juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Mesozoic

The **Mesozoic Era** was the geological era in which dinosaurs lived, as well as the first mammals. It lasted about 186 million years, starting 252.2 mya (million years ago) with the P/Tr extinction and ending 65 mya with the K/T extinction (the one that killed all dinosaurs except birds).

Dinosaurs appeared around 231 mya (21 million years after the beginning of the Mesozoic). They evolved from the reptiles called archosaurs. Modern birds and crocodiles are part of that group.

Although mammals originated in the Upper Triassic, they did not live like dinosaurs. Mammals spent most of the long Jurassic and Cretaceous periods as small nocturnal animals living mainly in forests. Most lost their color vision. Mammals today have some color vision. Most have red-green color blindness, with only two types of cone cells. Some primates evolved a third type of cone cell, which gives them trichromacy. Color is needed in forests to spot ripe fruit.

The Mesozoic is the middle of the three eras that make up the Phanerozoic eon. Before the Mesozoic was the Palaeozoic era. The K/T extinction in 65 mya also marks the beginning of the Cenozoic era, the one we live in.

The three Mesozoic periods were:

- Triassic (252–201 mya)
    - Lower Triassic (252–247 mya)
    - Middle Triassic (247–237 mya)
    - Upper Triassic (237–201 mya)
- Jurassic (201–145 mya)
    - Lower Jurassic (201–176 mya)
    - Middle Jurassic (176–161 mya)
    - Upper Jurassic (161–145 mya)
- Cretaceous (145–66 mya)
    - Lower Cretaceous (145–100 mya)
    - Upper Cretaceous (100–65 mya)

## Ecology

The ecology of this world was quite different to that of the Pleistocene, the relatively cold era in which humans evolved and live.

The Mesozoic was a much warmer world, with a higher temperature, and a higher sea level.  There was little or no ice at the poles and the continents had large areas covered with shallow continental seas.

Moreover, the continents were quite near each other, or actually touching.  Many land animals could walk or swim to other continents.  The Mesozoic started with all the continents together in Pangaea.  They began to split apart in early Middle Jurassic times and stayed pretty close for the rest of the Mesozoic.

Textbooks have always described how the Mesozoic was the age of the dinosaurs, and now we know birds descended from land dinosaurs.  It was the age, too, of extraordinary marine reptiles.  Mammals were mainly small nocturnal animals which scurried around in the night-times of the great forests.  We know from their loss of color vision (which is trichromatic in fish and reptiles) that mammals lived a nocturnal life.

### Plants

For most of the Mesozoic, the plants were different from those of today. Only in the Upper Cretaceous do we find flowering plants of the modern kind. Before then ferns, cycads and conifers covered the land. They were the typical food of the huge vegetarian dinosaurs. Horsetails like _Equisetum_ formed the understory of the huge conifer forests.
Palaeozoic

The **Palaeozoic** (or **Paleozoic**) era is the earliest of the three eras of the Phanerozoic. Its name means _early life_. It lasted from about 541 to 252 million years ago (mya) and ended with the greatest extinction event, the Permian–Triassic extinction event. The Palaeozoic was the beginning of plants and animals. In particular, fish dominate the Palaeozoic.

## Beginning

The Cambrian explosion marks the era with thousands of new life forms in the ancient seas. The era saw the development of most invertebrate groups, life's conquest of land, the evolution of fish, reptiles, synapsids (the ancestors of mammals), amphibians, insects, and plants, the formation of the supercontinent of Pangea and at least two distinct ice ages. The Earth rotated faster than it does today, so days were shorter, and the nearer moon caused stronger tides.

## Oxygen and CO<sub>2</sub> levels

At the start of the long Carboniferous period oxygen was low and carbon dioxide was high. The huge growth of trees and other plants during this time reversed these data. The carbon dioxide level dropped throughout the Carboniferous, and the oxygen level rose continuously until it dropped in the Permian.

Oxygen reached a peak of about 30% about 280 million years ago. That is much higher than today's 21%.

## Periods

The six periods of the Palaeozoic are:
- Cambrian
- Ordovician
- Silurian
- Devonian
- Carboniferous
    - Pennsylvanian
    - Mississippian
- Permian
Phanerozoic

The **Phanerozoic** eon is the current eon on the geologic timescale. It is the one in which abundant animal life has existed. It covers about 541 million years, and goes back to the time when hard-shelled animals first appeared. It was once thought that life began in the Cambrian, the first period of this eon.

The time before the Phanerozoic, formerly called the _Precambrian_, is now divided into the Hadean, Archaean and Proterozoic eons.

## Details

The exact time of the boundary between the Phanerozoic and the Proterozoic is slightly uncertain. In the 19th century, the boundary was set at the first abundant metazoan fossils. But several hundred kinds of Proterozoic metazoa have been discovered in the Ediacaran. Study of the Ediacaran biota started in the 1950s. There are three dividing points at the Proterozoic-Phanerozoic boundary. It might be where the first trilobites and archaeocyatha appear; or at the first appearance of signs of burrowing; or at the first appearance of the 'small shelly fauna'. The three different dividing points are within a few million years of each other.

In the Phanerozoic biodiversity increased hugely:
1. the rapid emergence of animal phyla;
1. the evolution of these phyla into diverse forms;
1. the emergence of terrestrial plants;
1. the development of complex plants;
1. the evolution of fish;
1. the emergence of terrestrial animals; and
1. the development of modern faunas.
During the period covered, continents drifted about, eventually collecting into a single landmass known as Pangea and then splitting up into the current continental landmasses.

The Phanerozoic is divided into three eras: the Palaeozoic, Mesozoic, and Cainozoic.

## Related pages

- Life timeline
Skip-Bo

**Skip-Bo** is a children's card game. You try and match numbers, colours, etc. It is similar to the card game Uno.
Silurian

The **Silurian** was the period from the end of the Ordovician, about 443.4 million years ago (mya) to the beginning of the Devonian period, about 419 mya. It is the third period of the Paleozoic era and the Phanerozoic eon and the shortest period in the Paleozoic.

