juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Proper noun

A **proper noun** or **proper name** is a noun representing a unique thing (like _London_, _Jupiter_, _John Hunter_, or _Toyota_), unlike a **common noun**, which represents a type of thing (like _city_, _planet_, _person_ or _corporation_). Proper nouns are the only nouns in English which always have the first letter capitalized.

In English, proper nouns don't usually come after an article or other limiting modifier (such as _any_ or _some_). They are used for a particular person, place, or object. For example, a town called "Newtown" may be, but does not necessarily have to be, a new [recently built] town).

Which nouns are considered proper names depends on language. For example, names of days and months are considered proper names in English, but not in Spanish, French, Swedish, Slovenian or Finnish, where they are not capitalized.
Reading

**Reading** is understanding writing in a language. Fundamentally, reading is the way people look at certain marks and know what they mean.

Once it was possible to go through life without reading. Writing goes back in human history only a few thousand years, and 200 years ago _most men could not read or write_. We know this is true because they could not write their own names on marriage records in churches. Most men worked in farming, and you can do most of that job without being able to read. The wives could read: they lived at home before marriage and their mothers taught them. The boys went to work at, say, nine or ten, and never learnt to read.

Reading is understanding what is printed or written. It is how you get information about something that is written. It can only be done if one knows the language. Otherwise, you can only learn from other people telling you verbally, or from practical demonstration.

## Some things you do when you read

- Make predictions/hypotheses about the writing and ideas from the title of the reading material.
- Read and group parts of the material.
- Review all its words, understand the main idea, the details, facts, and sequences of the story,.
- Make a logical judgment about a character's attitudes, behaviors, and conditions in the story.
- Make reasonable predictions about what the next section will be about in the reading material.

One of the things writing does is create imaginary worlds. On the other hand, writing can be about practical life. That is a huge range of possibilities. Writing had to be invented: it sometimes comes as a shock to realise this. Much later, printing was invented. That took writing out of churches into the wider world, the world we all live in.

## Related pages

- Literacy
- Literature
- Aliteracy
- Writing
- Printing
- Primary education
- Doctor of Philosophy
Roman

**Roman** or **Romans** may refer to:
- A thing or person of or from the city of Rome, Italy

## History

- Ancient Rome (8th century BC – 5th century AD)
    - Roman Kingdom (753 BC to 509 BC)
    - Roman Republic (509 BC to 27 BC)
    - Roman Empire (27 BC to 476/1453 AD)
    - Roman Britain, part of the island of Great Britain controlled by the Roman Empire between AD 43 and about 410
    - Roman alphabet, the standard alphabet of most of the languages of Western and Central Europe
        - Romanization
    - Roman army
    - Roman calendar
    - Roman law, the legal system of both the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire
    - Roman numerals, numeral system where certain letters are given a numeral value
    - Roman mythology
- Byzantine Empire (330/476/629 to 1453), the Eastern Roman Empire
    - Romaioi (Ρωμαίοι), Greek-speaking,  Orthodox population of the Eastern Roman Empire dating to Late Antiquity
    - Romaioi (Ρωμιοί), Greek-speaking, Orthodox population of the Rum-milet in the Ottoman Empire, or Greek-speaking Orthodox people today
    - Romanae or the Greco-Romans from Aetolia Acarnania that speak Romanesci
- Holy Roman Empire (c. 900 to 1806), a medieval state in Central Europe
- Roman, Bulgaria, a town and a municipality in Vratsa Province
- Romans-sur-Isère, in the Drôme _département_ of France
- Roman, Romania, a city in Neamţ county
- Romans, Ain, a town in France
- Roman, Eure, France
- Romans, Deux-Sèvres, France
- Romans d'Isonzo, a town in Italy
- Roman roads
- Roman Valley, Nova Scotia
- Saint Roman, Monaco

## Christianity

- Epistle to the Romans, a letter in the New Testament of the Christian Bible
- The Roman Catholic Church

## Literature

- The word for Novel in many European languages.
    - Nouveau roman (lit. "new novel"), a type of French novel of the 1950s
    - Bildungsroman (lit. "formation novel"), German for a coming-of-age story
    - Künstlerroman (lit. "artist's novel"), German for a story of an artist's growth to maturity
- Romance (heroic literature), a genre of Medieval French literature
- Ar-Rum, the 30th book in the Qu'ran, is sometimes translated as _The Romans_
- Roman à clef, a novel about real life, overlaid with a façade of fiction
Rudyard Kipling

**Joseph Rudyard Kipling** (30 December 1865 – 18 January 1936) was an English writer and poet.

## Life

Kipling was born in Bombay, India. He wrote children's fiction, like _Kim_, _The Jungle Book_ and _Puck of Pook's Hill_. He also wrote the well-known poems, _If —_ and _Gunga Din_, and many short stories set in India. He was awarded the 1907 Nobel Prize in Literature. He spent part of his life living and writing in New England with his American wife but returned to England to live in Sussex.

