juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Noor Jehan

**Noor Jehan** () was the adopted stage name for **Allah Wasai** (September 21, 1926 – December 23, 2000). She was a Punjabi singer and actress. She is renowned as one of the greatest singers of her time in the Indian subcontinent and was given the honorific title of _Mallika-e-Tarranum_ (, English: the queen of melody). She achieved special national recognition and popularity in Punjab with her patriotic songs of 1965, which elevated her to an iconic level.

Along with Ahmed Rushdi, she has given voice to the mny number of film songs in the history of Punjabi cinema. She is also considered to be one of the best female Punjabi film director.

Noor Jehan moved to Pakistan shortly after.

Noor Jehan was awarded the Pakistan President's Award in 1965.

She married Shaukat Hussain Rizvi in 1942. The marriage ended in 1953 with divorce. The couple had three children, including their singer daughter Zil-e-Huma. She then married Ejaz Durrani in 1959. The second marriage also produced three children. It ended in divorce in 1970.

In 2000, Jehan was hospitalized in Karachi and suffered a heart attack. Jehan died as a result of heart failure.

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Noor Jehan
- **background**: solo_singer
- **img**: Noor Jehan in Zeenat.jpg
- **img capt**: 1945
- **birth name**: Allah Wasai
- **alias**: (, ); Madam Jee
- **origin**: Kasur, Punjab region, Punjab, British India
- **death place**: Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan
- **genre**: Qawwali, Music of India, Indian music
- **occupation**: film director, film actress, singer, music composer
- **years active**: 1930–1996
Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan

**Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan** (, October 13, 1948 – August 16, 1997), was a Pakistani musician. He was a singer of qawwali, the devotional music of the Sufis. In 2006, _Time_ magazine included him in their list of "Asian Heroes'.

Traditionally, qawwali is a performing art which is passed down with in the family. Nusrat's family has been performing qawwali for the last 600 years. Among other honorary titles given to him, Nusrat was called _Shahenshah-e-Qawwali_, meaning _The Emperor of Qawwali_.

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: **Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan**
- **image**: Ustad-nusrat-fateh-ali-khan-vishal-singh-rana-18911.jpg
- **img capt**: Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan
- **background**: solo_singer
- **birth place**: Faisalabad, Punjab (Pakistan), Punjab, Pakistan
- **death place**: London, England, London, England
- **instrument**: Singer, Vocalist, harmonium
- **genre**: Qawwali, Ghazal
- **occupation**: Musician
- **years active**: 1965–1997
Aziz Mian

**Aziz Mian Qawwal** () (April 17, 1942 – December 6, 2000) was a Pakistani singer, most famous for his performing of Qawwalis. Aziz Mian was born as **Abdul Aziz** () in Delhi, British India. The exclamation _Mian_, which he often used in his qawwalis, became part of his stage name. He began to introduce himself as **Aziz Mian Mairthi**. The word _Mairthi_ refers to Meerut, a city in northern India, from which he migrated to Pakistan in 1947.

At the age of ten, he began learning the art of Qawwali under the tutelage of Ustad Abdul Wahid Khan. He received sixteen years of training at the Data Ganj Baksh School of Lahore, and obtained a degree in Urdu literature from the University of Punjab, Lahore.

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Aziz Mian Qawwal
- **img capt**: Aziz Mian Qawwal
- **background**: solo_singer
- **birth name**: Abdul Aziz
- **alias**: Aziz Mian Mairthi
- **birth place**: Delhi, British India
- **death place**: Tehran, Iran
- **origin**: Lahore, Punjab (Pakistan), Punjab, Pakistan
- **instrument**: Harmonium
- **genre**: Qawwali
- **occupation**: Singer-songwriter
Musician
Poet
Philosopher
Writer
Scholar
Sufi
Researcher
thinker
- **years active**: 1966–2000
Kashmir Solidarity Day

**Kashmir Solidarity Day** has been celebrated and observed on the 5 February each year since 1990. It is a day of protest against Indian control of part of Kashmir. It is a national holiday in Pakistan.
National emblem of Bangladesh

**The National Emblem of Bangladesh** was adopted shortly after independence in 1971.

Located on the emblem is a White water lily, that is bordered on two sides by rice sheaves. Above the water lilly are four stars and a three-leaf clover of jute leaves. The water lily is the country's national flower, and is representative of the many rivers that run through Bangladesh. Rice represents its presence as the staple food of Bangladesh, and for the agriculture of that nation. The four stars represent the four founding principles that were originally enshrined in the first constitution of Bangladesh in 1972: **Nationalism**, Secularism, Socialism, and **Democracy**.

The details of the emblem is given as quoted below:
> _The national emblem of the Republic is the national flower Shapla (Nymphaea pubescens) resting on water, having on each side an ear of paddy and being surmounted by three connected leaves of jute with two stars on each side of the leaves._ - **Constitution of Bangladesh** Article 4(3)

The Government of Bangladesh has adopted Education, Nationalism and Democracy as its _"National Motto"_.
Product cipher

In cryptography, a **product cipher** is a popular type of stream ciphers that works by executing in sequence a number of simple transformations such as substitution, permutation, and modular arithmetic.

Product ciphers usually consist of iterations of several _rounds_ of the same algorithm. Individual _rounds_ themselves are not secure. However, it is hoped that a sufficiently long chain of _rounds_ loads the cipher with sufficient confusion and diffusion properties to make it resistant to cryptanalysis.

A product cipher that uses only substitutions and permutations is called a SP-network. Feistel ciphers are another important class of product ciphers.
Islamic republic

**Islamic Republic** is the name given to forms of government of several states. These states have Islam as a state religion and are governed by the principles of the Islamic law called Sharia. Some of these countries have both Sharia and civil law. Laws made by the state cannot contradict Sharia in some of these countries, and in other countries civil law is more dominant than Sharia law.

