juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Wellington

**Wellington** is the capital of New Zealand. It has been the capital since 1865. Before then Auckland was the capital. Wellington is the second largest city in New Zealand. In 2018, 202,737 people lived in the city and about twice that in its metropolitan area.

Wellington is in the middle of New Zealand, at the south end of the North Island. South of Wellington is Cook Strait, the sea between the North Island and the South Island. The city has a lot of hills and a deep harbour. The middle of the city is busier than most small cities and is easy for people to walk around.

It was named for Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington. Wellington became famous when _The Lord of the Rings_ movie trilogy was made there. In Māori, the indigenous language, its name is _Te Whanganui-a-Tara._

## Climate

The city averages 2,068 hours of sunshine per year. The climate is a temperate marine one, (Köppen: _Cfb _) is generally moderate all year round, and rarely sees temperatures above  or below . The hottest recorded temperature is , while  is the coldest. The city is notorious for its southerly blasts in winter, which may make the temperature feel much colder. Having an average windspeed of 29 km/h (18.1 mph), Wellington is generally windy all year round with high rainfall; average annual rainfall is , June and July being the wettest months.

Frosts are quite common in the hill suburbs and the Hutt Valley between May and September. Snow is very rare at low altitudes, although snow fell on the city and many other parts of the Wellington region during separate events in July and August 2011.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Wellington
- **settlement type**: Capital city
- **seal type**: Coat of arms
- **pushpin map**: New Zealand
- **population total**: 202737
- **population as of**: 2018
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision name**: New Zealand
Sadness

**Sadness** is an emotion. It is the opposite of happiness. People feel sad when something bad has happened, for example, if their mother or father has died.

In capital letters, **SAD**, or **S.A.D.** is short for "Seasonal affective disorder". SAD is a sickness that some people have in the winter. They feel depressed as the nights become longer and there is less daylight.

When people are very sad, and for a long time, the person could have a serious mental illness called depression or Bipolar disorder.

## Notes

It is normally thought of as the opposite of happiness, but you can feel both happy and sad at the same time.

## Related pages

- Happiness
- Depression (mental illness)
Microeconomics

**Microeconomics** is the science of how people make decisions at the small scale. It is different from macroeconomics which looks at how the economy works as a whole ("on aggregate"). In microeconomics, we might look at how a person chooses what to buy at the store, or how many things a company will make. Some parts of microeconomics include _Consumer Theory_ and _Theory of the Firm_, which study how people and businesses make decisions. Game theory looks at how people make decisions when the outcome (how something ends) depends on what decision another person makes; when agents are said to act "strategically".

## Related pages

- Macroeconomics

__NOEDITSECTION__
Port (disambiguation)

A port is a place at the edge of an ocean, river, or lake for ships to load and unload their cargo.

It can also refer to:
- Port wine, a special kind of wine made in Oporto in Portugal
- A part of a piece of electronic equipment where other things can be connected to it. For example, a USB port
Tuesday

**Tuesday** is the day of the week between Monday and Wednesday. In some countries, for example the United States of America, Tuesday is the third day of the week. In other parts of the world, Tuesday is the second day of the week.

## History of the name

The name _Tuesday_ comes from a Middle English word, _Tiwesday_. This word came from the Old English word _Tiwes dæg_. This was named after the Nordic god Tyr. Tyr was the God of War, like the Roman war god Mars, and Greek god Ares.

In Latin, _Tuesday_ is called _Martis dies_ which means "Mars's Day". In French, Spanish, Italian and Romanian, the (Romance languages), the word for "Tuesday" is nearly the same as the Latin name. Tuesday is _mardi_ in French, _martes_ in Spanish, _martedì_ in Italian, _dimarts_ in Catalan, and _marţi_ in Romanian.

The Celtic languages still spoken use the Latin names, even though none of these languages came from Latin. Tuesday is _dé máirt_ in Irish, _Meurzh_ in Breton, _dydd Mawrth_ in Welsh and _Dimàirt_ in Scottish Gaelic.

The English and Scandinavian names for _Tuesday_ come from the Nordic god Tyr (Old English _Tiw_):

- Old Frisian: _tîesdei_
    - Modern West Frisian: _tiisdei_
- Old English: _tíwesdæg_
    - Anglo-Norman:
    - Middle English: _tíesdæi, tywesdai, twysday_
    - Early Modern English: _towesday, Twesdaie, Tyisday, Tiseday,_
    - Modern English: _Tuesday_
- Old High German: _zîestag_
    - Middle High German: _zîstag_
    - Alemannic German: _ziischtig_
- Old Norse: _týrsdagr_
    - Swedish: _Tisdag_
    - Danish: _Tirsdag_
    - Norwegian: _Tirsdag_ or _Tysdag_
    - Icelandic: _Týsdagur_
Wednesday

In some countries, like the United States of America, **Wednesday** is the third day of the week. In other parts of the world Wednesday is said to be the fourth day of the week.

Wednesday is named after the Norse god Woden.
Thursday

In some countries, like the United States of America, **Thursday** is the fifth day of the week. In other parts of the world Thursday is said to be the fourth day of the week. It comes after Wednesday and before Friday. Thursday is named after the Norse god Thor.
Friday

**Friday** is a day of the week. In some countries, for example the United States, it is the sixth day of the week. In other parts of the world, for example the United Kingdom, it is said to be the fifth day of the week.

In Christianity, Good Friday is the Friday before Easter. It commemorates the crucifixion of Jesus. Special prayer services and ceremonies are held worldwide on this day with readings from the Gospel.

