juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)

The **Kingdom of Poland of the Jagiellons** lasted from 1385 to 1569. It was created by the accession of Jogaila, Grand Duke of Lithuania, to the Polish throne in 1386. The Union of Krewo united Poland and Lithuania into one monarchy. The union was confirmed but also transformed into the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth by the Union of Lublin in 1569. This was shortly followed by the end of the Jagiellon dynasty that had ruled Poland for two centuries.

## Related pages

- History of Poland

## Infobox (country)

- **conventional long name**: Kingdom of Poland
- **linking name**: Polish language, Polish
- **native name**: Królestwo Polskie
- **image map**: Poland and Lithuania in 1526.PNG
- **map caption**: Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Lithuania in 1526
- **capital**: Cracow
- **demonym**: Polish people, Polish, Polish people, Pole
- **life span**: 1385–1569
- **common languages**: Polish language, Polish, Latin language, Latin, Ruthenian language, Ruthenian
- **p1**: Kingdom of Poland (1295–1385)
- **s1**: Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
- **flag s1**: Chorągiew królewska króla Zygmunta III Wazy.svg
- **title leader**: List of Kings of Poland, King
- **leader1**: Wladislaus II Jagiełło <small>(first)</small>
- **year leader1**: 1386–1434
- **leader2**: Sigismund II Augustus <small>(last)</small>
- **year leader2**: 1548–1572
- **today**: Poland, Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Czech Republic
Jagiellon dynasty

The **Jagiellons** were a royal dynasty that came from Lithuania and reigned in some Central European countries (present day Lithuania, Belarus, Poland, Ukraine, Latvia, Estonia, Kaliningrad, parts of Russia, Hungary, Czech Republic, Slovakia) between the 14th and 16th century.

Members of the dynasty were grand dukes of Lithuania 1377–1392 and 1440–1572, kings of Poland 1386–1572, kings of Hungary 1440–1444 and 1490–1526, and kings of Bohemia 1471–1526. The family was a branch of the Lithuanian Gediminaičių dynasty.

The name (other variations used in English include: **Jagiellonians**, **Jagiellos**, **Jogailos**, **Jagiellas**) comes from Jogaila (_pol.:_ Jagiełło), the first Polish king of that dynasty.

## Jagiellon rulers

Jagiellons were hereditary rulers of Poland and Lithuania.

The Jagiellon rulers of Poland–Lithuania (with dates of ruling in brackets) were:

- Ladislaus (Jogaila) (in Lithuania 1377–1401; in Poland 1386–1434). (also known as Władysław II Jagiełło)
- Ladislaus III (1434–44)
- Casimir (1447–92)
- John Albert (1492–1501)
- Alexander (1501–05)
- Sigismund (1506–48)
- Sigismund Augustus (1548–72) (also known as Sigismund II)

## Other websites

- Pages and Forums on Lithuanian history
- Jagiellonian Observatory
D'oh!

**D'oh!** (also spelled out as **annoyed grunt**), is a famous catchphrase created by the fictional character Homer Simpson, from the popular animated television series, _The Simpsons_. It was also famously accepted into the _Oxford English Dictionary_ in 2002. The quote is normally used when Homer hurts himself, finds out that he has done something stupid, or when something bad has happened or is about to happen to him. He often gives himself a facepalm at the same time. Other characters from the Simpsons have also been heard using the chatchprase too, the most common being his son Bart. Homer has also been known to change this phrase slightly. For example, in The Simpsons Movie he shouts "D'oooooome!" when the town is sealed in the glass dome.

## Other websites

- The definitive "D'oh" list
- Homer Simpson says "D'oh!" 32 times (WAV sound file)
- D'oh! joins the Oxford English Dictionary - BBC News
Aqua regia

**Aqua regia** (_Royal water_ in Latin) is a very strong acid. It is made by mixing one part concentrated nitric acid and three parts concentrated hydrochloric acid. The acid was named by alchemists because it can dissolve the noble metal<nowiki/>s gold and platinum. Tantalum, iridium and a few other metals are not dissolved by it.

## History

Aqua regia first appeared in the De inventione veritatis ("On the Discovery of Truth") by pseudo-Geber (after c. 1300), who produced it by adding sal ammoniac (ammonium chloride) to nitric acid . In the Middle Ages it was one of the ways that alchemists tried to find the philosopher's stone.

When Germany invaded Denmark in World War II, the Hungarian chemist George de Hevesy took the Nobel Prize medals of Max von Laue and James Franck to keep them safe. De Hevesy dissolved the medals, which were made of gold, into aqua regia. He did this so the Nazis would not steal them. He placed the jar that held the solution of aqua regia and gold on a shelf in his laboratory at the Niels Bohr Institute. The jar looked the same as hundreds of other jars in the laboratory, so the Nazis thought that all the jars had normal chemicals in them. After the war, de Hevesy returned to the lab, found the jar with the solution, and removed the gold from it. He returned the gold to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and the Nobel Foundation used the gold to make new medals for Laue and Franck.

## Uses

Aqua Regia is used in metal etching and scientific analysis. It is also used to clean certain lab machines from tiny metal particles. It is particularly used in the extraction and purification of gold and platinum. Users mix it immediately before use so it won't decompose.
Inari Ōkami

is the Japanese _kami_ (spirit) of fertility, rice and agriculture. Inari is sometimes represented as a male, female or both.

The traditional messengers of Inari are foxes.
Kurgan hypothesis

The **Kurgan model** of Indo-European origins is about both the people and their Proto-Indo-European language.

It uses both archaeology and linguistics to show the history of their culture at different stages of the Indo-European expansion.

The Kurgan model is the most widely accepted theory on the origins of Indo-European.
- "The Kurgan solution is attractive and has been accepted by many archaeologists and linguists, in part or total. It is the solution one encounters in the _Encyclopædia Britannica_ and the _Grand Dictionnaire Encyclopédique Larousse_".
- "The single most popular proposal is the Pontic steppes".

