juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Mariana Victoria of Spain

**Mariana Victoria of Spain** (31 March 1718 – 15 January 1781) sometimes **Maria Anna Victoria** was an _Infanta of Spain_ by birth and was later the Queen of Portugal as wife of King Joseph I. The eldest daughter of Philip V of Spain and Elisabeth Farnese. Under the influence of the Duke of Bourbon she was engaged to the young Louis XV of France at the age of seven. Rejected due to her age, the marriage never took place and she was sent back to Spain. In 1729 she was married to the son of John V of Portugal. Her husband became the King on 31 July 1750. The mother of Maria I of Portugal she also acted as regent of Portugal during the last months of her husbands life and acted as advisor to her daughter in her reign.

## Life in France

Under the influence of the Duke of Bourbon she was engaged to the young King Louis XV of France at the age of seven when she moved to the Palace of Versailles and was placed in the care of the Dowager Princess of Conti. Eventually due to her age she was unable to have children and was sent back to Spain in 1729. This caused a rift between the royal courts of Spain and France.

## Issue

1. Maria I of Portugal (17 December 1734 – 20 March 1816) married Infante Pedro of Portugal and had issue. Later queen of Portugal.
1. Mariana Francisca of Portugal (7 October 1736 – 6 May 1813) died unmarried.
1. Doroteia of Portugal (21 September 1739 – 14 January 1771) died unmarried.
1. Benedita of Portugal (25 July 1746 – 18 August 1829) married Infante Joseph, Prince of Beira, no issue.

## Titles and styles

- 31 March 1718 – 19 January 1729: _Her Royal Highness_ The Infanta _Dona_ Mariana Victoria of Spain
- 19 January 1729 – 31 July 1750: _Her Royal Highness_ the Princess of Brazil, Duchess of Braganza
- 31 July 1750 – 29 November 1776: _Her Most Faithful Majesty_ the Queen of Portugal and the Algarves
- 29 November 1776 – 24 February 1777: _Her Most Faithful Majesty_ the Queen Regent of Portugal and the Algarves
- 24 February 1777 – 15 January 1781: _Her Most Faithful Majesty_ the Queen Mother of Portugal and the Algarves

## Infobox (royalty)

- **consort**: yes
- **name**: Mariana Victoria of Spain
- **succession**: Queen of Portugal
- **image**: File:Rainha Dona Mariana Vitória.jpg
- **reign**: 31 July 1750 – 24 February 1777
- **spouse**: Joseph I of Portugal
- **full name**: Mariana Victoria de Borbón y Farnesio
- **issue**: Maria I of Portugal, Maria I, Queen of Portugal
 Infanta Mariana Francisca
Infanta Doroteia
 Benedita, Princess of Brazil
- **house**: House of Braganza
House of Bourbon
- **father**: Philip V of Spain
- **mother**: Elisabeth Farnese
- **birth place**: Royal Alcazar of Madrid, Spain
- **death place**: _Barraca Real of Ajuda_, Portugal
- **burial date**: 17 January 1781
- **burial place**: Royal Pantheon of the House of Braganza, Monastery of São Vicente de Fora
María Teresa Rafaela of Spain

**Infanta Maria Teresa of Spain** (_María Teresa Antonia Rafaela_; 11 June 1726 – 22 July 1746) was an _Infanta of Spain_ by birth and was later the wife of Louis of France, Dauphin of France, son of King Louis XV. She died during  childbirth aged 20, She gave birth to a daughter who died at two years of age leaving the Dauphine with no surviving descendants. She used the names "_Marie Thérèse_" (_see right_)

## Life

She was the second daughter of Philip V of Spain and Elisabeth Farnese. Baptised with the names María Teresa Antonia Rafaela, she was known as _María Teresa_. She was engaged to Louis Ferdinand, Dauphin of France, son of Louis XV of France. The official marriage took place at the Palace of Versailles on 23 February 1745. The marriage was an idea to try and better relations between France and Spain after Louis XV had not married Mariana Victoria of Spain, María Teresa Rafaela's older sister.

On 19 July 1746, _Marie Thérèse Raphaëlle_ (as she was known in France) gave birth to a daughter before dying herself on 22 July at Versailles. The child died in 1748. Her husband married again to Princess Maria Josepha of Saxony and was the mother of Louis XVI of France. She was buried at the Royal Basilica of Saint Denis outside Paris.

## Children

1. Marie Thérèse of France (19 July 1746 – 27 April 1748). Named after her mother, she died in infancy and was known simply as "_Madame Royale_".

### Titles and styles

- **11 June 1726 – 23 February 1745** _Her Royal Highness_ The Infanta _Doña María Teresa_ Antonia Rafaela of Spain.
- **23 February 1745 – 22 July 1746** _Her Royal Highness_ the Dauphine of France (_Son Altesse royale, "Madame la Dauphine"_.)

## Infobox (royalty)

- **name**: Infanta María Teresa of Spain
- **succession**: Dauphine of France
- **image**: Detail of the 1743 portrait of the Family of Philip V of Spain, (María Teresa Rafaela and María Antonia Fernanda) L M van Loo.jpg
- **caption**: Maria Teresa with her Maria Antonia of Spain, younger sister
- **spouse**: Louis, Dauphin of France (1729–1765), Louis, Dauphin of France
- **house**: House of Bourbon, Bourbons of Spain (_by birth_)
House of Bourbon, Bourbons of France (_by marriage_)
- **father**: Philip V of Spain
- **mother**: Elisabeth Farnese
- **issue**: Marie Thérèse, "Madame Royale"
- **reign**: 23 February 1745 – 22 July 1746
- **birth date**: 11 June 1726
- **reign-type**: Tenure
- **full name**: María Teresa Antonia Rafaela de Borbón y Farnesio
- **birth place**: Royal Alcazar, Madrid, Spain
- **death date**: 22 July 1746 (aged 20)
- **death place**: Palace of Versailles, France
- **burial date**: 6 August 1746
- **burial place**: Basilica of St Denis, Royal Basilica, Saint Denis, France
- **signature**: Signature of the Infanta Marie Thérèse of Spain at her own wedding to the Dauphin of France on 23 February 1745.png
Cleisthenes

**Cleisthenes** was a noble Athenian of the Alcmaeonid family. He reformed the constitution of Athens, and set it on a democratic footing in 508/7 BC.  For these accomplishments, historians refer to him as "the father of Athenian democracy".  He also increased the power of the Assembly, and he broke up power of the Athenian nobility.

