juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
986

## Events

- March 2 – Louis V becomes King of the Franks
- End of the reign of Emperor Kazan, emperor of Japan
- Emperor Ichijō ascends to the throne of Japan
- Explorer Bjarni Herjólfsson becomes the first inhabitant of the Old World to sight North America
- Sweyn Forkbeard becomes King of Denmark
- Song Dynasty sends armies on three fronts against the Liao Dynasty in the Sixteen Prefectures but are defeated on all fronts.
The Truth about Nanjing

***The Truth about Nanjing*** is a Japanese movie from 2007. It is thought to be made by fundamental Japanese nationalists. In this movie they want to deny the fact of the Nanjing Massacre.

## Other websites

- 'Nanking No Shinjitsu' official website (Japanese language only)
- 'Nanking No Shinjitsu' Supporting Website ( Automatic translation )
Neoliberalism

**Neoliberalism** is a term for different social and economic ideas.  There is no agreed definition.  Originally the term was used by a group of liberals who helped shape social market economy in the mid 20th century. Classic liberalism is characterized by free market trade, deregulation of financial markets, mercantilism and the shift away from state welfare provision.

Alexander Rüstow was the first economist to develop this concept, looking after a Social Democracy system rather than a Laissez Faire Capitalist Society.

## Characteristics of Neoliberalism

In the application of neoliberal ideals, the state might also intervene and regulate, for example, to prevent exploitation, or to ensure social fairness and equality.

Neoliberalism is against the protection of group - rather than individual - interests, for example, that might be achieved through lobbying of groups, or state interventions that protect national interests via tariff<nowiki/>s or subsidies.

Neoliberalism has moved away from a centrally governed economy.

## Contemporary use

Since the 1990s the term has been consistently used in academia to imply the move from welfare state to laissez faire economic management, particularly associated with the promotion of free market ideals in the 1980s by Margaret Thatcher in the UK and Ronald Reagan in the US.

## Examples of neoliberal regimes of Government

- Chile under Augusto Pinochet
- Argentina under Mauricio Macri
- Great Britain under Margaret Thatcher
- New Zealand under David Lange
- The United States of America under Ronald Reagan
- Brazil under Jair Bolsonaro
- Japan under Shinzō Abe
Oligopoly

In economics, an **oligopoly** is a market form in which the market or industry is controlled by a small number of sellers. Usually, the market has high barriers to entry, which prevents new firms from entering the market or even be able to have a significant market share.

As there are only a few sellers in the market, each seller would take note of the actions made by one another, and thinks about how the other sellers will respond when making decisions. As such, there is a possibility in which an oligopoly can come together to make a common decision that allows them to have less competition and charge higher prices for consumers.

## Examples

In many countries, some country-held companies were privatized. Very often, this privatization lead to oligopolies. In many countries, there are only a handful of companies providing networks for mobile phones. They control the prices for accessing the network. That is why using a mobile phone is often much more expensive than using a land line one.

Trains run by private sectors are much costlier than those run by a government. As a government gives rights to private sectors to get a hold of some other sectors, they take advantage of it.

## Related pages

- Oligarchy
- Plutocracy

## Other websites

- Microeconomics by Elmer G. Wiens: Online Interactive Models of Oligopoly, Differentiated Oligopoly, and Monopolistic Competition
- Vives, X. (1999). Oligopoly pricing, MIT Press, Cambridge MA. (A comprehensive work on oligopoly theory)
Market forms

In economics, **market structure** (also known as **market form**) describes the state of a market with respect to competition.

Most market forms given below talk about a _homogeneous product_.  This simply means that they all make the same thing. They simply want to get the cheapest one, since all kinds of sugars (or soaps) look the same anyway.

The major market forms are:

- Perfect competition: there are many numbers of buyers as well as many numbers of sellers, all the producers sell the homogeneous product and price remains unchanged
- Monopolistic competition, also called competitive market: there are a large number of  independent firms. Each firm has  a very small proportion of the market share.
- Oligopoly: A market is dominated by a small number of firms which own more than 40% of the market share.
- Oligopsony: A  market dominated by many sellers and a few buyers.
- Monopoly: There is only one seller and many number of buyers.
- Natural monopoly: A monopoly in which economies of scale cause efficiency to increase continuously with the size of the firm.
- Monopsony: There is only one buyer in the  market.

The imperfectly competitive structure is quite identical to the realistic market conditions where some monopolistic competitors, monopolists, oligopolists, and duopolists exist and dominate the market conditions.

These somewhat abstract concerns usually determine some but not all details of a specific concrete market system where buyers and sellers actually meet and commit to trade.

|style="background:#efefef;"|Market Structure|style="background:#efefef;"|Seller Entry Barriers|style="background:#efefef;"|Seller Number|style="background:#efefef;"|Buyer Entry Barriers|style="background:#efefef;"|Buyer Number|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Perfect competition|No|Many|No|Many||||||
|Monopolistic competition|No|Many|No|Many||||||
|Oligopoly|Yes|Few|No|Many||||||
|Oligopsony|No|Many|Yes|Few||||||
|Monopoly|Yes|One|No|Many||||||
|Monopsony|No|Many|Yes|One||||||

The correct sequence of the market structure from most to least competitive is perfect competition, imperfect competition, oligopoly, and pure monopoly.

The main criteria by which one can distinguish between different market structures are: the number and size of producers and consumers in the market, the type of goods and services being traded, and the degree to which information can flow freely.

## Related pages

- Economics
- Constitutional economics
- Political economy
- Microeconomics
- Macroeconomics
- Industrial organization

## Other websites

- Microeconomics  by Elmer G. Wiens: Online Interactive Models of Oligopoly, Differentiated Oligopoly, and Monopolistic Competition
Monopolistic competition

**Monopolistic competition** is a market form. Like with Perfect competition, there are many buyers and sellers. But the market is not perfect. This is because the products are not homogeneous, or because the buyers have explicit or implicit preferences.

This market form is quite common. As an example, take a bakery. There are many bakeries in the town, but one of those bakeries can demand a slightly higher price for bread, because it is the only one in a certain part of the town.

