juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Anthem

An **anthem** was originally a piece of music written for a choir to sing at an Anglican church service.  Unlike motets, anthems were sung in English and often accompanied by an organ. Over time, the word “anthem” has come to mean “a song of celebration”.

Most countries today have national anthems.

## History

As early as 1502, the composer Fayrfax was paid 20 shillings for composing an anthem.  After King Henry VIII founded (started) the Anglican church in the 1530s, church composers were told to write music in English.  Most anthems used words from the Bible.

Many anthems were composed after the Reformation.  At first they were like motets, but in English.  Soon the English anthem developed differently from the continental motet.  Two kinds of anthems developed. One was the “Full Anthem,” in which the whole anthem was sung by the full choir. The other was the “Verse Anthem,” which was usually longer and had several verses which would be sung by soloists, with choruses for the full choir in between.

### National anthems

_Main article: National anthem_

Most countries today have national anthems. Well-known examples include O Canada; the Star-Spangled Banner (United States); God Save the King/Queen (United Kingdom); La Marseillaise (France); Jana Gana Mana (India); March of the Volunteers (China); and Lupang Hinirang (Philippines).

The Greek national anthem, Hymn to Liberty, is the longest anthem in the world. Written in 1823 by the poet Dionysios Solomos, it has 158 stanzas. The cut-down version is shorter than Uruguay's national anthem, which is over five minutes long.

## Famous composers

Almost every music director of cathedrals or large churches has written anthems.  Famous composers include:

- Thomas Tallis (1505-1585)
- William Byrd (1543-1623)
- Orlando Gibbons (1583-1625)
- Henry Purcell (1659-1695)
- George Frideric Handel (1685-1759)
- William Boyce (1710-1779)
- Samuel Sebastian Wesley (1810-1876)
- Edward Bairstow (1874-1946)
- William H.Harris (1883-1973)
- Herbert Howells (1892-1983)
- William Mathias (1934-1992)
- John Tavener (1944-2013)
- John Rutter (b.1945)
Improvisation

**Improvisation** is the art of performing without a script or rehearsal.

## Music

In music, improvisation is the art of playing an instrument (or singing) in which the musician or musicians make up the music as they play. Improvising is inventing at the same time as one does something. Some musicians only play music when they have written music in front of them, but it can be great fun to improvise music. It is a way of composing. Improvisation is common during a jam session.

In Baroque times, all musicians were taught to improvise because composers often did not bother to write all the notes down.  Musicians would have improvised lots of ornaments, and even whole sections.

Many great composers such as Johann Sebastian Bach, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven and Franz Liszt were famous for their keyboard improvisations.

Organists are often expected to improvise during a service. In this way they can fill in gaps in the service when there would otherwise be silence, they can make a smooth link between one piece of music and the next, and they can create the right atmosphere.  In Baroque times, in the Lutheran church, organists would improvise a chorale prelude. This was a piece of music which uses the melody of the chorale (hymn) that the congregation sang.  Bach was one of many composers who wrote many of his chorale preludes down.  In more recent times, some famous concert organists often finish an organ recital by playing an improvisation.  This might be quite a long piece with several linked fantasia or movements, finishing with a fugue.  Somebody may give them the theme written on a piece of paper, so that it is quite unprepared. Charles Tournemire, Marcel Dupré, Pierre Cochereau, Pierre Pincemaille are known to be great organ improviser.

A lot of people who play folk music improvise. Traditional folk music would not have been written down.

In traditional jazz the musicians usually improvise. It is quite tricky when a group of people are improvising together. They have to listen to one another and get ideas from one another. It can be a very exciting way of making music.

## Comedy

Improvisation also refers to a type of performance. Improvisation (or improv for short) is often used in comedy. Actors or _Improvisers_ will create an entire show that they make up as they go along. They will often ask the audience for an idea or suggestion. They will then do a short performance based on the suggestion. This lets them do many different short performances during each night's show. This is called "Short-form improv".
Reichstag building

The **Reichstag building** was designed as a home to the parliament of the German Empire. It was opened in 1894. The original building's design was made by Paul Wallot. It was built on the site of an old palace in Berlin, Germany.

The building was used by the parliament of the German Empire until 1918. The parliament of the Weimar Republic, also called the Reichstag, sat there until the 1933 Reichstag fire. The Third Reich seldom used its parliament, so the building remained empty and derelict until after German reunification.

Then it became the seat of the German parliament again in 1999 after a reconstruction led by British architect Lord Norman Foster.

Today's parliament of Germany is called the _Bundestag._ The _Reichstag_ as a parliament dates back to the Holy Roman Empire and ceased to act as a true parliament in the years of Nazi Germany (1933-1945). In today's usage, the German term _Reichstag_ refers to the building, while the term _Bundestag_ refers to the institution.

## The Reichstag dome

The original Reichstag dome was damaged in the 1933 fire and again during the war. It was replaced by a large glass dome. The new dome has a 360-degree view of the surrounding Berlin cityscape. The main hall of the parliament below can also be seen from inside the dome, and natural light from above emits down to the parliament floor. A large sun shield tracks the movement of the sun electronically and blocks direct sunlight which would make the space too hot and dazzle those below. Construction work was finished in 1999 and the seat of parliament was transferred to the Bundestag in April of that year. The dome is no longer open to anyone without prior registration.

