juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Popocatépetl

**Popocatépetl** (also called **El popo** or **Don Goyo**) is an active volcano.   The volcano is the second highest mountain in Mexico after Pico de Orizaba (5,610m). It is  high .

## History

Popocatépetl is the Aztec word for "Smoking Mountain". Popocatépetl was an Aztec warrior who loved Iztaccíhuatl. Iztaccíhuatl's father sent Popocatepetl to war in Oaxaca. He promised him his daughter as his wife if he returned (which Iztaccíhuatl's father thought he would not). Iztaccíhuatl's father told her that her lover had died in battle. She died of sadness. When Popocatépetl returned, and found out about the death of his lover, he killed himself by stabbing a knife into his heart. The gods covered them with snow and changed them into mountains. Iztaccíhuatl's mountain was called "La Mujer Dormida, (the "Sleeping Woman"), because it looks like a woman sleeping on her back. Popocatépetl became the volcano Popocatépetl, raining fire on Earth in anger at the loss of his lover.

### Eruptions

Popocatepetl has had more than 20 big eruptions since the arrival of the Spanish in 1519. A major eruption happened in 1947. On December 21, 1994 the volcano threw out gas and ash which was carried as far as 25 km away by the wind. This led to people having to leave nearby towns. Scientists began to check the volcano for an eruption.The way scientists checked the volcano was by implementing 10 composite monitoring stations around the volcano, including broadband seismometers, thermal surveillance cameras, tiltmeters, electronic distance meters, lahar acoustic detectors and other instruments. In December 2000, tens of thousands of people were made to leave the area by the government based on the warnings of scientists. The volcano then made its largest display in thousands of years. The most recent eruption which was this year didn't have any injuries. Since it was so near Mexico City so many cameras were recording this eruption. Officials recorded that the eruption had a column of smoke that went as high as 2 miles into the air, with moderate ash content.

## Related pages

- List of volcanos
- Dormant volcano
- Extinct volcano

## References

- De la Cruz-Reyna, Servando, et al. “Tectonic Earthquakes Triggering Volcanic Seismicity and Eruptions. Case Studies at Tungurahua and Popocatépetl Volcanoes.” Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, vol. 193, no. 1, 2010, pp. 37–48.
- https://earthsky.org/earth/volcano-popocatepetl-eruption-mexico-jan-9-2020

## Infobox (mountain)

- **name**: Popocatépetl
- **photo**: Mexico-Popocatepetl.jpg
- **photo caption**: Popocatépetl, viewed from the north from Paso de Cortés.
- **elevation m**: 5426
- **prominence m**: 3020
- **location**: Mexico (state), Mexico-Puebla-Morelos, Mexico
- **map**: Mexico Puebla#Mexico#North America
- **map caption**: Location in Mexico
- **type**: Stratovolcano
- **last eruption**: 2004 to 2022 (ongoing)
- **easiest route**: rock/snow climb
Toleration

**Tolerance** is not taking action against people who do things one does not like. The opposite of tolerance is intolerance. Intolerance is often found in dictatorships historically and often causes the hate crime and hate speech. Tolerance is often about religion (religious toleration), sex, or politic opinion, nation, race, disability, sexual orientation or gender identity.

Also multiculturalism is promoted through toleration.

## Related pages

- Acceptance
- Altruism
- Pluralism
- Religious toleration
Tux

**Tux** is a mascot of the Linux operating system; a cartoon penguin made by Larry Ewing in 1996. Wherever he is seen, it means such a system can work with Linux. He is also a character in some video games made for Linux, like _Super Tux_.

The name "Tux" comes from James Hughes, who named the Linux mascot that as an shortened form of "**T**orvalds' **U**ni**X**," as Linus Torvalds was the person who made the Linux kernel. Tux is also an abbreviation of tuxedo.
Computer graphics

**Computer graphics** are visual representations of data, made with the help of computers. Computer graphics can be a series of images (video or animation) or a single image.

Computer graphics are very useful. Computer-generated imagery is used for movie making, video games, computer program development, photo editing, scientific modeling, design for advertising and more. Some people see computer graphics as art.

## Areas of computer graphics

Computer graphics can be 2D or 3D. They are made differently and used differently. People can use computer programs to make different types of graphics.

### 2D graphics

2D computer graphics are usually split into two categories: vector graphics and raster graphics.

#### Vector graphics

Vector graphics use lines, shapes and text to create a more complex image. If a vector graphic image is made very big on the monitor, it will still look as good (smooth) as its regular size. This is one of the reasons vector graphics are liked so much. Vector images also take very little computer memory when saved. Vector graphics are made with programs like Adobe Illustrator and Inkscape, and were used for some older computer games. Today, they are often used for when computer graphics have to be printed out.

- Examples of vector graphics

#### Raster graphics

Raster images are made up of very small points called pixels. Digital cameras create raster pictures but artists can make them with computers too. The artists don't have to change a single pixel at a time –⁠ raster programs often have tools like paintbrushes, paint buckets and erasers to make a picture. Programs used to make these include Adobe Photoshop, GIMP and Corel Paint Shop Pro.

Sometimes people _do_ use only pixels to make an image. This is called pixel art and it has a very unique style.

- Examples of raster graphics

### 3D graphics

3D graphics are graphics that look more realistic because they are three-dimensional. This means the computer thinks it has a height, a length and a depth, and displays them as we would see them in the real world with our eyes. Among other things they use solid geometry and trigonometry to create correct perspective. Some programs used to make 3D graphics are Bryce, 3D Studio Max, Maya and Blender. 3D graphics are used many times in movies and TV shows and video games.

