juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Fairfield, Wisconsin

**Fairfield** is a town of Sauk County in the state of Wisconsin, United States.  About 1,000 people lived in Fairfield as of 2020.  Fairfield is the place where the "sand farm" was bought by Aldo Leopold in 1935.  Fairfield has an area of 35.6 square miles.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **official name**: Fairfield, Wisconsin
- **settlement type**: Town
- **image map**: WIMap-doton-Fairfield.png
- **mapsize**: 250px
- **map caption**: Location of Fairfield, Wisconsin
- **subdivision type**: List of countries, Country
- **subdivision name**: United States
- **subdivision type1**: Political divisions of the United States, State
- **subdivision name1**: Wisconsin
- **subdivision type2**: List of counties in Wisconsin, County
- **subdivision name2**: Sauk County, Wisconsin, Sauk
- **unit pref**: Imperial
- **area total km2**: 92.3
- **area land km2**: 86.6
- **area water km2**: 5.7
- **area total sq mi**: 35.6
- **area land sq mi**: 33.4
- **area water sq mi**: 2.2
- **population as of**: United States Census, 2020, 2020
- **population total**: 1078
- **population density km2**: 12.4
- **population density sq mi**: 32.2
- **timezone**: North American Central Time Zone, Central (CST)
- **utc offset**: -6
- **timezone dst**: CDT
- **utc offset dst**: -5
- **elevation m**: 250
- **elevation ft**: 820
- **blank name**: Federal Information Processing Standard, FIPS code
- **blank info**: 55-24900
- **blank1 name**: Geographic Names Information System, GNIS feature ID
- **blank1 info**: 1583186
Dahlia

***Dahlia*** is a genus of plants with large brightly-colored flowers. They are from Mexico, Central America, and Colombia. There are at least 36 species of dahlias. Dahlia are often grown in flower gardens. This flower grows well away from strong, direct sunlight.
Millbury, Massachusetts

**Millbury** is a town of Worcester County in the state of Massachusetts, United States. About 13,800 people lived in Millbury as of 2020.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **official name**: Millbury, Massachusetts
- **image skyline**: Millbury Center postcard.jpg
- **imagesize**: 250px
- **image caption**: View of Millbury in circa 1905.
- **image seal**: Seal of Millbury, Massachusetts.png
- **image map**: Worcester County Massachusetts incorporated and unincorporated areas Millbury highlighted.svg
- **mapsize**: 260px
- **map caption**: Location in Worcester County, Massachusetts, Worcester County and the state of Massachusetts.
- **subdivision type**: List of sovereign states, Country
- **subdivision name**: United States
- **subdivision type1**: U.S. state, State
- **subdivision name1**: Massachusetts
- **subdivision type2**: List of counties in Massachusetts, County
- **subdivision name2**: Worcester County, Massachusetts, Worcester
- **established title**: Settled
- **established date**: 1716
- **established title2**: Incorporation (municipal government), Incorporated
- **established date2**: 1813
- **government type**: Open town meeting
- **leader title**: Town Manager, Town
Manager
- **area total km2**: 42.1
- **area total sq mi**: 16.3
- **area land km2**: 40.7
- **area land sq mi**: 15.7
- **area water km2**: 1.3
- **area water sq mi**: 0.5
- **population as of**: 2020
- **settlement type**: New England town, Town
- **population total**: 13831
- **population density km2**: auto
- **elevation m**: 127
- **elevation ft**: 417
- **timezone**: Eastern Standard Time Zone, Eastern
- **utc offset**: −5
- **timezone dst**: Eastern Standard Time Zone, Eastern
- **utc offset dst**: −4
- **postal code type**: ZIP Code
- **postal code**: 01527
- **area code**: Area code 508, 508/Area code 774, 774
- **blank name**: Federal Information Processing Standard, FIPS code
- **blank info**: 25-41340
- **blank1 name**: Geographic Names Information System, GNIS feature ID
- **blank1 info**: 0618373
Shot glass

A **shot glass** is a small cup that people use to drink alcoholic drinks with.  Spirits are usually drunk out of shot glasses. A person usually swallows everything in the glass at once.
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute

**Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute**, or **RPI** is a private university in Troy, NY. It was made in 1824 by Stephen Van Rensselaer because he wanted there to be schools that taught science and engineering. It is the oldest engineering school in America. Lots of students from RPI get jobs that pay a lot of money after they leave RPI. Some people who went to RPI have started big companies like NVIDIA, John Wiley and Sons, and Texas Instruments. George Low, an American who helped get spaceships into space, went to RPI.

What RPI focuses on has changed a lot since it was first made.  There still is a lot of engineering at the school, but now there is growing arts and social studies teaching at the school. A big concert hall called EMPAC was opened in 2008 at RPI.

Most of RPI's sports teams play in NCAA Division III, which does not allow athletic scholarships. The men's and women's ice hockey teams play as Division I teams in ECAC Hockey. The hockey teams are can award scholarships because of a special NCAA rule.

## Other websites

- Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
- Institute Archives and Special Collections
- Not the Rensselaer Wiki
- A Postcard History of RPI

## Infobox (university)

- **name**: Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
- **image**: TroyBuilding.JPG
- **caption**: The Troy Building
- **motto**: Knowledge and Thoroughness
- **established**: 1824
- **type**: Private university, Private
- **president**: Shirley Jackson (physicist), Shirley Ann Jackson
- **provost**: Robert Palazzo
- **city**: Troy, New York, Troy
- **state**: New York (state), New York
- **country**: United States, USA
- **undergrad**: 5,394
- **postgrad**: 2,127
- **faculty**: 496
- **campus**: Urban area, Urban, 275 acre
- **free label**: Athletics
- **free**: 23 varsity teams
2 Division I
21 Division III
- **mascot**: The Red Hawk and Puckman
- **website**: [http://www.rpi.edu/ www.rpi.edu]
- **endowment**: United States dollar, US $793 1000000 (number), million
- **colors**: Cherry and White
Jack Russell Terrier

The **Jack Russell Terrier** is a breed of small dog with a white coat that can be smooth, rough, or "wire-haired". It was bred in England for fox hunting. It can also be used as a work dog.