Friday is the Sabbath for Muslims.

There is a superstition that a Friday on the 13th day of a month is unlucky. If the first day of a month is a Sunday, the month will have a Friday the 13th.

Some people consider Friday to be the last day of the week before the weekend. Others see Friday night as part of the weekend, since work or school is over for the week. In some places, the weekend is Friday and Saturday. Because many people are happy to not have to go to work during the weekend, there are sayings like "Thank God it's Friday!".

Friday is named after Norse Goddess Frigg.
Saturday

In some countries, like the United States of America, **Saturday** is the seventh and final day of the week. In other parts of the world, like the United Kingdom, Saturday is said to be the sixth day of the week. It is also the day of rest and worship for Jewish people. Along with Sunday, it makes up the weekend. Its name comes from the Roman god Saturn.
Yes

**Yes** is an English word that shows acceptance or agreement, or making a positive response or exclamation. It also has a positive meaning. It is the opposite of no.

**Yes** may also mean:

In **music**:
- Yes (band), a progressive rock band from the United Kingdom
    - _Yes_ (album), their debut album
    - _The Yes Album_, their third album
- _Yes_ (Mika Nakashima album)
- _Yes_ (Morphine album)
- _Yes!_ (Chad Brock album)
    - "Yes!" (song), a song from this album
- "Yes" (McAlmont and Butler song)

In **other uses**:
- _Yes_ (movie), a movie by Sally Potter
- yes (Unix), a Unix shell command to print a string repetitively
- yes (Israel), an Israeli satellite television provider
- YES (Your Extraordinary Saturday), a children's program
- YES Network, the television home of the New York Yankees and New Jersey Nets
- _YES! Magazine_, an American magazine
- Yes! Roadster, a German sports car
- YES Prep Public Schools, a network of charter schools in Houston, Texas, United States
- Yale Entrepreneurial Society, an American non-profit organization
- Youth Empowerment Scheme, a children's charity in Belfast, Northern Ireland
- Young Epidemiology Scholars, a college scholarship program
- Yasuj Airport's IATA code
Amaterasu Ōmikami

**Amaterasu** (), also called **Amaterasu-ōmikami** ( or ) or **Ōhirume-no-muchi-no-kami** (), is the sun goddess in Japanese mythology. She is the most sacred of all Shinto deities. Her name means "which illuminates Heaven." Her shrine is at Ise.

## Tradition

Amaterasu is the sister of Susanoo, the god of the sea and storms, and of Tsukuyomi, the god of the moon. All three were created from Izanagi, when he washed his face to clean the dirtiness of Yomi, the underworld. Amaterasu was born when Izanagi washed out his left eye, Tsukuyomi was born from the washing of the right eye, and Susanoo from the washing of the nose.

## Story

The tales tell of great rivalry between Amaterasu and Susanoo. When he was to leave Heaven forever because Izanagi ordered him to, he went to say goodbye to his sister. Amaterasu was suspicious, and so proposed him a challenge: each of them was to turn an object of the other into people. Amaterasu created three women from Susanoo's sword while he created five men from her necklace. Amaterasu said that the men were hers because they were born of her necklace.

Susanoo destroyed her rice fields, threw a dead pony into her loom, and killed one of her assistants in anger. Amaterasu became sad, angry, and scared and went to hide inside Ama-no-Iwato, the "heavenly rock cave" and so the Sun was hidden and the world became dark for a long time. The oni (devils of Japanese mythology) came out to the dark world, and the gods could not make Amaterasu come out of the cave.

The intelligent goddess of happiness, Ama-no-Uzume (天宇受売命), took a big bucket, turned it upside down near the cave entrance, began a dance on it, and tore off her clothing in front of the other Kami. They thought that was so funny that they laughed happily.

Amaterasu heard them and looked out to see why the gods were laughing. When she opened the cave, she saw her wonderful reflection in a mirror that Uzume had put on a tree, and she slowly came out of the cave.

At that moment, the god Ameno-Tajikarao (天手力男命) closed the cave behind her so that she could not go back in. Another god tied a magic rope across the entrance. The sun goddess was then asked by the Kami Ame-no-Koyane (天児屋根命) to go back with the gods. She agreed, and light came back to the earth, but Susanoo was punished by being banished from Heaven.

## Other websites

- Shinbutsudo: A Web Page for the Study of Japanese Religions

## Infobox (deity)

- **type**: Japanese
- **name**: Amaterasu
- **god of**: Goddess of the sun and the universe; the mythical ancestress of the Imperial House of Japan
- **image**: File:Amaterasu cave crop.jpg
- **caption**: Amaterasu emerging from the cave, Ama-no-Iwato, to which she once retreated (detail of woodblock print by Kunisada)
- **planet**: Sun
- **texts**: , , _Kujiki, Sendai Kuji Hongi_
Organism

An **organism** is any individual living thing. It is easy to recognize a living thing but, not so easy to define it. Obviously, animals and plants are organisms. Organisms are biotic, or living, parts of the environment. Rocks and sunshine are parts of the non-living environment.

Organisms usually have six basic needs to continue their metabolism. They need air, water, nutrient (food), energy, a place to live, and homeostasis (being able to maintain itself). However, not all living things need all these at the same time. Some organisms do not need access to air at all.  Living things have cells, take and use energy, grow and develop, share similar chemicals, sense and respond to change (stimulus), and reproduce.