As with other geologic periods, the rock beds that define the period's start and end are well identified, but the exact dates are uncertain by several million years. The beginning of the Silurian is set at a major extinction when 60% of marine species were wiped out, the End-Ordovician extinction event.

## First terrestrial biota

The Silurian was the first period that produced fossils on land that are macroscopic. That means you can see them without using a microscope. These fossils are moss forests along lakes and streams, and millipedes and scorpions on land later in the period. The fossil record of Eurypterids (sea scorpions) reached its greatest extent in the middle Silurian, about 430 million years ago.

The first fossil records of vascular plants, appeared in the second half of the Silurian period. The earliest known representatives of this group are the _Cooksonia_ (mostly from the northern hemisphere) and _Baragwanathia_ (from Australia). A primitive Silurian land plant with xylem and phloem but no differentiation in root, stem or leaf, was much-branched _Psilophyton_. This plant reproduced by spores and respired through stomata on every surface, and probably photosynthesized in every tissue exposed to light.

Some evidence suggests the presence of primitive predatory arachnids and myriapods in later Silurian rocks. Predatory invertebrates would indicate that simple food webs were in place which included non-predatory prey animals.

## Related pages

- Life timeline
Devonian

The **Devonian** is the fourth period of the Paleozoic era and the Phanerozoic eon. It lasted from about 419 million years ago (mya) to about 359 mya. It is named after Devonshire, England, where rocks from this period were first studied.

Sea levels were high, and there was a great variety of fish and other marine organisms. The Devonian fish included the Agnatha (jawless fish), the Acanthodii (spiny fish), the Placoderms (armoured fish), the Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish), and the early Osteichthyes (bony fish). The Devonian strata are divided into lower, middle and upper subdivisions.

During the Devonian the evolution of fish into tetrapods occurred. Various terrestrial arthropods also became established. The first seed-bearing plants spread across dry land, forming huge forests.

The supercontinent of Gondwana was to the south, and the continent of Siberia to the north. The early form of the small continent of Euramerica was in between. The supercontinent Pangaea was just starting to form.

By the late Devonian, the land had been colonized by plants and insects. In the oceans, massive reefs were built. Euramerica and Gondwana were beginning to converge into what would become Pangaea.

## Period ended with extinctions

Tectonic and volcanic activity was high. A series of extinction events occurred towards the end of the Devonian, including a major event at the Frasnian-Famennian boundary in the Late Devonian, about 364 mya.

A major extinction occurred at the start of the last phase of the Devonian period, the Frasnian-Famennian boundary, about 372.2 mya. Almost all the fossil agnathan fishes suddenly disappeared. A second strong extinction closed the Devonian period. The late Devonian extinction was one of five major extinction events in the history of the Earth. The cause or causes are not known.
Proterozoic

The **Proterozoic** eon comes before the Phanerozoic. It was a period before the first abundant complex life on Earth. The name Proterozoic comes from the Greek "earlier life". The Proterozoic Eon extended from 2500 million years ago (mya) to 541 mya. It is the most recent part of the former Precambrian.

The Proterozoic consists of 3 geologic eras, from oldest to youngest:
- Palaeoproterozoic: 2500 to 1600 million years ago
- Mesoproterozoic: 1600 to 1000 mya
- Neoproterozoic: 1000 to 542 mya

The well-identified events were:
- Several glaciations, including the Snowball Earth during the Cryogenian period in the late Neoproterozoic.
- Rapid crustal segments collect into continents. Supercontinents **Laurentia** (Palaeoproterozoic) and **Rodinia** (Neoproterozoic) form.
- Early plate tectonics.
- Oxygenation of the atmosphere, the Great Oxygenation Event.
- Clean (unchanged by metamorphosis) sand and carbonate deposits occur for the first time.
- First eukaryote fossil at 2.1 billion years.<sup>p57</sup>
- The Ediacaran period (635 to 542mya) which is characterized by the evolution of abundant soft-bodied multicellular organisms.

Study of these rocks shows that the eon featured massive, rapid continental accretion (unique to the Proterozoic), supercontinent cycles, and mountain building.

## Related pages

- Life timeline
Cenozoic

The **Cainozoic** (**Cenozoic**) is the current geological era. It began 66 million years ago and continues today. Before it was the Mesozoic.

During the Cainozoic the continents moved into their present positions. The climate started warm, but cooling continued steadily. Finally ice ages occurred.

The word Cainozoic is derived from Greek _kainos_ = "new", and _zoe_ = "life". 'Cainozoic' may be spelled 'Cenozoic'. It has three periods, and the periods are split into stages.

- Cainozoic
    - Palaeogene
        - Palaeocene
        - Eocene
        - Oligocene
    - Neogene
        - Miocene
        - Pliocene
    - Quaternary
        - Pleistocene
        - Holocene

Previously, what is now the Cainozoic was divided into two periods, the Tertiary and the Quaternary. The Tertiary corresponded to the Palaeogene+Neogene. Now, the term 'Tertiary' is not used. Officially, it is 'deprecated'.