The following states call themselves Islamic Republic (non-exhaustive list)
- Iran (after Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi was overthrown in 1979)
- Pakistan (Since the constitution of 1956, state founded to provide a homeland for Muslims living in Colonial India, in 1947)
- Afghanistan (since the overthrow of the Taliban in 2001)
- Mauritania (since 1958)
- Sudan
- Comoros (Federal Islamic Republic)
- The Gambia (since December 2015)

Despite the similar name the countries differ greatly in their governments and laws. Of the Islamic republics, only Iran is a theocracy.
Key schedule

In cryptography,  the so-called product ciphers are a certain kind of ciphers, where the decryption of data is done in _"rounds"_. The general setup of each _round_ is the same, except for some hard-coded parameters and a part of the cipher key, called a subkey. A **key schedule** is an algorithm that, given the key, calculates the subkeys for these _rounds_.

## Some types of key schedules

- Some ciphers have simple key schedules. For example, the block cipher TEA simply splits the 128-bit key into four 32-bit pieces and uses them repeatedly in successive rounds.

- DES uses a key schedule where the 56 bit key is divided into two 28-bit halves then each half is treated separately. In successive rounds, both halves are rotated left by one or two bits (specified for each round), and then 48 subkey bits are selected by Permuted Choice 2 (PC-2) — 24 bits from the left half, and 24 from the right. The rotations mean that a different set of bits is used in each subkey; each bit is used in approximately 14 out of the 16 subkeys.

- In an effort to avoid simple relationships between the cipher key and the subkeys, to resist such forms of cryptanalysis as related-key attack and slide attack, many modern ciphers use much more complex key schedules, such as algorithms that use a one-way function to generate an "expanded key" from which subkeys are drawn. Some ciphers, such as Rijndael (AES) and Blowfish, use parts of the cipher algorithm itself for this key expansion, sometimes initialized with some "nothing up my sleeve numbers". Other ciphers, such as RC5, expand keys with functions that are somewhat or completely different from the encryption functions.

## Notes

Knudsen and Mathiassen (2004) give some experimental evidence that indicate that the key schedule plays a part in providing strength against linear and differential cryptanalysis. For toy Feistel ciphers, it was observed that those with complex and well-designed key schedules can reach a uniform distribution for the probabilities of differentials and linear hulls faster than those with poorly-designed key schedules.

## References

- Lars R. Knudsen and John Erik Mathiassen, On the Role of Key Schedules in Attacks on Iterated Ciphers, ESORICS 2004, pp322–334.
EFF DES cracker

In cryptography, the **EFF DES cracker** (nicknamed "**Deep Crack**") is a machine built by the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) to perform a brute force search of DES cipher's key space — that is, to decrypt an encrypted message by trying every possible key. The aim in doing this was to prove that DES's key is not long enough to be secure.

The DES uses a 56-bit key, meaning that there are 2<sup>56</sup> possible keys under which a message can be encrypted. This is approximately 7.21 (more than 72 quadrillion). When DES was approved as a federal standard in 1976, a machine fast enough to test such a number of keys in a reasonable time would have cost an unreasonable amount of money to build.

## Other websites

- The DES Cracker page on EFF's site
- Photos of the machine on Cryptography Research's site
- COPACOBANA, an off-the-shelf DES cracking device
Security clearance

A **security clearance** is a status granted (approved) to individuals allowing them access to classified information, e.g. state secrets. It is something like permission or a license. The term "security clearance" is also sometimes used in private organizations that have a formal process of selecting employees to access _"sensitive information"_.

A clearance by itself is normally not sufficient to gain access; the organization must determine that the cleared person _"needs to know"_ the information. No one is supposed to be granted access to classified information only because of rank, position, or a security clearance.
Sensitive information

**Sensitive information** is information or knowledge that might result in loss of an advantage or level of security if exposed to others who might be unfriends or have low or unknown trustability.

Loss, misuse, modification or unauthorized access to sensitive information can negatively affect the privacy of an individual, trade secrets of a business or even the security, internal and foreign affairs of a nation depending on the level of sensitivity and nature of the information.

The term classified information generally refers to information that is subject to special security classification regulations imposed by many national governments. The term "Unclassified" as used in the below refers to information that is not subject to security classification regulations. Information can be reclassified to a different level or declassified (made available to the public) depending on changes of situation or new intelligence.
Trade secret

A **trade secret** is a formula, practice, process, design, instrument, pattern, or a collection of information which is not generally known, invented or created, by which a business can obtain an economic advantage over competitors or customers. In some jurisdictions, such secrets are referred to as "confidential information" or "classified information".

With its broad definition of eligible subject matter, trade secret law protects a wide range of valuable information, including information that would not be eligible for protection under existing patent, trademark, or copyright law. This could include formulae and recipes, proprietary databases, business processes and methods, information about costs, pricing, margins, overhead, manufacturing processes, proprietary computer software programs, customer lists, and strategic plans and marketing programs.

There are three factors that are common to all definitions of a trade secret, a trade secret is information that:
- Is not generally known to the public;
- Grants some sort of economic benefit on its holder (where this benefit must derive _specifically_ from its not being generally known, not just from the value of the information itself);
- Is the subject of reasonable efforts to maintain its secrecy.
The unauthorized acquisition, use, or disclosure of such secret information in a manner contrary to honest commercial practices by others is regarded as an unfair practice and a violation of the trade secret protection.
Rock Steady (album)

***Rock Steady*** is the fifth studio album by the American alternative rock band No Doubt. It was released on December 11, 2001. The album was influenced a lot by reggae, dancehall, and electronica, compared to their previous albums. A lot of music critics saw this and gave the album good reviews. For example, _Rolling Stone_ magazine put the album as the 316th greatest album of all time in their book _Rolling Stone's List of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time_. It was nominated for Best Pop Vocal Album at the 2003 Grammy Awards. Four singles were released from the album. The first single, "Hey Baby", won the Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal. The second single was nominated for Best Dance Recording. The third single, "Underneath It All", was released August 15 2002. It won a Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal at the 2004 Grammy Awards. The album's last single, "Running", was released July 1 2003.

