juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Ligament

In anatomy, the word **ligament** usually means the fibrous tissue that joins bones to other bones or cartilages.

A ligament is a short band of tough fibrous connective tissue made of long, stringy collagen fibres. Ligaments join bones to other bones to form a joint. They do _not_ connect muscles to bones; that is the function of tendons. Some ligaments limit the amount of movement in a joint, or stop certain movements altogether.

Ligaments are only slightly elastic; when under tension, they gradually lengthen. This is one reason why dislocated joints must be set as quickly as possible: if the ligaments lengthen too much, then the joint will be weakened. Athletes, gymnasts, dancers, and martial artists perform stretching exercises to lengthen their ligaments, making their joints more supple.
The result of a broken ligament can be instability of the joint. Not all broken ligaments need surgery, but if surgery is needed to stabilise the joint, the broken ligament can be joined.
Powiat

A **county** (Polish: _powiat_, pronounced "povyat"; plural, _powiaty_) is the Polish  second-level unit of  administration, equivalent to a county, district or prefecture in other countries.  A county is part of a larger unit called a "voivodship" (in Polish, _województwo_. One would call it in English "province").

## Names

Most Polish counties are named after their capital city, or county seat.
If a county seat has a double-barreled name, as with "Maków Mazowiecki," the county may become either "Maków County" or "Maków-Mazowiecki County."  Due, in all but the first case, to the existence, respectively, of two "double-barreled" county seats with the identical noun name, the corresponding adjectives "_bielski_," "_grodziski_," "_ostrowski_" and "_tomaszowski_" each denote _two_ distinct counties.

## History and functioning

Some Polish urban communes constitute administrative entities called the "urban county" (_powiat grodzki_), similar in local administration and self-governance to "land counties." An average county (the largest being the powiat of Białystok) comprises 5 – 8 communes. The largest urban county, in terms of population and area, is the city of Warsaw.

The history of Polish counties goes back to the second half of the 14th century. They remained the basic units of territorial organization in Poland, then in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, until the latter's total dismemberment by its neighbors in 1795.

In the 19th century, the county continued to function in the part of Poland that had been incorporated into the Russian Empire ("Congress Poland"), and as the Polish equivalent of the German "_Kreis_" in the German-governed Grand Duchy of Poznań.

After Poland regained independence in 1918, the county again became the basic territorial unit throughout Poland. _Powiat_s (counties) were abolished in 1975 in favor of a larger number of voivodships, but were reintroduced in 1999.  There are now 314 "land counties" (_powiat ziemski_) and 65 "urban counties" (_powiat grodzki_), more formally "municipalities with county status" (_miasto na prawach powiatu_).
Carolina Gynning

**Carolina Gynning** (born 6 October 1978) is a Swedish celebrity and model. She also is the winner of the 2004 season of reality television program Big Brother. Gynning has also written the book, _Ego Girl_. It is a biography of her early life. In 2008 it was reported that Gynning would write a continuation to _Ego Girl_ called _Ego Woman_.

## Sources

- Gynning in Swedish newspaper

## Infobox (celebrity)

- **name**: Carolina Gynning
- **image**: Carolina Gynning, 2013.jpg
- **caption**: Gynning in 2013
- **occupation**: Television presenter
Carrie Underwood

**Carrie Marie Underwood** (born March 10, 1983) is an American country singer-songwriter and actress. She won the fourth season of _American Idol_. Her first album, _Some Hearts_, has sold 7 million copies. Underwood has won one American Music Award, eight Billboard Music Awards, and two Grammy Awards, including Best New Artist, and more.

Carrie Underwood grew up in Oklahoma, on her family's farm in Checotah. She started singing at a young age, initially at church and later in school plays and talent shows. In 2002 she entered Northeastern State University in Tahlequah, Oklahoma, with intentions to pursue a career in broadcast journalism. She has had fourteen songs reach number one on charts in the United States and Canada, including "Inside Your Heaven", "Jesus, Take the Wheel", and "Before He Cheats". In 2007, Underwood sang during one of the live shows of American Idol, season 6. On December 5, 2013, Underwood appeared in _The Sound of Music Live_ on NBC television. She played the heroine Maria von Trapp in the three-hour production. She received critical praise in the _New York Times_ for her singing, but was reviewed negatively for her acting.

## Discography

- Studio albums
- _Some Hearts_ (2005)
- _Carnival Ride_ (2007)
- _Play On_ (2009)
- _Blown Away_ (2012)
- _Storyteller_ (2015)
- _Cry Pretty_ (2018)
- _Denim & Rhinestones_ (2022)

- Singles
- _Jesus, Take the Wheel_ (2005)
- _Before He Cheats_ (2006)
- _So Small_ (2007)
- _Cowboy Casanova_ (2009)
- _Temporary Home_ (2010)
- _Good Girl_ (2012)
- _Two Black Cadillacs_ (2012)
- _Church Bells_ (2016)
- _Cry Pretty_ (2018)

## Other websites

- Résumé of Carrie Underwood's autobiography, accomplishments, and personal interests

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Carrie Underwood
- **img**: CroppedCarrieUnderwoodAtTheWorldArena.jpg
- **img capt**: Carrie Underwood performing at the World Arena in Colorado Springs, Colorado, Colorado Springs (2006)
- **background**: solo_singer
- **birth name**: Carrie Marie Underwood
- **birth place**: Muskogee, Oklahoma, USA
- **occupation**: Singer-songwriter, actress
- **instrument**: Vocals, guitar, piano
- **genre**: Country music, Country, country pop, Gospel music, gospel
- **years active**: 2005–present
- **label**: Arista Records, Arista Nashville, Capitol Records, Capitol Nashville, MCA Records, MCA Nashville
- **associated acts**: Garth Brooks, Martina McBride, Miranda Lambert
Nicole Richie

**Nicole Camille Richie** (born September 21, 1981) is an American socialite, actress, and author. She is the adopted daughter of Lionel Richie, and is best known for being in the reality show _The Simple Life_. During late 2007 Nicole Richie faced charges of drunk driving and risked a jail sentence similar to Paris Hilton, her co-star and friend in _The Simple Life_. She has had two children with Joel Madden: Harlow and Sparrow Madden. On February 15, 2010, she announced that she was engaged with Madden. They got married later in 2010.