## Biota

On land, the Cainozoic is the era of mammals, and of birds and flowering plants. Grassland became a major habitat. Aquatic mammals took over the roles of predatory reptiles like the mosasaurs and plesiosaurs. As a result, the ecological landscape of the Cainozoic has become quite different from the Mesozoic.
Bill Elliott

**William Clyde Elliott** (born October 8, 1955) is an American racecar driver. He drove in the Sprint Cup Series He won the 1988 Sprint Cup, and was inducted into the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America in 2007. In 2014, Elliot was voted into the NASCAR Hall of Fame. He was inducted into the Hall of Fame in January of 2015.
Dolhasca

**Dolhasca** is a town in southeastern Bukovina, in Suceava County, Romania.  11,000 people were living in Dolhasca as of 2002.  It became a town in 2004.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **subdivision type**: Countries of the world, Country
- **subdivision name**: Romania
- **timezone**: Eastern European Time, EET
- **utc offset**: +2
- **timezone dst**: Eastern European Summer Time, EEST
- **utc offset dst**: +3
- **map caption**: Location of Dolhasca
- **official name**: Dolhasca
- **image shield**: ROU SV Dolhasca CoA.png
- **pushpin map**: Romania
- **pushpin map caption**: Location of Dolhasca
- **subdivision type1**: Counties of Romania, County
- **subdivision name1**: Suceava County
- **subdivision type2**: Subdivisions of Romania, Status
- **settlement type**: Town
- **leader title**: Mayor
- **leader name**: Maria Cojocariu
- **leader party**: Social Democratic Party (Romania), Social Democratic Party
- **area total km2**: 110.35
- **population as of**: 2002
- **population total**: 11093
- **website**: http://www.primariadolhasca.ro/
Siret

**Siret** is a town of Suceava County in northeast Romania.  The town is found on the right bank of the Siret River.  Ukraine borders Siret to the north. 9,358 people were living in Siret as of 2002.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **subdivision type**: Countries of the world, Country
- **timezone**: Eastern European Time, EET
- **utc offset**: +2
- **timezone dst**: Eastern European Summer Time, EEST
- **utc offset dst**: +3
- **map caption**: Location of Siret
- **official name**: Siret
- **pushpin map**: Romania
- **pushpin map caption**: Location of Siret
- **image shield**: ROU SV Siret CoA.jpg
- **subdivision type1**: Counties of Romania, County
- **subdivision name1**: Suceava County, Suceava
- **subdivision type2**: Subdivisions of Romania, Status
- **settlement type**: Town
- **leader title**: Mayor
- **leader name**: Adrian Popoiu
- **leader party**: National Liberal Party (Romania), National Liberal Party
- **area total km2**: 43.40
- **population as of**: 2002
- **population total**: 9358
- **website**: http://www.primariasiret.ro/
Token passing

**Token passing** is a communication protocol used in telecommunications. The system uses a signal called a _token_ to limit when a device can transmit on the network. Only the device with the token can transmit. When that device is done, the token is sent to the next device. With large transmissions, the token may move to the next station before the transmission is finished. The device has to wait until it gets the token back before it can continue to send data. The most well known examples of token passing are token ring and ARCNET.

The rules of the system say how long a device may keep the token, how long it can transmit for and how to create a new token if there is not one in use.
Carrier-sense multiple access

**Carrier Sense Multiple Access** (CSMA) is a Media Access Control (MAC) protocol.  When transmitting on a medium that is shared by many transmitters, the transmitter first checks to see that nothing else is already transmitting.  Examples of shared transmission medium include an electrical bus, or part of the electromagnetic spectrum.

"Carrier Sense" means that a transmitter uses feedback from a receiver to know if the medium is already in use before trying to send. That is, it tries to find a signal from another station before trying to transmit. If a signal is found, the station waits for that transmission to end before starting its own transmission.

"Multiple Access" means that many stations send and receive on the medium. Transmissions are usually received by all other stations using the medium.

## Related pages

- Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection
Archaean

The **Archaean** (or Archean) eon is the geological period after the Hadean and before the Proterozoic. It is one of the four main time periods (eons) of Earth history. The Archaean lasted from 4,000 million years ago (mya) to 2,500 mya. It contains the first sedimentary rocks, and the first fossil life forms, which were cyanobacteria, and acritarchs.

Most of the rocks which survive are volcanic (igneous) and metamorphic in origin. Volcanic activity was everywhere. When the Archaean began, the Earth's heat flow was nearly three times higher than it is today. It was still twice the current level when the Archaean ended, 2,500 mya. This high level of heat flow may have made plate tectonics more vigorous than today. The question of when plate tectonics began is a major research area. The large supercontinent Vaalbara formed in the Archaean. There were oceans already, before the Archaean.
The atmosphere almost entirely lacked free oxygen, and instead, it was mostly methane and CO<sub>2</sub>.

Fossil bacterial mats, called stromatolites, are found throughout the Archaean after about 3,500mya. These were formed by cyanobacteria, which used photosynthesis and gave off oxygen as a by-product. Initially, this oxygen was absorbed by combining with iron ions in solution. Not until much later did oxygen build up in the atmosphere.

Fossil raindrop marks have been found in the later Archaean, 2,700 mya. The rocks were discovered in Ventersdorp in the North West Province of South Africa in the 1980s.

## Related pages

- Life timeline
Barcelona Metro line 1

**Line 1**, shortened to **L1** and known as "Hospital de Bellvitge - Fondo", coloured red and often simply called _Línia vermella_ ("Red Line"), is the second oldest metro line in Barcelona, after L3. It is operated by Transports Metropolitans de Barcelona (TMB).

## Chronology

- 1926 - Bordeta-Catalunya section opened.
- 1932 - Bordeta-Santa Eulàlia and Catalunya-Arc de Triomf sections opened.
- 1933 - Arc de Triomf-Marina section opened.
- 1951 - Marina-Clot section opened.
- 1952 - Clot-Navas section opened.
- 1954 - Navas-Fabra i Puig section opened.
- 1968 - Fabra i Puig-Torras i Bages section opened.
- 1983 - Torras i Bages-Santa Coloma and Santa Eulàlia-Torrassa sections opened. Bordeta station closed.
- 1987 - Torrassa-Avinguda Carrilet section opened.
- 1992 - Santa Coloma-Fondo section opened.