Kipling died of a perforated duodenal ulcer in Fitzrovia, London in 1936 and is buried in Westminster Abbey, London.
Recreation

**Recreation** or **fun** is a person's time of refreshing his or her body and mind.

There are many different forms of recreation which are shaped by individual interests and by environment; a few examples being reading, playing or listening to music, watching movies or TV, gardening, hunting, hobbies, sports, studies, and travel. These activities are just some of a wide variety of recreation activity available in day-to-day life.

Public places such as parks and beaches are very important for many recreational activities. Tourism profession has recognized long ago that many of their clients are specifically attracted by recreational offerings.

## Related pages

- Leisure
- Sport

## Other websites

- National Recreation and Park website
Raw food

- _For the WWE brand/TV Show, see WWE Raw._
Foods are **raw** when they are not cooked.
Most things are safe to eat raw, but some of them can be poisonous.

## Health

There's currently no solid evidence to suggest that raw food is more healthy than cooked food.

### Germs

Raw food can sometimes make people sick because of bacteria which would otherwise be killed by cooking.
Ram

**Ram** can mean:

- A male sheep that has not been neutered
- Random-access memory (abbreviated "RAM")
- Battering ram, something used to break through walls or doors
- Hydraulic ram, a type of pump
- Rama (or Râm), a Hindu god
Regime

A **regime** is the leader and other people who run a government of a sovereign state.

There are many kinds of regimes.  They can achieve power in many ways.  Depending on the time and place and local civics like the electoral system, they can lose power in many ways too.  The most common way for a regime to lose power was a coup, invasion or revolution until the 20th century.  After that it became very dangerous and difficult to use these methods.  Peaceful regime change is usually by an election - this method is now used by more than half the people on the Earth.  It is called representative democracy.  Such regimes are often called **administration**s to make it clear they are not dictators, and since the executive branch does not have all the power itself - it may share it with a legislative branch.  Also the judicial branch is separate.  The courts are not usually considered part of the regime.

However, some things are the same no matter how the regime achieved power:

- The regime needs help among people outside the regime and government to stay in power - these may be in the military or a political party.
- Military and police obey the regime's orders, and can kill people.  If they would not do so, then, it would be possible to change regimes by force.
- Trade and tax is set by the regime, which can take money away.
- The regime speaks for the whole country when dealing with other countries.

When many regimes negotiate at the United Nations or World Trade Organization, it does not matter at all how each regime got its power.  It matters only that they can agree and make everyone in their country do as the agreement says.

When someone wants a regime to change in another country, they usually are not able to do this by any means other than violence or interfering in its election.  This is common if a regime is threatened by another regime.
Right angle

A **right angle** is an angle with a measurement of 90 degrees or π/2 radians. While most angles are represented by a small sliver of a circle in their angle, right angles have a small square instead. This is why something that is 90 degrees is often referred to as "square" in woodworking. When two lines cross each other so that all the angles have the same size, the result is four right angles. This is known as "perpendicular". The top of the letter T is at right angles to the vertical line. Walls of buildings are usually at right angles to the floor. Two things that are at right angles to each other are called "**perpendicular**" or "orthogonal". This is expressed using the  symbol (such as in ).

Planes (flat surfaces) can also meet at right angles.  In a building, a wall and a floor are said to be perpendicular to each other, and they have a right angle. It also can be called a square angle.

## Related pages

- Acute angle
- Obtuse angle
- Parallel (geometry)
Reward

A **reward** is getting something good for doing a given task. It needs someone who has the power to give the good thing. It is part of reinforcement that primarily deals with rewards and reliefs.

Ideas like reinforcement unlike punishment that is based on cost and losses function based on the idea that people increase doing things to get rewards is an alternative to punishment that forces to avoid things. In philosophy there is another idea that says that training  and discipline (conditioning) are much more important than the rewards or punishments given by others.

Apart from psychology, rewards are also used on a societal scale to motivate public behavior.

In trying to catch criminals and other bad people, the government often offers money to people. This money is given to people who may capture the criminal, or give information that helps the police catch them. For example, after the Eureka Stockade rebellion in Ballarat, Victoria in 1854, the government offered a big reward of 400 pounds for the capture of the people who had started it.

In 2001, the US government offered a big reward of 2.5 million dollars for help in capturing the person who had sent anthrax in letters to a newspaper journalist and 2 senators. Anthrax is a disease which can kill people.

## Related pages

- Carrot and Stick
Ranch

A **ranch** is a farm for raising cows, horses, sheep or other livestock. Most ranches are large, but they can be any size. The word _ranch_ is from the Spanish word "rancho". It is used in American and Canadian English. People who use a ranch are called **ranchers**.

A ranch may be on private or public land. The desert areas of the western United States have many ranches, because there is much land that is not very good for crops. There are also many in desert areas of Australia, where they are called stations. Someone who takes care of the livestock may be called a stockman or cowboy.