In 2013, Richie was in the video for the song "Let There Be Love" by Christina Aguilera.

Richie is of black, Creole, English, French, French-Canadian, Indigenous Mexican, Mexican, Cherokee Native American, Scottish and Spanish descent.

## Other websites

- IMDb - Nicole Richie
The Simple Life

***The Simple Life*** is the name of a reality television series originally broadcast on Fox from 2003 to 2005 and on E! from 2006 to 2007. The series stars Paris Hilton and Nicole Richie doing ordinary jobs.

## Other websites

- FOX - _The Simple Life_ official website
Jordin Sparks

**Jordin Brianna Sparks** (born December 22, 1989 in Phoenix, Arizona) is an American musician, record producer, dancer, model, singer and actress. On May 23, 2007, she won the 6th season of the reality television show _American Idol_. She was the youngest winner of the talent show. She has released three studio albums _Jordin Sparks_, _Battlefield_ and the hit album _"No Restrictions"_.  She has a vocal range of a mezzo-soprano.

## Other websites

- Jordin Sparks official webpage
- Jordin Sparks Planet

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Jordin Sparks
- **image**: Jordin Sparks in parade.jpg
- **caption**: Sparks in the The American Idol Experience, American Idol Experience motorcade at Walt Disney World in 2009.
- **background**: solo_singer
- **birth name**: Jordin Brianna Sparks
- **birth place**: Phoenix, Arizona, USA
- **genre**: Contemporary R&B, R&B, Neo-soul, pop music, pop, dance-pop
- **origin**: Glendale, Arizona
- **instrument**: Vocals, Guitar
- **occupation**: Singer-songwriter, guitarist, actress, dancer, choreographer
- **years active**: 2007–present
- **label**: Jive Records, Jive/19 Entertainment, 19 (2007–2011)
RCA Records, RCA/19 (2011–present)
- **associated acts**: Amerie, Chris Brown, Jennifer Hudson, Kim Waters, Peter White
Taylor Hicks

**Taylor Reuben Hicks** (born October 7, 1976) is an American singer, songwriter and musician. In 2006, he won the fifth season of _American Idol_. The runner-up was Katharine McPhee. After he won, he was signed to Arista Records. His album called _Taylor Hicks_ was released on December 12, 2006.

## Other websites

- Taylor Hicks Official Site
- Taylor Hicks at rehearsals.com
- Taylor Hicks  at GoFish
- Taylor Hicks on American Idol  at American Idol Watch
- Taylor Hicks on the Tonight Show with Jay Leno

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Taylor Hicks
- **img**: TaylorHicks.jpg
- **img capt**: <small>Taylor Hicks performs for troops aboard the USS Ronald Reagan (CVN-76), USS _Ronald Reagan_, docked at Coronado, California on December 19, 2006</small>
- **background**: solo_singer
- **birth name**: Taylor Reuben Hicks
- **origin**: Birmingham, Alabama, Birmingham, Alabama
- **instrument**: Vocal music, Vocals
Guitar
Harmonica
Organ (music), Organ
- **genre**: Blue Eyed Soul
Blues music, Blues
Blues rock
- **occupation**: Singer-songwriter
Musician
Record producer
- **years active**: 1997–present
- **label**: Arista Records <small>(2006-present)</small>
Independent <small>(1997-2005)</small>
- **associated acts**: Little Memphis Blues Orchestra
- **url**: **[http://www.taylorhicks.com www.taylorhicks.com]**
All Saints' Day

**All Saints' Day** is a mandatory religious holiday in Catholicism which honors the saints in heaven. Catholics celebrate this holiday on November 1. They following day, they celebrate All Souls' Day, which focuses on praying for the dead (especially souls in Purgatory). Both days are considered important and are integrated with each other.

Some other Christians also celebrate All Saints' Day (though not necessarily on November 1). The festival was retained after the Reformation in the calendar of the Church of England and in many Lutheran churches.

In the past, All Saints' Day was called **All Hallows** or **Hallowmas.**

## Customs

All Saints' Day customs differ around the world.

People make _ofrendas_ (offerings) to the saints in Portugal, Spain and Mexico. In Spain, the play _Don Juan Tenorio_ is traditionally performed. In Spain, Portugal, Italy and France, people bring flowers to the graves of dead relatives.

In Poland, Slovenia, Slovakia, Lithuania, Croatia, Austria and Germany, the tradition is to light candles and visit the graves of deceased relatives. Filipinos do the same, but often in a picnic-like atmosphere.

In English-speaking countries, the festival is traditionally celebrated with the hymn "For All the Saints" by William Walsham How. The most familiar tune for this hymn is _Sine Nomine_ by Ralph Vaughan Williams.