With help from the his clan, he overthrew Hippias the tyrant (dictatorial ruler). After the collapse of Hippias' tyranny, Isagoras and Cleisthenes were rivals for power. Isagoras won the upper hand by appealing to the Spartan king Cleomenes I to help him expel Cleisthenes.

So Cleisthenes left Athens as an exile, and Isagoras held power in the city. Isagoras uprooted hundreds of people from their homes on the pretext that they were cursed, and attempted to dissolve the Council (βουλή, boulé). However, the Council resisted, and the Athenian people declared their support of it. Hence Isagoras and his supporters were forced to flee to the Acropolis, remaining besieged there for two days. On the third, they fled and were banished. Cleisthenes was subsequently recalled, along with hundreds of exiles, and he assumed leadership of Athens.
Menzies Campbell

**Walter Menzies "Ming" Campbell, Baron Campbell of Pittenweem**  (22 May 1941 – 26 September 2025) was a British politician and sprinter. He was born in Glasgow, Scotland. He was the leader of the Liberal Democrats from March 2006 to October 2007. He was the Member of Parliament (MP) for the constituency of North East Fife and the Chancellor of the University of St Andrews.

Between 1967 and 1974, Menzies Campbell held the British record for the 100 metres sprint as he was able to do it in 10.2 seconds. He was also the captain of the Great Britain athletics team between 1965 and 1966. In 1975, Campbell became the Chairman of the Scottish Liberals and was elected as an MP at the 1987 General Election. He became the Liberal Democrat's chief spokesperson on foreign affairs and defence in 1992 and became the Liberal Democrat's deputy leader in 2003. He was elected leader of the Liberal Democrats in March 2006 but had to resign in October 2007 and was replaced by Nick Clegg.

Campbell married Elspeth, Lady Grant-Suttie, daughter of Major General Roy Urquhart, in June 1970. The couple have no children. Lady Campbell had a child from her previous marriage. She died in June 2023.

Campbell died on 26 September 2025 in London, England at the age of 84.
Tricalcium phosphate

**Tricalcium phosphate** is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is Ca<sub>3</sub>(PO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>. It is made of calcium and phosphate ions.

## Properties

It is a white or gray solid. It becomes more insoluble when heated; most chemicals become more soluble (more easily dissolved).

## Occurrence

It is found in teeth, bones, and milk, as well as in the ground.

## Uses

It is used to make phosphoric acid. It is used to make fertilizer.
It is also used in bovine milk.

## Related pages

- Monocalcium phosphate
- Dicalcium phosphate
- Calcium carbonate
- Calcium chloride
- Phosphite
Monocalcium phosphate

**Monocalcium phosphate** is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is . It contains calcium and dihydrogen phosphate ions.

## Properties

Monocalcium phosphate is a colorless solid. It dissolves a little in water to make an acidic solution. It is made by replacing one of the hydrogen ions in phosphoric acid with a calcium ion.

## Preparation

It is made by reacting tricalcium phosphate rock with sulfuric acid. This makes monocalcium phosphate.

## Uses

It is used in baking powder. When it is dissolved in water, it makes an acidic solution which reacts with the sodium bicarbonate to make carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide makes it rise. It is also used in fertilizers.

## Related pages

- Dicalcium phosphate
- Sodium phosphate
Dicalcium phosphate

**Dicalcium phosphate** is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is . It is a salt of calcium and monohydrogen phosphate.

The common name dicalcium phosphate refers to how the calcium atom is dibasic: it replaces two hydrogen atoms from phosphoric acid. It does not refer to the number of calcium atoms.

## Properties

Dicalcium phosphate is a white solid. It does not dissolve in water. It can be thought of as phosphoric acid where two of the hydrogen ions are replaced with calcium ions.

## Preparation

It can be made by reacting phosphoric acid with calcium hydroxide. It can also be made by reacting sulfuric acid with a certain amount of tricalcium phosphate.

## Uses

It is used in fertilizers. It is also used in vitamin tablets. It is used to make sure chickens get calcium.

## Related pages

- Monocalcium phosphate
Toonzai

**Toonzai** was a group of cartoons broadcast on Saturday morning on The CW. It was first broadcast on August 14, 2010. It used to be named The CW4Kids. The programs were broadcast on weekday afternoons.

The block is programmed by 4Kids Entertainment. They also programmed the 4Kids TV on Fox until December 2008. 4Kids also indicated that it will retain _Yu-Gi-Oh!_ and _Sonic X_ in its lineup, along with adding _Dragon Ball Z Kai_, a redone version of _Dragon Ball Z_ from Funimation Entertainment that is shared with Nicktoons.

Family Guy: Season 1-23 Episode 1

## Programming

In most markets, most affiliates use the network's current Saturday morning schedule. Some, such as Atlanta's WUPA-TV broadcast the block on Sundays. This is usually done because the stations were at one time UPN affiliates and UPN did not have children's television programming on Saturday mornings. Former WB affiliate WCCT-TV in Hartford airs the first three hours of the block on Saturday mornings and the last two hours on Sunday mornings to make room for their own programing.