Monopolistically competitive firms are able to gain a greater degree of market share and as a result, increase prices. If a particular bakery is known for selling the best pies and pasties in town, they can increase their prices for pies and pasties as they know consumers will pay slightly more for a superior product. This is known as establishing a brand name and brand loyalty.

## Related pages

- Constitutional economics
- Political economy
Elasticity (economics)

In economics, people talk about **elasticity** of an economic variable, usually supply or demand, in relation to another economic variable such as income or price. The elasticity of a variable is a measure of how much the variable changes in response to a change in a second variable.

If the price for a good with a price-elastic demand goes up, the demand for it will go down. For example, people will buy fewer DVDs if DVDs get more expensive − DVDs have a price-elastic demand.

If a good has a completely price-inelastic demand, the demand for it will not be affected by the price of it. For example, if the price of salt increases, people will not buy less of it. They need their daily salt intake. The demand of salt is therefore price-inelastic.

Elasticity is often measured in percents. If a 2% increase in price causes people to buy 1% fewer of a product, it has a price elasticity of demand of -0.5.

## Related pages

- Price elasticity of demand
Worcestershire

**Worcestershire** (ˈwʊs.təˌʃə; abbreviated **Worcs**) is a county in the West Midlands region of central England. From 1974 to 1998 it was part of Hereford and Worcester. The city of Worcester, where the sauce named after Worcestershire was invented, is within this county.

The county borders Herefordshire, Shropshire, Staffordshire, West Midlands, Warwickshire, and Gloucestershire.

## Physical geography

Worcestershire is a fairly rural county. The Malvern Hills, which run from the south of the county into Herefordshire, are made up mainly of volcanic rock, some of which date from before 1200 million years ago. For more on the geology of the Malvern Hills, see the other websites section below.

## Places of interest

- Avoncroft Museum of Historic Buildings
- Walton Hill and the Clent Hills
- Malvern Hills Area of Outstanding Natural beauty
- Severn Valley Railway
- Worcester Cathedral
- Great Malvern Priory
- Leigh Court Tithe Barn
- Claines Church
- River Teme and valley
- Tenbury Wells with its unique Pump Rooms.
- River Severn at Worcester, River Avon at Pershore or Evesham
- Witley Court at Great Witley. A burnt out shell of a large English stately home, famous for its gigantic fountain, now restored to working order. Currently owned by English Heritage.
- West Midlands Safari Park
- Hanbury Hall
- Forge Mill Needle Museum at Redditch, the only remaining working needle mill in the world.

## Local groups

- Worcestershire Conservative Future
- Herefordshire and Worcestershire Earth Heritage Trust

## Related pages

- Worcestershire sauce

## Other websites

- Worcestershire County Council main site
- Official Worcestershire County Council eHub

## Infobox (english county)

- **official name**: Worcestershire
- **image caption**: Worcester, England, Worcester; Broadway Tower, Worcestershire, Broadway Tower in the Cotswolds, and the Malvern Hills on the Worcestershire–Herefordshire border
- **locator map**: Worcestershire UK locator map 2010.svg
- **map caption**: Worcestershire within England
- **region**: West Midlands (region), West Midlands
- **established date**: 1 April 1998
- **established by**: Local Government Commission for England (1992), Local Government Commission for England
- **preceded by**: Hereford and Worcester
- **origin**: Historic counties of England, Ancient
- **lord lieutenant office**: Lord Lieutenant of Worcestershire
- **lord lieutenant name**: Beatrice Grant
- **high sheriff office**: High Sheriff of Worcestershire
- **high sheriff name**: Edward Holloway (2019–2020)
- **area total km2**: 1741
- **area total rank**: 34th
- **county council**: Worcestershire County Council
- **admin hq**: Worcester, England, Worcester
- **area council km2**: 1,741
- **area council rank**: 23rd
- **iso code**: GB-WOR
- **gss code**: E10000034
- **nuts code**: TLG12
- **districts map**:
- **districts list**: # City of Worcester, Worcester
# Wychavon
- **mps**: List of parliamentary constituencies in Herefordshire and Worcestershire, 6 MPs
- **police**: West Mercia Police
Zlín

**Zlín** (from 1949 to 1990 **Gottwaldov**) is a town in the Czech Republic. It is on the Dřevnice River. The Bata Shoes company has developed this city. It is now famous for urbanism.
St Andrews

**St Andrews** is a town, that has its name from Saint Andrew the Apostle and is a former royal burgh on the east coast of Fife, Scotland, and an important home of golf. It has a population of about 18 000, and stands on the North Sea coast between Edinburgh and Dundee. It is home to Scotland's oldest university, the _University of St Andrews_.

The town is called "home of golf" for two reasons. First, the _Royal and Ancient Golf Club_, founded in 1754,has authority over the game worldwide except in the USA and Mexico. Second, the beautiful _links_ (acquired by the town in 1894) is the most frequent venue for The Open Championship, the oldest of the Men's major golf championships.

Visitors travel to St Andrews in great numbers for several courses ranked amongst the finest in the world, as well as for the sandy beaches.

### Cathedral

The Cathedral of St Andrew was at one time Scotland's largest building. It was founded by Bishop Robert (1122 - 1159). It was not completed and consecrated until 1318 in the reign of Robert the Bruce (1306-29).

### St Rule's Tower

St Rule's tower stands in the Cathedral grounds but is older than the cathedral. Probably it was part of the Cathedral up to the early 12th century.

### Castle

The ruins of _St Andrews Castle_ stand on a rock at the sea. It is said that Bishop Roger erected the first stone castle on the site about the beginning of the 13th century as an episcopal residence.

### The University of St Andrews

The University of St Andrews owed its origin to a society formed in 1410 by Lawrence of Lindores, abbot of Scone and a few others.

The university library, which now includes the older college libraries, was founded about the middle of the 17th century, rebuilt in 1764, and improved in 1829 and 1889 - 1890.

The modern buildings, in the Jacobean style, were erected between 1827 and 1847. University College, Dundee, became in 1890 affiliated to the University of St Andrews.