Most of 3D graphics can be seen as vector graphics because it uses mathematical shapes like 3D triangles to describe objects. But there also exists 3D graphics that uses a grid of "3D pixels" which we call voxels.

- Examples of 3D graphics

## Related pages

- Computer animation
Marine

**Marine** might mean:
- Marine biology
- Marine (military), most notably the United States Marine Corps
Cape of Good Hope

The **Cape of Good Hope** is a place near the far south end of Africa, where the Atlantic Ocean and the Indian Ocean meet. It is a well known area for ships that pass in the sea between southern Africa and Antarctica. It is in the Western Cape Province of South Africa and forms part of the Table Mountain National Reserve.

The first person from Europe to see it was the Portuguese man Bartolomeu Dias.  He saw it in 1488 and named it the "Cape of Storms". His king renamed it.

## Other websites

- An old map of Cape of Good Hope from 1842
Hand washing

**Hand washing** is the process of cleaning hands with water and soap or other special liquids. It is done to take off dirt, germs, and poisons.  Germs and poisons cause diseases and other health problems.  Germs are bacteria, viruses, or fungi.  Some diseases are not stopped by antibiotic drugs. Hand washing prevents lots of new diseases. Not washing hands before cooking or touching food is risky.

## When hands are washed

Always wash hands:
- After using the toilet, urinate, or defecate.
- After touching an animal or pet, such as a dog, cat, or turtle.
- Before and after touching or helping a sick person.
- Before making or cooking food.
- After touching uncooked meat, fish, or poultry (bird meat). Some uncooked foods carry diseases.
- Before eating so as to prevent contamination of food from germs.
- After blowing one's nose/or sneezing into his/her hand.

## Washing hands

Use soap and warm (running, if available) water. Wet hands and add soap. Rub wet hands strongly with soap outside running water more than 10 seconds. Rub all parts of the hands again and again. Clean all dirt under fingernails. Then rub hands under running water again and again to take off all soap. Dry hands using a clean cloth or paper. Use moisturizing lotion so hands do not dry if the hands are being washed many times every day.

## Families & Parents

- Train a boy or girl to wash his or her hands every time before eating and after using the toilet, urinating, or defecating.
- Wash hands after taking off dirty clothes, pants or diapers from a baby.
- Request medical workers, doctors, and nurses to wash their hands before touching a boy or girl.

## Medical hand washing

For a medical worker, doctor, or nurse, not washing hands before touching every new person is dangerous. Use more than enough soap and water and rub each part of the hands again and again. Rub between each finger. Use a brush and clean under fingernails. Use more water to take off the soap and dry hands with a paper towel.

To _scrub_ the hands for a surgery, water that can  be turned on and off without touching with the hands is needed, a cleaning liquid named "chlorhexidine" or "iodine wash", sterile cloth for drying the hands after washing, a sterile brush for hard washing and another sterile instrument for cleaning under the fingernails. Take off all watches, rings, and other jewels from the hands before washing. Wash the hands  and arms to the elbows again and again. Be strong and serious about the washing.  Use running water again and again to take off all soap. Keep hands up so water does not go from arms to hands. Dry the hands with the sterile cloth and put on surgical shirt or dress. Sterile means nothing on it that could cause a disease.

## Related pages

- Global Handwashing Day
- Hygiene
- Ignaz Semmelweis

## Other websites

- 3000 word report - Comprehensive overview Importance of handwashing
- official website of Global Handwashing Day celebrated on October 15
Abel Tasman

**Abel Janszoon Tasman** (1603–1659) was a Dutch sea explorer. He found Tasmania and New Zealand while on voyages in 1642 he 1644, in the service of the VOC (Dutch East India Company). He also made the first historical sightings of large parts of Australia. Witness the trajectory of his 1642-43 journey widely around it, reaching New Zealand and returning north of New Guinea he discovered that it was not connected to the ice covered continent around the south pole then known as 'Terra Australia Incognita or Australia', so that it was a large separate continent. He named it New Holland (in Dutch). James cook would later respect that name by reporting that he had 'charted the East Coast of New Holland and named it New South Wales'.

He was born in Lutjegast, Netherlands. He went to Batavia (now called Jakarta) to work for the VOC in 1633. He went back to Holland in 1636. He went back to Batavia with his wife, Jannetie Tjaerss, two years later. He went north to Japan in 1640. In 1642 Tasman went south to Palembang.

## Tasmania and New Zealand 1642-4

Tasman set Governor General of the Dutch East Indies. This man sailed around to the east coast of Van Diemen's Land and claimed the land for the Dutch on December 3, 1642. The ships then sailed west and found New Zealand. His ships were attacked by Maori in large war canoes (boats) and four sailors died. Tasman then sailed north-east to Tonga and Fiji. He then sailed north west to New Guinea and got back to Batavia in June 1643.

## Western Australia 1644

In 1644 Tasman sailed from Batavia with the ships _Limmen_, _Zeemeeuw_ and _Bracq_. He sailed along the west coast of New Guinea, and then the coast of Australia from Cape York to North West Cape. He went back to Batavia in August 1644. He showed that Western Australia and Queensland were part of the same country. He was not able to get through Torres Strait, but his maps were used for the next 200 years. Tasman made more trips including to Sumatra in 1646, Siam in 1647, and Manila in 1648. He purchased a lot of land in Batavia where he died in October 1659.

