juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Dioxin

**Dioxins** are a group of organic compounds. They have an aromatic ring where two carbon atoms have been replaced by oxygen atoms. The simplest compound, 1,4-dioxin, is very unstable, but related chemicals with more rings are more stable. The name "dioxins" in common use means these chemicals, more accurately called **dioxins and dioxin-like compounds**, especially **polychlorinated dibenzodioxins**, which are a notable environmental pollutant and carcinogen.

Dioxins have few uses and are mostly made as a byproduct of making other organochlorides, or burning organic material that was mixed with chlorine compounds like bleach. The main historical source of dioxins was Examples where dioxins can result are the production of PVC or the bleaching of paper. In nature, they are produced in volcanoes and forest fires.

A chemical accident where a lot of dioxin was released was the Seveso disaster.
Arnold Sommerfeld

**Arnold Johannes Wilhelm Sommerfeld** (December 5, 1868 in Königsberg, East Prussia – April 26, 1951 in Munich) was a German mathematician and theoretical physicist.

## Education

Sommerfeld was the son of a practical physician. After finishing school in 1886, he started studying mathematics at the University of Königsberg. In 1891 he wrote his doctorate thesis about arbitrary functions in mathematical physics. Afterwards he had to serve in the army.

Then he went to Göttingen. He became assistant at the institute for mineralogy, but was still interested in mathematical physics.

## Works

In 1894 he became the assistant of Felix Klein. The year after he wrote his habilitation about the mathematical theory of optical diffraction and became docent for mathematics in Göttingen.

In 1897 Sommerfeld married. In the same year he became ordinary professor for mathematics at the mining college of Clausthal. Three years later he got a professorship at the Technical University of Aachen.

In 1906 he became professor for theoretical physics in Munich, were he stood for his lifetime. While he was professor in Munich, he travelled twice around the world - in 1922/23 he was guest professor in Wisconsin and travelled afterwards through India, China and Japan, in 1928/29 he made a journey through the US as a university teacher.

He started taking out a pension in 1935, but he still worked until 1940. There was a lot of trouble choosing the person who should follow him. Sommerfeld wanted to have Werner Heisenberg to follow him, but in the time of the Nazi regime the job could only go to a person who taught the so-called German Physics, which included a kind of mysticism. Sommerfeld tried to prevent that.

Sommerfeld died in 1951 in a traffic accident.

## Works

- _Theorie des Kreisels_. 4 volumes (with Felix Klein), Leipzig 1897-1910
- _Atombau und Spektrallinien_. Braunschweig 1919
- _Vorlesungen über theoretische Physik_
    - Vol. 1: _Mechanik_. Leipzig 1943
    - Vol. 2: _Mechanik der deformierbaren Medien_. Leipzig 1945
    - Vol. 3: _Elektrodynamik_. Wiesbaden 1948
    - Vol. 4: _Optik_. Wiesbaden 1950
    - Vol. 5: _Thermodynamik und Statistik_. Wiesbaden 1952
    - Vol. 6: _Partielle Differentialgleichungen der Physik_. Leipzig 1945

## Other websites

- http://www.lrz-muenchen.de/~Sommerfeld/
- http://www.chemie.uni-bremen.de/stohrer/biograph/sommer.htm
- http://www.wissenschaftsforschung.de/JB98_135-152.pdf
James Clerk Maxwell

**James Clerk Maxwell** (born 13 June 1831 in Edinburgh – died 5 November 1879) was a British mathematician, physicist and discoverer of Maxwell's equations.

## Early life

Maxwell grew up in a rich religious family. In 1845, when he was only 14, he wrote a paper describing a way of drawing mathematical curves with a piece of string. In 1847 he started studying mathematics at the University of Edinburgh. In 1850 Maxwell changed to Peterhouse and then Trinity College at the University of Cambridge. He won prizes from the university for his work and was given his degree in 1854. From 1855 to 1872 he did research on colour blindness.