## Other websites

- Royal Burgh of St Andrews Community Council
- The Official Tourist Portal for St Andrews
- St Andrews Links
St Andrew (disambiguation)

The element **St Andrew**, **St. Andrews** or **St. Andrew's** is found in the names of many places and institutions.  All of them are named after Saint Andrew, a Christian saint and one of the New Testament Apostles.

**Saint Andrew**
Other saints who share this name include:
- Saint Andrew Corsini (San Andrea Corsini)
- Saint Andrew of Crete
- Saint Andrew Fool of Christ, who lived in Byzantium in the 10th century and is venerated by the Eastern Orthodox Church.
- Saint Andrew the Scot
- Andrew of Lampsacus
- Andrew Avellino

**British Isles and Europe**
- The Saint Andrew's Cross (or saltire) is the national Flag of Scotland or the current Russian naval ensign.
- The Royal Burgh of St Andrews is a coastal town in Fife, Scotland.
- The Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews, a world-famous golf club based in the above town.
- The University of St Andrews is a university in Fife, Scotland.
- Saint Andrew's High School, is a Catholic high school outside Glasgow, Scotland
- St Andrews is a suburb of Bristol, England.
- St Andrews is a parish in Guernsey in the Channel Islands.
- St Andrews is the home stadium of Birmingham City football club.
- St. Andrew's College (Dublin) is a private international secondary school in Dublin, Ireland
- St. Andrews Major - a village parish in the Vale of Glamorgan, south Wales

**North America**
- St. Andrews, South Carolina is a city in South Carolina, United States
- St. Andrews-by-the-Sea is a town in New Brunswick, Canada.
- St Andrews is a town in Manitoba, Canada.
- St. Andrew's Society of Charleston, South Carolina is the first known immigrant Scottish society.
- St. Andrew is an electoral district in Ontario, Canada.
- St. Andrew's School is a boarding school in Middletown, Delaware.
- St. Andrew's College is an all-boys independent boarding school in Aurora, Ontario, Canada.
- St. Andrew's Episcopal School is an Episcopal school in Jackson, Mississippi.
- St. Andrew's Episcopal School is an Episcopal school in Potomac, Maryland.
- Saint Andrew Parish is the name of several parishes of the Caribbean.
- St. A's, short for St. Andrew's, is the name of a fraternity at Columbia and Yale Universities in the U.S.

**Australia, New Zealand, Japan**
- St Andrews is a suburb of Sydney, Australia.
- St Andrews is a suburb of Melbourne, Australia.
- St Andrews is a town in South Canterbury, New Zealand.
- St. Andrew's University is a university in Izumi, Japan.

**Egypt**
- St. Andrew's United Church in Cairo is a church serving mainly Western and African people in Egypt.

**Israel**
- St Andrew's Church, Jerusalem

**Malta**
- St. Andrew's is an informal district in St. Julian's, Malta.

**Morocco**
- Church of Saint Andrew, Tangier

**Other uses**
- A Saint Andrew's cross is also a kind of bondage furniture.

**See also**
- Disambiguation page: San Andreas
Pontiac

**Pontiac**, the **Pontiac Motor Division of General Motors** was one of the four motor divisions of General Motors. Pontiac was known for making affordable performance cars. It was established in 1926. In 2009, General Motors announced that it would close Pontiac due to Chapter 11 bankruptcy. The last Pontiac car was built at the end of 2010.

Pontiac is named for Pontiac (Ottawa leader), an 18th-century war chief, and for the town of Pontiac, Illinois.

### Final models

- Pontiac G3
- Pontiac G6
- G8 (coming in 2008)
- Solstice
- Pontiac Torrent
- Vibe a rebadged version of Toyota Voltz.
- Pontiac G5

### Older models

- Pontiac Aztek
- Pontiac G2/Matiz
- Pontiac Bonneville
- Pontiac Grand Am
- Pontiac Grand Prix
- Pontiac Le Mans
- Pontiac Firefly
- Pontiac Sunbird
- Pontiac Sunburst
- Pontiac Sunfire
- Pontiac Sunrunner
- Pontiac GTO
- Pontiac Montana

## Other websites

- Pontiac web site
- Canadian Pontiac web site
- Forever Pontiac web site

## Infobox (company)

- **name**: Pontiac
- **logo size**: 150
- **logo upright**: 1
- **type**: Brand (1926–1931)
division (business), Division (1931–2010)
- **fate**: Closed upon General Motors Chapter 11 reorganization
- **foundation**: ; 97 years ago
- **founder**: General Motors
- **defunct**: ; 13 years ago
- **key people**: Frank Hershey
Irving Jacob Reuter
Semon Knudsen, Semon "Bunkie" Knudsen
John DeLorean, John Z. DeLorean
- **location**: Detroit, Michigan, United States
- **industry**: Automotive industry, Automotive
- **area served**: Canada, United States, Mexico, Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands, Middle East
- **products**: Automobiles
- **parent**: Oakland Motor Car Company, Oakland Motor Car
(1925–1931)
General Motors
(1931–2010)
Buick

**Buick** is an automobile maker, owned by General Motors. It is known for making near-luxury cars with excellent performance and value. After the discontinuation of the Saturn brand GM announced Buick's styling would be based off the German Opel's. 1903

#### China

- Enclave (2020–present)
- Encore (2013–present)
- Encore GX (2020–present)
- Envision (2015–present)
- Excelle (2003–present)
- Excelle GT (2010–present)
- Excelle GX (2018–present)
- GL6 (2018–present)
- GL8 (2000–present)
- LaCrosse (2006–present)
- Regal (1999–present)
- Velite 6 (2019–present)
- Verano (2012–present)

#### North America

- Enclave (2008–present)
- Encore (2013–present)
- Encore GX (2020–present)
- Envision (2016–present)
- Regal (1973–2004, 2011–present)

