juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
PDF (disambiguation)

**PDF** commonly refers to the Portable Document Format in computing.

Other uses could also mean:

## In education

- Postdoctoral fellow

## In fiction

- Planetary Defence Force in the _Warhammer 40,000_ universe

## In the military

- Panama Defense Forces
- P.D.F. (upper case) is an abbreviation of "Permanent Defence Forces" - the standing branches of the Irish Defence Forces
- People's Defence Force - the army of Grenada before the US led invasion in 1983.

## In science

- Atomic pair distribution function _(Physics)_
- Parkinson's Disease Foundation (http://www.pdf.org) _(Medicine)_
- Parton Distribution Functions _(Physics)_
- Planar deformation features _(Geology)_
- Polypeptide Deformylase _(Chemistry)_
- Powder Diffraction File _(Physics)_
- pdf and p.d.f. (lower case) can refer to "probability density function" _(Mathematics, statistics and probability)_
- PDF and P.D.F. (upper case) can refer to "probability distribution function" _(Mathematics, statistics and probability)_

## In software

- Package Definition File (Microsoft Systems Management Server)
- Portable Document Format
- Printer Description File, in earlier editions of Quark Xpress page layout software.

## Additional uses

- KPDF-CA, a television station in Phoenix, Arizona
- PDF417, a 2D barcode - PDF means Portable Data File
- PDF Solutions, a listed company headquartered in San Jose, California
- Peace Development Fund, a non-profit public foundation based in Amherst, Massachusetts
- Peak draw force in a Compound bow in Archery
- Playa del Fuego, a Delaware art festival inspired by the annual Nevada _Burning Man_ festival
- An abbreviation of _Pretty Damned Funny_
Cough

A **cough**, also known as **tussis**, is an action the body takes to get rid of anything that irritates the lungs or throat. To do this, muscles in the thoracic cavity contract to make air leave the lungs with a lot of force. Coughs often happen quickly and more than once, and are usually accompanied by a unique sound, also called a cough.

Coughs are more likely to happen when a person is sick, because infections often irritate breathing passages. Another cause of coughs is a person breathing air that is not clean, like air with dust or smoke.

## Causes

- Lung cancer
- Influenza
- Sarcoidosis
- Pneumonia
- Tuberculosis
- Common cold
- Smoking
- Allergen

## Related pages

- Flu
Creation

**Creation** may refer to:

In **religion** and **philosophy**:

- Creation myth, or origin belief, stories of how the world or a culture began

- Creation (theology), the belief that one or more deities brought the universe into being; also a name for everything that was created
    - _Creatio ex nihilo_ (English: Creation from nothing), the belief that a deity created the universe from nothing at all, rather than some pre-existing matter or energy
    - Creation according to Genesis, the creation account in the book of Genesis for Judaism and Christianity
    - Creationism, a belief, not just in God creating the universe, but also in certain events afterward, including the creation of animals and mankind
        - Creation science

In **science**:
- Matter creation, the appearance of elementary particles, in physical processes such as pair production; the process opposite of annihilation
    - Creation operator, an operator that increases the number of particles in a given state by one;  an abstract representation of matter creation
- Invention, the act of creating a new process or device

In the **arts**:

- _The Creation of Adam_, a fresco from circa 1511 on the Sistine Chapel ceiling painted by Michelangelo Buonarroti
- _The Creation_ (Haydn), a 1798 oratorio by Joseph Haydn
- _Creation_ (1931 movie), an unfinished movie by RKO studios that featured stop-motion animation
- The Creation (band), a British band known for their one hit "Painter Man" in 1967
- _Creation_ a 1981 novel by Gore Vidal
- Creation Records, a record label created in 1983 by Alan McGee, also known for their spin-off Rev-ola Records
- Creation (band), a teen musical group, first album 2005
- _Creation_ (album), a 2005 album from Leslie Satcher

In **media**:

- _Creation magazine_, a magazine promoting creation science published by Creation Ministries International–Australia (formerly Answers in Genesis–Australia)
- Creation Books, a British publishing company
- Creation Entertainment, an American company that runs numerous science fiction and fantasy conventions
- _The Creation: An Appeal To Save Life on Earth_, a 2006 book in advocacy of conservation, by biologist Edward O. Wilson

## Related pages

- Creator
Tarantula

**Tarantulas** are a group of "hairy" and often very large spiders belonging to the family **Theraphosidae**. Approximately 900 species have been found.  Some tarantulas hunt prey in trees and some hunt on the ground. All tarantulas can make silk. They use silk to make shelters like tube tents in trees, to line burrows if they live on the ground, and they all use silk to wrap up prey before they eat it. It is easy to see a tarantula turning around and around in one spot with the prey in its mouth, but it is hard to see the silk coming out because it is small in diameter (thickness) and transparent. These spiders are found in warmer regions around the world.
Tarantulas' predators are normally big snakes or creatures such as the Tarantula Eating Wasp. Defenses are camouflage and fangs.

## Other websites

- International Societies
- American Tarantula Society Headquarters
- The British Tarantula Society
- German Arachnologic Society
- The Australian Tarantula Association

- American Societies
- SFBATS - San Francisco Bay Area Tarantula Society
- N-TEC · Nebraska Tarantula Enthusiasts Club
- MTTG · Middle Tennessee Tarantula Group

- Other sites
- Tarantulas.us - Forums  - Tarantula Discussion Boards and Caresheets.
- Arachnoboards - Arachnid discussion board
- Tarantula care - Gallery of tarantulas and other arachnids.
- Tarantulas.us - Gallery  - Photo gallery of tarantula's species.
- How to Pick a tarantula and Care for a tarantula
- Birdspiders.com - Rick C. West's Site. Includes a gallery of tarantula pictures by species in alphabetical order.
- Caresheets of several tarantula species
- Information on tarantulas, scorpions, and other invertebrates
- Stanley A. Schultz and Marguerite J. Schultz, "Common and scientific name correlations of the theraphosid tarantulas", University of Calgary
- Tarantulas Photo Gallery  Tarantula photos (Mexican Red Knee, Green Bottle Blue, Salmon Pink etc.)
Hunter-gatherer

A **hunter-gatherer** society is one who lives from edible plants and animals from the wild, by foraging and hunting.