## Related pages

- Agriculture
Substance

**Substance** is the material, or matter, of which something is made. Substances are physical things that can be seen, touched, or measured. They are made up of one or more elemental parts. Iron and aluminium, which are pure, water and air, which are mixtures; are all examples of substances.

## Problems of definition

The main problem of a clear definition of what the substance is that if, for example, to consider not just the universe (cosmos), being and non-being, and in general all, the question arises, what is the constant basic principle (attribute) is the basis of the substance, which generally consists of all (that is, matter, mind, senses, space, soul, and so on).

## History of the concept

The Latin word _substantia_ - a translation of the Greek word for the essence (_ousia_), and in Latin to describe the essence of using the word _essentia_. In ancient philosophy substance is treated as a substrate, the first principle of all things (for example, "water" of Thales, the "fire" of Heraclitus).

In modern times, the concept of substance is treated and spread widely. The first view is connected with an ontological understanding of substance as ultimate bases being (Francis Bacon, Benedict Spinoza, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz). Central category of metaphysics in philosophy substance is identified as with God and with nature and determined as the cause of itself (Latin, _causa sui_). The main characteristics (attributes) of a substance from Benedict Spinoza are thinking and stretch. By analogy with the philosophy of Benedict Spinoza substance considered in the light of the concept of René Descartes and Leibniz. The first substance is a unity of subject and object, and the second - the same atoms are simple beings who lose their stretch, but receive attribute aspirations (French, _appetitio_n) and multiplicity. Thanks Leibniz substance begins to associate with matter.

The second point of view on the substance - an epistemological understanding of the concept, its capabilities and the need for scientific knowledge (John Locke, David Hume). Immanuel Kant believed that the law under which any change in the substance of events and the number of stored it in nature remains the same, can be attributed to the "analogies of experience." Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel defined substance as the integrity of changing, transient side of things, as a "major step in the development of the will." For Arthur Schopenhauer substance - matter for David Hume - a fiction, the coexistence properties.

## Related articles

- Chemical substance
Society

**Society** is the term to describe human beings together as a collective entity – the sum of their social networks and social interactions.

## Origin

The term comes from the Latin idea of _societas_, or the connection between friends or allies – friend or ally being _socius_. It can also mean a specific group of people who interact, as well as a wider society of which they are members. People form societies to gain greater benefits as a group than would be possible separately.  Many animals beside humans also do this, such as wolves or eusocial insects. Sociology is the name for the study of society.

## Concept

A society is often considered in terms of citizenship, rights and ethics. The strength and unity of any society's members' willingness to help each other is to be measured can be called social capital.

### Political philosophy

A social contract sets out the rules and roles for this kind of cooperation. One kind of social contract is a constitution, which outlines to some extent what society at a given state is intended to be.

## Related pages

- Culture
- Racism
- Civilization
- Antiziganism
- Antisemitism
- Discrimination
- Interpersonal relationship
Suggestion

A **suggestion** is an idea that one suggests, or says is good for another (or others) to follow. Some people may agree to it, and some may disagree. If they disagree or have a different suggestion, the person who first suggested the idea will usually discuss with the other people and find a good conclusion that satisfies both and is good. A suggestion is someone's opinion on how to do any task, but a person is not necessarily expected to do it.
Spache Readability Formula

**Spache Readability Formula** is one method of finding out how hard a piece of writing is (its textual difficulty).

The method compares words in a text to a list of words which are familiar in everyday writing. The words that are not on the list are called _unfamiliar_. The number of words per sentence are counted. This number and the percentage of unfamiliar words is put into a formula. The result is a reading age. Someone of this age should be able to read the text.

Spache works best on texts that are for children under the age of eight.

the formula; (0.141 * average sentence length)+(0.086 * percentage of difficult words)+0.839 = grade level

According to Oleander Solutions (http://www.oleandersolutions.com), the revised Spache Formula is:

GL = (.121 * ASL) + (.082 *UW) + .659

Where:

GL = U.S. grade level
    ASL = Average sentence length
    UW = Number of unique unfamiliar words

## Related pages

- Flesch-Kincaid Reading Level
Sport

**Sport** usually means athletic games that involve a degree of competition, such as netball, basketball or cross-country Olympic skiing. Some games and many kinds of racing are called sports. A professional at a sport is called an athlete. Many people do sports with their friends.  They need coaches to teach or train teams or individuals how to do better.  Sports can be played indoors or outdoors and by individuals or team.

Sports are helpful for health and can help reduce diseases such as heart attacks, many types of cancer, depression and anxiety, and dementia. Different types of sports help our body in different ways. For children, sports play an extremely important part in their lives by providing all round development of the child, physically, mentally and emotionally.

Some people like to watch other people play sports. Those who watch others playing sports are called _fans_. While some fans watch sports on television, others actually go to stadiums or other places where people pay to watch them in person. These fans are called _spectators_.