Several places have been named after him, including Tasmania, the Tasman Peninsula, Tasman Island and the Tasman Sea.

## Infobox (person)

- **name**: Abel Tasman
- **image**: AbelTasman.jpg
- **image size**: 240px
- **birth date**: 1603
- **birth place**: Lutjegast, Netherlands
- **death date**: October 10 1659
- **death place**: Jakarta, Batavia
- **occupation**: Sailor, Explorer, Merchant
Hard science

**Hard science** is science that uses systematic observation, experiments and sometimes mathematics to get knowledge. In hard science, experiments have to be reproducible (if the experiment is done a second time, it will have to produce the same results as the first time). Also, in hard sciences there is usually good agreement as to what is known for sure. This is not true of soft sciences. Also, in hard science there is a world-view or theory which is widely agreed.

Hard science subjects include the natural sciences, which are about the natural world. These include physics, chemistry, biology, geology, astronomy, and botany. Soft science is any of the social sciences, including history, sociology, and political science. Those sciences are soft because something could be done more than once, and produce a very different result each time. Also, there are radical disagreements between various schools of thought.
Programmer

A computer **programmer** is a person who makes computer programs using a programming language. Programmers are also called  software developers or software engineers or often **coders**.

A programmer's main jobs are writing program source code, testing if it works, and debugging (fixing) the program if there are problems. Programmers often use software tools such as text editors and IDEs (Integrated Development Environments) to help them work.

Computer programming is a profession that can be done from a computer anywhere in the world. This is called _telecommuting_ - doing work on the Internet instead of in an office.

Some programmers are famous because their software is used by many people. One example is Linus Torvalds, who created an important part of the Linux operating system.

Programming can be done in many different languages and can look very different but do the same thing.  An example of this is the Hello world program.

## Video game programmer

A **video game programmer** is a person; part of a video game development team in charge of programming the code of a video game.

Related pages
- Software engineering
Booting

**Booting** is what happens when a computer starts. This happens when the power is turned on. It is called "reboot" if it happens at other times. When you boot a computer, your processor looks for instructions in system ROM (the BIOS) and executes them. They normally 'wake up' peripheral equipment and search for the boot device. The boot device either loads the operating system or gets it from somewere else.

People use the word "boot" to mean "to start a computer" or other device with electronics built in. For example, if a person wants to ask a friend to turn on a satellite phone, they would say "could you boot up the satellite phone?".

Most operating systems call the first data storage device it uses a boot device.  It may also be called a bootstrap loader. This is because the computer is making itself go, as in the idiom.  When we start a computer, we can often see the simple instructions the computer uses to start, then more complicated pictures or software.

The phrase "to boot" in this meaning is short for "to bootstrap".  This use is part of net jargon along with similar multi-use words like Internet or web.  Often the computer is just called a box, so a phrase like "to boot the box" means "to start the computer".

The term "reboot" can also be used in a different context to mean a restarting of a storyline established in previous iterations of a series of fiction.
DBS

**DBS** may stand for:
- DB Sterlin (Engineering Firm)
- Direct broadcast satellite
- Deep brain stimulation
- Development Bank of Singapore
- Douai Business School, an international business college in Douai, France
- Diocesan Boys' School, Hong Kong
- Den Beste Sykkel - a Norwegian bike manufacturer
- Dibutyl sebacate - an organic compound used to make plastics
Tea

**Tea** is a caffeinated drink made from steeping the leaves of the Camellia sinensis plant. Tea can have other herbs, spices, or fruit flavors in it, like lemon.

## Overview

Sometimes, _tea_ is used for other drinks that have been made by soaking fruit or herbs in hot water, like "rosehip tea" or "chamomile tea". These are called "herbal teas". After water, tea is the most widely consumed drink in the world.

## Types

There are three main types of tea: black tea, oolong, and green tea.

### Black tea

To make black tea, leaves are dried with hot air until they turn brown or black. Next, they are broken into pieces and put into a room where they absorb oxygen, or oxidize. Chemical reactions change the taste and style of the tea.

Most black tea comes from Sri Lanka, Indonesia and eastern Africa. Another name used for black tea, especially in China, is **red tea**.  That is because when black tea leaves are brewed in boiling water, the tea made from them looks deep dark red.

### Oolong tea

Oolong tea is a traditional semi-oxidized Chinese tea. It is produced by withering the leaves under strong sun.

### Green tea

Green tea is made by steaming freshly picked leaves. This keeps them green. Then they are crushed and dried in ovens. India is the biggest maker and user of green tea.

## Distribution

Tea is mainly grown in China, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Japan, Nepal, Australia, Argentina and Kenya.

## Brewing

Green tea is usually steeped for 2–3 minutes in water at , while black tea is steeped for 3–5 minutes in boiling water.

## Blends

- Earl Grey tea is black tea with bergamot oil
- English afternoon tea is medium-bodied, bright and refreshing
- English breakfast tea is a full-bodied, robust blend that is made to go well with milk and sugar
- Assamese and Kenyan teas are blended with Ceylonese teas which adds a light, brisk quality to the blend

## Related pages

- Mate (drink)
- Coffee
- Infusion
- Japanese tea ceremony

## Other websites

- The United Kingdom Tea Council
World

When people say "the **world**" they usually mean Earth, especially in a cultural and geopolitical sense. Humans and all other known living things live in this world. Sometimes "world" means another planet.