Often, the line between hunter-gatherers and other people is not clear-cut. Nomadic people often practice a mix of hunting, gathering and herding, and others spend some of their time in farming.

## Related pages

- Indigenous Australians
- Pygmy
- Inuit
- Human migration
- Indigenous peoples
- Nomads
- Neolithic revolution
- Farming

## Other websites

- African Pygmies Culture and photos of these African hunter-gatherers.
- Reconstructed bone flutes, sound sample and playing instructions.
- A wiki dedicated to the scientific study of the diversity of foraging societies without recreating myths
- How Our “Hunter Gatherer” DNA Is Making Us Fat Now
File format

**File formats**  known as file types. A computer stores data in a computer file in the shape of a file format. For example: images are stored in a different shape than music files.

Also, most types of data (for example text, image or sound) have many varieties of file formats, all with their own special strengths and weaknesses.

There are, for example, more than five ways to store text as a file. Two of the most known ways are: the plain _.txt_ format and the simplest of the _HTML_ formats. The difference is that a .txt file can only store a sequence of characters but an HTML file can also store links to other files and the formatting of the text, for example whether the text is bold, underlined or italic (but usually HTML should say whether the text is very important, a link, or not very important; whether important text should be bold, italic or red is then specified using a file in a special format called CSS).

There is often a choice between saving a file in a simpler versus a more complex file format. The simpler format will make a smaller file, but store less information. The more complex file format will usually be a larger file and more difficult to use, but can store more information; sometimes a faster computer might be needed in order to use a more complex file format.

File formats made for commercial proprietary software are sometimes a secret, so that people who do not work in the company which made the proprietary software cannot use their own and others' files in the format without buying their software. That action is called vendor lock-in, and can be used to make a monopoly. Because of that, it is sometimes a crime.
Lascaux

**Lascaux** is the name given to a cave in the Vézère Valley of southwestern France. The Lascaux cave is famous for its cave paintings.

There are a number of caves near the village of Montignac, in the Dordogne _département_. One of these caves contains some of the best-known Upper Paleolithic art. Most of the paintings are realistic images of large animals. Many of these animals are known from fossil evidence to have lived in the area at the time. The site of Lascaux was added to the UNESCO World Heritage Sites list in 1979, under the name of the Vézère Valley.

Montignac is about  from Périgueux, and about  from Sarlat-la-Canéda

## Dating

Unfortunately, none of the colors used in Lascaux are coal based. Therefore, a direct dating of the paintings is not possible. Despite this, Lascaux was one of the first sites where radiocarbon dating was used. That way, the coal in the fireplaces was dated to about 17,000 years ago. H.Breuil himself thought that the site was older, about 31.000 to 22.000 years old.

Norbert Anjoulat looked at the style and the theme of the paintings, and found these were close to Solutréen, rather than Magdalénien.

There are some disagreements about dating the site. The paintings seem to date from 17,000 to 15,000 years ago. Artifacts were also found in the cave, which seem to be older.  The original dating was to about 26,000 years ago.

Most archaeologists believe that the age of about 17,000 years is accurate for the following reasons:
- All the paintings seem to have approximately the same age
- No object has been found that would allow to date the paintings to 22,000 years or older
- The tools that were found in the cave correspond to those used 17,000 to 15,000 years ago
- All radiocarbon datings show an age of about 17,000 years, which corresponds to the findings above.

## Discovery and problems

The caves were discovered on 12 September 1940. By 1955, about 2000 people visited them every day. In 1968, the original cave was closed to the public, and a system of air conditioning was installed. The cave paintings were restored and  replicas of several paintings were created in other caves nearby, known as Lascaux II and Lascaux III. Today, the original cave is no longer accessible to the public.

In 2000, another problem emerged: Certain kinds of fungi started to grow in the original cave. These are extremely resistant to the usual fungicides used, even to formaldehyde. The fungus lives in symbiosis with a bacterium which is capable of destroying the fungicide. Therefore, the fungicide needs to be combined with an antibiotic to kill the bacterium as well.

As of 2006, the situation is more or less under control. The original caves are now sprayed with the fungicide/antibiotic every "fortnight". Special workers need to clear the cave walls by hand, removing the mycelium which grows despite the treatment.
Parliament of Scotland

The **Parliament of Scotland**, officially the **Estates of Parliament**, was the legislature of the independent Kingdom of Scotland.

The parliament of Scotland had only one house (cf. House of Commons, House of Lords) and was mentioned for the first time during the early thirteenth century, and the first meeting one knows of was in 1235, during the reign of Alexander II of Scotland.

The parliament, which is also referred to as the **Estates of Scotland**, the **Three Estates**  the **Scots Parliament** or the **auld Scots Parliament** (), merged with the Parliament of England in the Acts of Union in 1707. This formed the Kingdom of Great Britain, which later became the United Kingdom.

