juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Aix-en-Provence

**Aix-en-Provence** is a city in the south of France. Located in the Bouches-du-Rhône department, about 150,000 people live there.

## History

Aix-en-Provence was founded by the Romans in 123 BC under the name of Aquae Sextiae. Since then, it stayed important as a crossroad between the Mediterranean Sea and Italy. The city used to be the capital of Provence, a historical French region.

Aix-en-Provence is known as the city of a thousand fountains. It is also home to one of France's oldest university, Aix-Marseille University, founded in 1409 by Louis II of Provence.

## Famous sites

Some famous tourist attractions include

- Caumont Centre D'art
- Paul Cézanne's workshop
- Fontaine de la Rotonde
- Musée Granet
- Vieil Aix

## Famous people from Aix-en-Provence

- Paul Cézanne (d. 1906), painter

## Sister Cities

This is a list of the sister cities of Aix-en-Provence.
- Ashkelon, Israel
- Baalbek, Lebanon
- Bamako, Mali
- Bath, United Kingdom
- Baton Rouge, United States
- Carthage, Tunisia
- Coimbra, Portugal
- Coral Gables, United States
- Granada, Spain
- Kumamoto, Japan
- Oujda, Morocco
- Pécs, Hungary
- Perugia, Italy
- Philadelphia, United States
- Tübingen, Germany

## References

- Attribution

## Other websites

- Aix en Provence Tourist office website
- Official site of the town Aix-en-Provence

## Infobox (french commune)

- **name**: Aix-en-Provence
- **commune status**: Subprefectures in France, Subprefecture and Communes of France, commune
- **image**: Aix-en-Provence 20110930 12.jpg
- **caption**: The Fontaine de la Rotonde, built in 1860
- **image flag**: Flag of Aix-en-Provence.svg
- **image coat of arms**: Escut de Ais de Provença.svg
- **arrondissement**: Aix-en-Provence
- **canton**: Cantons of Aix-en-Provence, 2 cantons
- **insee**: 13001
- **postal code**: 13100, 13090
- **mayor**: Maryse Joissains-Masini
- **term**: 2014–2020
- **intercommunality**: Aix-Marseille-Provence Metropolis, Aix-Marseille-Provence
- **elevation m**: 173
- **area km2**: 186.08
- **population**: 142149
- **population date**: 2014
Amiens

**Amiens** is a city in Somme in the former province of Picardy in northern France. About 136,100 people live there. The Treaty of Amiens was signed there.

## Other websites

- This town at the Historical Association for Joan of Arc Studies

## Infobox (french commune)

- **name**: Amiens
- **image coat of arms**: Blason fr ville Amiens.svg
- **image**: 0 Amiens - Place du Don - Cathédrale (1).JPG
- **caption**: Amiens
- **arrondissement**: Amiens
- **insee**: 80021
- **postal code**: 80000
- **mayor**: Hubert de Jenlis
- **term**: 2024-2026
- **intercommunality**: Communauté d'agglomération Amiens Métropole
- **elevation m**: 33
- **elevation min m**: 14
- **elevation max m**: 106
- **area km2**: 49.46
- **population**: 136100
- **population date**: 2025
Le Mans

**Le Mans** is a commune. It is found in the Pays de la Loire region in the Sarthe department in the west of France.

**Le Mans** is a city in France. It has about 143,000 inhabitants. It takes about one hour to go to Paris by TGV.

## Sport

- Le Mans is the start of the seventh stage of the 2011 Tour de France.
- The city is well known for the 24-hour car race of Le Mans.

## Sister cities

Le Mans is twinned with:
- Bolton, England, United Kingdom
- Haouza, Western Sahara
- Paderborn, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany
- Rostov-on-Don, Rostov Oblast, Russia
- Suzuka, Japan
- Volos, Greece
- Xianyang, Shaanxi, China
- Alexandria, Egypt

## Infobox (french commune)

- **name**: Le Mans
- **image**: Le Mans - Cite Plantagenet 01.jpg
- **caption**: Palais of Comtes du Maine, birth place of Henry II of England
- **image coat of arms**: Blason ville fr Le Mans (Sarthe) (orn ext).svg
- **arrondissement**: Le Mans
- **insee**: 72181
- **postal code**: 72000
- **mayor**: Jean-Claude Boulard
- **term**: 2001–2008
- **intercommunality**: Le Mans
- **elevation m**: 51
- **elevation min m**: 38
- **elevation max m**: 134
- **area km2**: 52.81
- **population**: 148169
- **population date**: 2006
Tours

**Tours** is a city on the Loire River in the centre of France. It has about 143,000 inhabitants. It is the prefecture (administrative headquarters) of the department of Indre-et-Loire and is one of the 22 French metropolis.

## Notable natives and residents

- Honoré de Balzac 1799-1850, novelist
- René Descartes 1596-1650, scientist, mathematician and philosopher

## Sister cities

- Mülheim an der Ruhr, Germany, since 1962
- Segovia, Spain, since 1972
- Parma, Italy, since 1976
- Luoyang, People's Republic of China, since 1982
- Springfield, USA, since 1984
- Trois-Rivières, Canada, since 1987
- Takamatsu, Japan, since 1988
- Braşov, Romania, since 1990
- Minneapolis, USA, since 1991

## Related pages

- Capital of France
Nancy, France

**Nancy** is a commune. It is the prefecture of the Meurthe-et-Moselle department in the Grand Est region. It was formerly the capital of the old Duchy of Lorraine.

Nancy has an oceanic climate (_Cfb_ in the Koeppen climate classification).

