juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Unitary authority

A **unitary authority** is a type of local authority that is responsible for all local government functions within its area. This is different from a system where local government functions are divided between different authorities.

Typically unitary authorities cover large towns or cities, which are large enough to be independent of county or regional administration. Sometimes they consist of counties which have no lower level of administration.

## United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom, "Unitary Authorities" are English councils which are responsible for almost all local government functions within their areas.

This is opposed to the system of local government which still exists in most of England, where local government functions are divided between county councils and district councils.

Until 1996 a similar system existed in Scotland and Wales but this has now been replaced by a fully unitary system. The unitary system has existed in Northern Ireland since 1973. when the administrative responsibilities of the counties of Northern Ireland were replaced by a system of 26 unitary authorities.

### England

Some cities, large towns and groups of neighbouring towns are unitary authorities and independent from county councils and some English counties, such as Rutland, Herefordshire and the Isle of Wight, have so small populations that the entire county is a unitary authority.

In practice most unitary authorities in the UK are not entirely unitary, as they often run some services on a joint basis with other authorities, these typically include policing, fire services, and sometimes waste disposal and public transport. In addition, some unitary authorities contain civil parishes, which effectively form another limited  of local government.

When the metropolitan councils were abolished in 1986 their functions were given to the boroughs. These became unitary authorities in all but name.

## Other countries

Similar institutions exist in other countries, which although not called unitary authorities, are similar in concept.

### United States

In the United States an Independent city or a consolidated city-county is roughly equivalent to a unitary authority. The city might be separate from any county government, as in Virginia, or merged with a county government, as in San Francisco, California, or as is common in Florida. Another type of local government that is roughly equivalent to a unitary authority is a county when there are no municipal or township governments in the county. That is the case in Arlington County, Virginia, and Baltimore County, Maryland.

### Canada

Unitary authorities or _single-tier municipalities_ exist as a single level of government in a province that otherwise has two levels of local government. One should not confuse municipalities in provinces with no upper-level of local government as single-tier municipalities, as these are the _only_ level of local government in that province.

### Germany

In Germany a kreisfreie Stadt is the equivalent term for a city which is responsible for the local and the Kreis (district) administrative level.
County council

A **county council** is the elected administrative body governing an area known as a county. This term has slightly different meanings in different countries.

## British Isles

County councils were responsible for more strategic services in a region, with smaller urban district councils and rural district councils responsible for other activities. The new system was a major modernisation, which became necessary because of the increase of functions carried out by local government in late Victorian Britain.

### England and Wales

In England and Wales, a **county council** is the local government that governs a county.

County Councils were introduced in 1889 in England and Wales by the _Local Government Act 1888_. They took over the administrative functions of the unelected _Quarter Sessions_.

### Scotland

The system was soon extended to Scotland, by the _Local Government (Scotland) Act 1889_, and the island of Ireland by the _Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898_.  Except in Scotland, the areas they covered were called administrative counties and were not always the same as the traditional shire counties.

## United States

In the United States, most of the individual states have counties as a form of local government; in nine states, they are headed by a county council.  In other states, each county is headed by a county commission or a county board of supervisors.
L. Ron Hubbard

**Lafayette Ronald Hubbard ** (March 13, 1911 – January 24, 1986) was the founder of Dianetics and Scientology. He started as a pulp fiction and science fiction writer. Hubbard was born in Tilden, Nebraska to Harry Ross Hubbard and Ledora May Hubbard. He died of a stroke in Creston, California.
East Midlands

The **East Midlands** is one of the regions of England and is the eastern half of the Midlands.

The counties of Derbyshire, Leicestershire, Rutland, Northamptonshire, Nottinghamshire and most of Lincolnshire belong to this region.

The highest point in the region is Kinder Scout, in Derbyshire at 2,088 ft (636 m).

## Population and settlement

Its main cities are Nottingham, Leicester, Lincoln, Derby, and Northampton. Leicester is officially the largest city in the region, although the largest area is the Nottingham Urban Area.

East Midlands Airport is situated between the three main cities of Derby, Leicester and Nottingham.

Midland Mainline and GNER trains go to London and to Birmingham and the South West.

The M1 motorway serves the three largest cities.

## History

A historical basis for such an area exists in the Five Burghs of the Danelaw. The current government office region was created in 1994.

## Local government

The official region consists of the following subdivisions:

|Map||Ceremonial county||Shire county /unitary || Districts|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
||Derbyshire|1. Derbyshire|High Peak, Derbyshire Dales South Derbyshire, Erewash Amber Valley, North East Derbyshire Chesterfield, Bolsover||
|colspan="2"|2. Derby||||
|Nottinghamshire|3. Nottinghamshire|Rushcliffe, Broxtowe Ashfield, Gedling Newark and Sherwood, Mansfield Bassetlaw|||
|colspan="2"|4. Nottingham||||
|Lincolnshire|5. Lincolnshire|Lincoln, North Kesteven South Kesteven, South Holland, Boston, East Lindsey, West Lindsey|||
|Leicestershire|6. Leicestershire|Charnwood, Melton Harborough, Oadby and Wigston Blaby, Hinckley and Bosworth North West Leicestershire|||
|colspan="2"|7. Leicester||||
|colspan="3"|8. Rutland||||
|9. Northamptonshire|South Northamptonshire, Northampton Daventry, Wellingborough Kettering, Corby East Northamptonshire||||

## Other websites

- East Midlands Development Agency
- East Midland Directory
- East Midlands Regional Assembly
- Government Office for the East Midlands
- Government's list of councils in the East Midlands
- East Midland Network Exchange
Greater Nottingham

**Greater Nottingham** is a conurbation based around the city of Nottingham in Nottinghamshire, England.

Unlike Greater Manchester, which is a metropolitan county and Greater London, which is a region, Greater Nottingham not officially an administrative area.  But it is an own **Nottingham Urban Area** with a population of 666,358 at the time of the 2001 census.