## Other websites

- panoramas and other images of the Reichstags building in Berlin

## Infobox (building)

- **name**: Reichstag
- **image size**: 300px
- **image**: Berlin Reichstag BW 2.jpg
- **caption**: The Reichstag building. The words _DEM DEUTSCHEN VOLKE_ – "To the German people" are written above the main entrance.
- **map type**: Germany Berlin
- **map caption**: Location within Berlin
- **location town**: Berlin
- **location country**: Germany
- **start date**: 9 June 1884
- **completion date**: 1894
- **renovation date**: 1961–1964, 1992–1999
- **architect**: Paul Wallot
- **ren architect**: Norman Foster (architect), Norman Foster
Siren

- _This article is about mythological creatures. For the noise-making siren see siren (noisemaker)_

A **siren**, also referred to as a **werevulture**, is a creature in Greek mythology. The sirens were living on an island surrounded by rocks. Sirens also have a mermaid form where they still sing, but they hit the boat to sink it that way and sirens have a human form.  Sailors would try to go to them because of their singing, and their ships would get destroyed on the rocks, and they would drown.

Originally they looked like bird-women, but in modern time they are often shown to look like fish-women or mermaids. Many people said they were Naiads (spirits of the sea).

They also appear in Homer's _Odyssey_. There Odysseus and his ship have to pass the siren's island. Odysseus tells his men to put wax in their ears, so they will not hear the song of the sirens. He also tells his men to bind him to the ship's mast, so he cannot go to the sirens when he hears their song. When Odysseus and his men pass the Sirens, Odysseus wants to go towards them, but his men pull the rope tighter to hold him down. His men can then look at Odysseus and see when he cannot hear the sirens anymore, because he is calm again. Then they can take the wax out of their ears, and free Odysseus.
Sirens (movie)

***Sirens*** is a 1994 movie that had many famous models in it.  The famous models were Elle Macpherson, Portia de Rossi and Kate Fischer.  The three models are in the movie without clothing. Some of them do sex scenes.  The models had to gain weight do the movie.

## The Story

_Sirens_ is based on the true story of the life of Norman Lindsay. He was an artist who made many beautiful pictures that were very rude and sexy. Many people thought that his pictures were wrong.

The movie stars Sam Neill as Norman Lindsay.  Hugh Grant is the main character who comes with his wife Tara Fitzgerald to see what Norman Lindsay is like.
Aqua

**Aqua** is the Latin word for water. It is sometimes as a prefix (such as aquaculture). It can also mean:

- Aqua is also used by web site designers as a different name for the web colour cyan; aqua is also used for aquamarine by graphic designers and interior designers.
- Aqua (Chicago), a skyscraper in Chicago.  It is one of the tallest buildings in the world.
- Aqua (band), a band from Denmark
- Aqua, a character in the light novel/anime series, _Kono Subarashii Sekai ni Shukufuku wo_
Lavender

**Lavender** is a type of plant found on almost all continents. It has a purplish color.  It has a color, lavender, named after it. Its Latin and scientific name is _Lavandula_.

## Use in gardens

Lavenders are very popular among gardeners. Sometimes their petals are dried and sealed in pouches for good scent, and sometimes put inside clothes to prevent moths, who can damage the clothes.

## Use in food

Lavenders are also used in cake decorating, because the flowers can become candied. Sometimes they are used in flavoring baked goods and chocolate desserts, and sometimes they use it to make a very delicious "lavender sugar". Lavender flowers are also used to make tea. The French make lavender syrup, which is used to make lavender scones and lavender marshmallows.

## Medicine

Lavender is sometimes put in medicine, and sometimes to prevent infection. Lavender oil was used in World War I to disinfect walls and floors of a hospital. As the folk wisdom says, lavender oil is also helpful to headaches when rubbed on your temple, and lavender tea helps you relax before bed time. Lavender is also helpful when applied to insect bites. There is a general lack of real knowledge about its effects.

## Other uses

Sometimes, dried petals of lavender are used to throw confetti at a wedding. It is also used for lavender theme wedding decoration where the flowers are put in the vases and kept on the venue table.
St. Gallen

**St. Gallen** is a city in the eastern part of Switzerland. It is near Lake Constance. St. Gallen is the capital of the canton of St. Gallen. The city was founded as a monastery by the Irish monk Gallus in the 7th century. In the Middle Ages a city grew around the monastery. The role of the monastery (and the city) was very important in the Middle Ages. One of the three remaining manuscripts of the _Nibelungenlied_ are from the monastery of St. Gallen. Today, the monastery, with its library, and parts of the old town are classed as an UNESCO World Heritage site.

The city is about 675 meters above sea level and is in a part of Switzerland with many hills. As of 2023, 82'501 people lived in the city. The urban area has about 100,000 to 120,000 people.

In the 18th and 19th century the city became known for its embroideries, which are still very well-known. Every three years, there is the _St.Galler Kinderfest_ (Children's festival). This is a large representation of the primary (and some secondary) schools in the city. It's usually in early summer.

The city also has an university, which is known for its courses in economics, and (to a lesser extent), law.

In Switzerland, the city is also known for _St.Galler Bratwurst_, and a fair centered around agriculture, held once a year, in autumn. That fair is called OLMA (_Ostschweizerische Land- und Milchwirtschaftsausstellung_, roughly translates to _Exhibition of agriculture and milk economics of eastern Switzerland_).

In early summer there is also an open-air rock festival. Its called Open-Air St.Gallen, and held in a valley, near the river. Since the weather is not always as good, in many years it's a battle with the mud.