## Education

- École pour l'informatique et les nouvelles technologies
- ICN Business School

## Sister cities

Nancy is twinned with:

## Infobox (french commune)

- **name**: Nancy
- **commune status**: Prefectures of France, Prefecture and Communes of France, commune
- **image**: Nancy, Place Stanislas, E.Héré, 1752-60.jpg
- **caption**: Place Stanislas in the centre of town
- **image coat of arms**: Blason Nancy 54.svg
- **arrondissement**: Nancy
- **canton**: Cantons of Nancy, 3 cantons
- **insee**: 54395
- **postal code**: 54000
- **mayor**: Laurent Hénart
- **term**: 2014–2020
- **intercommunality**: Métropole du Grand Nancy
- **elevation m**: 212
- **elevation min m**: 188
- **elevation max m**: 353
- **area km2**: 15.01
- **population**: 105067
- **population date**: 2012
- **website**: http://www.nancy.fr/
Villeurbanne

**Villeurbanne** is a city in France. About 130,000 people live there.

## Infobox (french commune)

- **image**: Place lazare goujon.jpg
- **caption**: The city hall
- **image coat of arms**: Blason ville fr Villeurbanne (Rhône).svg
- **name**: Villeurbanne
- **commune status**: Communes of France, Commune
- **arrondissement**: Lyon
- **insee**: 69266
- **postal code**: 69100
- **party**: Socialist Party (France), PS
- **mayor**: Cédric Van Styvendael
- **term**: 2020–2026
- **elevation m**: 181
- **elevation min m**: 165
- **elevation max m**: 189
- **area km2**: 14.52
Exile on Main St.

***Exile On Main St.*** was one of The Rolling Stones albums. It was released in 1972 and includes the hit songs "Happy" and "Tumbling Dice".

## Infobox (album)

- **name**: Exile on Main St.
- **type**: studio
- **artist**: The Rolling Stones
- **border**: yes
- **released**: 12 May 1972
- **recorded**: June 1969 – March 1972
- **genre**: Rock and roll, blues, soul music, soul, rhythm and blues, R&B, country music, country
- **length**: 67:07
- **language**: English language, English
- **label**: Rolling Stones Records, Rolling Stones
- **producer**: Jimmy Miller
- **prev title**: Sticky Fingers
(1971)
- **next title**: Goats Head Soup
(1973)
OpenGL

**OpenGL** (**Open Graphics Library**) is a programming interface for 3D graphics which helps computer programmers make their 3D graphics perform better and faster by running parts of their programs on a video card (GPU) rather than just the central processor (CPU). Programming interfaces like OpenGL are usually called an "API," which stands for "Application Programming Interface".

OpenGL is often compared to Direct3D, an API for 3D graphics on Windows. Programming for Direct3D is different in some ways because the APIs use different naming schemes for talking to a computer's graphics driver, which means that programmers need to write different code for OpenGL and Direct3D to do the same things.

OpenGL is owned by the Khronos Group. The Khronos Group writes the specification for OpenGL which describes how the API should interact with the GPU. It is then up to the manufacturers of GPUs to write code which matches this specification. Despite what the name suggests, OpenGL is not open-source.

## Other websites

- GLFW -- Library for creating OpenGL contexts.
- GLEW -- Extension wrangler library for newer OpenGL features.

- OpenGL Overview and OpenGL.org's Wiki with more information on OpenGL Language bindings
- SGI's OpenGL website
- Khronos Group, Inc.

## Version history

|Version|Released|Radeon Graphics Cards|Nvidia Graphics Cards|
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|4.6|31 July 2017|AMD Radeon GCN|GeForce 400 and newer|
|4.5|11 August 2014||GeForce 400, 500, 600 and 700 Series|
|4.4|22 July 2013|HD 5000, 6000, 7000, 8000 and Rx 200 Series|GeForce 400, 500, 600 and 700 Series|
|4.3|6 August 2012|HD 5000, 6000, 7000 and 8000 Series|GeForce 400, 500 and 600 Series|
|4.2|8 August 2010|HD 5000, 6000 and 7000 Series|GeForce 400, 500, and 600 Series|
|4.1|26 July 2010|HD 5000, 6000 and 7000 Series|GeForce 400 and 500 Series|
|4.0|11 March 2010|HD 5000, 6000 and 7000 Series|GeForce 400 and 500 Series|
|3.3|11 March 2010||GeForce 8, 9, 100, 200 and 300 Series|
|3.2|3 August 2009|||
|3.1|24 March 2009|||
|3.0|11 August 2008|||
|2.1|2 July 2006|||
|2.0|7 September 2004||GeForce 4, 5(FX), 6, and 7 Series|
|1.5|29 July 2003|||
|1.4|24 July 2002|||
|1.3|14 August 2001|||
|1.2.1|14 October 1998|||
|1.2|6 March 1998|||
|1.1|4 March 1994|||
|1.0|January 1992|||

## Infobox (software)

- **name**: OpenGL
- **screenshot**: Linux kernel and OpenGL video games.svg
- **author**: Silicon Graphics
- **developer**: Khronos Group
(formerly OpenGL Architecture Review Board, ARB)
- **latest release version**: 4.6
- **programming language**: C (programming language), C
- **genre**: 3D graphics Application programming interface, API
Māori

**Māori** might mean:

- Māori people
- Māori language
Māori language

The **Māori language** (, shortened to **Te Reo**) is the language of the Māori and an official language of New Zealand. It is an Austronesian language.

Although it is an official language, not many people speak it fluently. In the 2013 census, about 149,000 people, (3.7% of the population) said that they could have a conversation in Māori about a lot of everyday things.

The language can be seen everywhere throughout New Zealand, as many of the placenames are Māori, such as Whangarei, Rotorua, and Timaru. Lots of government or city buildings use te reo on their signs as well as English, and most of the public schools have a Māori name as well as an English one. Some Māori people living in Australia also speak the language.

Te Reo Māori did not have a writing system until the Europeans arrived. In 1817, a Ngāpuhi chief, Tītori, and his relative Tui worked with Professor Samuel Lee and prepared a writing system for _te reo_.