A little thought is needed about viruses. There is no agreement as to whether they should be regarded as living. They are made of protein and nucleic acid, and they evolve, which is a really important fact. However, they exist in two quite different phases. One phase is dormant, not active. The other is inside a living cell of some other organism. Then the virus is very active reproducing itself. Consider the parallel with a computer program. When in use it is active; when it is not, it is completely inactive. It is still a program all the same.

Another example from biology is the spore, which is a distribution phase of a bacteria, fungus or some plants. They are not active until they get to the right situation. They have all the working parts to build a complete organism, but for the moment it is switched off.

Some organisms are made up of millions of cells. They are multicellular organisms. Many can be seen without using a microscope.

Most organisms are so small that they cannot be seen with the naked eye. You need a microscope to see them. They are called microorganisms. Organisms can be made up of just one cell. They are called _unicellular organisms_ or _single celled organisms_. Examples include bacteria, and protozoa such as the _Amoeba_ and _Paramecium_.

## Origin

The Tree of Life project works on the relationships between living things. Identifying a LUCA (last universal common ancestor) is one of its main aims. The LUCA is estimated to have lived some 3.8 billion years ago (sometime in the Palaeoarchaean era).

- A universal common ancestor is at least 10<sup>2860</sup> times more probable than having multiple ancestors.
- A model with a single common ancestor but allowing for some gene swapping among species was... 10<sup>3489</sup> times more probable than the best multi-ancestor model...
The idea came from Charles Darwin's _On the Origin of Species_, "Therefore... probably all the organic beings which have ever lived on this earth have descended from some one primordial form..."

## Related pages

- Earliest known life forms
- Origin of life
- Morphology (biology)

## Other websites

- About the Tree of Life Web Project
- Maddison D.R. _et al_ 2007. The Tree of Life Web Project. Pages 19-40 in: Zhang Z.-Q. & Shear W.A., eds. _Linnaeus Tercentenary: progress in invertebrate taxonomy_. **Zootaxa** 1668:1-766. Open Access PDF
Kinetic energy

**Kinetic energy** is the energy that an object has because of its motion. This energy can be converted into other kinds, such as gravitational or electric potential energy. which is the energy that an object has because of its position in a gravitational or electric field.

The SI unit of energy is the joule, while the English unit of energy is the foot-pound.

## Kinetic & Potential Energy

Kinetic Energy is the maximum amount of work a moving body can do due to its motion, whereas Potential energy is the maximum amount of work a body can do due to its configuration or position in a field force.  Kinetic Energy is valid for all sorts of forces as seen from this derivation.

but Potential Energy is not as can be seen here

which clearly suggests that only conservative forces can have potential energy associated with them; see conservation of energy.

## Translational kinetic energy

The **translational kinetic energy** of an object is:

where
- is the mass (resistance to linear acceleration or deceleration);
- is the linear velocity.

## Rotational kinetic energy

The **rotational kinetic energy** of an object is:

where
- is the moment of inertia (resistance to angular acceleration or deceleration, equal to the product of the mass and the square of its perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation);
- is the angular velocity.
Boat

A **boat** is a vehicle used to travel on water. It is smaller than a ship and can be lifted out of the water and carried on a ship. Some boats have sails, some are powered by rowing with oars, and some use motors. Those that use steam engines are steamboat<nowiki/>s. There are some boats that can go underwater. They are called submarines. A narrowboat is a boat designed to be used on narrow canals. It is sometimes called a barge.

Historically, most boats have been constructed from wood. However, more recently built boats are often made of metals like steel and aluminium. Expensive boats may have parts made from fiberglass or composite materials and some even have helicopter pads.

During the COVID-19 pandemic in British Columbia, all are in the same boat, just trying to stay afloat.

## History

The Pesse Canoe is likely the oldest boat recovered to date as it was built sometime around 8,000 BCE
Navy

The **navy** is the part of a country's military that fights on water using boats. People in the navy are called sailors. The navy is mostly made up of warships. It may also have its own air force and soldiers. It may have special boats that can go underwater, called submarines, or another kind of special boat that is meant to carry airplanes, called aircraft carriers.

## History

Originally, naval war was fought by ramming other ships and then jumping onto them to fight the crew. In Ancient Greece and Rome, the ships were usually powered by oars. During the Middle Ages, the cannon was invented. It could be shot at other ships from a great distance. Warships around this time also began to use sails instead of oars for power.

In the mid-19th century, ships began to be plated in armor for protection. Steam engines allowed them to move while they carried the armor, and better ones soon made them much faster. Those early warships, called ironclads, are thought to have begun the type of naval warfare used today. Ships and guns soon became much larger than before.

## Related pages

- Royal Navy
- United States Navy
- Royal Australian Navy
- Royal New Zealand Navy

## Other websites

- Navy -Citizendium
Air force

An **air force** is the branch of a country's military which fights in the air. The air force is made up of aircraft such as fighters, bombers, helicopters, and transport aircraft. When a navy has its own air force, it is called Naval Aviation.

Air forces began in the early 20th century, usually as part of a country's army. Most countries separated their air forces in the 1930s and 1940s.

Aircraft in an air force sometimes fly in a formation in which the aircraft fly in a pattern.