The Nottingham Urban Area includes Nottingham itself and the surrounding towns and villages of Arnold, Beeston, Breaston, Carlton, Clifton,  Eastwood, Heanor, Hucknall, Ilkeston, Kimberley,  Long Eaton, Ripley, Ruddington, Stapleford, and West Bridgford.  This Nottingham Urban Area is separated from the Derby Urban Area only by a narrow gap between Breaston and Borrowash.  Similar narrow gaps exist between the Nottingham urban area and the Mansfield Urban Area and Alfreton Urban Area.

## Other websites

- Greater Nottingham partnership (GNP)
- Office for National Statistics: Census 2001, Key Statistics for urban areas
- map depicting ONS definition
Hanau

**Hanau** is a town in Hesse, Germany. It is  east of Frankfurt am Main, where the little river Kinzig joins the river Main. About 100,000 people live in Hanau.

## History

Hanau was first mentioned in 1143 and became a city in 1303.

During World War II, Hanau was almost completely destroyed by British airstrikes in March 1945.

Nine people were killed in two shootings in Hanau on 19 February 2020.

## Famous people

- Brothers Grimm
- Rudi Völler
- Paul Hindemith

## Infobox (german location)

- **type**: Stadt
- **name**: Hanau
- **image coa**: Wappen Hanau.svg
- **image flag**: Flagge Hanau.svg
- **image photo**: Goldschmiedehaus Hanau.jpg
- **image caption**: Goldsmiths' House (Hanau old town hall)
- **image plan**: Hanau in HU.svg
- **state**: Hessen
- **region**: Darmstadt
- **district**: Main-Kinzig-Kreis
- **elevation**: 104
- **area**: 76.49
- **population**: 88251
- **stand**: 2007-04-30
- **postal code**: 63450, 63452, 63454 63456, 63457
- **area code**: 06181
- **licence**: HU
- **gemeindeschlüssel**: 06 4 35 014
- **mayor**: Claus Kaminsky
- **bürgermeistertitel**: Oberbürgermeister
- **party**: SPD
John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich

**John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich** was born on November 3, 1718 and died on April 30, 1792 in Great Britain. He is known for the person the sandwich is named after.

## Infobox (officeholder)

- **honorific-prefix**: The Right Honourable
- **name**: The Earl of Sandwich
- **honorific-suffix**: Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council, PC Fellow of the Royal Society, FRS
- **image**: John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich.jpg
- **imagesize**: 200px
- **order1**: Secretary of State for the Northern Department
- **term start1**: 19 December 1770
- **term end1**: 12 January 1771
- **primeminister1**: Frederick North, Lord North, Lord North
- **predecessor1**: William Nassau de Zuylestein, 4th Earl of Rochford, The Earl of Rochdale
- **successor1**: George Montagu-Dunk, 2nd Earl of Halifax, The Earl of Halifax
- **term start2**: 9 September 1763
- **term end2**: 10 July 1765
- **primeminister2**: George Grenville
- **predecessor2**: George Montagu-Dunk, 2nd Earl of Halifax, The Earl of Halifax
- **successor2**: Augustus FitzRoy, 3rd Duke of Grafton, The Duke of Grafton
- **order3**: Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, First Lord of the Admiralty
- **term start3**: 1771
- **term end3**: 1782
- **primeminister3**: Frederick North, Lord North, Lord North
- **predecessor3**: Edward Hawke, 1st Baron Hawke, Sir Edward Hawke
- **successor3**: Augustus Keppel, 1st Viscount Keppel, The Viscount Keppel
- **term start4**: 1763
- **term end4**: 1763
- **primeminister4**: John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute, The Earl of Bute
- **predecessor4**: George Grenville
- **successor4**: John Perceval, 2nd Earl of Egmont, The Earl of Egmont
- **term start5**: 1748
- **term end5**: 1751
- **primeminister5**: George Grenville
- **predecessor5**: John Russell, 4th Duke of Bedford, The Duke of Bedford
- **successor5**: George Anson, 1st Baron Anson, The Lord Anson
- **order6**: Postmaster General of the United Kingdom, Postmaster General
- **term start6**: 1768
- **term end6**: 1771
- **primeminister6**: Augustus FitzRoy, 3rd Duke of Grafton, The Duke of Grafton
Frederick North, Lord North, Lord North
- **predecessor6**: Wills Hill, 1st Marquess of Downshire, The Marquess of Downshire
- **successor6**: Henry Carteret, 1st Baron Carteret, Henry Carteret
- **death place**: Chiswick, England
- **spouse**: Dorothy Montagu, Countess of Sandwich
 Martha Ray
- **profession**: politician, Statesman
- **alma mater**: Eton College, Trinity College, Cambridge
Nottingham (disambiguation)

**Nottingham** is the name of several places in the world:

UK:
- Nottingham, England

USA:
- Nottingham, Maryland
- Nottingham, New Hampshire
- Nottingham Township, Harrison County, Ohio
- Nottingham Township, Pennsylvania
- East Nottingham Township, Pennsylvania
- West Nottingham Township, Pennsylvania

and a succession of Royal Navy destroyers:

- HMS Nottingham

**Nottingham** also refers to a housing cooperative in Madison, WI.
Dettelbach

**Dettelbach** is a town in Kitzingen in the Regierungsbezirk Unterfranken in Bavaria, Germany. It is on the right edge of the Main, 20 km east of Würzburg, and 8 km north of Kitzingen. It includes surrounding villages as administrative subdivisions, namely Bibergau, Brück, Dettelbach-Bahnhof, Effeldorf, Euerfeld, Mainsondheim, Neuses am Berg, Neusetz, Schernau und Schnepfenbach.