## Related pages

- Parliament of England
- Parliament of the United Kingdom

## Further reading

- K. M. Brown and R. J. Tanner, _The History of the Scottish Parliament volume 1: Parliament and Politics, 1235-1560_ (Edinburgh, 2004)

## Other websites

- The Records of the Scottish Parliament, The complete acts and proceedings of the Scottish Parliament, General Council  and much other parliamentary material from 1235 to 1707. The publication arose from the work of The Scottish Parliament Project
- The First Scottish Parliament: the Middle Ages – 1707, Scottish Parliament
- The Scottish Parliamentary Tradition, Scottish Parliament
- The Scottish Parliament Project - The Records of the Parliaments of Scotland to 1707, University of St Andrews
- Scottish Parliament records , National Archives of Scotland
- Scotland's powerful parliament , abstract of _The Late Medieval Scottish Parliament: Politics and the Three Estates_, Dr Roland Tanner, Tuckwell Press,
- Original Scottish Parliament, _The Scotsman_
Cocos Island

**Coco Island** is a tropical island that is part of Costa Rica. The island covers . It has two bays in the north. It is  southwest of the Costa Rican mainland. It was declared a World Heritage Site in 1997 for its animals and its beauty.

Today, the only people who live there are four national park guards who patrol the park. Ships leave from Puntarenas, a port in the Pacific Ocean. The island is one of the world's best diving spots. It is famous for its massive schools of different fish, hammerhead sharks, manta rays, and whale sharks. The island is also famous because of the legend about pirates. It is said that this island was chosen by them to hide their treasures. Many people have gone there to look for this hidden treasures but they didn’t find any.

The island has waterfalls, some of them  high. There are also a few animals which were brought from other places because there are no native mammals. Also some birds were brought. The island has just one kind of butterfly and two lizard species. The highest point, called Mount Iglesias, is  high.

## Infobox (world heritage site)

- **whs**: Cocos Island National Park
- **image**:
<small>Cocos Island</small>
- **type**: Natural
- **criteria**: ix, x
- **id**: 820
- **region**: Central America
- **year**: 1997
- **session**: 21st
- **extension**: 2002
- **link**: http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/820
- **relief**: 1
Decoritidae

**Decoritidae** is one of five families of the Gastriocerataceae superfamily. They are an extinct group of ammonoid, which are similar to squids and cuttlefish.
Gastrioceratoidea

**Gastrioceratoidea** is one of 17 superfamilies of the Goniatitina suborder.  They are an extinct group of ammonoid, which are similar to squids and cuttlefish.
Goniatitina

**Goniatitina** is one of 2 suborders of the Goniatitida order. They are an extinct group of ammonoid, which are similar to squids and cuttlefish.
Alf Ramsey

**(Sir) Alf Ramsey** (22 January 1920 – 28 April 1999) was an English footballer and football manager.  He was born in 1920 and played for Southampton F.C. and Tottenham Hotspur F.C.  He also played for the England national football team 32 times and scored three goals. Alf Ramsey was in charge of Ipswich Town F.C. for nearly ten years, Ipswich are the only team to win the First Division title in their first season in the top flight the season after winning the second division. Ramsey then became manager of the England team.  He was manager when England beat Germany 4–2 in the World Cup final at Wembley Stadium. He is the only England manager to win a World Cup.

In recognition of his achievement in leading England to victory in the World Cup Alf Ramsey was knighted in 1967.

He died of a heart attack.

In tribute to Ramsey, Ipswich Town F.C. commissioned a life-size statue of him which is positioned directly in front of Portman Road (home ground of Ipswich Town F.C.).

## Club career statistics

|-
|1946–47||rowspan="3"|Southampton||rowspan="3"|Second Division||23||1
|-
|1947–48||42||5
|-
|1948–49||25||2
|-
|1949–50||rowspan="6"|Tottenham Hotspur||Second Division||41||4
|-
|1950–51||rowspan="5"|First Division||40||4
|-
|1951–52||38||5
|-
|1952–53||37||6
|-
|1953–54||37||2
|-
|1954–55||33||3
316||32
316||32
|}

## International career statistics

|-
|1948||1||0
|-
|1949||1||0
|-
|1950||9||0
|-
|1951||7||1
|-
|1952||7||0
|-
|1953||7||2
|-
!Total||32||3
|}

## Infobox (football biography)

- **name**: <small>Knight Bachelor, Sir</small>
Alf Ramsey
- **image**: Alf Ramsey (1969).jpg
- **caption**: Ramsey as England manager in November 1969
- **fullname**: Alfred Ernest Ramsey
- **birth place**: Dagenham, Essex, England
- **death place**: Ipswich, Suffolk, England
- **position**: Right-back
- **youthclubs1**: Five Elms
- **years1**: 1943–1949
- **clubs1**: Southampton F.C., Southampton
- **caps1**: 90
- **goals1**: 8
- **years2**: 1949–1955
- **clubs2**: Tottenham Hotspur F.C., Tottenham Hotspur
- **caps2**: 226
- **goals2**: 24
- **totalcaps**: 316
- **totalgoals**: 32
- **nationalyears1**: 1948
- **nationalteam1**: England national football B team, England B
- **nationalcaps1**: 1
- **nationalgoals1**: 0
- **nationalyears2**: 1948–1953
- **nationalteam2**: England national football team, England
- **nationalcaps2**: 32
- **nationalgoals2**: 3
- **manageryears1**: 1955–1963
- **managerclubs1**: Ipswich Town F.C., Ipswich Town
- **manageryears2**: 1963–1974
- **managerclubs2**: England national football team, England
- **manageryears3**: 1977–1978
- **managerclubs3**: Birmingham City F.C., Birmingham City
- **manageryears4**: 1979–1980
- **managerclubs4**: Panathinaikos F.C., Panathinaikos (technical director)
Qom province

**Qom province** is one of the 30 provinces of Iran with an area of .  About 2 million people live in the Qom province. The capital of the province is Qom.

