juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Falsetto

A **falsetto** voice is a special way of speaking or singing where you speak in a higher pitched voice than normal. Imagine Mickey Mouse's talking style but with a fancy name. Actors do this sometimes, e.g. Robin Williams in the film _Mrs Doubtfire_ or Kevin Clash when voicing the character Elmo in _Sesame Street_ and Barry Gibb of the Bee Gees, with his R&B falsetto. Also, Kellin Quinn from the band sleeping With Sirens uses falsetto sometimes.

It is like stretching the mouth out into a wide smile and saying 'ee', except it is sung.

## Processes and uses of falsetto

When people speak or sing, their vocal cords vibrate.  When a man sings falsetto only the edges of his vocal cords vibrate.  These produce harmonics.  It is similar to playing harmonics on a string instrument by lightly touching the string at a certain point so that only part of the string vibrates.  When a man sings falsetto his vocal range is usually one octave higher than his normal singing voice. When people sing in falsetto, their voice can be breathy sometimes.

Falsetto singing was used in the days when women were not allowed to sing in churches.  Instead, men sang countertenor.  Later the popularity of the countertenor disappeared, but in the mid 20th century it became popular again for performing Renaissance and Baroque music. Today the tradition of men singing alto (with countertenor voices) still exists in Britain in cathedral choirs and some church choirs which are all-male choirs.  It is not a big, operatic voice, and it blends in well with boys’ treble voices in the acoustic of churches and cathedrals.

Occasionally falsetto can be used for comic effect, as in the roasted swan in the _Carmina Burana_ by Carl Orff.

## Other websites

- Definition of falsetto  at Virginia Tech's website
Countertenor

A **countertenor** is a male singer who uses a falsetto voice to sing high notes like a female contralto or mezzo-soprano.

Countertenors were used a lot in the Renaissance and Baroque periods when females were not allowed to sing in church choirs. They did not have big, dramatic voices like castrati, so they were not normally used in opera. People forgot about this way of singing in the 18th and 19th centuries, although male altos continued to sing in English cathedral and church choirs. In the 20th century an English countertenor called Alfred Deller became very famous. He sang many songs from the Baroque period that had been written for the countertenor voice, for example songs by Henry Purcell who sang countertenor himself. Today there is a lot of interest again in using this type of voice for performing early music like Renaissance and Baroque music.
Breeches role

A **breeches role** is a part in an opera in which a woman plays the role of a man. It is also called a **trouser role** (British) or **pants role** (U.S.) or **travesti role** (the Italian word). It is called a breeches role because breeches are tight-fitting, knee-length trousers. These used to be worn by men at the time that breeches roles became popular. Sometimes breeches roles are in plays, but they are usually in opera.

Breeches roles are usually female singers acting the role of a young man. They are normally sung by mezzo-sopranos or contraltos with light voices because they can often sound boyish. In the 17th and 18th centuries it was normal to have actors and actresses who cross-dressed. It was the time when castrato singers were popular. These castrati were men pretending to be women, but there were also women pretending to be men (especially when the actress was trying to deceive another character) and the audiences were used to this kind of thing. As they gradually stopped the horrible practice of castrating young boys in the late 18th century these male characters started to be sung by mezzo-sopranos instead.

Mozart wrote an opera called _The Marriage of Figaro_. In this opera the role of Cherubino, a young page boy, is sung by a mezzo-soprano. Other famous examples include the role of Siebel in Dvořák’s opera _Rusalka_ and the role of Prince Orlofsky in Johann Strauss’s opera _Die Fledermaus_.

Composers from the 20th century do not usually have breeches roles in their operas. There is the role of Oktavian in Richard Strauss’s opera _Der Rosenkavalier_ (1911), but this opera was deliberately trying to produce the old-fashioned atmosphere of Mozart’s time. Benjamin Britten wrote an opera called _Midsummer Night’s Dream_, based on Shakespeare’s play. There is no breeches role here. Instead, the part of Oberon is written for a countertenor: a man with a high, falsetto voice.

There is also a term called a **skirt role**. This is the opposite of a trouser role: it is a man acting the part of a woman. Benjamin Britten uses one in the role of the Madwoman in _Curlew River_. The witch in Humperdinck’s _Hansel and Gretel_ is also sung by a man. In both cases it makes the characters more dramatic, but the first is very serious while the second is supposed to be humorous.
Treble (singer)

The word **treble** is used, especially in British English, to mean the singing voice of a boy or girl. Often it is called a **boy soprano** or a **boy alto**, but since there are also many girls who sing in cathedral and church choirs these days, the word treble is now used to describe the voice of either sex.

A boy cannot sing treble forever. At puberty he starts to become a man and his voice range will go up (we say that his voice “breaks”). He will then become a tenor, a baritone, or a bass, or he may even train to be a countertenor. A girl’s voice also changes when she reaches puberty, but the change into a grown-up female voice is more gradual than with a boy, and it is still within the soprano or alto range.

Boys who join a cathedral choir or the choir of a large church will have to work hard to develop their voice and learn to sing musically. They often start this training aged 7 or 8, and they may only have four or five years before their voice starts to break. They do not usually become famous as soloists, but the Welsh treble Aled Jones became very famous for about three years and made many recordings before his voice broke in 1987.

The word ‘treble’ is used for children singing in a Classical Music style, especially church music. Although children do not usually sing in opera, occasionally a treble is used for the part of a very small boy, e.g. in Debussy’s opera _Pélléas et Mélisande_ or the shepherd in Puccini's opera _Tosca_.
Claque

A **claque** (pronounce: ‘clack’) is a small group of people in an opera house who deliberately either clapped loudly (applauded) or shouted boo for a particular singer. Usually it means an _organised_ group who know in advance what they are going to do.