## History

The Jack Russell terrier was originally bred in England by the Reverend John Russell, starting around 1819. He enjoyed fox hunting and bred the Jack Russell for this activity.

He was successful. Jack Russells are excellent at fox hunting. They are fast runners and are sturdier than the standard terrier. Their sense of smell is so strong that Jack Russells can even smell foxes when they go underground.

## Variations

As with other domesticated animals, there are numerous variations.

### Selective breeding

_See the main article: Selective breeding_

The Jack Russell terrier was bred specifically for fox hunting. Humans have also selectively bred them for other characteristics, like height, to produce Jack Russells of different sizes.

Working dogs come in different sizes to make them better at different jobs. For example, taller terriers were historically used for hunting foxes, while smaller ones were used for hunting rabbits and rodents.

### Parson Jack Russells

Different kennel clubs have different regulations about naming breeds. Some dog clubs differentiate "Parson Jack Russell Terriers" (which are over 12 inches at the shoulders), and "Jack Russell Terriers" (which are under 12 inches in height).

Other clubs do not make this distinction, because they are broadly the same type of dog. Today, the only difference is leg length.

## Other websites

- Jack Russell Terrier Clubs
- Jack Russell Terrier Club of America
- Jack Russell Terrier Club of Canada

- Other websites
- A Pictorial History of Working Terriers
- Terrier Work Basics
- Jack Russell Rescue Australia, the only Jack Russell Terrier Rescue group in Australia
- Jack Russell Terrier Pictures & Info
- Jack Russell Training and Raising Information

## Infobox (dogbreed)

- **country**: England
- **image**: Jack Russell Terrier 1.jpg
- **name**: Jack Russell Terrier
- **nickname**: Jack Russell
JRT
Jack
- **kc name**: The Kennel Club
- **kc std**: https://www.thekennelclub.org.uk/services/public/breed/standard.aspx?id=3177
- **fcistd**: http://www.fci.be/Nomenclature/Standards/345g03-en.pdf
Mach number

A **mach number** is a number that describes speed. It is a measure of the speed of an object compared to the speed of sound. Mach number is given as a percentage compared to the local speed of sound. For example, half the speed of sound = Mach 0.5.

Where **v** is the speed of the object, and **a** is the speed of sound.

It is named after the Austrian physicist Ernst Mach. When writing a speed as a Mach number, the number comes after "Mach." For example, the Concorde airplane could fly at Mach 2, and a satellite re-enters the Earth's atmosphere at about Mach 25.

## Categories of Mach numbers

Flying speed less than Mach 0.8 is called subsonic. Almost all airplanes, helicopters, and other aircraft are subsonic.

Flying speed from Mach 0.8 to Mach 1.2 is called transonic. If an airplane is moving at this speed, then some of the air around it moves faster than the speed of sound, but some of the air moves slower than the speed of sound.

Flying speed from Mach 1.2 to Mach 5 is called supersonic. An aircraft moving at this speed makes a shock wave. This can be heard as a very loud sound called a sonic boom. Supersonic aircraft are used in war, as fighter jets. Today, there are no supersonic aircraft for passenger use. There were some in the past, mainly the Concorde.

Flying speed above Mach 5 is called hypersonic.
Drag

**Drag** may be:
- Drag (physics), a force that slows down objects
- Drag racing, a way to race cars
- Drag (clothing), a style of clothing
    - Drag queen, a man who dresses like a woman
Transonic

**Transonic** means breaking the sound barrier by travelling faster than the speed of sound (1236 km/h or 768 mph).

The speed of flight is divided into four groups based on speed.
- Subsonic
- **Transonic**
- Supersonic
- Hypersonic

Transonic means going from subsonic to supersonic.  Subsonic ends and supersonic begins at mach 1, so transonic goes from mach 0.8 to 1.2.  When you are going through transonic speeds, drag increases and it is really hard to go any faster.  This is the sound barrier.
Massively multiplayer online game

**Massively multiplayer online games** (**MMOGs**) are video games where players play together over the internet. These games are different from other online video games because they have very many players all playing with each other at the same time. Other online video games have fewer players playing with each other at the same time. The most popular kind of MMOG is the massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG). Examples are _RuneScape_, _World of Warcraft_ (WOW), _Roblox_ and _Transformice_.

## Related pages

- Metaverse
Baton

A **baton** is a stick.  Different batons are used by different people, for different things.

Policemen often carry batons, which can be used as weapons. These batons are also sometimes called "nightsticks."

Runners pass batons to one another in relay races.

Musical conductors use batons to lead an orchestra.

Various people in a parade or marching band might twirl batons for people to see.
Mark D. Maughmer

**Mark D. Maughmer** (born January 18, 1947) is a Professor of Aerospace Engineering in the Department of Aerospace Engineering at the Pennsylvania State University. He is famous for designing the first type of airplane wing tips for better glider performance. He has won many awards for being a good teacher and for having an influence in aerospace.
Triskaidekaphobia

**Triskaidekaphobia** is the fear of the number thirteen.  The number 13 has been linked to bad luck in the western superstition. Some buildings in the United States do not have a "13th floor."