## Sights

The following lists some of the sights of the Qom Province of Iran that are the most visited:
- Kahak Cave
- Vashnuh Cave
- Howz e Soltan Salt Lake
- Namak Great Salt Lake
- Mar'ashi Najafi Library, with over 500,000 handwritten texts and copies.
- Astaneh Moqaddaseh Museum
- Qom Bazaar
- Feyzieh Seminary
- Jamkaran Mosque
- Qom Jame' Mosque
- Qom Atiq Mosque
- A'zam Mosque
- Shrine of Hazrat Masoumeh

## Infobox (province)

- **name**: Qom Province
- **native name**: استان قم
- **native name lang**: fa
- **settlement type**: Provinces of Iran, Province
- **image map**: Locator map Iran Qom Province.png
- **map alt**: Map of Iran with Qom highlighted
- **map caption**: Location of Qom within Iran
- **subdivision type**: List of sovereign states, Country
- **subdivision name**: Iran
- **parts type**: Counties of Iran, Counties
- **parts style**: para
- **p1**: 1
- **seat type**: Capital (political), Capital
- **seat**: Qom
- **unit pref**: Metric
- **area total km2**: 11526
- **population total**: 1064456
- **population as of**: 2005
- **population density km2**: auto
- **blank name sec1**: Languages of Iran, Main language(s)
- **blank info sec1**: Persian language, Persian
 Shahsevens
 Qomi
- **timezone1**: Iran Standard Time, IRST
- **utc offset1**: +03:30
- **timezone1 dst**: Iran Standard Time, IRST
- **utc offset1 dst**: +04:30
Qom County

**Qom County** (Persian: قم) is a county of the Qom Province in Iran. The capital of the county is Qom.
Markazi province

**Markazi** () is one of the 30 provinces of Iran. The word _markazi_ means _central_ in Persian.  There are about 1,350,000 people living in the Markazi Province currently.

Some of the biggest cities of the province are: Saveh, Arak, Mahallat, Khomein, Delijan, Tafresh, Ashtian, and Shazand.

## Counties

The Markazi Province is split into 10 different counties:
- Ashtian County
- Arak County
- Delijan County
- Khomein County
- Komeijan County
- Mahallat County
- Saveh County
- Shazand County
- Tafresh County
- Zarandieh County

## Other websites

- Official website of Markazi Governorship

## Infobox (province)

- **name**: Markazi Province
- **native name**: استان مرکزی
- **native name lang**: fa
- **settlement type**: Provinces of Iran, Province
- **image map**: Locator map Iran Markazi Province.png
- **map alt**: Map of Iran with Markazi highlighted
- **map caption**: Location of Markazi within Iran
- **subdivision type**: List of sovereign states, Country
- **subdivision name**: Iran
- **parts type**: Counties of Iran, Counties
- **parts style**: para
- **p1**: 11
- **seat type**: Capital (political), Capital
- **seat**: Arak, Iran, Arak
- **unit pref**: Metric
- **area total km2**: 29127
- **population total**: 1351257
- **population as of**: 2006
- **population density km2**: auto
- **blank name sec1**: Languages of Iran, Main language(s)
- **blank info sec1**: Persian language, Persian
- **timezone1**: Iran Standard Time, IRST
- **utc offset1**: +03:30
- **timezone1 dst**: Iran Standard Time, IRST
- **utc offset1 dst**: +04:30
Ashtian County

**Ashtian County** () is a county of the Markazi Province in Iran. The capital of the county is Ashtian.
Arak County

**Arak County** () is a county of the Markazi Province in Iran. The capital of the county is Arak.
Delijan County

**Delijan County** () is a county of the Markazi Province in Iran. The capital of the county is Delijan.
Khomein County

**Khomein County** () is a county of the Markazi Province in Iran. The capital of the county is Khomein.
Komeijan County

**Komeijan County** () is a county of the Markazi Province in Iran. The capital of the county is Komeijan.
Mahallat County

**Mahallat County** (Persian: شهرستان محلات) is a county of the Markazi Province in Iran. The capital of the county is Mahallat.
Saveh County

**Saveh County** (Persian: شهرستان ساوه) is a county of the Markazi Province in Iran. The capital of the county is Saveh.
Shazand County

**Shazand** (Persian: شهرستان شازند) is a county of the Markazi Province in Iran. The capital of the county is Shazand.
Tafresh County

**Tafresh County** (Persian: شهرستان تفرش) is a county of the Markazi Province in Iran. The capital of the county is Tafresh.
Zarandieh County

**Zarandieh County** () is a county of the Markazi Province in Iran. The capital of the county is Mamuniyeh.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Zarandieh County
- **native name**: شهرستان زرندیه
- **settlement type**: Counties of Iran, County
- **pushpin label position**: right
- **subdivision type**: List of sovereign states, Country
- **subdivision name**: Iran
- **subdivision type1**: Provinces of Iran, Province
- **subdivision name1**: Markazi Province, Markazi
- **seat type**: Capital (political), Capital
- **seat**: Mamuniyeh
- **parts type**: Bakhsh (Districts)
- **parts style**: para
- **p1**: Central District (Zarandieh County), Central District
- **p2**: Kharqan District
- **population as of**: 2006
- **population total**: 57,550
- **timezone**: Iran Standard Time, IRST
- **utc offset**: +3:30
- **timezone dst**: Iran Daylight Time , IRDT
- **utc offset dst**: +4:30
Tocharians

The **Tocharians** (Traditional Chinese: 吐火羅人) were an ancient people who lived in the Tarim Basin. The Tocharians spoke an Indo-European language called the **Tocharian**. The region they lived in is closer to the East Asia than any other Indo-European-speaking regions.