In the 19th century there was very often a claque at performances of an opera. Someone who liked one of the singers and wanted them to have lots of applause would pay a group of people to sit near the back of the opera house and to clap and shout enthusiastically whenever that singer had finished a song. This would encourage the rest of the audience to clap loudly too. Sometimes the claque would be paid to do the opposite: they would be told to hiss and boo when the singer had sung.

Very often a singer would have to pay some money to the claque so that they would applaud him (or her). If the singer did not pay, the claque would hiss and boo. This was, of course, a nasty form of blackmail. In the early 20th century, when the world-famous tenor Enrico Caruso refused to pay the claque in Naples a bribe, they hissed during his singing of the great aria _Una furtiva lagrima_.

Groups of supporters at football ('soccer') matches do much the same thing without being paid. Abuse of match officials is also quite common. Abuse between rival groups of fans is also common. Clubs are required to keep away fans in different sections from home fans.

## References

- _Teach yourself opera_ by Susan Sutherland 1997, LCCC number: 06-72382
Leech

A **leech**, plural **leeches,** is a kind of worm that live in wet areas. Some only live in water, but some, called terrestrial leeches, can live on land. Terrestrial leeches can only live in wet and humid areas. Some leeches that live in water can swim. Leeches have 34 connected parts, called segments, that make up the body. Some leeches are predators, and eat other small animals, called invertebrates. Other leeches drink the blood of bigger animals, including humans.
Glycoprotein

A **glycoprotein** is a big molecule. It is composed of a protein and a carbohydrate (which is usually a sugar-like substance). Glycoproteins are important to recognise immune cells in mammals.
Well-known glycoproteins are:
- antibodies which react with antigens

Hormones that are glycoproteins are (amongst others)

- Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
- Luteinising hormone (LH)
- Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

## Related pages

- Miracle fruit
Tissue culture

**Tissue culture** or  **cell culture** is a way to grow cells in a laboratory. Cells are taken, and put into in a flask or Petri dish. They can be grown on a growth medium, sometimes an agar plate. The cells divide, and can be treated in various ways.  This is done for a number of purposes, especially for the use of scientific research:

- Growing bacteria or fungi for experiments or for identification. An example would be growing bacteria to see what antibiotics they are resistant to.
- Growing cells of plants or animals for various experimental purposes.
    - Plant cuttings can be grown: roots grow out of a sprig.
    - In-Vitro Fertilization is when eggs are taken and fertilized with sperm in the dish.
Chemotherapy

**Chemotherapy**, or 'chemo', is the use of chemical substances to treat diseases. The word "chemotherapy" is often used for a type of medicine used to treat cancer. The drugs are cytotoxic, which means they are toxic to the body's cells.

There are many types of chemotherapy. and doctors chose the medication that will treat each types of cancer in the best way. Often, chemotherapy drugs are combined with each other and with other drugs when a person is treated for cancer.

When a person has surgery to remove a tumor, chemotherapy may be given before or after.

Chemotherapy can also be used to treat other diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis.

Chemotherapy often has bad side effects:
- Loss or damage of hair and nails
- Weakened immune system
- Nausea and vomiting

## Related pages

- Antiviral drug
- Paul Ehrlich
- Pharmacotheraphy
- Radiotherapy
- Therapy
EPO

**EPO** or **epo** may refer to:

- Erythropoietin
- Esperanto (ISO 639-2 code), a constructed language
East Slavic languages

The **East Slavic languages** are one of the three regional subgroups of the Slavic languages. It is the largest subgroup of the Slavic languages by number of speakers. The East Slavic languages are natively spoken in Eastern Europe, Siberia, and the Russian Far East. It is also used as a lingua franca in the Caucasus and Central Asia.

The main East Slavic languages are Belarusian, Russian, and Ukrainian. Sometimes Rusyn is also made separate, but other times it is said to be a dialect of Ukrainian. All of these languages use the Cyrillic script.

## Infobox (language family)

- **name**: East Slavic languages
- **map**: Lenguas eslavas orientales.PNG
- **mapcaption**: Distribution of the East Slavic languages in Eurasia:
- **region**: Eurasia (Eastern Europe, North Asia, Northern Asia, and the Caucasus)
- **familycolor**: Indo-European
- **fam2**: Balto-Slavic languages, Balto-Slavic
- **fam3**: Slavic languages, Slavic
- **ancestor**: Old East Slavic language, Old East Slavic
- **child1**: Belarusian language, Belarusian
- **child2**: Russian language, Russian
- **child3**: Ukrainian language, Ukrainian
- **child4**: Rusyn language, Rusyn
- **child5**: Old East Slavic†
- **child6**: Ruthenian language, Ruthenian†
- **child7**: Old Novgorod dialect, Old Novgorodian†
- **iso5**: zle
- **glotto**: east1426
- **glottorefname**: East Slavic
Typhoid

- _Other unrelated diseases with a similar name are typhus and paratyphoid fever_

**Typhoid**, or **typhoid fever**, is an illness caused by the bacterium _Salmonella enterica_ subspecies _enterica_. Symptoms may vary from mild to severe, and usually begin 6 to 30 days after exposure. The disease is spread by water which has the bacteria in it.

## Transmission

Typhi is spread through from what is called the _fecaloral route_. The source is people who are infected but have no symptoms. An asymptomatic human carrier is an individual who is still excreting typhoid bacteria in their stool a year after the acute stage of the infection.