## Background

When it was first suggested in 1956, Marija Gimbutas's answer to the question of Indo-European origins was a pioneering interdisciplinary synthesis of archaeology and linguistics. From the nineties on, new archaeological evidence from Northern European prehistoric cultures was put forward on the influence and expansion of Kurgan cultures.

## Related pages

- proto-Indo-Europeans
- Shaft tomb, Tumulus
- Anatolian hypothesis
- Armenian hypothesis
Marija Gimbutas

**Marija Gimbutas** (Lithuanian: Marija Gimbutienė, born Marija Birutė Alseikaitė) (Vilnius, Lithuania, January 23, 1921 – Los Angeles, United States February 2, 1994), was a Lithuanian-American archeologist, known for her research into the Neolithic and Bronze Age cultures of "Old Europe" and the theories that she introduced. Between 1946 and 1971, her writings merged traditional spadework with linguistics and mythologies.
Luwians

The **Luwians** also known as _Luvians_ were a people closely related to the Hittites. Sometime after 2300, the Luwians, an Indo-European-speaking people, settled in southern Anatolia.

The Luwians were related to the Hittites and were the dominant group in the Late Hittite culture.

## Related pages

- Urartu
- Luwian language

## Other websites

- Luwian Studies on YouTube
Phrygia

**Phrygia** () was a kingdom in the west central part of the Anatolia. The Phrygian people started to live in the area from c. 1200 BC, and made a kingdom in the 8th century BC. It was ruined by Cimmerian invaders c. 690 BC, then conquered by its neighbor Lydia, before it passed successively into the Persian Empire of Cyrus, the empire of Alexander and his successors, was taken by the king of Pergamon, and became part of the Roman Empire. The Phrygian language survived until about the 6th century AD.

## Other websites

- Phrygian Period in Anatolia
- 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica
White genocide

**White Genocide** (Armenian: Ճերմակ or սպիտակ ջարդ, Jermag or Spitag Chart) is the word Western Armenians use to describe assimilation in the West.

## Background

Armenians were forcibly deported from their homeland in Anatolia during the Armenian Genocide in 1915-1918, and never allowed to return. Western Armenians consider Armenians who assimilate within the local population of the country where they were eventually forced to emigrate (such as France, USA, Argentina, etc.) as lost to their nation due to the continuing exile after the actual genocide itself, and thus consider that lost Armenian to be another victim of the genocidal attempt to eliminate the Armenians. The term _White Genocide_ was also used for the regions of Nagorno-Karabakh and Nakhichevan where Armenians were forcibly deported and cleansed from the regions.

## Related pages

- Dersim
- Sumgait pogrom
- Armenian genocide
Didier Drogba

**Didier Yves Drogba Tébily** (born 11 March 1978 in Abidjan) is a retired Côte d'Ivoire professional football player.

## Early life

He lived in Abidjan until he was 5 years old and then he moved to France to live with his uncle, Michael Goba. His uncle had been a professional football player in Côte d'Ivoire.

## Infobox (football biography)

- **name**: Didier Drogba
- **image**: Didier Drogba (2019) (cropped).jpg
- **caption**: Drogba in 2019
- **fullname**: Didier Yves Drogba Tébily
- **birth place**: Abidjan, Ivory Coast
- **height**: 1.89 m
- **position**: Striker (association football), Striker
- **youthclubs1**: USL Dunkerque, Dunkerque
- **youthyears2**: 1988–1989
- **youthclubs2**: US Tourcoing FC, Tourcoing
- **youthyears3**: 1989–1991
- **youthclubs3**: SC Abbeville, Abbeville
- **youthyears4**: 1991–1993
- **youthclubs4**: Vannes OC, Vannes
- **youthyears5**: 1993–1997
- **youthclubs5**: Levallois SC, Levallois
- **youthyears6**: 1997–1998
- **youthclubs6**: Le Mans UC72, Le Mans
- **years1**: 1998–2002
- **clubs1**: Le Mans UC72, Le Mans
- **caps1**: 64
- **goals1**: 12
- **years2**: 2002–2003
- **clubs2**: En Avant Guingamp, Guingamp
- **caps2**: 45
- **goals2**: 20
- **years3**: 2003–2004
- **clubs3**: Olympique de Marseille, Marseille
- **caps3**: 35
- **goals3**: 19
- **years4**: 2004–2012
- **clubs4**: Chelsea F.C., Chelsea
- **caps4**: 226
- **goals4**: 100
- **years5**: 2012–2013
- **clubs5**: Shanghai Shenhua F.C., Shanghai Shenhua
- **caps5**: 11
- **goals5**: 8
- **years6**: 2013–2014
- **clubs6**: Galatasaray S.K. (football), Galatasaray
- **caps6**: 37
- **goals6**: 15
- **years7**: 2014–2015
- **clubs7**: Chelsea F.C., Chelsea
- **caps7**: 28
- **goals7**: 4
- **years8**: 2015–2016
- **clubs8**: CF Montréal, Montreal Impact
- **caps8**: 33
- **goals8**: 21
- **years9**: 2017–2018
- **clubs9**: Phoenix Rising FC, Phoenix Rising
- **caps9**: 21
- **goals9**: 13
- **totalcaps**: 500
- **totalgoals**: 212
- **nationalyears1**: 2002–2014
- **nationalteam1**: Ivory Coast national football team, Ivory Coast
- **nationalcaps1**: 105
- **nationalgoals1**: 65
Armenian Army

The **Armenian Army** is the army of Armenia. Armenia has sent around 1,500 officers to be trained in Greece and Russia over the past years. Since the end of the Nagorno-Karabakh War, Armenia has made the army boost the defense and help defend Nagorno-Karabakh from a possible new attack by neighboring Azerbaijan.