KMYS in San Antonio, currently the newest CW affiliate has decided to air the block during early Sunday morning and early Monday morning (split into a two-hour and three-hour block) airing before 5am due to its previous commitment of airing Fox's _Weekend Marketplace_ infomercial block on Saturday mornings (a holdover from its MyNetworkTV affiliation), along with already existing religious and paid programming on Sunday mornings; this by default will force most younger viewers of the block in that market to record it overnight for later viewing.

## Schedule

All times Pacific. Actual times may vary, depending on affiliate.
|Time|Show|Rating||
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|3:00 PM|_Sonic X_|rowspan=4|TV-Y7-FV|
|3:30 PM|_Yu-Gi-Oh!_|||
|4:00 PM|_Dragon Ball Z Kai_|||
|4:30 PM|_Yu-Gi-Oh! 5D's_ (Monday-Thursday) _Magi-Nation_ (Friday)|||

## Shows

- _Dragon Ball Z Kai_ (TV-Y7-FV) (also airs on Nicktoons in the USA)
- _Sonic X_ (TV-Y7-FV)
- _Yu-Gi-Oh!_ (TV-Y7-FV) (previously aired on Fox Kids and 4Kids TV in the USA)
- _Yu-Gi-Oh! 5D's_ (TV-Y7-FV)

## Former shows

- _Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Back to the Sewer_ (TV-Y7-FV) (August 14, 2010 - August 21, 2010)
- _Dinosaur King_ (TV-Y7-FV) (August 14, 2010 - October 9, 2010)

## Former "Popcorn For Breakfast" Movies

- _Turtles Forever_ (TV-Y7-FV)  (August 28, 2010)

## Related pages

- 4Kids Entertainment

## Other websites

- (Defunct)

## Infobox (programming block)

- **name**: Toonzai
- **image size**: 200px
- **formerly known**: _The CW4Kids_ (2008–2010)
- **channel**: The CW
- **country**: United States
- **format**: Saturday morning cartoon block
- **runtime**: 7am-Noon
- **language**: English
Serie C

**Serie C** is the third highest division of football in Italy after the Serie A and Serie B. It has its headquarters in Florence. In the past, it also had a club from San Marino in it. The league in the past was divided as Lega Pro Prima Divisione and Lega Pro Seconda Divisione. However, it was combined as only one division: Serie C, in 2017. It was originally founded as the Serie C in 1935, rebranded in 2014 to Lega Pro, and then rebranded again to Serie C in 2017.

## Format

Now there are 60 teams divided in three groups, primarily depending on the Italian geography:

- **Group A**: Northern Italy (Piedmont, Lombardy, Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, Veneto, Friuli Venezia Giulia)
- **Group B**: Central Italy (_Piedmont_, Emilia-Romagna, Tuscany, Umbria, Marche, Abruzzo, _Molise_, Lazio, _Sardinia_)
- **Group C**: South Italy (_Lombardy_, _Lazio_, Campania, Apulia, Basilicata, Calabria, Sicily)

There are 20 teams for each group: the first of group goes in Serie B. Other clubs, until tenth, make the playoffs: only the winner has an another place on Serie B. The last two teams of each group are directly relegated to Serie D: other teams are selected with playouts.

## History

After other championship of third division (from 1926), Serie C was founded on 1935, divided in groups. On 1978, was created two separated championships, _C1_ and _C2_ (from 2008 Lega Pro Prima Divisione and Lega Pro Seconda Divisione). For three season, returned an only league with name Lega Pro, and from 2017 took the current name. From season 2025–26 the sponsorship is _Sky Wifi_.

## Related pages

- 2025–26 Serie C
- Serie A
- Serie C
- Serie D
- Eccellenza
- Promozione
- Prima Categoria
- Seconda Categoria
- Terza Categoria
- Coppa Italia Serie C

## Infobox (football league)

- **leaguename**: Lega Italiana Calcio Professionistico
- **image**: File:Serie_C_sky_wifi_2025-2026.png
- **country**: Italy
- **confed**: UEFA
- **founded**: 1935 (as Serie C)
 2014 (refounded as Lega Pro)
 2017 (refounded again as Serie C)
- **divisions**: 3
- **teams**: 60
- **promotion**: Serie B
- **relegation**: Serie D
- **levels**: 3–4 (3 from 2014–15)
- **domest cup**: Coppa Italia
- **league cup**: Coppa Italia Serie C
Supercoppa di Serie C
- **champions**: **Group A**: Calcio Padova
**Group B**: Virtus Entella

**Group C**: US Avellino 1912
- **season**: 2024–25 Serie C
- **website**: [https://www.lega-pro.com/ Lega-pro.com]
- **current**: 2025–26 Serie C
Stopping power

**Stopping power** is a way to measure how powerful a firearm is. Stopping power is a measure of how quickly the gun kills an animal, for instance. Many large animals are not killed after being shot with an ordinary gun and can do damage before they die. Elephant guns, which have much more stopping power, are used to kill the large animal quickly.
TERGV

The **TERGV** (for _Regional Express Train on high-speed line_) is a model to run trains in Nord-Pas-de-Calais. The idea is to run regional trains on lines constructed for "express trains", instead of the "classic lines". This works only in the case that the high-speed line is used only rarely. Running regional trains on such lines slows down the express trains, and costs more than running them on the classic lines. Despite these problems, the concept is very promising for distances between 100 and 200 km.

There are currently two lines that operate in this manner:
1. Lille-Dunkerque (30 minutes)
1. Lille-Calais-Boulogne-sur-Mer (55 min, 30 min to Calais)
To use these connections, an extra fee must be paid, which is three euros, per day. Another line, Lille to Arras has been opened. This line does not require the extra fee, and has proved very successful.
Planet of the Apes (1968 movie)

***Planet of the Apes*** is an American science fiction adventure movie released in 1968 and directed by Franklin J. Schaffner. It was based on the novel _La planète des singes_ written by Pierre Boulle and released in 1963. The movie stars Charlton Heston and features Roddy McDowall, Kim Hunter, Maurice Evans, James Whitmore, James Daly and Linda Harrison. It was released by 20th Century Fox.