## Technical details

|**Colour on map**|Red|
| --- | --- |
|**Number of stations**|30|
|**Type**|Conventional metro|
|**Length**||
|**Rolling stock**|4000 series, 6000 series|
|**Areas covered**|L'Hospitalet, Barcelona (Sants-Montjuïc, Eixample, Sant Martí, Sant Andreu), Santa Coloma|
|**Journey time**|35 minutes|
|**Track gauge**||
|**Traction**|Electricity|
|**Power supply**|Rigid overhead wire|
|**Open-air sections**|Yes (between Santa Eulàlia and Mercat Nou)|
|**Mobile phone coverage**|Partial|
|**Depots**|Santa Eulàlia, Sagrera.|
|**Operator**|TMB|

## Stations

Stations or lines shown in italics are under construction.

- Hospital de Bellvitge
- Bellvitge
- Av. Carrilet  (L8)
- Rambla Just Oliveras  (RENFE)
- Can Serra
- Florida
- Torrassa  (_L9, L10_)
- Santa Eulàlia
- Mercat Nou
- Plaça de Sants  (L5)
- Hostafrancs
- Espanya  (L3, L8)
- Rocafort
- Urgell
- Universitat  (L2)
- Catalunya  (L3, L6, L7, RENFE)
- Urquinaona  (L4)
- Arc de Triomf  (RENFE)
- Marina  (T4)
- Glòries  (T4)
- Clot  (L2, RENFE)
- Navas
- Sagrera  (L5, _L9, L10_)
- Fabra i Puig  (RENFE)
- Sant Andreu  (RENFE)
- Torras i Bages
- Trinitat Vella
- Baró de Viver
- Santa Coloma
- Fondo  (_L9_)

## Other websites

- Trenscat.com
L1

**L1** can mean:

- First language
    - Native speaker
- Barcelona Metro line 1
Hadean

The **Hadean** is the geological eon before the Archaean. It began at the Earth's formation about 4.6 billion years ago, and ended 4 billion years ago. The name "Hadean" comes from _Hades_, Greek for "Underworld", due to the conditions on the Earth at the time. The geologist Preston Cloud first used the term in 1972. Meteorite bombardment, volcanism and high temperatures were very widespread on the early Earth.

There are no sedimentary rocks from the Hadean at all. The earliest geological objects on Earth are some zircons, dated to about 4,400 million years ago (mya). Oceans would probably have formed as soon as the temperature allowed. It is thought that constant bombardment kept the Earth in a molten state until about the end of the eon.

Early in Earth history, the Moon was torn out by a massive collision with a proto-planet. The evidence for this giant impact hypothesis is:

1. the remarkable similarity between the Earth's crust and the Moon's composition,
1. the low iron concentration in the Moon's centre, and
1. the high angular momentum of the Earth-Moon system.

An explanation for the general lack of Hadean rocks (older than 3800 mya) is the large amount of rocky and icy debris present in the early Solar System. After the eight planets formed, large numbers of leftover protoplanets, asteroids, and comets pursued eccentric orbits throughout our system, bombarding the early Earth and the other planets and moons until approximately 3800 mya. This activity may have prevented any large crustal fragments from forming by literally shattering the early protocontinents. A barrage of particularly large impacts known as the Late Heavy Bombardment represents the climax of this violent era.

No life forms are known from this eon. The early atmosphere contained carbon dioxide, methane and nitrogen, but almost no oxygen.

## Related pages

- Life timeline
Permian

The **Permian** is a geological period which started about 299 million years ago (mya), and ended about 252 mya. It is the sixth and last period of the Paleozoic era and the sixth period in the Phanerozoic eon, and ended in the largest mass extinction known to science.

## Data

- Oxygen content of atmosphere: 23% (115% of modern level).
- Average CO<sub>2</sub> content: 900 ppm (3 times pre-industrial level)
- Average surface temperature: ~16<sup>o</sup>C (2<sup>o</sup>C above modern level)
- Sea level: 60 metres above present day level; plummeting during the middle Permian to a constant minus 20 m in the late Permian.

## Climate

The climate in the Permian was quite varied. At the start of the Permian, the Earth was still at the grip of an ice age from the Carboniferous. Glaciers receded in the mid-Permian period as the climate gradually warmed, drying the continent's interiors.  In the late Permian period, the drying continued although the temperature cycled between warm and cool cycles.

## Life

During the Permian, tetrapod life, (amphibians, Sauropsids and Synapsids) which evolved in the Carboniferous, became widespread and diverse. The first modern trees (conifers, ginkgos and cycads) appeared in the Permian.

### Insects

The Permian was also a period of adaptive radiation in insects. Beetles (Coleoptera) appeared; so did flies (Diptera). 22 out of a total of 36 known orders of insects are known from the Permian. Some became extinct in the end-Permian event, but more radiation followed in the Mesozoic. Insects were probably, by the end of the Permian, the largest phylum, in terms of number of species.

Early relatives of cockroaches (Blattopterans) were the most common insects. and dragonflies ruled the air. True Odonata appeared in the Permian.

## Pangaea

All the major land masses were collected together in the super-continent Pangaea. At the end of the period, the greatest flood basalt lava flows in the Phanerozoic raised world temperatures, and damaged the environment. These formed the extensive _Siberian traps_. The causes of the Permian/Triassic extinction event are not yet agreed between scientists. Trilobites, once a dominant life-form in the ocean, became extinct, together with 90% of all marine species.
Markham, Ontario

