.

Signal towers came before the electric telegraph. They were faster than sending out post riders with the information.

## Characters

The following semaphore characters are presented as one would face the flagman:

## Related articles

- Railway semaphore signal
Ananke group

The **Ananke group** is a group of moons of Jupiter. They are retrograde non-spherical moons that follow similar orbits to Ananke and may have a common origin.

Their semi-major axes (distances from Jupiter) range between 19,300,000 and 22,700,000 km, their inclinations between 145.7° and 154.8°, and their orbital eccentricities between 0.02 and 0.28.

The core members include (from biggest to smallest):
- Ananke
- Praxidike
- Iocaste
- Harpalyke
- Thyone
- Euanthe
- Euporie
- Hermippe
The International Astronomical Union (IAU) reserves names ending in **-e** for all retrograde moons, including this group's members.

## Origin

The Ananke group is believed to have been formed when an asteroid was captured by Jupiter and broken apart by a collision.

Based on the sizes of the moons, the original asteroid may have been about 28 km in diameter. Since this value is near the approximate diameter of Ananke itself, it is likely the parent body was not heavily disrupted.

Three of the moons of the family (Harpalyke, Praxidike and Iocaste) display similar grey colours while Ananke itself is on the boundary between grey and light red.
Carme group

The **Carme group** is a group of retrograde non-spherical moons of Jupiter that follow similar orbits to Carme and are thought to have a common origin.

Their semi-major axes (distances from Jupiter) range between 22,900,000 and 24,100,000 km, their inclinations between 164.9° and 165.5°, and their orbital eccentricities between 0.23 and 0.27 (with one exception).

The core members include (from biggest to smallest):
- Carme (the biggest, which gives its name to the group)
- Taygete
- Eukelade
- S/2003 J 5
- Chaldene
- Isonoe
- Kalyke (redder than the others)
- Erinome
- Aitne
- Kale
- Pasithee
- S/2003 J 9
- S/2003 J 10

The International Astronomical Union (IAU) reserves names in **-e** for all retrograde moons, including this group's members.

## Origin

The Carme group may once have been a single body that was broken apart by an impact. Further support to the single body origin comes from the known colours: all the moons appear light red,
and infrared spectra, similar to D-type asteroids.
Alexis Bouvard

**Alexis Bouvard** (27 June 1767 – 7 June 1843) was a French astronomer. He is particularly noted for his careful observations of the irregularities in the motion of Uranus and his hypothesis of the existence of an eighth planet in the solar system.
George Biddell Airy

**Sir George Biddell Airy** (27 July 1801–2 January 1892) was an English mathematician and astronomer, Astronomer Royal from 1835 to 1881. His many achievements include work on planetary orbits, measuring the mean density of the Earth, a method of solution of two-dimensional problems in solid mechanics and, in his role as Astronomer Royal, establishing Greenwich at the location of the prime meridian. His reputation has been tarnished by allegations that, through his inaction, Britain lost the opportunity of priority in the discovery of Neptune.

## Other websites

- Awarding of RAS gold medal, 1833: MNRAS **2** (1833) 159
- Awarding of RAS gold medal, 1846: MNRAS **7** (1846) 64
- Full texts of some of the papers by Airy are available at _Gallica: bibliothèque numérique de la Bibliothèque nationale de France_
Pasiphaë group

The **Pasiphaë group** is a group of retrograde non-spherical moons of Jupiter that follow similar orbits to Pasiphaë and are thought of have a common origin.

Their semi-major axes (distances from Jupiter) range between 22,800,000 and 24,100,000 km (the same range as the Carme group), their inclinations between 144.5° and 158.3°, and their eccentricities between 0.25 and 0.43.

Core members of the group include (from the biggest to the smallest):

- Pasiphae
- Sinope, two-thirds the size of Pasiphaë
- Callirrhoe
- Megaclite
- Autonoe
- Eurydome
- Sponde

The International Astronomical Union (IAU) reserves names ending in **-e** for all retrograde moons, including this group's members.

## Origin

The Pasiphaë group is believed to have been formed when Jupiter captured an asteroid which broke up after a collision. The original asteroid was not disturbed heavily: the original body is calculated to have been 60 km in diameter, about the same size as Pasiphaë; Pasiphaë has 99% of the original body's mass. However, if Sinope belongs to the group, the amount is much smaller, 87%.