## Other websites

- Dettelbach website
- Neuses am Berg
- Euerfeld

## Infobox (german location)

- **type**: Stadt
- **image coa**: DEU Dettelbach COA.svg
- **image photo**: Dettelbach BW 1.JPG
- **image caption**: Remaining town fortifications
- **image plan**: Dettelbach in KT.svg
- **state**: Bayern
- **region**: Unterfranken
- **district**: Kitzingen
- **elevation**: 189-230
- **area**: 60.94
- **postal code**: 97337
- **area code**: 09324
- **licence**: KT
- **gemeindeschlüssel**: 09 6 75 117
- **divisions**: 10 Stadtteile
- **website**: [http://www.dettelbach.de/ www.dettelbach.de]
- **mayor**: Matthias Bielek
- **leader term**: 2020–26
- **party**: FW
Albertshofen

**Albertshofen** is a municipality in Kitzingen in Bavaria in Germany.

## Infobox (german location)

- **image coa**: DEU Albertshofen COA.svg
- **image photo**: Mainfaehre.jpg
- **image caption**: Albertshofen
- **image plan**: Albertshofen in KT.svg
- **state**: Bayern
- **region**: Unterfranken
- **district**: Kitzingen
- **verwaltungsgemeinschaft**: Kitzingen
- **elevation**: 185-215
- **area**: 3.80
- **postal code**: 97320
- **area code**: 09321
- **licence**: KT
- **gemeindeschlüssel**: 09 6 75 112
- **website**: [http://www.kitzingen.de/ www.kitzingen.de/]
- **mayor**: Horst Reuther
- **leader term**: 2020–26
- **party**: CSU
Kitzingen

**Kitzingen** () is a town in Bavaria, capital of Kitzingen. It is part of the Franconia geographical region and has around 21,000 residents. Surrounded by vineyards, Kitzingen County is the largest wine producer in Bavaria. It is said to be Franconia's wine trade center.

## Infobox (german location)

- **type**: Stadt
- **image coa**: DEU Kitzingen COA.svg
- **image photo**: KitzingenPano.jpg
- **image caption**: Panorama of Kitzingen with Old Bridge on the Main River
- **image plan**: Kitzingen in KT.svg
- **state**: Bayern
- **region**: Unterfranken
- **district**: Kitzingen
- **elevation**: 186-230
- **area**: 46.99
- **postal code**: 97301–97318
- **area code**: 09321
- **licence**: KT
- **gemeindeschlüssel**: 09 6 75 141
- **website**: [http://www.kitzingen.info/ www.kitzingen.info]
- **mayor**: Stefan Güntner
- **leader term**: 2020–26
- **party**: CSU
- **bürgermeistertitel**: Oberbürgermeister
Wiesenbronn

**Wiesenbronn** is a municipality  in Kitzingen in Bavaria in Germany.

## Infobox (german location)

- **image coa**: DEU Wiesenbronn COA.svg
- **image photo**: Wiesenbronn Rathaus 50513.jpg
- **image caption**: Town hall
- **image plan**: Wiesenbronn in KT.svg
- **state**: Bayern
- **region**: Unterfranken
- **district**: Kitzingen
- **verwaltungsgemeinschaft**: Großlangheim
- **elevation**: 262
- **area**: 10.57
- **postal code**: 97355
- **area code**: 09325
- **licence**: KT
- **gemeindeschlüssel**: 09 6 75 177
- **website**: [http://www.wiesenbronn.de www.wiesenbronn.de]
- **mayor**: Volkhard Warmdt
- **leader term**: 2020–26
Neuhof

**Neuhof** may refer to:

### In Austria

- Neuhof, Austria, a part of Untersiebenbrunn

### In the Czech Republic

- Neuhof, the old German name of Nový Dvůr, near Nymburk

### In France

- Neuhof, Strasbourg, a district in the south of Strasbourg

### In Germany

- Neuhof (Hamburg-Wilhelmsburg), a district in the port area of Hamburg, Germany
- Neuhof, Hesse, a municipality near Fulda, Hesse
- Neuhof, Lower Saxony, in the Hildesheim district, Lower Saxony
- Neuhof an der Zenn, in the Neustadt (Aisch)-Bad Windsheim district, Bavaria
- Penkun-Neuhof, a part of Penkun in the Uecker-Randow district, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
- Neuhöfer Karpfenteiche, ponds in the west of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
- Neuhofer See, a lake in Landkreis Nordwestmecklenburg, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
- Neuhof Substation, was a 110 kV electrical substation in Neuhof, Bad Sachsa, Lower Saxony
- Bahnhof Neuhof bei Zossen station, a railway station in the village of Neuhof, Brandenburg

### In Romania

- _Neuhof_, the German name for Bogda Commune, Timiș County

### In United States

- Neuhof Hutterite Colony in Mountain Lake Township, Cottonwood County, Minnesota

## Related pages

- Neuhofen
- Neuenhof (disambiguation)
Geiselwind

**Geiselwind** is a market town in Lower Franconia (Bavaria) in Kitzingen in Germany. It has a population of around 2,300.