## Infobox (language)

- **name**: Māori
- **nativename**: Māori
- **states**: New Zealand
- **region**: Polynesia
- **speakers**: 60,000
- **date**: 1991
- **speakers2**: 157,000 New Zealand residents claim they can converse in Māori about everyday things (2006 census)
- **ethnicity**: Māori people
- **script**: Latin script, Latin (Māori alphabet)
Māori Braille
- **familycolor**: Austronesian
- **fam2**: Malayo-Polynesian languages, Malayo-Polynesian
- **fam3**: Oceanic languages, Oceanic
- **fam4**: Polynesian languages, Polynesian
- **fam5**: Eastern Polynesian languages, Eastern Polynesian
- **fam6**: Tahitic languages, Tahitic
- **fam7**: Maori–Moriori
- **nation**: New Zealand
- **agency**: Māori Language Commission
- **iso1**: mi
- **iso2b**: mao
- **iso2t**: mri
- **iso3**: mri
- **notice**: IPA
Movie criticism

**Movie criticism** is the evaluation of a movie. People who write their opinions about movies in newspapers and magazines or talk about movies on television, the Internet or on radio shows are called **movie critics**. Some movie critics also write books about movies and the history of movies.

## Training

Some movie critics studied movie or movie history in a university before becoming a movie critic. Other movie critics are people who have experience making movies, for example as a movie director or screenwriter. Some movie critics studied other subjects in university that are related to movie, such as English Literature or theatre.

## Related occupations

- Movie theorists study the way stories are told in movies, and examine how movie directors, screenwriters, and cinematographers use images and sounds on the movie screen. Movie theorists usually work in universities, in movie studies or media departments. Some movie theorists, such as Francois Truffaut are also involved in other movie-related jobs, such as being a movie critic and a director.
- Movie historians study the history of different aspects of movie production and distribution.
- Television critics write their opinions about television shows in newspapers and magazines or talk about television shows on television or on radio shows. Some television critics also write books about television and the history of television shows. Movie critics Roger Ebert and Gene Siskel once hosted a successful movie review show called _At the Movies_.
- Television scholars study the impact of television shows on culture.

## Awards

Roger Ebert became the first movie critic to win a Pulitzer Prize. After his win, many other critics were awarded with this honor.

## Notable movie critics

- Roger Ebert
- Gene Siskel
- Gene Shalit
- A. O. Scott
- Kenneth Turan
- Steven Rea
- Anthony Lane
- Peter Travers
- David Denby
- Rex Reed
- Joe Morgenstern
- Joe Siegel
- Andrew Sarris
- Vincent Canby
- Michael Phillips
- Jonathan Rosenbaum
- Colin Covert
- Leonard Maltin
- Richard Roeper
- Armond White
McCarthyism

**McCarthyism** was a period of intense anti-communist suspicion in the United States. It began after the Cold War's start in the late 1940s and lasted until the mid-to-late 1950s. The term gets its name from U.S. Senator Joseph McCarth<nowiki/>y, a Republican from Wisconsin. The period of McCarthyism is also referred to as the Second Red Scare (the First Red Scare happened after the Bolsheviks took power in Russia during the October Revolution of 1917 and lasted from the late 1910s to the late 1920s).

McCarthyism was caused by increased fears of communist influence on American institutions, espionage by Soviet agents such as the Rosenbergs, heightened tension from the Soviet control over Central and Eastern Europe, and the communist successes during the Chinese Revolution (1949) and the Korean War (1950-1953). The play _The Crucible_ by Arthur Miller is about the Salem Witch Trials but also hints at McCarthy.
Gonorrhea

**Gonorrhea** is a STD (sometimes called STI), transmitted by having sex. It is among the most widespread of these sexually transmitted disease.  Gonorrhea is also sometimes called "the clap."  Gonorrhea can be cured using antibiotic medicine but the entire course of antibiotics must be used.

Its presence was found up to 700 years ago. At that time, this disease was described by coming from the "Le Clapiers" part of the city of Paris. This part of the city was known to be where prostitutes lived.

In 2023 there had been an increase in the number of people affected all over England and Wales.  The diagnosis rate for England had risen from 80.6 per 100,000 people in 2017 to 146.1 per 100,000 people in 2022. The disease is common among black (or African Americanmen or women.

## Treatment and prevention

It is caused by a bacterium, _Neisseria gonorrheae_. Since it is caused by a bacterium, it can be treated with antibiotics. The use of latex style condoms when having sex can prevent it from spreading. Sometimes antibiotics do not cure gonorrhea. This is because the bacterium is becoming immune or resistant to the medicine. When this happens, the infection is more difficult to cure.
Cichlid

**Cichlids** (pronounced 'sick-lids') are fishes from the family **Cichlidae**, in the order Cichliformes.

It is a very large family of fish made up of more than 2500 species.
Cichlids come in many different sizes, from 2.5 centimeters to almost a meter long. All cichlids have some form of parental care for their eggs and fry. That parental care may come in the form of guarding the eggs and fry or it may come in the form of mouthbrooding. Cichlids are famous for their speciation in East African lakes.
Pavo (bird)

The **Asiatic peafowl** is a kind of bird.  They are the genus _Pavo_ from the Phasianidae family. They originate from Southeast Asia.

- Genus _Pavo_
    - Blue peafowl or Indian peafowl (_Pavo cristatus_): originally from India, and Pakistan. In Pakistan, it is the provincial/regional bird of the province of the Punjab
    - Green peafowl (_Pavo muticus_): was very widespread in southeast Asia, including northern Myanmar and southern China, Laos, Thailand,  Vietnam, Cambodia, peninsular Malaysia and the islands of Java. Habitat destruction and hunting have reduced its range.