People engage in many kinds of sports, for example:

<div style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
- Athletics
- Angling
    - Field athletics
        - Triple jump
        - Pole vault
        - High jump
        - Hammer throw
        - Discus throw
        - Javelin throw
        - Shot put
    - Track athletics
        - Sprint
        - Middle distance race
        - Long distance race
        - Walking race
        - Hurdle race
        - Relay
        - Steeplechase (sport)
        - Cross-country race
        - Marathon
- Acrobatics
- Bodybuilding
- Gymnastics
    - Rhythmic gymnastics
- Figure skating
- Boxing
- Fencing
- Judo
- Wrestling
- Motor sports
- Auto racing
- Shooting
- Diving
- Golf
- Rowing
- Sailing (sport)
- Surfing
- Swimming
- Bobsled
- Skiing
    - Freestyle skiing
    - Ski jumping
- Games
    - Tennis
    - Baseball
    - Softball
    - Basketball
    - Badminton
    - Cricket
    - Association football
    - American football
    - Australian Football
    - Canadian football
    - Gaelic football
    - Rugby league football
    - Rugby union football
    - Flag football
    - Polo
    - Volleyball
    - Dance
    - Colorguard
    - Marching band
    - Esports
</div>

## Related pages

- Exercise
- Healthy lifestyle
- List of water sports
- Physical fitness
- Sports commentator
- Strength training
Science

**Science** is what we do to find out about the natural world. There are different kinds of science. Natural sciences study nature and the physical world. They include biology, chemistry, geology, astronomy, and physics. Social sciences study people and how societies work. They include, psychology, sociology, and economics. Applied sciences use the things we learn from science to solve problems. They include, engineering and medicine. Science uses mathematics, computer science and logic, which are sometimes called "formal sciences". Science makes observations and experiments. Science produces correct facts, scientific laws, and theories. 'Science' also refers to the large amount of knowledge that has been found using this process.
Saint Lawrence River

The **Saint Lawrence River** (; Tuscarora: _Kahnawáʼkye_; Mohawk: _Kaniatarowanenneh_, meaning "big waterway") is a big river in eastern North America. It flows between the Canadian province of Quebec & Ontario and the American state of New York, and through the major Canadian city of Montreal. It is the third largest river in Canada.

The river drains water from the Great Lakes into the Atlantic Ocean. It is more than three thousand kilometres long. The river meets the Atlantic Ocean in a big "estuary" or bay, the biggest in the world; this is called the Gulf of Saint Lawrence.

The Canadian cities of Kingston, Montreal, Trois-Rivières and Quebec City are on this river. The Saint Lawrence Seaway allows ships to go up the river and through the Great Lakes right into the middle of North America.

## Other websites

- Regional Geography of the St. Lawrence River
- Great Lakes St. Lawrence Seaway System
- Safe Passage: Aids to Navigation on the St. Lawrence  – Historical essay, illustrated with drawings and photographs
- Annotated Bibliography on St. Lawrence County and Northern New York region.
- International Saint Lawrence River Board of Control
- Saint Lawrence River from _The Canadian Encyclopedia_
- Watch the Jacques Cousteau documentary, _St. Lawrence: Stairway to the Sea_
- The Steamboats "Sir James Kemp" and "Lord Dalhousie" on the River St. Lawrence, Upper Canada in 1833 by D.J. Kennedy, Historical Society of Pennsylvania

## Infobox (river)

- **name**: Saint Lawrence River
- **name other**: _Fleuve Saint-Laurent_, _Fleuve St-Laurent_, St-Lawrence River, St-Laurent River
- **name etymology**: Saint Lawrence of Rome
- **image**: Saint Lawrence seaway.jpg
- **image caption**: Saint Lawrence River near Alexandria Bay, New York, Alexandria Bay
- **image size**: 300
- **map**: Grlakes lawrence map.png
- **map size**: 300
- **map caption**: Map of the Saint Lawrence/Great Lakes Watershed
- **subdivision type1**: Country
- **subdivision name1**: Canada, United States
- **subdivision type2**: Provinces
- **subdivision name2**: Ontario, Quebec
- **subdivision type3**: State
- **subdivision name3**: New York (state), New York
- **subdivision type4**: Major City
- **subdivision name4**: Montreal
- **subdivision type5**: Metropolitan Area
- **subdivision name5**: Montreal, Greater Montreal
- **length**: Excluding the estuary. Ca. 1200 km if included.
- **discharge1 location**: below the Saguenay River
- **source1**: Lake Ontario
- **source1 location**: Kingston, Ontario / Cape Vincent, New York
- **mouth**: Gulf of St. Lawrence / Atlantic Ocean
- **mouth location**: Quebec, Canada
Seville

**Seville** () is a city in the southern parts of Spain. A river called the Guadalquivir River goes through Seville. The city of Seville is the capital of the Spanish autonomous community Andalusia and of the province of Sevilla. People from Seville are called _Sevillanos_. With 686.000 people in the city and about 1.1 million in the urban area,Seville is the 4th largest city in Spain.