### Place

Geiselwind is in the region of Lower Franconia (Würzburg). Until administrative reform Geiselwind belonged to the region of Middle Franconia. On the edge of the municipal area is the Dreifrankenstein ("Three Franconia Stone"), where the regions of Lower Franconia and Middle Franconia and Upper Franconia meet.

### Subdivision

Geiselwind has the following _Ortsteile_: Burggrub, Dürrnbuch, Ebersbrunn, Füttersee, Geiselwind, Gräfenneuses, Holzberndorf, Ilmenau, Langenberg, Rehweiler, Wasserberndorf and Freihaslach.

## Other websites

- Municipal website

## Infobox (german location)

- **image coa**: DEU Geiselwind COA.svg
- **image photo**: Geiselwind - Ort von Norden.JPG
- **image caption**: Geiselwind seen from the north
- **image plan**: Geiselwind in KT.svg
- **state**: Bayern
- **region**: Unterfranken
- **district**: Kitzingen
- **elevation**: 345-442
- **area**: 48.77
- **postal code**: 96160
- **area code**: 09556 /09555
- **licence**: KT
- **gemeindeschlüssel**: 09 6 75 127
- **website**: [http://www.geiselwind.de www.geiselwind.de]
- **mayor**: Ernst Nickel
- **leader term**: 2020–26
- **party**: FW
Markt Einersheim

**Markt Einersheim** is a market town and municipality in Kitzingen in Bavaria, Germany.

## Other websites

- Official website

## Infobox (german location)

- **image coa**: DEU Markt Einersheim COA.svg
- **image photo**: Markt Einersheim, das sogenanntes Würzbürger Tor DmD-6-75-148-13 foto2 2016-08-06 14.41.jpg
- **image caption**: Würzbürg Gate
- **image plan**: Markt Einersheim in KT.svg
- **state**: Bavaria
- **region**: Lower Franconia
- **district**: Kitzingen
- **verwaltungsgemeinschaft**: Iphofen
- **elevation**: 290
- **area**: 7.74
- **gemeindeschlüssel**: 09675148
- **postal code**: 97348
- **area code**: 09326
- **licence**: KT
- **mayor**: Herbert Volkamer
- **leader term**: 2020–26
Mainbernheim

**Mainbernheim** is a municipality in Bavaria, Germany,4 kilometers to the south of Kitzingen (_Landkreis_, district of Kitzingen) in the direction of Nürnberg.

## Infobox (german location)

- **type**: Stadt
- **image coa**: DEU Mainbernheim COA.svg
- **image plan**: Mainbernheim in KT.svg
- **state**: Bayern
- **region**: Unterfranken
- **district**: Kitzingen
- **elevation**: 226
- **area**: 12.00
- **postal code**: 97350
- **area code**: 09323
- **licence**: KT
- **gemeindeschlüssel**: 09 6 75 144
- **website**: [http://www.mainbernheim.de/ www.mainbernheim.de]
- **mayor**: Peter Kraus
- **leader term**: 2020–26
- **party**: FWG
Robert College

**Robert College**, also called **RC**, is an American high school in Istanbul, Turkey. It is the most prestigious, private high school in Turkey. The institution was founded by Cyrus Hamlin, with the financial help of Christopher Rhinelander Robert, in 1863 (during the Ottoman Empire). Robert College is also the first American educational institution founded outside the United States. It was founded as a boys' college for Christian minority of the empire. Later the girls section was opened as American College for Girls. Then the Muslims were allowed to be educated in the schools. Hüseyin Pektaş became the first Muslim boy to graduate from college. In 19th century, many additions were made to college including, middle school and high school.

After the foundation of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, the school continued to educate young people, who later became the leaders of the country. Prime ministers Bülent Ecevit and Tansu Çiller are among the school's graduates.

In 1971, Robert College donated one of its two campuses (Boys' campus or Bebek campus) to the Republic of Turkey. A new, public university was founded on this campus. The other campus (Girls' campus or Arnavutköy campus) has since been serving the society as a coeducational high school.

## Other websites

- Robert College
Gettysburg Address

- _To read the Gettysburg Address, see Gettysburg Address at Wikisource_

The **Gettysburg Address** is a speech by U.S. President Abraham Lincoln. It was delivered on the afternoon of Thursday, November 19, 1863. This speech was made during the American Civil War, at the dedication of the Soldiers' National Cemetery in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania.  This was four-and-a-half months after the Union Army had a victory over the Confederate States Army at the Battle of Gettysburg.

The address is one of the greatest speeches in the history of the United States. Lincoln spoke of how humans were equal as it has been said in the Declaration of Independence. He also said the Civil War was a fight not simply for the Union, but "a new birth of freedom" that would make everyone truly equal in one united nation.
Music critic

A **music critic** is someone who writes about concerts that have taken place or new music that has been written. They write reviews about this in newspapers or journals. What they write is called **musical criticism**.

When people write about the history of music or compare musical styles, this is called musicology. Musical criticism is about what is going on in the musical world at the moment.

## Responsibilities

Music critics can have a lot of influence on a musician’s success. If a musician gets a bad review people may not bother to go and hear him. If he has a very good review people will think he must be good and they will all want to hear him.

Occasionally it can happen that a new piece of music has such a terrible review that everyone wants to go and hear how terrible it is. They may then find that they like it and the music might become famous. This is called a “succès de scandale” (French for “scandalous success”). Stravinsky’s _Rite of Spring_ (1913) is a good example.