**Markham, Ontario** is a city in Regional Municipality of York, in the Greater Toronto Area of Southern Ontario, Canada. As of 2021, 338,503 people live in Markham. The number of people doubled from 1991 to 2011. It is the 4th largest town in the Greater Toronto Area, after Toronto, Mississauga, and Brampton.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Markham
- **official name**: City of Markham
- **settlement type**: List of cities in Ontario, City (List of municipalities in Ontario#Lower-tier municipalities, lower-tier)
- **nickname**: The High-Tech Capital
- **motto**: Leading While Remembering
- **image skyline**: MarkhamCivicCenter27.jpg
- **image caption**: Markham Civic Centre
- **image map**: York-markham.PNG
- **mapsize**: 150px
- **map caption**: Location of Markham within York Region
- **pushpin map**: Canada Southern Ontario
- **pushpin map caption**: Markham in relation to southern Ontario
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision name**: Canada
- **subdivision type1**: Provinces and territories of Canada, Province
- **subdivision name1**: Ontario
- **subdivision type2**: Regional municipality, Regional Municipality
- **subdivision name2**: Regional Municipality of York, York Region
- **subdivision type3**: Communities
- **leader title**: Mayor
- **leader name**: Frank Scarpitti
- **leader title1**: Deputy Mayor
- **leader name1**: Michael Chan (Canadian politician), Michael Chan
- **leader title2**: Governing Body
- **leader name2**: Markham City Council
- **leader title3**: 2015 Canadian federal election, MPs
- **leader title4**: 2018 Ontario general election, MPPs
- **established title**: Settled
- **established date**: 1794 (Thornhill and Unionville)
- **established title2**: Incorporated
- **established date2**: 1872 (village)
 1971 (town)
 2012 (city)
- **area total km2**: 210.93
- **population as of**: Canada 2021 Census, 2021
- **population total**: 338503 (List of the largest municipalities in Canada by population, 16th)
- **population density km2**: 1604.8
- **population demonym**: Markhamite
- **elevation m**: 200
- **timezone**: Eastern Time Zone, EST
- **utc offset**: −05:00
- **timezone dst**: EDT
- **utc offset dst**: −04:00
- **postal code type**: Forward Sortation Area
- **postal code**: List of L postal codes of Canada, L3P to L3S, L6B to L6G
- **area codes**: Area codes 905, 289, and 365, 905, 289, 365, and 742
- **blank name**: ISO 3166-2:CA, ISO 3166-2
- **blank info**: CA-ON
- **blank1 name**: Geographical Names Board of Canada, GNBC Code
- **blank1 info**: FDNFZ
Matt Stajan

**Matthew Stajan** ( ; born December 19, 1983) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey centre.

Before playing in the NHL, Stajan played 3 seasons with the Belleville Bulls of the Ontario Hockey League (OHL). He was drafted with the 57th overall pick by the Toronto Maple Leafs in the 2002 NHL Entry Draft. On January 31, 2010, the Maple Leafs traded Stajan along with Niklas Hagman, Ian White and Jamal Mayers in exchange for Dion Phaneuf, Fredrik Sjöström and Keith Aulie.

He is married to his wife Katie and they live in Calgary. Their first child named Emerson, died on March 3, 2014 shortly after birth.

## Infobox (ice hockey player)

- **name**: Matt Stajan
- **image**: Matt Stajan.png
- **image size**: 230px
- **caption**: Stajan in 2010
- **birth place**: Mississauga, Ontario, Mississauga, Ontario, Canada
- **height ft**: 6
- **height in**: 1
- **weight lb**: 192
- **position**: Centre (ice hockey), Centre
- **shoots**: Left
- **played for**: Toronto Maple Leafs
Calgary Flames
EHC Red Bull München, EHC München
- **draft**: 57th overall
- **draft year**: 2002
- **draft team**: Toronto Maple Leafs
- **career start**: 2004
- **career end**: 2019
Cajvana

**Cajvana** is a town of Suceava County in the southern part of Bukovina in Romania.
Mount Athos

**Mount Athos** is a mountain in the Greek province of Macedonia. It is also commonly referred to as the **Self-governed Monastic State of the Holy Mountain**, which is an autonomous part of Greece.

## Overview

There are twenty Eastern Orthodox monasteries inside this state. Spiritually, Mount Athos comes under the direct jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople.

## Geography

The peninsula is the easternmost "leg" of the larger Halkidiki peninsula. It protrudes into the Aegean Sea for some  at a width between 7 and 12 km and covers an area of , with the actual Mount Athos and its steep, densely forested slopes reaching up to . The seas around the end of the peninsula can be dangerous.

## Access

The peninsula is only accessible by boat. There is a limit on the number of visitors. People visiting need to get a special permit. Only men are allowed to enter. Monks call Mount Athos the "Garden of the Virgin."

Orthodox Christians take precedence in the permit issuing procedure. Only males over the age of 18 who are members of an Eastern Orthodox Church are allowed to live on Athos. A large number of Albanian Muslims work in the Holy Mountain.

## Security

There is a small number of unarmed, religious guards (Σερδάρηδες), who are not monks, for keeping order. Police and Coast Guard presence is very discreet. Any other people not monks are required to live in the peninsula's capital Karyes.

Most workers live at the place where they work. Small low class hotels exist at Karyes (administrative center) and Dafni (main port). The 2001 Greek national census recorded a population of 2,262 inhabitants.
Barcelona Metro line 9

**Line 9** (***Línia 9*** in Catalan) is the newest line in the Barcelona Metro network, currently under construction, with only five complete stations, all in Santa Coloma de Gramenet. These first five stations opened on 13 December 2009. The complete line is a railway project to build a subway line with two branches spanning a good deal of the metropolitan area of Barcelona through Barcelona, Santa Coloma de Gramenet, Badalona, l'Hospitalet de Llobregat and El Prat de Llobregat. TMB is the company operating the line and handled by the division line in two: Line 9 and Line 10.