## Related pages

- Sogdia
- Scythia
- Turkestan
- Macedonia
- Central Asia
- Hephthalites
- Indo-Iranian peoples
- Indo-Iranian languages

## Other websites

- Tocharian alphabet
- Modern studies are developing a Tocharian dictionary
- Mark Dickens, 'Everything you always wanted to know about Tocharian'
- _Mysterious Mummies of China_  by Nova on Google Video
Periphery

Generally, a **periphery** is a boundary or outer part of any space or body. It is derived from the Greek word , meaning a circumference or outer surface.

- In biology, the **periphery** of the body is the part that is away from the central or core regions.
    - For example, the peripheral nervous system is distinct from the central nervous system.
    - See also peripheral membrane protein.

- Peripheral vision is that part of visual perception that occurs in the **periphery**, i.e., near the edges, of the field of view.

- A computer peripheral is added to a host computer in order to expand its abilities.

- For peripheral submanifolds in mathematics, see boundary parallel.

- **The Periphery** includes nations that are not core countries -  capitalist or industrialized nations. See Immanuel Wallerstein, Third World.

- The 13 peripheries of Greece are subnational subdivisions of that country, equivalent to regions.

- In the fictional universe of _BattleTech_, the Periphery is the region of interstellar space.
Hattem

**Hattem** is a municipality and a city in the eastern Netherlands.

Hattem became a city in 1299. That is one year before Amsterdam.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **official name**: Hattem
- **image flag**: Hattem vlag.svg
- **flag size**: 100x67px
- **image shield**: Coat of arms of Hattem.svg
- **shield size**: 100x80px
- **image map**: LocatieHattem.png
- **mapsize**: 280px
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision name**: Netherlands
- **subdivision type1**: Province
- **subdivision name1**: Gelderland
- **area footnotes**: (2006)
- **area total km2**: 24.20
- **area land km2**: 23.12
- **area water km2**: 1.08
- **population as of**: 1 January, 2007
- **population note**: Source: Statistics Netherlands, CBS, [http://statline.cbs.nl/ Statline].
- **settlement type**: Municipality
- **population total**: 11636
- **population density km2**: 503
- **timezone**: Central European Time, CET
- **utc offset**: +1
- **timezone dst**: Central European Summer Time, CEST
- **utc offset dst**: +2
Óscar Arias

**Óscar Arias Sánchez** (born 13 September 1940 in Heredia, Costa Rica) is a Costa Rican activist and Nobel Peace Prize laureate. He was President of Costa Rica from 1986 to 1990 and from 2006 to 2010. He received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1987 for his efforts to end civil wars in Central America. He is also a winner of the Albert Schweitzer Prize for Humanitarianism and a trustee of Economists for Peace and Security.

In 2003, he was elected to the Board of Directors of the International Criminal Court's TrustFund for Victims. He is also a member of the _Club de Madrid_. It is a nonprofit organization. It is made up of 81 former leaders of democratic nations. They work to strengthen democracy.

Arias started his political career in the 1970s.

In January 2005 Arias was selected as the candidate for the National Liberation party. He was reelected as president of Costa Rica. There was a lot of criticism for his support towards the **Free Trade Agreement** process in Costa Rica. Because of his political background and determination, many Costa Ricans still trust and respect Arias.

## Infobox (_president)

- **name**: Óscar Arias Sánchez
- **image**: OscarArias.jpg
- **order**: List of Presidents of Costa Rica, President of Costa Rica
- **term start**: 8 May 2006
- **term end**: 8 May 2010
- **predecessor**: Abel Pacheco de la Espriella
- **successor**: Laura Chinchilla
- **term start2**: 8 May 1986
- **term end2**: 8 May 1990
- **predecessor2**: Luis Alberto Monge
- **successor2**: Rafael Ángel Calderón Fournier
- **birth place**: Heredia, Costa Rica, Heredia, Costa Rica
- **party**: National Liberation Party (Costa Rica), PLN
Universal history

**Universal history**, **world history** or **global history** examines history from a global perspective.

It looks for common patterns that one can find across all cultures. Universal historians use a thematic approach. That means they look at history from two viewpoints: On the one hand they look at processes of world history that have drawn people of the world together, on the other hand they want to find out how patterns of world history reveal the diversity of the human experience.

The study of universal or global history is in some ways a product of the current period of accelerated globalization. This period has two tendencies: it integrates various cultures and it shows their differences when people of different cultures and civilizations have to live with each other.

To discuss "the history of the world" in a unified framework is not that new. For example, it was a genre popular in the 19th century, and with Christian historians going back to at least the 4th century.

## Related pages

- Natural history

## Other websites

- World History Network
- Bridging World History
- China and Europe
- Journal of World History
- The Changing Shape of World History, William H. McNeill, Paper originally presented at the History and Theory World History Conference, March 25-26, 1994
- World History Connected
- World History For Us All  - World History Model Curriculum
- World History Matters
- WWW-VL World History Index
- World History Blog  - World History blog.
- World History Today  - World History blog.
- Five Epochs of Civilization Ends regional bias by focusing on communication technologies shared throughout the earth
Brewery

A **brewery** is a building, where beer is made or a business (**brewing company**) whose trade is the production and sale of beer.

Breweries can take up several city blocks, or be a collection of equipment in a homebrewer's kitchen. The diversity of size in breweries is matched by the diversity of processes, degrees of automation, and kinds of beer produced in breweries. Typically a brewery is divided into distinct sections, with each section reserved for one part of the brewing process.

The oldest brewery in the world still in operation is believed to be the Bavarian State-owned brewery Weihenstephan, found in the German city of Freising, which can trace its history back to 1040.  Although the Zatec brewery in the Czech Republic claims it can prove paying beer tax in 1004.