## Example of music critics

Music critics will spend a lot of time listening to music. They often do other jobs with music such as teaching. Some famous music critics include:

- The German composer Robert Schumann. He published a music journal called _Neue Zeitschrift für Musik_. He wrote an article which has become famous called _Neue Bahnen_ (_New Paths_) in which he said that there was a young man called Johannes Brahms who would become a great composer. Schumann was right.
- The French composer Hector Berlioz was a good music critic. He wrote a lot of music reviews in order to earn some money.
- The Austrian musicologist Eduard Hanslick. He became famous for saying that Johannes Brahms was a good composer and Wagner, Liszt and Bruckner were bad composers.
- The Irish playwright George Bernard Shaw. He wrote some interesting musical criticisms using the pseudonym (made-up name) Corno di Bassetto. There were some musicians he did not like and he said so. This made him quite a few enemies.

## Other websites

- International Federation of Music Journalists - an international group of media professionals who treat any aspect of music on any media. Publishes the "Directory of Music Journalists" and confers "Music Journalist Award".
- Music Media Directory - an international publication with over 40.000 contacts of music journalists and music media.
Pete Maravich

**Peter Press Maravich** (June 22, 1947 - January 5, 1988), also known as "Pistol Pete" Maravich, was an American basketball player. He played for Louisiana State University and averaged 44.2 points per game. That is the highest average ever in the history of college basketball. Then Maravich played for ten seasons in the NBA. He played for the Atlanta Hawks, New Orleans Jazz, Utah Jazz, and the Boston Celtics.  He once scored 68 points in an NBA game against the New York Knicks.

He was known for his great dribbling, passing and shooting abilities. Maravich died from a heart attack on January 5, 1988.

Maravich's father, Press Maravich, also played in the NBA.

## Other websites

- ESPN biography
- Maravich Book (Jackie Maravich)
- Rare Pete Maravich Film and Video Clips
John Batman

**John Batman** (21 January 1801 – 6 May 1839) was an Australian farmer and businessman who was one of the first white people to live in Melbourne.

Batman was born in Rosehill, Parramatta (part of Sydney), and spent time in Tasmania (then called Van Diemen's Land). In Tasmania he started farming on land the government gave him. He brought more land. During this time, he was involved in conflicts with the Tasmanian Aborigines.

In December 1825, or early 1826, Batman captured the notorious bushranger (a kind of robber), Matthew Brady.

Batman asked to be given land in the Westernport area of Victoria, but the government rejected him. So, in 1835, as a leading member of the Port Phillip Association he sailed for the mainland of Australia in the schooner _Rebecca_ and explored much of Port Phillip Bay. Batman made an agreement, now known as Batman's Treaty, with some local Aborigines to rent their land in return for things like knives and flour every year. Probably the Wurundjeri people did not understand the agreement. In any case, the Governor of New South Wales said the agreement was not legal the land was owned by the Government rather than the Aborigines.

Batman became very unhealthy after 1835, and he separated from his wife, convict Elizabeth Callaghan. They had had seven daughters and a son. His son drowned in the Yarra River. In his last months the local Aborigines looked after him.

Batman is remembered by some statues around Melbourne, and is buried in the Fawkner Cemetery, a cemetery named after his fellow colonist John Pascoe Fawkner. There is also a memorial in the Old Melbourne Cemetery.

Melbourne was called Batmania for a very brief time, in 1835, after John Batman.

He was also one of the first Australians to take part in the Common wealth Games 1823.

His direct descendant is Australian sprinter Daniel Batman.

## Related pages

- History of Melbourne

## Other websites

- http://gutenberg.net.au/dictbiog/0-dict-biogBa.html#batman1
- Batmania: a fun way to explore the people and events surrounding the foundation of Melbourne, images of the Batman Land Deed and other historical documents  at the National Museum of Australia.

## References

- A Pictorial History of Bushrangers, _Prior, Wannan and Nunn_, 1968, Paul Hamlyn Pty Ltd, Melbourne
Royal Leamington Spa

**Royal Leamington Spa** (or _Leamington Spa_) is a town in Warwickshire, UK. In 2001 it had a population of 45,300. Until 1784 it was not a town but a village. It was in this year that two local men called Benjamin Satchwell and William Abbott discovered a spring in the village. The two men, and others from the town, began to use the water for treatment of illnesses, which was a common practice in those times. The town quickly developed into a spa town with many rich people visiting to 'take the waters'. Because of this the town grew quickly. The town soon became famous and a popular holiday resort. When spa water stopped being fashionable fewer people came on holiday to the town, but rich people still went to live there when they were old. In modern times Leamington does not treat many people with the water but it is still known as a pleasant place to live.  It is also popular for shopping.

The town is built by a river called the River Leam which flows through the middle of the town from east to west. The town is now connected to another town called Warwick. Other nearby settlements include Kenilworth (about six miles away), Rugby (about sixteen miles away) and Coventry (about ten miles away).

## Architecture

The Parade (main street) and surrounding streets feature large Regency town houses which are normally white coloured, vertical sliding windows and high ceilings.  Most of the buildings in the centre are protected by the government from being changed or replaced.
Violence

**Violence** is when someone attacks someone else, often to get them to do something they do not want to do by making them feel pain.

## Overview

Violence can mean anything from one person hitting another to a war between many countries that could cause millions of deaths. Laws are often created to lower the chance of violence happening.

## Types

- **Physical**: Fighting, killing or hurting someone
- **Sexual**: When someone subjects someone else to unwanted sexual acts
- **Racial**: When a victim is subject to violence due to his or her race or nationality

## Examples

Many notable groups regularly committing violence are politically motivated. They are sometimes called terrorist groups. Below is a select list.