## Works

In 1856 Maxwell was made a professor of 'Natural Philosophy' (which is what science was called then) at Marischal College, Aberdeen. He worked there until the two colleges in Aberdeen joined together in 1860 and he lost his job. He then became a professor at King's College London. In 1861 he was elected to the Royal Society.

In 1871, he became the first Cavendish Professor of Physics at Cambridge. He studied many things, but is known best for his mathematical work on electromagnetism and on the behaviour of gases. He used the experiments of Michael Faraday  to see how magnetism and electricity were connected.  This helped him to make his equations that allowed scientists to understand light and radio waves.

He lived at Glenlair House, his family estate near the village of Parton, Castle Douglas in Kirkcudbrightshire. Maxwell died in 1879 from cancer, and is buried in the graveyard at Parton Church.

## Publications

- Maxwell, James Clerk, "_On the Description of Oval Curves, and those having a plurality of Focus (geometry)|Foci_". Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Vol. ii. 1846.
- Maxwell, James Clerk, "_Illustrations of the Dynamical Theory of Gases_". 1860.
- Maxwell, James Clerk, "_On Physical Lines of Force_". 1861.
- Maxwell, James Clerk, "_A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field_". 1865.
- Maxwell, James Clerk, "_On Governors _".From the Proceedings of the Royal Society, No.100. 1868.
- Maxwell, James Clerk, "_Theory of Heat_". 1871.
- Maxwell, James Clerk, "_A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism_". Clarendon Press, Oxford. 1873.
- Maxwell, James Clerk, "_Molecules _". Nature, September, 1873.
- Maxwell, James Clerk, "_Matter and Motion _", 1876.
- Maxwell, James Clerk, "_On the Results of Bernoulli's Theory of Gases as Applied to their Internal Friction, their Diffusion, and their Conductivity for Heat_".
- Maxwell, James Clerk, "Ether", Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition (1875–89).
Roman Vishniac

**Roman Vishniac** (; ; August 19, 1897 – January 22, 1990) was a Russian-American photographer and a biologist. He is well known for taking pictures of Jewish culture in Central and Eastern Europe before the Holocaust. Many of these pictures are in his book, _A Vanished World_, published in 1983.

## Infobox (person)

- **name**: Roman Vishniac (Роман Вишняк)
- **image**: Vishniac.jpg
- **caption**: Roman Vishniac, 1977. Photo by Andrew A. Skolnick
- **birth place**: Pavlovsk, Saint Petersburg, Pavlovsk, Russian Empire
- **death place**: New York City, United States
- **occupation**: Photographer, Biologist
- **nationality**: Russian, American
- **spouse**:

- **children**: Wolf V. Vishniac 1922-1973, Mara Vishniac b. 1926
Depleted uranium

**Depleted uranium** is what is left over after uranium is enriched. Enriched uranium has enough uranium-235 to be used in nuclear reactors or nuclear weapons. Depleted uranium is made up mostly of the isotope uranium-238. Uranium-238 is mildly radioactive. Uranium is very dense, or heavy for its size. Because of this, depleted uranium is used in armor piercing bullets and heavy machine guns. Its high density allows weapons to put more energy into a fired bullet which causes more damage to its targets. Bullets made from it will burn when they hit something hard, and their smoke is dangerous to breathe.

Depleted uranium has long been used in nuclear reactors to make plutonium for producing nuclear energy. In 2010 a new kind of "traveling wave reactor" was proposed to use it more directly.
Commuting

**Commuting** is the act of travelling from home to a workplace every day. A **commuter** is a person who **commutes**. This was uncommon until the 19th century, when the word was invented for people who used public transport daily. For many commuters, home is a suburb and work is in the inner city; but the reverse is sometimes the case and is called a reverse commute. Commuters may use other transport, such as cars or bicycles.