### Past

- Model B (1904)
- Model C (1905)
- Model F & G (1906–1910)
- Model 10 (1908–1910)
- Model 14 & 14B (1910–1911)
- Model 28, 29, 34, 36 & 43 (1912)
- Model 24, 25, 30, 31 & 40 (1913)
- Series B (1914)
- Series C (1915)
- Series D (1916–1917)
- Series E (1918)
- Series H (1919)
- Series K (1920)
- Series 21 (1921)
- Series 22 (1922)
- Series 23 (1923)
- Series 24 (1924)
- Master Series (1925–1928)
- Standard Series (1925–1928)
- Series 116, 121 & 129 (1929)
- Series 40 (1930–1935)
- Series 50 (1930–1935)
- Series 60 (1930–1935)
- Special (1936–1958, 1961–1969)
- Roadmaster (1936–1958, 1991–1996)
- Century (1936–1942, 1954–1958, 1973–2005)
- Super (1939–1958)
- Skylark (1953–1954, 1961–1972, 1975–1998)
- Invicta (1959–1963)
- Electra (1959–1990)
- LeSabre (1959–2005)
- Wildcat (1963–1970)
- Riviera (1963–1993, 1995–1999)
- Estate (1970–1979, 1990)
- Centurion (1971–1973)
- Apollo (1973–1975)
- Skyhawk (1975–1980, 1982–1989)
- Opel (1976–1979)
- Somerset (1985–1987)
- Reatta (1988–1991)
- Park Avenue (1991–2005, 2007–2012)
- Sail (2001–2004)
- Rendezvous (2001–2007)
- Rainier (2004–2007)
- Royaum (2005–2006)
- Terraza (2005–2007)
- Lucerne (2006–2011)
- Excelle XT (2010–2015)
- Cascada (2016–2019)
- Velite 5 (2017–2019)

## Other websites

- Buick Homepage
- Buick in Canada
- Buick in China _(English and Chinese)_
- Buick in Israel  _(Hebrew)_
- Buick in Taiwan  _(Chinese)_
- History and Picture Buick in Russian

## Infobox (company)

- **name**: Buick
- **type**: privately held company, Private (1899–1908)
Division (business), Division (1908–present)
- **industry**: automotive industry, Automotive
- **founder**: David Dunbar Buick
- **location city**: Detroit, Michigan
- **location country**: United States, U.S.
- **parent**: General Motors
- **brands**: Electra (brand), Electra
Chevrolet

**Chevrolet**, also known as **Chevy,** is an American automobile manufacturer owned by General Motors. Chevrolet is known for producing popular, affordable cars. The company produces the Corvette, one of the most famous sports cars in the world.

Chevrolet was founded in 1911 by both Arthur and Louis Chevrolet. Louis was a racing car driver. Chevy started using their "bow-tie" logo in 1913. It could have maybe come from a wallpaper that Chevrolet saw in a hotel. It could also be a version of the cross on the Swiss flag, due to Chevrolet having been born in Switzerland.

## Infobox (company)

- **name**: Chevrolet
- **image**: Chevy (14467564735).jpg
- **image caption**: Chevrolet dealership in Wallingford, Connecticut, June 2014
- **type**: privately held company, Private (1911–18)
division (business), Division (1918–present)
- **fate**: Acquired by General Motors in 1918
- **founder**: Arthur Chevrolet and Louis Chevrolet
 William C. Durant
- **hq location**: Detroit, Michigan
- **location country**: U.S.
- **key people**: Alan Batey, senior vice president
- **industry**: Automotive industry, Automotive
- **products**: Automobiles
Commercial vehicles
Trucks
- **parent**: General Motors
Sports car

A **sports car** is a small, fast, quick-turning automobile. Most of them only have two seats or very small seats in the back. Luxury versions of sports cars are known as "grand tourers".

## Name

A sports car is different from an automobile for racing. The sports car is allowed to drive on a normal road, whereas race cars cannot.

## History

Since the invention of automobiles, people have tried to make them faster. The first sports cars were made to be raced by rich people.

## Layout

There are different versions of sports cars. There are automobiles with the motor in the front and those with rear-wheel drive. Examples are the Chevrolet Corvette or the Honda S2000. There are also cars with the motor behind the passengers, in the middle of the car. One of the first cars like this was the Lamborghini Miura. Porsche uses a different layout. The motor in a Porsche 911 is in the back, behind the rear wheels. Since the 1980s, a lot of sports cars have four-wheel drive. The motor in the front and front-wheel drive is only used in a few sports cars.

## Seats

Most sports cars only have two seats. Some sports cars also have small seats in the back. For example, the Porsche 911. The **McLaren F1** has three seats, with driver sitting in the middle.

## Records

Sports cars are often fast and expensive cars.

- The fastest sportscar is the Bugatti Veyron Super Sport. The maximum speed is .

## Examples

These are some sports cars:
- Audi R8
- Chevrolet Corvette
- Honda S2000
- Lamborghini Aventador
- Porsche 911
GMC (car brand)

**GMC** is an automobile maker, owned by General Motors. GMC is known for building trucks. Some of them are small, while others, like those promoted as "Professional Grade", are big. In the past, GMC was part of the _General Motors Diesel Division_ which also made buses, motorhomes, and vehicles for the military.

The company was founded by Max Grabowsky in 1901. It was bought by General Motors in 1909. In 1989 GMC started to market the Suzuki Sidekick as the GMC Tracker in Canada. In 2006 GMC announced it would start selling unibody crossovers, its first was the GMC Acadia, replacing the Safari minivan, GMC Envoy XL SUV and the Pontiac Montana SV6 minivan. In 2009, GMC ended production of the medium-duty commercial trucks.  In 2020 GMC revived the Hummer nameplate as its model with Hummer EV SUV and SUT.

## Infobox (company)

- **name**: GMC
- **former names**: General Motors Truck Company
- **logo**: GMC-Logo 2.svg
- **type**: Division (business), Division
- **founder**: William C. Durant
- **location city**: Detroit, Michigan
- **location country**: U.S.
- **area served**: North America
South Korea
Middle East
- **industry**: automotive industry, Automotive
- **parent**: General Motors
Saturn Corporation

The **Saturn Corporation** was an automobile maker. It was owned by General Motors. It was established on January 7, 1985.  Saturns are sold in the United States and Canada, some even being sold in Japan.  They are currently known for European styling, and no-haggle pricing. In the past, their most notable feature was plastic body panels.