## List of songs

1. "Intro"
1. "Hella Good"
1. "Hey Baby" <small>(featuring Bounty Killer)</small>
1. "Making Out"
1. "Underneath It All" <small>(featuring Lady Saw)</small>
1. "Detective"
1. "Don't Let Me Down"
1. "Start the Fire"
1. "Running"
1. "In My Head"
1. "Platinum Blonde Life"
1. "Waiting Room" (featuring Prince)
1. "Rock Steady"

The iTunes version of the album has two extra songs.
1. "Underneath It All" <small>(live)</small>
1. "Just a Girl" <small>(live)</small>

## Infobox (album)

- **name**: Rock Steady
- **type**: Studio
- **artist**: No Doubt
- **released**: December 11, 2001
- **label**: Interscope Records
- **genre**: Reggae, dancehall, Pop music, synthpop, alternative rock
Key whitening

In cryptography, **key whitening** is a technique used to increase the security of block ciphers. It consists of steps that combine the data with portions of the key (most commonly using a simple XOR) before the first round and after the last round of encryption. DES-X was the first block cipher that used key whitening. Most recently, the Q/ZIN network would implement it as a key feature in their software, hardware online.
ESTREAM

**eSTREAM** is a project to identify "new stream ciphers that might become suitable for widespread adoption",  organized by the EU ECRYPT network. It was set up because of the failure of all six stream ciphers submitted to the **New European Schemes for Signatures, Integrity and Encryption** project.  The call for cryptographic primitives was first issued in November 2004. The project was completed in April 2008. The project was divided into separate phases and the project goal was to find algorithms suitable for different kinds of application.

## Other websites

- Homepage for the project
    - Discussion forum
    - The eSTREAM testing framework http://www.ecrypt.eu.org/stream/perf/
    - Update 1: (PDF)
- Notes on the ECRYPT Stream Cipher project by Daniel Bernstein
- estreamJ - Java implementations of eSTREAM ciphers, plus a live performance test
MacGuffin (cipher)

In cryptography, **MacGuffin** is a block cipher created in 1994 by Bruce Schneier and Matt Blaze at a Fast Software Encryption workshop. It was intended as a catalyst for analysis of a new cipher structure, known as Generalized Unbalanced Feistel Networks (GUFNs).

Schneier and Blaze based MacGuffin on DES, their main change was spliting the DES 64 bits data block into two unequal halves in the Feistel network, 48 bits of the 64-bit data block are fed through the round function, whose output is XORed with the other 16 bits of the data block.

MacGuffin's key schedule is a modified version of the encryption algorithm itself. Since MacGuffin is a Feistel network, decryption is easy; simply run the encryption algorithm in reverse.

The algorithm was experimental, intended to explore the security properties of unbalanced Feistel networks. The cryptanalysis proceeded very quickly, so quickly that the cipher was broken using differential cryptanalysis at the same workshop by Vincent Rijmen and Bart Preneel. They also tried attacking MacGuffin with different S-boxes, taken directly from DES. This version was slightly stronger.

Rijmen and Preneel warn that designing an algorithm to resist only known attacks is generally not a good design principle.

Schneier and Blaze recommended using 32 _rounds_, and specified MacGuffin with a 128-bit key.
George Wythe

**George Wythe** (1726 – June 8, 1806), was a lawyer, judge, prominent law professor and "Virginia's foremost classical scholar." Wythe was one of the seven men from Virginia who signed the United States Declaration of Independence.

Wythe served as mayor of Williamsburg, Virginia from 1768 to 1769. In 1779 he was appointed to the newly created Chair of Law at William and Mary, becoming the first law professor in the United States. Wythe's pupils included Thomas Jefferson, Henry Clay, James Monroe, and John Marshall.
Josiah Bartlett

**Josiah Bartlett** (November 21, 1729– May 19, 1795), was an American physician and statesman, delegate to the Continental Congress for New Hampshire. He signed the Declaration of Independence. He was later Chief Justice of the New Hampshire Superior Court of Judicature and governor of the state.

## Infobox (governor)

- **name**: Josiah Bartlett
- **image**: Josiah Bartlett.jpg
- **imagesize**: 280px
- **office**: 6th Governor of New Hampshire
- **term start**: June 5, 1792
- **term end**: June 5, 1794
- **predecessor**: John Sullivan
- **successor**: John Taylor Gilman
- **birth place**: Amesbury, Massachusetts
- **death place**: Kingston, New Hampshire
- **party**: Democratic-Republican Party (United States), Democratic-Republican
- **spouse**: Mary Bartlett
- **signature**: Josiah Bartlett signature.png
Carter Braxton

**Carter Braxton** (September 10, 1736 – October 10, 1797), was a signer of the United States Declaration of Independence and a representative of Virginia.

## Life

He was born on Newington Plantation in King and Queen County, Virginia and educated at the William and Mary. He married a wealthy heiress named Judith Robinson at the age nineteen, but she died two years later, leaving him two daughters.

He journeyed to England for two years and returned to the colonies in 1760, marrying again, this time to Elizabeth Corbin, and represented King William County in the Virginia House of Burgesses. He joined the patriot's Committee of Safety in Virginia in 1774 and represented his county in the Virginia Convention.