## Plot

The film's story is about an astronaut crew who leave Earth on a deep space mission and crash land on a supposedly alien planet in the 40th century. Only three out of the four crew members survive the crash and the survivors find the world to be home to a society of apes; including chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans. These apes have the intelligence of human beings as well as the ability to speak and walk upright like humans. Humans in this society are treated like slaves and live in the wilderness without the ability to speak. At the end of the movie, one of the crew members finds the Statue of Liberty and realizes that they were on Earth all along.

## Reception and influence

_Planet of the Apes_ was a box office success, meaning it earned a good amount of money and got highly favourable reviews from critics. The movie was given praise for exploring ideas such as class differences, religion, slavery, racism, and nuclear technology. It was followed by four sequels: _Beneath the Planet of the Apes_ (1970), _Escape from the Planet of the Apes_ (1971), _Conquest of the Planet of the Apes_ (1972), and _Battle for the Planet of the Apes_ (1973). A live action television show was shown in 1974 and an animated television show called _Return to the Planet of the Apes_ came out in 1975. The animated cartoon The Fairly Oddparents episode Abra-Catastrophe has a segment where humans are slave cavemen and the apes are their overlords.

In 2001, the Library of Congress selected the movie into the United States National Film Registry. In the same year, a remake of the movie was made, directed by Tim Burton and starring Mark Wahlberg, Helena Bonham Carter, and Tim Roth. In August 2011, the series was rebooted with _Rise of the Planet of the Apes_. This was followed in 2014 with _Dawn of the Planet of the Apes_ with two more sequels released in 2017 and 2024, respectively: _War for the Planet of the Apes_ and _Kingdom of the Planet of the Apes_.
Small business

A **small business**, sometimes called a **mom and pop store** by some in the United States, is a business that is privately owned and operated. They have a small number of employees and do not sell many things. Whether or not the law says that a business is "small" is different in different countries and industries.
- The Australian _Fair Work Act 2009_ says that a small business is a business with less than 15 employees.
- In the European Union, to be called "small", a business must have fewer than 50 employees.http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/sme/files/sme_definition/sme_user_guide_en.pdf
- In the United States, a business must have fewer than 500 employees to qualify for some Small Business Administration programs.
- In India businesses with fewer than ten employees are in the "Unorganised sector".

Small businesses are common in many countries.  Some examples include: convenience stores, other small shops (such as a bakery), hairdresser<nowiki/>s, tradesmen, lawyers, accountants, restaurants, guest houses, photographers, small-scale manufacturing, and online business, such as web design and programming.

## Good things about small business

A small business can be started at a very low cost. It also does not need to be open all the time.

Independence is another good thing about owning a small business.   Being able to operate by themselves is a good thing for small business owners. Small business owners can make their own decisions about what they want to do with their company.  However, entrepreneurs often must work very long hours and understand that their customers are their bosses.

Many organizations in the United States also give help to small businesses, such as the Internal Revenue Service's Small Business and Self-Employed One-Stop Resource.

## Problems for small businesses

Small businesses often face a lot of problems because of their size.

In the United States, some of the largest concerns of small business owners are insurance costs, high energy costs and taxes.

Another problem for several small businesses is the fact that much larger businesses can influence their chances for success.
Hydration

**Hydration** is the adding of water molecules to a chemical substance. The **anhydrous** (without water) form and the **hydrated** (with water) form can be quite different. The hydrated form is called a "hydrate". For example, anhydrous tin(IV) chloride is a liquid, while the pentahydrate (with 5 water molecules) is a solid. Anhydrous copper sulfate is white or light green, while the hydrated form is blue. Anhydrous cobalt(II) chloride is blue, while the hydrated form is red. Anhydrous copper(II) chloride is brown, while the dihydrate is green.

The number of water molecules for each atom is given by a prefix. Mono- means 1, di- means 2, tri- means 3, tetra- means 4, penta- means 5, hexa- means 6, hepta- means 7, octo- means 8, nona- means 9, deca- means 10.
Pocket Ref

***Pocket Ref*** is a small book that contains various information including tips, tables, maps, science facts, weather information, and so on. It is in a small shape that is made to fit in a pocket. It is written by Thomas J. Glover and published by Sequoia Publishing, Inc.
Rival Lovers

**Rival Lovers** is a dialogue that was thought to have been written by Plato. In Rival Lovers, Socrates is the main character who asks questions.
Art movement

An **art movement**, or _ism_, is a style in art. It may have a common philosophy, followed by a group of artists. It may be a label given by a critic to describe a type of artwork. It is typical of the post-photography era that art explores new directions.

Some art movements can be pinned down to a time and place, or to particular artists. Verbal explanation of movements may come from the artists themselves, sometimes in the form of an art manifesto (published statement). Quite often, a movement is labelled afterwards by some art historian or critic.

Art movements may be connected to similar ideas in architecture, literature, philosophy or even politics. In rough date order:

- classicism
- neoclassicism
- impressionism
- Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood
- post-impressionism
- Art Nouveau
- modern art
- abstract art
- cubism
- fauvism
- futurism
- expressionism
- suprematism
- geometric abstraction
- constructivism
- dadaism
- Art Deco
- surrealism
- contemporary art
- abstract expressionism
- pop art
- op art
- conceptual art
Stratford

**Stratford** is a town in London Borough of Lewisham which hosted the 2012 London Olympics. Stratford is in the Outer London.
Leah

The name **Leah** [ **lee**-_uh_ ] has biblical roots, and means _wild cow_ in Hebrew. Leah is a timeless and exquisite moniker that has been in vogue for centuries, boasting a compelling past and profound significance. This name, derived from Hebrew roots, translates to "weary" or "tired," and has a prominent place in biblical literature, making it a beloved choice among Jewish lineages for countless generations. This name was ranked #46 on the US Popular Names in 2021.