The male is called a _peacock_, the female a _peahen_.

The males are very colorful, and they have very long _train feathers_ (or _tail feathers_), which they can move up like a fan. Females are less colorful, and do not have the long train-feathers. Both the male and the female have a little "crown" of feathers on their head.
Males show their train feathers to court a female peafowl, or to scare other animals away by making them afraid.

Peafowl are omnivorous and eat plant parts, flower petals, seeds, insects, and small vertebrates, like reptiles and amphibians.
Dozen

A "**dozen"** (commonly abbreviated **doz** or **dz**) is a unit of measurement. It means twelve (12) items of something. The term goes back to _duodecim_, which means 12 in  Latin. Humans might have started to count on a base 12 because there are approximately 12 cycles of the moon in one cycle of the sun. In other words, a solar year has 12 months. The first to have used the unit were probably the Mesopotamians.

12 dozen  (144 items) are a **gross**. 12 gross (1728 items) are called a _great gross_.
A great hundred is 120 or ten dozen (a dozen for each finger on both hands).

The dozen is convenient because its multipliers and multiples are convenient: 12 = 3 × 2 × 2, and 360 = 30 × 12. The French word _douzaine_ means "about twelve" and is part of a family of words with similar meanings, e.g. _vingtaine_ – "about 20"  _centaine_ – "about 100"  etc. A **baker's dozen**, also known as a **long dozen**, is thirteen.

Examples:

I have a dozen doughnuts

There is a dozen members in a team
European sprat

The **European sprat** is a kind of fish. It is related to the herring. It lives in the ocean, all around Europe. It has about 12% fat in its flesh. It is a source of many vitamins. It is an important fish for commercial fishing, and can be found in many cans in shops. It can also be salted, to preserve it better.
The Little Mermaid

"**The Little Mermaid**" is a literary fairy tale by Hans Christian Andersen. It was first published in Copenhagen, Denmark in 1837 in the third volume of _Fairy Tales Told for Children_ with "The Emperor's New Clothes".  The tale glorifies suffering and self-denial. There is a statue of The Little Mermaid in the harbor of Copenhagen. The story has been adapted to opera and animated movies.

## Story

A Beautiful mermaid princess , red hair delicate white skin and blue eyes swims to the surface of the sea.
As it happens, she sees a human prince and falls in love with him. She wants to meet him again; however, she is a mermaid, and her father, who is the king of the sea, would not let her do so. She wants to find a way to win the prince's love, so she goes to the sea witch's cave. She will get an immortal soul if she wins the love of a human. She sacrifices her voice and her tail to the sea witch for two human legs. The prince becomes her companion. But, he falls in love with another person. The mermaid has the chance to return to the sea. She must kill the prince to go back, and so she refuses. She dies, and is transformed into a daughter of the air. She will receive an immortal soul if she does good deeds for three hundred years.

## Adaptations

In 1957, Germaine Tailleferre wrote a three act opera with the subject. In 1968, there was a Soviet animated movie. In 1976, a co-production of the Soviet Union and Bulgaria resulted in a live-action movie. In 1989, The Walt Disney Company also made an animated movie. In 2008, Studio Ghibli made a movie inspired by the story called Ponyo.

## References

- Zipes, Jack. 2000. _The Oxford Companion to Fairy Tales_. Oxford UP.

## Other websites

- _Den lille Havfrue_ Original text in Danish from the Danish Royal Library website.
- _The Annotated Little Mermaid_  by Heidi Anne Heiner, Paull's translation, with scholarly annotations, scans from six illustrated editions, bibliography.

## Infobox (fairy tale)

- **name**: The Little Mermaid
- **image**:
- **caption**: Illustration by Vilhelm Pedersen
- **title orig**: Den lille Havfrue
- **author**: Hans Christian Andersen
- **country**: Denmark
- **language**: Danish
- **characters**: Little Mermaid
Sea Witch
Human Prince
Prince's bride
Little Mermaid's sisters
Daughters of the Air
- **genre**: Literary fairy tale
- **published in**: Fairy Tales Told for Children (third volume)
- **publication type**: Fairy tale collection
- **publisher**: C. A. Reitzel
- **media type**: Print
- **pub date**: 7 April 1837
- **followed by**: The Emperor's New Clothes
- **notable adaptations**: _The Little Mermaid_ (animated movie, Disney)
Hans Christian Andersen

**Hans Christian Andersen** (2 April 1805 – 4 August 1875) was a Danish writer.

Andersen was born in Odense, Denmark. His father was a shoemaker, and his mother washed clothes for customers. The family was poor. When Andersen was 11, his father died. At 14, Andersen left his mother and his home. He moved to Copenhagen.

The king helped Andersen finish his education. Andersen wanted to be an actor or dancer. He did not have the talent for either. He started to write novels, plays, poems, short stories, and travel books. In 1835, he published four fairy tales that were liked by the readers. After this success, he wanted to write more fairy tales.

Andersen's stories were popular all over Europe. He was invited into the homes of rich and powerful people. He fell in love with several men and women. He was in love with singer Jenny Lind. He also fell in love with ballet dancer Harald Scharff.

Andersen was a happy and carefree man. He travelled all over Europe. He wanted to see the sights. He hoped travelling would make him even happier. He always carried a rope with him. He planned to use this rope as a fire escape if needed. In the spring of 1872, Andersen fell off of his bed and suffered major injuries. He never recovered fully. Soon after that, Andersen showed signs of liver cancer. He died on 4 August 1875 from liver cancer.