The differences of colour between the objects (grey for Pasiphaë, light red for Callirrhoe and Megaclite) also suggest that the group could have a more complex origin than a single collision.
Rashomon

is a Japanese movie directed by Akira Kurosawa and released in 1950.

The movie is based on two short stories by Ryūnosuke Akutagawa.

## Plot

The fictional plot is set in Japan in the Heian period.

There is a murder and rape in a forest: these things happen to different characters.
The movie is famous for having an unusual type of story. The same event is described differently by the four different people involved in it. Most movies describe the same things in one way during the entire movie. The four people said different things. The movie does not say which person is right.

## Similar movies

The 1964 movie _The Outrage_ was a remake of _Rashomon_. Kurosawa was acknowledged for the screenplay.  The movie's concept is also mirrored in many other movies, including _Hero_, _Vantage Point_, _Courage Under Fire_ and _Basic_.

## Related pages

- Rashomon effect
- Unreliable narrator
- Blind men and an elephant

## Other websites

- Criterion Collection, _Rashomon_, essays
James Challis

**James Challis** (12 December 1803 – 3 December 1882) was an English clergyman, physicist and astronomer. Plumian Professor and director of the Cambridge Observatory, he investigated a wide range of physical phenomena though made few lasting contributions outside astronomy. He is best remembered for his missed opportunity to discover the planet Neptune in 1846.
Heinrich Louis d'Arrest

**Heinrich Louis d'Arrest** (13 July 1822 – 14 June 1875) was a Prussian astronomer, born in Berlin. His name is sometimes given as **Heinrich Ludwig d'Arrest**. He died in Copenhagen, Denmark.

## Other websites

- Awarding of RAS gold medal: MNRAS **35** (1875) 265

### Obituaries

- AN **86** (1875) 63/64 (one paragraph, in German)
- MNRAS **36** (1876) 155
Olin J. Eggen

**Olin Jeuck Eggen** (July 9, 1919 – October 2, 1998) was an American astronomer. Some sources incorrectly give his name as **Olin Jenck Eggen**.

## Other websites

- "A Remembrance of Olin Eggen — 1919–1998" , by Nicholas Suntzeff, 6 October 1998; _NOAO Newsletter_, No. 56, December 1998.
- "Eggen Takes the Papers" , by Nick Kollerstrom, _Neptune's Discovery: The British Case for Co-Prediction_, Science and Technology Studies, University College London.
- "The Case of the Pilfered Planet", by William Sheehan, Nicholas Kollerstrom, and Craig B. Waff, _Scientific American.com_, December 2004.

### Obituaries

- BAAS **32** (2000), 1661 (obituary)
John Herschel

**Sir John Frederick William Herschel, 1st Baronet** (7 March 1792 – 11 May 1871)
was an English mathematician, astronomer, chemist, and experimental photographer/inventor. He was the son of astronomer Sir William Herschel and the father of 12 children.

## References

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</div>

## Other websites

- http://www-groups.dcs.stand.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Herschel.html
- The Herschel Chronicle
- Photographic Process and Early Photograms
- Herschel Museum of Astronomy
- Wikisource copy of a notice from 1823 concerning the star catalogue, published in Astronomische Nachrichten
Berlin Observatory

The **Berlin Observatory** (**Berliner Sternwarte** in German) has its origins in 1700 when Gottfried Leibniz initiated the _Societät der Wissenschaften_ (Brandenburgische Science Society) which would later (1744) become the _Preußischen Akademie der Wissenschaften_ (Prussian Academy of Sciences). The Society had no observatory, but nevertheless had an astronomer, Gottfried Kirch, who observed from a private observatory in Berlin. A first small observatory was furnished in 1711, financing itself through calendrical computations.

Johann Franz Encke was appointed director by King Frederick William III of Prussia in 1825. With the help of Alexander von Humboldt, Encke got the King to agree to finance a true observatory, but on condition was that the observatory be made accessible to the public two nights per week. The building was designed by Karl Friedrich Schinkel, and began working in 1835. It now has the IAU observatory code 548.
Astronomer Royal

**Astronomer Royal** is a senior post in the Royal Household of the Sovereign of the United Kingdom. There are two officers, the senior being the Astronomer Royal dating from 22 June 22 1675, and the second the Astronomer Royal for Scotland, which dates from 1834. No Catholic or Jew has ever held the position.