The term was first used by Isador Coriat in _Abnormal Psychology_.

There is also a fear of Friday the 13th. This fear is called _paraskevidekatriaphobia_ or _friggatriskaidekaphobia_.

## Related pages

- Tridecagon
Magnoliales

**Magnoliales** is an order of flowering plants. They are very successful, despite being an early type of flowering plant.

## Classification

The Magloliales includes six families:
- Annonaceae (custard apple family, over 2000 species of trees, shrubs, and lianas; mostly tropical but some temperate)
- Degeneriaceae (two species of trees found on Pacific islands)
- Eupomatiaceae (two species of trees and shrubs found in New Guinea and eastern Australia)
- Himantandraceae (two species of trees and shrubs, found in tropical areas in Southeast Asia and Australia)
- Magnoliaceae (about 225 species including magnolias and tulip trees)
- Myristicaceae (several hundred species including Nutmeg)
Magnoliaceae

The **Magnoliaceae**, or **Magnolia Family**, is a flowering plant family in the order Magnoliales. The family has about 225 species in 7 genera.
Bobsleigh

**Bobsled** or **bobsleigh** is a team sport played during the Winter Olympic Games. It is played by riding on iced tracks with a sled. Modern tracks are made of concrete, coated with ice. Artificial bobsleigh tracks are also available.

International bobsled competitions are governed by the Fédération Internationale de Bobsleigh et de Tobogganing (FIBT).

The first bobsleds were built in St. Moritz, Switzerland, in the late 19th century by rich tourists from Britain who were staying at the Palace Hotel owned by Caspar Badrutt.

## Related pages

- Sking
- Ski jumping

## Other websites

- Bobsleigh at the Official website of the Olympic Movement
- Images for bobsleigh
- Videos for bobsleigh
- Bobsleigh crash
Pulp (band)

**Pulp** are a English band from Sheffield, South Yorkshire. The lead singer, Jarvis Cocker, started the band in 1978. For a long time, Cocker found life as a musician hard. However, in 1994, he and his band became famous when their album called his "_His and Hers_" became popular in the United Kingdom. They had three more albums and a number of singles before the band split up in 2001.  Pulp has since reformed in 2025.

## Albums by Pulp

1983 - It

1987 - Freaks

1992 - Separations

1994 - His 'N' Hers (Number 9 in the UK music charts)

1995 - Different Class (Number 1 in the UK music charts)

1996 - Countdown 1992-1983 (Number 10 in the UK music charts)

1998 - This Is Hardcore (Number 1 in the UK music charts)

2001 - We Love Life (Number 6 in the UK music charts)

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Pulp
- **img**: Pulp 2012 cropped.jpg
- **img capt**: Jarvis Cocker of Pulp, at Coachella 2012
- **background**: group_or_band
- **origin**: Sheffield, South Yorkshire, England
- **genre**: Alternative rock, post-punk, Britpop
- **years active**: 1978–2002, 2011-2013  2023 hopefully
- **label**: Island Records, Island
- **associated acts**: Relaxed Muscle
Venini
- **past members**: Magnus Doyle
Peter Mansell
 Simon Hinkler
 Peter Dalton
Richard Hawley
 David Hinkler
Siiiii, Wayne Furniss
Jamie Pinchbeck
Peter Boam
Tim Allcard
Steven Havenhand
 Gary Wilson
 Saskia Cocker
 Antony Genn
 Mark Swift
Jimmy Sellers
  Philip Thompson
 David Lockwood
 Katey Rigby
Michael Paramore
Captain Sleep
Ian Dalton
Jarvis Cocker
  Russell senior
candia Doyle
 Mark Webber
steve Mackey

nick Banks
+44 (band)

The **+44**, or **Plus 44**, was a punk rock supergroup that started in 2005. It was started by former Blink-182 members Mark Hoppus and Travis Barker, with guitarist Craig Fairbaugh from the band Transplants, and Shane Gallagher from the Nervous Return. The name of the band is the title of the telephone code for the UK, +44. The band broke up on January 13, 2009, when Blink-182 reformed.

## Members

- Mark Hoppus (vocals, bass)
- Travis Barker (drums, keyboards)
- Craig Fairbaugh (rhythm guitar, vocals)
- Shane Gallagher (lead guitar)

## Discography

- 2006 - _When Your Heart Stops Beating_

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: +44
- **img**: +44 Live.jpg
- **img capt**: +44 in 2006
- **img size**: 350px
- **background**: group_or_band
- **origin**: California
- **genre**: Pop punk
Alternative rock
- **years active**: 2005–2009
- **label**: Interscope Records, Interscope
- **spinoff of**: Blink-182
- **past members**: * Mark Hoppus
* Travis Barker
* Carol Heller
* Shane Gallagher
* Craig Fairbaugh
Johns Hopkins University

**The Johns Hopkins University** is a private research university in Baltimore, Maryland in the United States of America. Johns Hopkins opened in 1876 as part of a seven million dollar donation to start a number of institutions under his name. Johns Hopkins does more than 1.5 billion dollars of science research every year. During the pandemic, the university has been doing researching on the outbreak.