### Select list of terrorist groups

- ISIS
- Hamas
- Houthis
- Hezbollah
- Wagner Group
- Al-Nusra Front

## Related pages

- Pogrom
- Terrorism
    - September 11 attacks
    - Charlie Hebdo shooting
    - 2016 Berlin truck attack
    - Palestinian political violence
- Genocides
    - The Holocaust
    - Bosnian genocide
    - Rwandan genocide
    - Cambodian genocide
Pegnitz

**Pegnitz** can mean:

- The River Pegnitz in Germany

- Pegnitz, a city in Germany
Tap

**Tap** may mean:
- Tap (valve), an object that controls the release of a liquid or gas
- Telephone tapping, listening to someone else's phone conversations with a device
- Tapping, a way to play stringed instruments
- Tap dance
- "Taps", a song played in the U.S. military during flag ceremonies and funerals
- _Tap_ (film), 1989 movie starring Gregory Hines and Sammy Davis Jr
- Tap water, water that comes out of a sink

## Related pages

- TAP (for more meanings when the word is in all capital letters)
Pegnitz River

The **Pegnitz** is a small river in Upper Franconia, Bavaria, Germany.

The Pegnitz has its source in the city of the same name at an altitude of 425 m and meets the Rednitz at 283 m northwest of Fürth. From that point on the river is called Regnitz.

The Pegnitz is about 115 km long.

## Animal life

The river is inhabited by numerous ducks, swans, and gulls.

## Affluences

- Högenbach (creek) (left affluence from the Pommelsbrunn direction)
- Röthenbach (creek)

## Cities on the Pegnitz

From source to mouth:

- Pegnitz
- Neuhaus on the Pegnitz
- Hersbruck
- Lauf an der Pegnitz
- Röthenbach an der Pegnitz
- Nuremberg: Within city limits (about 14 km), the river forms secondary arms. Numerous bridges and footbridges cross the river, such as the iron suspension bridge _Kettensteg_, dating from 1824. To the west of the Maxbrücke there is a weir.

## History

After the big flood in February 1909 the river was shortened by four kilometers within the Nuremberg city limits. Since 1996 planning and actions are progressing trying to lengthen the course of the river between Nuremberg and Fürth again and to shape it in a nature-oriented way.

## Other websites

- http://www.bayern.de/wwa-n/stadtamfluss.htm  - Wasserwirtschaftsamt Nürnberg: "Die Umgestaltung der Pegnitz in Nürnberg" (in German)
Palaemon

**Palaemon** was a minor Greek sea god. He was originally named _Melikertes_, son of Ino (Leukothea). He was made a god when his mother, Ino,  jumped off of a cliff into the sea while holding him. Legends say that she was trying to get away from Athanas who was made insane by Hera.
Short Parliament

The **Short Parliament** in English history lasted from April 13 to May 5 1640. It is called "Short" because it only lasted for three weeks.

## Background

Charles I of England, who was also king of Scotland, was having problems with the Church of Scotland and war with them was breaking out again.  Charles had spent the last 11 years ruling directly, without calling a Parliament even once.  He did this because he had little use for elected representatives trying to decide policy. But now with the problems with the Scots, Charles needed money to pay for his war. To get more money for war meant he had to call a Parliament so they could vote on it.

## Problem

The problem was that the members of Parliament were unhappy about the things he had done since 1629, when he was ruling without them.  They wanted to talk about these things instead of giving the king his money.  John Pym, member for Tavistock, gave fiery speeches refusing to give money unless the abuses were talked about. Charles responded by closing the Parliament and sending them home again, and he tried to fight the Scots without the money.  But when this did not work and as a result of his defeat had to agree to pay the Scots, he was forced to call Parliament again.  This became known as the Long Parliament, and the Constitutional crisis that followed led to the bloody English Civil War.
Rain shadow

A **rain shadow** is an area of land that lies behind a mountain which gets almost no rainfall. This side of a mountainous area is away from the wind. The mountains block the passage of rain-producing weather systems and cast a "shadow" of dryness behind them.

As shown by the diagram to the right, the incoming warm and moist air is drawn by the prevailing winds towards the top of the mountains.  As it does so, it cools and condenses, and relief rainfall removes the moisture before it crosses the top.  The air, without much moisture left, goes on over the mountains creating a dry side called the "rain shadow".
Lesson

A **lesson** in school is a planned period of time for learning. It involves one or more students being taught by a teacher. A _lesson_ may be either one section of a textbook or a  period of time during which learners are taught about a subject or how to perform an activity. _Lessons_ are mostly taught in a classroom but they may take place online, or outside. Not all lessons are for children.

A lesson  means someone learning something he did not know before. Such a _lesson_ can be either planned or accidental, enjoyable or painful. The slang phrase "to teach someone a _lesson_", means to punish or scold a person for a mistake they have made making sure that they does not make the same mistake again.

Lessons can also be made entertaining. When the term education is combined with entertainment, it is called "edutainment".
Fashion

**Fashion** is the form of clothing, accessories, and furniture. It includes the way we wear clothes in a particular time and place. Fashion is also one way we can make ourselves look more attractive.

It is related to culture, but also to weather and to the history of the country we live in. For example, we have warm clothes in the Swedish fashion and we have thin clothes in the African fashion.

Fashion includes clothing, footwear, lifestyle, accessories, makeup, hairstyle, and body posture.

The history of modern fashion design is generally understood to date from 1858 when the English-born Charles Frederick Worth opened the first authentic _haute couture_ house in Paris.