King Charles II, who founded the Royal Observatory, Greenwich in 1675 instructed the first Astronomer Royal John Flamsteed, "to apply himself with the most exact care and diligence to the rectifying of the tables of the motions of the heavens, and the places of the fixed stars, so as to find out the so much desired longitude of places for the perfecting of the art of navigation".

From that time until 1972 the Astronomer Royal was Director of the Royal Observatory Greenwich. As Astronomer Royal he receives a stipend of £100 a year and is a member of the Royal Household, under the general authority of the Lord Chamberlain. After the separation of the two offices the position of Astronomer Royal has been largely honorary, though he remains available to advise the Sovereign on astronomical and related scientific matters, and the office is of great prestige.

## List of Astronomers Royal

|John Flamsteed|1675 – 1719|
| --- | --- |
|Edmond Halley|1720 – 1742|
|James Bradley|1742 – 1762|
|Nathaniel Bliss|1762 – 1764|
|Nevil Maskelyne|1765 – 1811|
|John Pond|1811 – 1835|
|George Biddell Airy|1835 – 1881|
|William Christie|1881 – 1910|
|Frank Dyson|1910 – 1933|
|Harold Spencer Jones|1933 – 1955|
|Richard van der Riet Woolley|1956 – 1971|
|Martin Ryle|1972 – 1982|
|Francis Graham-Smith|1982 – 1990|
|Arnold Wolfendale|1991 – 1995|
|Martin Rees|1995 –|
Royal Observatory, Greenwich

The **Royal Observatory, Greenwich** (Royal Greenwich Observatory or 'RGO') was commissioned in 1675 by King Charles II.

At this time the king also created the position of Astronomer Royal, for John Flamsteed, to beas the director of the observatory.

He was to "apply himself with the most exact care and diligence to the rectifying of the tables of the motions of the heavens, and the places of the fixed stars, so as to find out the so much desired longitude of places for the perfecting of the art of navigation".

The Observatory is on a hill in Greenwich Park in Greenwich, London, overlooking the River Thames.

The Greenwich Meridian runs through the site of the Observatory. It is the line at which the longitude is defined as 0°.

## Other websites

- HM Nautical Almanac Office
- The Royal Observatory, Greenwich
- Aerial View of The Royal Observatory, Greenwich at Google Maps
- The National Maritime Museum
- The RGO at Herstmonceux
- The Observatory Science Centre
- Isaac Newton Group of Telescopes
Keira Knightley

**Keira Christina Knightley**,  (; born 26 March 1985) is a Golden Globe and Academy Award nominated English actress. She is best known for her first major movie role as Elizabeth Swann in the Pirates of the Caribbean movie trilogy, and as Elizabeth Bennet in _Pride & Prejudice_.

## Early life

Knightley was born on 26 March 1985 in Teddington, London, England. Her mother, Sharman Macdonald, is Scottish. Her father, Will Knightley, is English. He wanted to name his daughter "Kiera", after the Russian ice skater, Kira Ivanova. When her mother went to register her, she misspelt the name. Knightley has an older brother, Caleb. When Knightley lived in Richmond, she studied at Stanley Junior School, Teddington School and Esher College.

When Knightley was three years old, she asked to her parents to hire an agent for her. They promised to do this, if she studied very well. That's why Keira was a good and diligent pupil.