The biggest air force in the world is the United States Air Force (USAF), followed by the United States Navy and the Russian Air Force.
Adware

**Adware** is an advertising computer program that can be put there by other people on someone's computer, sometimes without their permission. It is controversial because sometimes businesses put the program there so they can see what people are doing or what web pages they are browsing. They then put an advertisement that is of the same subject as the web-page the person is looking at. This can be good if the person is trying to buy something, but many people do not want advertisements. Many people also do not want other people to find out what they are doing or what web pages they are looking at. An example is in the popular peer-to-peer file sharing program, Kazaa. When someone downloads it, it installs adware on their computer that then sends advertisements to the computer. Some people do not like this so they use an illegally changed version of this program called Kazaa Lite.

## Removal tools

Removal tools have been developed to assist users in clearing out these unwanted programs.
Like many programs that people use for security, the program must be changed often. Updating allows the removal tool to recognize new types of adware. This can be done by downloading files over the internet using the 'update' option in the program.
Creative Commons licenses

The **Creative Commons licenses** relates to the name of several copyright licenses released on December 16, 2002. The licenses were released by _Creative Commons_, a United States nonprofit corporation. Everybody can put their own creations under these licenses.

There are four basic license conditions. A simple overview of these four:

- **Attribution** (BY): Allow others to copy, distribute, display and perform the work and evolved versions of it. They must give the original creator credit for the work.
- **Noncommercial** (NC): Allow others to copy, distribute, display and perform the work and evolved version of it. They are not allowed to make money with it.
- **No Derivative Works** (ND): Allow others to copy, distribute, display and perform  the work. They are not allowed to change the work into something else.
- **Share Alike** (SA): Allow others to distribute evolved works only when they use the same license. See also copyleft.

It is possible to combine the license elements to allow people to use a work under certain conditions. For example, a combination of the first and fourth is called "CC BY-SA". This stands for "Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike". With this license other people can use the work for free, but they must give credit to the original creator, and when they make something new with the work they must give it the same "CC BY-SA" license.

## Criticism

The Free Software Foundation thinks that the Creative Commons system is confusing, because people often forget to tell which of the licenses they use. Instead they suggest to use the Free Art license.

## Related pages

- Creative Commons
- Copyleft
- Free content

## References

- _Portions of this article are taken from the Creative Commons website, published under the Creative Commons Attribution License v1.0_

## Other websites

- The full selection of licenses
- Creative Commons web site
Marshall Islands

The **Republic of the Marshall Islands** (RMI) is a Micronesian island nation in the western Pacific Ocean. As of 2018, about 58,000 people live there. The capital of Marshall Islands is Majuro. The official languages are Marshallese and English.

Roughly 10% of the population of the Marshall Islands can now be found in northwest Arkansas, U.S. Most live and work in the city of Springdale, a community of roughly 50,000. Each year, the Marshallese host a homecoming event so friends and relatives can get together to celebrate, stay in touch with politics at home, and spread their island culture. They meet at the Jones Center for Families in Springdale and have dancing, feasting, volleyball, and basketball. As a population, they are devoted to family and church and bring island dance and song to this corner of Arkansas.

## Infobox (country)

- **conventional long name**: Republic of the Marshall Islands
- **common name**: the Marshall Islands
- **image flag**: Flag of the Marshall Islands.svg
- **image coat**: Seal of the Marshall Islands.svg
- **symbol type**: Seal
- **national motto**: ""

- **national anthem**: "Forever Marshall Islands"<div style="padding-top:0.5em;" class="center"></div>
- **image map**: Marshall Islands on the globe (small islands magnified) (Polynesia centered).svg
- **capital**: Delap-Uliga-Djarrit on Majuro
- **largest city**: capital
- **ethnic groups year**: 2006
- **religion year**: 2020
- **demonym**: Marshallese
- **government type**: Unitary state, Unitary parliamentary republic with an executive presidency
- **leader title1**: President of the Marshall Islands, President
- **leader name1**: Hilda Heine
- **leader title2**: Legislature of the Marshall Islands, Speaker
- **leader name2**: Brenson Wase
- **legislature**: Legislature of the Marshall Islands, Nitijela
- **sovereignty type**: Independence
- **sovereignty note**: from the United States
- **established event1**: Self-government
- **established date1**: May 1, 1979
- **established event2**: Compact of Free Association
- **established date2**: October 21, 1986
- **area km2**: 181.43
- **area rank**: 189th
- **area sq mi**: 70
- **percent water**: n/a
- **population estimate**: 61,988
- **population census**: 53,158
- **population estimate year**: 2022
- **population estimate rank**: 187th
- **population census year**: 2011
- **population density km2**: 293.0
- **population density sq mi**: 885.7
- **population density rank**: 28th
- **gdp ppp**: $215 million
- **gdp ppp year**: 2019
- **gdp ppp per capita**: $3,789
- **gdp nominal**: $220 million
- **gdp nominal year**: 2019
- **gdp nominal per capita**: $3,866
- **hdi**: 0.639
- **hdi year**: 2021
- **hdi change**: decrease
- **hdi rank**: 131st
- **currency**: United States dollar
- **currency code**: USD
- **time zone**: MHT
- **utc offset**: +12
- **date format**: MM/DD/YYYY
- **drives on**: right
- **calling code**: +692
- **cctld**: .mh
- **footnote a**: 2005 estimate.
- **iso3166code**: MH
New York University

**New York University**, also known as **NYU**, is a research university in New York City. It is the largest private university in the United States, and is highly regarded in the nation as well as around the world.

## Rankings

In 2020, it was ranked as the 11th best university in the United States by the QS World University Rankings: USA, and as the 28th best university in the world by U.S. News & World Report. In addition, NYU is highly ranked in the fields of Law, Medicine, Mathematics, Business, Psychology, Communications, Performing Arts, Film, Economics, and Philosophy.