When Peyton Randolph died in 1775, Braxton was appointed to take his place in the Continental Congress.  He served in the Congress from February 1776 until August, when Virginia reduced its delegation to five members. Afterwards he returned to the House of Burgesses, and later served on the State's Executive Council.
Islamic theology

**Islamic theology** deals with the beliefs of the Islamic faith.

## Types of theology

Islamic theology comes from the Qur'an, Hadith, and the story of Muhammad's life (_Sirah Rasul Allah_).

### Kalam

Kalam is the Islamic philosophy of seeking theological principles through dialectic. In Arabic, the word means "speech". A scholar of kalam is called a _mutakallim_ (Muslim theologian; plural _mutakallimiin_).

### Eschatology

Eschatology is understood as the last things or ultimate things, and in Muslim theology, eschatology is about the end of this world and what will happen in the next world. Eschatology covers the death of human beings, their souls after their bodily death, the destruction of this world, the resurrection of human souls, the final judgments of human deeds by Allah after the resurrection, and the rewards and punishments for the believers and non-believers. The places for the believers are known as Paradise and for the non-believers as Hell.

### Comparative religion

Comparative religion in Muslim theology is about the differences and similarities between it and other theologies such as Christian and Jewish as explained in the Qur'an and the Prophetic traditions.

## Differences between various Muslim groups

In the history of Muslim theology, there have been theological schools among Muslims with both similarities and differences with each other about their beliefs.

### Sunni view

Sunni Muslims hold that there are six articles of belief: belief in Allah, in angels, in divinely revealed scripture] like Qur'an, in prophets, in the "Last Day" or end times, and in predestination.

### Shia view

Shi`ite Muslims hold that there are five articles of belief: the Divine Oneness and Justice, the Prophethood, the Imamate, and eschatology.

### Mu`tazilite view

In the relationship between humans and their creator, Mu`tazilites emphasize human free will over predestination and God's justice over God's omnipotence. Mu'tazilites also believe in the use of logic to decide the true meanings of the Qur'an. This and the principal of Ijtihad, led to their belief in dynamic Fiqh.
Mac OS X Leopard

**Mac OS X v10.5 "Leopard"** is an operating system made by Apple Inc. for its Macintosh line of computers. It is a version of Mac OS X, and carries the release number 10.5. It was released on October 26, 2007, and came in one release for both Intel Mac's, and PowerPC processors. According to Apple, Leopard contains over 300 changes and improvements since Mac OS X v10.4 "Tiger". Leopard was the last release for the PowerPC processor.

## Infobox (os version)

- **name**: Mac OS X v10.5 "Leopard"
- **family**: Mac OS X
- **logo**: OSXLeopard.svg
- **logo size**: 60px
- **developer**: Apple Inc.
- **source model**: Closed source (with open source components)
- **license**: Apple Public Source License, APSL and Apple EULA
- **kernel type**: Hybrid kernel
- **updatemodel**: Apple Software Update
- **supported platforms**: IA-32, x86-64, PowerPC
- **release version**: 10.5.8 (9L30)
- **release date**: August 5, 2009
- **release url**: http://support.apple.com/kb/HT3606
- **first release date**: 26 October 2007
- **first release url**: https://www.apple.com/pr/library/2007/10/16leopard.html
- **preceded by**: Mac OS X Tiger, Mac OS X v10.4 "Tiger"
- **succeeded by**: Mac OS X Snow Leopard, Mac OS X v10.6 "Snow Leopard"
- **support status**: Unsupported
- **date**: January 2009-->
Weather forecast

A **weather forecast** is a prediction of what the weather will be in the future. Weather station<nowiki/>s measure things such as temperature, air pressure and cloud cover. Meteorologists use these measurements and fluid dynamics and other methods to predict the weather. A forecast for many days in the future is less trustworthy than one for tomorrow or the next day.
MacBook

The **MacBook** is a type of laptop computer made by Apple Inc. It runs macOS and comes with a built in webcam and microphone and a power adapter that is attached by a barrel jack, magnets or USB-C. The very last (and now discontinued) MacBooks were last available housed in Silver, Space Gray, Gold and Rose Gold aluminium.

Many college students purchase MacBooks to help with their studies and to stay connected with their family and friends.

The first models were released in 2006. It now has the same "unibody" construction as the MacBook Pro<nowiki/>s.

## History

The MacBook was introduced by Apple in May 2006. It replaced the iBook and 12 inch PowerBook series of notebooks because Apple was switching all of their CPUs to Intel from Power PC's.

In October 2008, Apple decided to make a MacBook housed in aluminum. It was pretty much the same as the one housed in plastic except that it was a little better and that it was housed in metal. In June 2009, during WWDC (Apple's big yearly gathering), this laptop was renamed the MacBook Pro 13 inch.

In 2015 Apple released 12-inch MacBook, with a smaller  Retina display.

## Other websites

- MacBook website
SMS

An **SMS**, or **short messaging service** is a type of communication used in mobile phones. They are more commonly called 'text messages'. With SMS, someone can send text to another person.

SMS can be slow, as a network gives priority to phone calls, and only carries text messages after calls are handled.  There is also a limit of 160 characters that a text message can send.  Longer messages than this will be sent as multiple messages, where the sender has to pay for each individual message.

Text messages are often sent between phone users when an actual phone call is not wanted or needed. For example, they may be used in a situation where silence is needed, or to send something private that one person does not want people near them to hear. Message price depends on the phone network of the user. Some mobile phone plans allow for unlimited texting.
International waters

**International waters** is a body of water that does not belong to any single country. "International waters" is not a defined term in international law. It is an informal term.

The Convention on the High Seas 1958 defined "high seas" to mean "all parts of the sea that are not included in the territorial sea or in the internal waters of a State" and "no State may validly... subject any part of them to its sovereignty".