## Other websites

- American Catholic - Saints FAQs, All Saints and All Souls Day
- All Saints' Day article in the _Catholic Encyclopedia_
- All Saints Sunday Orthodox England
- All Saints Church, Barbados

## Infobox (holiday)

- **holiday name**: All Saints' Day
- **type**: Christian
- **image**: All-Saints.jpg
- **imagesize**: 300px
- **caption**: The Forerunners of Christ with Saints and Martyrs by Fra Angelico
- **nickname**: All Hallows' Day
Hallowmas
Feast of All Saints
Feast of All Hallows
Solemnity of All Saints
Ishy Bilady

"**Ishy Bilady**" (, ; "Long Live My Country") is the national anthem (a song that represents the country) of the seven United Arab Emirates. The tune was written in the year 1971 without words to sing. Then, in the year 1986 Arif Al Sheikh Abdullah Al Hassan Sahab came up with words for the song. The song is dedicated to the UAE. In the song, the people praise their country by stating that "the unity of the Emirates has lived" and "the United Arab Emirates has lived to be the nation, whose religion is Islam and whose guide is the Quran" the people also vow to forever work hard and sincerely for the country. The people also state that they "supply their country with their body, blood and souls." The song is a representation of love and submission of the Emirati people to country. It music was composed by Mohammed Abdul Wahab.

### Arabic original

|Arabic|Transliteration|IPA transcription|
| --- | --- | --- |
|<poem></poem>|<poem>ʿĪšī bilādī ʿāš ittiḥādu ʾimārātinā ʿIšti li-šaʿbin dīnuhu l-ʾislāmu haddyuhu l-qurʾānu Ḥaṣṣantuka bismillah yā waṭan Bilādī bilādī bilādī bilādī Ḥamāki-lʾilāhu šurūra z-zamān ʾAqsamnā ʾan nabniya naʿmal Naʿmal nuxliṣ naʿmal nuxliṣ Mahmā ʿišnā nuxliṣ nuxliṣ Dām al-ʾamānu wa ʿāš al-ʿalam yā ʾimārātinā Ramz al-ʿurūbati kullunā nafdīki bid-dimāʾ narwīki Nafdīka bil-ʾarwāḥ yā waṭan.</poem>|<poem>[ʕɪː.ʃiː bi.læː.diː ʕɑːʃ æt.tɪ.ħæː.du ʔi.mɑː.rɑː.ti.næː] [ʕɪʃ.ti li.ʃɑʕ.bɪn diː.nu.hʊ‿l.ʔɪs.læː.mu hædː.ju.hʊ‿l.qʊr.ʔɑː.nu] [ħɑsˁ.sˁɑn.tu.kæ bɪs.mɪl.læh jæː wɑ.tˁɑn] [bi.læː.diː bi.læː.diː bi.læː.diː bi.læː.diː] [ħɑ.mæː.kɪ‿l.ʔi.læː.hu ʃʊ.ruː.rɑ‿z.zæ.mæːn] [ʔɑq.sæm.næː ʔæn næb.ni.jæ nɑʕ.mæl] [nɑʕ.mæl nʊx.lɪsˁ nɑʕ.mæl nʊx.lɪsˁ] [mæh.mæː ʕɪʃ.næː nʊx.lɪsˁ nʊx.lɪsˁ] [dæːm æl.ʔæ.mæː.nu wɑ ʕɑːʃ æl.ʕɑ.læm jæː ʔi.mɑː.rɑː.ti.næː] [rɑmz æl.ʕʊ.ruː.bæ.ti kʊl.lu.næː næf.diː.ki bɪd.di.mæːʔ nɑr.wiː.ki] [næf.diː.kæ bɪl.ʔɑr.wɑːħ jæː wɑ.tˁɑn]</poem>|

### English translation

<poem>Long live my country, the unity of our Emirates lives.
You've lived for the nation's faith of Islam and guide of the Quran.
I've made you stronger in God's name, o homeland.

My country, my country, my country, my country.
God protected you from the evils of time.
We have sworn to build and work –
work earnestly, work earnestly.
we will be sincere.

The safety has lasted, the flag has lived, o our Emirates!
The symbol of Arabism: we all sacrifice for you and give you our blood;
For you we sacrifice with our souls, o homeland!</poem>
Statement

**Statement** has several meanings:

- The act of saying something; an expression in words.
- The thing stated; a declaration.
- A formal account, implying or claiming to be truthful.
- An official assessment of a situation.
- In philosophy and logic, a statement is a sentence which declares that something meaningful is either true or false. See proposition.
Salvation

In theology, **salvation** can mean various things:

- following the sunnah of prophet Muhammad (surah Baqarah)
- rejecting shirk, or disbelief in the oneness of Allah (sahih Bukhari)
- being saved from something, such as suffering or the punishment of sin - also called deliverance (see Epistle to the Romans 5:8)
- being saved for something, such as an afterlife or participating in the Reign of God - also called redemption (Gospel of Luke 23:43)
- being saved through a process of healing or transformation to wholeness, such as gaining secret knowledge, or becoming Christlike.(Ephesians 1:4)

## Related pages

- Crucifixion of Jesus
- History of salvation
- Salvation (Christianity)
Polyhedron

|{| class="prettytable"|align=center|Dodecahedron (Regular polyhedron)|align=center|Small stellated dodecahedron (Regular star)|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|align=center|Icosidodecahedron (Uniform)|align=center|Great cubicuboctahedron (Uniform star)||
|align=center|Rhombic triacontahedron (Uniform dual)|align=center|Elongated pentagonal cupola (Convex regular-faced)||
|align=center|Octagonal prism (Uniform prism)|align=center|Square antiprism (Uniform antiprism)|}|

A **polyhedron** (_polyhedra_ or _polyhedrons_ if more than one) is a geometrical shape. It is a 3D shape with flat faces, and straight edges. Each face is a polygon surrounded by edges. Usually it is known by the number of faces, corners, or edges it has.

There are many groups of polyhedra, which can either be only a small set, or can be infinite. Prisms, pyramids, antiprisms, and bipyramids are groups of polyhedra.

A regular polyhedron has faces that are all the same, corners that are all the same, and edges that are all the same. A uniform polyhedron can have one or two kinds of its parts be all the same.