## History

A very old story says that the city was started by the famous hero of Greece, named Hercules. The Romans when they came to Spain gave it the Latin name of Hispalis. Over time this changed to be spelled in English as _Seville_. The Muslim Arabs took the city when they invaded the country, and you can still see a lot of the buildings they built during their 800-year stay in Spain (711-1492).

In 1992, Seville was the place for the Expo 92. There is a beautiful bridge across the Guadalquivir River called _Puente del Alamillo_. It was thought up by Santiago Calatrava a famous building expert.

Seville is famous for its hot summer weather.

## Education

- University of Seville. This is the oldest university in Sevilla. It is located near the Centro, or center of the city, across the street from Plaza de España and Parque Maria Luisa.
- Pablo de Olavide University . This website is located outside the main city of Sevilla, but is very easy to access using the subway system. It take about 30 minutes to get from the center of town to Pablo de Olavide on the subway.
- Menéndez Pelayo International University-Sevilla . This school is not your typical university. Only students who are studying abroad with International Studies Abroad attend classes at this school. It is lcoated near the Centro and Alfalfa Barrio.

## Sports

Seville is the home town of two soccer teams, Sevilla FC (often simply called "El Sevilla") and Real Betis Balompié (often called "El Betis").

## Flag

The **flag of Seville** () is colored red with yellow characters. The emblem has a diameter of three-quarters the width of the center. The ratio of the flag is 2:3.

## Other websites

- Sevilla Guide
- City councils

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Seville
- **settlement type**: Municipalities in Spain, Municipality
- **image flag**: Flag of Sevilla, Spain.svg
- **flag size**: 120px
- **image shield**: Escudo de Sevilla (Sevilla).svg
- **shield size**: 90px
- **pushpin mapsize**: 250
- **pushpin relief**: 2
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision name**: Spain
- **subdivision type1**: Autonomous Community
- **subdivision type2**: Provinces of Spain, Province
- **subdivision name1**: Andalusia
- **subdivision name2**: Seville (province), Seville
Salami

**Salami** is a sausage that first came from Italy. The name comes from the Italian salare meaning to make something salty.

The original salami was made from a mix of chopped pork and salt which was dried using air in a casing. Now there are many types of salamis made in some countries. Nearly all are seasoned with a combination of herbs and spices in addition to salt. Salamis are now sometimes smoked or cooked before air drying. Some kinds are made of beef while others mix beef and pork. Most, if not all Italian salamis have garlic in them, but few German kinds do, for example. Some, like a few salamis from Spain, include paprika or chili. The difference between some types is in how coarse or fine the meat is chopped.  Some "light" salami might add turkey or chicken to reduce both fat and calories.

Many salamis are named after the city or region where they come from. Some examples are Arles, Genoese, Hungarian, and Milano salamis.
Sausage

**Sausage** is a food made of ground-up or chopped-up meat or meat with other ingredients. It often has spices in it and is covered in a casing. Traditionally, a sausage casing is made of animal intestine, but can sometimes be made of plastic. There are many forms of sausages, including hot dog, pepperoni, bologna, and salami.

Sausages often have meat from the animal's head, lips, cheeks, ears and other parts. Some have blood in them. German and British sausages normally have a lot of "rusk," or bread crumbs, and they are less meaty than sausages from other countries. Vegetarian or vegan sausages are often made of products other than animal products, such as tofu.

Sausages may be used as a meal, in a sandwich, or in other foods like stews. Sausages can be eaten as whole pieces, or they can be chopped up as already cooked pieces.

Germany has regions that have special kinds of sausage. Sausages are some of the oldest German foods.

## Name origin

The word "sausage" was first used in English in the mid-15th century. During the mid-15th century, the word "sausage" was spelled as "sawsyge". The word "sawsyge" came from Old North French _saussiche_ (Modern French _saucisse_)". The French word came from Vulgar Latin _salsica_ (sausage), from _salsicus_ (seasoned with salt).

## Types of sausage

- Andouille
- Blood sausage, a type of sausage made of animal blood
- Bratwurst (a German/Austrian variety)
- Breakfast sausage
- Chorizo
- Fish
- Knockwurst
- Landjäger
- Mortadella
- Salami
Slang

**Slang** are words that are  informal.  Usually each generation or social group has its own slang - for example, older people can have trouble understanding the slang of younger people.  On the other hand, younger people often understand, but find silly or old-fashioned, the slang of older people.

Over time, language tends to get more complex, since new words enter much faster than old words leave.  Over time, slang almost always becomes part of the language, and approved for use by all.

It has also happened that some words used in Anglo-Saxon for bodily functions became thought of as profanity or rude after they were replaced by Latinate words like "urinate", "defecate" and "copulate" - which polite people were supposed to use after the Norman conquest of England in 1066.  This was in part a way of making poor people (who spoke Anglo-Saxon) all appear to be rude, while more powerful people (who spoke Norman) appeared to be polite - one way that etiquette can develop, and reinforce power structure.  This is only one example from history of how racism can be a reason for defining one group's language as 'slang' and another as 'correct'.