Therefore "high seas" and "international waters" share a basic idea: that no country can own them.
Alternative hip hop

**Alternative hip hop** is a form of hip hop music that is very different from gangsta rap, crunk, and snap. A way to explain it would be that if "regular hip hop" was on the middle of a number line, gangsta rap, crunk, and snap would be on one side, and alternative hip hop would be on the other. Even though it is a form of hip hop, fans of alternative hip hop tend to also be fans of horrorcore more than "regular hip hop" or especially R&B.

Alternative hip hop originally came from the United States, and some artists like Gorillaz sprang up from the United Kingdom. Examples of American alternative hip hop artists are Talib Kweli, Mos Def, (and the band they started together, Black Star), Common, Nas, Kanye West, A Tribe Called Quest, Jurassic 5, and Styles of Beyond. It started as a movement-of-sorts from hip hop artists against the "tasteless" hip hop that was popular in the 1990s.
Jason Varitek

**Jason Varitek** (born April 11, 1972 in Rochester, Michigan) is an American retired baseball player who played in the MLB. Varitek played for the Boston Red Sox up until his retirement in March 2012.

## 1997–2004

Varitek was called up from Triple A Pawtucket on September 24, 1997, for one game.  In 1998, he and catcher Scott Hatteberg were the starting catchers. That season, Varitek played 86 games, while Hatteberg played 76.  Varitek had a good spring training in 1999. Because of that, he became the starting catcher.

Varitek had a great season in 1999.  Varitek played in 144 games. He hit a .269 batting average, with 20 home runs and 76 RBIs. Varitek went 5–21 with 3 RBI in the 1999 ALDS playing. the Cleveland Indians. He then went 4–20 with 1 RBI in the ALCS playing the New York Yankees.

## Other websites

- Baseball-Reference.com
Süddeutsche Zeitung

The ***Süddeutsche Zeitung*** ("South German Newspaper") is the most-read nationwide quality-newspaper in Germany. It is published in Munich. Recently, they are known for leaking offshore bank accounts that led to the Panama Papers and the Paradise Papers leak.

## Newspaper

The Süddeutsche Zeitung is a liberal newspaper. The national edition features four sections: Politics, Culture, Economy and Sports. There are also regional editions for Munich and Bavaria featuring local news. There are 6 newspapers a week. It has the second most readers in Germany after the tabloid newspaper Bild-Zeitung. There are about 442,000 papers sold each day, reaching over 1.1 million readers daily.

## History

The Süddeutsche Zeitung was published for the first time on October 6, 1945. It was the first newspaper in Bavaria to get a licence from the U.S. military government after World War II.

## Supplements

- SZ Magazin (Friday), a magazine-style supplement
- Wochenende (Saturday), longer articles and short stories for the weekend
- The New York Times (Monday), selected articles (English language).
- The TV programme (Tuesday) and an event guide (Thursday) are only included in the Bavarian edition.
Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung

The ***Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung*** is a conservative newspaper in Germany.

## Newspaper

The Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung is the leading conservative newspaper in Germany.
There are 6 newspapers a week and supplementary the **Frankfurter Allgemeine Sonntagszeitung** on Sundays.
There are about 360,000 newspapers sold every day.
It is the German newspaper with the widest circulation abroad. It is sold to 148 countries every day.

## History

The first edition of the FAZ published on November 1, 1949. Its founding editor was Erich Welter. Some editors had worked for the Frankfurter Zeitung, which was banned in 1943.

## Other websites

- The FAZ online edition (in German; most articles are free)
- Ketupa.net - Frankfurter Zeitung and FAZ  media profile
Frankfurter Rundschau

The ***Frankfurter Rundschau*** is a nationwide newspaper in Germany.

## Newspaper

The Frankfurter Rundschau is a left-wing liberal newspaper in Germany. Its position is often similar to the positions of the trade unions.
There are 6 newspapers a week.
It has a regional part for Hesse and a local part for Frankfurt am Main, too.
There are about 180,000 newapapers sold daily.
The  is the first newspaper in Germany in the tabloid format.

## History

The Frankfurter Rundschau was the second newspaper starting in Germany after the World War II on the 1st of August 1945.
And it was the first newspaper in the U.S. sector.
The licence was handed over to the first team of editors consisting of Emil Carlebach, Hans Etzkorn, Wilhelm Karl Gerst, Otto Grossmann, Wilhelm Knothe, Paul Rodemann and Arno Rudert.
There were social democrats, political katholics and communists, who had spent years in the resistance and nazi concentration camps or in exile.

## Other websites

- Frankfurter Rundschau Online (German)
Die Zeit

***Die Zeit*** is a nationwide weekly newspaper in Germany.

_Die Zeit_ (the title means: "The Time") is read by about 2 million people. It sells about 480.000 copies every week. It is well known for its good articles which are well-written and often detailed. It is read by well-educated people. It is a liberal newspaper.

It includes articles about politics, economics, knowledge, the sciences, art, literature, education, life (style) and travel. It has many advertisements for jobs at universities.

## History

The first copies of _Die Zeit_ were published on the 21 February 1946 in Hamburg. Since that day it has been published in Hamburg every week.

## Weblinks

- Die Zeit
- _Die Zeit_ Wissen
- _Zuender_ Das Netzmagazin der _Zeit_
- Zeit Campus Online

## Infobox (newspaper)

- **image**: Die Zeit-Logo-Bremen.svg
- **type**: Weekly newspaper
- **format**: Broadsheet
- **owners**: Zeit-Verlag Gerd Bucerius GmbH & Co. KG

- **political**: Centrist
Liberalism in Germany, Liberal
- **circulation**: 574,492 (Print, 2020)
 186,062 (Digital, 2020)
- **issn**: 0044-2070
- **headquarters**: Hamburg
- **editor**: Giovanni di Lorenzo
Der Spiegel

***Der Spiegel*** is a weekly political news magazine in Germany.
It was set up in 1947 as a copy of _Time magazine_. It is now one of Europe's largest weekly magazines.