## Related pages

- Fashion design
- Haute couture
The Good Life

***The Good Life*** is the name of several television series, including

- _The Good Life_ (1971 TV series), American sitcom
- _The Good Life_ (1975 TV series), British sitcom
- _The Good Life_ (1994 TV series), American sitcom
South West England

**South West England** is one of the regions of England.  It has the largest area of all regions, and reaches from Gloucestershire and Wiltshire to Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly.  This includes the area often known as the West Country, and much of Wessex. The size of the region is shown by the fact that the northern part of Gloucestershire, near Chipping Campden, is as close to the Scottish border as it is to the tip of Cornwall.

Agriculture and tourism are the important industries of the region. Mining of tin and copper was also formerly very important in Devon and Cornwall. Traditionally, the South West of England has been well known for producing Cheddar cheese, named after Cheddar, Somerset in the Mendip Hills, for Devon cream teas, and for Somerset cider.  It is now probably equally well known as the home of the _Eden Project_ (in Cornwall), _Aardman Animations_, the _Glastonbury festival_ (in Somerset), _trip hop_ music, Cornwall's seafood restaurants, and surfing beaches.  Two National Parks (Dartmoor and Exmoor) and four World Heritage Sites lie in this region.

## Local government

The official region consists of the following geographic counties and local government areas:

|Map||Ceremonial county||Shire county / unitary||Districts|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
||Somerset|1. Bath and North East Somerset|||||
|colspan="2"|2. North Somerset||||||
|11. Somerset|South Somerset, Taunton Deane, West Somerset, Sedgemoor, Mendip||||||
|colspan="3"|3. Bristol||||||
|Gloucestershire|4. South Gloucestershire||||||
|5. Gloucestershire|Gloucester, Tewkesbury, Cheltenham, Cotswold, Stroud, Forest of Dean||||||
|Wiltshire|6. Swindon||||||
|7. Wiltshire|Salisbury, West Wiltshire, Kennet, North Wiltshire||||||
|Dorset|8. Dorset|Weymouth and Portland, West Dorset, North Dorset, Purbeck, East Dorset, Christchurch|||||
|colspan="2"|9. Poole||||||
|colspan="2"|10. Bournemouth||||||
|Devon|12. Devon|Exeter, East Devon, Mid Devon, North Devon, Torridge, West Devon, South Hams, Teignbridge|||||
|colspan="2"|13. Torbay||||||
|colspan="2"|14. Plymouth||||||
|Cornwall|Isles of Scilly||||||
|15. Cornwall|Penwith, Kerrier, Carrick, Restormel, Caradon, North Cornwall||||||

## Other websites

- Government Office for the South West
- South West Regional Assembly
- South West Regional Development Agency
- Government's list of councils in the South West
- Campaign for a Cornish Assembly
- Attractions South West

- Photographs
- Bristol http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Bristol http://www.cotch.net/Bristol
- Cornwall: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Cornwall http://www.cornwall365.co.uk  http://www.cotch.net/Cornwall
- Devon: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Devon http://www.cotch.net/Devon
- Dorset: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Dorset http://www.dorsetphotos.co.uk http://www.cotch.net/Dorset  http://www.imagesofdorset.org.uk/
- Somerset: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Somerset http://www.cotch.net/Somerset
South East England

**South East England** is one of the nine official regions of England. It was created in 1994. It includes Berkshire, Buckinghamshire, East Sussex, Hampshire, Isle of Wight, Kent, Oxfordshire, Surrey and West Sussex.

Its population as of the 2001 census was 8,000,550, making it the most populous English region. The highest point is Walbury Hill in Berkshire at 297m/974 ft. The major urban areas of the region include Brighton and Hove, Portsmouth, Southampton, and Reading. Settlements closer to London are part of the Greater London Urban Area.

## Local government

The official region consists of the following subdivisions:

|Ceremonial county||County/ unitary||Districts|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Berkshire|West Berkshire||||
|colspan="2"|Reading||||
|colspan="2"|Wokingham||||
|colspan="2"|Bracknell Forest||||
|colspan="2"|Windsor and Maidenhead||||
|colspan="2"|Slough||||
|Buckinghamshire|Buckinghamshire|South Bucks, Chiltern, Wycombe, Aylesbury Vale|||
|colspan="2"|Milton Keynes||||
|East Sussex|East Sussex|Hastings, Rother, Wealden, Eastbourne, Lewes|||
|colspan="2"|Brighton & Hove||||
|Hampshire|Hampshire|Gosport, Fareham, Winchester, Havant, East Hampshire, Hart, Rushmoor, Basingstoke and Deane, Test Valley, Eastleigh, New Forest|||
|colspan="2"|Southampton||||
|colspan="2"|Portsmouth||||
|colspan="3"|Isle of Wight||||
|Kent|Kent|Dartford, Gravesham, Sevenoaks, Tonbridge and Malling, Tunbridge Wells, Maidstone, Swale, Ashford, Shepway, Canterbury, Dover, Thanet|||
|colspan="2"|Medway||||
|Oxfordshire|Oxford, Cherwell, South Oxfordshire, Vale of White Horse, West Oxfordshire||||
|Surrey|Spelthorne, Runnymede, Surrey Heath, Woking, Elmbridge, Guildford, Waverley, Mole Valley, Epsom and Ewell, Reigate and Banstead, Tandridge||||
|West Sussex|Worthing, Arun, Chichester, Horsham, Crawley, Mid Sussex, Adur||||

## Other websites

- South East England Development Agency  - Abolished in 2012 https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/south-east-england-development-agency
- Tourism Information - Visit South East England
North East England

**North-East England** is one of the nine official regions of England and includes the combined area of Northumberland, County Durham, Tyne and Wear and a small part of North Yorkshire.

The highest point in the region is The Cheviot, in Northumberland, at 815m and the largest city is Newcastle. Sunderland is the second-largest.