Wanting to have rules of grammar that do not change and the same vocabulary used by everyone for better communication is another reason that is often given for defining one group's language as correct.

An "idiom" can be slang, but it can also be a metaphor that becomes part of the culture.

Two examples of slang are 'wassup' and 'dunno'. 'Wassup' usually means 'What is up?' (as in, 'How are you?'), and 'dunno' usually means 'I don't know'.

## Related pages

- Jargon
- Political correctness
Social contract

A **social contract or political contract** is a perceived agreement among the people of a state about the rules that will define their government. These rules are usually called laws. Laws help to make sure people have rights and that their rights are protected. One kind of social contract is a constitution. A constitution says how decisions are made, and sets limits on the powers of leaders and other people who have authority.

In the Age of Enlightenment, philosophers Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau wrote books about social contracts. They saw good government as coming from social contracts. Rousseau wrote a book called _The Social Contract_. Both the United States Declaration of Independence and United States Constitution use the theory of social contracts.

The State of nature is the time before the social contract

## Related pages

- Constitution
- Natural rights and legal rights
- Political economy
- Rule of law
Social capital

**Social capital** is made when people spend time with others and build good relationships. It is the help and worth that a person can get from their ties with other people. Social capital is like real capital. When a person or a group has more capital, it is easier to do things, and life is better. When there is less capital, life becomes harder, and the results are not good for people.

The name social capital was first used by Pierre Bourdieu in 1977. He said it means all the real or possible help a person can get by being part of a group where people know each other and trust each other. These people often follow the same rules and may know each other through their jobs.

Later, in 2001, Nan Lin said that social capital comes from two things: what someone has, and who they know. Help comes from the people we know and speak with. People get help when they talk with others and work with others in their group or with people who have many friends and support from others.

Most ways to measure social capital are about trust. People who trust that help will come when they need it are more likely to help others too. But if someone only takes help and gives nothing back, they will not get much help in the future. A person who tries to move up in society by becoming friends with others who have social capital but does not give help is called a social climber. Some call this person a social parasite. It is hard to see right away this kind of person, like someone who cheats and commits fraud. When there are too many people like this, especially at work or in politics, people stop trusting others. For example, when politicians win by gaining people’s trust but use their power to hurt others or to help only their friends, people stop trusting the government.

People who do not have real money often cannot get help from others. They may have to do things they do not want to do or force others to live in shameful lives. This is how organized crime grow, and how forced labor and slavery start. Society works best when people openly give and receive trust and care. This builds help and support that can improve quality of life. When social capital in total is low, social problems become worse. If there is no social capital at all, it can lead to strikes, people fighting the government, or even conflicts between countries.

## Related pages

- Human capital
- Social status

## Other websites

The Social Capital Foundation
Site

A **site** is a real fixed physical location where something will or has happened or a place where something is.

### Uses in buildings

It is used very often in building trades to mean the place where a building will go up.

### Uses in gravesites

A gravesite is a place where a person will be buried after they die.

### Uses in work

The words **onsite** and **offsite** refer to work that must take place on the site, or which can take place somewhere else.  For instance, a prefabricated building can be "built offsite" and then "moved onsite".

### Use on the internet

_Site_ is also a common abbreviation in net jargon for "website".  In this case no real physical location exists other than the place where the computers are, and one "goes to the site" simply by using a web browser to "go to" that URL.  This is a conceptual metaphor.  It can be confusing.  Someone who uses it is also likely using other jargon.
Subtraction

**Subtraction** is the arithmetic operation for finding the difference between two numbers, though it can also be generalized to other mathematical objects such as vectors and matrices. The names of the numbers in a subtraction expression are: . For example, the expression  can be read as "seven minus four equals three", "seven take away four leaves three", or "four from seven leaves three".

If the minuend is less than the subtrahend, the difference will be a negative number. For example, . This can be read as "seventeen minus twenty-five equals negative eight".

Subtraction is how cash registers determine the change a buyer receives, when the buyer pays with more money than the purchase cost.

### Anti-commutativity

Subtraction is anti-commutative, meaning that swapping the numbers around the minus sign will give a number with the same magnitude, but the opposite sign (opposite number):

### Non-associativity

Subtraction is 'not' associative, which comes up when one tries to define repeated subtraction. In general, the expression
means  or , but these two possibilities lead to different answers. To resolve this issue, one must establish an order of operations, with different orders yielding different results.

### Predecessor

In the context of integers, subtraction of one also plays a special role: for any integer , the integer  is the largest integer that is smaller than , also known as the predecessor of .

## Related pages

- Addition
- Division
- Negative number
- Order of operations
Scientist

A **scientist** is a person who studies or has mastered the field in science. A scientist tries to understand how our world, or other things, work. Scientists make observations, ask questions and do extensive research work in finding the answers to many questions.

Scientists may work in laboratories for governments, companies, schools and research institutions. Some scientists teach at universities and other places and train people to become scientists. Scientists often do experiments to find out more about reality, and sometimes may repeat experiments or use control groups. Scientists who are doing applied science try to use scientific knowledge to improve the world.