## Definition

Two types of polyhedron are convex and concave. The edge connecting any two points of a convex polyhedron is inside the polyhedron. The line connecting two points of a concave polyhedron may go outside the polyhedron. The Platonic solids are regular convex polyhedra.

Mathematicians do not always agree on what makes a polyhedron. Some may only consider the convex polyhedra, and disregard the ones that are not convex. Some polyhedra are degenerate, meaning that when drawn as real objects, they look flat.

### Naming

Usually, polyhedra are named by the number of faces they have. The first polyhedra are the tetrahedron, which is made of four triangles, pentahedron (five faces, can look like a four-sided pyramid), hexahedron (six faces, a cube if it is regular), heptahedron (seven faces) and octahedron (eight faces). Prisms, pyramids and other shapes can also be named after how many faces they have.

## Other websites

- Making Polyhedra
- Polyhedra Pages
- Stella: Polyhedron Navigator – Software for exploring polyhedra and printing nets for their physical construction.  Includes uniform polyhedra, stellations, compounds, Johnson solids, etc.
- The Uniform Polyhedra
- Virtual Reality Polyhedra – The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra
    - Polyhedra and Pyramids
- Paper Models of Polyhedra Many links
- Paper Models of Uniform (and other) Polyhedra
- Interactive 3D  polyhedra in Java
- World of Polyhedra  – Comprehensive polyhedra in flash applet, showing vertices and edges (but not shaded faces)
- Polyhedra software, die-cast models, and posters
- Electronic Geometry Models – Contains a peer reviewed selection of polyhedra with unusual properties
- Symmetry, Crystals and Polyhedra
- uniform solution for uniform polyhedra by Dr. Zvi Har'El
- Java applet with the use of kaleido
- Origami Polyhedra – Models made with Modular Origami
- Polyhedra Collection – Various virtual and physical polyhedra models
Pentagon

A **pentagon** is a polygon with five edges. It is defined by five points, which are all on a plane. If all the edges have the same length and the angles at the corners are all 108°, the pentagon is called _regular_. If the pentagon intersects itself, it is called a pentagram.

Pentagons also occur in nature: Fruits of the Okra are pentangular. The flowers of Ipomoea are pentagular. In chemistry, many Cyclic compounds are pentangles: Cyclopentane and Furan are examples for this. In architecture, many bastions are pentangular: Bourtange, in the Netherlands has been completely restored, and is a pentangle.  The Citadel of Lille, Nyenschantz, near St. Petersburg, or the Citadel of Pamplona are . The Villa Farnese is a palace in the form of a pentagon, so is the castle of Nowy Wiśnicz. The Pilgrimage Church of Saint John of Nepomuk near Žďár nad Sázavou  also uses a pentangular design.

## Formulas

_Note: these formulas only work for regular pentagons._

_R_ is the radius of the circumcircle.
Calendar date

A **Calendar date** is a way to refer to a certain day in a calendar. With the calendar date and the calendar, the exact day can be identified. With a different calendar, the same calendar date may refer to a different day. This can be seen easiest when comparing the Julian calendar with the Gregorian calendar.

Calendar dates are important to refer to events (most holidays are fixed with reference to a particular event or calendar date.) One example may be Easter. In the Middle Ages, it has been fixed that Easter is to be the first Sunday that is (on or after) the 14th day after the spring equinox.

Most calendar systems have a date format that has three parts, the day of a certain month, the month and the year. Sometimes the week is added.

## Other websites

- On This Day In History
Iranian calendars

The **Iranian calendar**  also known as **Persian calendar** or the **Jalāli Calendar** is a solar calendar. It is currently used in Iran and Afghanistan. It is observation-based, rather than rule-based. Each year starts on the vernal equinox as precisely determined by astronomical observations from Tehran (or the 52.5°E meridian, which also defines IRST) and Kabul. This makes it more accurate than the Gregorian Calendar.

The current Iranian Calendar year is **1401 AP_ (AP = Anno Persico/Anno Persarum = Persian year)_.**

## Other websites

- An online Persian/Gregorian date convertor, Persian calendar for mobile (j2me)
Hexagon

A **hexagon** is a polygon with 6 sides and 6 corners (vertices). Like regular triangles and squares, hexagons fit together without gaps. This is known as a tessellation. Because of this, they are often used for tiling floors. They are also quite common in nature. For example, the honeycombs in a beehive are hexagons.

## Related pages

- Polygon
- Triangle
- Square
- Pentagon
- Heptagon
- Octagon

## Other websites

- Definition and properties of a hexagon With interactive animation
- Cassini Images Bizarre Hexagon on Saturn
- Saturn's Strange Hexagon
- A hexagonal feature around Saturn's North Pole
- "Bizarre Hexagon Spotted on Saturn" - from Space.com (27 March 2007)
West Edmonton Mall

The **West Edmonton Mall** (WEM) is the second-largest shopping centre in North America. It is in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. It is one of the main tourist attractions in Alberta. The mall is also the fourth largest in the world. WEM first opened on September 15, 1981.

## Attractions

In addition to the over 500 shops in the West Edmonton Mall, there are many other things which people go to the mall for.
- **Galaxyland**: The world's largest indoor Amusement park. The park has 24 rides. These rides include a triple loop rollercoaster.
- **World Waterpark**: world's largest indoor waterpark. The park includes the world's largest indoor wavepool. The wavepool can create waves up to 5–6 feet in height. It also has ten water slides. Its tallest water slide is 83 feet high.
- **Deep Sea Adventure**: An indoor salt water lake with performing sea lions. The lake also has a structure built to look like Christopher Columbus' Santa María.

The mall also has an Ice skating rink, miniature golf course, casino, skate park, hotel, petting zoo, three movie theaters and many other things to see.