## Other websites

- Johns Hopkins University

## Infobox (university)

- **name**: Johns Hopkins University
- **image**: Hopkinslogo2.jpeg
- **caption**: Seal (emblem), Seal of the Johns Hopkins University
- **motto**: _Veritas vos liberabit_ (Latin)
- **mottoeng**: The truth shall set you free
- **type**: Private university, Private
- **endowment**: $8.2 billion (2023)
- **president**: Ronald J. Daniels
- **provost**: Ray Jayawardhana
- **students**: 30,549 (2022)
- **undergrad**: 5,318 (2022)
- **postgrad**: 25,231 (2022)
- **total staff**: 27,300
- **city**: Baltimore
- **state**: Maryland
- **country**: U.S.
- **colors**: Heritage blue and spirit blue

- **athletics nickname**: Johns Hopkins Blue Jays, Blue Jays
- **mascot**: Blue Jay
- **logo size**: 250
Trap door

A **trap door** or **trapdoor** is a door in the ground or in a floor,  that one enters vertically. Some can open when someone is standing on it. People typically put small doors disguised as something normal to scare a person falling into a trapdoor. They can be used for malicious purposes like murder. However, they can be used to hide things from other people.

Trap doors are popular in mystery themed movies. The victim who falls down the trap door often is met with danger or a hidden treasure. A standard cliché deals with the victim finding himself in an alligator filled swamp (most famously seen in _Scooby Doo_ cartoons).

fi:Kattoluukku
Pane sciocco

***Pane sciocco*** (also called in Tuscany "pane toscano") is a variety of bread very common in Tuscany and in Umbria, two regions in Italy. Pane sciocco does not contain salt, because when it was first made in the 1600s, salt was very rare and very expensive. Pane sciocco is often eaten with typically Tuscan ham or sausages, famous for being salty.

## Related pages

- Tuscan food
The Black Pearl (Scott O'Dell)

***The Black Pearl*** is a young adult book by Scott O'Dell first published in 1967. It is about the son of a pearl dealer living in the Lower California peninsula. It won the Newbery Honor in 1968.

## Story

The story is about a Mexican teenager named Ramon Salazar who works with his father finding and selling pearls. One day, Ramon went diving in an underwater cave in search of pearls and found a pearl bigger than his fist. It was so shiny and big that he thought that it was called the Pearl of Heaven. The pearl was found in a lagoon that belonged to an Indian who warned Ramon that the pearl belonged to the Manta Diablo.

## Movie adaptation

In 1977, Saul Swimmer directed the U.S.-Spanish co-production _The Black Pearl,_ also known in Spanish as _La Perla Negra_.

## Related pages

- Herman Melville: _Moby-Dick_ (1851)
- John Steinbeck: _The Pearl_ (1947) (also set among the pearl divers of La Paz)
- Ernest Hemingway: _The Old Man and the Sea_ (1952) (aging Cuban fisherman struggling with a giant marlin)
Hot air balloon

A **hot air balloon** is a type of aircraft. It is lifted by heating the air inside the balloon, usually with fire.

Hot air weighs less than the same volume of cold air (it is less dense), which means that hot air will rise up or float when there is cold air around it, just like a bubble of air in a pot of water. The greater the difference between the hot and the cold, the greater the difference in density, and the stronger the balloon will pull up. This means that balloons can carry more weight on a cold day, or if the air inside the balloon is very hot. At higher temperature, the air molecules move faster. This causes the molecules to spread out and therefore hot air is less dense than cooler air.

## History

The hot air balloon is the oldest form of flying technology that can successfully carry people. The earliest use of hot air to make objects fly was made in Ancient China. Paper lanterns were sent into the air for signalling.

The first hot air balloon to carry a person was made by the Montgolfier brothers. On 19 September 1783, they demonstrated their invention for King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette at the French court in Paris. The passengers were a sheep, a duck and a rooster. They flew for 480 metres.  The first flight carrying a person was on 15 October 1783. It carried Jacques-Etienne Montgolfier. The balloon was attached to the ground by a rope. The first _free_ flight, without being attached to the ground, was a few weeks later, on 21 November 1783. It carried Marquis François d'Arlandes and Pilatre de Rozier.

## How it works

The air is made up of molecules. When the air is cold, these molecules are closer together. When the air is hot, they move away from each other. So, in the same space, there are fewer molecules in hot air. Hot air is therefore lighter than cold air. This makes it rise and carry up the balloon when the air inside it is heated. The air is heated in the balloon with a burner, which uses bursts of fire to keep the air hot. The fire is fuelled by propane.

The heated air is kept inside the balloon by its fabric. This is called the "envelope". It is usually made of nylon.

The passengers and the pilot stand in the basket, which is attached to the balloon by ropes. The basket is usually made of wicker. Baskets can come in many sizes. It can have enough places for up to 36 people. It depends on the size of the balloon to carry that much weight.

## Festivals

A hot air balloon festival is a type of air show. It is where ballooners display and fly their balloons together. During these events, they fly in the morning and in the evening if the conditions allow it. People can enjoy a balloon flight if they pay. There are many activities. Sometimes, the balloons are lit up against the night sky.

At these festivals, people can see different shapes of balloons. Usually, they are kind of round but they may have forms.

## Other websites

- Hot air ballooning
- Hot air balloonat Library Think Quest
Gaius Caesar

**Gaius Julius Caesar** (20 BC–4 AD) was one of two brothers adopted by the first Roman emperor, Augustus. Both died in their early twenties, clearing the path for Tiberius. Gaius Caesar had achieved the rank of Consul before his death.

## Infobox (royalty)

- **name**: Gaius Caesar
- **image**: 8089 - Roma - Ara Pacis - Caio Cesare - Foto Giovanni Dall'Orto - 28-Mar-2008.jpg
- **caption**: Gaius Caesar
- **full name**: Birth to adoption: Gaius Vipsanius Agrippa
After adoption: Gaius Julius Caesar
- **spouse**: Livilla (sister of Claudius), Livilla
- **father**: Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa
- **mother**: Julia the Elder
- **birth date**: 20 BC
- **birth place**: Rome
- **death date**: 21 February 4 AD
- **death place**: Lycia
- **burial place**: Mausoleum of Augustus
Biplane

A **biplane** is a fixed-wing aircraft that has two fixed wings.  The lower wing is often attached to the body of the aircraft and the top wing is raised above.  Most early airplanes were biplanes because they have a stronger structure than a monoplane.  When engineer<nowiki/>s discovered how to make strong monoplanes, biplanes became rare because they produce more drag.