## The disease

Typhoid usually lasts between two weeks and a month. The symptoms of typhoid often appear 10 to 14 days after infection. If no treatment is given, between one and three out of every ten patients die. The rest usually get better after a month, at the most.

Typhoid causes a steady fever of at least 103–104 degrees F (39–40 degrees C). Also, it can cause stomach pains, headache, being delirious (restless, excited, seeing things), and not being hungry. In some cases, flat, pink coloured spots show up on the patient's body. Sometimes there are no symptoms.

Typhoid is not common in countries with good sanitation and clean water. For example, scientists think that there are only 400 cases a year in the United States. In 2015,  12.5 million new cases worldwide were reported. For example, in the Indian subcontinent, typhoid is one of the most common diseases because of poor sanitation and lack of basic hygiene.In that case, typhoid fever is common in children of the one to 15 years age group.

The disease can be treated with antibiotics. There are standard drugs like _chloromycetin_ which cure typhoid.
Necklace

A **necklace** is a jewellery item worn round the neck. It is of ancient origin: all civilisations have worn them. They usually figure precious metals and jewels, but may be made of colourful beads.

## The Indore necklace

The emeralds threaded onto the necklace were mined in Colombia. The diamonds were mined in India. The necklace's gemstones are believed to have been cut in India in the 17th century, but the early history of the necklace itself is unknown. The first recorded owner of the piece was Tukoji Rao III, Maharaja of Indore (a Princely State in India) in the early 20th century. On his abdication, the necklace was passed to his son, Yashvantrao II, who took up his father's throne. The necklace is sometimes called, though with no reason, the Spanish Inquisition necklace.
Transylvania

**Transylvania** is a historical region in Central Europe. In the past, it was administered by Hungary, as an independent principality, belonging to the Ottoman Empire, and a province of Austria-Hungary. It has been part of Romania since the end of World War I in 1918.

The borders was made up by the Siret River from east, river Tisza from west of north and south by the Carpathian Mountains.

Transylvania's main city, Cluj-Napoca, is seen as the region's informal capital. But Transylvania was also ruled from Alba Iulia during its dependence from the Ottoman Empire, and the seat of the Transylvanian Diet was moved to Sibiu for some time in the 19th century.

In popular culture, Transylvania is mainly known as the seat (and origin) of  the fictional Count Dracula.  This vampire story by Bram Stoker is based on a local nobleman Vlad III the Impaler, known for his cruelty. Bram Stoker never visited Transylvania and used vampire stories from Scotland to write his novel.

It also was the home of Elizabeth Báthory.
Southwest Airlines

**Southwest Airlines** is a airline based in Dallas, Texas that has a reputation for low fares. The airline started in 1971.  It flies among about a hundred airports, mostly within the United States but also some airports in the Caribbean Sea and Mexico.

Originally, many of Southwest's flights were to airports in the Southwestern United States, such as Dallas Love Field and Houston Hobby Airport, but it also flies to airports in other parts of the country, such as Chicago Midway Airport and Baltimore/Washington International Airport.  Southwest Airlines controls most of the gates at Dallas Love Field and most other airlines cannot fly from there.

In 2014, it started international flights.

The company flies 815 Boeing 737 aircraft. This is more than any other airline. It only flies the 737. By 2024, 230 were the newest kind, the Boeing 737 MAX.

Southwest Airlines bought the smaller AirTran Airways in 2011 and discontinued the AirTran name. For several years, Southwest was the largest airline in the United States based on number of passengers, but it was not the largest based on distance traveled.

In 2018, an engine exploded on a Southwest Airlines flight, killing one passenger. That was the first death of a passenger from an aircraft accident on Southwest (earlier passenger deaths were from other causes, such as heart attack and drug overdoses).

In 2025, Southwest started charging for checked baggage and began a transition to assigned seating.  A television commercial about the assigned seating showed a lady throwing a watermelon on the floor of a grocery store, thus violating a social norm.  The charges for checked baggage and assigned seating are examples of how nothing is sacred anymore (not that anything ever was truly sacred).

## Related pages

- Ryanair
- jetBlue
- Frontier Airlines
- Spirit Airlines

## Infobox (airline)

- **airline**: Southwest Airlines
- **logo**: File:Southwest Airlines logo 2014.svg
- **fleet size**: 675
- **iata**: WN
- **icao**: SWA
- **callsign**: SOUTHWEST
- **founded**: 1967
- **headquarters**: Dallas, TX
- **bases**: Atlanta,
Baltimore,
Chicago–Midway,
Dallas–Love Field,
Denver,
Houston–Hobby,
Las Vegas,
Oakland,
Orlando,
50 Cent, Phoenix–Sky Harbor
- **website**: https://www.southwest.com
Sibiu

**Sibiu** (IPA , German: _Hermannstadt_, Hungarian: _Nagyszeben_) is a city in Transylvania, Romania. About 170,000 people live there. The Cibin River, a tributary of the Olt River flows through the city.  It is the capital of Sibiu County.