## Related pages

- Military history of Armenia
- Armed Forces of Armenia
- Armenian Air Force
- Armenian Air Defense
- Nagorno-Karabakh Defense Army
- 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict

## Other websites

- Military Parade in Stepanakert, Artsakh
- Armenian Military Photo Gallery

## Infobox (military unit)

- **unit name**: Հայկական Բանակ
Haykakan Banak
Armenian Army
- **dates**: January 28, 1992 - present
- **country**: Republic of Armenia
- **role**: Ground warfare
- **battles**: **Nagorno-Karabakh War**; peacekeeping roles in Kosovo and Afghanistan
- **notable commanders**: -**Harut Kassabian**
-**Vazgen Manukyan**
-**Arkady Ter-Tatevosyan**
Armenian Air Force

The **Armenian Air Force** is the aerial group of the Armed Forces of Armenia. It was a part of the military reform program of Ter-Grigoriants.

Armenian anti-aircraft defense has an anti-aircraft missile brigade and two regiments armed with 100 missile launchers of various models and fixes. These missile launchers include the M79 Osa, Krug, S-75, S-125, and S-300. There are also 24 Scud ballistic missiles with eight launchers.

## Related pages

- Armed Forces of Armenia

## Other websites

- Russia is satisfied with Armenia’s air defense capabilities.
Armed Forces of Armenia

The **Armed Forces of the Republic of Armenia** is the Army, Air Defense, and Border Guard. Some parts were formed out of the former Soviet forces in the Armenian SSR.

The Commander-in-Chief of the military is the President of Armenia, currently Robert Kocharyan. The Ministry of Defense is in charge of political leadership. It is currently headed by Mikael Harutyunyan. Military command is in the hands of the General Staff, headed by the Chief of Staff, who is Lieutenant-General Seyran Ohanyan.  Armenia established a Ministry of Defense on 28 January 1992. The Border guards purpose is to patrol Armenia's borders with Georgia and Azerbaijan, while Russian troops continue to watch its borders with Iran and Turkey.

## Related pages

- Military history of Armenia
- Armenian Army
- Armenian Air Defense
- Armenian Border Guard

## Other websites

- Armenian Ministry of Defense
President of Armenia

The **president of Armenia** (, _Hayastani Nakhagah_) is the head of state of Armenia. They are elected to a single seven-year term by the National Assembly of Armenia.

## List

||Name <small>(Birth–Death)</small>|width="100px"|Picture|Elected|Took office|Left office|Office powers|Party|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Levon Ter-Petrosyan <small>(born 1945)</small>||1991 1996|11 November 1991|3 February 1998|rowspan="4"|Head of Executive|Pan-Armenian National Movement||
|rowspan="2"|Robert Kocharyan <small>(born 1954)</small>|rowspan="2"||—|4 February 1998|9 April 1998|rowspan="2"|Independent|
|1998 2003|9 April 1998|9 April 2008|||||||
|Serzh Sargsyan <small>(born 1954)</small>||2008 2013|9 April 2008|9 April 2018|Republican Party||||
|Armen Sarkissian <small>(born 1953)</small>||2018|9 April 2018|23 January 2022|rowspan="3"|State representation, Guarantor of Constitution|Independent||
|Alen Simonyan <small>(born 1980)</small>||—|23 January 2022|13 March 2022|Civil Contract||||
|Vahagn Khachaturyan <small>(born 1959)</small>||2022|_13 March 2022_|Incumbent|Independent||||

## Other websites

- Rulers of Armenia

## Infobox (political post)

- **post**: President
- **body**: the Republic of Armenia
- **flag**: Flag of the President of Armenia.svgborder
- **flagcaption**: Presidential Standard
- **insignia**: Seal of the President of Armenia.svg
- **insigniacaption**: Presidential Seal
- **image**: Vahagn Khachaturyan portrait (cropped).jpg
- **incumbent**: Vahagn Khachaturyan
- **incumbentsince**: 13 March 2022
- **appointer**: National Assembly (Armenia), National Assembly
- **residence**: Presidential Palace, Yerevan, Presidential Palace
- **termlength**: One seven-year term
- **formation**: 11 November 1991
- **inaugural**: Levon Ter-Petrosyan
- **seat**: Yerevan
- **constituting instrument**: Constitution of Armenia
- **status**: Head of state
- **style**: President (government title), Mr. President (formal)
Excellency, His Excellency (diplomatic, abroad)
Levon Ter-Petrosyan

**Levon Ter-Petrosyan** (Armenian: Լևոն Տեր-Պետրոսյան; Russian: Левон Тер-Петросян) (born 9 January 1945), also **Levon Ter-Petrosyan**, was the President of Armenia from 1991 to 1998. Because of many economic and political problems, he resigned on 3 February 1998. He was replaced by Robert Kocharyan. Levon Ter Petrosian, announced he will run again for office in the presidential election which will start next year.Ter-Petrossian was born in Aleppo, Syria to an Armenian-Syrian family of genocide survivors. They emigrated to Armenia in 1946.
In 1968, Ter-Petrossian graduated from the Oriental Studies Department of the Yerevan State University. In 1972, he completed his postgraduate studies at the Leningrad State University. In 1987, he received his doctoral degree from the same university. In 1972-1978, Ter-Petrossian worked as junior researcher at the Literature Institute of Armenia named after Manouk Abeghian. In 1978-1985, he held the post of science secretary at Matenadaran named after Saint Mesrop Mashtots. Since 1985, Ter-Petrossian has been working at Matenadaran as a senior researcher.