In Genesis, the first book of the Bible, Leah is the older sister of Rachel. Leah marries Jacob and becomes the mother of six sons: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah (Biblical personage), Issachar, Zebulun, and a daughter, Dinah.

## People

- Leah Chase, American chef (1923-2019)
- Leah Bracknell, British actress and yoga instructor (1964-2019)
- Leah LaBelle, American singer (1986–2018)
- Leah Pipes, American actress

## Infobox (given name)

- **name**: Leah
- **gender**: Female
- **meaning**: Wild cow; Placid
- **language**: Hebrew
- **alternative spelling**: Lea
- **related names**: Leia, Lia
Conceptual art

**Conceptual art** is art in which the concepts or ideas involved in the work are more important than traditional aesthetic and material concerns. Many of the works, sometimes called installations, may be constructed by anyone simply by following a set of written instructions. This method was fundamental to one of the first to appear in print:

- "In conceptual art the idea or concept is the most important aspect of the work. When an artist uses a conceptual form of art, it means that all of the planning and decisions are made beforehand and the execution is a perfunctory affair. The idea becomes a machine that makes the art".

Conceptual art even questions the nature of art. Joseph Kosuth elevated this into a definition of art itself in his early manifesto of conceptual art.

The notion that art should examine its own nature was already part of art critic Clement Greenberg's vision of modern art during the 1950s. With the emergence of an exclusively language-based art in the 1960s, however, conceptual artists began a far more radical analysis of art than was previously done. One of the first things they questioned was the assumption that the role of the artist was to create special kinds of material objects.

Conceptual art has come to mean all contemporary art which does not use the traditional skills of painting and sculpture.

## Related pages

- Art & Language
Center of mass

**Center of mass** or **barycenter** of a system is the average position of all the mass in a system.

In a rigid body, the center of mass is always in the same place. In a loose collection the center of mass may be in space, as it is in the Solar System. Also, as planets' orbits change slightly, so will the position of the barycenter.

A simple way to understand the concept of barycenter is to push a supermarket trolley. If you hold only one corner and push, it will only go in a straight line when you push through the center of mass. Otherwise a turning force is created. This shows that the mass acts as if it were only in one place.

The **center of gravity** is a closely related term. It is the point where an object can be balanced perfectly by a sharp point holding it up under the object. It is the center of mass acting in a gravitational field.

## History

The concept of center of mass was first introduced by the ancient Greek physicist, mathematician, and engineer Archimedes of Syracuse.  Archimedes showed that the torque (turning force) exerted on a lever by weights resting at various points along the lever is the same as what it would be if all of the weights were moved to a single point — their center of mass.

Archimedes was the first person to work out ways of finding the center of mass in various objects.

## Relation between the two terms

The center of mass is often called the _center of gravity_ because any uniform gravitational field **g** acts on a system as if the mass _M_ of the system were concentrated at the center of mass **R**.
Implication

**Implication** may be one of these:
- Implication (grammar): this is to suggest something is true, without actually saying it. _Most uses of the term are of this type_.
- Implication (logic): what follows in syllogism. If all men are mortal, and Aristotle is a man, the implication is that Aristotle is mortal. _Implication in logic is only used within formal logical systems_.
Marcel Duchamp

**Marcel Duchamp** (28 July 1887 – 2 October 1968) was a French artist whose work is most often associated with the Dadaist and Surrealist movements. Duchamp's output influenced the development of post-World War I Western art. He advised modern art collectors, such as Peggy Guggenheim and other prominent figures, thereby helping to shape the tastes of Western art during this period.

A playful man, Duchamp challenged conventional thought about artistic processes and art marketing, not so much by writing, but through subversive actions such as dubbing a urinal art and naming it _Fountain_. This approach would 50 years later be called conceptual art, though he himself used the term 'ready-mades' for this idea. He produced relatively few artworks, while moving quickly through the avant-garde circles of his time.

> The creative act is not performed by the artist alone; the spectator brings the work in contact with the external world by deciphering and interpreting its inner qualifications and thus adds his contribution to the creative act.

## Duchamp and chess

Upon his return to Paris in 1923, Duchamp was, in essence, no longer a practicing artist. Instead, he played chess, which he studied for the rest of his life to the exclusion of most other activities.

Duchamp can be seen, very briefly, playing chess with Man Ray in the short film _Entr'acte_ (1924) by René Clair. During this period his fascination with chess so distressed his first wife that she glued his pieces to the board. Duchamp continued to play in the French Championships and also in the Chess Olympiads from 1928–1933, favoring hypermodern openings such as the Nimzo-Indian.

## Infobox (artist)

- **name**: Marcel Duchamp
- **image**: Rue Marcel-Duchamp, Paris 13-2.jpg
- **image size**: 200px
- **caption**: Rue Marcel-Duchamp, Paris 13e.
- **birth name**: Henri-Robert-Marcel Duchamp
- **birth place**: Blainville-Crevon, France
- **death place**: Neuilly-sur-Seine, France
- **nationality**: French, became a U.S. citizen in 1955
- **field**: Painting, sculpture, film
- **movement**: Dada, Surrealism
- **works**: _Nude Descending a Staircase, #2_ (1912)
_Fountain_ (1917)
_The Bride Stripped Bare By Her Bachelors, Even_ (1915-23)
_Etant donnés_ (1946-66)
The Gaslight Anthem

**The Gaslight Anthem** is an American punk band from New Brunswick, New Jersey. The members are Brian Fallon (lead vocals, guitar), Alex Rosamilia (guitar, backing vocals), Alex Levine (bass guitar, backing vocals) and Benny Horowitz (drums, percussion, tambourine). They released their first album, _Sink or Swim_, on XOXO Records in May 2007, and their second album, _The '59 Sound_, on SideOneDummy Records in August 2008.  The band's third album, _American Slang_, was released on June 15, 2010.