## List of stations

**El Prat area**
- Aeroport-T1 (Barcelona International Airport, _RENFE_)
- _Aeroport Terminal de Càrrega_
- Aeroport-T2 (Barcelona International Airport, RENFE)
- Mas Blau
- Parc Nou
- Cèntric
- El Prat Estació (L1, RENFE)
- Les Moreres
- Mercabarna
- Parc Logístic
- Fira (_L2_)
- Europa  Fira (L8)
**Central branch, shared with L10**
- Can Tries
- Torrassa (L1, RENFE)
- Collblanc (L5)
- _Camp Nou_ (T1, T2, T3)
- Zona Universitària (L3)
- _Campus Nord_
- _Manuel Girona_
- _Prat de la Riba_
- _Sarrià_ (L6)
- _Mandrí_
- _El Putxet_ (L7)
- _Lesseps_ (L3)
- _Muntanya_
- _Sanllehy_
- _Guinardó - Hospital de Sant Pau_ (L4)
- _Maragall_
- La Sagrera (L1, _L4_, RENFE)
- _Estació de la Sagrera (L4, RENFE-AVE)_
- Onze de Setembre
- Bon Pastor
**Besòs area**
- Can Peixauet
- Santa Rosa
- Fondo (L1)
- Església Major
- Singuerlín
- Can Zam
Barcelona Metro line 10

**Line 10** (**La Sagrera - Gorg** and **ZAL | Riu Vell - Collblanc**) is the name of one of the two branches of the Barcelona metro extension line 9, currently under construction and to be operated by TMB.

## Overview

It links the Zona Franca with Badalona, through Barcelona proper, sharing a good deal of the area covered by L9. L9/10 will be the deepest line in the network, and the longest line in Europe. Originally expected to be ready by 2008, ongoing problems with its construction are going to delay its completion until as late as 2013.

## List of stations

(_Keep in mind all of them are currently under construction_)

**Zona Franca area**
- Polígon Pratenc
- Zona Franca ZAL
- Zona Franca Port
- Zona Franca Litoral
- Motors
- Foc Cisell (L2)
- Foneria
- Ildefons Cerdà (L8)
- Provençana
**Central branch, shared with L9**
- Can Tries
- Torrassa (L1, RENFE)
- Collblanc (L5)
- Campus Sud (T1, T2, T3)
- Zona Universitària (L3)
- Campus Nord
- Manuel Girona
- Prat de la Riba
- Sarrià (L6)
- Mandrí
- El Putxet (L7)
- Lesseps (L3)
- Muntanya
- Sanllehy
- Guinardó (L4)
- Maragall
- Sagrera-Meridiana (L1, L4, RENFE)
- Estació de la Sagrera (L4, RENFE-AVE)
- Onze de Setembre
- Bon Pastor
**Besòs area**
- Llefià
- La Salut
- Gorg (L2, T5, T6)

## Other websites

- Avui article, part 1
- Avui article, part 2
Barcelona Metro line 2

**Line 2**, also known by the names of its termini, currently **Paral·lel** - **Badalona Pompeu Fabra**, is a metro line in Barcelona operated by TMB, coloured purple and sometimes simply called _línia lila_.

## Chronology

- 1995 - Sant Antoni-Sagrada Família section opened.
- 1996 - Sant Antoni-Paral·lel section opened.
- 1997 - Sagrada Família-La Pau section opened.
- 2002 - La Pau-Pep Ventura section moved from L4 to this line.
- 2010 - Pep Ventura - Badalona Pompeu Fabra section opened.

## Technical details

- Colour on map: Purple
- Number of stations: 18
- Type: Conventional metro
- Length:
- Rolling stock: 2100, 5000 and 9000 series
- Journey time: 24 minutes
- Track gauge:
- Traction: Electricity
- Power supply: Rigid overhead wire
- Open-air sections: No
- Mobile phone coverage: Partial
- Depots: Verneda (Triangle Ferroviari)
- Operator: TMB

## Stations

Station and line names shown in italics are planned or under construction additions.
- _Terminal D (L9)_
- _Ciutat Aeroportuària (L9)_
- _Terminals A-B-C (L9)_
- _Sant Cosme (L9)_
- _El Prat Centre (L9)_
- _Estació del Prat (L1, L9, RENFE)_
- _Centre Direccional (L1, L9)_
- _Verge de Montserrat (L9)_
- _Mercabarna (L9)_
- _Parc Logístic (L9)_
- _Fira 2-Pedrosa (L9)_
- _Foc Cisell (L10)_
- _INEF_
- _Fira 1_
- _Poble Sec (L3)_
- Paral·lel  (L3, Funicular de Montjuïc)
- Sant Antoni
- Universitat  (L1)
- Passeig de Gràcia  (L3, L4, RENFE)
- Tetuan
- Monumental
- Sagrada Família  (L5)
- Encants
- Clot  (L1, RENFE)
- Bac de Roda
- Sant Martí
- La Pau  (L4)
- Verneda
- Artigues-Sant Adrià
- Sant Roc (T5)
- Gorg  (T5, _L10_)
- Pep Ventura
- _Badalona Pompeu Fabra (L1)_
- _Casagemes_
- _Canyadó_
- _Morera (L13)_

## Other websites

- Trenscat.com
Sam Cooke

**Sam Cooke** (January 22, 1931–December 11, 1964) was an American soul singer, record producer, dancer

and songwriter. He was born **Sam Cook** but later changed the spelling of his name. He was very important and influential in the beginning of soul music. He had many hit songs in America. Some of his most famous songs were "You Send Me", "A Change Is Gonna Come", "Chain Gang", "Wonderful World", and "Bring It on Home to Me".

Cooke started his own record label and publishing company. He was an important part of the Civil Rights Movement, helping African-American people to get civil rights.

## Murder

Cooke was gunned down by a hotel manageress named Bertha Franklin. She told the police that she shot Cooke in self-defense. Sam was buried in Glendale, California.