## References

- : _Technology Brewing and Malting_, Wolfgang Kunze, 1999, 2nd revised edition, VLB Berlin.  Available at their website
- : _Technology Brewing and Malting_, Wolfgang Kunze, 2004, 3nd revised edition, VLB Berlin.  Available at their website
- http://www.beertown.org/craftbrewing/statistics.html : Craft Brewery definitions at the bottom of the page
Butane

**Butane** is an organic compound with the chemical formula . It is an alkane with four carbon atoms. It is used as a fuel (sometimes with propane) and in aerosol cans.

Butane is usually sold as a mixture of its two isomers, **_n_-butane** and isobutane. In IUPAC's official chemical nomenclature, "butane" means _n_-butane.

## Uses of Butane

Butane is sold in canisters, for cooking and camping. It is also used as fuel in cigarette lighters, and as propellant in aerosol sprays or deodorants. Some kinds of Butane are used in refrigerators.

Mixtures with Propane are known as LPG.

## Dangers

Butane can be hazardous. Inhalation can lead to death by asphyxiation due to displacement of oxygen in the lungs. Contact with the skin can lead to frostbite. If the gas is mixed with air and ignited, it is prone to explode like many other fuels that are volatile.

## Other websites

- International Chemical Safety Card 0232
- NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
- _n_-Butane  Molecule of the Month
- Molview from bluerhinos.co.uk  See Butane in 3D
- Computational Chemistry Wiki
- World LP Gas Association (WLPGA)
- LP Gas Association: Propane and Butane in the UK
- Global BioSciences  In-Situ Bioremediation utilizing Butane
- Butane Viscosity as function of   temperature and pressure
Liquefied petroleum gas

**Liquefied petroleum gas** (also known as **LPG**, **LP Gas** or **autogas**) is a mixture of hydrocarbon gases. It is commonly used in the household, for example for cooking, or as fuel for heating. LPG is replacing chlorofluorocarbons more and more, also because it is less harmful to the ozone layer.

Very often, mixes of propane and butane are sold.

## Other websites

- Pixie Gas  LPG Supplier based in the United States
Aerosol spray

**Aerosol spray** is a system used in certain containers, like spray cans. The contents of the can, like color or deodorant are pressurized. The can has a valve. When this valve is opened, the liquid is forced out. It will emerge as an aerosol or mist. Apart from the liquid, there is another substance in the container, usually called propellant. When the valve is opened, some propellant will be forced inside the container. That way the pressure in the container is kept constant.

## History

Around 1790, it was discovered that a carbonated beverage was pushed out of a container in France.

In 1837, the syphon was invented.

In 1862, several experiments with liquid spraying using compressed gas were held.

In 1927, Norwegian engineer Eric Rotheim proposed the first usable aerosol balloon construction.

In 1943, Americans Lyle Goodhugh and William Sullivan, commissioned by the US government, developed a _bug bomb_ (World War II was going on, and it was necessary to find a way to quickly spray insecticide in order to control insect-borne diseases). This date is considered to be the beginning of the mass production of aerosol balloons.

In 1947, aerosolized insecticides appeared on the mass market.

In 1949, Robert Abplanalp invented the modern spray valve. In the same year, Edward Seymour started the production of spray paint.

## Safety

The instructions for most aerosols warn that it is forbidden to spray it near open flames, electric stoves, and so on.

It is also forbidden to overheat balloons and put them in the sun in hot weather, as well as on heaters. There were many cases of balloon explosions in hot weather, as well as pyrotechnic entertainment of detonating aerosols on fires, which is a rather dangerous activity.

## In detail

- **A** - _Donut_ (indicating the color of the paint)
- **B** - Valve system
- **C** - Safety ring
- **D** - Mixture balls (characteristic for paint cans)
- **E** - The valve itself

## Related pages

- Graffiti
- Pepper spray
Max Born

**Max Born** (11 December 1882 – 5 January 1970) was a German-British Jewish physicist and mathematician who was important in the development of quantum mechanics. He also made contributions to solid-state physics and optics and supervised the work of a number of important physicists in the 1920s and 30s. Born became a British subject in 1939. He won the 1954 Nobel Prize in Physics. Born's descendants include his grandaughter Olivia Newton-John and his great-granddaughter Chloe Rose Lattanzi.

## Other websites

- American Institute of Physics History Search: Max Born
- Encyclopaedia Britannica, Max Born - full article
- Annotated bibliography for Max Born from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
- Freeview video of Gustav Born (son of Max) with conversation and film on Gustav's memories of his father by the Vega Science Trust
- Max Born’s Life
- Max Born information from Nobel Winners site
- Nobel Laureate biography
- Papers of Professor Max Born (1882-1970) Held at the Edinburgh University Library, Special Collections Division
- Recollections of Max Born/app/home/contribution.asp?referrer=parent&backto=issue,25,26;journal,152,584;linkingpublicationresults,1:100241,1), by Emil Wolf, in  _Astrophysics and Space Science_, Volume 227, Numbers 1-2. (Biographical tribute)
- Kuhn, Thomas S., John L. Heilbron, Paul Forman, and Lini Allen _Sources for History of Quantum Physics_  (American Philosophical Society, 1967)

## Infobox (scientist)

- **name**: Max Born
- **image**: Max Born.jpg
- **caption**: Max Born
- **birth place**: Wrocław, Breslau, German Empire, Germany
- **death place**: Göttingen, West Germany, Germany
- **nationality**: Germany, German - United Kingdom, British
- **field**: Physicist
- **work institution**: Johann Wolfgang Goethe University of Frankfurt am Main, University of Frankfurt am Main
University of Göttingen
University of Edinburgh
- **doctoral advisor**: Carl Runge
- **doctoral students**: Victor Frederick Weisskopf
Robert Oppenheimer
Lothar Wolfgang Nordheim
Max Delbrück
Walter Elsasser
Friedrich Hund
Pascual Jordan
Maria Goeppert-Mayer
Herbert S. Green
Cheng Kaijia
	Werner Heisenberg, Werner Karl Heisenberg
- **known for**: Foundations of quantum mechanics
- **prizes**: Nobel Prize in Physics (1954)
United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs

The **United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs** (UNOOSA) is a branch of the United Nations General Assembly. UNOOSA creates, maintains and carries out the General Assembly's rules about space.