## Twinned towns

- Bauru, Brazil since 1995.
- Columbia, Missouri, USA since 1994.
- Deventer, Netherlands since 2007.
- Klagenfurt, Austria since 1990.
- Landshut, Germany since 2002.
- Marburg, Germany since 2005.
- Mechelen, Belgium since 1996.
- Rennes, France since 1999.
- Valencia, Venezuela since 1993.
- Wirral, UK since 1994.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **official name**: Sibiu
- **native name**: _Hermannstadt_
- **image skyline**: Sibiu.jpg
- **image flag**: SibiuFlag.png
- **image shield**: ROU SB Sibiu CoA.svg
- **pushpin map**: Romania
- **mapsize**: 200px
- **map caption**: Location of Sibiu within Romania (in red)
- **subdivision type**: Countries of the world, Country
- **subdivision name**: Romania
- **subdivision type1**: Sibiu County
- **subdivision name1**: Municipality of Sibiu
- **leader title**: Mayor
- **leader name**: Astrid Fodor
- **established title**: Founded
- **established date**: 1191 (first official record)
- **area total km2**: 121
- **population as of**: 2002
- **settlement type**: City
- **population total**: 154.892
- **population density km2**: 1273
- **timezone**: Eastern European Time, EET
- **utc offset**: +2
- **timezone dst**: Eastern European Summer Time, EEST
- **utc offset dst**: +3
- **elevation m**: 190 - 240
- **postal code type**: Postal Code
- **postal code**: 0xxxxx
- **area code**: +40 269
- **blank name**: Romanian car number plates, Car Plates
- **blank info**: SB
- **website**: [http://www.sibiu.ro/ www.sibiu.ro]
Graphic design

**Graphic design** is a practical art which helps in communication. Visual information is formed in a way that produces a message.  This can be done by placing words and pictures in ways that will get the attention of others.  People who do graphic design as work are called _graphic designers_.  In printed media, graphic design includes typography, organising illustration, book design, page layout, specifying print.

Graphic design can be done in different media.  These include paper, video, labels, and web sites.

Graphic designers use many skills, rules and techniques to provide the right information.  They must combine artistic expression and media relations.  Skills include the ability to look at the whole picture, color theory, design principles, understanding of art, etc.

Graphic design today is heavily used in all types of media, magazine articles, internet and especially in advertising. Almost every marketing effort utilizes graphic design for brochures, business cards, websites, logo design and corporate identity.

Contemporary graphic designs tend to feature modern geometric forms and shapes and bold typefaces. They emphasize making the message easy to read and comprehend and also grab attention and make memorable.

Graphic Designers are people who convert ideas and layout design of print, web or digital media, conceptualized and created by copywriters (people who write the written or textual content) and visualizers (people who originally conceive the look of the final layout) into visually appealing text, images, videos, illustrations, line arts or other forms of drawings or art. It is only after the work of graphic designers that the content becomes appealing and relatively much more attractive to the viewer than was originally made. The degree to which this can be made attractive to the audience depends to a large extent on the skill and proficiency of the Graphic Designer.

## Related pages

- Graphic arts
Rwandan genocide

The **Rwandan genocide** happened between April and July 1994. The genocide lasted for 100 days. Around 800,000 were murdered.

## Infobox (civilian attack)

- **title**: Rwandan genocide
- **image**: Nyamata Memorial Site 13.jpgborder
- **image size**: 300px
- **caption**: Human skulls at the Nyamata Genocide Memorial
- **location**: Rwanda
- **target**: Tutsi, Tutsis and Political moderate, moderate Hutu, Hutus
- **date**: 7 April 15 July 1994
- **type**: Genocide, mass murder, genocidal rape
- **fatalities**: Around 800,000
- **perps**: Hutu-led Autocracy, regime, _Interahamwe_ and _Impuzamugambi_ Militia, militias
Vaquita

The **vaquita** (_Phocoena sinus_) is a rare type of porpoise. It lives only in the Gulf of California. It is the world's smallest cetacean and most endangered marine mammal. The Vaquita is listed as Critically Endangered by the International Union of Conservation of Nature. Forty years ago, the Vaquita population was estimated to have 1000 living individuals.  Current research has shown that from 1990 to now (2021), the population has dropped from close to 500 individuals down to 20 or less.  The species is most under threat from illegal fishing activities that are taking place in the Gulf; ongoing bycatch in gillnets used to catch shrimp and to poach the endangered totoaba (Totoaba macdonaldi).  This species requires a 9-month maternal care period for newborns after birth. Without their mothers, newborns will not be able to survive. Therefore, the loss of a female mother vaquita results in an additional loss of their newborn.

## Look

Vaquita have a dark coloring around the eyes and mouth. The upper side of the body is medium to dark gray. The underside is off-white to light gray. It has a rather large fin on its back for its size.
The Vaquita is the smallest type of porpoise in the world, growing up to 5 feet long and weighing up to 120 pounds.

## Feeding

Vaquitas usually eat small fish, crustaceans (such as shrimp), and cephalopods (such as squid and octopuses).

## Life

They live alone or in small groups, usually of about three, but sometimes they live in groups of up to ten.

## References

Rodríguez-Félix. (2021). Viability of the vaquita, Phocoena sinus (Cetacea: Phocoenidae) population, threatened by poaching of Totoaba macdonaldi (Perciformes: Sciaenidae). Revista de Biología Tropical., 69(2), 588–600.
Zygote

A **zygote** is the fertilized cell that will grow into a new animal or plant. When a female's ovum and a male's sperm cell join, the cell that results is called the zygote. The zygote then multiplies, and grows into an embryo. So, a zygote is formed from the union of two gametes, and is the first stage in a human organism's development. Zygotes are produced by fertilization between two haploid cells, the ovum and the sperm cells, which make a diploid cell. Diploid cells have copies of both parents' chromosomes and DNA. At conception it has all the necessary properties to create a fully formed human being. Life until death is a series of many different stages of development.