Before people discovered that Earth is a planet, they often used "World" to mean "Universe". They still sometimes use it to mean all humans or all civilization.

Sometimes they mean a small part of Earth such as Western world, Islamic world, third world, new world or ancient world.

## Related pages

- Universe
Al-Khwarizmi

**Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī** (, ) was a Persian mathematician and astronomer. He was believed to have been born around 800 AD and died in 850 AD during the Abbasid Empire.

Al-Khwarizmi was known for the book he wrote about algebra, _Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing_. He also wrote a book which taught the Western world about Hindu numerals and how to use them. This book was later titled the _Hindu Art of Reckoning_. With his books, al-Khwarizmi authored astronomical tables- tables designed to calculate the position of planets or eclipses.

His work changed the understanding and knowledge of mathematics in the Middle Ages and mathematicians in Europe read his book. They began to use these Hindu–Arabic numerals (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, ...) instead of the Roman numerals (I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, ...). The Arabic numeral system is easier to do mathematics with, as Roman numbers have no place values. This means that they can only deal with whole numbers and do simple equations. Roman numerals also have no number zero.

He wrote a book on algebra named _Al-Jabr Wal' Muqibla_. In this book, he introduced his own number system and also introduced Arabic numerals. His books were translated into Greek and Latin. They named his books "So said Algorizmi". The word "algorithm" is derived from the word Algorizmi. The word algebra comes from the word al-jabr that is at the beginning of the title of the book.
Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi worked at the House of Wisdom, where people worked on translating scientific works.

## Related pages

Kharazmi University

## Infobox (person)

- **name**: Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī
- **image**: 1983 CPA 5426 (1).png
- **image size**: 250px
- **caption**: A commemorative stamp, stamp issued 6 September 1983 in the Soviet Union, to celebrate roughly 1200 years since al-Khwārizmī's birth
- **birth date**: c. 780
- **death date**: c. 850
Ptolemy

**Claudius Ptolemy** ( ; ;  – ) was a Greek who probably lived and worked in Alexandria, Egypt. He is famous for his work on astronomy and geography. Very little is known about his personal life.

## Discoveries

He was an astronomer, mathematician, and geographer. He described in his writing the Greek geocentric view of the universe. Earlier Greek philosophers changed the old assumption of a flat Earth below a "vault of the heavens". They substituted a spherical Earth surrounded by a Celestial sphere. Ptolemy built these two spheres into a system of nested spheres. He also thought out and described the apparent motions of the planets as they were known in his time.

Ptolemy explained and extended Hipparchus's system of epicycles and eccentric circles to explain the Earth-centered theory of the world. Ptolemy's system involved at least 80 epicycles to explain the motions of the Sun, the Moon, and the five planets known in his time. He believed the planets and sun moved around the Earth in this order: Mercury, Venus, Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn.

This system became known as the _Ptolemaic system_. It predicts the positions of the planets well  enough for naked-eye observations, so it seemed accurate at the time. This is described in his book _Mathematical Syntaxis_ (widely called the _Almagest_), a thirteen-book mathematical treatment of the phenomena of astronomy. It contains a wide variety of information ranging from earth conceptions to sun, moon, and star movement as well as eclipses and an explanation of the length of months. The _Almagest_ also included a star catalog containing 48 constellations, using the names we still use today.

In addition to his well-known works in astronomy, Claudius Ptolemy was important in the history of geography and cartography (making maps). He was influential up to the 16th century. Then his ideas were disproved by Nicolaus Copernicus. Ptolemy knew that the Earth is a sphere. Ptolemy's is the first known projection of the sphere onto a plane. His _Geography_ remained the main work on the subject until the time of Christopher Columbus. But he had Asia extending much too far east, which may have been a factor in Columbus's decision to try to reach India by sailing west from Europe.

The Ptolemaic explanation of the motions of the planets was the accepted wisdom until the Polish scholar Copernicus proposed a Sun-centered (heliocentric) view in 1543. Though the heliocentric idea is correct, its predictions were not better than Ptolemy's until Kepler's Laws were added.

Ptolemy may not actually have believed in the reality of his system. He may have thought of it only as a method of calculating positions.

## Related pages

- Geocentrism

## Infobox (person)

- **name**: Ptolemy
- **image**: Ptolemaeus.jpg
- **caption**: Early Baroque artist's rendition
- **birth place**: Egypt (Roman province), Egypt, Roman Empire
- **death date**: (aged )
- **death place**: Alexandria, Egypt, Roman Empire
Moctezuma II

**Moctezuma II**, also known as **Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin** (1466-1520) and often called **Montezuma** in English, was the Aztec emperor (_tlahtoani_) from 1502 to 1520. His name comes from the Nahuatl word _Motecuhzoma_, which means "he who is leader because of his fury". In Spanish, he is called Moctezuma.

## Arrival of Cortés

Hernán Cortés, a Spanish conquistador, arrived in Mesoamerica in 1519 and invaded the Aztec Empire. Instead of seeing Cortés as a threat, Moctezuma thought Cortés was the god Quetzalcoatl and did not fight back.

The Spanish took control of the empire's capital city, Tenochtitlan, in 1520. Cortés took Moctezuma prisoner. When the Aztec people resisted, Cortés told Moctezuma to calm them down. While doing that, Moctezuma was killed.