## Other websites

- Hear Sam Cooke on the Pop Chronicles

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Sam Cooke
- **img**: Sam Cooke 2.jpg
- **background**: solo_singer
- **birth name**: Samuel Cook
- **alias**: Dale Cooke
- **birth place**: Clarksdale, Mississippi, Clarksdale,  Mississippi
- **death place**: Los Angeles, California, Los Angeles, California
- **instrument**: singer, Vocals, piano, guitar
- **genre**: Rhythm and blues, R&B, Soul music, soul, Gospel music, gospel, Pop music, pop
- **occupation**: Singer-songwriter
- **years active**: 1950–1964
- **label**: Specialty Records, Specialty, Keen Records, Keen, RCA Records, RCA
- **associated acts**: The Soul Stirrers
Bobby Womack
Johnnie Taylor
L2

**L2** can mean:

- Second language
- Barcelona Metro line 2
- _L2: Empuraan_, a 2025 Indian movie, also called _L2E_
Catherine Morland

**Catherine Morland** is the principal character in Jane Austen's book _Northanger Abbey_. She enjoys reading the mysterious and frightening gothic novels that were popular in her time. She often has a tendency to blur the lines between fiction and reality, which causes her a great deal of trouble. She is the neighbor of Mr. Allens, a rich man, and goes with him to Bath, a city in Northeastern Somerset, England. Jane Austen used her to mock the obvious classics where the perfect heroes fall in love with the heroines, and they marry and live "happily ever after".

Jane Austen, in the beginning of Chapter Two, describes her as having a heart that "was affectionate (loving)", a "disposition (character) cheerful and open, without conceit (pride) or affectation".

## Childhood

The book _Northanger Abbey_ begins with, "No one who had ever seen Catherine Morland in her infancy, would have supposed her born to be an heroine." Her father, Richard, is a clergyman (pastor) who, even though he is not rich, is not poor; her mother is "a woman of useful plain sense, with a good temper, and, what is more remarkable, with a good constitution." Catherine is called "plain" when she is young, with "a thin awkward figure, a  skin without colour, dark  hair, and strong features..." She likes to play boy's games more than playing with dolls, and does not like lessons, though she does like stories and fables. Catherine likes "tinkling the keys of the old  spinnet (piano)," but she hates learning music, and "the day which dismissed (sent away) the music-master was one of the happiest in Catherine's life." She does not draw well; she did not like writing, or accounts, or French. However, she is usually nice to her brothers and sisters, and listens to her parents.

## Adulthood

Catherine becomes "almost pretty" at 15, when she grows plumper, cleaner, and more . She begins reading better books, like those that Pope, Gray, Thompson, and Shakespeare's. Mrs. Allen invites her to come to Bath with her, and she agrees. There, she is always very polite to Mrs. Allen, and is humbly satisfied when a few men call her a "pretty girl." She falls in love with Henry Tilney, and even though they misunderstand each other some times, they quickly become good friends. She also becomes friends with  Eleanor Tilney, and she is invited to Northanger Abbey. General Tilney, Henry's father, is kind to her, and she is happy. But sometimes she is too imaginative: for instance, she thinks General Tilney murdered his wife. Henry's gentle talk with her soon makes her more clear-sighted. The sudden rudeness of General Tilney makes her very sad until Henry comes and proposes to her; he also explains the General's first attentions, and later rudeness: the General had at first thought Catherine was very rich, and later thought Catherine was really poor. Actually, Catherine is neither - she lives quite comfortably. At the end of the book, they marry happily.

## References

- Character analysis by SparkNotes
Child abuse

**Child abuse** is the abuse, mistreatment or hurt done to children. It often means abuse done by a child's parents or another caregiver. Injuries to the skin like bruises are one of the signs of child abuse.

Talking about these things and helping children who suffer from child abuse is very important, but some people do not believe it could happen in their country, neighbourhood or family. They like to think these crimes are far away and so they cannot see if a child nearby is in danger.

## Definition

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines _child abuse_ and _child maltreatment_ as "all forms of physical and/or emotional ill-treatment [...] or other exploitation, resulting in actual or potential harm to the child's health, survival, development or dignity in the context of a relationship of responsibility, trust or power."

In the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) uses the term _child maltreatment_ to refer to both acts of abuse and neglect. According to the WHO, the term abuse includes  "words or overt actions that cause harm, potential harm, or threat of harm to a child"; neglect means  "the failure to provide for a child's basic physical, emotional, or educational needs or to protect a child from harm or potential harm".

The United States federal Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act defines _child abuse and neglect_ as, at minimum, "any recent act or failure to act on the part of a parent or caretaker which results in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse or exploitation" or "an act or failure to act which presents an imminent risk of serious harm".

## Types of child abuse

- Child abandonment - when an adult leaves a child they are supposed to take care of.
- Child labour - when an adult forces a child to work.
- Child prostitution - when an adult make a child prostitute.
- Child sexual abuse — when an adult makes a child do sexual things, including sexual touching, or sexual intercourse.
- Psychological abuse of children - Treating children badly so that they develop a trauma: with very young children a general lack of care may be physical abuse.
- Chastisement  beating (En wiki: "infliction of corporal punishment as defined by law") or other like treatment amounting to physical abuse.
Revised Julian calendar

The **Revised Julian calendar** is a variation of the Julian calendar. It is mainly used by Eastern Orthodox churches. Some Eastern Orthodox churches introduced it in 1923.
Created in 1923 by Serbian scientist Milutin Milanković. source

## Leap years

1. If the year number can be divided by four without rest, the year is a leap year (same as Julian calendar and Gregorian calendar).
1. If the year can be divided by 100, it is not a leap year (same as Gregorian calendar).
1. If dividing the year by 900 leaves a remainder of 200 or 600, the year is a leap year.

Until the year 2800, this calendar will be in sync with the Gregorian calendar; From 2800 to 2900, the Gregorian calendar will be 1 day off.

## Related pages

- Gregorian calendar
- Julian calendar
Hakha Chin language

**Hakha Chin** is a language spoken in southern Asia by 446,264 people. The total figure includes 2,000 Zokhua, and 60,100 Lai speakers. The speakers are largely concentrated in eastern India in addition to Myanmar/Burma and Bangladesh.
Rangpuri language

**Rangpuri** is an Indo-Aryan language. It is spoken in India and Bangladesh. Sources disagree about how many people speak it.  A 1991 census said it was spoken by 5 million people. It is a Bengali-Assamese language spoken by the Rajbanshi people in India and Bangladesh. Many are bilingual in either Bengali or Assamese. Together with Rajbanshi of Nepal.