Some animals keep the zygote in their bodies until it is a full-grown baby. The time between the forming of the zygote and the baby's birth is called pregnancy. Other animals do not keep the zygote in their bodies, but lay an egg. The zygote grows inside the egg until it is ready and a larva or baby animal hatches.
Dave Jauss

**Dave Jauss** (born January 16, 1957) is the bench coach for the New York Mets. He has also been the bench coach for the Los Angeles Dodgers and Baltimore Orioles.
Huguenots

From the 16th to the 18th century the name **Huguenot** was describing a member of the Protestant Reformed Church of France. They are sometimes known as the French Calvinists.

After the Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre in 1572 and the French Wars of Religion hundreds of thousands of French Protestants fled France, many to England including some to the East End of London, specifically Whitechapel and Spitalfields. Some went as far as the overseas colonies of Protestant powers. The Treaty of Nantes allowed them to stay in France without being massacred
La Rochelle

**La Rochelle** is a city in the Charente-Maritime department and a seaport in western France near the Bay of Biscay. The Huguenots there rebelled in 1627 and 1628.
La Rochelle is a coastal city in southwestern France and capital of the Charente-Maritime department. It has been a center for fishing and trade since the 12th century, a maritime tradition that's reflected in its Vieux Port (old harbor) and huge, modern Les Minimes marina. The old town has half-timbered medieval houses and Renaissance architecture, including passageways covered by 17th-century arches.

La Rochelle Business School is in the city.

## Sister cities

La Rochelle is twinned with:
- Lübeck, Germany, since 1988
- New Rochelle, United States, since 1910
- Newport, Rhode Island, United States
- Acre, Israel, since 1972
- Essaouira, Morocco, since 1999
- Santiago de Figueiró, Portugal, since 2003
- Petrozavodsk, Russia, since 1973

## Infobox (french commune)

- **name**: La Rochelle
- **commune status**: Prefectures of France, Prefecture and Communes of France, commune
- **image coat of arms**: Blason de La Rochelle.png
- **image**: La rochelle, Le vieux port.JPG
- **caption**: Old harbour of La Rochelle
- **arrondissement**: La Rochelle
- **insee**: 17300
- **postal code**: 17000
- **mayor**: Jean-François Fountaine
- **term**: 2014–2020
- **intercommunality**: Communauté d'agglomération de La Rochelle, CA La Rochelle
- **elevation m**: 4
- **elevation min m**: 0
- **elevation max m**: 28
- **area km2**: 28.43
- **population**: 80014
- **population date**: 2012
Combustion

**Combustion** is the process of burning. **Combustion** is a reaction of a fuel with an oxidant to give out heat. The release of heat can produce light in the form of a flame.

Car engines and rocket engines both work by combustion. Combustion in a Ferrari car motor is different from combustion in a rocket engine. Car combustion is gas burning and exploding in cylinders called pistons again and again to push them up and down, making the car move. Rocket combustion is made by rocket fuel exploding out of the back of the rocket moving it up. The burning of most substances is bad for the environment and the ozone layer because it can let off greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide. Hydrogen burns cleanly and gives off a lot of heat, but it does not produce much power, and is highly explosive.

The fire tetrahedron (contains oxygen fuel heat and chemical chain reaction) show the components of combustion. During combustion, fuel reacts with oxygen and heat, then releases energy. Complete combustion happens in a plentiful supply of oxygen. Complete combustion releases more energy than incomplete combustion. Incomplete combustion occurs when the supply of air is limited, or poor. Incomplete combustion also creates carbon monoxide, and even soot. Several factors must be considered when choosing the best fuel for a particular purpose. Fuels are substances that react with oxygen to release useful energy. Most of the energy is released as heat, but light energy is also released. About 21 per cent of the air is oxygen. When a fuel burns in plenty of air, it receives enough oxygen for complete combustion. Complete combustion needs a plentiful supply of air so that the elements in the fuel react fully with oxygen. Fuels such as natural gas and petrol contain hydrocarbons. These are compounds of hydrogen and carbon only. Combustion is a high-temperature oxidation reaction.

## Related pages

- Exothermic
- Phlogiston theory
Nanometre

The **nanometre** (symbol: **nm**) is a unit used to measure length in the metric system. It is equal to one billionth of a metre () and for kilometre, it is equal to one trillionth of a kilometre (1 km / 1,000,000,000,000). The name combines the SI prefix _nano-_ (from the Ancient Greek , **', "dwarf") with the parent unit name _metre_ (from Greek , **', "unit of measurement"). It can be written in scientific notation as 1×10<sup>−9</sup> m.

The nanometre is often used to express very tiny dimensions, such as measuring atoms. The nanometre is also commonly used to measure the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation near the part of the spectrum that can be seen by humans. Visible light ranges from around 400 to 800 nm.

The nanometre was formerly called the **millimicrometre** (or the **millimicron**). This is because it is 1/1000 of a micrometre, and was written with the symbol **mµ** (or sometimes **µµ**).

## Related pages

- Angstrom
- Nanotechnology
- Quantum dot
Caterpillar

A **caterpillar** is a young butterfly or moth that has just hatched out of its egg. A caterpillar is a kind of larva. When it is older, the caterpillar will turn into a pupa (also known as a chrysalis), and then later the pupa will turn into a butterfly.

Caterpillars usually have three pairs of small, but noticeable, true legs at the front and up to 5 pairs of fleshy false legs at the back.

Caterpillars are commonly found feeding on leaves, but they are also found inside living stems and branches or on the roots of plants and dead wood.