General Motors tried to sell the company. Penske Automtive was going to buy it, but decided not to. Saturn Corporation went defunct on October 31, 2010 as part of General Motors downsizing due to its bankruptcy. The company was succeeded by Buick as GM's captive import brand. GM also decided to reuse some components of the brand's crossover for Chevrolet and GMC models.

## Model lineup

|Model|Class|Production|
| --- | --- | --- |
|**Saturn S-Series**|Compact sedan and coupe|1991–2002|
|Station wagon and postal vehicle|1993–2001||
|**EV1**|Electric|1996–1999|
|**Saturn L-Series**|Mid-size sedan and station wagon|2000–2005|
|**Saturn Vue**|Compact SUV|2002–2010|
|**Saturn ION**|Compact sedan and Quad coupe|2003–2007|
|**Saturn Relay**|Minivan|2005–2007|
|**Saturn Sky**|Roadster|2007–2010|
|**Saturn Outlook**|Full-size crossover|2007–2010|
|**Saturn Aura**|Mid-size sedan|2007–2010|
|**Saturn Astra**|Compact 3– and 5-door hatchback|2008–2009|

## Other websites

- Saturn official website
- Saturn Owner's Fanclub

## Infobox (company)

- **name**: Saturn LLC
- **logo**: Saturn_corporation_logo.png
- **logo size**: 120
- **image**: Last Saturn in Mid Michigan . . . (4232434262).jpg
- **image caption**: Saturn dealership in Michigan
- **type**: Subsidiary, Limited liability company, LLC
- **fate**: Defunct
- **location**: Spring Hill, Tennessee, U.S. (1985–2007)
Detroit, Detroit, Michigan, U.S. (2007–2010)
- **key people**: *Roger B. Smith (1985–1990)
*F. James McDonald
*Joseph J. Sanchez (1985)
*William E. Hoglund (1985–1986)
*Richard G. "Skip" LeFauve
*Don Hudler
*Cynthia Trudell (1998–2004)
*Jill Lajdziak (2004–2009)
*Frederick Henderson (2009)
*Christopher A. Miller (2009-2010)
*Edward Whitacre Jr. (2010)
- **area served**: United States, Canada
- **industry**: Automotive industry in the United States, Automotive
- **products**: car, Automobiles
- **parent**: Motors Liquidation Company
General Motors
Holden

**Holden** was an Australian car maker, owned by General Motors. Holden was known for making rear-wheel drive cars with large, naturally-aspirated engines. The company closed down in 2020.

#### Original models

- Holden Monaro
- Holden Camira
- Holden Torana
- Holden Kingswood
- Holden Brougham
- Holden Special
- Holden Commodore (1978-2018)
- Holden Caprice
- Holden Sandman

#### Toyota-based models

- Holden Apollo (1989–1996)
- Holden Nova (1989–1996)

#### Opel-based models

- Holden Vectra (1997–2006)
- Holden Zafira (2001–2005)
- Holden Combo (1996–2012)
- Holden Calibra (1991–1998)
- Holden Insignia (2015–2017)
- Holden Cascada (2015–2017)
- Holden Tigra (2005–2007)
- Holden Barina (1994–2005)
- Holden Astra (1996–2009, 2015–2020)
- Opel Astra (2012-2013)
- Holden Commodore (2018–2020)

#### Chevrolet-based models

- Holden Cruze (2009–2016)
- Holden Malibu (2013–2016)
- Holden Suburban (1998–2001)
- Holden Volt (2012–2015)
- Holden Barina (2011–2018)
- Holden Trax (2013-2020)
- Holden Trailblazer (2015-2020)
- Holden Equinox (2018-2020)
- Holden Colorado (2008-2020)
- Holden Spark (2009-2020)

#### GMC-based models

- Holden Acadia (2018-2020)

#### Daewoo-based models

- Holden Epica (2007–2011)
- Holden Viva (2005–2009)
- Holden Captiva (2006–2018)

#### Isuzu-based models

- Holden Jackaroo (1981–2004)
- Holden Rodeo (1981–2008)
- Holden Monterey
- Holden Frontera (1995–2004)
- Holden Gemini
- Holden Piazza
- Holden Shuttle

#### Suzuki-based models

- Holden Drover
- Holden Scurry
- Holden Cruze (2002–2006)
- Holden Barina (1985–1994)

## Other websites

- Holden Australia
- Holden New Zealand
- Holden Special Vehicles
Hummer

The **Hummer** is a line of sport utility vehicles and pickup trucks known for being able to drive off-road. The brand started in 1992 when AM General started selling a civilian version of its military vehicle, the Humvee. The actor Arnold Schwarzenegger helped make the Hummer popular in the 1990s.

In 1999, General Motors bought the rights to the Hummer started making new, smaller models like the H2 and the H3. In 2010, facing financial problems, General Motors tried to sell the Hummer brand but failed to find a buyer and was forced to shut down the brand.

In 2020, General Motors started using the Hummer name again. This time, it was not its own separate brand. Instead, it became a model under GMC, another General Motors brand. The new vehicles, called the GMC Hummer EV, is a fully electric pickup truck and SUV.

## Models

- H1, the first Hummer, based on the Humvee
- H2
- H3
- GMC Hummer EV

## Other websites

- AM General official site
- GM's HUMMER homepage

## Infobox (company)

- **name**: HUMMER
- **logo**: New Hummer logo.png
- **logo caption**: Logo used since 2020
- **image**: 2007 Hummer H3 -- NHTSA.jpg
- **image caption**: Hummer H3
- **type**: Division (organization), Division
- **foundation**:
 (Nameplate brand for GMC Hummer EV, GMC)
- **location**: Detroit, Michigan, U.S.
- **industry**: Automotive industry, Automotive
- **products**: Hummer H1, H1
Hummer H2, H2
Hummer H3, H3
GMC Hummer EV, H EV (GMC)
- **parent**: General Motors
- **homepage**: [https://www.gmc.com/electric-truck/hummer-ev]
Vauxhall Motors

**Vauxhall** is a car manufacturer. The company was founded in London in 1903 and was named after the area of the city where it was created. The company is based in Luton, Bedfordshire. They have 2 factories, 1 in Luton for the production of the Vivaro van and 1 in Ellesmere Port for the production of the Astra family car. In March 2017, Vauxhall and parent brand Opel were bought by PSA, the company that owns Peugeot and Citroen. The brand would become a part of Stellantis after a merger between PSA and Fiat Chrysler Automobiles in January 2021.