## Other websites

- Official website of the city of St.Gallen
Jones

**Jones** may refer to:

## People

_Jones_ is a common family name:
- Christopher Jones (Mayflower Captain)
- Davy Jones (actor), a British singer and actor
- James Earl Jones, an American actor and voice artist
- Jim Jones, leader of a sect
- John Paul Jones (musician) bassist for the rock band, Led Zeppelin
- Shirley Jones, an American actress and singer
- Terry Jones, member of Monty Python
- Tom Jones (singer), a famous Welsh singer

## Fictional characters

- Jones, a cat in 1979 movie _Alien_ by Ridley Scott and its sequel _Aliens_
- Jones, a character in George Orwell's novel _Nineteen Eighty-Four_
- Indiana Jones, an archaeologist and adventurer
Hollyoaks

***Hollyoaks*** is a British television teen soap opera. It was first broadcast on 23 October 1995, on Channel 4. There is a new episode every weekday. It is set in Chester and is mostly filmed in Liverpool on Abbey Road.

Since 1995, the cast has expanded from just seven major characters to approximately 50 cast members. It was originally devised by Phil Redmond, who has also devised shows including _Brookside_ and _Grange Hill_. It is the only British soap that uses incidental music.

Hollyoaks was the first British television programme to tackle the issue of gay domestic violence. Its first character with gender identity disorder, a trans man called Jason Costello, was in the show August 2010 to December 2011. In 2014 Hollyoaks introduced a new transgender character called Blessing Chambers.

## Infobox (television)

- **network**: Channel 4
- **genre**: Teen soap opera
- **creator**: Phil Redmond
- **producer**: Bryan Kirkwood
- **last aired**: present
- **runtime**: 25 minutes
- **country**: United Kingdom
- **language**: English
- **related**: _Late Night Hollyoaks_
- **num seasons**: 31
- **num episodes**: 6,625
Black pepper

**Black pepper** is a plant that grows in the tropics, especially in India. The plant is a perennial vine that bears flowers. People cultivate the plant for its fruit, the peppercorn. The peppercorn can be used as a spice or condiment. Usually, it makes things hot.

There are several different plants called _Pepper_, all are in the _Piper_ genus of _Piperaceae_.

From the 16th century onwards, people used the word _pepper_ to also refer to the Chili peppers, which come from a completely unrelated plant. It was also called black gold in older times.

## Culinary uses

Pepper is one of the most common spices used around the world. It is very common in European cuisine, and has been known and traded for a very long time. Very often, the peppercorns are ground, and the powder is used to make things taste hot. They get their heat from a chemical called piperine unlike other peppers that get it from capsaicin.

## Medical uses

Like all eastern spices, pepper was historically both a seasoning and a medicine. Long pepper, being stronger, was often the preferred medication, but both were used.

Black peppercorns are mentioned in Ayurveda, Siddha and Unani medicine in India. The 5th century _Syriac Book of Medicines_ prescribes pepper (or perhaps long pepper) for illnesses such as constipation, diarrhea, earache, gangrene, heart disease, hernia, hoarseness, indigestion, insect bites, insomnia, joint pain, liver problems, lung disease, oral abscesses, sunburn, tooth decay, and toothaches. Various sources from the 5th century onward also say pepper is good to treat eye problems. Often special ointments made with pepper have to be applied directly to the eye. There is no current medical evidence that any of these treatments has any benefit; pepper applied directly to the eye would be quite uncomfortable and possibly damaging.

For a long time, people believed pepper is the cause for sneezing; this is still believed true today. Some sources say that piperine irritates the nostrils, which will cause the sneezing; some say that it is just the effect of the fine dust in ground pepper, and some say that pepper is not in fact a very effective sneeze-producer at all. Few if any controlled studies  have been carried out to answer the question.

Pepper can irritate the intestines. It is therefore eliminated from the diet of patients having abdominal surgery and ulcers. The replacement is usually called a _bland diet_.

Pepper contains small amounts of safrole, a carcinogenic compound.

## Other websites

- Nutritional benefits of Black Pepper
- Gernot Katzer's Spice Pages
- Plant Cultures: History and botany of black pepper in South Asia
Chili pepper

**Chili pepper** is the fruit of a series of plants called Capsicum (nightshade family). Chilis are now grown all over the world, but originally, they came from Mexico. They are used as spices or as vegetables, and also have some use in medicine.

Chili peppers are completely unrelated to the _Piperaceae_ genus, which Black pepper is from.

## History

Chili peppers have been a part of the human diet in the Americas since at least 7500 BCE. Chili peppers were domesticated over 6000 years ago in Mexico. Since then, chili peppers could be farmed throughout all of Mexico, Central America, and parts of South America.

## Spelling

The word "chili" is spelled differently in different countries. They can be spelled as **chili**, **chilli**, and **chile**. The spelling _chile_ is not to be confused with the country called Chile.

The spelling _chili_ is widely used in the United States and Canada. The spelling _chilli_ is widely used in other English-speaking countries. The spelling _chile_ is the most common Spanish spelling in Mexico and several other Latin American countries.
Euripides

**Euripides** (c. 480 BC–406 BC) was an Ancient Greek writer from Athens who wrote about 90 plays. Only 18 of his tragedies have survived complete, more than all other surviving ancient Greek tragedies put together.  A nineteenth play, _Rhesus_ is sometimes thought to be by Euripides, but not all classicists agree on this.

Euripides was the last of the three greatest Ancient Greek writers of tragedies, the others being Aeschylus and Sophocles.