## Other websites

- Official site
- A map of the mall
- The list of shops in the mall
- Hours of Operation
Ahmad Khatami

Ayatollah Sayyid **Ahmad Khatami** () is a member of the Iranian Assembly of Experts.

Although his name resembles that of Mohammad Khatami, the reformist former president of Iran, the two men are not related.  In fact, they have opposite points of view on many issues, such as democracy and velayate faqih in Iran.

## Other websites

- Ahmad Khatami
- The Republicans in the U.S. Are in a Crisis; Sanctions on Iran Will Harm the West More than Iran
- Iran warns France: US rope decaying
Tendon

A **tendon** (or **sinew**) is a tough band of tissue that connects muscle to bone. It is built to withstand tension. Tendons are similar to ligaments except that ligaments join one bone to another. Tendons and muscles work together, roughly as follows. When muscles contract, the tendon transmits the pull to the bone.

## Anatomy

A tendon connects to a muscle at one end, and to bone at the other end. Each tendon has these two "insertions".

Collagen fibres connect the muscle to the bones. A tendon inserts into bone at one end, and into the muscle at the other end.

Tendons do not create any pulling force of their own. The tendons transfer the force of muscles pulling on the bone. Unlike elastin (another bodily tissue) tendons have very little "give".

Tendons are often connected to joints.
Coffee substitute

**Coffee substitutes** are products that try to taste like coffee. The idea for using them is to have a drink that tastes like coffee, but has no caffeine in it. The main reasons for making coffee substitutes are medical and economic. In World War II, acorns were used to make coffee, however it tasted foul. It was also hard to get. In the American Civil War there was a similar story -

_"For the stimulating property to which both tea and coffee owe their chief value, there is unfortunately no substitute; the best we can do is to dilute the little stocks which still remain, and cheat the palate, if we cannot deceive the nerves."_ The Southern Banner, 1865

## Ingredients

Grain coffee and other substitutes can be made by roasting or decocting various organic substances.

Some ingredients used include: almond, acorn, asparagus, barley and malt, beech nut, beetroot, carrot, chicory root, corn, cotton seed, dandelion root, fig, boiled-down molasses, okra seed, pea, persimmon seed, potato peel, rye, sassafras nut, sweet potato.

Chicory has been sold commercially on a large scale since around 1970, and it has become a mainstream product. It was widely used during the American Civil War on both sides. Chicory is a native plant of Western Asia, Europe, and Northern Africa. And the cultivation of the plant is considered to be originated in Egypt. In France, around the 1800s, chicory was used as an ingredient or substitute for coffee.

Postum is an instant type beverage used in place of coffee. It made from roasted grains and molasses. Postum history goes back to 1895 when an American named C.W. Post created the coffee substitute, inspired by a caramel coffee recipe made by Harvey Kellogg. It reached the height of its popularity during World War II. It also really caught on with people who for health or religious reasons preferred not to consume drinks that contained caffeine. For popular usage on the sitcom Seinfeld George says to Jerry he does not know why postum is not a more popular beverage.

## Related pages

- Coffee
Kuzcham Dherai

**Kuzcham Dherai** (also sometimes called **Dherai**, **Dehrai** or **Derai**) is a town in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. It is located on the bank of the river Swat and a couple of miles away from Swat Saidu Sharif airport. The population of Dherai is about 10,000 people.

## History

It is believed that Alexander the Great once passed through this area.
Class

**Class** could mean:

- Social class refers to the differences between groups in societies or cultures, and is a basic idea in economics, sociology and other social sciences
- Class (education), a group of students in a course or lesson
    - class, a lesson, in education
    - class, short for a classroom

- Class (biology), a rank used in taxonomy
- Class (philosophy), distinguishes between classes and types
- Class (set theory), in mathematics
- Travel class

## Media, entertainment and sport

- Character class in role-playing games and other genres
- _Class_ (film), a romantic comedy released in 1983
- _Class: A Guide Through the American Status System_, a book by Paul Fussell
- _The Class_, a CBS sitcom which began in fall 2006
- Class, known as one-design in sailing, where boats built the same way race against each other

## Technology

- Appliance classes, in making electric appliances
- Class (emission), a type of radio emission
- Ship class, in a navy, a set of vessels that are built the same way

### Computer science

- Class (programming), related to object-oriented programming
- Class (file format), a Java file format
- Class (warez), a warez group that stopped being used
- Class attribute, a part of many HTML and XHTML elements, such as div and span, often to help apply styles

## Railroads

- Class (locomotive), a railroad locomotive design as assigned by the railroad
- The classification of United States railroads by income:
    - Class I railroad
    - Class II railroad
    - Class III railroad

## Other

- Classes of United States Senators
- CLASS, Community Leaders At Service of Society, a non-profit organization in Silicon Valley, California.
- "Class", British slang word meaning "great" or "fabulous".
Prize

A **prize** is an award given to a person or a group of people to reward good work.

Official prizes often include monetary rewards as well as the fame that comes with them. Some prizes are given out in famous ceremonies, such as the Oscars.

Prizes are given for a number of reasons: as an honour for special persons, for exemplary behaviour and to provide incentives in competitions, etc. In general, prizes are regarded in a positive light, and their winners are admired. However, many  prizes, especially the more famous ones, have often caused controversy and jealousy.

Specific types of prizes include:
- First prize, second prize, third prize etc.
- Consolation prize: an award given to those who do not win an event but are deserving of recognition.
- Booby prize: typically awarded as a joke to whoever finished last.
Church (disambiguation)

**Church** could mean:

## Religion

- Church, a building used for religious services, usually referring specifically to those for Christian worship.
- Christian Church, the worldwide body of Christians.
- Christian church, the body of people who share a faith or denomination within a community.
- Religious denomination, an organization of churches sharing the same faith.