### Passenger cars

The following tables list current and announced Vauxhall production vehicles as of 2022:

|Model|Image|Class|Body style|
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Astra (A Opel Astra with a Vauxhall badge) (Was previously a Opel Kadett with a Vauxhall badge from 1980 to 1991) (Made: 1980–present)|||*Hatchback *Sports Tourer (Estate)|
|Corsa (A Opel Corsa with a Vauxhall badge) (Made: 1993–present)|||*Hatchback|
|Mokka (A Opel Mokka with a Vauxhall badge) (Made: 2012–present)|||*Crossover SUV|
|Grandland (A Opel Grandland with a Vauxhall badge) (Made: 2017–present)|||*Crossover SUV|
|Combo Life (A Peugeot Rifter/Citroën Berlingo with a Vauxhall badge) (Made: 2018–present)|||*MPV|
|Vivaro Life (A Peugeot Traveller/Citroën SpaceTourer with a Vauxhall badge) (Made: 2019–present)|||*MPV|
|Frontera (A Citroën C3 Aircross with a Vauxhall badge) (Made: 2024–present)|||*Crossover SUV|

### Commercial vehicles

|Model|Image|Class|Body style|
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Combo (A Peugeot Partner/Citroën Berlingo with a Vauxhall badge) (Was previously a Opel Combo with a Vauxhall badge from 1993 to 2012) (Was previously Fiat Doblò with a Vauxhall badge from 2012 to 2018) (Production: 1993–present)|||*Van|
|Movano (A Fiat Ducato with a Vauxhall badge) (Was previously a Renault Master with a Vauxhall badge from 1998 to 2021) (Production: 1998–present)|||*Van *Chassis cab *Crew cab|
|Vivaro (A Peugeot Expert/Citroën Jumpy with a Vauxhall badge) (Was previously a Renault Trafic with a Vauxhall badge from 2001 to 2019) (Production: 2001–present)|||*Van *Chassis cab|

### VXR models

|Corsa VXR|||*Hatchback|
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Astra VXR|||*Hatchback Coupé|
|Vectra VXR|||*Saloon *Hatchback *Sports Tourer (Estate)|
|Insignia VXR|||*Saloon *Hatchback *Sports Tourer (Estate)|
|VXR8|||*Saloon|
|Meriva VXR|||*MPV|
|Zafira VXR|||*MPV|
|VX220|||*Coupé *Convertible|
|Monaro VXR|||*Coupé|
|VXR8 Maloo|||*Pick-up|

## Other websites

- Vauxhall Heritage
- Vauxhall UK Website

## Infobox (company)

- **name**: Vauxhall Motors Limited
- **type**: Subsidiary
- **industry**: Automotive industry, Automotive
- **founder**: Alexander Wilson
- **locations**: Two manufacturing facilities in the United Kingdom
- **area served**: United Kingdom
- **key people**: James Taylor (Managing Director, MD)
- **production**: 118,182
 (2016 passenger cars)
- **services**: Vehicle financing
- **revenue**: (2019)
- **operating income**: (2019)
- **net income**: (2019)
- **assets**: (2019)
- **equity**: (2019)
- **num employees**: 4,029 (2011)
- **parent**: Stellantis
Battle of Dunkirk

The **Battle of Dunkirk** (French: Bataille de Dunkerque; also known as **Operation Dynamo**) was a major battle in Dunkirk, France during World War II. It lasted from the 26 May until 4 June 1940.

## Battle

The Allied forces were split into two by a German armoured advance to the Channel coast at Calais. The British and French commanders had been taken by surprise at the speed of the advance. The northern part of the army was surrounded In Dunkirk, France, a port on the English Channel. There they made a perimeter and waited for an evacuation.

## Evacuation

_See the main page: Dunkirk evacuation_

In the Dunkirk evacuation, over 900 small British ships rescued around 340,000 British, French, and Belgian soldiers from the beaches between 26 May 1940 and 4 June 1940. This was most of the British and about half of the French soldiers who fought in the battle. About 40,000 troops, mostly French, had to stay behind to keep the Germans away during the evacuation.

Many of the evacuated French troops landed elsewhere and continued the Battle of France.

## Related pages

- Dunkirk evacuation
- World War II
- Allies of World War II

## Other websites

- WW2DB: Invasion of ''France and the Low Countries

## Infobox (military conflict)

- **conflict**: Battle of Dunkirk
- **partof**: the World War II, Second World War
- **date**: 26 May – 4 June 1940
- **place**: Dunkirk, France
- **result**: German victory
Allied evacuation
- **combatant1**:
 French Third Republic, France

- **commander1**: John Vereker, 6th Viscount Gort, Lord Gort
 Maxime Weygand
 Georges Blanchard
 René Prioux
- **commander2**: Gerd von Rundstedt
 Paul Ludwig Ewald von Kleist, Ewald von Kleist (Panzergruppe von Kleist)
- **strength1**: approx. 400,000
338,226 evacuated
- **strength2**: approx. 800,000
- **casualties1**: 30,000 killed or wounded
34,000 missing or captured
6 destroyers and over 200 smaller vessels
106 aircraft
- **casualties2**: 52,252 killed or wounded
8,467 missing or captured
101—240 aircraft
Iwao Takamoto

**Iwao Takamoto** (29 April 1925 - 8 January 2007) was a Japanese-American animator, television producer, and film director. He was a production designer for Hanna-Barbera Productions and the artist/character designer of Scooby-Doo.