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: The Gaslight Anthem
- **img**: Gaslightanthem.jpg
- **img capt**: The Gaslight Anthem playing ProtestFest 2008 in the Czech Republic
- **background**: group_or_band
- **origin**: New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA
- **genre**: Alternative rock, folk punk, punk rock, cowpunk
- **years active**: 2005–present
- **label**: SideOneDummy
XOXO
Sabot Productions resist records
- **url**: [http://www.gaslightanthem.com Official Website]
- **current members**: Brian Fallon
Alex Rosamilia
Alex Levine
Benny Horowitz
Jean-Marie Le Pen

**Jean-Marie Le Pen** (20 June 1928 – 7 January 2025) was a French politician, lawyer and activist. He was the leader of the French National Front (FN) from 1972 until 2011, which is a far-right political party in France. He was a Member of the European Parliament from 1984 to 2003 and again from 2004 to 2019. Le Pen was also a member of the National Assembly from 1956 to 1962 and again from 1986 to 1988.

Le Pen ran for President of France five times, but never won. His daughter, Marine Le Pen, was leader of the National Front and also unsuccessfully ran for President of France.

Le Pen supported immigration restrictions, the death penalty, raising incentives for homemakers, and was against the EU. He was strongly against same-sex marriage, euthanasia and abortion.

## Early life

Le Pen was born in La Trinité-sur-Mer, Brittany, France. He studied at the Paris-Panthéon-Assas University in Paris. Le Pen served in the French Army from 1953 to 1957.

## Political career

Jean-Marie Le Pen founded the FN in 1972. He became a Member of the European Parliament (MEP) in 1984 and ran for President of France five times; in 1974, 1988, 1995, 2002 and 2007. He came second in the 2002 election. Le Pen had xenophobic and antisemitic views and was accused of having practised torture when he fought in the Algerian War (1954-1962). He was suspended from the FN on 4 May 2015 by his daughter Marine, after saying good things about the gas chambers used in the Holocaust by Nazi Germany.

In April 2024, Jean Marie Le Pen was placed “under legal protection” at the request of his family.

## Personal life and death

The youngest of his three daughters was FN leader Marine Le Pen. His granddaughter was FN MP Marion Maréchal-Le Pen.

Le Pen died on 7 January 2025 at a care home in Garches, France from problems caused by a heart attack at the age of 96.

## Other websites

- Jews for Le Pen  from Haaretz
Ascanio Sobrero

**Ascanio Sobrero** (12 October 1812 - 26 December 1888) was an Italian chemist, who discovered nitroglycerin in 1847. He was born in Casale, Monferrato and worked in Paris. He was made a professor of chemistry at Turino. His face was badly hurt during an experiment with nitroglycerin. He thought it was too dangerous to be of any practical use. He said that he was ashamed to have discovered something that killed people. He died in Turin, Italy.
March 0

***March 0***, although a nonexistent date, is often another name for the leap day February 29. People who were born on a leap day can celebrate their birthday on "March 0", but this date is technically either February  28 or March 1.  It can also be used in software programs.

It can be represented as 00/03/yyyy, 03/00/yyyy or yyyy/03/00.
Grand Duchy of Tuscany

The **Grand Duchy of Tuscany** (, ) was a monarchy in Tuscany, an area in the north-west of the Italian Peninsula. It existed, with interruptions, from 1569 to 1859. It replaced the Duchy of Florence. It was ruled by the Grand Duke of Tuscany. The capital of the grand duchy was Florence. Until the House of Lorraine took over from the Medici, Tuscany was a state of the Holy Roman Empire until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. Under the Medici the heir to the grand ducal throne was called the "Grand Prince of Tuscany" whereas the Lorrainers used various titles for the heir apparent.
Cosimo II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany

**Cosimo II de' Medici** (12 May 1590 – 28 February 1621) was Grand Duke of Tuscany from 1609 until 1621. He was the elder son of Ferdinando I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany and Christine of Lorraine. He married Maria Magdalena of Austria and had eight children. Galileo Galilei was his childhood tutor.

For the most of his eleven-year reign, he delegated the administration of Tuscany to his ministers. He is best remembered as the patron of Galileo Galilei, his childhood tutor.

He died of tuberculosis in 1621.

## Family and children

Maria Magdalena and Cosimo had the following children:

- Maria Cristina  de' Medici (24 August 1609 – 9 August 1632) died unmarried.
- Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (14 July 1610 – 23 May 1670), who married Vittoria della Rovere (7 February 1622 – 6 March 1694) and had children.
- Gian Carlo de' Medici (24 July 1611 – 23 January 1663) made Cardinal in 1644.
- Margherita de' Medici (31 May 1612 – 6 February 1679) married Odoardo Farnese, Duke of Parma and had children.
- Mattias de' Medici (9 May 1613 – 14 October, 1667) later made Governor of Siena.
- Francesco de' Medici (16 October 1614 – 25 July 1634) died unmarried.
- Anna de' Medici (21 July 1616 – 11 September 1676) who married Ferdinand Charles, Archduke of Austria (1628-1662)
- Leopoldo de' Medici (6 November 1617 – 10 November 1675) made Cardinal in 1667.

## Titles and styles

- **12 May 1590 - 17 February 1609** _His Highness_ The Grand Prince of Tuscany.
- **17 February 1609 - 28 February 1621** _His Highness_ The Most Serene Grand Duke of Tuscany.