## History

The university was founded as _University of the City of New York_ in 1831 by a prominent group of New York City residents led by then United States Secretary of the Treasury, Albert Gallatin. The school was officially renamed New York University in 1896.

37 Nobel Prize winners have been produced by NYU, the 12th most in the United States and 19th most in the world. Three heads of state attended NYU: Ma Ying-jeou of the Republic of China, Ephraim Katzir of Israel, and Guillermo Endara of Panama. Many American politicians also attended NYU, including Bill de Blasio, Carol Bellamy, and Rudy Giuliani. Many successful actors and movie directors attended NYU, including Martin Scorcese, Angelina Jolie, Alec Baldwin, Spike Lee, Ang Lee, Mahershala Ali, Woody Allen, and Adam Sandler. Other famous alumni include the creator of the polio vaccine Jonas Salk, singer Lady Gaga, Twitter founder Jack Dorsey, author Suzanne Collins, and former special counsel Robert Mueller.

NYU is one of the places where 5G was created, as well as where many of the foundations of modern electromagnetic theory were discovered.

## Campus

In addition to its main campus in New York City, NYU also has degree-granting campuses in Abu Dhabi and Shanghai. NYU Abu Dhabi has produced more Rhodes Scholars per student than any other university in the world.

## Infobox (university)

- **name**: New York University
- **image**: NYU-Stern (29762521816).jpg
- **latin name**: Universitas Neo Eboracensis
- **motto**: _Perstare et praestare_ (Latin)
- **mottoeng**: To persevere and to excel
- **established**: 1831
- **type**: Private university, Private
- **endowment**: $4.3 billion (2018)
- **budget**: $11.945 billion (fiscal 2018)
- **staff**: 2,242
- **faculty**: Total: 9,620 (Fall 2016)
(5,510 full-time /
4,110 part-time)
- **chairman**: William R. Berkley
- **president**: Andrew D. Hamilton
- **provost**: Katherine Elizabeth Fleming, Katherine E. Fleming
- **students**: 51,848 (Fall 2018)
- **undergrad**: 26,733 (Fall 2018)
- **postgrad**: 25,115 (Fall 2018)
- **city**: New York City
- **state**: New York (state), New York
- **country**: United States
- **campus**: Urban area, Urban
(Manhattan campus)
- **athletics**: NCAA Division III – University Athletic Association, UAA
- **colors**: Purple and White

- **mascot**: Bobcat
- **nickname**: NYU Violets, Violets
Vertebrate

A **vertebrate** is an animal with a spinal cord surrounded by cartilage or bone. The word comes from vertebrae, the bones that make up the spine. Animals that are not vertebrates are called invertebrates. Vertebrates include birds, fish, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals. The parts of the vertebrate skeleton are:
1. Braincase: A braincase or cranium protects the brain.
1. Vertebrae: A series of short, stiff vertebrae are separated by joints. This internal backbone protects the spinal cord. The joints between the vertebrae let the backbone bend.
1. Bones: support and protect the body's soft tissues and provides points for muscle attachment.
1. Gill arches: Gill arches in the pharynx of fish and some amphibians support the gills. In the majority of vertebrates some of the arches have evolved into other organs, such as jaws.

Examples of vertebrates are mammals, birds, and fish. A few tens of thousands of species have been identified. The term "fish" is used to describe at least four different kinds of vertebrates.

## Distinctions

Vertebrates dominate amongst the animals in virtually all environments. They include the largest animals in each main ecosystem, though not the largest living things (because that would include trees). They are the only animals which have an adaptive immune system. These two facts may be connected.

## Taxonomy and classification

- **Subphylum Vertebrata**
    - **Agnatha** (jawless vertebrates)
        - Myxini
        - Hyperoartia (lampreys)
    - †Conodonta
    - †Pteraspidomorphi
        - †Thelodonti
        - †Anaspida
        - †Galeaspida
        - †Pituriaspida
        - †Osteostraci
    - ** Gnathostomata** (jawed vertebrates)
        - †Placodermi (Paleozoic armoured forms)
        - Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish)
        - †Acanthodii (Paleozoic "spiny sharks")
        - Osteichthyes (bony fish)
            - Actinopterygii (ray-finned fish)
            - Sarcopterygii (lobe-finned fish)
            - Coelacanthimorpha (coelacanths)
            - Dipnoi (lungfish)
    - **Tetrapoda** (four-limbed vertebrates)
        - Amphibia (amphibians)
        - Amniota (amniotic eggs)
            - Sauropsida (reptiles and birds)
                - Lepidosauria (lizards, snakes and tuatara)
                - Testudines (turtles)
                - Archosauria (archosaurs)
                    - Crocodilia (crocodilians)
                    - †Pterosauria (pterosaurs)
                    - Dinosauria (dinosaurs)
                        - Aves (birds)
            - Synapsida (mammal-like tetrapods)
                - Mammalia

## Related pages

- Invertebrate
- Vertebrate brain

## Other websites

- Tree of Life
- Tunicates and not cephalochordates are the closest living relatives of vertebrates
Alpha male

An **alpha male** is the top-ranking male in a mammalian social group.

## Origin

Some animals live in a social structure where the most powerful male in the group is decided by either fights or very aggressive battles that sometimes end in death (in the wild). The current alpha male must defend his position from younger members. When he is too old or not strong enough to win, he loses his position in the group. Sometimes, he will die or be forced to leave the group.

The result of this is that the alpha male usually has more opportunity to mate with the available females. This system developed because strong males will produce young which have a better chance for survival.