## Places

- Church, Lancashire, a city in England

## People

- Albert T. Church (born 1947), a Vice-Admiral in the United States Navy
- Alonzo Church (1905–1995), a logician, (famous for the Church-Turing thesis and lambda calculus)
- Benjamin Church (1734–1776), the first Surgeon General of the Continental Army and grandson of Captain Benjamin Church
- Captain Benjamin Church (1639–1718), a colonial officer during King Philip's War
- Bill Church, an American musician
- Brad Church
- Charlotte Church (born 1986), British soprano singer and talk show host
- Doug Church, a video-game designer
- Ellen Church
- Forrester Church (born 1948), an  American minister, son of Senator Frank Church
- Francis Pharcellus Church (1839–1906), an American writer (famous for the editorial _Yes, Virginia, there is a Santa Claus_)
- Frank Church (1924–1984), a four-term U.S. Senator from Idaho
- Frederic Edwin Church (1826–1900), a landscape painter
- George W. Church, Sr., founder of Church's Chicken, a chain of franchised fried chicken restaurants
- John A. Church, an expert on sea-level and its changes
- Judith Church (born 1953), a politician in the United Kingdom
- Louis K. Church
- Mary Church Terrell (1863–1954), an American writer and civil-rights activist
- Mike Church (born 1962), a Southern US radio commentator often considered a shock jock
- Richard Church (general) (1784–1873), a British military officer and general in the Greek army
- Richard William Church (1825–1890), an English divine, nephew of the general
- Richard Church (poet) (1893–1972), an English poet and man of letters
- Robert Reed Church (1839–1912), the first African-American millionaire
- Ryan Church (born 1978), an American baseball player
- Thomas Dolliver Church (1902–1978), an American landscape architect
- Thomas Haden Church (born 1961), an American actor in television and movies
- Thomas Langton Church (1870–1950), a Canadian politician
- Walter G. Church, Sr., member of the North Carolina General Assembly
- William Church (circa 1778 - 1863), American inventor who patented a typesetting machine in 1822

## Music

- The Church, an Australian rock band
- Church, weekly meetings of the Hells Angels motorcycle club
- "The Church", a song by Hawkwind from their 1982 album _Church of Hawkwind_
- "Church", a song by Outkast from their 2003 album _Speakerboxxx/The Love Below_
- "Church", a song by Galactic from their 1998 album _Coolin' Off_
- Chvrches, an electropop trio from Glasgow, Scotland

## Fiction

- Church (_Red vs. Blue_), a fictional character
- Church, the family cat in Stephen King's novel _Pet Sematary_
- The Church, set up by The Order in _Silent Hill_
Religious denomination

A **religious denomination** (also simply **denomination**) is a subgroup within a religion that has a common name, tradition, and identity.

The term is often used for several Christian denominations including Eastern Orthodoxy, Catholicism, and the many sorts of Protestantism like: Baptist, Methodist, Episcopalian, and Pentecostal.

It is also used for the four branches of Judaism (Orthodox, Conservative, Reform, and Reconstructionist), and for the main branches of Islam (Sunnism and Shi'ism, Quranism, Ibadism, Sufism, Muwahhidism).

In Hinduism the major deity or philosophical belief functions as the identifier of a denomination and typically each has distinct cultural and religious practices. The major denominations include: Shaivism, Shaktism, Vaishnavism, Smartism, and Halumatha.

## Related pages

- Sect
- Cult
- Religion
- Christian denomination
- Full communion
- Schism (religion)
Christendom

**Christendom** or the **Christian world**, in the widest sense, means Christianity as a territorial phenomenon. That means: those countries where most people are Christian and because of that are part of Christendom.

People have used the term **Christendom** for the medieval and Renaissance understanding of the Christian world as one single _Body of Christ_ with Christ as the head.  With the rise of modern secularism and the Reformation during the early 16th century the understanding changed to a modern idea of a tolerant and diverse society that consists of many different communities.

## Related pages

- Caliphate (an Islamic analog to the Medieval political concept)
- Muslim World and Ummah

## Other websites

- Catholic Encyclopedia: Christendom
Creed (disambiguation)

A **creed** is a statement of belief, usually religious.

**Creed** may also refer to:

## Religion

- Apostles' Creed, an early statement of Christian belief
- Nicene Creed, the most widespread or ecumenical Christian statement of faith
- Athanasian Creed, a statement of Christian Trinitarian doctrine
- Chalcedonian Creed, adopted at the Council of Chalcedon in 451 in Asia Minor
- Social Creed (Methodist), a social creed of the American Methodist Episcopal Church
- Masai Creed, a creed composed in about 1960 by Western Christian missionaries for the Masai people of East Africa
- A New Creed, an affirmation of faith used widely in the worship services of the United Church of Canada
- Islamic Creed, see Shahada or Aqidah

## Government

- American's Creed, a forerunner to the Pledge of Allegiance
- United States Postal Service creed (unofficial)

**Military**
- Rifleman's Creed, also known as "the Creed of the United States Marine," though unofficial
- Ranger Creed, official creed of the US Army Rangers
- U.S. Soldier's Creed, a set of values and morals that all U.S. Army personnel are encouraged to live by

## People

- Creed Bratton, American singer and actor
- Frederick G. Creed, Canadian inventor, founder of Creed & Company
- Helios Creed, American musician, guitarist of Chrome
- Linda Creed, Philadelphia songwriter
- Percy Redfern Creed
- Martin Creed, British artist
- Michael Creed, Irish politician
- Creed Taylor, American record producer

**Fictional**
- Creed Bratton (The Office character), a character from the U.S. television series, The Office
- Graydon Creed, a character in Marvel Comics
- Ursarkar E. Creed, a character from Warhammer 40,000 universe
- Apollo Creed, a boxer
- Creed Diskenth, the antagonist in anime and manga series Black Cat (manga)