Famous biplanes include the Polikarpov Po-2, Sopwith Camel, Avro Tutor, Antonov An-2, Beechcraft Staggerwing, Boeing Stearman, Bristol Bulldog, Curtiss JN-4, de Havilland Tiger Moth, Fairey Swordfish, Hawker Hart, Pitts Special and the Wright Flyer.  The Stearman is particularly associated with stunt flying with wing-walkers.
White chocolate

**White chocolate** is a type of chocolate. White chocolate is made of cocoa butter, milk, and sugar. In the United States, white chocolate must be at least 20% cocoa butter, at least 14% total milk solids, at least 3.5% milk fat, and less than 55% sugar or other sweeteners.
In the European Union, there must be at least 20% cocoa butter, at least 14% total milk solids and at least 3.5% milk fat.
Sea plane

A **sea plane** is a fixed-wing vehicle that can take off to the sky or water.
Paraglider

A **paraglider** is a free-flying, foot-launched aircraft.

## Overview

In mountain areas, pilots usually take off from great height to fly down to the valley. In flat areas, a winch is used to tow the paraglider to a height of up to 400 meters before it is released. It is also possible to soar on the coast in laminar sea breeze. Some more advanced pilots also launch from hot air balloons or helicopters.
Blank slate

**Blank slate**, or ***tabula rasa*** (which means the same thing) was a philosophical idea of John Locke. It had, like much of philosophy, a history which went as far back as Aristotle, but it was Locke who made it known to our modern world:
- "Let us then suppose the mind to be, as we say, white paper void of all characters, without any ideas. How comes it to be furnished? ... To this I answer, in one word, from <small>EXPERIENCE</small>".

Humans, when born, are thought not have mental experience or knowledge, and that everything is learned after they grow. In particular, Locke thought all knowledge came from sense data, and the mind is empty at the beginning. By 'sense data' is meant the process of hearing, seeing, touching etc.

Locke's idea was immediately picked up by others:
- "Children are a sort of raw material put into our hands... [Their minds are] like a sheet of white paper".
- "Our virtues and our vices may be traced to the incidents which make the history of our lives, and if these incidents could be divested of every improper tendency, vice would be extirpated [cut out] from the world".—The economist and social liberal William Godwin (1756–1836), who argued for human perfectibility and enlightenment.

Many have held similar views. The founder of behaviourism, John B. Watson (1878–1938):
- "Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select – doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors".

Throughout the 20th century the influence of evolution and genetics ran against these liberal ideas. Ethology proved that much animal behaviour was inherited, instinctual, (innate and permanent). Konrad Lorenz argued that the aggression so obvious in the history of mankind was a playing out of behaviour which had evolutionary advantage in our past. The field of evolutionary psychology set out to examine the role played by evolution on our mental life. If humans share a common evolutionary history with the other animals, it is likely that we inherit mental traits from our evolution. The human ability to learn a language is inherited, and is of huge practical importance. Very important also (though less obvious) is the way that our unconscious mind helps us get through life. The apparatus which performs that mental activity is certainly inherited. These are some reasons why a number of recent publications have rejected Locke's idea.

## Related pages

- Adaptive unconscious
- Behaviourism
- Empiricism
- Human nature
- Nature versus nurture
- Psychological nativism
- Sociobiology
Lined paper

**Lined paper** is paper with lines printed on it. The lines are commonly parallel to each other, uniformly spaced with a larger space at the top. The horizontal lines are meant to separate lines of hand-written text. Lined paper is thinner than other types of paper.
Coypu

The **coypu** (or **nutria**, _Myocastor coypus_) is a large, plant-eating, rodent which lives in wetlands. The nutria first came from South America including Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, Chile, and Uruguay. Animals were taken to Louisiana in the 1930s to be farmed for their fur. Some of these animals escaped and are now living in the Louisiana coastal wetlands. They have become a pest and have damaged the environment.
Poincaré conjecture

The **Poincaré Conjecture** is a question about spheres in mathematics. It is named after Henri Poincaré, the French mathematician and physicist who formulated it in 1904.

The sphere (also called the 2-sphere, as it is a 2-dimensional surface, although it is usually seen as inside a three dimensional space) has the property that any loop on it can be contracted to a point (if a rubber band is wrapped around the sphere, it is possible to slide it down to a point). Mathematicians say that the 2-sphere is simply connected. Other spaces do not have this property, for example the donut: a rubber band that goes around the whole donut once cannot be slid down to a point without it leaving the surface.

Mathematicians knew that this property was unique to the 2-sphere, in the sense that any other simply connected space that does not have edges and is small enough (in mathematician terms, that is compact) is in fact the 2-sphere. It is no longer true if we remove the idea of smallness however, as an infinitely large plane is also simply connected. Also, a regular disk (a circle and its interior) is simply connected, but it has an edge (the bounding circle).

The conjecture asks whether the same is true for the 3-sphere, which is an object living naturally in four dimensions. This question motivated much of modern mathematics, especially in the field of topology. The question was finally settled in 2002 by Grigori Perelman, a Russian mathematician, with methods from geometry, showing that it is indeed true. He was awarded a Fields Medal and the $1 million Millennium Prize for his work, both of which he declined.