## Biography

Iwao Takamoto's father moved from Hiroshima to the United States for his health. He only went back to Japan once, and that was to marry his wife. Iwao Takamoto was born on April 19, 1925 in Los Angeles, California. After the bombing of Pearl Harbor, Iwao Takamoto's family, like many Japanese-Americans, had to move to an internment camp. They spent the rest of World War II in the Manzanar internment camp. While he was there, Iwao Takamoto received basic illustration training from other people in the camp.

Iwao Takamoto first started doing cartoons professionally after the end of the war. He was hired as an assistant animator by Walt Disney Studios in 1947. Iwao Takamoto eventually became an assistant animator for the legendary Milt Kahl. He worked as an animator on such titles as _Cinderella_, _Sleeping Beauty_, _One Hundred and One Dalmatians_, and _Lady and the Tramp_.

Takamoto left Disney in 1961 and joined Hanna-Barbera shortly afterwards. He did many jobs there, but is probably best known as a character designer. He was responsible for the original character designs of such characters as Scooby-Doo, _The Jetsons'_ dog Astro, and Penelope Pitstop. He worked as a producer at Hanna-Barbera, supervising shows such as _The Addams Family_, _Hong Kong Phooey_, and _Jabberjaw_. He directed several feature-length animated films, including _Charlotte's Web_ (1973) and _Jetsons: The Movie_ (1990). The inspiration for Scooby-Doo's creation as a Great Dane came from an employee of the Hanna-Barbera company who bred this dog.

Takamoto was Vice-President of Creative Design at Hanna-Barbera, and was responsible for overseeing Hanna-Barbera's product-related merchandising. In 2005, he received the Golden Award from the Animation Guild, to honor his more than 50 years of service in the animation field.

He died on January 8, 2007 at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles from heart failure at age 81.
Mussel

**Mussels** are several families of bivalve molluscs. Mussels live in lakes, rivers, and creeks. They sometimes also live in intertidal areas along coastlines worldwide.  The freshwater mussels (several allied families, the largest being the Unionidae) and saltwater mussels (family Mytilidae) are not closely related, despite the fact that they may look similar. They are grouped in different subclasses.  The freshwater Zebra mussels and their relatives (family Dreissenidae) live attached to rocks in a manner similar to marine mussels, but are classified with the Heterodonta, the taxonomic group including most bivalves referred to as "clams".

From archeology, it is known that humans have been eating mussels for thousands of years. They can be cooked or eaten raw. Care must be taken however as mussels quickly become poisonous after they die.

## Other websites

- Freshwater Mussel Genera
- Methods of mussel farming
- Photo of _bouchot_ pilings for growing mussels
- Gilbertson, Lance. (1999). _Zoology Laboratory Manual_ (4th ed.), pp. 11.1-11.4. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
- Mississippi River Mussels
- Marine Ecology Station
Shellfish

**Shellfish** is a culinary term for some aquatic invertebrates used as food: molluscs, crustaceans, and echinoderms. It is not a scientific term, and its use may vary from place to place.

Both saltwater and freshwater invertebrates are considered shellfish. Molluscs commonly used as food include the clam, mussel, oyster, winkle, and scallop.

Some crustaceans commonly eaten are the shrimp, prawn, lobster, crayfish, and crab.

Echinoderms are not eaten as commonly as molluscs and crustaceans. In Asia, sea cucumber and sea urchins are eaten.

Edible cephalopods such as squid, octopus, and cuttlefish and terrestrial snails, though all molluscs, are sometimes considered to be shellfish and sometimes not.

The term _finfish_ is sometimes used to distinguish ordinary (vertebrate) fish from shellfish.

Jewish and Islamic dietary laws forbid the eating of shellfish (those that live on the land, and in the water).

In Japanese cuisine, chefs often use shellfish and their roe. Sushi and sashimi feature both raw and cooked shellfish.

## Related pages

- Seafood

## Other websites

- Shellfish News
- Haskin Shellfish Research Laboratory  at Rutgers University
- Shellfish Gallery  from the Shellfish Association of Great Britain
- Shellfish Facts
- University of Washington Libraries Digital Collections -- Freshwater and Marine Image Bank -- Shellfish An ongoing digital collection of images related to shellfish.
Herefordshire

**Herefordshire** (known as **County of Herefordshire**) is a county  in the West Midlands region of England. It borders the English counties of Shropshire to the north, Worcestershire to the east, Gloucestershire to the south east and the Welsh counties of Gwent to the south west and Powys to the west. It is not to be confused with Hertfordshire, a county north of London.

It is pronounced  (i.e. first syllable as in "herring", and -e- a separate syllable).

The county town of Herefordshire is the cathedral city of Hereford.

## Waterways

Historically, the Rivers Wye and Lugg were navigable but the wide seasonal variations in water levels mean that few craft larger than canoes and coracles are now used.  There are canoe centres at The Boat House,in Glasbury-on-Wye, at Want to Canoe?, in Hay-on-Wye, the Hereford Youth Service  and Kerne Bridge  Ross-on-Wye, as well as a rowing club in Hereford.

The early nineteenth century saw the construction of two canals, The Hereford & Gloucester Canal  and The Leominster &  Stourport Canal  but these were never successful and there are now few remains to be seen.

## Other websites

- The Hereford Times Local news, sport & information
- Herefordshire Portal Local events, jobs, photos and news
- Herefordshire Libraries  10 Libraries across Herefordshire

## Infobox (english county)

- **official name**: Herefordshire
- **other name**: County of Herefordshire
- **flag image**:
- **flag link**: Flag of Herefordshire
- **arms image**:
- **motto**: "Pulchra terra Dei donum"
("This fair land is the gift of God")
- **locator map**:
- **region**: West Midlands (region), West Midlands
- **established date**: 1 April 1998
- **established by**: Local Government Commission for England (1992), Local Government Commission for England
- **preceded by**: Hereford and Worcester
- **origin**: Historic counties of England, Ancient
- **lord lieutenant office**: Lord Lieutenant of Herefordshire
- **lord lieutenant name**: Edward Harley OBE
- **high sheriff office**: High Sheriff of Herefordshire
- **high sheriff name**: Mrs Patricia Thomas (2020–21)
- **area total km2**: 2180
- **area total rank**: 26th
- **ethnicity**: White 98.2%, Asian 0.8%, Mixed 0.7%, Black 0.2%, Other 0.1%
- **unitary council**: Herefordshire Council
- **admin hq**: Hereford
- **iso code**: GB-HEF
- **ons code**: 00GA
- **gss code**: E06000019
- **nuts code**: UKG11
- **mps**: List of Parliamentary constituencies in Herefordshire, List of MPs
- **police**: West Mercia Police
Gloucestershire

**Gloucestershire** (pronounced ; _GLOSS-ter-sher_) is a county in South West England. The county includes part of the Cotswold Hills, part of the flat fertile valley of the River Severn, and the entire Forest of Dean.