Der Spiegel is a liberal magazine.  It has long, detailed articles.
It has a circulation of more than one million per week. It now has an on-line version, _Spiegel Online_.

## History

The first edition of the Spiegel magazine was published in Hanover on 4 January 1947.  Later it was published in Hamburg.
Rudolf Augstein was the publisher from the very first issue until his death in 2002.

There was an affair which became known as the "Spiegel affair" in the early 1960s, when Defense Secretary Franz-Josef Strauß arrested writers and publishers of the Spiegel, because he was angry about a critical report on the Germany army (the Bundeswehr).

Many political affairs in Germany were first made known by Der Spiegel, e.g. the Flick affair. "The magazine is renowned for its aggressive, vigorous, and well-written exposes of government malpractice and scandals".

## Other websites

- Spiegel.de, the magazine's online version
- Spiegel.mobi, the magazine's mobile online version  - Click twice for .mobi page
- Spiegel.de International
- Spiegel cover gallery
Oliver Wolcott

**Oliver Wolcott** (December 1, 1726– December 1, 1797) was an American politician who signed the Declaration of Independence and also the Articles of Confederation as a representative of Connecticut.

## Life

Oliver Wolcott was born in Windsor, Connecticut, as the youngest of fourteen children of Royal Governor Roger Wolcott. He attended Yale College and graduated in 1747. He was commissioned to raise a militia company to fight in the French and Indian War, and he served the King as captain in the unit on the northern frontier.At the end of the war, Wolcott studied medicine. He was then was appointed sheriff of the newly-created Litchfield County, Connecticut, and served from about 1751 to 1771.

Wolcott participated in the American Revolutionary War as brigadier general and then major general in the Connecticut militia. The Continental Congress appointed him Commissioner of Indian Affairs, and he was elected to the Congress in 1775. He became seriously ill in 1776 and did not sign the Declaration of Independence until sometime later. He was engaged in military affairs between 1776 and 1778 and served again in Congress from 1778 to 1784.

He served again as an Indian Commissioner and was elected lieutenant governor of Connecticu<nowiki/>t in 1786 and became goveronr on the death of Samuel Huntington in 1796. Wolcott was re-elected to the position and died in office at the age of 71 in Farmington, Connecticut. He is buried in East Cemetery in Litchfield, Connecticut.

## Legacy

The town of Wolcott, Connecticut, was named in honor of Oliver and his son, Oliver Jr. The Oliver Wolcott House, in Litchfield, was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1971.

His son, Oliver Wolcott Jr. served as Secretary of the Treasury under Presidents George Washington and John Adams and as Governor of Connecticut.

## Infobox (governor)

- **name**: Oliver Wolcott
- **image**: Oliver Wolcott.jpg
- **order**: 4th
- **office**: Governor of Connecticut
- **term start**: 1796
- **term end**: 1797
- **lieutenant**: Jonathan Trumbull, Jr.
- **predecessor**: Samuel Huntington (statesman), Samuel Huntington
- **successor**: Jonathan Trumbull, Jr.
- **birth date**: December 1, 1726
- **birth place**: Windsor, Connecticut
- **death place**: Farmington, Connecticut
- **party**: Federalist Party, Federalist
- **signature**: Oliver Wolcott signature.png
Thomas Paine

**Thomas Paine** (29 January 1737 – 8 June 1809) was an English pamphleteer, revolutionary, inventor, and intellectual. Born in Norfolk, he lived and worked in Great Britain until he was 37, when he emigrated to the British North American colonies just before the American Revolution. A friend of Benjamin Franklin, his main contribution was the powerful, widely-read pamphlet _Common Sense_ (1776), which promoted the idea of Colonial America's independence from Great Britain. He also wrote _The American Crisis_ (1776–1783), a series of pamphlets supporting the revolution.

Paine went to France after the American Revolution to join the French Revolution. In prison there, he wrote _The Age of Reason_, a pamphlet that was critical of organized religion. Paine, along with other American founders such as Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, preferred to apply reason, instead of revelation, to religion. That was part of the greater Age of Enlightenment, a movement that had started around the 17th century.

Paine died at the age of 72 at 59 Grove Street in Greenwich Village, New York City, United States, on the morning of June 8, 1809.

## Other websites

- _The Age of Reason_
- ThomasPaine.org website

## Infobox (philosopher)

- **region**: Western Philosophy
- **era**: Age of Enlightenment, 18th-century philosophy
- **color**: #B0C4DE
- **image**: Thomas Paine rev1.jpg
- **name**: Thomas Paine
- **birth**: 29 January 1737
 Thetford, Norfolk, Kingdom of Great Britain, Great Britain
- **death**:
 New York City, New York, New York, NY, United States, U.S.
- **school tradition**: Age of Enlightenment, Enlightenment, Radicalism (historical), Radicalism, Classical liberalism, Republicanism
- **main interests**: Ethics, Politics
- **influences**: Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, John Locke, Religious Society of Friends, Charles de Secondat, baron de Montesquieu, Montesquieu
- **influenced**: Thomas Jefferson, William Godwin, Pierre Victurnien Vergniaud, Abraham Lincoln, Thomas Edison, Moncure D. Conway, Bertrand Russell, Christopher Hitchens,Robert G. Ingersoll.
Gall

A **gall** is a growth on the surface of plants and other lifeforms. They are caused by various parasites, such as fungi, bacteria, insects and mites.

Plant galls are abnormal growths of plant tissues similar to benign tumors or warts in animals.