### Death

Historians do not know exactly how Moctezuma died. The Spaniards said he was killed by Aztec people who threw rocks at him. Meanwhile, the Aztecs said Cortés killed Moctezuma. They said they found Moctezuma's body in the streets with many sword wounds after the Spanish left.

## Other websites

- A reconstructed portrait of Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin, based on historical sources, in a contemporary style.

## Infobox (monarch)

- **name**: Moctezuma II
<small>Motecuhzoma Xocoyoti</small>
- **title**: List of Tenochtitlan rulers, 9th Hueyi Tlatoani, Tlatoani of Tenochtitlan
Ruler of the Aztec Triple Alliance
- **image**: Moctezuma Mendoza.jpg
- **caption**: Moctezuma II in the _Codex Mendoza_
- **reign**: 1502–1520
- **predecessor**: Ahuitzotl
- **successor**: Cuitláhuac
- **queen**: Teotlalco
Tlapalizquixochtzin
- **issue**: Isabel Moctezuma
Another daughter
Chimalpopoca (Moctezuma), Chimalpopoca
Tlaltecatzin
- **father**: Axayacatl
- **birth date**: c. 1466
- **death date**: June 29,
- **death place**: Tenochtitlan
Antonio López de Santa Anna

**Antonio López de Santa Anna Pérez de Lebrón** (February 21, 1794 - June 21, 1876) was a Mexican general and dictator. Under his rule, Mexico lost half its territory.

Santa Anna was president of Mexico 11 times. In 1835 he abolished the Mexican Constitution and made himself President for Life. This started a Federalist war, including a Texas Revolution (1835-1836). He won the famous Battle of the Alamo, but lost the Battle of San Jacinto and was taken prisoner by the Texas rebels. He also lost the Mexican-American War against the United States (1846-1848). He was overthrown in 1855 and went to live in other countries.
Granzyme

A **Granzyme** is an enzyme contained within cytotoxic T cells and natural killer cells.  These substances are used to destroy virus-infected cells.

Granzyme secretion can be detected and measured using the ELISPOT and ELISA techniques.
Dreyfus Affair

The **Dreyfus affair** (1894‒1906) was one of the biggest scandals in French history. It involved Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish officer in the French Army. Dreyfus was accused of being a spy for the German Empire, and was convicted of treason.

While Dreyfus was in prison, his brother and a high-ranking Army officer proved that another soldier was the spy. However, the Army refused to free Dreyfus. Finally, in 1899, the President of France pardoned him, and in 1906 Dreyfus was allowed back into the French Army.

### Accusations

In 1894, Dreyfus was accused of being a German spy and committing crimes against France. People thought he wrote letters to the Germans telling them French Army secrets.

Dreyfus was convicted of treason. He was sentenced to spend the rest of his life on Devil's Island. This was a penal colony (a prison island) in French Guiana.

### Exoneration

However, not everybody believed Dreyfus was guilty. While he was in prison, his brother Mathieu and a high-ranking officer called Picquart proved that another soldier, Major Esterhazy, was guilty. However, the army did not want to admit that it had been wrong. They refused to free Dreyfus.

In 1898, Émile Zola published the famous letter  to denounce the army coverup that led to Dreyfus' false conviction. Zola was found guilty of libeling the army and sentenced to imprisonment, but fled to England. He remained there until amnesty was granted. Meanwhile, the Catholic-dominated far right claimed that a "Jewish Freemason conspiracy" was trying to destroy France by discrediting its army.

Finally, the evidence that Dreyfus was innocent became so strong that the government had to demand a new trial.  At the new trial, the army again found Dreyfus guilty. The President of France, who did not want an innocent man to suffer any more, pardoned Dreyfus in 1899, and he was released.  Seven years later, he was officially declared innocent, and allowed back into the army.

## Aftermath

The affair divided France. Many people believed Dreyfus really was a spy. In many cases, these people hated Jews and believed that Dreyfus was a criminal just because he was a Jew. They also believed that a Jew could not be a good Frenchman (these beliefs are called antisemitism). Others thought that the army could not be questioned.

On the other side, many people believed that Dreyfus was innocent and should not be imprisoned. Some feared that Dreyfus's enemies were also enemies of France. Meanwhile, the French military did not acknowledge that Dreyfus was innocent until 1995.

The impact of the Dreyfus Affair was far-reaching. Allegedly, it convinced Theodor Herzl (modern Zionism's founder) that Jews and Europeans were not compatible, and that a Jewish state was needed in the Land of Israel. Herzl later published the book _Der Judenstaat_ (The Jewish State) and convened the first World Zionist Congress in Basel, Switzerland in 1897.

## Related pages

- Antisemitism in Europe
- Anti-Judaism and antisemitism
- _The Protocols of the Elders of Zion_
Antonym

An **antonym** is a word that has the opposite meaning of another word.  The first known use of the word **antonym** was in 1857.  Properly defined it means _a word of opposite meaning_ and is a noun.

|hot|cold|
| --- | --- |
|left|right|
|up|down|
|near|far|
|small|big|
|alive|dead|
|young|old|
|day|night|
|male|female|
|wet|dry|
|stop|go|
|fat|thin|
|yes|no|
|black|white|
|teacher|student|
|love|hate|

## Related pages

- Synonym - two words similar to each other
- Contronym - word that has two meanings
Names of God in Judaism

In Judaism, God is known by many names. The most important of these names is the _Tetragrammaton_, or "Four-lettered word": YHVH, YHWH, or י ה ו ה. Jews are not allowed to say this name, and instead say _Adonai_. Even _Adonai_ is only used by some Jews in prayer. Most Jews would refer to God as _Ha-Shem_, or "The Name". Jews are not allowed to erase the Tetragrammaton, so they rarely write it down outside of their most holy books, such as the Torah.