## Other

- Assassin's Creed, a video game

**Companies**
- Creed (perfume), a perfume manufacturer
- Creed & Company, a British telecommunications company

**Literature**
- Creed, a poem by Steve Turner (writer)
- Creed (comics), a Lightning Comics series

**Music**
- Creed (band), a Christian rock band
- _Creed_, one of the most popular songs from Christian rock group, Petra on their album, _Beyond Belief_

**Places**
- Creed, Cornwall, a village in Cornwall, England
- Creede, Colorado

## Related pages

- Credo, a musical setting of the Nicene Creed
Shahada

The ***Shahada*** (, ) is the first pillar of Islam. The saying is "_Lā ʾIlāha ʾIllā Allah, Muḥammadun Rasūl Allah"_, meaning "There is no deity but God, Muhammad is the messenger of God". this saying also declared for conversion to Islam.

In one of the many ayahs (proofs, evidence, verses, signs, revelations, etc.) within the Qur'an. The ayah says 3:18

3:18

شَهِدَ ٱللَّهُ أَنَّهُۥ لَآ إِلَـٰهَ إِلَّا هُوَ وَٱلْمَلَـٰٓئِكَةُ وَأُو۟لُوا۟ ٱلْعِلْمِ قَآئِمًۢا بِٱلْقِسْطِ ۚ لَآ إِلَـٰهَ إِلَّا هُوَ ٱلْعَزِيزُ ٱلْحَكِيمُ ١٨

Allâh bears witness that Lâ ilâha illa Huwa (none has the right to be worshipped but He), and the angels, and those having knowledge (also give this witness); (He always) maintains His creation in Justice. Lâ ilâha illa Huwa (none has the right to be worshipped but He), the All-Mighty, the All-Wise.
Purgatory

According to the teaching of the Roman Catholic Church, **Purgatory** is the "final purification of the elect": "All who die in God's grace and friendship, but still imperfectly purified, are indeed assured of their eternal salvation; but after death they undergo purification, so as to achieve the holiness necessary to enter the joy of heaven."

“In Purgatory there are different levels; the lowest is close to hell and the highest gradually draws near to Heaven. It is not All Souls Day, but, Christmas, that the greatest number of souls leave Purgatory.

There are in Purgatory, souls who pray ardently to God, but for whom no relative or friend prays on earth. God makes them benefit from the prayers of other people.

It happens that God permits them to manifest themselves in different way, close to their relatives on earth, in order to remind men of the existence of Purgatory and to solicit their prayers to come close to God who is just, but good.

## Purgatory in art and culture

Perhaps the best-known instance of purgatory in the arts is Dante's _Purgatorio_, the second book of his _Divine Comedy_. Likewise, the Ghost in William Shakespeare's _Hamlet_ may also presuppose a belief in purgatory,

## Related pages

- The Divine Comedy
- Hades
- Heaven
- Hell

## Sources

- Akin, James. _How to explain Purgatory to Protestants_
- _ Blackwell Dictionary of Eastern Christianity_  (Oxford: Blackwell, 1999)
- _Catechism of the Catholic Church_, available online
- _Catechism of St. Philaret (Drozdov) of Moscow_
- Catholic Encyclopedia of 1914, _Purgatory_
- Clendenin, Daniel B.  (ed.). _Eastern Orthodox Theology_  (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1995)
- Demetry, Constas H. _Catechism of the Eastern Orthodox Church_
- Dragani, Anthony. _From East to West: Purgatory_
- O' Collins, Gerald and Mario Farrugia. _Catholicism: the story of Catholic Christianity_ (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003)

## Other websites

- CatholicBridge.com, _Purgatory_  — Ecumenical article by David MacDonald concerning Evangelical and Catholic belief
- Catholic Answers, _Purgatory_  — Catholic apologetic article
- NewAdvent.org, _Purgatory_ — 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia article
- philvaz.com/apologetics  — Readings from the Church Fathers and other sources on Purgatory, by Phil Porvaznik
- EWTN.com library, _Heaven, Hell and Purgatory according to Pope John Paul II_  — Article from the newspaper of the Holy See, _L'Osservatore Romano_, July-August 1999
- JewishEncyclopedia.com, _Purgatory_ — Article by Kaufmann Kohler in the online Jewish Encyclopedia
- New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, _Purgatory_ — Article by C. A. Beckwith in the 19th century Protestant encyclopedia (ed. Philip Schaff)
- Purgatory account in the 1911 _Encyclopaedia Britannica_.
- _I Believe in Purgatory..._ — excerpt from C. S. Lewis's _Letters To Malcolm: Chiefly on Prayer_, chapter 20
- Frequently Asked Questions  at Holy Souls Online
- Purgatory and praying for the dead on Catholic Apologetic
- _"Prisoner of the King: Thoughts on the Catholic Doctrine of Purgatory"_, H. J. Coleridge, 1889. retrieved 24 May 2007
William Blake

**William Blake** (28 November 1757 - 12 August 1827) was an English poet, visionary, painter, and printmaker. He was born and died in London.

During his lifetime he was not very well known. Today Blake's work is thought to be important in the history of both poetry and the visual arts. Blake's first collection of poems, _Poetical Sketches_, was printed around 1783. His most famous poem "And did those feet in ancient time" was, over 100 years later, put to music by Hubert Parry. The hymn is called "Jerusalem".

Blake was voted 38th in a poll of the 100 Greatest Britons organised by the BBC in 2002.