## Infobox (royalty)

- **type**: monarch
- **name**: Cosimo II
- **image**: Justus Sustermans 010.jpg
- **caption**: Cosimo II after Justus Sustermans
- **reign**: 17 February 1609 – 28 February 1621
- **succession**: Grand Duke of Tuscany
- **predecessor**: Ferdinando I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, Ferdinando I
- **successor**: Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, Ferdinando II
- **spouse**: Archduchess Maria Maddalena of Austria, Maria Maddalena of Austria
- **issue**: Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, Ferdinando II, Grand Duke of Tuscany
 Cardinal Gian Carlo
 Margherita, Duchess of Parma
Prince Mattias, Governor of Siena
Prince Francesco
Anna, Archduchess of Austria
Cardinal Leopoldo
- **full name**: Cosimo de' Medici
- **house**: House of Medici
- **father**: Ferdinando I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, Grand Duke Ferdinando I of Tuscany
- **mother**: Christine of Lorraine
- **birth date**: 12 May 1590
- **birth place**: Palazzo Pitti, Florence, Grand Duchy of Tuscany, Tuscany
- **death place**: Palazzo Pitti, Florence, Grand Duchy of Tuscany, Tuscany
- **religion**: Roman Catholicism
Maria Magdalena of Austria

**Maria Magdalena of Austria** or **Maria Maddalena of Austria** (7 October 1589 – 1 November 1631) was Grand Duchess of Tuscany from her husband's accession in 1609 until his death in 1621. With him, she had eight children, including a duchess of Parma, a grand duke of Tuscany, and an archduchess of Further Austria. She was the youngest daughter of Charles II, Archduke of Inner Austria, and his wife Maria Anna of Bavaria. During the minority of her son, Grand Duke Ferdinando II, she and her mother-in-law Christina of Lorraine acted as regents. She died in Padua.

## Family and children

- Maria Cristina  de' Medici (24 August 1609 – 9 August 1632) died unmarried.
- Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (14 July 1610 – 23 May 1670), who married Vittoria della Rovere (7 February 1622 – 6 March 1694) and had issue.
- Gian Carlo de' Medici (24 July 1611 – 23 January 1663) made Cardinal in 1644.
- Margherita de' Medici (31 May 1612 – 6 February 1679) married Odoardo Farnese, Duke of Parma and had issue.
- Mattias de' Medici (9 May 1613 – 14 October, 1667) Governor of Siena.
- Francesco de' Medici (16 October 1614 – 25 July 1634) died unmarried.
- Anna de' Medici (21 July 1616 – 11 September 1676) who married Ferdinand Charles, Archduke of Austria (1628-1662)
- Leopoldo de' Medici (6 November 1617 – 10 November 1675) made Cardinal in 1667.

## Infobox (royalty)

- **consort**: yes
- **name**: Maria Maddalena of Austria
- **full name**: Maria Magdalena
- **succession**: Grand Duchess of Tuscany
- **image**: Maria Maddalena of Austria as a widow by Sustermans.jpg
- **reign**: 17 February 1609 – 28 February 1621
- **spouse**: Cosimo II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany
- **issue**: Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, Ferdinando II, Grand Duke of Tuscany
Cardinal Gian Carlo
 Margherita, Duchess of Parma
Mattias, Governor of Siena
Prince Francesco
Anna, Archduchess of Austria
Leopold, Governor of Siena
- **house**: House of Habsburg
House of Medici
- **birth place**: Graz, Austria
- **death place**: Padua, Venice
- **father**: Charles II, Archduke of Austria
- **mother**: Maria Anna of Bavaria
1230s

The **1230s** were a decade that lasted from January 1, 1230 to December 31, 1239. It is distinct from the decade known as the ***124th decade*** which began on January 1, 1231 and ended on December 31, 1240.

## Events

- The Liverpool Castle started in 1232.
- Ducal state Brunswick-Luneburg was formed in 1235.
- St. Mark Basilica of Heraklion, Venitian Crete built in 1239
Margherita de' Medici

**Margherita de' Medici** (31 May 1612 – 6 February 1679) was Duchess of Parma and Piacenza by her marriage to Odoardo Farnese, Duke of Parma. Margherita was regent of Plaisance in 1635 and regent of the entire duchy in 1646 after the death of her husband.

## Family

She was the fourth of eight children and the second daughter born to Cosimo II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany and his wife Maria Magdalena of Austria.

Margherita's siblings included Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, Cardinal Gian Carlo de' Medici, Cardinal Leopoldo de' Medici and Anna, wife of Ferdinand Charles, Archduke of Further Austria. Margherita's other siblings died in childhood or eary adulthood.

Margherita married Odoardo Farnese, Duke of Parma on 11 October 1628. On 11 September 1646 Odoardo died. Their eldest son, Ranuccio was not yet old enough to rule the Duchy alone so Margherita acted as regent until her son was old enough to govern alone. She died in Parma on February 6 1679.

## Issue

1. Caterina Farnese (2 October 1629) died at birth.
1. Ranuccio Farnese, Duke of Parma (17 September 1630 – 11 December 1694) married (1) Margaret Yolande of Savoy, (2) Isabella d'Este, (3) Maria d'Este.
1. Alessandro Farnese (10 January 1635 - 18 February 1689), Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands died unmarried.
1. Onorato Farnese (24 January 1636 -2  November 1656) died unmarried.
1. Maria Caterina Farnese (3 September 1637 - 24 April 1648) a nun
1. Maria Maddalena Farnese (15 July 1638 - 11 March 1693) died unmarried.
1. Pietro Farnese (4 April 1639 - 4 March 1677) died unmarried.
1. Ottavio Farnese (5 January 1641 - 4 August 1641) died in infancy.
Vittoria della Rovere

**Vittoria della Rovere** (7 February 1622–5 March 1694) was Grand Duchess of Tuscany as the wife of Grand Duke Ferdinando II.