Other names include _Ha-Elohim_, _Ha-El_, _Shaddai_, _Tzeva-ot_, _‘Ha-Elyon_, and _Ehyeh-Asher-Ehyeh_  which are respectively pronounced by observant Jews as  Elokim, Kayl, Shakkai, Tzeva-Kot.

Certain names, such as Shalom, are pronounced as written, but when written one letter, in this case the last letter, is omitted.  The last of the above "other" list is often said as Ek-yeh Asher Ek-yeh.

## Other Jewish names of (or references) to God include

- Jehovah—["Self-existent"]. Modern-day Hasidic Jews colloquially often substitute with _Hashem_ (transl. “Name”).

- El (Eloah, Elohim)—["God"]

- Sabaoth—["Celestial Hosts"]

- Adonai—["Lord"]

- El Shaddai—["God Almighty"]

- Emmanuel—["God with us"]. A symbolic name of the Messiah from the Book of Isaiah.

- In the Jewish Kabbalah: Eyn Sof—["Endless"]
EFL Championship

The **EFL Championship**, commonly known as **The Championship**, is the name of the English second division of football.

## 2025–26 clubs

- Southampton
- Wrexham

## Champions

|Season|Champions|Runner-up|Play-Off Winners|
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|2000–01|Fulham|Blackburn Rovers|Bolton Wanderers|
|2001–02|Manchester City|West Bromwich Albion||
|2002–03|Portsmouth|Leicester City||
|2003–04|Norwich City|West Bromwich Albion||
|2004–05|Sunderland|Wigan Athletic||
|2005–06|Reading|Sheffield United|Watford|
|2006–07|Sunderland|Birmingham City|Derby County|
|2007–08|West Bromwich Albion|Stoke City|Hull City|
|2008–09|Wolverhampton Wanderers|Birmingham City||
|2009–10|Newcastle United|West Bromwich Albion||
|2010–11|Queens Park Rangers|Norwich City|Swansea City|
|2011–12|Reading|Southampton|West Ham United|
|2012–13|Cardiff City|Hull City||
|2013–14|Leicester City|Burnley||
|2014–15|Bournemouth|Watford|Norwich City|
|2015–16|Burnley|Middlesbrough|Hull City|
|2016–17|Newcastle United|Brighton & Hove Albion|Huddersfield Town|
|2017–18|Wolverhampton Wanderers|Cardiff City|Fulham|
|2018–19|Norwich City|Sheffield United|Aston Villa|
|2019-20||||
|2020-21|Norwich City|Watford|Brentford|
|2021-22|Fulham|Bournemouth|Nottingham Forest|
|2022-23|Burnley|Sheffield United|Luton Town|
|2023-24|Leicester City|Ipswich Town|Southampton|
|2024-25|Leeds United|Burnley|Sunderland|

## Related pages

- Premier League
- EFL League One
- EFL League Two

## Infobox (football league)

- **leaguename**: EFL Championship
- **country**: England and Wales
- **confederation**: UEFA
- **teams**: 24
- **founded**: 1888 (Football League First Division)
2004 (EFL Championship)
- **level**: 1 (1888-1992)
 2 (1992-)
- **promotion**: Premier League
- **relegation**: EFL League One
- **confed cup**: UEFA Europa League
- **season**: 2024-25
- **champions**: Leeds United F.C., Leeds United
- **most successful club**: Newcastle United
Reading F.C., Reading
Sunderland A.F.C, Sunderland
Wolverhampton Wanderers
(2 Titles Each)
- **website**: [http://www.efl.com/sky-bet-championship/ Official website]
- **domest cup**: FA Cup
- **league cup**: EFL Cup
- **tv**: Sky Sports
Tutankhamun

**Tutankhamun** (Tutankhaten, Tutankhamun) was an Egyptian Pharaoh of the 18th dynasty (royal family) during New Kingdom.  He reigned from when he was nine years old (1334 BC) to when he died (1324 BC).

Tutankhamun was the son of Akhenaten and one of Akhenaten's sisters, or perhaps one of his , Kiya.
Tutankhamun ruled for 9 years and died very young, at 19, so he is known as The Boy King. He was married to his half-sister Ankhesenamun, daughter of Queen Nefertiti, his stepmother.

In his third year of his reign, Tutankhamun reversed several Good changes made during his father's reign. He ended the worship of the god Aten and restored the god Amun to supremacy. The ban on the cult of Amun was lifted and traditional privileges were restored to its priesthood. The capital was moved back to Thebes and the city of Akhenaten abandoned. This is when he changed his name to Tutankhamun, "Living image of Amun", reinforcing the restoration of Amun.

In 1922 Howard Carter found Tutankhamun's tomb. Tutankhamen was believed to carry a curse. Actually, the archeologists who visited his tomb died from natural causes. Tutankhamen's tomb's unique and priceless treasures have taught us a lot about the boy king, the pharaohs, and ancient Egypt.