The building for UNOOSA is located in the United Nations Office in Vienna in Austria.

UNOOSA operates the Programme on Space Applications and maintains a list of objects sent into space - the Register of Objects Launched into Outer Space. UNOOSA also helps developing nations develop space technology to help their economies.

## Other websites

- United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs
- International Space Law
- United Nations Treaties and Principles on Space Law
Vicar of Bray

**"The Vicar of Bray"** is a satirical song about the career of the Vicar of Bray and how he changes his principles so that he can keep his job in a changing world. Changes are taking place in the state religion through the course of several English monarchs.
Bristol City F.C.

**Bristol City F.C.** are an English football club. They are based in the city of Bristol. They play at Ashton Gate Stadium. They were formed in 1894. People who live in southern Bristol usually Support Bristol City, While if you live in Northern Bristol you usually Support their biggest rivals Bristol Rovers F.C..

## League position

|Season|League|Position|
| --- | --- | --- |
|2000/01|Second Division|9th|
|2001/02|Second Division|7th|
|2002/03|Second Division|3rd|
|2003/04|Second Division|3rd|
|2004/05|League One|7th|
|2005/06|League One|9th|
|2006/07|League One|2nd|
|2007/08|League Championship|4th|
|2008/09|League Championship|10th|
|2009/10|League Championship|10th|

## Infobox (football club)

- **clubname**: Bristol City Football Club
- **fullname**: Bristol City Football Club
- **nickname**: Robins
- **founded**: 1894 (as Bristol South End)
- **ground**: Ashton Gate stadium
Bristol
- **capacity**: 27,000
- **chairman**: Steve Lansdown
- **manager**: Lee Johnson (footballer), Lee Johnson
- **captain**: Korey Smith
- **league**: Football League Championship, League Championship
- **season**: The Football League 2009-10, 2009/10
- **position**: Football League Championship, League Championship, 10th
Chesterfield F.C.

**Chesterfield F.C.** are an English football club. They started in 1866 and are based in Chesterfield in the county of Derbyshire. They play at a stadium called the Recreation Ground.

## League position

|Season|League|Position|
| --- | --- | --- |
|2000/01|Third Division|3rd|
|2001/02|Second Division|18th|
|2002/03|Second Division|20th|
|2003/04|Second Division|20th|
|2004/05|League One|17th|
|2005/06|League One|16th|
|2006/07|League One|21st|
|2007/08|League Two|8th|
|2008/09|League Two|10th|

## Infobox (football club)

- **clubname**: Chesterfield F.C.
- **fullname**: Chesterfield Football Club
- **founded**: 1866
- **ground**: Saltergate
Chesterfield
- **capacity**: 8,504
- **chairman**: Barrie Hubbard
- **manager**: John Sheridan
- **league**: Football League Two, League Two
- **season**: The Football League 2008–09, 2008/09
- **position**: Football League Two, League Two, 10th
Doncaster Rovers F.C.

**Doncaster Rovers F.C.** are an English football club.  They started in 1879 and play their home games at a stadium called Keepmoat Stadium.

## League position

|Season|League|Position|
| --- | --- | --- |
|2000/01|Premier League|Champions|
|2001/02|Conference|4th|
|2002/03|Conference|3rd|
|2003/04|Third Division|Champions|
|2004/05|League One|10th|
|2005/06|League One|8th|
|2006/07|League One|11th|
|2007/08|League One|3rd|
|2008/09|League Championship|14th|
|2009/10|League Championship|12th|
|2010/11|League Championship|21st|
|2011/12|League Championship|24th|
|2012/13|League One|1st|
|2013/14|League Championship|Champions|
|2014/15|Premier League|3rd|
|2023/24|Premier League|Champions|

## Infobox (football club)

- **clubname**: Doncaster Rovers F.C.
- **fullname**: Doncaster Rovers Football Club
- **founded**: 1879
- **ground**: Keepmoat Stadium
Doncaster
- **capacity**: 15,231
- **chairman**: David Blunt
- **manager**: Darren Ferguson
- **league**: Football League Two, League Two
- **season**: The Football League 2015–16, 2015/16
- **position**: Football League One, League One, 21st
Huddersfield Town F.C.

**Huddersfield Town F.C.** are an English football club.  They started in 1908 and are based in Huddersfield, West Yorkshire.  The club plays their home games at a stadium called the Kirklees Stadium.

## League position

|Season|League|Position|
| --- | --- | --- |
|2000/01|First Division|22nd|
|2001/02|Second Division|6th|
|2002/03|Second Division|22nd|
|2003/04|Third Division|4th|
|2004/05|League One|9th|
|2005/06|League One|4th|
|2006/07|League One|15th|
|2007/08|League One|10th|
|2008/09|League One|9th|

## Infobox (football club)

- **current**: 2020–21 Huddersfield Town A.F.C. season
- **clubname**: Huddersfield Town
- **fullname**: Huddersfield Town Association Football Club
- **nickname**: The Terriers
- **ground**: Kirklees Stadium
- **capacity**: 24,121
- **chairman**: Phil Hodgkinson
- **mgrtitle**: Head Coach
- **manager**: Carlos Corberán
- **website**: https://www.htafc.com/
- **pattern la1**: _huddersfield2021h
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Sanskara

In Hinduism and Buddhism, **Sanskaras** are the faint memories left on your mind by experiences you had in your present life or in past lives. Sanskaras change how you look at things in the future and how you act.
Supernanny

***Supernanny*** is a British and American television program about a nanny, or babysitter, named Jo Frost who helps parents in taking care of their often disruptive or ill-behaved children. The UK version ran from 2004 to 2012. The US version ran from 2005 to 2011.
Jo no longer does Supernanny as she has moved on to similar shows helping families.