## Surviving plays

- _Alcestis_ (439 BC, second prize)
- _Medea_ (431 BC, third prize)
- _Heracleidae_ (c. 430 BC)
- _Hippolytus_ (428 BC, first prize)
- _Andromache_ (c. 425 BC)
- _Hecuba_ (c. 424 BC)
- _The Suppliants_ (c. 423 BC)
- _Electra_ (c. 420 BC)
- _Heracles_ (c. 416 BC)
- _Trojan Women_ (415 BC, second prize)
- _Iphigeneia in Tauris_ (c. 414 BC)
- _Ion_ (c. 414 BC)
- _Helen_ (412 BC)
- _Phoenician Women_ (c. 410 BC)
- _Orestes_ (408 BC)
- _Bacchae_ and _Iphigeneia at Aulis_ (405 BC, posthumous)
- _Cyclops_ (408 BC)

## Related pages

- Theatre of Ancient Greece
Chard

**Chard** (also known as **Swiss chard**, **silverbeet**, **perpetual spinach**, or **mangold**) is a vegetable. It is in the same family as spinach, _Amaranthaceae_.
Half-life (physics)

|Number of half-lives over !! Parts remaining !! As power of 2|||
| --- | --- | --- |
|0|1/1||
|1|1/2||
|2|1/4||
|3|1/8||
|4|1/16||
|5|1/32||
|6|1/64||
|7|1/128||
|8|1/256||
|9|1/512||
|10|1/1024||
|...|...||
The **half-life** of a substance is the time it takes for half of the substance to decay. The word "half-life" was first used when talking about radioactive elements where the number of atoms get smaller over time by changing into different atoms. It is now used in other situations, such as the time it takes for a drug in the body to be half gone. A Geiger-Muller detector can be used to measure the radioactive half-life; it is the time when the activity is half the original.

Half-life depends on probability because the atoms decay at a random time. Half-life is the expected time when half the number of atoms have decayed, on average.

Radioactive isotopes are atoms that have unstable nuclei, meaning that the nucleus of each atom will decay after enough time has passed. Their nuclei are unstable because the arrangement of protons and neutrons in them  change.  This is known as radioactive decay. When they decay, they release particles such as alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays. Sometimes they decay by fission, which means to break into pieces, to make smaller nuclei. For example, a radioactive carbon-14 atom releases a beta particle to become nitrogen-14. As an example of fission decay, a fermium-256 atom can split into xenon-140 and palladium-112 atoms, releasing four neutrons in the process.

Uranium-232 has a half-life of about 69 years. Plutonium-238 has a half-life of 88 years. Carbon-14, which is used to find the age of recent fossils, has a half-life of 5,730 years.

After ten half-lives, about 99.9% of the atoms have decayed into different atoms, so only 0.1% of the original atoms are left, and 99.9% of the radioactivity from the original kind of atom is gone. Some atoms decay into other atoms that are also radioactive, so the remaining radioactivity depends on the type of atom.

An example of a short half-life: the isotope, <sup>260</sup>Sg, has a half-life of approximately 4 ms (or 4 thousandths of a second).

## Related pages

- Biological half-life
- Period 8 element
- List of radioactive nuclides by half-life

## Other websites

- Online chart of isotopes by half-life from the National Nuclear Data Center
Cyclops

A **Cyclops** (Ancient Greek: Κύκλωψ, _Kyklōps_; plural Κύκλωπες, _Kyklōpes_) is a member of a race of giants in Greek mythology, each with a single eye in the center of their forehead.

The most famous of these beings is the cyclops Polyphemus, featured in Homer's _Odyssey_.

### Elder Cyclopes

In Hesiod's _Theogony_, the Elder Cyclopes – Brontes (Greek: Βρόντης - "thunderer"), Steropes (Greek: Στερόπης - "lightning") and Arges (Greek: Ἄργης - "bright") – were one of three races of beings born to Gaia (Earth) and Ouranos (Sky).

## Homer

The Elder Cyclopes are not featured in either of Homer's works. In the Odyssey, Homer describes another race of cyclopes as being the sons of Poseidon, god of the sea. They feature as herdsmen and shepherds with a taste for human flesh. The account is in Book 9 of Homer's Odyssey.
Forehead

The **forehead** of humans is the flat space of skin above the eyes, between the eyebrows and where your hair starts to grow. It exists to make room for the brain inside the skull.

A doctor or nurse will often touch someone's forehead to check whether or not they have a fever. This is because of the many blood vessels in the head and face.

In ancient Greece individuals with large foreheads were classified as intellectual because of their incredibly large "brain". Nowadays this is not the case.

According to the OED Forehead can be pronounced either 'forhed' or 'forrid'.
'Forrid' used mostly around the Isle of Sheppey area.
James Prescott Joule

**James Prescott Joule** (24 December 1818 – 11 October 1889) was an English physicist, born in Salford, near Manchester. In his time he had great contribution to the world of electricity and thermodynamics. He was best known for discovering Joule's law, which described electric heating by saying the amount of heat produced each second in a conductor by a current of Electricity is proportional to the resistance of a conductor and to the square of the current. The unit for this is joule, equal to one watt-second. Later Joule worked with William Thomson to find out that the temperature of gas falls as gas expands. This principle was then known as the Joule-Thomson effect.

## Early life

The son of Benjamin Joule (1784–1858), a wealthy brewer, James Prescott Joule was born in the house next to the Joule Brewery in New Bailey Street, Salford on 24 December 1818. James was tutored at the family home  'Broomhill', Pendlebury, near Salford, until 1834 when he was sent, with his elder brother Benjamin, to study with John Dalton at the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society. They only received two years of education in arithmetic and geometry before Dalton was forced to retire because of a stroke.