Most caterpillars are shades of green or brown and are relatively hairless, although in many families caterpillars are very hairy and often brightly coloured. Some species are pests of growing plants, carpets, woollens, organic fabrics and stored food products.

Caterpillars are an important source of food for birds and other invertebrates and many species help dead animals and plants decompose.

## Gallery

Examples of different kinds of caterpillars.
Bielsko-Biała

**Bielsko-Biała** is a city in southern Poland with 180,000 inhabitants. Its size is . The city is in the Beskidy mountains.

## Related pages

- Museum in Bielsko-Biała

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Bielsko-Biała
- **image skyline**: Bielsko-Biała Montage 2.jpg
- **image caption**: Bielsko-Biała. Top: view of Bielsko-Biała from Szyndzielnia Hill, 2nd row (left to right): Bielsko-Biała City Hall, Pod Orlem Convension Center, Evangelical Saviour Cathedral,
3rd row: Wojska Polsiego Square, Sulkowski Castle, Eleven Listopada Street, bottom: Polish Theater in Adama Mickiewicza, Saint Nicolas Cathedral, Martin Luther Cathedral, Zaklady Eatona Wapienica center
- **image flag**: POL Bielsko Biała flag.svg
- **image shield**: POL Bielsko-Biała COA.svg
- **pushpin map**: Poland
- **pushpin label position**: top
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision name**: Poland
- **subdivision type1**: Voivodeships of Poland, Voivodeship
- **subdivision name1**: Silesian Voivodeship, Silesian
- **subdivision type2**: Powiat, County
- **subdivision name2**: _City county_
- **leader title**: Mayor
- **leader name**: Jarosław Klimaszewski
- **established title3**: Town rights
- **established date3**: 1312 Bielsko
1723 Biała
- **elevation min m**: 262
- **elevation max m**: 1117
- **area total km2**: 124.51
- **population as of**: 2013
- **population total**: 173699
- **population density km2**: auto
- **population urban**: 325000
- **population metro**: 5294000
- **timezone**: Central European Time, CET
- **utc offset**: +1
- **timezone dst**: Central European Summer Time, CEST
- **utc offset dst**: +2
- **postal code type**: Postal code
- **postal code**: 43-300 to 43-382
- **area code**: (+48) 033
- **blank name**: Vehicle registration plates of Poland, Car plates
- **blank info**: SB
Phnom Penh

**Phnom Penh** (; official Romanization: Phnum Pénh; IPA: [pʰnum peːɲ]) is the capital of Cambodia. It is the largest and most populous city in the country. It is also the capital of the Phnom Penh administrative city.

## Overview

On April 17, 1975, it was seized by the Khmer Rouge who soon forced everyone to leave. It was later retaken from the Khmer Rouge by the Vietnamese Army in January 1979.

## Related pages

- Pol Pot
- Lon Nol
- Vietnam War
- Cambodian genocide
Take Me Out to the Ball Game

"**Take Me Out to the Ball Game**" is a 1908 Tin Pan Alley song. The words were written by Jack Norworth. The music was written by Albert Von Tilzer. Neither of the writers had been to a baseball game. The song has become the unofficial anthem of baseball.

The chorus is traditionally sung during the seventh-inning stretch of a baseball game. Fans are generally encouraged to sing along. At some ballparks, the words "home team" are replaced with the team name, as is the case with the Houston Astros, San Francisco Giants, Pittsburgh Pirates, Boston Red Sox, Chicago Cubs, Chicago White Sox, Milwaukee Brewers, Philadelphia Phillies, Toronto Blue Jays, Miami Marlins, Colorado Rockies, Detroit Tigers and several other Major League Baseball teams.

The first recorded version of the song was made by Edward Meeker.  Meeker's recording was selected by the Library of Congress as a 2010 addition to the National Recording Registry. The Registry picks recordings once a year that are "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".

## Words

|1908 Version|1927 Version|
| --- | --- |
|Katie Casey was baseball mad, Had the fever and had it bad. Just to root for the home town crew, Ev'ry sou Katie blew. On a Saturday her young beau Called to see if she'd like to go To see a show But Miss Kate said "No, I'll tell you what you can do:"|Nelly Kelly loved baseball games, Knew the players, knew all their names. You could see her there ev'ry day, Shout "Hurray" When they'd play. Her boyfriend by the name of Joe Said, "To Coney Isle, dear, let's go", Then Nelly started to fret and pout, And to him, I heard her shout:|
|colspan=2 align="center"|Take me out to the ball game, Take me out with the crowd; Buy me some peanuts and Cracker Jack, I don't care if I never get back. Let me root, root, root for the home team, If they don't win, it's a shame. For it's one, two, three strikes, you're out, At the old ball game.|
|Katie Casey saw all the games, Knew the players by their first names. Told the umpire he was wrong, All along, Good and strong. When the score was just two to two, Katie Casey knew what to do, Just to cheer up the boys she knew, She made the gang sing this song:|Nelly Kelly was sure some fan, She would root just like any man, Told the umpire he was wrong, All along, Good and strong. When the score was just two to two, Nelly Kelly knew what to do, Just to cheer up the boys she knew, She made the gang sing this song:|
|colspan="2" align="center"|_[repeat Chorus]_|
Xia dynasty

**Xia dynasty** (Chinese: 夏朝; Pinyin: xià cháo; Wade–Giles: Hsia-ch'ao) was the first dynasty of China. It was founded in 2100 BC and ended in 1600 BC. Until archaeologists dug at Erlitou in Henan Province, many scientists were not sure if the Xia Dynasty was real or a myth. The last king was Jie who was said to be cruel and greedy. He was defeated by T'ang, the king of the Shang people from the east.