What causes a plant gall can often be known without the actual agent being there. Many types of gall have typical structures. This is true of many galls produced by insects and mites.

Insect galls on plants give some herbivorous insects their own microhabitat. They are plant tissue which is controlled by the insect.  Galls are the habitat and food source for the maker of the gall. The gall may contain nutritious starch and other tissues.  Galls often give the insect physical protection from predators.

Insect galls are usually induced by chemicals injected by the larvae or the adults of the insects into the plants. After the galls are formed, the larvae develop inside until fully grown, when they leave. In order to form galls, the insects must seize the time when plant cell division occurs quickly. The growing season, spring in temperate climates, is longer in the tropics.

## Human use

Galls can be used by humans, and have been since ancient times. One use is to collect the pigment which many galls make. The galls are rich in resins and tannins, from which dyes and inks can be made. Galls can be used to make a mordant for dyeing: mordants make the dye on the cloth permanent. Also, permanent black ink can be made from galls, and that has been done for a long time.

The larvae inside the galls may be used as food or as fishing bait, and some galls have medicinal uses.
Zeroth law of thermodynamics

The **Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics** says that if a change to the temperature(T) from one object (for example 'A') changes the temperature of another object ('B'), and a change to the temperature of 'B' changes the temperature of 'C' (a third object), then a change to the temperature of 'A' will mean a change to the temperature of 'C'. Heat naturally flows from areas that are hot to areas that are cold.

More simply:

It is called the zeroth (0<sup>th</sup>) law of thermodynamics because it was discovered after the others, but scholars thought it was more important so they wanted to give it a number before the other laws.

## Related pages

- First law of thermodynamics
- Second law of thermodynamics
- Third law of thermodynamics
- Thermodynamic equilibrium
Third law of thermodynamics

The **third law of thermodynamics** says:
- If an object reaches the absolute zero of temperature (0 K = −273.15C = −459.67 °F), its atoms will stop moving.
The definition is: **at absolute zero , the entropy of a perfectly crystalline substance is zero**.

Experimentally, it is not possible to obtain −273.15°C, as of now. It is found that most of the gases either liquify or solidify before reaching such a temperature, gaseous molecules no longer remaining. So far, scientists have been able to get close to, but not exactly, absolute zero. This may change in the future.

## Related pages

- Zeroth law of thermodynamics
- First law of thermodynamics
- Second law of thermodynamics
Dion Dublin

**Dion Dublin** (born 22 April 1969) is an English former footballer. He has played for England national team.

## Club career statistics

|-
|1987–88||Norwich City||First Division||0||0
|-
|1988–89||rowspan="4"|Cambridge United||rowspan="2"|Fourth Division||21||6
|-
|1989–90||46||15
|-
|1990–91||Third Division||46||16
|-
|1991–92||Second Division||43||15
|-
|1992–93||rowspan="2"|Manchester United||rowspan="2"|Premier League||7||1
|-
|1993–94||5||1
|-
|1994–95||rowspan="5"|Coventry City||rowspan="5"|Premier League||31||13
|-
|1995–96||34||14
|-
|1996–97||34||13
|-
|1997–98||36||18
|-
|1998–99||10||3
|-
|1998–99||rowspan="4"|Aston Villa||rowspan="4"|Premier League||24||11
|-
|1999–00||26||12
|-
|2000–01||33||8
|-
|2001–02||21||4
|-
|2001–02||Millwall||First Division||5||2
|-
|2002–03||rowspan="2"|Aston Villa||rowspan="2"|Premier League||28||10
|-
|2003–04||23||3
|-
|2004–05||rowspan="2"|Leicester City||rowspan="2"|Championship||37||5
|-
|2005–06||21||0

|-
|2005–06||Celtic||Premier League||11||1

|-
|2006–07||rowspan="2"|Norwich City||rowspan="2"|Championship||33||5
|-
|2007–08||37||7
601||182
11||1
612||183
|}

## International career statistics

|-
|1998||4||0
|-
!Total||4||0
|}

## Infobox (football biography)

- **name**: Dion Dublin
- **image**: Dion hillsborough 2008 05 04 (cropped).jpg
- **caption**: Dublin with Norwich City F.C., Norwich City in 2008
- **fullname**: Dion Dublin
- **birth place**: Leicester, England
- **position**: Forward (association football), Centre-forward
Defender (association football)#Centre-back, Centre-back
- **currentclub**: Cambridge United F.C., Cambridge United
(Club Director)
- **youthclubs1**: Wigston Fields
- **youthyears2**: 1985–1988
- **youthclubs2**: Norwich City F.C., Norwich City
- **years1**: 1988–1992
- **clubs1**: Cambridge United F.C., Cambridge United
- **caps1**: 156
- **goals1**: 52
- **years2**: 1988
- **clubs2**: → Barnet F.C., Barnet (loan)
- **caps2**: 1
- **goals2**: 0
- **years3**: 1988
- **clubs3**: → Wycombe Wanderers F.C., Wycombe Wanderers (loan)
- **caps3**: 2
- **goals3**: 0
- **years4**: 1992–1994
- **clubs4**: Manchester United F.C., Manchester United
- **caps4**: 12
- **goals4**: 2
- **years5**: 1994–1998
- **clubs5**: Coventry City F.C., Coventry City
- **caps5**: 145
- **goals5**: 61
- **years6**: 1998–2004
- **clubs6**: Aston Villa F.C., Aston Villa
- **caps6**: 155
- **goals6**: 48
- **years7**: 2002
- **clubs7**: → Millwall F.C., Millwall (loan)
- **caps7**: 5
- **goals7**: 2
- **years8**: 2004–2006
- **clubs8**: Leicester City F.C., Leicester City
- **caps8**: 58
- **goals8**: 5
- **years9**: 2006
- **clubs9**: Celtic F.C., Celtic
- **caps9**: 11
- **goals9**: 1
- **years10**: 2006–2008
- **clubs10**: Norwich City F.C., Norwich City
- **caps10**: 70
- **goals10**: 12
- **totalcaps**: 615
- **totalgoals**: 183
- **nationalyears1**: 1998
- **nationalteam1**: England national football team, England
- **nationalcaps1**: 4
- **nationalgoals1**: 0
Gabriel Batistuta

**Gabriel Batistuta** (born 1 February 1969) is a former Argentine football player. He played for Argentina national team.