## Illness and death

Recent studies of his body using CT scans and DNA tests show that he had two children, but they died very young. Scientists now believe he died from a broken leg, made more complicated by bone disease and malaria. Before this discovery there were many theories about his early death, including murder. It is quite certain that he was infected by several strains of malaria, and very likely that he had some genetic defects caused by inbreeding. His parents were brother and sister. The final cause of his death is still unclear.

## New galleries in Cairo Museum

In 2014 the Egyptian Museum in Cairo opened four new halls in the Tutankhamun Gallery.
Independence

The word **independence** means "not dependent", or not having to depend on anyone or anything else. It also means being strong and able to survive alone. Anything can be dependent or independent. When people talk about independence, it may be about people or countries, where it is often being spoken about as a good thing. For places, it may mean sovereignty or autonomy. In science, as in _independent variable_ the word does not mean it is good or bad. An independent electric supply has its own electrical generator. An independent broadcaster does not get programming from a broadcast network. An independent retail<nowiki/>er is not part of a chain or franchise.

## In countries

A country gets its independence when it is no longer part of another country. Sometimes countries get their independence in a war, as when the United States left Great Britain in the American War of Independence. Countries can also get their independence peacefully, like Canada and Norway did. Help from another country may be needed to get independence, like in World War II, when the allies freed many countries that had been controlled by the Axis powers and, temporarily, vice versa. Attempts to gain independence may lead to civil war and may be unsuccessful.

### Examples

Singapore gained independence from Malaysia in 1965. The newest country to get its independence was South Sudan.  Other countries that became independent not long ago are Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1992, Eritrea in 1993 and East Timor in 2002. However, some countries have political parties that discuss whether their country should become independent. Some examples of these are the Scottish National Party (SNP) or the Puerto Rican Independence Party (PIP).

## Related pages

- Declaration of independence
- Decolonization
- Autonomy
- Nationalism
- Self-determination
Anubis

**Anubis** is the protector of the gates to the Underworld, Osiris replaced him as the god of the dead. He looks like a man with the head of a Pharaoh Hound, called Tesem.

## Anubis's Purpose

Anubis, as the god of death and the afterlife, was closely associated with mummification and burial rites. Egyptian jackals had an association with the dead, as well. They were often found digging up buried bodies and eating them, which may be why Anubis was depicted as part jackal. The priests who mummified the  pharaohs wore costumes to make them appear like Tesem (Pharaoh hound).

The Egyptian people believed that Anubis helped decide the fate of the dead in the afterlife. The heart of the dead was weighed against the feather of truth (representing the goddess Ma'at), to see if the deceased was worthy of entering the afterlife. If the person had lived an evil life, his or her heart would be heavy with evil, and he or she would be eaten by Ammit (the Devourer). If a person was kind and good, the heart would be light, he or she could continue on to the afterlife safe and sound to meet Osiris.

Anubis, in the Book of the Dead. Is shown giving equality through research of weighing the human heart to a feather. Any honesty will make the feather heavier than the heart on the scale.

## In Greece and Rome

In later times, during the Ptolemaic period, as their functions were similar, Anubis came to be identified as the Greek god Hermes, becoming Hermanubis. The centre of this cult was in _uten-ha_/_Sa-ka_/ Cynopolis, a place whose Greek name simply means "city of dogs". In Book XI of  "The Golden Ass" by Apuleius, we find evidence that the worship of this god was maintained in Rome at least up to the 2nd century. Indeed, it was revealed that Hermanubis also appeared in the alchemical and hermetical literature of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.

Although the Greeks and Romans typically scorned Egypt's animal-headed gods as bizarre and primitive (they mockingly called Anubis the "Barker"), Anubis was sometimes associated with Sirius in heaven, and Cerberus in the underworld.
Atum

**Atum** was the creator of everything in ancient Egyptian mythology. He represented the very first history; nothing existed yet except for him. According to the myth, he rose up out of the chaotic waters of Nu and used his own female side to create Shu (air) and Tefnut (moisture). For a while, his two children were lost at sea. Atum sent his removable eye, the Udjat Eye, to go look for them.  When they returned, Atum cried tears of joy. Where these tears hit the ground is where men formed. Out of the two elements water and air, the other gods and goddesses were born. The Egyptians believed he was the father of all the gods.
Atum was first the partner of the earth then the partner of the setting sun.
Esteban Huertas

**Esteban Huertas López** (1876-1943) was a Colombian military leader from Panama.

He was born in Boyacá, Colombia. When he was 8 years old he ran away from home and he joined the army. He won many medals and in 1902 he became general. In 1900 he lost an arm when he fired a cannon.
In 1903 he was one of the people who made Panama independent. A year later president Manuel Amador forced Huertas to retire because he was afraid Huertas wanted to become dictator. Huertas died in Panama City in 1943.
Nahuatl

**Nahuatl** is a language spoken by 1.5 million people, mostly in Mexico.

## History

Nahuatl has existed since the 7th century CE.

The first people to speak Nahuatl were indigenous peoples in central Mexico.  The Aztecs and the Toltecs spoke an early form of Nahuatl.

The people of Teotihuacan may have spoken Nahuatl.

Nahuatl has changed since the end of the Aztec Empire. Over time, many different dialects of Nahuatl have developed. Today, people who speak different dialects do not always understand one another.

The words "Mexico," "Guatemala," and "Nicaragua" all come from Nahuatl.

## Today

Today, most people who speak Nahuatl live in central Mexico, but a few live in other parts of Mexico or in the United States.

Nahuatl is one of the official languages of Mexico. However, most people who speak it now also speak Spanish.