## Works

- _The Princess and the Pea_ (1835)
- _The Tinderbox_ (1835)
- _Thumbelina_ (1835)
- _The Little Mermaid_ (1837)
- _The Emperor's New Clothes_ (1837)
- _The Steadfast Tin Soldier_ (1838)
- _The Wild Swans_ (1838)
- _Ole Lukøje_ (1841)
- _The Swineherd_ (1841)
- _The Angel_ (1843)
- _The Nightingale_ (1843)
- _The Ugly Duckling_ (1843)
- _The Little Match Girl_ (1845)
- _The Red Shoes_ (1845)
- _The Shepherdess and the Chimney Sweep_ (1845)
- _The Snow Queen_ (1845)
- _The Fir Tree_ (1845)
- _The Shadow_ (1847)
- _The Story of a Mother_ (1847)
- _The Marsh King's Daughter_ (?)

## Related pages

- List of Danish writers

## Infobox (writer)

- **name**: Hans Christian Andersen
- **image**: HCAndersen.jpeg
- **birth place**: Odense, Denmark
- **death place**: Copenhagen, Denmark
- **occupation**: Writer
- **nationality**: Denmark, Danish
- **genre**: Romanticism
Fairy tales
children's literature
Şükrü Saracoğlu Stadium

The **Şükrü Saracoğlu Stadium** is a football stadium in Istanbul in Turkey. It is home to the club Fenerbahce.

## Other websites

- Fenerbahçe SK Stadium Link

- Satellite Photo of Fenerbahçe Şükrü Saracoğlu Stadium
Atlantic herring

The **Atlantic herring** (_Clupea harengus_) is a kind of herring, a fish. It can be found on both sides of the Atlantic. It can grow up to 45cm in length, weighing more than half a kilogram. It is a swarm fish, meaning many fish come together and form a _school_ (or swarm) of fish. Swarms of up to 4 cubic kilometers in size have been measured of _atlantic herring_, with an eastimated 4 billion individual fish. Like with so many other fishes though, commercial overfishing is posing a problem. Stocks of herring have been collapsing.

Their natural predators are seals, cod, other large fish as well as some kinds of whales.
The current reason for the overfishing is the need of the Omega Fatty Acid, which helps increase memory, and brain functions.

## Baltic herring

The herrings that occurs in the Baltic Sea is much smaller. Some people consider it a distinct subspecies. They call it Baltic herring, _C. harengus membras._
Pelagie Islands

The **Pelagie Islands** are three islands in the Mediterranean. They are Lampedusa, Linosa and Lampione. They are between Malta and Tunisia. They are part of the African continent but belong to Italy.

Because of deforestation, the islands are very barren. In the past they lived on agriculture, but nowadays they live on fishing and tourism.
Lampedusa

**Lampedusa** is the largest of the Pelagie Islands. Sicily is 205 km to the north, Tunisia is 113 km to the south. There are no sources of freshwater on the island, so those living there collect rainwater. Fauna and Flora, as well as the climate is similar to what can be found in North Africa.

There is a NATO base on the island. It is also a popular destination for refugees who try to enter the European Union that way.
Muscat

**Muscat** () is the capital and largest city of The Sultanate of Oman. It is the largest city in the mintaqah (governorate) of Muscat. The city of Muscat has a population of 1.28 million people (2015). The official language is Arabic and English is used as an additional language for many purposes, including business and tourism purposes. Muscat is located on the north east coast of Oman.  The city is 3,500 km<sup>2</sup>  in size.

## History

People started living in the Muscat area about 2300 years ago but the first writings of the city are about 1900 years old in the 1st century CE.  Muscat developed into an important city in the 9th century CE because of business and trade at the port.  Portugal, Persian (Iran) and Turkey had many wars for control over Muscat from the 1500s to the 1700s.  The Al Bu Sa 'id tribe has ruled Muscat since then.

## Climate and weather

Muscat is a hot and dry city.  The average daytime temperature in summer can be as high as 40 °C.  The winter is cooler and the average daytime temperature is between 19 °C and 22 °C.  There is very little rain with only 10 cm per year.

## Tourism

Muscat has several tourist sites including seven museums, a fort, an old palace and a new opera house.  The city has beaches with hotel resorts.  People can do many water-sports including dolphin tours in the city's harbour.  In 2016, 2.5 million tourists visited Muscat.  According to an article in Times Of Oman, almost 500,000 people visited in February alone for the popular Muscat Festival.
Native speaker

A **native speaker** is someone who learned to speak a language as part of their childhood development. A native speaker's language is usually the language their parents speak and/or the language of their country of origin. It is the only language of a monolingual person, and likely the first language of a multilingual person which is acquired naturally in their native environment. It may serve as the basis for their sociolinguistic identity.

A native speaker of a language has the following traits:
1. The speaker learnt the language in childhood,
1. mastery of idiomatic forms of the language,
1. comprehension of regional and social variance,
1. fluent, spontaneous production and comprehension of discourse.
1. Mastery of the grammar and vocabulary of the language tacitly.

Many employers of language teachers prefer native speakers.

## Alternative Perspectives on Native-Like Proficiency

While the traditional definition of a **native speaker** is tied to early childhood language acquisition, some linguistic researchers argue that native-like proficiency can be achieved later in life through full immersion and mastery.

A speaker who meets the following criteria may be **indistinguishable from a native speaker**, despite learning the language beyond childhood:

1. **Fluency and spontaneity** in discourse, without hesitation.
1. **Mastery of idiomatic expressions, cultural references, and regional variations.**
1. **Pronunciation and accent that align with native norms.**
1. **Tacit understanding of grammar and natural usage patterns.**
1. **Social and professional functionality identical to a native speaker.**

This perspective aligns with research in **second language acquisition** and the concept of **near-native proficiency**, where individuals acquire full linguistic competence comparable to those who learned the language as their first language. Studies in applied linguistics suggest that sustained immersion and high-level practice can result in **functional nativeness**, even if the language was not acquired from birth.

While traditional definitions emphasize **early exposure**, some scholars advocate for a distinction between **biological nativeness** (acquired in childhood) and **functional nativeness** (achieved through extensive mastery).