## Other websites

- Recent Discovery of the Location of William Blake's Grave.
- The William Blake Archive, a multi-media archive, sponsored by the Library of Congress
- Blake250: 2007 London festival celebrating 250 years of William Blake's influence
- Paintings of William Blake
- William Blake Society
- Friends of William Blake
- Blake Society
- Making facsimiles of Blake's prints
- William Blake  at the British Library
**Profiles**
- Profile at the Academy of American Poets
- Profile at the Poetry Foundation
- William Blake profile, video on BBC Poetry Season and BBC etching gallery
- Tate William Blake learning resource
- Profile at Jacob Boehme Online
**Archives**
- The William Blake Archive – A Comprehensive Academic Archive of Blake's works with scans from multiple collections
- Single Institution Holdings:
    - The G.E. Bentley: William Blake Collection Special Collections | Victoria University Library in the University of Toronto
    - The G.E. Bentley: William Blake Collection Digital Collections | Victoria University Library in the University of Toronto
    - William Blake collection  at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin
    - Links to articles, manuscripts and films relating to William Blake.  From the British Library's Discovering Literature website.
    - _William Blake Digital Material_ From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress
**Digital editions and research**
- Settings of William Blake's poetry in the Choral Public Domain Library
- William Blake's America and Europe  at Auckland Libraries

## Infobox (writer)

- **name**: William Blake
- **image**: William Blake by Thomas Phillips.jpg
- **caption**: Blake in a portrait
by Thomas Phillips (1807)
- **birth place**: Soho, London, England
- **death place**: Charing Cross, London, England
- **occupation**: Poet, painter, printmaker
- **movement**: Romanticism
- **genre**: Visionary, poetry
- **notableworks**: _Songs of Innocence and of Experience_, _The Marriage of Heaven and Hell_, _Vala, or The Four Zoas, The Four Zoas_, _Jerusalem: The Emanation of the Giant Albion, Jerusalem_, _Milton: A Poem in Two Books, Milton_, "And did those feet in ancient time"
- **signature**: William Blake signature.svg
Race (biology)

In biology, **races** are distinct populations within the same species with relatively small morphological and genetic differences.

The populations are _ecological races_ if they arise from adaptation to different local habitats or _geographic races_ when they are geographically isolated.

If sufficiently different, two or more races may be described as subspecies, which is an official biological taxonomy unit below 'species'.

If not, they are called _races_, which means that a formal rank should not be given to the group, or taxonomists are unsure whether or not a formal rank should be given.

According to Ernst Mayr, "a subspecies is a _geographic race_ that is sufficiently different taxonomically to be worthy of a separate name"

## Example

The key lime is a shrub that grows to a size of about 5 metres in height. It has many thorns. It produces a fruit that is yellow when it is ripe. This fruit is preferred by bartenders to mix cocktails. They prefer this lime, rather than the Persian lime.

The lime plant originally came from southeast Asia, where it is native. It was taken to the Middle East, and Crusaders took it to Europe and North Africa. Spanish explorers took it to the West Indies and the Florida Keys. In 1926, a hurricane destroyed most of the commercially-grown limes in the region. The Persian lime was reintroduced then.

Some of the original shrubs grew wild in the Florida Keys.  It became clear that the originally introduced shrubs (now known as _Mexican limes_) had modified their fruits. These were darker green than the original Persian limes, they also had a thicker skin.

## More detail

In biological taxonomy, **race** is an informal rank below the level of subspecies. It may be used as a higher rank than "strain". There are various definitions. Races may be genetically distinct populations in the same species, or they may be defined in other ways, e.g. geographically, or physiologically. Genetic isolation between races is not complete (some interbreeding takes place between the groups).
However, the genetic differences are not (yet) enough to put the groups into separate species. The term _race_ is recognized by some, but is not governed by any of the formal codes of biological classification.

## Human beings

In former times, scientists often divided human beings into races. For example, they called people with a dark skin  "Negroid" or "black race". But, human gene sequences are very similar compared to many other animals. This is one reason why modern biology says that there is only one human race.
Phenotype

The **phenotype** of an organism is the whole set of characters (or traits) of that organism.

It does not mean just 'what you can see on the surface'. Rather, it means anything which can be made visible by suitable means. For example, blood groups are definitely a part of the phenotype. However, they are not visible just by looking at a person.

In biology, the phenotype is distinguished from the genotype. This was proposed by Wilhelm Johannsen in 1911 to make clear the difference between an organism's heredity and what that heredity produces. The distinction is similar to that proposed by August Weismann, who distinguished between _germ plasm_ (gametes or their stem cells) and _somatic cells_ (the body).

The phenotype is important because it is exposed to natural selection:
- "From Darwin to the present day most evolutionists have considered the individual organism to be the principal object of selection. Actually, it is the _phenotype_ which is the part of the individual that is “visible” to selection". Ernst Mayr

Phenotypes are determined mainly by genes and are influenced by environmental factors. So, knowing the genome of an organism does not give an exact prediction of its phenotype.

Traits vary greatly in how much they owe to heredity (nature vs nurture). The interaction between genotype and phenotype has often been conceptualized by the following relationship:

- **genotype + environment → phenotype**

## Extensions

The term 'phenotype' must include characteristics that can be made visible by some technical procedure (such as blood types). Another extension adds behaviour to the phenotype since behaviours are also affected by both genotypic and environmental factors.

The idea of the **extended phenotype** has been developed by Richard Dawkins to mean all the effects a gene has on the outside world that may influence its chances of being inherited. These can be effects on the organism carrying the trait, the environment, or other organisms. For instance, a beaver dam might be considered a phenotype of beaver genes, the same way beavers' powerful incisor teeth are phenotype expressions of their genes. Dawkins also cites the effect of an organism on the behaviour of another organism (such as the devoted nurturing of a cuckoo by a parent clearly of a different species) as an example of the extended phenotype.

## Related pages

- Nature versus nurture