The region is known for its urban centres and for its natural beauty: Northumberland National Park, the region's coastline, its section of the Pennines and Weardale. It also has great historic importance. There are two World Heritage Sites: Durham Cathedral and Hadrian's Wall.

## Local government

The official region consists of the following subdivisions:

|Map||Ceremonial county||County /unitary||Districts|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
||1. Northumberland †|a.) Blyth Valley, b.) Wansbeck, c.) Castle Morpeth, d.) Tynedale, e.) Alnwick, f.) Berwick-upon-Tweed|||||
|Tyne and Wear *|2. Newcastle upon Tyne, 3. Gateshead, 4. North Tyneside, 5. South Tyneside, 6. Sunderland||||||
|Durham|7. Durham †|a.) Durham (city), b.) Easington, c.) Sedgefield, d.) Teesdale, e.) Wear Valley, f.) Derwentside, g.) Chester-le-Street|||||
|colspan="2"|8. Darlington U.A.||||||
|colspan="2"|9. Hartlepool U.A.||||||
|colspan="2"|10. Stockton-on-Tees U.A. (North of River Tees)||||||
|rowspan="3"|North Yorkshire (part only) || colspan="2" | 10. Stockton-on-Tees U.A. (South of River Tees)||||||
|colspan="2"|11. Redcar and Cleveland U.A.||||||
|colspan="2"|12. Middlesbrough U.A.||||||

Key: shire county = † | metropolitan county = *

## Other websites

- North East England
- The North East HUB
- North East Regional Assembly
- The North East Biodiversity Forum
- Future Races in North East England
Sussex

**Sussex** is a historic county in South East England. Its area is more or less the same as that of the ancient Kingdom of Sussex. It is divided for local government into West Sussex and East Sussex and the City of Brighton and Hove. The city of Brighton and Hove became a unitary authority in 1997; and got City status in 2000. Until then Chichester had been Sussex's only city.

Sussex still has a strong local identity and the county's unofficial anthem is _Sussex by the Sea_. The county's motto, "We wun't be druv", shows the  strong-willed nature of its people in past centuries.

## Towns and cities

Major towns and cities of Sussex include:

- Arundel
- Bognor Regis
- Brighton (home of the University of Sussex and the University of Brighton)
- Burgess Hill
- Chichester (home of the University of Chichester)
- Crawley
- Eastbourne
- East Grinstead
- Hastings
- Haywards Heath
- Horsham
- Lewes
- Littlehampton
- Midhurst
- Worthing

## Further reading

- "Angels in the Sussex Air", an anthology of poetry by Sussex authors chosen and edited by Patrick Garland,
- "An Historical Atlas of Sussex", An Atlas of the History of the Counties of East and West Sussex, edited by Kim Leslie and Brian Short, with maps by Susan Rowland, published by Phillimore & Co. Ltd, Chichester, 1999,

## Links and references

- The Sussex Association
- The Sussex Local Internet Portal  Justsussex
- Sussex Community Website
- Sussex County Cricket Club
- Sussex County Football Association
- Sussex Enterprise
- Sussex Past (The Sussex Archaeological Society)
- Sussex Wildlife Trust
- Sussex Police
- The Royal Sussex Regimental Association
Kingdom of Sussex

The **Kingdom of Sussex**, (_Suth Seaxe_, i.e. the South Saxons), was one of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, its area was more or less that of the later county of Sussex. A large part of that district, however, was covered in early times by the forest called Andred.  It was ruled by the kings of Sussex.

## History

According to the traditional account given in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, it was in 477 that a certain Ælle led the invaders ashore at a place called _Cymenes ora_ and defeated the inhabitants. A further battle at a place called _Mearcredes burne_ is recorded under the year 485, and in the annal for 491 we read that Ælle and his son Cissa robbed Anderitum (Pevensey Castle) and killed all the inhabitants.

- _Based on a 1911 encyclopedia article._
Annals

**Annals** (Latin _Annales_, from _annus_, a year) are a short form of historical writing which record events chronologically, year by year.

### Ancient Rome

Cicero ( in _De Oratore_, ii. 12. 52) tells that from the earliest period down to the pontificate of _Publius Mucius Scaevola_ (c. 131 BC), it was usual for the pontifex maximus to record on a white tablet (_album_), which was exhibited in an open place at his house, so that the people might read it. On this tablet were written down (according to Cicero) the name of the consuls and other magistrates, and then the important events of the year.

In Cicero's time these records were called _Annales Maximi_. The practice of writing annals was carried on by several unofficial writers. Cicero speaks of Cato, Pictor and Piso.

### Medieval

In the Middle Ages in the Western Church there were written tables to show that date of Easter for a certain number of years or even centuries. These _Paschal tables_ were thin books in which each annual date was separated from the next by a more or less considerable blank space. In these spaces some monks wrote down the important events of the year. The writing of these Annals was begun at the end of the 7th century and among the Irish – see the **Annals of the Four Masters**, the **Annals of Ulster**, the **Annals of Innisfallen** and the **Annales Cambriae** or Annals of Wales, one of the earliest sources for King Arthur. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is also in annalistic, year-by-year form.

In the 9th century, during the _Carolingian Renaissance_, these Annals became the usual form of contemporary history. There were the _Annales Einhardi_, the _Annales Laureshamenses_ (or "of Lorsch"), and the _Annales S. Bertini_. They were written officially in order to preserve the memory of the more interesting acts of Charlemagne, his ancestors and his successors. At this stage, the Annals now began to lose their primitive character, and became more and more **Chronicles**. But the term was still used for many documents, such as the Annals of Waverley.