## Kinetic theory

Kinetics is the science of motion. Joule was a pupil of Dalton and it is no surprise that he had learned a firm belief in the atomic theory, even though there were many scientists of his time who were still skeptical. He had also been one of the few people receptive to the work of John Herapath on the kinetic theory of gases. He was further greatly influenced by Peter Ewart's 1813 paper _On the measure of moving force._

## Infobox (scientist)

- **name**: James Prescott Joule
- **image**: SS-joule.jpg
- **caption**: James Joule – Physicist
- **birth place**: Salford, Lancashire, England
- **death place**: Sale, Greater Manchester, Sale, Cheshire, England
- **citizenship**: British
- **field**: Physics
- **influences**: John Dalton
John Davies (lecturer), John Davies
- **known for**: First Law of Thermodynamics
Andromache

**Andromache** is a person in Greek mythology. She is the wife of Hector of Troy and mother of Astyanax.

After the Trojan War, Neoptolemus took her and Helenus as slaves. Of Neoptolemus she had a child named Molossus. After Neoptolemus died, Andromache married Helenus, and became Queen of Epirus.
Astyanax

**Astyanax** is a person in Greek mythology. He is the son of Hector of Troy and Andromache. He is killed at the end of the Trojan War by Neoptolemus, so he could not be a new king of Troy, or want revenge.
Neoptolemus

**Neoptolemos** (or Latin **Neoptolemus**) is a person in Greek mythology. He is an important person in the Trojan War.

Neoptolemus was the son of Achilles and Deidamea. He was needed to win the Trojan War. He killed King Priam and Astyanax, sacrificed Polyxena to his dead father Achilles, and took Helenus and Andromache with him as slaves.

He was later killed by Orestes because he was going to marry Hermione, who Orestes wanted for himself.
Earth's orbit

All planets in our solar system follow an elliptical path. This path is known as an orbit. **Earth's orbit** is not a perfect circle. It is an ellipse.

The Earth's orbit takes about 365 days, this is also called a year. This means that in 365 days (a year) the Earth has gone around the Sun. From this we can find that the orbital speed of the Earth is about  through space.

The closest distance Earth is to the Sun, or perihelion, is  and the farthest or aphelion is . It takes light (or any other electromagnetic radiation) just over eight minutes to travel from Sun to Earth. This averages out to a typical distance of 150 million kilometers.

The seasonal changes on Earth are because of the 23.44° axial tilt of its rotation and slightly elliptical path around the Sun.

The orbit varies over long periods of time according to the Milankovitch cycles. These cycles are one of the main causes of climate change.

This diagram shows a very exaggerated shape of Earth's orbit; the actual orbit is almost circular.

## Related links

- Earth phase
- Spaceship Earth

## Other websites

- Earth – Speed through space – about 1 million miles an hour – NASA & (WP discussion)
Penelope

**Penelope** is a woman from the Greek mythology. She is the wife of Odysseus of Ithaca and mother of Telemachus. She became a symbol for the faithful wife.

When her husband Odysseus was on his long journey home, many people thought he was dead. Because of this, many suitors came who wanted to marry Penelope, because then they would own her land and wealth, and become king of Ithaca.
Penelope thinks of several tricks so that she does not have to marry one of the suitors. One trick is that she tells the suitors that she will first weave a cloth for the funeral of Odysseus' father, and when she was finished she would marry one of the suitors. But every night she undoes her weaving again, so that she never finishes it.

When Odysseus finally comes back after twenty years, he and his son Telemachos kill the suitors.

## Sources

- Richard Heitman 2005. _Taking her seriously: Penelope and the plot of Homer's Odyssey_. Michigan University Press, Ann Arbor. .
Anemia

**Anemia** (American spelling), or **anaemia** (British spelling), is the most common blood disorder. It is caused by not having enough hemoglobin or red blood cells in the blood.

### Microcytic anemia

Microcytic anemia develops when red blood cells are smaller than usual because they do not have enough hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is a protein in red blood cells responsible for carrying oxygen to different parts of the body.

- Hemoglobinopathy
- Iron deficiency anemia is the most common type of anemia overall
    - Thalassemia
    - Sickle-cell disease (once called _sickle-cell anemia_)

### Normocytic anemia

Normocytic anemia occurs when the number of red blood cells is lower than normal, and those cells have less hemoglobin than they should. This type of anemia is often caused by an underlying chronic condition. Treatment for normocytic anemia typically involves addressing the underlying illness.

- Acute blood loss
- Anemia of chronic disease]
- Aplastic anemia (bone marrow failure)

### Macrocytic anemia

Macrocytic anemia is a blood condition where the bone marrow produces unusually large red blood cells. These oversized cells lack the necessary nutrients to function properly. While macrocytic anemia itself is not a severe condition, it can lead to serious health complications if left untreated.

- Alcoholism
- Pernicious anemia is an autoimmune problem with the parietal cells of the stomach
- Megaloblastic anemia due to not having enough of either vitamin B12 or folic acid (or both)
- Methotrexate, zidovudine, and other drugs that stop DNA replication. This is the most common cause in nonalcoholic patients.

### Dimorphic anemia

Dimorphic anemia includes two types of anemia at the same time. For example, macrocytic hypochromic, due to hookworm infestation leading to not enough of both iron and vitamin B12 or folic acid or following a blood transfusion.
Dari

**Dari** (Persian: دَرِیْ; _Fārsī-ye Darī_) is a dialect of the Persian language. It is the Persian language as spoken in Afghanistan. It is the second official language of Afghanistan, and is widely used by the government and most media agencies. It is mainly spoken by the Tajiks and other minority groups. A small minority also exists in parts of Pakistan closest to these named regions. It is sometimes called Farsi. People in Afghanistan and Iran who speak Persian can understand each other. The name Dari was given to the Persian language at a very early date.