## Examples

Some animal groups which may have alpha males:
- Lions
- Apes: chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans
- Horses
- Deer

### Humans

**Alpha male** can also refer to a high-ranked human in a group. This may be in a business setting or sometimes in other competitive areas, like sports. However, this is an extension by metaphor: humans do not have the same mating system as other social mammals. One reason is that the oestrous cycle in humans is different. This has the result that females may be sexually receptive at almost any time. Also, humans generally pair off, and alpha males do not have exclusive rights over all females in a group, except in rare circumstances.
Johannesburg

**Johannesburg** is the  largest city in South Africa. It is the capital of the Gauteng Province. It was founded on October 4, 1886 and has the JSE Securities Exchange, which is the largest stock exchange in Africa.

Johannesburg houses the tallest office block in Africa, the Carlton Centre (50 stories) and the tallest tower, the Hillbrow Tower (270 metres, or 90 stories).  The city is nicknamed Egoli or Jozi, which means "_place of gold_", for the large gold deposit at Witwatersrand.

The Johannesburg Zoo was established in 1904, and historically, it has been owned and run by the city of Johannesburg. It houses the only two polar bears in Africa. Johannesburg is not seen as a tourist centre in South Africa, but rather as a commercial centre.

Johannesburg has a subtropical highland climate (Cwb in the Köppen climate classification). Snow is a very rare event. It only snows in Johannesburg once or twice in a century.

Nelson Mandela died there on 5 December 2013, aged 95. He was also given the "Freedom of the City" award.  In 2023, a fire started in the town. The fire killed more than 70 people and became one of the deadliest fires in the history of South Africa.
Breakfast

**Breakfast** is the first meal of the day. It is usually eaten in the morning. The word comes from two other words; "break" ("end") and fast ("not eating for a long time").

Definition: [1463] from break (v.) + fast (n.). Cf. Fr. déjeuner "to breakfast," from L. dis-jejunare "to break the fast."

People around the world eat different things for breakfast:

- In the United States, people usually eat pancakes, waffles, toast, eggs or bagels for breakfast.
- In Canada, people usually eat maple cured bacon, fried potatoes, maple-infused beans, eggs, toast, pancakes and maple syrup or hot oatmeal for breakfast.

- In the United Kingdom a large breakfast was often, and still is sometimes, served. Usually this would be bread, tea, egg, bacon, ham, fruits, baked beans on toast and sometimes vegetables. This pattern of heavy eating has greatly changed in recent years. Most people do not do manual work nowadays.
- In France, people usually eat a very light meal; often bread and coffee with milk. Again, this depends on what kind of work is done (usually by the father of the household).
- In Asia, most people eat rice instead of bread. They also sometimes eat porridge.

## Related pages

- Bacon and eggs
- Diet (nutrition)
Fast

**Fast** can mean different things:

- Moving at a high speed
- **Fasting** -  when someone stops eating.
- Quick
Condensed matter physics

**Condensed matter physics** is a branch of physics which talks about matter that has its molecules packed together very closely. This usually means it deals with solids (solid matter).
Bag

A **bag** is a kind of soft container. It can hold or carry things. It may be made from cloth, leather, plastic, or paper. Many bags are disposable but some are made to use for a long time. A bag may have one or two handles or a shoulder strap. Bags come in different shapes and sizes depending on how they will be used. A small bag that can be carried with a single hand is sometimes called a handbag, purse, or pocketbook.  Children can suffocate, or stop breathing and die, when they put certain kinds of bags over their heads, due to having the supply of oxygen cut off.
Sapporo

is the capital city of Hokkaidō Prefecture in Japan. The port city is on the southwest part of the island of Hokkaidō and it is the island's largest city.

The city has a famous snow festival in winter, it has a growing population of about 1,800,000 people.  Its area is . There are a lot of fish markets in Sapporo. A beer brand named "Sapporo" was named after this city. Ramen is a very popular food in Sapporo. The city has a subway system. Some famous landmarks are the Sapporo TV Tower, and the clock tower that is in the center of the city. There are several universities here, including Hokkaido University. The nearby airport is called New Chitose Airport.

## Events

- 1972 - The Winter Olympic Games were held in Sapporo.

## Related pages

- Consadole Sapporo

## Other websites

- City of Sapporo
- Sightseeing of Sapporo
- Sightseeing of Sapporo

## Infobox (city japan)

- **name**: Sapporo
- **official name**: City of Sapporo
- **settlement type**: Cities designated by government ordinance of Japan, Designated city
- **image skyline**: Sapporo montage.jpg
- **image caption**: Sapporo City Montage
- **image flag**: Flag of Sapporo, Hokkaido.svg
- **image symbol**: Emblem of Sapporo, Hokkaido.svg
- **image map**: Location of Sapporo city Hokkaido Japan.svg
- **image map1**: Indicator map for Ishikari and Sorachi Subprefecture in Hokkaido Japan.svg
- **map caption1**: Location of Ishikari Subprefecture in Hokkaido
- **region**: Hokkaido
- **prefecture**: Hokkaido (Ishikari Subprefecture)
- **area km2**: 1121.12
- **population as of**: September 30, 2016
- **population**: 1,947,097
- **density km2**: auto
- **tree**: Syringa, Lilac
- **flower**: Lily of the valley
- **bird**: Common cuckoo
- **mayor**: Katsuhiro Akimoto
- **city hall postal code**: 060-8611
- **city hall address**: 2-1-1 Kita-ichijō-nishi, Chūō-ku, Sapporo-shi, Hokkaido
Hokkaidō Prefecture

is a special Japanese prefecture in Hokkaidō region on the island Hokkaidō.  It is the most northern prefecture of Japan.