## Filmography

- 1988: Armenia 1988 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sCOGxwGooHE
- 2002: The Manuscript of Indepedence, Մատյան Անկախության - (Levon Ter-Petrosyan,Robert Kocharyan,Serj Sargsyan)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EERMf2jdMlc

## Other websites

- Official Presidential site of Armenia
- ARF history
- Levon Ter-Petrossian at ArmeniaPedia.org

## Infobox (officeholder)

- **name**: Levon Ter Petrosyan
- **office**: President of Armenia
- **order**: 1st
- **image**: Լեւոն Տեր֊Պետրոսյան.jpg
- **predecessor**: _position established_
- **successor**: Robert Kocharyan
- **vicepresident**: Gagik Harutyunyan
- **signature**: Levon Ter-Petrosyan signature.png
- **office2**: President of the National Assembly of Armenia, Chairman of the Supreme Council
- **predecessor2**: :hy:Հակոբ Ոսկանյան, Hakob Voskanyan (as Chairman of the Supreme Council of the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic, Supreme Council of the Armenian SSR)
- **party**: Pan-Armenian National Movement <small>(1989–2008)</small>
Armenian National Congress <small>(2008–)</small>
- **successor2**: Babken Ararktsyan
- **birth name**: Levon Hakobi Ter-Petrosyan
- **birth place**: Aleppo, First Syrian Republic, Syria
- **nationality**: Armenian
- **otherparty**: Pan-Armenian National Movement <small>(2008–2013)</small>
- **spouse**: Lyudmila Ter-Petrosyan (née Pleskovskaya)
- **children**: David Ter-Petrosyan
- **alma mater**: Yerevan State University
Saint Petersburg State University, Leningrad State University
- **imagesize**: 225px
- **term start**: 11 November 1991
- **term end**: 3 February 1998
- **term start2**: 4 August 1990
- **term end2**: 11 November 1991
Intonation (music)

**Intonation**, in music, can have two different meanings:

1. In plainchant, intonation is when a solo singer - usually the priest - sings the first phrase of a piece of music before the choir start to sing.  The intonation is the tune on which the music is based.  For example, when the choir sings a piece called _Gloria_ the priest first sings "Gloria in excelsis Deo" ("Glory be to God") by himself, unaccompanied.  Then the choir continue singing with the words "et in terra pax....." ("and peace on earth....).
1. The word "intonation" is used in music to describe whether someone who is playing a musical instrument is playing in tune. This is not used for instruments such as the piano which are tuned already, but for an instrument such as the violin there is a lot of skill and practice needed to play with good intonation (to play well in tune).  A violinist needs to put his or her fingers in exactly the right place on the fingerboard, otherwise the note will be sharp (too high) or flat (too low).  Musicians playing in a group will need to listen to one another so that their tuning (intonation) is good. Players of wind instruments and singers all need to pay careful attention to their intonation.

## Related pages

- Musical tuning
Suppiluliuma II

**Suppiluliuma II**, the son of  Tudhaliya IV,  was the last known king of the New Kingdom of the Hittite Empire, ruling  1207 BCE – c.1178 BCE, contemporary with Tukulti-Ninurta I of Assyira.

He is known from two inscriptions in hieroglyphics. They record wars against former vassal Tarhuntassa, and against Alasiya in Cyprus.

After the fall, the Kaskians were probably in control of Hatti. Hattusa itself was destroyed, its site only re-occupied by a Phrygian fortress some 500 years later.

## Literature

- Astour, AJA 69 (1965).
- Güterbock, JNES 26 (1967), 73–81.

## Other websites

- Reign of Suppiluliuma II
Battle of Rhandeia

The **Battle of Rhandeia** was a battle fought between Armenia and Parthia against the Roman Empire. It was fought just after the Mithridatic Wars. The Romans were led by Lucius Caesennius Paetus. They were defeated by the Parthian-Armenian army led by Tiridates I of Armenia.

The Parthians made Tiridates the King of Armenia. He was the brother of the Parthian king Vologases I. Tiridates replaced Tigranes, a Roman ally, as king. The Romans fought to take back the throne, but were forced into surrender at Rhandeia (autumn 62).

## Related pages

- Armenian Empire

## Infobox (military conflict)

- **conflict**: Battle of Rhandeia
- **date**: 62
- **place**: Rhandeia, Kingdom of Armenia
- **result**: Parthian-Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity), Armenian victory
- **combatant1**: Roman Empire
- **combatant2**: Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity), Kingdom of Armenia
Parthia
- **commander1**: Lucius Caesennius Paetus
Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo
- **commander2**: Tiridates I of Armenia
- **strength1**: ~35,000 Romans

siege equipment
Iberian conscripts
- **strength2**: ~Ayrudzi 10,000
- **casualties1**: High

at least 15,000 Romans dead

~500 taken captive

Siege equipment destroyed

Iberian conscripts forced to exile Rhandeia
- **casualties2**: Mild
no more than 1,000 Ayrudzi dead
Hydrochloric acid

**Hydrochloric acid** is a chemical compound. It is a solution of hydrogen chloride (HCl) gas that is dissolved in water. In the past, people called it **muriatic acid**. It is widely used in industry, and it is also made by the stomach to help digest food. Hydrochloric acid, like all acids, react with bases to produce salts (chlorides).

## Safety

In high concentrations, hydrochloric acid can make acidic mists. Both the mist and the solution hurt human tissue. They are caustic, and can cause chemical burns. These can damage the eyes, the skin, the respiratory system, and other organs of the human body.

When hydrochloric acid is mixed with certain chemicals such as bleach, the toxic gas chlorine is made. When working with hydrochloric acid, certain safety measures should be taken. These include using rubber or PVC gloves, wearing goggles to protect the eyes, as well as special clothing that is resistant to chemicals.

Hydrochloric acid reacts with some metals, corroding them and making flammable hydrogen gas.

The risks of coming in contact with hydrochloric acid depend on its concentration. The following table lists the EU classification of hydrochloric acid solutions:

|colspan="1"|Concentration by weight|colspan="1"|Classification|colspan="1"|R-Phrases|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|10%–25%|Irritant (**Xi**)|||||
|>25%|Corrosive (**C**)|||||

The Environmental Protection Agency says hydrochloric acid is a toxin.
Kobayr monastery

**Kobayr** (Armenian: Կոբայր) is a 12th century Armenian Apostolic Church monastery. It is located in the village Kober within Lori marz, Armenia.