## Other websites

- US Commuting Averages (2002)
- Some Commuters are travelling from France to London
- Platform 11 - Ireland's National Rail Commuter Group
Anne Redpath

**Anne Redpath** (1895 – 1965) was a Scottish artist. She was born in Galashiels, Scotland.

She was the daughter of a tweed designer. Her father's work affected her use of colour and texture in her paintings. "I do with a spot of red or yellow in a harmony of grey, what my father did in his tweed", she said. She went to France during 1920 – 1933.

## Images

- Altar in Pigna
- National Galleries of Scotland
- Still Life with Two Figures
- Tate Gallery

## Infobox (artist)

- **name**: Anne Redpath
- **birth place**: Galashiels, Scotland
- **death place**: Edinburgh, Scotland
- **education**: Edinburgh College of Art
- **field**: Painting
- **movement**: The Edinburgh School
CD-RW

A **CD-RW** (which stands for **Compact Disc ReWritable**) is a Compact disc that can be recorded and erased multiple times. It can hold data or music. Most of the time it will hold data, since many CD players can not play CD-RWs. During its development, the format was known as **CD-E**, which stands for **Compact Disc Erasable**. The standard was introduced in 1997. It replaced the less successful CD-MO.

The disk used for this is an optical disc. Phase change technology is used to write to the disk. A laser beam is used to heat a certain point of the disk. Once this point is hot, the information stored there can be changed.

According to what the manufacturers of these disks say, it is possible to record and erase such a disk up to 1000 times. They behave very much like CD-Rs, otherwise. Entire sessions can be written. As long as there is space on the disc, new sessions can be appended. To be readable in an ordinary CD drive, all sessions must be closed though.

CD-RWs never gained the popularity of CD-Rs. This is because they are more expensive to make and to buy. Also, not all CD drives can read them. Reading and writing speeds are also lower than those of pre-made CDs and CD-Rs.

Also, like with the CD-R, it is impractical (and slow) to use these disks to quickly add or remove small files. Other formats, like Zip disk, Jaz disk, Magneto-optical disks, and USB flash drives are More used for quickly reading, writing, or erasing small (sets of) files. When a deletion needs to be made, the whole CD needs to be erased.

CD-RWs (like CD-Rs) are more used for backups.  They are usually cheaper than tape-based solutions.

Depending on the method used to write, and the type of disk used, usable capacities range from about 500 to 700 megabytes.

Pretty much the same concepts are used for DVD-RWs, which have a much higher capacity.
Magneto-optical drive

A **Magneto-optical drive** is a disk drive for computers. It can read and write data to magneto-optical disks. The technology was made at the end of the 1980s. Both 5.25" and 3.5" media exist. The disks look like CD-ROMs, but they are protected with a plastic cover. The MiniDisc is a Magneto-optical disk. The other disks look similar but have a bigger physical size.

## How it works

The operating system sees (and uses) the disk like a normal hard-drive. 3.5" disks can hold between 128 megabytes (MB) and 2.3 gigabytes (GB) of data. 5.25" disks hold between 650 MB and 16.7 GB.

## Resistance

All disks have a physical write protection switch (like 3.5" floppy disks). They are pretty resistant to data change, can support temperatures up to about 100 °C, and do not care much about light.

DVD-RAM disks are very similar in appearance, they are optical though.
Oulu

**Oulu** () is a city in Northern Ostrobothnia, Finland. It is the biggest city in the Northern Finland. The population of Oulu was about 193,000 in January 2014. It is the sixth largest city in Finland.

Municipalities next to Oulu are Hailuoto, Ii, Kempele, Liminka, Lumijoki, Muhos, Pudasjärvi, Tyrnävä and Utajärvi.

There is a university in Oulu. The university is one of the largest in Finland, with over 15,000 students.

Many people work in technology firms making mobile phones, computers and software.

## History

Oulu was established in 1605, so it is more than 400 years old. In the old days, Oulu was famous for selling tar all over the world.

## Subdivisions

Oulu has 106 city districts.

In 2009, the former municipality of Ylikiiminki became a part of Oulu. In 2013, the former municipalities of Haukipudas, Kiiminki, Oulunsalo and Yli-Ii were merged to form the city of Oulu.