## Movies

- _Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace_ (1999)
- _Princess of Thieves_ (2001)
- _The Hole_ (2001)
- _Bend It Like Beckham_ (2002)
- _Pure_ (2002)
- _New Year's Eve_ (2002)
- _Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl_ (2003)
- _Love Actually_ (2003)
- _King Arthur_ (2004)
- _The Jacket_ (2005)
- _Pride & Prejudice_ (2005)
- _Domino_ (2005)
- _Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest_ (2006)
- _Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End_ (2007)
- _Silk_ (2007)
- _Atonement_ (2007)
- _The Edge of Love_ (2008)
- _The Duchess_ (2008)
- _Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides_ (2011)
- _The Nutcracker and the Four Realms_ (2018)

## Infobox (person)

- **name**: Keira Knightley
- **image**: KeiraKnightleyByAndreaRaffin2011 (cropped).jpg
- **alt**: A portrait of Keira Knightley, wearing black tied-up hair, red lipstick, and a gold dress.
- **caption**: Keira Knightley at the 68th Venice International Film Festival, 2011 Venice Film Festival
- **birth name**: Keira Christina Knightley
- **birth place**: Teddington, England, UK
- **occupation**: Celebrity
- **works**: List of Keira Knightley performances, Performances
- **children**: 2
- **father**: Will Knightley
- **mother**: Sharman Macdonald
- **awards**: List of awards and nominations received by Keira Knightley, Full list
Carnosaur

**Carnosauria** are a subgroup of the theropod dinosaurs. They are the clade _Carnosauria_. The term was once used very widely, but is now defined more narrowly.

The group includes some of the main carnivores of the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, such as _Spinosaurus_, _Megalosaurus_, _Torvosaurus_, _Allosaurus_, _Carcharodontosaurus_ and _Neovenator_. Modern cladistic analysis defines Carnosauria as those tetanurans which share a more recent common ancestor with _Allosaurus_ than with modern birds.

Carnosaurs are characterized by several features. Some features must have been adaptations to their large size, such as their open skull, made of struts rather than solid bone. They had
large eyes and a long, narrow skull. The femur ("thigh bone") is usually larger than the tibia ("shin bone"). This suggests close-to action was controlled by sight.

The legs are adapted for running, but not extremely so. They had strong arms, probably used to wrestle prey as the teeth bit in. The structure of an _Allosaurus_ suggests a strongly-built general all-round predator. This is a different from a tyrannosaur like _Albertosaurus_, which was better adapted for running on open ground. Tyrannosaurs, with their small two-fingered hands, would use their heads for killing prey, and for head-butting rivals.

## Classification

- **Infraorder Carnosauria**
- _Altispinax_?
- _Gasosaurus_?
- _Monolophosaurus_?
- _Poekilopleuron_?
- **Megalosauroidea**
- **Allosauroidea**
Lake Pontchartrain

**Lake Pontchartrain** ( in English; _Lac Pontchartrain,_ IPA [lak pɔ̃ʃaʀtʀɛ̃] in French) is a brackish lake in southeastern Louisiana. It is the second largest salt-water lake in the United States, after the Great Salt Lake in Utah, and the largest lake in Louisiana.

It has an area of 630 square miles (1630 square km) with an average depth of 12 to 14 feet (about 4 meters). Some shipping channels are kept deeper through dredging. It is roughly oval in shape, about 40 miles (64 km) wide and 24 miles (39 km) from south to north.

## Other websites

- Lake Pontchartrain Basin Foundation
- United States Geological Survey Lake Pontchartrain Fact Sheet
- Real-time water data for Lake Pontchartrain
- The Lake Pontchartrain Basin Foundation
- New Orleans history of the lake
- Lake Pontchartrain Basin Maritime Museum
- USGS Environmental Atlas of Lake Pontchartrain
- New Orleans District Water Management 
- Washington Post article alleging levee faults, 21 Sept 2005
- National Geographic article about the levees, 2 Sept. 2005
- Salon article about disaster predictions, 31 Aug 2005
- U.S. Geological Survey article about the Lake Pontchartrain Basin, 3 Nov 1995
- BBC article about environmental effects on the lake after the flooding of New Orleans, 8 Sept. 2005

## Infobox (_lake)

- **lake name**: Lake Pontchartrain
- **image lake**: Landsat new orleans nfl lrg.jpg
- **caption lake**: Landsat image
- **image bathymetry**: Lake_Pontchartrain.png
- **caption bathymetry**: Map
- **type**: saltwater, salt-water lake
- **basin countries**: United States
- **area**: 630 sq mi (1 E9 m², 1630 km²)
- **cities**: New Orleans, Metairie, LA, Metairie, Kenner, LA, Kenner, Mandeville, LA, Mandeville, Slidell, LA, Slidell, Madisonville, LA, Madisonville, etc.