Kobayr was built on a shelf of a gorge by the princes of the junior Bagratuni branch, Kyurikids in 1171. The monastery was later acquired by the Zakarids and converted into a Chalcedonian monastery. Many of the writings in the monastery are written in Georgian.

The monastery is being fixed and paid for by the government of Armenia with the help of the government of Italy. The ruins of the main church in the monastery contain frescoes of Christ and the twelve apostles as well as the Church fathers and other Christian figures.
Hnevank

**Hnevank** (, means old monastery) is a 7th century Armenian Apostolic Church monastery. It is near the city of Stepanavan in the Lori marz of Armenia. The monastery is on a hill within a gorge, near where the Dzoraget and Gargar rivers join.

The monastery was all rebuilt by lord Smbat of the House of Orbelian, a branch of the Liparitids who were removed to Armenia in the late 12th century from Georgia. Liparitids were themselves a branch of the Mamikonians. Smbat was the ancestor of the Armenian princes of Syunik. Georgian writings around the drum attests his name. The monastery has a gavit and various service buildings around the site. The government of Armenia has recently begun fixing the monastery. The broken dome of the main church has been restored entirely.
Huntington's disease

**Huntington's disease** is a genetic disorder caused by mutation in a gene located on chromosome 4. It affects the brain and gets worse over time. This can lead to problems with moving, memory loss as well as thinking skills. Lastly, it also causes changes in behavior. Chorea is one of the main symptoms of Huntington's disease.

On average, the disease leads to death about fifteen years after the first signs of the illness show. It is found in about 6 in 100,000 people. There is a 50% chance of inheriting this disease from the parents. Medicine has been trying to find a cure for Huntington's disease for a long time.

## History

The disease is named after George Huntington. George Huntington specialized in medicine and psychology. In 1872, he was the first to describe the medical condition he was seeing in patients in a paper about science. In an 1908 review, an important scientist who also focused on medicine and psychology, William Osler, said about the paper: "In the history of medicine, there are few instances in which a disease has been more accurately, more graphically or more briefly described."

According to Huntington, the disease is characterized by three things: it is inherited; people who have it become cases for psychiatry (insanity and people who kill themselves); and it only occurs in adults. That was the medical understanding at that time. Of these, the last one is wrong: some children also show signs of the disease.

## Symptoms

Symptoms of Huntington's disease usually begin between the ages of 35 and 44 years of age. They can, however, start in any age group from babies to old age. Also, Huntington's disease kills the cells in the body and brain.

In fact, children with Huntington's disease are often much sicker. They get worse faster. Instead of having chorea, they usually have rigidity (or stiffness) of their muscles and it is painful. Seizures (uncontrollable movements in the body) are also a common sign in children.

## Treatment and care

In 2015, there is still no treatment for the disease itself. There are medicines available to help with some of the symptoms. Tetrabenazine was approved in 2008 by the FDA. This medicine helps slow some of the restless movements of chorea. Other medicines that can help with psychiatric symptoms and movements are benzodiazepines and anticonvulsants usually taken for seizures.

## Clinical trials

Science Daily reported on May 6, 2019 that an international clinical trial has found  a new drug is safe. It reported that the drug used by UBC researchers successfully lowers levels of Huntingtin protein.

## Related pages

- Woody_Guthrie#Illness_from_Huntington's_disease
- Chromosome 4
Adenoidectomy

**Adenoidectomy** is the process of taking out a person's adenoids from the back of their throat through the process of surgery. They may be removed for several reasons, including difficulty breathing through the nose and having ear infections. The surgery is common in young children. The procedure is usually performed using a substance called anaesthesia (Greek for "without sensation"), and the substance puts a person to sleep when it is applied. Recovery time from the operation can vary from several hours to a few days.

Adenoidectomy is usually done on young children because their adenoids were infected by a virus. If the disease was to be left alone, it would worsen. The affected person could have harder times breathing or hearing, and may possibly die from the disease. Normally functioning adenoids help maintain the body's healthy immune system during early childhood. They shrink when a person gets older. When a person becomes an adult, their adenoids completely disappear.

## Other websites

- Surgery Encyclopedia: Adenoidectomy
- Adenoidectomy - throat operation to remove swollen adenoids
Turkish Armenian Reconciliation Commission

The **Turkish Armenian Reconciliation Commission** was made in 2001 to help Turkey and Armenia be closer. The main goal was to make the governments more active.

## Members

- Gunduz Aktan (Ankara) - resigned June 2003
- Alexander Arzoumanian (Yerevan)
- Ustun Erguder (Istanbul)
- Sadi Erguvenc (Istanbul) - resigned June 2003
- David Hovhannissian (Yerevan)
- Van Krikorian (New York)
- Andranik Migranian (Moscow)
- Ozdem Sanberk (Istanbul) - resigned June 2003
- Ilter Turkmen (Istanbul)
- Vamik Volkan (Charlottesville)

**Newer Members** (2003-2004)

- Emin Mahir Balcioglu (Geneva)
- Ahmet Evin (Istanbul)
- Ersin Kalaycioglu (Istanbul)
- Sule Kut (Istanbul)
- Ilter Turan (Istanbul)

## Other websites

- Turkish Armenian Reconciliation Commission
- Turkish Armenian Reconciliation Commission - Armeniapedia.org
ROT13

**ROT13** (or **ROT-13**) is a very simple form of encryption cipher. It is a variant of a Caesar cipher. In it, the alphabet is written in two lines, of 13 characters each. Encryption, and decryption is done by simply switching the letters that are below each other. That way, _A_ becomes _N_, _B_ becomes _O_, and so on.

It is widely used in USENET forums.