Historically, Dari was the court language of the Sassanids.

## Related pages

- Pashto language
- Languages of Afghanistan

## Infobox (language)

- **name**: Dari
- **nativename**: <big></big>
- **region**: Central Asia, West Asia, South Asia
- **speakers**: Spoken by more than 27%, and understood by over 50% of Afghanistan population. Also spoken and understood by around 2.5 million people in Pakistan and Iran with communities who speak Dari as their primary language.
- **date**: 1992–2000
- **speakers2**: to 8–9 million
- **familycolor**: Indo-European
- **fam2**: Indo-Iranian languages, Indo-Iranian
- **fam3**: Iranian languages, Iranian
- **fam4**: Western Iranian languages, Western Iranian
- **fam5**: Southwestern Iranian languages, Southwestern Iranian
- **fam6**: Persian language, Persian
- **dialects**: Kabul, Kaboli, Balkh Province, Mazari, Herati, Badakhshan Province, Badakhshi, Panjshir Valley, Panjshiri, Laghman Province, Laghmani, Nimruz Province, Sistani, Aimaq dialect, Aimaqi, Hazaragi
- **script**: Persian alphabet
- **agency**: Academy of Sciences of Afghanistan
- **lingua**: 58-AAC-ce (Dari) + 58-AAC-cdo & cdp (Hazaragi) + 58-AAC-ck (Aimaq)
- **lc1**: prs
- **ld1**: Dari, Afghan Persian
- **lc2**: aiq
- **ld2**: Aimaq dialect, Aimaq
- **lc3**: haz
- **ld3**: Hazaragi
- **notice**: IPA
Halo (series)

***Halo*** is a science fiction shooter video game series. The games are published by Microsoft were made by Bungie Studios from 2001 to 2010 and are now made by 343 Industries.
- _Halo: Combat Evolved_, for Xbox (2001), as well as _Halo: Custom Edition_ made by Gearbox Software.
- _Halo 2_, for Xbox (2004) and PC (2007)
- _Halo 3_, for Xbox 360 (2007)
- _Halo Wars_, for Xbox 360 (2008)
- _Halo 3: ODST_, for Xbox 360 (2009)
- _Halo: Reach_, for Xbox 360 (2010)
- _Halo 4_, for Xbox 360 (2012)
- _Halo 5: Guardians_, for Xbox One (2015)
- _Halo Wars 2_, for Xbox One and Microsoft Windows (2017)
- _Halo Infinite_, for Xbox One, Xbox Series X, Xbox Series S and Microsoft Windows (2021)
Counterpoint

**Counterpoint** is the art of composing music by combining different parts (voices) in a way that sounds nice.  Music composed like this is called **contrapuntal**.

If the tune of _Twinkle, twinkle little star_ is played on the piano and then some chords are added, this is harmony, not counterpoint. Instead, if the tune of _Twinkle, twinkle little star_ was played while another melody was played, this would be considered counterpoint.

A different way of playing it would be to start the tune with the right hand.  Then, in the second bar (measure), as the fifth note is played, the left hand starts to play the tune an octave lower.  This works well for a time, but in the fifth bar (on the word “Up” in the right hand part) it starts to get dissonant (sounding unpleasant), so changes need to made to the left hand to make it sound nicer.  This way of writing with a particular number of parts (in this case: two) is called "contrapuntal music".

In that example the left hand imitated the right hand at first.  This is called **imitation**.

If the second part had continued to imitate all the way through the piece it would have been a **canon**.  But “Twinkle, twinkle” does not work well as a canon.  One famous canon is by Thomas Tallis.  A canon that can be repeated is called a round.  This is all contrapuntal music.

Counterpoint does not have to have imitation, although it often does.  The important thing is that each part (i.e. each voice) is equally important.  It is not one part singing the tune and the rest just accompanying.

Counterpoint does not have to be one note against one note.  There can be two or more notes in one part against one in the other e.g. crotchets (quarter notes) in one part and quavers (eighth notes) in another.  There is a whole system for this called “species”.

Counterpoint can be varied by inverting it, i.e. putting the top part at the bottom.  When music is written so that the parts can be swapped round it is called "invertible counterpoint".

The word “counterpoint” comes from the Latin “punctus contra punctum” meaning “point against point”.  The word “point” meant “note”.  Several hundred years ago composers found how to write contrapuntal music.  They often took a main tune (called a “Cantus Firmus”) and then added one or two or more parts to it.  The more parts there were the harder it was to compose because it all had to fit so that it sounded good.  Music for several voices written in this way is called **polyphonic** music.  **Polyphony** was used in all church music in the Renaissance.  The greatest composer of polyphony was Giovanni da Palestrina (1525-1594).  Students learning the art of composition today still learn counterpoint by taking Palestrina’s music as their model.

## Related pages

- Fugue
- canon (music)
- Music theory
Sterilisation

**Sterilisation** (which some people spell **sterilization**) is a process that makes animals or humans unable to reproduce. Sterilisation completely stops people from having children most of the time.

Sterilisation often is done for a way of birth control, or for people to go "childfree". But it has often been done against the will of a person. This is called "compulsory sterilisation".

## Related pages

- Sterilization (microbiology)
Cerberus

In Greek mythology, **Cerberus** (, _Kérberos_; Latin: _Cerberus_) is the monstrous, multi-headed dog that guards the entrance to the Underworld, preventing the souls of the dead from leaving.