She gave her husband four children, two of which would survive infancy the future Cosimo III and Francesco Maria de' Medici, Duke of Rovere and Montefeltro. She was the Duchess of Rovere and Montefeltro in her own right and these went to her youngest son when she died. She was later the guardian of her three grandchildren. Her marriage bought a lot of art treasures to the House of Medici which are today at the Palazzo Pitti Uffizi Gallery in Florence. She did not get on with her daughter in law Marguerite Louise d'Orléans.

She was the daughter of Claudia de' Medici. She and her husband Ferdinando II were first cousins.

## Children

1. Cosimo de' Medici, Grand Prince of Tuscany (19 December 1639 - 21 December 1639) died in infancy.
1. Unnamed daughter (1640)
1. Cosimo III de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (14 August 1642 – 31 October 1723) married Marguerite Louise d'Orléans and had issue.
1. Francesco Maria de' Medici (12 November 1660 – 3 February 1711) married Eleonora Luisa Gonzaga, no issue.

### Titles and styles

- **7 February 1622 – 6 April 1637** _Her Highness_ Vittoria della Rovere, Princess of Urbino
- **6 April 1637 – 23 May 1670** _Her Most Serene Highness_ The Grand Duchess of Tuscany
- **23 May 1670 –  5 March 1694** _Her Most Serene Highness_ The Dowager Grand Duchess of Tuscany

## Infobox (royalty)

- **consort**: yes
- **name**: Vittoria della Rovere
- **full name**: Vittoria della Rovere
- **succession**: Grand Duchess of Tuscany
- **reign-type**: Consort
- **image**: Vittoria della Rovere after Justus Sustermans, Chambéry ; musée des beaux-arts.jpg
- **succession1**: Duchess of Rovere and Montefeltro
- **reign1**: 23 April 1631 - 5 March 1694
- **reign-type1**: Tenure
- **reign**: 6 April 1637 – 23 May 1670
- **spouse**: Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, Grand Duke Ferdinando II
- **issue**: Cosimo III de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, Cosimo III, Grand Duke of Tuscany
Francesco Maria, Duke of Rovere
- **house**: House of Medici
Della Rovere, House of La Rovere
- **birth place**: Ducal Palace of Pesaro, Duchy of Urbino
- **death place**: Pisa, Ducal Palace of Pisa, Grand Duchy of Tuscany, Tuscany
- **father**: Federico Ubaldo della Rovere, Duke of Urbino
- **mother**: Claudia de' Medici
Eleonora Luisa Gonzaga

**Eleanora Luisa Gonzaga** (13 November 1686 – 16 March 1741) was the Duchess of Rovere and Montefeltro as the wife of Francesco Maria de' Medici. She was the only child of Vincenzo Gonzaga, Duke of Guastalla and Sabbioneta and his second wife, Maria Vittoria Gonzaga. She did not bear any children and died mad.

She married on 14 July 1709.

## Infobox (royalty)

- **consort**: yes
- **name**: Eleanora Luisa Gonzaga
- **title**: Duchess of Rovere (and of Montefeltro)
- **reign**: 2 February 1711 – 16 March 1741
- **image**: Drawing of Eleonora Luisa Gonzaga, daughter of Vincenzo Gonzaga, Duke of Guastalla and wife of Francesco Maria de' Medici.jpg
- **spouse**: Francesco Maria de' Medici
- **house**: House of Gonzaga
House of Medici
- **birth place**: Guastalla, Duchy of Guastalla
- **death place**: Padua, Republic of Venice
- **father**: Vincenzo Gonzaga, Duke of Guastalla
- **mother**: Maria Vittoria Gonzaga
- **full name**: Eleonora Luisa Gonzaga
Tsūtenkaku

is a tower in Osaka, Japan. It is a well-known landmark and shows advertisements for Hitachi, Ltd.  The tower is 103 meters tall. The main observation deck is 91 meters above the ground. The three characters in the name mean "Reaching Heaven Tower". It is in Shinsekai, part of Naniwa Ward. Tsūtenkaku Kanko Co., Ltd. owns the tower.

## History

The current tower is the second tower on the site. The original tower was built in 1912. The design was based on the Eiffel Tower. The tower had an cable car that connected it to a nearby amusement park called Luna Park. The original was 64 meters tall. It was the second tallest building in Asia at that time. It quickly became one of the most popular locations in the city. Visitors came from all over.

There was a fire in 1943 which severely damaged the tower. It was not repaired. The tower was taken apart and the steel was used to make things for World War II.

After the war, citizens wanted to rebuild the popular tower. A private company called _Tsūtenkaku Kanko Co. Ltd._ was set up for this purpose. They hired Tachu Naito to design it. He was nicknamed Japan's "Father of Towers". The new tower opened in 1956.

## Signs

In 1957, Hitachi started putting neon sign advertisements on the tower. The advertisements have usually been changed every 5 or 6 years. Hitachi last changed the signs in 2006. New signs are scheduled for autumn 2011. The new signs will use LED lights, not neon. Other lights on the tower also show weather information.

## Access

- JR West, Osaka Loop Line and Yamatoji Line, Shin-Imamiya Station, East Exit (10 minute walk)
- Nankai Railway, Nankai Main Line and Koya Line, Shin-Imamiya Station, East Exit (10 minute walk)
- Osaka Municipal Subway Sakaisuji Line (brown line), Ebisuchō Station, Exit 3 (3 minute walk)
- Osaka Municipal Subway Midosuji Line (red line), Dobutsuen-mae Station, Exit 5 (10 minute walk)
- Hankai Tramway, Hankai Line, Ebisucho Station (3 minute walk)

## Related pages

- Tokyo Tower