## Letter games and net culture

|colspan="2"|<kbd>abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz</kbd> <kbd>NOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLM</kbd>|
| --- | --- |
|<kbd>aha</kbd> ↔ <kbd>nun</kbd>|<kbd>ant</kbd> ↔ <kbd>nag</kbd>|
|<kbd>balk</kbd> ↔ <kbd>onyx</kbd>|<kbd>bar</kbd> ↔ <kbd>one</kbd>|
|<kbd>barf</kbd> ↔ <kbd>ones</kbd>|<kbd>be</kbd> ↔ <kbd>or</kbd>|
|<kbd>bin</kbd> ↔ <kbd>ova</kbd>|<kbd>ebbs</kbd> ↔ <kbd>roof</kbd>|
|<kbd>envy</kbd> ↔ <kbd>rail</kbd>|<kbd>er</kbd> ↔ <kbd>re</kbd>|
|<kbd>errs</kbd> ↔ <kbd>reef</kbd>|<kbd>flap</kbd> ↔ <kbd>sync</kbd>|
|<kbd>fur</kbd> ↔ <kbd>she</kbd>|<kbd>gel</kbd> ↔ <kbd>try</kbd>|
|<kbd>gnat</kbd> ↔ <kbd>tang</kbd>|<kbd>irk</kbd> ↔ <kbd>vex</kbd>|
|<kbd>clerk</kbd> ↔ <kbd>pyrex</kbd>|<kbd>purely</kbd> ↔ <kbd>cheryl</kbd>|
|<kbd>PNG</kbd> ↔ <kbd>cat</kbd>|<kbd>SHA</kbd> ↔ <kbd>fun</kbd>|
|<kbd>furby</kbd> ↔ <kbd>sheol</kbd>|<kbd>terra</kbd> ↔ <kbd>green</kbd>|

ROT13 can also be used for letter games. There are some words, that will produce another existing word, when they are treated with ROT13. The longest example in the English language is the pair of 7-letter words <kbd>abjurer</kbd> and <kbd>nowhere</kbd>; there is also the 7-letter pair <kbd>chechen</kbd> and <kbd>purpura</kbd>. Other examples of words like these are shown in the table.

The 1989 International Obfuscated C Code Contest (IOCCC) had an entry by Brian Westley. Westley's computer program can be ROT13'd or reversed and still compiles correctly. Its operation, when executed, is either to perform ROT13 encoding on, or to reverse its input.

The newsgroup _alt.folklore.urban_ made a word—<kbd>furrfu</kbd>. It was the ROT13 encoding of the frequently encoded utterance "sheesh". "<kbd>Furrfu</kbd>" evolved in mid-1992 as a response to postings repeating urban myths on alt.folklore.urban, after some posters complained that "Sheesh!" as a response to newcomers was being overused.
Tony Kahn

**Tony Kahn** is an American radio host, narrator, and writer who has won many awards. He is the son of Hollywood movie writer Gordon Kahn.

## Early life

Kahn was born in Los Angeles, California. His father was placed on a list of people with political beliefs that some people thought were not acceptable. This happened during a time in American history known as the Red scare. The Red scare is a term used to describe a time during the 1940s and 1950s in the United States when people were accused of (often wrongly) being communists.

Because of the Red Scare, Kahn had to leave Los Angeles with his family. They went to Cuernavaca, Mexico during the 1950s. They returned after a few years and Kahn went to school at Harvard University where he studied the Russian language. He graduated with very good grades. He then went to Columbia University where he got a master’s degree (an advanced academic degree or diploma) in Slavic studies.

## Career

Tony Kahn is known for his work in radio. He produces and directs a radio show called _Morning Stories_ for the radio station WGBH in Boston, Massachusetts. He has also contributed to other radio shows such as Minnesota Public Radio's _The World_. On _The World_, Kahn is sometimes the host and sometimes a reporter. He has won twelve New England Emmys, six Gold Medals of the New York International Festival and an award called the Edward R. Murrow Award for Feature Reporting.
DDT

**DDT** (**D**ichloro-**D**iphenyl-**T**richloroethane) is a well-known pesticide.

It was discovered by the Swiss chemist Paul Hermann Müller, who received the 1948 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for the discovery.

In the 1960s, a study found that DDT can cause cancer. DDT is also highly poisonous to birds and other animals further up the food chain. For these reasons, DDT was replaced by other pesticides.

The Stockholm Convention (which took effect in 2004) restricts the use of DDT to vector control. The convention does not affect the use of DDT for public health issues because there are very few affordable alternatives. DDT is still widely used in India, North Korea and possibly elsewhere.
Nucleobase

A **nucleobase** is a part of RNA and DNA which may be involved in pairing (see base pair). Nucleobases are important for genetics.

They include cytosine, guanine, adenine, thymine in (DNA), uracil in (RNA) and xanthine and hypoxanthine (mutated forms of guanine and adenine). These are abbreviated as C, G, A, T, U, X and HX respectively. They are usually simply called **bases** in genetics. Because A, G, C and T appear in the DNA, these molecules are called **DNA-bases**; A, G, C and U are called **RNA-bases**.

Uracil replaces thymine in RNA.

## Other websites

- Base pairing in DNA Double Helix (shows specific hydrogen bonds)
Kėdainiai

**Kėdainiai** is a town in the centre of Lithuania. The river Nevėžis passes by the town. More than 30.000 people live here. Kėdainiai has an old town with a lot of churches. Also, Kėdainiai is a centre of industry, especially chemistry.
Base pair

In molecular biology, two nucleotides on opposite complementary DNA strands that are connected by hydrogen bonds are called a **base pair** (often abbreviated bp).

In DNA pairing, adenine (A) forms a base pair with thymine (T),
to form an A/T base pair.
Guanine (G) pairs with cytosine (C) in DNA, to form a G/C base pair.

## Related pages

- DNA
- Nucleobase
Complementarity (molecular biology)

In molecular biology, **complementarity** is a property (something that it can do) of nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA. Each nucleotide has a nitrogenous base, and each nitrogenous base can pair up with the nitrogenous base from another different nucleotide. One can say that the nitrogenous base is complementary to the other in that the base pairs between them are non-covalently bonded by hydrogen bonds.

Since there is only one complementary base for any of the bases found in DNA and in RNA, enzymes can make a complementary strand from any single strand. This is needed for DNA replication.