Often called the "hound of Hades", Cerberus was one of the numerous offspring of the monsters Typhon and Echidna; he is usually depicted as having three heads, along with a serpent for a tail.
Smallpox

**Smallpox** was a dangerous disease with a high mortality rate. It no longer exists as an epidemic disease. The last naturally occurring case was diagnosed in October 1977. The World Health Organization (WHO) certified the global eradication of the disease in 1980 (said there was no more).

It was caused by a virus. There are two different species of viruses that can cause the disease. They are _Variola major_ and _Variola minor_. Some people also call smallpox **Variola**, from the Latin work for "spotted" which is also the viruses' scientific name.

Only humans can get this disease, but it probably came from a virus which infected animals. _Variola major_ killed between 20% and 40% of those who got it. _Variola minor_ killed only about 1%. Many people who survived become blind because of the damage the virus did to the eyes.

During the first half of the 20th century, between 300 million and 500 million people died of this disease. Even in 1967, about 15 million people caught the disease, and about two million people died of it, according to the World Health Organization (WHO).

The first vaccine for smallpox used the results of cowpox infections. It was invented by Edward Jenner. It was used to stop people from getting smallpox.  The word "vaccine" came from "vaccina", the Latin word for cow, because cowpox was used. The WHO (World Health Organisation) vaccinated people all over the world. In 1980, the WHO said the disease no longer existed, and no one would ever get sick from it again. Live copies of smallpox are kept in maximum-security laboratories around the world to make sure the disease can never infect people again.

Some people believe that smallpox could be used as an agent for purposely infecting enemies in a war. Today, most people no longer receive a smallpox shot.

## Related pages

- Cowpox
- Poxviridae
- List of diseases

## Infobox (disease)

- **image**: Child with Smallpox Bangladesh.jpg
- **caption**: Child infected with smallpox.  Bangladesh, 1973. In ordinary type smallpox the bumps are filled with a thick, opaque fluid and often have a depression or dimple in the center. This is a major distinguishing characteristic of smallpox.
- **diseasesdb**: 12219
- **medlineplus**: 001356
- **emedicinesubj**: emerg
- **emedicinetopic**: 885
- **meshname**: Smallpox
- **meshnumber**: D012899
Shaka

**Shaka kaSenzangakhona** (sometimes spelled **Tshaka**, **Tchaka** or **Chaka**; ca. 1787 – ca. 22 September 1828) was the most important leader of the Zulu Empire. He joined the Zulu tribal groups together into the beginnings of a nation. This Zulu nation ruled a large area of southern Africa, between the Phongolo and Mzimkhulu rivers. His leadership and his energy make him one of the greatest Zulu chieftains. He has been called a military genius for his changes and new ideas. However, there were also brutal and cruel things that happened when he was in charge.

## Zulu leader

Shaka maintained a good relationship with the Europeans in Africa, including the Colonial leaders. He was disliked by other Africans, including his own people, who hated his constant wars.

Ten years of  warfare placed incredible strains on the Zulu nation. Shaka, unstable and worried about being replaced by an heir, finally snapped into madness after the death of his mother in 1828. He imposed a year of celibacy on his people. He killed anyone who did not show enough sadness at the death of his mother. He was killed within the year by his half-brother, Dingane, who succeeded him as ruler.

Even though he created brutal conditions for his subjects, he created the powerful Zulu Kingdom.
Halo

A **halo** is a ring of light that surrounds an object. Also, in much religious art, it may be seen surrounding the heads of saintly people such as Jesus.

It is believed by some Hindus that the halo shown around the heads of holy people is a depiction of their  "activated" crown chakra.

Halos are visual phenomena that appear near or around the Sun or Moon, and sometimes near other strong light sources such as street lights. There are many types of optical halos, but they are mostly caused by ice crystals in certain types of clouds. The shape of the crystals changes the type of halo seen. Light is reflected by the ice and may split into colors, similar to the rainbow.

## Other websites

- Halo explanations and image galleries  at Atmospheric Optics
Greek underworld

The **underworld** is the place in Greek mythology where people go when they die. The underworld is controlled by Hades, one of the three main gods. The underworld's gates are guarded by the three-headed dog, Cerberus.  The underworld was surrounded by five rivers. The Acheron was the river of woe, the Cocytus was the river of lamentation, the Phlegethon the river of fire, the Styx, the river of the unbreakable oath by which the gods took their vows, and the Lethe the river of forgetfulness. When entering the underworld, Charon would take those with gold coins to the underworld. Not everyone could enter, because not everyone had golden coins to pay the fare.

Three judges, by the names of Rhadamanthus, Minos, and Aeacus, would then decide where you would go. People that lived normal lives would go to The Fields of Asphodel. People who did horrible things would go the Tartarus. Heroes would go to The Fields of Elysium. If you were put into Elysium, you could choose to be reborn or stay. If you went to Elysium three times, then you went to the Isle of the Blessed.  This was like the ultimate heaven. **Tartaros** () was another place in the underworld, where immortal enemies of the current Twelve Olympians are eternally punished, for example Kronos and the other Titans. Tartaros overlaps with the fields of punishment. In the fields of punishment, you get punished depending how bad your crime is.
Mughal Empire

The **Mughal Empire**, also known historically as _Hindustan_ was an early modern Islamic empire that ruled most of the Indian subcontinent. It existed from 1526 to 1858. Between 1526 and 1707, it contributed to 24% of the world's GDP. It was the world's largest economy and was known for its architecture.