The Poincaré conjecture can also be extended to higher dimensions: this is the generalised Poincaré conjecture. Surprisingly, it was easier to prove the fact for higher-dimensional spheres: In 1960, Smale proved it to be true for the 5-sphere, 6-sphere and higher. In 1982, Freedman proved that it was also true for the 4-sphere, for which he was awarded a Fields Medal.
Megafauna

**Megafauna** are large animals. The word is most used for the Pleistocene megafauna  the large land animals of the last ice age, such as mammoths. It is also used for the largest living wild land animals, especially elephants, giraffes, hippopotamus, rhinoceros, elk, condors, etc.

Its use is connected with the discussion about the Holocene extinctions after the ice age. Most of the large land animals which were alive 12,000 years ago are now extinct, and there is much discussion as to what has caused this. The two main theories are hunting by humans, and climate change. Together, these reasons are enough to explain why these previously successful animals are now extinct. Elephant birds on Madagascar were certainly hunted to extinction, as were the Moas in New Zealand.  Archaeological sites with evidence of moa hunting are all over New Zealand. The moas became extinct about five hundred years ago. The moas had survived being hunted by Haast's Eagle, but they did not survive being hunted for food by the Maoris.

For many others the climate changes may have been the main reason for their extinction.
90482 Orcus

**90482 Orcus** (symbol: ), originally known by the provisional designation **2004 DW**, is a Kuiper belt object (KBO). It is also a dwarf planet. It was found by Michael Brown, Chad Trujillo and David Rabinowitz on February 17, 2004. It was also seen in pictures from November 8, 1951. Like Pluto it is in orbital resonance with Neptune but it stays on the opposite side of the Sun from Pluto.

## Moon

A moon of Orcus was found on  22 February 2007.

The satellite was found at 0.25 arcsec from Orcus with magnitude difference of 2.7. Assuming an albedo similar to that of the primary, the magnitude suggests a diameter of about 220 km. It is thought to be a smaller KBO that was captured.

## Other websites

- MPEC 2004-D09 announcing the discovery but attributing it to Raymond J. Bambery, Steven H. Pravdo, Michael D. Hicks, Kenneth J. Lawrence, Daniel MacDonald, Eleanor F. Helin and Robert Thicksten / NEAT
- MPEC 2004-D13 correcting MPEC 2004-D09
- Chad Trujillo's page on 2004 DW
- First BBC article
- First New Scientist article
- Updated orbital elements from Lowell Observatory
- AstDys orbital elements
- Orbital simulation from JPL (Java) / Ephemeris

## Infobox (planet)

- **bgcolour**: #FFFFC0
- **name**: 90482 Orcus
- **symbol**:
- **image**:
- **caption**: Orcus and its moon Vanth
- **discoverer**: Michael E. Brown, M. Brown,
Chad Trujillo, C. Trujillo,
David L. Rabinowitz, D. Rabinowitz
- **discovered**: February 17, 2004
- **alt names**: 2004 DW
- **mp category**: Plutino
Dwarf planet
Plutoid
Trans-Neptunian object, TNO
Kuiper Belt, KBO
- **epoch**: November 30, 2008 (Julian day, JD 2 454 800)
- **semimajor**: 5 862.44 Giga, Gm (39.188 Astronomical unit, AU)
- **perihelion**: 4 535.80 Gm (30.32 AU)
- **aphelion**: 7 188.17 Gm (48.05 AU)
- **eccentricity**: 0.226 18
- **period**: 89 606 day, d (245.33 Julian year (astronomy), yr)
- **inclination**: 20.593degree (angle), °
- **asc node**: 268.722°
- **arg peri**: 72.474°
- **mean anomaly**: 164.68°
- **avg speed**: 4.68 km/second, s
- **satellites**: 1 (92-432 km)
- **dimensions**: 946.3  km (diameter)
- **mass**: ~7.5×10<sup>20</sup> kilogram, kg
- **density**: ~1.5 g/cubic centimetre, cm³ (assumed)
- **surface grav**: ~0.2 m/s²
- **escape velocity**: ~0.44 km/s
- **rotation**: 13.19h
- **spectral type**: B-V=0.68; V-R=0.37
- **magnitude**: 19.1 (Opposition (astronomy and astrology), opposition)
- **abs magnitude**: 2.3
- **albedo**: 19.75  %
- **single temperature**: ~45 kelvin, K
Comfortably Numb

**Comfortably Numb** is a rock song by Pink Floyd. It was released on their album _The Wall_ in 1979. The song is about a rock star who is visited by a doctor. The doctor gives him medicine allowing the rock star to perform again. The lyrics were written by Roger Waters and the music was written by David Gilmour. This song became very popular and became part of every Pink Floyd tour since 1981. It was even played by Roger Waters and David Gilmour on their individual solo tours. In 2004 Scissor Sisters released a disco version of the song. It reached number ten in the UK Singles Chart.
Intramuros

**Intramuros** is a district of the city of Manila in the Philippines. It is surrounded by fortified walls built in the 16th century.
Cucurbitales

The **Cucurbitales** is an order of flowering plants, included in the rosid group of dicotyledons. This order mostly belongs to tropical areas, with limited presence in subtropic and temperate regions. The order includes various shrubs and trees, together with many herbs and climbing plants.

One of major characteristics of the Cucurbitales is the presence of unisexual flowers, with thick pointed petals (whenever present). The pollination is usually performed by insects, but wind pollination, where flowers use the wind to move pollen from one flower to the next, is also present (in Coriariaceae and Datiscaceae).

The order consists of roughly 2600 species in eight families. The largest families are Begoniaceae (begonia family) with 1400 species and Cucurbitaceae (gourd family) with 825 species.