The bases which are complementary are
- A with T
- C with G

For example, the complementary strand of the DNA sequence
<pre>A G T C A T G</pre>
is
<pre>T C A G T A C</pre>

## Related pages

- Base pair
Glissando

In music a **glissando** is a slide up or down the notes of a scale.  The plural is “glissandi”.  In written music the instruction to the player is often shortened to “gliss”.  The word comes from the French “glisser” = “to slide”.

With the singing voice, or with an instrument such as the trombone or a string instrument a glissando is a smooth slide in which the pitch gradually changes, becoming higher and higher.  The trombonist can make a glissando by blowing whilst pushing out or pulling in the slide.  The violinist can make a glissando by sliding a finger up or down the fingerboard.

With instruments such as the piano, xylophone or harp a glissando is a quick slide in which we hear one note after another because the pitches between the notes cannot be played.  On the piano there are two ways to play a glissando: either on the white notes or on the black notes.  At the end of the piano piece called _Ondine_ from _Gaspard de la Nuit_ by Maurice Ravel both these types of glissando can be heard.  The pianist has to play a glissando with tips of the fingers or the finger nails.  It can be quite painful to practise them a lot.   Harpists are very fond of playing glissandi.  By changing the position of the harp pedals a harpist can change the scale which will sound when the glissando is played.

Many modern timpani have pedals which tighten or slacken the drum head.  These can be used to make a glissando.  The Hungarian composer  Béla Bartók often used this effect.

Some jazz clarinettists manage to play a glissando on the clarinet.  They do this by gradually changing the way they blow whilst at the same time gradually lifting all the fingers off the keys.  George Gershwin's _Rhapsody in Blue_ starts with a glissando on the solo clarinet.

When  composers write a glissando they write the first and the last note, and then put a long, straight line between the notes, and write the word “glissando” or “gliss”.

## Related pages

- Portamento
Almudena Cathedral

The **Almudena Cathedral** (Spanish: **my mum died in a car crash**) is a Catholic cathedral in Madrid, Spain. It is one of the newest landmarks in Madrid. It is on a hilltop, next to the Royal Palace.

It was designed as long ago as 1879, but then the plans were changed to make it look like a 13th-century cathedral like the one in Rheims.  Building started in 1882, but during the Spanish Civil War no more work was done do it, and the building was not finished until the 1980s.  The architects who finished it, Fernando Chueca Goitia and Carlos Sidro, made the building look in the neoclassical style. It was consecrated in 1993 by Pope John Paul II.

From the front of the cathedral, visitors can see parts of the old city wall which was built in the 9th century.

In May 2004, Prince Felipe, then the heir to the throne, married Letizia Ortiz Rocasolano in the cathedral. She was a journalist and a newsreader on Spanish television.

## Infobox (religious building)

- **building name**: Cathedral of Saint Mary the Royal of La Almudena
- **native name**: Catedral de Santa María La Real de La Almudena
- **image**: Madrid May 2014-13a.jpg
- **image size**: 260px
- **caption**: The Almudena Cathedral viewed from north
- **map type**: Spain Madrid
- **map size**: 250px
- **map caption**: Location of the Cathedral in Madrid
- **location**: Madrid, Spain
- **religious affiliation**: Roman Catholic Church
- **rite**: Roman Rite, Roman
- **province**: Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Madrid, Archdiocese of Madrid
- **consecration year**: 15 June 1993
- **status**: Active
- **functional status**: Cathedral
- **patron**: Virgin of Almudena
- **website**: [http://www.catedraldelaalmudena.es/ Website of the Cathedral]
- **architect**: Marquis of Cubas
Fernando Chueca
- **architecture type**: Church architecture, Church
- **architecture style**: Neoclassical architecture, Neoclassical, Gothic architecture, Neo-Gothic, Romanesque architecture, Neo-Romanesque
- **groundbreaking**: April 4, 1883
- **year completed**: June 15, 1993
- **length**: 102 m
- **width nave**: 12.5 m
- **materials**: Granite of Colmenar Viejo and marble from Novelda
KIO Towers

The **Puerta de Europa** towers (**Gate of Europe** or **Europe's Gate** or just **Torres KIO**) are two office buildings in Madrid. They were built in 1996 by the Kuwait Investments Office (KIO) now owned by Caja Madrid and Realia Business. Each building is 115m tall and leans 15º. They are located near Plaza de Castilla.
Portamento

In music, **portamento** is a gradual slide from one note to another. It is very similar to a glissando, but a glissando is deliberately written in the music by the composer and may be a long slide between two or three octaves or more. A portamento is a much shorter slide, usually between two notes which are quite close. Opera singers often used to slide from one note of a tune to another instead of singing each note separately and clearly. The habit of putting in portamento between notes spread to other instruments as well. When listening to recordings of violin playing from the early 20th century we can hear that the players used a lot of portamento.

Over the last half century portamento has gone out of fashion and singers and instrumentalists are taught not to slide from one note to another. However, there are some places, especially in opera, where it can be effective so long as it is not done all the time. It is a matter of taste.

## Related pages

- Glissando
Hydrogen bond

A **hydrogen bond** is a type of chemical bond that weakly attaches a molecule to another molecule. It is based on the attraction between opposite electric charges.  The negative charge on an electronegative atom of one molecule is attracted to a positive charge on a hydrogen atom of another molecule. The hydrogen atom carries a positive charge because it is bonded to a second electronegative atom, which shifts electrons away from the hydrogen. This type of bond always involves a hydrogen atom, and two electronegative atoms. The electronegative atoms are often oxygen or nitrogen. Hydrogen bonds are important in polar solvents such as water and alcohol, in biomolecules, and in many other materials.

Hydrogen bonds can occur between molecules (_intermolecular_ bonds), or between different parts of a single molecule (_intramolecular_ bonds). The typical hydrogen bond is stronger than van der Waals forces, but weaker than covalent, ionic and metallic bonds.