## Places to visit in Oulu

- Oulu Cathedral
- Hupisaaret Park
- The market and the old market hall
James Boswell

**James Boswell** (29 October 1740 (N.S.) – 19 May 1795) was a Scottish lawyer and author. He is best known for having written the Life of Johnson, a biography of his close friend Samuel Johnson, published in 1791. In the 1920s and 1930s, a large number of his personal papers and journals were discovered. They have since then been published by Yale University.

## Other websites

- James Boswell - a guide
Gondola

A **Gondola** is a kind of boat. Gondolas are mainly used in Venice. Unlike other boats, a long oar is used to move the gondola.
MiniDisc

A **MiniDisc** (**MD**) is a small magneto-optical disk. It is used as a replacement for the Audio cassette. It was developed by Sony to store music. Later it was modified, so it can also store data. The music it stores is compressed in some way, like an MP3. Recent Hi-MD models have the option to not compress audio, and offer audio identical to CD-quality.

MiniDisc recorders allow the user to modify the contents of (recordable) disks. That way, tracks can be split, combined or rearranged. Audio tracks can be input while a live recording is in progress, too, for example, while recording a live concert or interview via the microphone input on a MiniDisc recorder.
Lolita

***Lolita*** is a novel by Vladimir Nabokov. The book was written in English. It was published in Paris in 1955. It was translated into Russian by Nabokov. The story is about the sexual relationship that develops in the United States between a middle-aged British professor and a 12-year-old girl after he becomes her stepfather. It was a very controversial book. The novel was made into a movie by Stanley Kubrick in 1962, and remade in 1997.

## Related pages

- Le Monde's 100 Books of the Century

## Other websites

- National Public Radio: "50 Years Later, _Lolita_ Still Seduces Readers"
- _Stanford Magazine_: "The Lolita Question"
- Slate magazine: "Lolita at 50 - Is Nabokov's masterpiece still shocking?"
- Photos of the first edition of Lolita
- Lolita USA: The itineraries of Humbert's and Lolita's two voyages across the U.S.A. 1947–1949, with maps and pictures.
- Lolita Calendar—A detailed and referenced inner chronology of Nabokov's novel.
- Zembla —A resource of the Arts & Humanities Library of the Pennsylvania State University Libraries, home of the International Vladimir Nabokov Society and its publication _The Nabokovian_.

## Infobox (book)

- **name**: Lolita
- **image**: Lolita 1955.JPG
- **image caption**: First edition
- **author**: Vladimir Nabokov
- **country**: France
- **language**: English
- **genre**: Novel
- **pub date**: 1955, in Paris
- **media type**: Print
Angela Haynes

**Angela Haynes** (born September 27, 1984 in Bellflower, California ) is a professional tennis player from the United States. Haynes's top WTA singles ranking is **World No. 95** which she got in August, 2005. Angela was ranked World No. 157, race-singles World No. 120 and World No. 171 in doubles as of November 7, 2009.

Haynes' brother, Dontia Haynes, who used to be a San Diego State University tennis player ranked among the top 100 ranked collegiate tennis players in the United States, died on September 23, 2005.

## Clothing

Angela's clothes are made by Adidas. Her racquets are made by Babolat. Angela's current racquet is believed to be the Babolat Pure Storm. Angela likes to wear bandanas while playing.

## Appearances

Angela appears in _Top Spin 2_ which is for the Xbox 360, Nintendo Game Boy, and Nintendo DS.