The large families of Cucurbitales include several economically important plants. Specifically, the Cucurbitaceae are responsible for some food species, such as squash, pumpkin (both from _Cucurbita_), watermelon (_Citrullus vulgaris_), melon and cucumber (both _Cucumis_). The Begoniaceae are known for their horticultural species, of which there are over 130.
Cucurbitaceae

**Cucurbitaceae** is the plant family with melons, gourds or **cucurbits**. It includes crops such as cucumbers, squashes (including pumpkins), luffas, melons and watermelons.

The family lives mostly in the tropics. Its edible fruits were amongst the earliest cultivated plants.
Grapevine, Texas

**Grapevine** is a city of Tarrant County in the state of Texas in the United States.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **official name**: Grapevine, Texas
- **settlement type**: City
- **image skyline**: Downtown Grapevine Wiki (1 of 1).jpg
- **imagesize**: 250x200px
- **image caption**: Downtown Grapevine, Texas
- **image map**: Tarrant County Texas Incorporated Areas Grapevine highlighted.svg
- **mapsize**: 250x200px
- **map caption**: Location of Grapevine in Tarrant County, Texas
- **pushpin map**: Texas#USA
- **pushpin relief**: yes
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision name**: United States
- **subdivision type1**: U.S. state, State
- **subdivision name1**: Texas
- **subdivision type2**: List of counties in Texas, Counties
- **government type**: Council–manager
- **leader title**: Mayor
- **leader title1**: City manager
- **established title**: Grape Vine Prairie
- **established date**: 1844
- **established title2**: Grape Vine
- **established date2**: 1854
- **established title3**: Grapevine
- **established date3**: 1907
- **website**: https://www.grapevinetexas.gov/
- **unit pref**: Imperial
- **area total km2**: 92.66
- **area land km2**: 83.25
- **area water km2**: 9.41
- **area total sq mi**: 35.77
- **area land sq mi**: 32.14
- **area water sq mi**: 3.63
- **area water percent**: 9.98
- **population as of**: 2020 United States Census, 2020
- **population total**: 50631
- **population density sq mi**: 1575.28
- **population density km2**: 608.22
- **timezone**: Central Time Zone (North America), CST
- **utc offset**: −6
- **timezone dst**: Central Time Zone (North America), CDT
- **utc offset dst**: −5
- **elevation ft**: 630
- **postal code type**: ZIP codes
- **postal code**: 76051, 76092, 76099
- **area code**: Area codes 682 and 817, 682,817, Area codes 214, 469, 972, and 945, 214, 469, 945, 972
- **blank name**: Federal Information Processing Standard, FIPS code
- **blank info**: 48-30644
- **blank1 name**: Geographic Names Information System, GNIS feature ID
- **blank1 info**: 2410650
Air pump

A **air pump** is a pump that is used to inflate things, like a basketball. The pump often has a needle at the end and can be used to inflate other objects as well. Bicycle tires are normally filled with air. With extensive use, the tires may lose air and need to be inflated. When the air gets moved, an area of low pressure gets created which fills up with more air.
Bruce Campbell

**Bruce Lorne Campbell** (born June 22, 1958) is an American actor, producer, screenwriter and director. He is known for his starring role in the 1981 horror movie _Evil Dead_. He has since become a B-movie icon. He starred as Sam Axe in _Burn Notice_ on the USA Network. He played Ronald Reagan in season 2 of the FX original series _Fargo_ in late 2015.

## Infobox (actor)

- **image**: Bruce Campbell 2, 2012.jpg
- **imagesize**: 220px
- **caption**: Campbell in October 2012
- **birth place**: Royal Oak, Michigan, Royal Oak, Michigan, United States, U.S.
- **birthname**: Bruce Lorne Campbell
- **occupation**: Actor, producer, writer, director
- **yearsactive**: 1976 - Present
- **website**: http://www.bruce-campbell.com/
- **spouse**: Christine Deveau (1983–1989)
Ida Gearon (1991–present)
Nachos

**Nachos** are a snack food made with tortilla chips and cheese. Sometimes they have jalapeños, sauce, beans, guacamole or meat on them.

Ignacio "Nacho" Anaya created nachos at the Victory Club in 1940 when Mamie Mandwasy, a regular customer, asked if Anaya could bring her and three other women a different snack than usual. Anaya went to the kitchen and spotted freshly fried pieces of corn tortillas. In a moment of culinary inspiration, he added melted cheese and pickled jalapeño strips. After tasting the snack Anaya created, Mandwasy asked what it was called. Anaya responded, "Well, I guess we can just call them Nacho's Special." The dish was so popular, the owner of the Victory Club, Roberto de los Santos, put Nacho's Special on the menu and the snack quickly spread throughout the world. When the Victory Club closed in 1961, Anaya opened his own restaurant, Nacho's.
Test bay

A **test bay** is an area used in engineering. It can be a hall, laboratory or even a department. At these places, the produced materials are tested before delivery. To test them, testing guidelines of industry or this firm are used. The test bay is part of the quality management. The protocols written during testing are evidences in case of insurance issues, say.
Unicycle

A **unicycle** is a pedal vehicle. It is like a bicycle, but it has only one wheel. It has a seat and pedals, but no chain or gears. There is no handlebar, it is steered by gripping the seat with the legs and twisting the body.  A rider keeps their balance by moving their arms, and controlling their speed. It is usually used for acting and performing. A unicycle is more expensive than a cheap bicycle, because unicycles are far less common.