## Kings of the Xia dynasty

|style="background:#efefef;" colspan="5"|Names after death (Shi Hao 諡號)<sup>1</sup>|||||
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|01|45|禹|class = "lft"|Yǔ|also Yu the Great (大禹; dà yǔ)|
|02|10|啟|class = "lft"|Qǐ||
|03|29|太康|class = "lft"|Tai Kang||
|04|13|仲康|class = "lft"|Zhòng Kāng||
|05|28|相|class = "lft"|Xiāng||
|06|21|少康|class = "lft"|Shǎo Kāng||
|07|17|杼|Zhù|||
|08|26|槐|class = "lft"|Huái||
|09|18|芒|class = "lft"|Máng||
|10|16|泄|class = "lft"|Xiè||
|11|59|不降|class = "lft"|Bù Jiàng||
|12|21|扃|class = "lft"|Jiōng||
|13|21|廑|class = "lft"|Jǐn|Guoyu: jìn, putonghua: jǐn|
|14|31|孔甲|class = "lft"|Kǒng Jiǎ||
|15|11|皋|class = "lft"|Gāo||
|16|11|發|class = "lft"|Fā||
|17|52|桀|class = "lft"|Jié|also Lu Gui (履癸 lǚ guǐ)|
|style="background:#efefef" colspan="5"|<small>**1** Sometimes the king has the dynasty name, Xia (夏), in his name. For example, Xia Yu (夏禹).</small>|||||
|colspan="5" style="background:#efefef"|<small>**2** Possible number of years.</small>|||||
Colon (anatomy)

The **colon** is a part of the large intestine. It is between the cecum and the rectum. The colon takes water from the feces that goes through it. The colon in mammals can be divided into four sections:
- the ascending colon
- the transverse colon
- the descending colon
- the sigmoid colon

## Ascending colon

This part of the colon goes from the cecum (where the small intestine  ends) up the right hand side of the abdomen.

## Transverse colon

This part of the colon goes across the from the ascending colon. It goes underneath the stomach and the pancreas and joins the descending colon near the spleen.

## Descending colon

This part of the intestine is about 30 cm in length. It travels down the left side of the abdomen. It is possible to have medical problems with the descending colon including ulcers, cancer and Crohn's disease.

## Sigmoid colon

This is the small "S" shaped part of the colon, about 40 cm in length, which goes from the bottom of the descending colon into the centre of the pelvis to the rectum. It gets its name from the Greek letter "s", _sigma_.

## Other websites

- Overview and diagrams at seer.cancer.gov
- Video: What is Colorectal Cancer?
August Revolution

The **August Revolution**, also known as the **Vietnamese Revolution** happened in Vietnam in August 1945.  It was an uprising for independence after the Japanese lost World War II in Asia.

It led to the Declaration of Independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam on September 2, 1945.

The independence war against the French would soon follow.

## Infobox (military conflict)

- **conflict**: August Revolution
- **partof**: the Aftermath of World War II, civil conflicts in Vietnam (1945–1949), and decolonisation of Asia
- **image**: Cách mạng tháng 8 b.jpg
- **image size**: 300
- **caption**: Occupation of the Tonkin Palace, Hanoi, 19 August 1945
- **date**: 13 August – 28 August 1945 ()
- **place**: Empire of Vietnam, Vietnam
- **result**: * Civil conflicts in Vietnam (1945–1949), Civil conflicts began in Vietnam
* Abdication of Emperor Bảo Đại, Abolishment of the Monarchy of Vietnam, Vietnamese monarchy on August 25
*  Establishment of the :vi:Chính phủ Cách mạng lâm thời Việt Nam Dân chủ Cộng hòa, Provisional Government of Democratic Republic of Vietnam on August 28
* Establishment of the Vietnamese Provisional National Government by the :vi:Việt Nam Cách mệnh Đồng minh Hội, Vietnam Revolutionary League (Việt Cách) in Móng Cái on September 1
* Declaration of the North Vietnam, Democratic Republic of Vietnam on September 2
- **combatant1**: Viet Minh, Việt Minh
*  National Liberation Committee of Vietnam
*  Vanguard Youth (Vietnam), Vanguard Youth (from 22 August)
---
 Bình Xuyên
 Hòa Hảo
 Cao Đài<hr> Trotskyism in Vietnam, Trotskyist<hr> :vi:Việt Nam Cách mệnh Đồng minh Hội, Việt Nam Cách mệnh Đồng minh Hội
*  Vietnamese Provisional National Government
 Việt Nam Quốc dân Đảng
 Đại Việt Nationalist Party, Đại Việt Quốc dân Đảng
- **combatant2**: Empire of Vietnam, Vietnam
* Mặt trận Quốc gia Thống nhất, National Unified Front
*  Vanguard Youth (Vietnam), Vanguard Youth (until 22 August)
*  Đại Việt National Socialist Party
<hr> Empire of Japan, Japan
- **commander1**: Ho Chi Minh
  Võ Nguyên Giáp
  Trường Chinh

Nguyễn Khang (politician), Nguyễn Khang
 :vi:Phạm Ngọc Thạch, Phạm Ngọc Thạch (from 22 August)<hr> Dương Văn Dương
 Huỳnh Phú Sổ
 Phạm Công Tắc<hr> Tạ Thu Thâu
 Phan Văn Hùm<hr> Nguyễn Hải Thần
 Trương Tử Anh
 Nhất Linh
 Vũ Hồng Khanh
- **commander2**: Bảo Đại
 Trần Trọng Kim
 Trần Văn Chương

Hồ Văn Ngà<hr>
 Yuitsu Tsuchihashi
 Teiji Koudo
Dictator

The word **dictator** or **despot** in modern times is used to describe an absolute ruler of a country (other than a king). A dictator uses force and fear to keep themself, their friends, and their allies in authority.