## Infobox (tennis biography)

- **name**: Angela Haynes
- **image**: Angela Haynes Albuquerque 2008.jpg
- **residence**: Irvine, California
- **birth place**: Bellflower, California, Bellflower, California
- **turnedpro**: 2002
- **retired**: 2014
- **plays**: Left-handed (two-handed backhand)
- **careerprizemoney**: $492,425
- **singlesrecord**: 223–201
- **singlestitles**: 2 ITF
- **highestsinglesranking**: No. 95 (August 22, 2005)
- **australianopenresult**: 1R (2005 Australian Open – Women's Singles, 2005)
- **frenchopenresult**: 1R (2005 French Open – Women's Singles, 2005)
- **wimbledonresult**: 1R (2005 Wimbledon Championships – Women's Singles, 2005)
- **usopenresult**: 3R (2004 US Open – Women's Singles, 2004)
- **doublesrecord**: 135–129
- **doublestitles**: 0 WTA, 8 ITF
- **highestdoublesranking**: No. 86 (September 15, 2008)
- **wimbledondoublesresult**: 2R (2008 Wimbledon Championships – Women's Doubles, 2008)
- **usopendoublesresult**: 1R (2003 US Open – Women's Doubles, 2003, 2005 US Open – Women's Doubles, 2005, 2006 US Open – Women's Doubles, 2006, 2007 US Open – Women's Doubles, 2007, 2008 US Open – Women's Doubles, 2008, 2009 US Open – Women's Doubles, 2009)
Vania King

**Vania King** (born February 3, 1989) is an American tennis player. She was born in Monterrey Park, California. King was ranked the 50th best player in the world in 2006.

She won her first singles title against Tamarine Tanasugarn at Bangkok, Thailand. Vania won 2-6, 6-4, 6-4. King also won the doubles title at Bangkok with partner Jelena Kostanic. King got second place with her partner Alexa Glatch at the 2005 US Open Juniors.

## Other websites

- Vania King's Official Site
- Vania King profile at Juniortennis.com
- Interview with Vania King

## Infobox (tennis biography)

- **name**: Vania King (金久慈)
- **image**: King V. US16 (4) (29780153461).jpg
- **caption**: King at the 2016 US Open (tennis), 2016 US Open
- **residence**: Boynton Beach, Florida, Boynton Beach, Florida, USA
- **birth place**: Monterey Park, California, Monterey
Park, California, USA
- **turnedpro**: July 5, 2006
- **plays**: Right-handed (two-handed backhand)
- **careerprizemoney**: US$4,303,197
- **singlesrecord**: 267–245
- **singlestitles**: 1 WTA, 0 ITF
- **highestsinglesranking**: No. 50 (6 November 2006)
- **currentsinglesranking**: No. 912 (16 July 2018)
- **australianopenresult**: 3R (2012 Australian Open – Women's Singles, 2012)
- **frenchopenresult**: 3R (2011 French Open – Women's Singles, 2011)
- **wimbledonresult**: 2R (2006 Wimbledon Championships – Women's Singles, 2006, 2009 Wimbledon Championships – Women's Singles, 2009)
- **usopenresult**: 3R (2009 US Open – Women's Singles, 2009, 2011 US Open – Women's Singles, 2011)
- **doublesrecord**: 305-189
- **doublestitles**: 15 WTA, 4 ITF
- **highestdoublesranking**: No. 3 (6 June 2011)
- **currentdoublesranking**: No. 43 (16 July 2018)
- **australianopendoublesresult**: QF (2012 Australian Open – Women's Doubles, 2012, 2016 Australian Open – Women's Doubles, 2016)
- **frenchopendoublesresult**: SF (2011 French Open – Women's Doubles, 2011)
- **wimbledondoublesresult**: **W** (2010 Wimbledon Championships – Women's Doubles, 2010)
- **usopendoublesresult**: **W** (2010 US Open – Women's Doubles, 2010)
- **othertournamentsdoubles**: yes
- **wtachampionshipsdoublesresult**: SF (2010 WTA Tour Championships – Doubles, 2010, 2011 WTA Tour Championships – Doubles, 2011)
- **australianopenmixedresult**: 2R (2018 Australian Open – Mixed Doubles, 2018)
- **frenchopenmixedresult**: F (2009 French Open – Mixed Doubles, 2009)
- **wimbledonmixedresult**: 2R (2007 Wimbledon Championships – Mixed Doubles, 2007, 2014 Wimbledon Championships – Mixed Doubles, 2014)
- **usopenmixedresult**: QF (2006 US Open – Mixed Doubles, 2006)
- **updated**: July 20, 2018