There are two kinds of unicycles; giraffe unicycles and traditional unicycles. Giraffe unicycles are much taller than traditional unicycles, and use a chain so that the performer's legs do not have to stretch very far. Giraffe unicycles are mostly used by performers in circuses.

Unicycles are often used while the performer is simultaneously juggling or plate spinning. To do this, performers usually rock back and forth on the unicycle. This is called "idling". It lets the performer pay attention to what they are doing in their hands, instead of to the ground in front of them. To "idle" a unicycle, performers usually press one foot down, anchoring it in the bottom position of the wheel. This foot both provides support and completes the rocking motion that is necessary to keep the unicycle balanced.

Many other tricks can be done when riding a unicycle.  This includes going backwards, riding up and down steps, pedaling with only one foot, hopping in place, wheel-walking (putting the feet on the tire instead of on the pedals) and riding over obstacles.
Chaiyaphum province

**Chaiyaphum** () is one of the Isan (_north-eastern_) provinces (_changwat_) of Thailand. As of 2000, 1 million people live there, and has an area of 12,778.3 km². The Governor is Thawon Phrommichai.

## Geography

- Chulabhorn Dam

## Administrative divisions

The province has 16 districts (amphoe); 124 subdistricts (tambon) and 1393 villages (muban).

## Infobox (province)

- **name**: Chaiyaphum
- **native name**: ชัยภูมิ
- **native name lang**: th
- **settlement type**: Provinces of Thailand, Province
- **image map**: Thailand Chaiyaphum locator map.svg
- **mapsize**: frameless
- **map caption**: Map of Thailand highlighting Chaiyaphum Province
- **subdivision type**: List of sovereign states, Country
- **subdivision name**: Thailand
- **seat type**: Capital
- **seat**: Chaiyaphum town
- **leader title**: Governor
- **leader name**: Charin Chakkaphak (since 2010)
- **area total km2**: 12778.3
- **area rank**: List of provinces of Thailand by area, Ranked 7th
- **population total**: 1095360
- **population as of**: 2000
- **population rank**: List of provinces of Thailand by population, Ranked 14th
- **population density km2**: auto
- **population density rank**: List of provinces of Thailand by population density, Ranked 50th
- **timezone1**: Thailand Standard Time
- **utc offset1**: +7
- **iso code**: ISO 3166-2:TH, TH-36
Chulabhorn Dam

**Chulabhorn Dam** (เขื่อนจุฬาภรณ์) is a dam in Thailand. It is named after a princess, Chulabhorn Walailak. The dam is in Tambon Thung Lui Lai, Amphur Kon San, Chaiyaphum Province on the Nam Phrom River.  It is 700 metres long and 70 metres high.  It holds a reservoir of 31 square kilometres.

## Other websites

- Chulabhorn Dam in Chaiyaphum
Caspar David Friedrich

**Caspar David Friedrich** (September 5, 1774 – May 7, 1840) was a 19th-century German Romantic landscape painter.

He is best known for landscapes, which typically feature lonely figures against night skies, morning mists or Gothic ruins.

## Related pages

- List of German painters
- German art
Alexander Stepanovich Popov

**Alexander Stepanovich Popov** () ( – ) was a Russian physicist and inventor who first showed how to use electromagnetic (radio) waves, although he did not apply for a patent for his invention.

## Infobox (celebrity)

- **name**: Alexander Stepanovich Popov
- **image**: Alexander_Stepanovich_Popov.jpg
- **birth date**: March 4/16 1859
- **death date**: December 31/January 13, 1905/1906
- **occupation**: inventor and physicist
Dark energy

**Dark energy** is the name given to the force that is believed to accelerate the expansion of the universe. Distant galaxies appear to be moving away from us at high speed: the idea is that the universe is getting bigger and has been since the Big Bang. Measurements are now accurate enough to allow astronomers to tell that these galaxies seem to be accelerating away from us. The universe is expanding at an increasing rate.

## Understanding

This faster and faster expansion is not understood by scientists. There are many ideas for what might be causing the rapid expansion. However, at the moment, cosmologists who study it do not have an answer. It is _as if_ there was something there in empty space providing a repulsive force (Anti-gravity) that makes the universe expand. This has been named **dark energy**.

A 2011 research article sets out the problem for theoretical physics.

## Related pages

- Dark matter
- Hubble's law
- Metric expansion of space
- Nature timeline
United Nations Environment Programme

The **UN Environment Programme** (**UNEP**) is in charge of the United Nations environmental activities, helping developing countries in making environmentally sound policies and encouraging sustainable development through sound environmental practices. It began as a result of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in June 1972 and has its headquarters in Nairobi, Kenya. UNEP also has six regional offices and other country offices.

UNEP has helped to develop guidelines and treaties on issues such as the international trade in potentially harmful chemicals, transboundary air pollution, and contamination of international waterways.

The World Meteorological Organization and the UNEP established the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1988. UNEP is also one of several Implementing Agencies for the Global Environment Facility (GEF).

## Other websites

- United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)

## List of Accredited Organizations to UNEP https://www.unep.org/civil-society-engagement/accreditation/list-accredited-organizations

Non-governmental organizations meeting the requirements of the accreditation process are granted observer status to the United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA) and its subsidiary bodies. Accreditation provides non-governmental organizations the opportunity to participate in environmental decision-making at the highest level.

https://www.unep.org/civil-society-engagement/accreditation/list-accredited-organizations

## Infobox (united nations)

- **name**: United Nations Environment Programme
- **image size**: 150px
- **type**: Programme
- **acronyms**: UNEP
- **head**: Inger Andersen  (since 2019)
- **status**: Active
- **established**: 1972
- **headquarters**: Nairobi
- **website**: [http://www.unep.org/ www.unep.org]