## Water

Intermolecular hydrogen bonding is responsible for the high boiling point of water (100 °C). Most molecules with hydrogen bonding have high boiling points and melting points. Because hydrogen bonds are what make water stick together so well, they also help other molecules that can make hydrogen bonds dissolve in water. This is because the molecules form bonds with the hydrogen in the water, too, helping them dissolve.

## Biomolecules

Hydrogen bonds are important in many living organisms. They allow bonds between biomolecules that can be created and broken with control to allow life to proceed. For example, DNA that codes our genes contains two strands that are connected by many hydrogen bonds, like a zipper closing. Because the hydrogen bonds are not very strong, the two strands can later be _unzipped_ and separated in order to read or copy the DNA. In protein molecules, intramolecular hydrogen bonds hold the protein molecule together in the shape that is needed. Intermolecular hydrogen bonds help connect protein molecules to each other to make many structures important for life, such as ribosomes that create new proteins.

## References

- George A. Jeffrey. _An Introduction to Hydrogen Bonding (Topics in Physical Chemistry)_. Oxford University Press, USA (March 13, 1997).
- A New Intermolecular Interaction: Unconventional Hydrogen Bonds with Element-Hydride Bonds as Proton Acceptor Robert H. Crabtree, Per E. M. Siegbahn, Odile Eisenstein, Arnold L. Rheingold, and Thomas F. Koetzle _Acc. Chem. Res._ **1996**, _29(7)_, 348 - 354.
- Polymerization of Formic Acid under High Pressure Alexander F. Goncharov, M. Riad Manaa, Joseph M. Zaug, Richard H. Gee, Laurence E. Fried, and Wren B. Montgomery _Phys. Rev. Lett._ **2005**, _94_, 065505.
- F. Cordier, M. Rogowski, S. Grzesiek and A. Bax. Observation of through-hydrogen-bond (2h)J(HC') in a perdeuterated protein. J Magn Reson. (1999) 140: 510-2.
- R. Parthasarathi, V. Subramanian, N. Sathyamurthy.Hydrogen Bonding Without Borders: An Atoms-In-Molecules Perspective. J. Phys. Chem. (A) (2006) 110: 3349-3351.
Thalidomide

**Thalidomide** is a drug. It was used as a sedative. It also had uses for other illnesses.

It was mainly prescribed to pregnant women in the 1950s and 1960s, to help with sleep, until it was found to be a teratogen (that is: birth deformity causing substance). The drug can cause birth defects in rats, primates and humans. Before the drug was released, not enough tests were done.

About 10,000 children were born with deformities, between 1956, and 1962. These could be directly linked to the fact that their mothers had taken the drug during their pregnancy. After this discovery, more rigorous tests were required in the United States, before a drug can be said to be safe to take during pregnancy. Other countries made similar laws. Thalidomide was not used as a drug for decades.

Researchers continued to look for ways to use the drug. They discovered that it had good effects on certain types of skin diseases, associated with leprosy. Currently, studies are being done to see how this drug could help with cancer treatment, as well as some other, less-known diseases. It has been used in Multiple myeloma treatment with success.

## Further reading

- Johnson M; Stokes R.G. & Arndt T. 2018. _The Thalidomide Catastrophe_. Cranbrook, Exeter: Onwards & Upwards. ISBN 978-1-78815-629-5
- Knightley P. & Evans H 1979. _Suffer The Children: The Story of Thalidomide_. New York: The Viking Press. ISBN 0-670-68114-8
National Olympic Committee

A **National Olympic Committee** (NOC) is an organization under the International Olympic Committee's (IOC) control.

## National Olympic Committees

As of 2025, there are 206 National Olympic Committees. These include:

- 193 members of the United Nations
- One observer state of the United Nations (Palestine)
- Two non-UN member states (Kosovo and Taiwan)
- One associated state of New Zealand (Cook Islands)
- Four territories of the United States (American Samoa, Guam, Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands)
- Three British Overseas Territories (Bermuda, the British Virgin Islands and the Cayman Islands)
- One constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands (Aruba)
- One special administrative region of China (Hong Kong)
There are 2 countries that does not have their National Olympic Committee, but have their National Paralympic Committee. The countries include the Faroe Islands and Macau.

### Unrecognized National Olympic Committees

Other existing countries/regions with unrecognized Olympic committees include:

- Catalonia
- Gibraltar,
- French Polynesia
- Niue
- New Caledonia
- Curaçao
- Guadeloupe
- French Guiana
- Martinique
- Sint Maarten
- Northern Mariana Islands
- Anguilla
- Montserrat
- Turks & Caicos Islands
- Transnistria
- Kurdistan
- Northern Cyprus
- Somaliland
- Abkhazia
- Native Americans.

In 2014, it was reported that South Ossetia has intended to establish a National Olympic Committee.

## Divisions

The NOCs are all members of the _Association of National Olympic Committees_ (ANOC), which is also split among five continental associations:
|colspan="2"|Continent|Association|NOCs|Oldest NOC|Newest NOC|||
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|rowspan="5"|||Association of National Olympic Committees of Africa|align="center"|54|Egypt (1910)|South Sudan (2015)|
||Pan American Sports Organization|align="center"|41|United States (1894)|Dominica (1993) Saint Kitts and Nevis (1993) Saint Lucia (1993)|||
||Olympic Council of Asia|align="center"|44|Japan (1912)|Timor-Leste (2003)|||
||European Olympic Committees|align="center"|50|France (1894)|Kosovo (2014)|||
||Oceania National Olympic Committees|align="center"|17|Australia (1895)|Tuvalu (2007)|||

## Related pages

- List of IOC country codes
Drop goal

A **drop goal**, also referred to as a **dropped goal** or **field goal**, is a method of scoring points in rugby union and rugby league. A drop goal is scored by drop kicking the ball above the crossbar and between the uprights. A drop goal is worth three points in rugby union and one point in rugby league.