## Infobox (chinese)

- **p**: Jīn Jiǔcí
- **bpmf**: ㄐㄧㄣ ㄐㄧㄡˇ ㄘˊ
- **gr**: Jin Jeoutsyr
- **w**: Chin<sup>1</sup> Chiu<sup>3</sup>tzʻu<sup>2</sup>
- **tp**: Jin Jiǒucíh
- **myr**: Jīn Jyǒutsź
- **mps**: Jīn Jiǒu-tsź
Bottle cap

**Bottle caps** are used to seal the opening of bottles. For glass bottles, these are usually small, specially adapted pieces of metal. With plastic bottles, plastic caps are used instead.

The original bottle cap was called **Crown cork**. It is pressed onto the bottle, and can be removed, using a bottle opener.

In recent years bottle caps with screw on mounts are used that way, a bottle opener is no longer required. Caps for plastic bottles are often made of a different type of plastic from the bottle.

A cork is another type of closure for the top of a bottle.
Quality

**Quality** is how good something is. If the quality of a product is high then that means that it is fit for its purpose. If the quality of an item is low that means that the product may break easily or not work properly. When people say something is a quality product that means that the product is of good quality. Usually higher-quality products cost more money, because the materials used to make them are better, or the way they were made was more effective. In other words, things that are low quality are cheap.

Quality is understood differently by different people, depending on what they consider quality to be. Generally, though, it is how well a product is suited to the purpose it was made for.

## Related pages

- Quantity
Gargoyle

A **gargoyle** is a grotesque statue that is attached to a building. It is carved out of stone, usually granite. It is used to get water away from the building when it rains. Gargoyles are often made to look like animals or people. The collected water comes out of their mouths. Most gargoyles were made a long time ago. People used to believe that they scared away evil spirits. Many cathedrals have  many gargoyles.

New buildings use rain gutters instead of gargoyles to move water. There are not many gargoyles in America.

Gargoyles are often confused with grotesques. They are similar, but only gargoyles get rid of rainwater through their mouths.
Oostende

**Ostend** (, ;  ;  ; , literally "East End") is a city in the Belgian province of West Flanders.

In 2007, 69115 people lived there.

It is at 51° 13 North, 02° 54 East.
Abuja

**Abuja**  ()  is a city in Nigeria. It is the national capital of Nigeria. Around 2.5 million people live there. Abuja is in the middle of the country, in the center of the Federal Capital Territory, Nigeria.  It replaced Lagos, the country's most populous city but very small in size, as the capital on 12 December 1991.

Abuja is a planned city, which means that architects designed it specifically to be Nigeria's capital city. Construction of the first parts of the city was finished in the late 1980s.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Abuja
- **official name**: Federal capital city
- **image skyline**: Abuja Collage.jpg
- **imagesize**: 300
- **image caption**: From top (L–R): View of a street in Maitama District, Abuja, Maitama District, Abuja National Mosque, Zuma Rock, fountain in Millennium Park (Abuja), Millennium Park, Central Bank of Nigeria, Central Bank headquarters, and nighttime skyline of Central Business District, Abuja
- **nickname**: ABJ
- **map caption**: Location of Abuja in Nigeria
- **pushpin map**: Nigeria#Africa
- **pushpin relief**: 1
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision type1**: Territory
- **subdivision name1**: Federal Capital Territory (Nigeria), Federal Capital Territory
- **established title**: Settled
- **established date**: 1828
- **established title1**: Municipal corporation, Incorporated
- **established date1**: 1 October 1984
- **established title2**: Declared capital
- **established date2**: 12 December 1991
- **leader title**: Urban planner, City Planner
- **leader name**: Federal Capital Development Authority (FCDA)
- **leader title1**: City manager, City Management
- **leader name1**: Abuja Metropolitan Management Council (AMMC)
- **area total km2**: 1,769
- **elevation m**: 840
- **area urban km2**: 713
- **population total**: 1,235,880
- **population as of**: 2011 estimate
- **population density km2**: auto
- **population density urban km2**: 3423
- **population rank**: List of Nigerian cities by population, 7th
- **population urban**: 2,440,000
- **population metro**: 6,000,000 (estimated)
- **postal code type**: Postal codes
- **postal code**: 900211–900288
- **website**: [https://www.fcta.gov.ng www.fcta.gov.ng]
- **type**: Local government area
- **timezone**: GMT+1
- **utc offset**: +1
- **blank name**: Köppen climate classification, Climate
- **blank info**: Tropical savanna climate, Aw
Irony