Many phrases that are unique to Mexican Spanish come from Nahuatl, according to the American linguist John Lipski. Those unique phrases are called "Mexicanisms." An example is _ándale, _which often means "let's go." Another example is the word _Bueno?_ and is used by many Spanish-speakers when they answer the telephone.

## Nahuatl words in English

Here are some English words of Nahuatl origin:
- avocado
- axolotl
- cacao and cocoa
- chili
- chocolate
- coyote
- ocelot
- peyote
- sapote
- tequila
- tomato

## Related pages

- Miguel León-Portilla

## Infobox (language)

- **name**: Nahuatl
- **altname**: Aztec
- **nativename**: _Nāhuatl, Nāhuatlahtōlli, Mēxihcatlahtōlli, Mācēhuallahtōlli, Mēxihcacopa_
- **states**: Mexico
- **region**: State of Mexico, Puebla, San Luis Potosi, Veracruz, Hidalgo (state), Hidalgo, Guerrero, Morelos, Tlaxcala, Oaxaca, Michoacán, Chihuahua (state), Chihuahua, Durango,
 and immigrants in United States, El Salvador, Guatemala, and Canada
- **ethnicity**: Nahuas, Nahua peoples
- **speakers**: 1,740,000
- **date**: 2010
- **familycolor**: Uto-Aztecan
- **fam1**: Uto-Aztecan languages, Uto-Aztecan
- **fam2**: Nahuan languages, Nahuan
- **dia1**: Western Peripheral Nahuatl
- **dia2**: Eastern Peripheral Nahuatl
- **dia3**: Huasteca Nahuatl
- **dia4**: Central Nahuatl languages
- **nation**: Mexico (through the General Law of Linguistic Rights of Indigenous Peoples)
- **agency**: Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas
- **iso2**: nah
- **iso3**: nci
- **iso3comment**: Classical Nahuatl language, Classical Nahuatl
For modern varieties, see Nahuan languages
- **image**: Aztec woman speaking.jpg
- **imagesize**: 100px
- **imagecaption**: Nahua woman from the _Florentine Codex_. The speech scroll indicates that she is speaking.
- **notice**: IPA
- **protoname**: Proto-Nahuan language, Proto-Nahuan
- **glotto**: azte1234
- **glottoname**: Aztec
Flag

A **flag** is a piece of coloured cloth with a special design that is put on a pole as a symbol to represent a nation or group of people.

Flags first appeared more than 2000 years ago in China, and in Europe under the Roman Empire. Flags also have meanings, the colors and the shapes they use. For example, the Japan flag has a white backgroud and a red circle in the middle. The red cirle is the red sun and the white background means honesty and purity.

There are many types of flags: State

- A **National Flag** is the symbol of a country (nation). For example, the national flag of the United States is the Stars and Stripes; the flag of the United Kingdom is the _Union Flag' or 'Union Jack_; the national flag of Libya was the only flag in the world to have one colour and no design; the national flag of Canada is The Maple Leaf flag.
- An **Ensign** is a special type of national flag for use on ships. Different kinds of ships often use different kinds of ensigns. For example, warships use a _naval ensign_ which is usually different from the ensigns used by other ships.
- A **Rank Flag** is used by the head of state, as well as by a senior officer of the navy, army or air force, to show where he or she is.
- In the past, soldiers carried beautiful flags to war. Today these ceremonial flags are used only at military parades.
- Some states, provinces, cities and towns have their own flags. For example, all 50 states within the United States have their own _state flags_.
- A **Signal Flag** is a flag used by ships to send messages to other ships or to people on land. Every ship keeps many different signal flags for use in different situations. Signal flags are also used for racing.
- Flags are sometimes also used to represent a business, a sports team, a school, a political party, or other organizations.

## Related pages

- Banner
- Coat of arms
- Ethnic flag
- Free Speech Flag
- Glossary of vexillology
- Pride flag
- Rainbow flag
- Rainbow flag (LGBT)
Karaite Judaism

**Karaite Judaism** is a kind of Judaism that accepts only the Hebrew Bible as authoritative, and rejects any religious authority in Mishnah and Talmud, which are explanations of the Bible by rabbis in the first few centuries of the Common Era. Karaite Jews believe that each person should be able to explain the Torah for themselves, instead of following the explanations of the rabbis. Today the largest communities of Karaites are in Israel and San Francisco.

## Declaration of faith

The list of main beliefs to Karaite Judaism are called the "Tuv Taam." It is called this because those are the first two words in Hebrew of the beliefs. These beliefs are:
- There is one God who is YHWH the creator of the Heavens and Earth.
- The Torah that Moses gave to the Israelites at Sinai is the truth
- The Torah is the infallible word of YHWH God of Israel.
- Those who follow the laws of the Torah their name will be written in the Book of Life .
- The place of where the Temple in Jerusalem stood is holy, and prayers are said in the direction of where it stood
- The first day of each Hebrew month is decided by the lunar (moon) cycle
- The Tanakh, is a book of truth.
- The beginning of the Jewish year according to the Torah is decided by the growth of the barley crops in the land of Israel
- The holidays talked about in the Torah are respected and celebrated
- YHWH is the ruler of the world and he is the only being that always has existed and always will exist
- The Great Day of YHWH will come and everyone will know his name.

## Other websites

- Karaite Korner
- Karaite-USA
- Karaite Beliefs in 5 Languages