Scientists use the Scientific method to test theories and hypotheses.

## Types of scientists

Scientists can work in different areas of science.
Here are some examples:
- Scientists that study physics are physicists.
- Scientists that study chemistry are chemists.
- Scientists that study biology are biologists.
- Scientists that study rocks are geologists.
- Scientists that study plants are botanists.
- Scientists that study minds are psychologists.
- Scientists that study farming are agricultural scientists.

## Related pages

- History of science
- List of scientists from Africa
- List of scientists from Asia
- List of scientists from Europe
- List of scientists from North America
- List of scientists from Oceania
- List of scientists from South America
Soapbox

A **soapbox** is a temporary platform used to give a speech. During the 19th century, soap was transported in wooden boxes. When a person had new or unusual ideas, and wanted to talk to a crowd about them, sometimes he or she would stand on an empty soapbox so that everyone could see and hear the talk well.

People sometimes use the word "soapbox" to mean a place to say new or unusual things.
Supernatural

The word **supernatural** (from ) is used for things that some people believe are real, but that are not part of nature or can’t be explained by the scientific laws of nature. Because we cannot prove whether these things are real, people often disagree about these things.

Some say that we should talk about things without talking about the supernatural, because we cannot prove that supernatural things are real. Other people say that although we cannot prove supernatural things in a scientific way, they are real. Some examples of supernatural things or examples are:

- Sorcery
- miracles
- precognition
- demonic possession
- souls, spirits, ghosts, religion visions, wraiths, shades, poltergeists, ectoplasms, invisible people or apparitional experiences
- monsters
- yōkai, yūrei or obake
- angels or saints
- demons, dybbuks or asuras
- mōryō
- extraterrestrial creatures
- legendary creatures
- God, gods or kami
- Satan, devils or fiends
- parapsychology

## Related pages

- Religion
- Belief
- Mysticism
- Spirituality
- Superstition
- Ritual
- Near death experience
- Naturalism (philosophy) - the idea that the supernatural does not exist
Spirit

A **spirit**, otherwise referred to as a **phantom**, is considered to be the part of a being that is not the body. Other words with the same meanings are soul and ghost. When a body is alive, it has a spirit in it. Death is when the spirit separates from the body.

Christians believe that spirits exist in Heaven or Hell. (See 1 Timothy 3:16, 4:1)

Spiritualists believe that spirits can talk with people, or change things in the world. Many religions forbid communicating with such spirits in any way, (see Leviticus 19:31) but a few include this as part of their practice.

Another use of _spirit_ means the main purpose or meaning of a sentence or document. For example, the "spirit of a law" is the true meaning of the law which the creator wanted. This phrase is often used when the words and sentences of a law could mean more than one thing, but a judge must decide what meaning is correct.
Sail

A **sail** is a large piece of cloth on the top of some boats. The wind goes around the sail and makes the boat move through the water. The piece that the sail is attached to is called a mast. Some boats have many sails, and some have only one. Usually, small boats have only one sail, and bigger boats have more. Boats with sails are called _sailing boats_. There are many different names for different kinds of sailing boats with different kinds of sails.

Before people made boats with engines that used coal or oil, sailing boats were an important way to travel across oceans. Now they are not so important for transport, but they are still used for recreation and competition.

## Sail types

Modern sails can be classified into three main categories:
- A **mainsail** is a sail located behind the main mast of a sailing vessel.
- A **headsail** also known as the jib sail, is any sail set forward of the main mast.
- A **spinnaker** or downwind sail (also termed Kite). Special-purpose sails are often a variation of the three main categories.
- A **staysail** is a fore-and-aft rigged sail whose luff can be attached to a forestay running from a mast to the  bowsprit.

High-performance yachts, in particular some catamarans such as the International C-Class Catamaran, have used or use rigid wing sails, which are said to perform better than traditional soft sails.  In particular, a rigid wing sail was used by Stars and Stripes, the defender which won the 1988 America's Cup, and by USA-17, the challenger which won the 2010 America's Cup.

Most modern yachts, including bermuda rig, ketch and yawl boats, have a sail "inventory" which usually includes more than one of these types of sails. Although the mainsail is “permanently” hoisted while sailing, headsails and spinnakers can be changed depending on the particular weather conditions to allow better handling and speed.

## Other websites

- The quest for the perfect sailshape
- The Headsail: YouTube
- The Mainsail; YouTube
Spanish

The word **Spanish** means:

- from or about the country of Spain, such as a person from Spain or food from Spain
- Spanish people
- the Spanish language
- Spanish Empire

## Other use

- Hispanic
Skin

The **skin** is the outer covering of mammals and some other animals. It has many purposes. First of all, it is a defense against the entry of pathogens such as bacteria and parasites. Second, it regulates (keeps in control) the body's temperature. It allows evaporation from its surface, and adjusts it. It is a physical defense, very strong in some animals, but rather weak in humans. The skin and hair on mammals has several purposes. In addition to temperature regulation and defense, some hair is used for signaling.