## Further reading

- Davies, A. (2004). The native speaker in applied linguistics. In A.Davies & C. Elder (Eds.), The handbook of applied linguistics (pp. 431-450). Oxford, UK: Blackwell
1228

## Events

- The Sixth Crusade is launched by Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, after delays due to sickness and an excommunication from Pope Gregory IX.
- Conrad IV of Germany becomes titular King of Jerusalem, with Frederick II as regent.
- Baldwin II becomes emperor of the Latin Empire in Constantinople, with John of Brienne as regent.
- Amadeus IV becomes count of Savoy.
- Francis of Assisi founder of the Franciscan order Canonized by Pope Gregory IX
- Sukaphaa, the first Ahom king, establishes his rule in Assam. The Ahom kings reigned for close to 600 years.
- First mention of the Transylvanian town of Reghin, in a charter of Andrew II of Hungary.
1305

## Events

- August 5 – English troops capture William Wallace
- Wenceslas III becomes king of Bohemia
- Archbishop of Bordeaux, Bertrand de Got, was elected as Pope Clement V.
- Philip IV of France accused the Knights Templar of heresy.
1327

## Events

- January 25 – Edward III becomes King of England.
- Beginning of reign of Alfonso IV of Aragon.
- April 6 – Petrarch sees a woman he names Laura in the church of Sainte-Claire d'Avignon, which awakes in him a lasting passion. He writes a series of poems dedicated to her, which are collected into his _Canzoniere_ ("Song Book").
312

## Events

- October 28 – Battle of Milvian Bridge: Constantine I defeats Maxentius and becomes the only Roman Emperor in the West.
- Construction of the Arch of Constantine in Rome begun.
1709

## Events

- January 10 - Abraham Darby I makes cast iron using coke fuel at his Coalbrookdale blast furnace in Shropshire, England.
- February - In America, Mardi Gras is celebrated one more time with _Masque de la Mobile_ in the capital of French Louisianne, Mobile (Alabama), before Mobile is moved 27 miles (43 km) down the Mobile River to Mobile Bay in 1711.
- February 2 - Alexander Selkirk is rescued from shipwreck on a desert island, inspiring the book _Robinson Crusoe_ by Daniel Defoe.

- July 8 (New Style) - Battle of Poltava: In Ukraine, Peter I of Russia defeats Charles XII of Sweden at Poltava (see above).
- August 8 - The hot air balloon of Bartolomeu de Gusmão flies in Portugal.
- September 11 - Battle of Malplaquet: Great Britain, the Netherlands and Austria defeat France.
- October 12 - The City of Chihuahua, México is founded.
- December 25 - In London, 10 ships leave for the New York colony, carrying over 4,000 people.

## Births

- February 24 – Jacques de Vaucanson, French inventor (d. 1782)
- March 10 – Georg Steller, German naturalist (d. 1746)
- August 7 – Jean-Jacques Lefranc, marquis de Pompignan, French poet (d. 1784)
- August 8 – Tokugawa Ietsugu, 7th Tokugawa Shogunate of Japan (d. 1716)
- September 18 – Samuel Johnson, English writer and lexicographer (d. 1784)
- November 2 – Anne, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange, (d. 1759)
- December 18 – Elizabeth of Russia, reigning Empress of Russia (d. 1762)
- John Cleland, English novelist (d. 1789)
- Charles Collé, French dramatist (d. 1783)
1336

## Births

- April 14 – Emperor Go-Kogon of Japan (died 1374)
- July 25 – Albert, Count of Holland (d. 1404)
- King Albert of Sweden (died 1412)
- Cyprian, Metropolitan of Moscow (died 1406)
- Pope Gregory XI (died 1378)
- Pope Innocent VII (died 1406)
- Gao Qi, Chinese poet (died 1374)
- Tamerlane, founder of the Timurid Empire (died 1405)
1374

## Deaths

- March 12 – Emperor Go-Kogon of Japan (born 1336)
- July 19 – Petrarch, Italian poet (born 1304)
- November 25 – Prince Philip II of Taranto
- King Gongmin of Goryeo
- Joanna of Flanders, Duchess of Brittany (born 1295)
- Gao Qi, Chinese poet (born 1336)
- William Whittlesey, Archbishop of Canterbury
1295

## Events

- Mongol leader Ghazan Khan is converted to Islam, ending a line of Tantric Buddhist leaders.
- Philip IV of France and Pope Boniface VIII begin having disagreements.
- Jayavarman VIII of the Khmer Empire in Cambodia abdicates.
- Marco Polo returns to Italy from his travels to China.
- Edward I summons the Model Parliament.

## Births

- September 16 – Elizabeth de Clare, English noblewoman (died 1360)
- John IV, Duke of Brittany (died 1345)
- Eudes IV, Duke of Burgundy (died 1350)
- Reginald de Cobham, 1st Baron Cobham (died 1361)
- Joanna of Flanders, military leader in the Breton War of Succession (approximate date; died 1374)
- Nicephorus Gregoras, Byzantine historian (approximate date; died 1360)
- Al-Nasr Muhammad, sultan of Egypt (died 1341)
- Saint Roch (approximate date; died 1327)

## Deaths

- April 25 – King Sancho IV of Castile (born 1257)
- August 12 – Charles Martel d'Anjou (born 1271)
- December 7 – Gilbert de Clare, 7th Earl of Hertford, English politician (b. 1243)
- December 21 – Marguerite Berenger of Provence, queen of Louis IX of France (born c. 1221)
- Meinhard II of Gorizia-Tyrol (born 1238)
1360

## Events

- October 24 – The Treaty of Brétigny is ratified at Calais, marking the end of the first phase of the Hundred Years' War.
- King Valdemar Atterdag of Denmark seizes Scania (from 1658 a Swedish province).