**Irony** is a term for a figure of speech. Irony is when something happens that is opposite from what is expected. It can often be funny, but it is also used in tragedies. There are many types of irony, including those listed below:
- _Dramatic irony_, when the audience knows something is going to happen on stage that the characters on stage do not.
- _Socratic irony_, when someone (usually a teacher) pretends to be stupid in order to show how stupid his pupils are (while at the same time the reader or audience understand the situation).
- _Cosmic irony_, when something that everyone thinks will happen actually happens very differently.
- _Situational irony_ e.g. Mr. Smith gets a parking ticket. This is ironic because Mr. Smith is a traffic warden.
- _Verbal irony_ is an absence of expression and intention. Sarcasm may sometimes involve verbal irony.
- _Irony of fate_ is the misfortune in the result of fate or chance.
- The difference between of things seem to be or reality.

## Examples

- In Shakespeare's play _Romeo and Juliet_, Juliet takes a potion that will put her to sleep, making her look dead. She does this in the hopes of being reunited with Romeo. He incorrectly learns of her death, and kills himself. This is an example of dramatic irony, as the reader/viewer knows she is not dead, but Romeo does not.
- A common example of cosmic irony could be that a child wants some kind of pudding, and misbehaves to try to get it. The parent withholds it because of the child's behavior.
- Verbal irony can be found in sarcasm, but not just that.
- In Sophocles' play _Oedipus Rex_, Oedipus acts out based on the knowledge of his fate which in turn leads to the fulfillment of the tragic fate. This is an example of how fate plays on irony.

## Related pages

- Cynic
- Paradox
- Parody
- Sarcasm
- Trope
Assault rifle

An **assault rifle** is a rifle that has a removable magazine, automatic-fire and semi-automatic modes, and uses intermediate cartridges. These cartridges include the 5.56 NATO and 7.62x39mm cartridges. Intermediate cartridges have more power and penetration than pistol cartridges fired by submachine guns, and less than the larger battle rifle cartridges.

Two rifles made in Italy and Russia before World War I are sometimes called assault rifles. The Germans were the first to use **assault rifles** in large numbers.

Common examples of "assault rifles" are the English L85, Russian AK-47, the American M16.

The term “assault rifle” comes from the firearm **Sturmgewehr 44 (StG 44)**, translated to “Assault Rifle 1944”. The armed forces of other sovereign states adopted assault rifles later.

The term "assault rifle" and less commonly "assault weapon" have seen increasing use by American, Canadian and European politicians seeking to limit access to civilian rifles that fire similar or identical rounds to common "assault" or "battle" rifles, such as the 308 Winchester or the 30-06 Springfield.
Salvador Dalí

**Salvador Domingo Felipe Jacinto Dalí i Domènech, 1st Marquess of Dalí of Púbol**  (; ; ; 11 May 1904 – 23 January 1989) was a Spanish painter who became famous for the unusual images he used in his paintings. He was born in Figueres, Catalonia, Spain. He was a key figure in surrealist art.

His most famous work was _The Persistence of Memory_ (1931), which is now in MoMA, the Museum of Modern Art in New York. It is a dream-like landscape with a soft, melted pocket-watch.