The Mughal emperors were Turkic-Mongols in origin. Though they later settled in India and became Indianized. Babur of the Timurid dynasty founded the Mughal Empire in 1526 and ruled until 1530. He was followed by Humayun (1530–1540) and (1555–1556), Akbar (1556–1605), Jahangir (1605–1627), Shah Jahan (1628–1658), and Aurangzeb (1658–1707) and several other minor rulers until Bahadur Shah Zafar II (1837–1857). After the death of Aurangzeb, the Mughal Empire became weak. It continued until 1858. By that time, the Indian subcontinent had become under the British Raj.

The Mughal Empire was established by Muslim rulers who came from the present-day Uzbekistan after defeating the Delhi sultanate. The Mughal rule in India saw the region into a united Indian state. which was administered under a single ruler. This hadn't happened since the Delhi Sultanate, Guptas and Mauryans. During the Mughal period, art and architecture became important. The Taj Mahal was built during the Mughal period.

## Empire expansion

The Mughal Empire reached across much of the Indian subcontinent during period of Aurangzeb. By the death of Akbar, the third Mughal ruler, the Mughal Empire extended from Afghanistan to the Bay of Bengal and southward to what is now Gujarat state and the northern Deccan region of India.

## Infobox (country)

- **conventional long name**: Mughal Empire
- **common name**: Hindustan
- **native name**: मुगल साम्राज्य
 امپراتوری مغول
- **image map**: Image:MughalEmpire1700.svg
- **image map caption**: The empire at its greatest extent in  (with subahs) under Aurangzeb
- **image map alt**: Mughal
- **coa size**: 85px
- **religion**: Sunni Islam (Official religion, Official)
- **government type**: Monarchy
- **established event1**: Founding
- **established date1**: 1526
- **established event2**: Fall
- **established date2**: 1858
- **life span**: 1526–1858
- **leader1**: Babur
- **leader2**: Bahadur Shah II
- **year leader1**: 1526–1530 (first)
- **year leader2**: 1837–1857 (last)
- **title leader**: Emperor
- **title deputy**: Grand Vizier
- **year deputy1**: 1526–1540 (first)
- **deputy1**: Mir Khalifa
- **year deputy2**: 1775–1797 (last)
- **deputy2**: Asaf-ud-Daula
- **title representative**: Vakil-i-Mutlaq
- **representative1**: Mir Khalifa
- **year representative1**: 1526–1540 (first)
- **representative2**: Daulat Rao Sindhia
- **year representative2**: 1795–1818 (last)
- **stat year1**: 1690
- **stat area1**: 4000000
- **stat year2**: 1595
- **stat pop2**: 125,000,000
- **stat year3**: 1700
- **stat pop3**: 158,000,000
- **p1**: Delhi Sultanate
- **s1**: Maratha Empire
- **p2**: Sur Empire
- **s2**: Nizam of Hyderabad
- **s3**: Carnatic Sultanate
- **s4**: British Raj
- **today**: India
Pakistan
Bangladesh
Afghanistan
Lever

A **lever** is a length that can hinge about one point, and that point is known as the fulcrum.  Levers have lots of uses, including for weighing things, or for making forces bigger or smaller, or making movements bigger or smaller. All levers feature a fulcrum about which the lever pivots, and depending on the distances from this pivot there will be different amounts of force and of movement. The lever is one of six simple machine. There are three types of levers: first-class, second-class and third-class.

## Early

The earliest remaining writings about levers are from the 3rd century BC. They were written by Archimedes. "_Give me a place to stand, and I shall move the earth._" is a famous quote from Archimedes who stated the correct mathematical principle of levers (quoted by Pappus of Alexandria).

## Types of levers

There are three kinds of levers. The difference between them is where the fulcrum is and where the forces are acting.  If the force is nearer the fulcrum, the force will be bigger, but the movement will be less.  If the force is further away from the fulcrum, the force will be smaller, but the movement will be bigger.  Levers can therefore make make forces bigger.  Or make movements more precise.  Or just change the place where a force acts.

### First class

A first-class lever is a lever where the fulcrum is in between the effort and resistance (the load). Seesaws and crowbars are examples of first class levers.

### Second class

A second-class lever is where the resistance is between the effort and the fulcrum. Wheel barrows and wrenches are examples of second class levers.

### Third class

A third class lever is where the effort is between the resistance and the fulcrum. Staplers and your forearm are examples of third class levers.
Pulley

A **pulley** is a simple machine that is used to lift heavy objects. Block and tackle system is a modified form of a pulley. Pulleys are usually used in sets designed to make the amount of force needed to lift something smaller.A pulley may be simple, but this is used in complex things like elevators!

## Types of pulleys

- **Static** A _static_ or _class 1_ pulley has an axle that is "staticed" or is stationary, meaning that it cannot be moved.  A fixed pulley is used to redirect the force in a rope (called a belt when it goes in a full circle).  A fixed pulley has a mechanical advantage of 1. The static pulley has a wheel and an axle.
- **Movable** A _movable_ or _class 2_ pulley has an axle that is "free" to move in space.  A movable pulley is used to transform forces.  A movable pulley has a mechanical advantage of 2.  That is, if one end of the rope is anchored, pulling on the other end of the rope will apply a doubled force to the objecT attached to the pulley.
- **Compound** A _compound pulley_ is a combination fixed and movable pulley system.
    - Block and tackle - A _block and tackle_ is a compound pulley where several pulleys are mounted on each axle, further increasing the mechanical advantage.  Plutarch reported that Archimedes moved an entire warship, laden with men, using compound pulleys and his own strength.
Pulleys are useful in construction sites.