Most animals add other defenses to their skin. Mammals have hair or fur on their skin. Birds have feathers on their skin. Most fish, and reptiles, like snakes and lizards, have scales on their skin.

Humans can have different skin colours like black people and white people depending on their race and has to do with genetics.

The skin is actually the largest organ of the human body. Without skin, humans would easily get infected with diseases. As part of the immune system, skin can help warn people to certain diseases. The skin also helps protect the body by blocking harmful bacteria and viruses. Skin limits the potentially harmful effects of UV rays. Skin helps regulate body temperature.

Clean skin is important to health, and all mammals groom their hair and skin. Skin care is much work.

Skins can be made into leather. Leather is used to make many things including shoes, bags, and balls.

## Related pages

- Human skin colour
Speed

**Speed** is a measure.
It is velocity but without the direction.

## Finding speed

Speed is the distance an object moves in a given amount of time.
The distance is never negative.
If a train takes 1 hour to travel 100 kilometers, it has a speed of .
In fact this is the _average speed_.
During this one hour, the train may become slower and faster, it may even drive backwards.
The **average speed** of an object in a certain time is the distance the object traveled divided by the time.
The **instantaneous speed** is the average speed when the time is very small, almost zero.

## Units

There are many units of measurement.
Since the 20th century following units were widely used by humans:

- miles per hour (mph),
- kilometers per hour (km/h), and
- meters per second (m/s), which is the SI-unit for speed.

Different units are used for different applications.
People controlling planes and ships frequently use Knot (speed).
Sometimes a Mach number is used.

## Range

The smallest speed is .
A “negative speed” would be in fact a velocity.
The biggest speed is the speed of light.
You can write bigger speeds, but they are not possible in this universe.

## Read also

- Orbital speed
- Speedometer – a thing showing speed
- Speed limit – a law telling people a maximum speed
- Speed of sound
- Wind speed

## Sources

</references>
Server log

A **server log** records what is happening on a server at any time.  For example, an HTTP server runs a web site.

de:Logdatei
Simile

A **simile** is a figure of speech that compares two different things, usually by using the words 'like' or 'as'. It is used to make a _direct and clear comparison between two things .Similes_ may be confused with metaphors, which do the same kind of thing. Similes use comparisons, with the words 'like' or 'as'. Metaphors use indirect comparisons, without the words 'like' or 'as'.

- Similes:
    - **Like** a hungry wolf, he ate the food.
    - A dragonfly is **like** a plane: they both fly and cannot close their wings.
    - He fought **like** a lion.
    - The color yellow is **like** walking into a surprise birthday party.

- The other team's quarterback is **as** big **as** a redwood tree
- Kingda Ka is **as** green **as** a pine tree

## Other websites

- "On substantiation through transitive relations" is an old manuscript written by the Arabic scholar Sayf al-Din al-Amidi. He talks about similes.
Solar System

The **Solar System** is a group of space objects that are held together by gravity, with the Sun in the center. The Sun is a huge ball of hot glowing gas that gives off light and heat. Everything else in the Solar System moves around the Sun. The Solar System formed about 4.6 billion years ago when a giant cloud of gas and dust collapsed and started to spin.  Scientists call this process the solar nebula theory. As the cloud collapsed, gravity caused it to spin faster and flatten into a disk. The Sun formed at the center, while the remaining material in the disk slowly stuck together to form planets through a process called accretion.
Saturn

**Saturn** is the sixth planet from the Sun in our solar system. On average, Saturn is about 1,432,000,000 km (870,000,000 mi) away from the Sun.

## Infobox (planet)

- **name**: Saturn
- **symbol**:
- **image**:
- **caption**: Pictured in natural color approaching equinox, photographed by _Cassini–Huygens, Cassini_ in July 2008; the dot in the bottom left corner is Titan (moon), Titan
- **background**: #f8f9fa
- **named after**: Saturn (mythology), Saturn
- **adjectives**: Saturnian , Cronian / Kronian
- **epoch**: J2000.0
- **time periastron**: 2032-Nov-29
- **synodic period**: 378.09 days
- **satellites**: moons of Saturn, 274 with stable and confirmed orbits, plus many moonlets.
- **rotation**: 10 h 32 m 36 s
(synodic day, synodic; solar day)
- **sidereal day**: <span class="nowrap">  </span>
- **axial tilt**: 26.73°
- **right asc north pole**: 40.589°;
- **declination**: 83.537°
- **temp name1**: 1 bar (unit), bar
- **mean temp 1**: 134 K
- **temp name2**: 0.1 bar (unit), bar
- **min temp 2**: 88 K
- **mean temp 2**: 97 K
- **max temp 2**: 151 K
- **magnitude**: −0.55 to +1.17
- **angular size**: 14.5″ to 20.1″ (excludes rings)
- **surface pressure**: 140 kPa
- **atmosphere composition**: **Ices**:
* ammonia ()
* water ()
* ammonium hydrosulfide ()