## Season 1 Episodes (UK) (2004)

- The Woods Family-Lucy and Steve (parents)/Billy, Caitlin and Charlie (children aged 2-12)
- The Steer Family-Sophia (single mother)/Iris, Kelly and Callum (children aged 0-4)
- The Yager Family-Jerry (single father)/Raiden and Jennifer (children aged 3-6)
- The Charles Family-Amanda and Kevin (parents)/Jacob, Maxwell and Isabelle (children aged 2-4)

## Season 2 Episodes (UK) (2012)

- The Agate Family-Wendy (single mother)/Marie, Amie and Maryann (children aged 7-10)
- The Ball Family-Michelle (single mother)/Ryan and Kyle (children aged 1-3)
- The Gleeson Family-Mindy and Patrick (parents)/Bob and Francessco (children aged 4-6)
- The Porter Family-Hailey and Merlin (parents)/Maddison and Harry (children aged 7-9)
- The Woods Family-Lucy and Steve (parents)/Caitlin and Charlie (children aged 10-18)
- The Yager Family-Jerry (single father)/Raiden and Jennifer (children aged 11-14)
Rhythm guitar

The term **rhythm guitar** refers to the style of playing guitar chords, and sometimes playing repeated riffs instead of using the guitar to play melody lines or solos (this kind of playing is called lead guitar). Rhythm guitarists add to the sound of a band, whether they play rock and roll, or other kinds of music.

John Lennon of The Beatles usually played rhythm guitar for the band, with George Harrison playing lead guitar. However, Lennon sometimes played keyboards, and once in a while took the lead guitar role, as he did in the songs "You Can't Do That" and "Get Back".

Sheet music for rhythm guitar is usually written above the classical notes. It is written in Guitar chord format.
Keyboard

**Keyboard** may mean:

- Keyboard (computer), a device that allows a person to enter information into a computer
- Keyboard instrument, a musical instrument that uses a keyboard
Pachelbel's Canon

**Pachelbel's Canon** (also known as **Canon in D major** or just **Canon in D**) is the most famous piece of music by Johann Pachelbel. It was written in or around the time period of  1680, as a piece of chamber music for three violins and basso continuo, but it has been arranged for many other instruments since then.   It is well known for its chord progression.

Pachelbel's Canon is often played at weddings.

## Listen

This is Pachelbel's Canon played on a piano:
Damme

**Damme** is a municipality in the Belgian province of West Flanders, six kilometres northeast of Brugge (Bruges). It is made up of the city of Damme proper and the towns of Hoeke, Lapscheure, Moerkerke, Oostkerke, Sijsele, Vivenkapelle, and Sint-Rita.

In 2007, 10853 people lived there.

It is at 51° 15 North, 03° 17 East.
Hit record

A **hit record** is a recording (either a single or an album) that becomes very popular, through large sales of copies, repeated airplay on the radio. or presence in the media. One aspect usually promotes one or more of the others.

The Beatles, Elvis Presley, The Eagles and Michael Jackson all had many hit records. They are among the biggest-selling musical acts of all time. Not every recording artist has a hit record. Many artists and groups lose their recording contracts, if their records do not become hits.

Not all hit records feature music. Some spoken word records also become hits, including comedy recordings. Bill Cosby, George Carlin, and Cheech & Chong are comedians who have all had hit records. A recording of speeches by the late American President John F. Kennedy became one of the biggest-selling albums of the 1960s.
Pauline epistles

The **Pauline epistles** are the fourteen New Testament books which most Christians think were written by the Apostle Paul. Some of them are the earliest Christian documents. They show many of the beliefs and controversies of Christianity. Many Christians think these letters are very important for theology and ethics.

The First Timothy, Second Timothy, and Titus are sometimes known as the **pastoral epistles**.

In the order they appear in the New Testament, the Pauline epistles are:
- Romans
- First Corinthians
- Second Corinthians
- Galatians
- Epistle to the Ephesians
- Epistle to the Philippians
- Epistle to the Colossians
- First Thessalonians
- Second Thessalonians
- First Timothy
- Second Timothy
- Titus
- Philemon
Viljandi

**Viljandi** (, ) is a town and municipality in southern Estonia. As of 2012, 19,150 people lived there. It is the capital of Viljandi County. The town was first mentioned in 1283, after being given its town charter by Villekinus de Endorpe.
Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God

**Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God** is famous sermon that was preached by Jonathan Edwards in 1741. He was an important Calvinist minister. The sermon is often used in American high schools and college English classes as an example of the Puritan writings.

Edwards taught the sermon many times. The first time was in Northampton, Massachusetts, but it did not get much attention. But on the second time in Enfield, Connecticut, it made many people weep, swoon, cry out, and have convulsions.

Deuteronomy 32:35 says, "Their foot shall slide in due time." That verse was the main focus of the beginning of the sermon. As was normal in 18th century New England, the sermon was printed and many copies were made. It has proven to be the main reason of his theology and preaching that was taught by many people in the first Great Awakening.

## Other websites

- Original Sermon