## Births

- May 2 – Yongle Emperor of China (died 1424)
Vojvodina

|style="background: #ffffff;" align=center colspan=2|{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0||||
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|align=center width=142|Flag of Vojvodina|align=center width=142|Coat of arms of Vojvodina|}|
|style="background: #ffffff;" align=center colspan=2|{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0||||
|align=center width=142|Flag of Vojvodina|align=center width=142|Coat of arms of Vojvodina|}|
|align=center|||||
|valign=top|Official languages|Serbian, Hungarian, Slovak, Romanian, Croatian, Rusyn<sup>1</sup>|||
|Capital|Novi Sad||||
|Area  – Total  – % water|21,500 km²  n/a||||
|valign=top|Population  – Total (2002)  – Density|2,031,992  94.51/km²|||
|valign=top|Ethnic groups (2002)|Serbs: _65.05%_ Hungarians: _14.28%_ Slovaks: _2.79%_ Croats: _2.78%_ Yugoslavs: _2.45%_ Montenegrins: _1.75%_ Romanians: _1.5%_ Roma: _1.43%_ Others: _7.97%_|||
|colspan=2|<sup>1</sup> All of the official languages are used in the provincial government, Serbian is used in all municipality governments, others are used in selected municipality governments, and few minority languages are used outside official documents||||
The **Autonomous Province of Vojvodina** (Serbian: Аутономна Покрајина Војводина or _Autonomna Pokrajina Vojvodina_) is one of the two autonomous provinces in Serbia. It is located in the northern part of the country, in the Pannonian plain. Its capital and the largest city is Novi Sad and the second largest city is Subotica.

Vojvodina is ethnically, culturally and linguistically diverse, with more than 26 different ethnic groups and six official languages.
1649

## Events

- January 30 – King Charles I of England, Scotland and Ireland is beheaded. His widow Henrietta Maria lives in her native France.
- January 30 – The Commonwealth of England, a republican form of government, replaces the monarchy as the form of government of England and later of Scotland and Ireland. Members of the Long Parliament serve as government.
- January 30 – Prince Charles Stuart declares himself King Charles II of England, Scotland and Ireland. At the time all three Kingdoms had not recognized him as ruler.
- February 5 – In Edinburgh, Scotland claimant King Charles II of England is declared King in his absence. Scotland is the first of the three Kingdoms to recognize his claim to the throne.
- March 11 – The Frondeurs (rebels) and the French government sign the Peace of Rueil.
- March 19 – The House of Commons pass an act abolishing the House of Lords, declaring that it is _"useless and dangerous to the people of England"_.
- May 17 – Banbury mutiny ends – leaders of the Leveller mutineers in the New Model Army are hanged
- May 19 – _An act declaring England to be a Commonwealth_ is passed by the Rump Parliament.

- Robert Blake is promoted to become an Admiral of the English fleet
- August 15 – Admiral Robert Blake blockades Prince Rupert to allow Oliver Cromwell to land in Dublin and begin the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland
- September 2 – The Italian city of Castro is completely destroyed by the forces of Pope Innocent X, ending the Wars of Castro.
- Unknown date – Urga founded (now Mongolian capital)
- Digger movement crushed at St George's Hill

## Births

- February 2 – Pope Benedict XIII
- February 8 – Gabriel Daniel, French Jesuit historian
- February 11 – William Carstares, Scottish minister
- April 5 – Elihu Yale, American benefactor of Yale University
- April 9 – James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, claimant to the thrones of England, Scotland, and Ireland
- June 13 – Adrien Baillet, French scholar and critic
- July 23 – Pope Clement XI
- September 15 – Titus Oates, English minister and plotter
- December 7 – Charles Garnier, French Jesuit missionary

## Deaths

- January 30 – King Charles I of England, Scotland, and Ireland (executed)
- March 9 – James Hamilton, 1st Duke of Hamilton, Scottish statesman
- March 9 – Henry Rich, 1st Earl of Holland, English soldier (executed)
- March 16 – Jean de Brébeuf, French Jesuit missionary
- March 19 – Gerhard Johann Vossius, German classical scholar and theologian
- March 26 – John Winthrop First Governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony
- May 14 – Friedrich Spanheim, Dutch theologian
- June 3 – Manuel de Faria e Sousa, Portuguese historian and poet
- September 6 – Robert Dudley, styled Earl of Warwick, English explorer and geographer
- September 15 – John Floyd, English Jesuit preacher
- October 3 – Giovanni Diodati, Swiss Protestant clergyman
- October 16 – Isaac van Ostade, Dutch painter
- November 19 – Caspar Schoppe, German scholar
- December 4 – William Drummond of Hawthornden, Scottish poet
- December 8 – Noël Chabanel, French Jesuit missionary
Pennsylvania Station

**Pennsylvania Station**, or **Penn Station**, is a name of several railway stations in the United States. The name "Pennsylvania Station" comes from the times when all these stations belonged to the Pennsylvania Railroad and, later, to Penn Central. The stations in New York City, Newark, New Jersey, and Baltimore still have this name.  The station in Pittsburgh, although officially known as Union Station, is also called Penn Station by locals. All these stations are currently served by Amtrak.
Cable car

A **cable car** is a type of car that runs on cables above the car.  The machines that drive the cables are in the two "winding houses".  One winding house is at the bottom and one at the top.  It is used much in areas where there are a lot of mountains.

The construction of the longest cable way in the world was finished in 16th October 2010 in Armenia. Its name is Wings of Tatev and has length of 5.7 km.

Some cable cars run on railway tracks, pulled by a cable.