They can effectively make laws all by themself. A country that is ruled by a dictator is called a _dictatorship_.

## History

The word "dictator" comes from the Roman Republic, where a man would be given absolute power for six to twelve months to handle an emergency. Julius Caesar was the last Roman Dictator.

Some dictators in history have gained political power through by violently taking over the existing government (for example, in a military coup, civil war or revolution). Others won an election, but once in power, they cancelled new elections or changed how they were run to make them unfair for opponents.

Mao Zedong, Muammar Gaddafi, Joseph Stalin and Adolf Hitler are four of the deadliest dictators in history. Pol Pot was perhaps the deadliest: his Cambodian genocide killed nearly a quarter of the people under his rule.

## A Comparison Of Monarchs and Dictators

Monarchs, often called kings, queens, and emperors are similar to dictators in quite a few ways, including the usage of force and fear too rule over a country. Both dictators and monarchs often start wars and/or kill millions to expand or gain power.

Often times these groups overlap, with many dictatorships having a monarchy structure where the next of kin will become the next dictator upon death of the current dictator.

Many monarchs throughout history fall under dictatorships as they rule with absolute power and authority with no regard for laws. Though this does not mean all monarchs are automatically dictators.

Dictatorships often also have little to no acceptance throughout history, whereas monarchs often are seen as okay as long as they're not ruling with absolute authority and attempting to help their people.

## Related pages

- Despotism
- Dictatorship
- Junta
Laxoox

**Laxoox** (pronounced 'la-hoh') in Somalia, or **Canjeera** is a flat bread, a kind of pancake served in Somaliland, Somalia, Yemen and parts of Djibouti. It is frequently seen in the kitchens of northern East Africa.

## Variants

Laxoox bread is very similar to _injera_, made in Ethiopian and Eritrea, but is much thinner and smaller in size. However, laxoox  is always made with wheat flour, while the injera is made from teff (which can be made with flour of other cereals).

## Preparation

The bread is made with a mixture of sorghum flour, all-purpose flour, yeast (optional), warm water and a small portion of salt. The mixture is stirred by hand until it becomes creamy and smooth, and is left to ferment. If yeast is not being added, the batter is made in the afternoon and left to ferment overnight.

The laxoox is traditionally cooked in a circular metal plate called Daawa. Somalis living in exile, without access to a Daawa, use a normal pan instead.

Traditionally, laxoox is served as a breakfast with tea and _subag_ (ghee butter) or _saliid_ _macraso_ (sesame oil). Laxoox is also served with stir-fried liver, scrambled eggs, minced meat, beans, hummus, soup or camel milk.

## Infobox (food)

- **name**: Lahoh
- **image**: LahohS.jpg
- **image size**: 250px
- **alternate name**: Laxoox
- **country**: Djibouti, Somalia and Yemen
- **type**: Flatbread
- **main ingredient**: Flour, Plain flour, self-raising flour, water, Baker's yeast, yeast
Khmer language

**Khmer** is the official language of Cambodia.

## Overview

The Khmer is spoken by the Khmer people, who live in Cambodia, Thailand, Vietnam and many other countries. Its script was the base for the Thai script, although Thai does not use subscript consonants.

One thing that makes it particularly difficult for many foreigners to learn is that Khmer words are not separated in a sentence and the sounds are quite hard for foreigners to repeat. But still each word in the sentence can be distinguished. Also, there is not much material on Khmer, although this situation is changing.

## Writing

The Khmer script is based on an ancient Indian alphabet. It is written from left to right. There are 35 consonants, some of which can be written under other consonants (2 consonants are not used anymore). Vowels are combined with the consonants to make a sound.

For instance, the "_t_" sound ត can be combined with the "-_ah_" sound ា to make the word តា (_tah_, which means grandfather). The Khmer writing script also has its own special way of writing numbers. The Khmer numerals are ០១២៣៤៥៦៧៨៩.

## Grammar

The language has a subject-verb-object order, just like English. Pronouns change based on who you are speaking to. For instance, if you are not a monk and you are speaking to a monk, you would call him "ព្រះតេជព្រះគុណ".

## Examples

ខ្ញុំមិនចង់បានទេ
"I don't want it."

អ្នកចង់ទៅលេងសៀមរាបទេ
"Do you want to go to Siem Reap?"

## Related pages

- History of Asia
- Austronesian peoples
- Austroasiatic languages

## Infobox (language)

- **name**: Khmer
- **altname**: Cambodian
- **states**: Cambodia, Vietnam, Thailand, United States, USA, France, Australia
- **ethnicity**: Khmer people, Khmer
- **speakers**: 16 million
- **date**: 2007
- **speakers2**: 1 million Second language, L2 speakers
- **familycolor**: Austroasiatic
- **script**: Khmer script (abugida)
- **dia1**: Battambang
- **dia2**: Phnom Penh
- **dia3**: Northern Khmer dialect, Northern Khmer (Khmer Surin)
- **dia4**: Khmer Krom (Southern Khmer)
- **dia5**: Cardamom Khmer
- **iso1**: km
- **iso2**: khm
- **lc1**: khm
- **ld1**: Central Khmer
- **lc2**: kxm
- **ld2**: Northern Khmer dialect, Northern Khmer