The county town is Gloucester, and other principal towns include Cheltenham, Stroud, Cirencester, and Tewkesbury.

Gloucestershire borders the county of Gwent in Wales, and in England the counties of Herefordshire, Worcestershire, Warwickshire, Oxfordshire, Wiltshire, Somerset and Bristol.

## Economy

This is a chart of trend of regional gross value added of Gloucestershire at current basic prices published (pp.240-253) by _Office for National Statistics_ with figures in millions of British Pounds Sterling.
|Year||Regional Gross Value Added||Agriculture||Industry||Services|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|1995|**5,771**|196|1,877|3,698|||||
|2000|**8,163**|148|2,677|5,338|||||
|2003|**10,617**|166|2,933|7,517|||||

## Antiquities and Other Places of interest

- Berkeley Castle, an example of a feudal stronghold.
- Beverston Castle
- Calcot Manor
- Forest of Dean
- Hailes Abbey
- Owlpen Manor
- Sudeley Castle
- Tewkesbury Abbey
- Tyndale Monument
- Wildfowl and Wetland Trust, Slimbridge

## Other websites

- Gloucester County Official Site
- Gloucester City Council website
- Visit Gloucester Site
- Gloucester jobs
- Gloucestershire County Council
- Gloucestershire Tourism Partnership
- Official site for Cotswolds tourism
- Yate and Chipping Sodbury Guide  - A Guide to Yate and Chipping Sodbury in South Gloucestershire
- Archaeological Handbook of Gloucestershire by George Witts
- Tales of the River Severn  by Chris Witts

## Infobox (english county)

- **official name**: Gloucestershire
- **locator map**:
- **image caption**: Clockwise from top left: Tyndale Monument, North Nibley; Gloucester Cathedral; and the Cotswolds near Winchcombe
- **region**: South West England, South West
- **established date**: Historic counties of England, Ancient
- **lord lieutenant office**: Lord Lieutenant of Gloucestershire
- **lord lieutenant name**: Edward Gillespie
- **high sheriff office**: High Sheriff of Gloucestershire
- **high sheriff name**: Julie Kent
- **ethnicity**: 87.2% White British (2021)
- **county council**: Gloucestershire County Council
- **unitary council1**: South Gloucestershire Council
- **admin hq**: Gloucester
- **iso code**: GB-GLS
- **gss code**: E10000013
- **nuts code**: UKK13
- **districts map**:
- **districts key**: Unitary  County council area
- **districts list**: #Tewkesbury Borough, Tewkesbury
# South Gloucestershire
- **mps**: List of Parliamentary constituencies in Gloucestershire, List of MPs
- **police**: Gloucestershire Constabulary
Cowry

**Cowry** shells (or **cowrie**), are marine snails of the family **Cypraeidae**.

They are found chiefly in tropical regions. There are about 200 different species of cowry.

## Shell

The shell itself is almost always very smooth and shiny. They have with a long, narrow, slit-like opening. All varieties have a porcelain-like shine  and many have colorful patterns. In life the shell is covered by the slippery mantle.

Shell sizes range from 5 mm (1/5") for some tropical species to 15 cm (6") for the tiger cowry, _Cypraea tigris_.

## Predators

The slippery shell is very difficult for most animals to grip. The very narrow toothed aperture of the cowry shell makes it difficult for predators to reach into. However cowries are still vulnerable to predation:

- Some tropical crustaceans can break the dorsum of a cowry shell.
- Some mollusc-eating cones like _Conus textile_ can inject venom into the cowry's flesh. The cone then extends its stomach into the shell, through the slit, to completely ingest the flesh.
- Some octopuses can gouge a small hole (using a special barb/tooth and an acidic secretion) through the shell to inject a venom that kills the animal within.

## Taxonomy

For nearly 200 years, every species in the family Cypraeidae was placed in one genus, _Cypraea_, but in 2002  the cowries were divided into many different genera.

## Uses

Cowries (esp. _Cypraea moneta_) were used as a currency in Africa (Ghanaian cedi in Ghana named after cowry shells) and elsewhere, such as in China where the shell or copies of the shell were in theory used as a means of exchange. They are also worn as jewelry or otherwise used as ornaments or charms, as they are viewed as symbols of womanhood, fertility, birth and wealth.  Many find the shiny, porcelain-like shells pleasing to look at.

Cowry shells are sometimes used in a way similar to dice, e.g., in board games like Pachisi, or in divination (cf. Ifá and the annual customs of Dahomey).
A number of shells (6 or 7 in Pachisi) are thrown, with those landing aperture upwards indicating the actual number rolled.

Cowries have also been used in the recent past as a frame over which sock heels were stretched for darning. The cowry ridges allowed the needle to get under the cloth more easily.

The Ojibway aboriginal people in North America used the cowry shells in ceremonies, and the Whiteshell Provincial Park in Manitoba, Canada is named after this type of shell.  There is some debate about how they traded for or found these shells so far inland, away from the natural sources.  Oral stories and birch bark scrolls seem to indicate that they were found in the ground, and/or washed up on the shores of lakes or rivers.  The cowry shells so far inland may indicate the use of them by an earlier tribe or group in the area, and an extensive trade network in the ancient past.

The typewritten postage stamps of 1895 Uganda also are called "Cowries".

## Other websites

- cowrys.org
- Cowrie Genomic Database Project
- Genus _Cypraea_ on Animal Diversity Web
- Cowries.info