This is the native language of people of Cooch Behar, Lower Assam, Jalpaiguri, Darjeeling and some parts of Bangladesh.

Other names of the language are Rajbangsi, Rajbansi, Rajbanshi, Kamta, Kamtapuri, Kamatpuri, Kamatapuri, Kamrupi, Deshi Bhasha. Recently, "Kamtapuri Bhasha Academy" (2017) is formed by West Bengal Government.

## Wikimedia

- Kamtapuri Wikimedia
- Rajbanshi Wikimedia (Nepal)

## Infobox (language)

- **name**: Rangpuri
- **ethnicity**: Rajbanshi people, Rajbanshi
- **altname**: Rajbangshi, Kamatapuri
- **nativename**: রংপুরী, রাজবংশী, কামতাপুরী
- **states**: Bangladesh, India
- **region**: Bangladesh, India
- **speakers**: million
- **date**: 2007
- **ref**: e21
- **familycolor**: Indo-European
- **fam2**: Indo-Iranian languages, Indo-Iranian
- **fam3**: Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan
- **fam4**: Eastern Indo-Aryan languages, Eastern
- **fam5**: Bengali-Assamese languages, Bengali–Assamese
- **script**: Bengali-Assamese script, Devanagari script
- **nation**: * West Bengal (additional)
- **iso3**: rkt
- **glotto**: rang1265
- **glottorefname**: Central-Eastern Kamta
- **image**:
- **imagecaption**: Rajbongshi, Rangpuri, Kamatapuri in Bengali alphabet, Bengali
Rajbongshi, Kamtapuri in Assamese alphabet, Assamese
Rajbanshi in Devanagari
Teen idol

A **teen idol** is a celebrity or famous person who is very popular with teenagers. Teen idols are often young, but are not always teenagers themselves. They are often pop singers or actors. People started to call celebrities teen idols in the 20th century. Some early teen idols were Rudolph Valentino, Frank Sinatra, Judy Garland, Elvis Presley and James Dean.

In the 1960s and 1970s some pop singers became known as teen idols, like The Beatles, The Rolling Stones, The Monkees, Donny Osmond and David Cassidy. In the 1990s, bands like New Kids on the Block and Backstreet Boys were very popular with teenagers. In the 21st century, some teen idols have been Britney Spears, Miley Cyrus and the Jonas Brothers.
Hachinohe

is a city in Aomori Prefecture, Japan.

Hachinohe means "the 8th area" in north of Tohoku region from the Middle Ages era. There was "the places of 8th" for making horses for a war in Hachinohe.

Hachinohe has a famous industrial area, and has a bigger fishing port more than most of other cities.

There is a Tohoku Shinkansen station and the Tohoku Expressway in Hachinohe.

The main industries in Hachinohe are manufacturing and services. Most of people in Hacnihohe work in manufacturing. In Hachinohe, the fishing industry is famous. Hachinohe brings in the most squid and saba in Japan.

## Geography

Two rivers run through Hachinohe. One is the Mabechi River, which runs from the south to the east, and flows into the Pacific Ocean. The other is the Nida River, which runs from the south to the north.

### Surrounding municipalities

- Aomori Prefecture
    - Gonohe
    - Hashikami
    - Nanbu
    - Oirase
- Iwate Prefecture
    - Karumai

## Demography

According to Japanese census data,

|1995|2000|2005|2010|2015|2020|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|249,358|248,608|244,700|237,615|231,257|223,415|

## Other websites

- Official website

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Hachinohe
- **settlement type**: Core cities of Japan, Core city
- **image skyline**: Hachinohe city hall.jpg
- **imagesize**: 265px
- **image caption**: Hachinohe City Hall
- **image flag**: Flag of Hachinohe, Aomori.svg
- **image seal**: Emblem of Hachinohe, Aomori.svg
- **image map**: Hachinohe in Aomori Prefecture Ja.svg
- **mapsize**: 265px
- **map caption**: Hachinohe in Aomori Prefecture
- **subdivision type**: List of sovereign states, Country
- **subdivision type1**: List of regions of Japan, Region
- **subdivision name1**: Tōhoku region, Tōhoku
- **subdivision type2**: Prefectures of Japan, Prefecture
- **leader title**: Mayor
- **leader name**: Yūichi Kumagai
- **area total km2**: 305.6
- **population total**: 223,415
- **population as of**: October 1, 2020
- **population density km2**: 731.1
- **timezone1**: Japan Standard Time, JST
- **utc offset1**: +09:00
- **postal code type**: Postal code
- **postal code**: 031-8686
- **area code type**: Area code
- **area code**: 02203-9
- **blank name sec2**: Phone number
- **blank info sec2**: 0178-43-2111
- **blank1 name sec2**: Address
- **blank1 info sec2**: 1-1-1 Uchimaru,
Hachinohe-shi, Aomori-ken
Gerbstedt

**Gerbstedt** is a little town at the Mansfeld-Südharz rural district, Saxony-Anhalt in Germany. It is  north of Eisleben. The little river Lobach flows through it.

Gerbstedt is about  northwest of Halle, Saxony-Anhalt. It was first mentioned in 985 as Gerbizstidi. In the area of Gerbstedt, there is copper schist. It has been mined since 1730.

## Infobox (german location)

- **art**: Stadt
- **wappen**: Wappen Gerbstedt neu.png
- **lageplan**: Gerbstedt_in_MSH.svg
- **bundesland**: Sachsen-Anhalt
- **landkreis**: Mansfeld-Südharz
- **höhe**: 155
- **fläche**: 102.28
- **einwohner**: 8176
- **stand**: 2008-12-31
- **plz**: 06295, 06308, 06333, 06347
- **vorwahl**: 03476, 034773, 034783
- **kfz**: MSH
- **gemeindeschlüssel**: 15 0 87 165
- **gliederung**: 9
- **bürgermeister**: Siegfried Schwarz
- **partei**: CDU