Sapporo is the capital city of Hokkaido.

## History

Until the Meiji Restoration, the island was called Ezo, Watari-shima, Yeddo, and Yezo.  Since 1869, it has been called Hokkaidō.

The population expanded in the late 19th century.

### Timeline

- **1947** (_Shōwa 22_): Hokkaidō Prefecture was established.

- **2008** (_Heisei 20_): The 34th G8 summit was held in Toyako.

## Geography

Hokkaidō is the 2nd largest island of Japan The island is between the Sea of Japan to the west, the Sea of Okhotsk to the northeast, the Pacific Ocean to the southeast, and the Tsugaru Strait to the south.

Hokkaidō is separated from Honshu by the Tsugaru Strait; however, it is connected by the underwater Seikan tunnel.

Some of the Chishima Islands are occupied by Russia, but Japan still considers the islands to be Japanese.

### National Parks

Natural Parks are established in about 10% of the total land area of the prefecture.

## Shrines and Temples

_Hokkaidō jingū_ was the chief Shinto shrine (_ichinomiya_) of Ezo, which was an ancient name for the Hokkaidō region.

## Related pages

- Provinces of Japan
- Prefectures of Japan
- List of regions of Japan
- List of islands of Japan
- Consadole Sapporo

## Other websites

- Murdoch's map of provinces, 1903

## Infobox (settlement)

- **native name lang**: ja
- **settlement type**: Prefectures of Japan, Prefecture
- **translit lang1**: Japanese
- **translit lang1 type**: Romaji
- **translit lang1 info**: Hokkaidō
- **image flag**: Flag of Hokkaido Prefecture.svg
- **image seal**: Emblem of Hokkaido Prefecture.svg
- **seal type**: Symbol
- **image map**: Map of Japan with highlight on 02edit Hokkaido prefecture.svg
- **map caption**: Location of Hokkaidō in Japan
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision type1**: Region
- **subdivision name1**: Hokkaidō region, Hokkaido
- **subdivision type2**: Island
- **subdivision name2**: Hokkaidō
- **seat type**: Capital
- **seat**: Sapporo
- **leader title**: Governor
- **leader name**: Naomichi Suzuki
- **area total km2**: 83,453.57
- **area rank**: 1st
- **population as of**: 2010-10-01
- **population total**: 5,507,456
- **population rank**: 8th
- **population density km2**: auto
- **iso code**: JP-01
- **blank name sec1**: Prefectural flower
- **blank info sec1**: Hamanasu
(Rugosa Rose, _Rosa rugosa_)
- **blank1 name sec1**: Prefectural tree
- **blank1 info sec1**: Ezomatsu
(Jezo Spruce, _Picea jezoensis_)
- **blank2 name sec1**: Prefectural bird
- **blank2 info sec1**: Tanchō
(Red-crowned Crane, _Grus japonensis_)
- **blank3 name sec1**: Prefectural bird
- **blank3 info sec1**: Sparidae, Sea Bream
- **blank name sec2**: Number of districts
- **blank info sec2**: 68
- **blank1 name sec2**: Number of municipalities
- **blank1 info sec2**: 180
Hinduism

**Hinduism (हिन्दू धर्म_)**_ () is an Indian religion, a religious and universal order or way of life afterwards. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.5 billion followers, or 15% of the global population, known as **Hindus**. While Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, many Hindus call it **Sanātana Dharma**, (Devanagari: **सनातन धर्म**) meaning the "Eternal Religion" which refers to the idea that its origins lie beyond human history, as revealed in the Hindu texts. Another word used is _Vedic Dharma_, the dharma related to the Vedas.

Hinduism is a diverse system of thought marked by a range of philosophies and shared concepts, rituals, cosmological systems, pilgrimage sites, and shared textual sources that discuss theology, metaphysics, mythology, Vedic yajna, yoga, agamic rituals, and temple building, among other topics. Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include the four Puruṣārthas, the proper goals or aims of human life; namely, dharma (ethics/duties), artha (prosperity/work), kama (desires/passions) and moksha (liberation/freedom from the passions and the cycle of death and rebirth), as well as karma (action, intent and consequences) and saṃsāra (cycle of death and rebirth). Hinduism prescribes the eternal duties, such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings, patience, forbearance, self-restraint, virtue, and compassion, among others. Hindu practices include worship (puja), fire rituals, recitations, devotion, chanting, meditation, sacrifice, charity, selfless service, homage to one's ancestors, family-oriented rites of passage, annual festivals, and occasional pilgrimages. Along with the various practices associated with yoga, some Hindus leave their social world and material possessions and engage in lifelong Sannyasa (monasticism) in order to achieve moksha.

## Infobox (religion)

- **name**: Hinduism
- **image**: Om, This the first word in the world- 2013-10-30 10-55.png
- **imagewidth**: 250px
- **caption**: The Om, one of the holiest symbols of Hinduism
- **type**: Universal religion
- **main classification**: Indian religions, Indic
- **scripture**: Multiple; the Vedas are considered the supreme authority. Other scriptures include the Upanishads and the Puranas
- **theology**: Multiple
- **language**: Sanskrit
- **territory**: Worldwide, primarily South Asia and Southeast Asia
- **members**: 1.8 Billion (2023 estimate)
- **separations**: Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism
- **other names**: Sanātana Dharma, Brāhmanism, Vedic Dharma
Bible study

**Bible study** is intensive reading of the Bible.

For some Christians, study of the Bible is part of daily life. Many non-Christians also read the Bible, because it is an important piece of world literature.