## Related pages

- Gondola lift

## Other websites

- A picture of a typical cable car
Tokusatsu

**Tokusatsu** is a Japanese word that means "special effects". It is used to talk about television shows and movies that have superheros, giant monsters, and other science fiction and fantastic themes. Some famous tokusatsu features include Godzilla, _Ultra Series_, _Kamen Rider_ and _Super Sentai_.
Snakes on a Plane

***Snakes on a Plane*** (released in Japan as _Snake Flight_ (スネーク・フライト)) is a 2006 American action horror crime thriller movie. It was directed by David R. Ellis and it stars Samuel L. Jackson and released to movie theaters by Warner Bros. It is about many snakes attacking people on a plane that is traveling from Hawaii to Los Angeles, California.

## Plot

After witnessing the murder of prosecutor Daniel Hayes in Hawaii, by Yakuza boss Eddie Kim, a biker named Sean Jones runs away but is escorted out by Samuel L. Jackson's character, FBI agent Neville Flynn. They catch a flight heading to California. Suddenly snakes start attacking people on the plane, and Flynn becomes angry at the snakes, so he fights them. After fighting the snakes, the plane lands on a nearby airport, everyone gets out of the plane safely on a liferaft until a snake attacks Sean and Flynn shoots the snake off of him with his gun. Eddie Kim is also sentenced to death. After the incident Flynn and Sean go on a holiday in Bali, Indonesia.

## Reception

The movie became very popular before it was released because of the title and because of many people talked about it on the Internet.
War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)

The **War in Afghanistan** (Pashto: بِهِ افْغَانِسْتَانْ كَيْ جَكْرَهْ) was a war fought by the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, The Netherlands, Australia and other countries against the Taliban and al-Qaeda, after the September 11 attacks against the United States on September 11, 2001.

On 31 August 2021 (local time), the war ended as the last coalition soldiers (from foreign countries), left Afghanistan.

## History

The war started when the United States invaded Afghanistan in 2001. The US and its allies forced the Taliban and Al-Qaeda to hide in the mountains. In December 2001, the US and its allies founded a new government for Afghanistan. Its president was Hamid Karzai.

By February 2002, 5,000 soldiers from ISAF (or _International Security Assistance Force_) were in Afghanistan. That military force was led by United States. ISAF's soldiers were on loan from the militaries of NATO countries and allied countries. In 2012 ISAF was at its maximum: 130,000 soldiers (in Afghanistan).

In 2004 Hamid Karzai started as the first president of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. Even though the Taliban had lost power, they formed a "shadow government". Taliban insurgents, or fighters, controlled many parts of Afghanistan, and enforced their own laws.

Osama bin Laden was killed in Pakistan, May 2011.

British troops left Afghanistan in 2015, after 5 years of training the Afghanistan police to deal with threats from the Taliban.

After security deteriorated, American soldiers returned and over 10,000 were in the country at the end of 2017. In 2020, the US and NATO allies promised to leave Afghanistan as long as the Taliban agreed to certain things: not allowing terrorists to operate in its area, and starting peace talks with the Afghanistan government. In mid-2021, the Taliban began a military offensive to enlarge their territory as US and allied forces began to leave. By August 15, 2021, the Taliban had recaptured Kabul and defeated the Afghan government.

An anti-Taliban front took control of the Panjshir Valley, in August 2021 but lost control later that year due to the Taliban sending its forces.

During the 2021 evacuation from Afghanistan, over 150,000 people chose to be taken out of Afghanistan; They were diplomats, other civilian staff, other civilians, and military staff.

The last military airplanes of the United States, left the airport in Kabul, one minute before 31 August 2021.

On 31 August 2021 (local time), the war ended.

## Deaths and injuries

More than 15,000 Coalition soldiers were wounded:  6,773 US, 3,954 UK, 1,500 Canadian and over 2,500 other Coalition soldiers.  5,500 Afghan army soldiers and 200 Northern Alliance militants were killed in this war.  378 US civilian contractors were killed and 7,224.
Castrato

A **castrato** (plural _castrati_) was a type of male singer with a very high voice. The effect was produced either through castration, or because of some hormonal problems. The word _castrato_ literally means castrated. Such singers were very sought after in the early days of the opera. Most of the main soprano roles in operas by Handel and other composers of that time were written for castrati. Nowadays they are almost always sung by female sopranos, since there are no castrati left.

The practice of castrating young boys who had good singing voices was quite common in Italy in the 17th century. When castration is done before puberty, the usual effects of puberty will not happen. These include the vocal cords enlarging and growing bigger, and the voice getting deeper as a consequence.

Even though castration was illegal in many parts of Italy, it was often performed. Many families who were poor had their children castrated because it might give them a better future.

Once a boy was castrated he would go to a special music school where children learned singing and musical instruments. The castrati pupils were given special treatment. They were fussed over and kept warm to stop them from getting colds. When they grew up they hoped to become famous opera singers. A few of them had very successful careers in opera. They were the great stars of their day, and audiences came to the opera to cheer on their favourite singers. Those who were not good enough to make a career in opera joined church choirs instead.

It is impossible now for us to know what these great castrato voices sounded like, but they must have had very powerful voices and many of the singers were very skilled in singing and adding musical ornamentation to the songs. In the 18th century Italian opera became very popular in England. This was largely due to the German-born composer Georg Friderich Händel who moved to England in 1709 and wrote lots of Italian operas. Many singers who sang in London came from Italy, and many were castrati. The most famous one was called Farinelli.

The popularity of castrato singers died out in the 19th century. By the mid-19th century they were no opera castrati left, although a few castrati still sang in church choirs. The last one, a man called Alessandro Moreschi, died in 1922 aged 64. There is a recording of his voice made in 1902 which can be heard online, but he may not have been a good singer and he was old when he made the recording, so we cannot judge whether the castrato voice was beautiful by that recording.

## Related pages

- Breeches role

## Other websites

- Alessandro Moreschi at _Internet Archive_