### Club

|rowspan="2"|Club|rowspan="2"|Season|rowspan="2"|Division|colspan="2"|League|colspan="2"|National cup|colspan="2"|Continental|colspan="2"|Other|colspan="2"|Total|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Newell's|1988–89|Primera División|24|7|—|4|1|—|28|8||||||
|River Plate|1989–90|Primera División|21|4|—|2|0|—|23|4||||||
|Boca Juniors|1990–91|Primera División|34|13|—|12|6|—|46|19||||||
|rowspan="10"|Fiorentina|1991–92|Serie A|27|13|3|1|—|—|30|14|||||
|1992–93|Serie A|32|16|3|3|—|—|35|19|||||||
|1993–94|Serie B|26|16|3|3|—|—|29|19|||||||
|1994–95|Serie A|32|26|5|2|—|—|37|28|||||||
|1995–96|Serie A|31|19|8|8|—|—|39|27|||||||
|1996–97|Serie A|32|12|1|0|7|4|1|2|41|18|||||
|1997–98|Serie A|31|21|5|3|—|—|36|24|||||||
|1998–99|Serie A|28|21|9|4|4|1|—|41|26||||||
|1999–2000|Serie A|30|23|2|0|11|6|—|43|29||||||
|rowspan="4"|Roma|2000–01|Serie A|28|20|0|0|4|1|—|32|21||||
|2001–02|Serie A|23|6|0|0|11|0|1|0|35|6|||||
|2002–03|Serie A|12|4|2|1|6|1|—|20|6||||||
|Inter Milan (loan)|2002–03|Serie A|12|2|—|—|—|12|2|||||||
|rowspan="3"|Al-Arabi|2003–04|Qatar Stars League|18|25|2|1|—|—|20|26|||||
|2004–05|Qatar Stars League|3|0|1|1|—|—|4|1|||||||

### International

|National team|Year|Apps|Goals||
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|rowspan="12"|Argentina|1991|7|6|
|1992|5|6|||
|1993|15|6|||
|1994|10|6|||
|1995|11|9|||
|1996|5|3|||
|1997|2|0|||
|1998|12|12|||
|1999|2|2|||
|2000|5|4|||
|2001|1|1|||
|2002|3|1|||

## Infobox (football biography)

- **name**: Gabriel Batistuta
- **image**: Gabriel_batistuta.jpg
- **caption**: Batistuta in 2018
- **fullname**: Gabriel Omar Batistuta
- **birth place**: Avellaneda, Santa Fe Province, Santa Fe, Argentina
- **height**: 1.85 m
- **position**: defender (association football)#Striker, Striker
- **youthyears1**: 1987–1989
- **youthclubs1**: Newell's Old Boys
- **youthyears2**: 1982
- **youthclubs2**: → Sportivo Italiano (loan)
- **years1**: 1988–1989
- **clubs1**: Newell's Old Boys
- **caps1**: 24
- **goals1**: 7
- **years2**: 1989–1990
- **clubs2**: Club Atlético River Plate, River Plate
- **caps2**: 21
- **goals2**: 4
- **years3**: 1990–1991
- **clubs3**: Boca Juniors
- **caps3**: 34
- **goals3**: 13
- **years4**: 1991–2000
- **clubs4**: ACF Fiorentina, Fiorentina
- **caps4**: 269
- **goals4**: 167
- **years5**: 2000–2003
- **clubs5**: A.S. Roma, Roma
- **caps5**: 63
- **goals5**: 30
- **years6**: 2003
- **clubs6**: → Inter Milan (loan)
- **caps6**: 12
- **goals6**: 2
- **years7**: 2003–2004
- **clubs7**: Al-Arabi SC (Qatar), Al-Arabi
- **caps7**: 21
- **goals7**: 25
- **totalcaps**: 444
- **totalgoals**: 248
- **nationalyears1**: 1991–2002
- **nationalteam1**: Argentina national football team, Argentina
- **nationalcaps1**: 78
- **nationalgoals1**: 56
Bentley

**Bentley** is a British automobile maker. It is based in Crewe, Cheshire, England.

Bentley is famous for their fast, luxury vehicles. In 1998, the German Volkswagen Group bought Bentley for £430 million.

## Infobox (company)

- **name**: Bentley
- **logo**: File:1990 Bentley Turbo R - Flickr - The Car Spy (16).jpg
- **industry**: automobile, Automotive
- **founded**: Crewe, England
- **founder**: W.O Bentley
- **area served**: World wide
- **parent**: Volkswagen Group
Chloe O'Brian

**Chloe O'Brian** is a character in the television series _24_. She works at the Counter Terrorist Unit as an analyst. O'Brian is a close friend of Jack Bauer.

## Infobox (character)

- **series**: 24 (TV series), 24
- **caption**: Mary Lynn Rajskub as Chloe O'Brian
- **name**: Chloe O'Brian
- **portrayer**: Mary Lynn Rajskub
- **lbl1**: Appearances
- **data1**: 24 (season 3), 3, 24 (season 4), 4, 24 (season 5), 5, 24 (season 6), 6, 24 (season 7), 7