In Europe before the 16th century, most people could not study the Bible.  Books were written only in Latin and Greek.  Only people who had learned to read those languages could study the Bible.

At the time, the Roman Catholic Church did not allow people to translate the Bible into other languages, like Italian or English. Many people could not read and it took the lifetime of a monk, by himself, to translate the Bible.

When the Reformation started in 16th-century Europe, the Bible was translated into several languages.  Many books were printed in these languages. People were then able to read the Bible in their own language.

## Related pages

- Biblical study, the academic study of the Bible
Medlar

The **medlar** is a tree and the name of the fruit of this tree. Its Latin name is _Crataegus germanica_, or "German medlar", but it is not from Germany. It grows in the Near East and South-Eastern Europe, and the Romans took it to Germany. Near the Caspian Sea, people grew the medlar about three thousand years ago. It came to Greece in about 700 BC and to Rome in about 200 BC. It was an important fruit plant in Roman and medieval times. But by 1600-1700, people started eating other fruits and not the medlar. Today people do not grow it very often.

The medlar needs warm summers and mild (not too cold) winters and likes to grow in sunny, dry places. In the best places, the plant can grow up to eight metres tall. The medlar is _deciduous_: it is not green all year. Usually, it is shorter than a tree. It lives between thirty and fifty years. Medlar leaves are dark green, maximum fifteen centimetres long and three centimetres wide. The plant has flowers in late spring. The flowers are white. The red-brown medlar fruits are similar to apples and grow to two to three centimetres. They are very hard and acidic, and we can only eat them after the cold weather makes them soft.
Hippocrates

**Hippocrates** (c. 460 – c. 370 BC) was a Greek doctor who is called the "father of medicine". He was the first person to teach that people got sick for scientific reasons. Previously, people believed that disease was caused by angry gods.

Many of Hippocrates' writings are still important to doctors. For example, patient confidentiality, meaning that doctors can only discuss a patient with the patient themselves. Another of his ideas is to never knowingly lead a patient to suffering or death. These kinds of ideas are part of medical ethics.

The Hippocratic Oath is named after him. This is a set of rules which doctors promise to obey. We don't exactly know what the original was, but this is an example of a modern _Hippocratic Oath:
_I do solemnly swear by all I hold most sacred:
- that I will be loyal to the profession of medicine and just to its members
- that I will lead my life and practice my art with virtue and honor
- that into whatsoever home I shall enter it shall be for the good of the sick and the well by the utmost of my power and that I will hold myself aloof from wrong and from corruption and from the tempting of others to vice
- that I will exercise my art solely for the benefit of my patients, the relief of suffering, the prevention of disease and promotion of health, and I will give no drug and perform no act for an immoral purpose
- that in the treatment of the sick, I will consider their well-being to be of a greater importance than their ability to compensate my services
- that what I may see or hear in the course of treatment or even outside the treatment in regard to the lives of persons which is not fitting to be spoken, I will keep inviolably secret
- that I will commit myself to a lifetime of continued learning of the art and science of medicine
- these things I do promise and in proportion as I am faithful to this oath, may happiness and good repute be ever mine, but should I trespass and violate this oath, may the reverse be my lot.

The oldest version we have is AD 275, and that is just fragments.

## Infobox (person)

- **name**: Hippocrates of Kos
- **image**: Hippocrates rubens.jpg
- **caption**: Engraving by Peter Paul Rubens, 1638
- **native name**: Ἱπποκράτης
- **native name lang**: Greek
- **birth date**: c. 460 BC
- **birth place**: Kos, Ancient Greece
- **death date**: c. 370 BC
- **death place**: Larissa, Ancient Greece
- **occupation**: Physician
- **era**: Classical Greece
- **title**: The Father of Western Medicine
Commensurability

**Commensurability** is a concept in the philosophy of science. Scientific theories are described as _commensurable_ if one can compare them to find out which is more accurate. If there is  no way  one can compare them to determine which is more accurate, they are _incommensurable_.

Behind this is the idea that it is possible to see the world in multiple ways, and that there is not one fair method to see which way is right. Some think that scientific traditions (or _paradigms_) can be incommensurable: it is not really possible to say which one is right. This idea has been defended by Thomas Kuhn. He wrote: _when paradigms change, the world changes with them_. Paul Feyerabend was another philosopher who said that incommensurability was possible in scientific topics. He wrote that it is important to remember this, because it means that it is possible to say things that are not scientific, but also not wrong. These ideas were mainly aimed at Karl Popper and his ideas on falsification.

Two theories may not be comparable if one cannot find a way to compare them and decide which is right.

## In popular culture

The concept of incommensurability is dramatized in the 2006 movie _Idiocracy_, when U.S. Army scientist Joe Bauers attempts to explain before a full Cabinet meeting his theory that the nation's crops would be better irrigated with water rather than with a sports drink.
Harvest

To **harvest** means to collect what has been planted and grown in the ground. It is usually done by farmers. They can do this by picking crops. Crop failure (also known as harvest failure) is a loss or reduced crop yield due to plants being damaged, killed, or destroyed. Sometimes it brings famine.

"Harvest" can also mean to collect other things than plants such as cultivated bivalves including oysters, scallops, and other animals.