Dalí died of a Cardiac arrest on January 23, 1989 in Catalonia, Spain. Salvador Dalí had a wife called Gala Dalí.

## Related pages

- Surrealism
- List of Spanish painters
Anne Mowbray, 8th Countess of Norfolk

**Anne de Mowbray, _Baroness Mowbray**_ (10 December 1472 - 19 November 1481) was the daughter of John Mowbray, 4th Duke of Norfolk and Elizabeth Talbot. She was born in 1472 in Framlingham Castle, Suffolk, England. She also became Baroness Segrave.

When Anne's father died in 1476 Anne became very rich. She also became Countess of Norfolk. Anne was married to Richard of York on 15 January, 1478 in Westminster Abbey. Richard was the son of King Edward IV of England and Elizabeth Woodville. Richard's father had married him to Anne so that he could have control of her fortune. When he married Anne became known as the Duchess of York

Anne died when she was 8 years old at Greenwich, London, England in 1481. Her body was placed in a lead coffin in the Chapel of St Erasmus of Formiae in Westminster Abbey. However, when this chapel was knocked down around 1502 to make room for the Henry VII Lady Chapel, Anne's coffin became lost.

In December 1964, construction workers in Stepney, London, accidentally found Anne's coffin. It was opened and Anne's remains were looked at by scientists. Anne's body still had a shroud wrapped around her and there was still red hair on her skull. Her body was later reburied in Westminster Abbey.

A facial reconstruction of the duchess, commissioned by the late John Ashdown-Hill and executed by Amy Thornton of Dundee University, was completed in 2016.

## References

From The Peerage.com
Framlingham Castle

**Framlingham Castle** is a castle in Framlingham, Suffolk, England.  It was once the home of the Dukes of Norfolk, and was where Anne Mowbray, 8th Countess of Norfolk was born in 1472.

## Infobox (military structure)

- **name**: Framlingham Castle
- **location**: Framlingham, Suffolk, England
- **image**: Franglingham Castle 01.jpg
- **caption**: The Inner Court and Lower Court from the northwest
- **map type**: Suffolk
- **map size**: 200
- **map caption**: Shown within Suffolk
- **materials**: Flint, Septarian concretion, septaria and sandstone
- **condition**: Largely intact
- **ownership**: English Heritage
- **open to public**: Yes
- **events**: Revolt of 1173–1174, Revolt of 1173–4, First Barons' War
Warwick Castle

**Warwick Castle** (pronounced 'Worrick') is a large castle in Warwickshire, England. It is near the town of Warwick. The castle was once the family home of the Earls of Warwick.

There are many rooms in the castle. Some of the rooms have mannequins in them that look like real people. These are dressed in costume. They are used to show how people might have lived in the castle hundreds of years ago. Warwick Castle has a dungeon. One part of the castle is said to be haunted. Actors play the part of the ghost and the servant who killed him in a dramatic "Spook Experience". Lights and sounds are used to add to the effect.

The castle has a very high wall walk. It can be explored, so that visitors can see from where the guards looked for enemies. A long, steep flight of steps leads up to the highest part of the castle where the flagpole is.

There are many paintings in the castle. There are portraits of English Kings and Queens as well as of members of the family who owned the castle. It is possible to see the private chambers, or bedrooms, where the family and their most important guests slept.

## Other websites

- Warwick Castle
- Warwick Castle in photos
Edinburgh Castle

**Edinburgh Castle** is a castle in Edinburgh, Scotland. It is built on the volcanic Castle Rock in the centre of Edinburgh, and is easy to see from the main shopping streets. In 1103, Edinburgh Castle was built which makes the Castle over 900 years old. The castle has a military display every year, called a _tattoo_, where soldiers show their skills at marching and competitions, and there are brass bands and bands of bagpipes.

## Infobox (castle)

- **name**: Edinburgh Castle
- **image**:
- **details-type**: <big>Details of
Edinburgh Castle</big>
- **country**: Scotland, United Kingdom
- **city**: Edinburgh
- **built and foundation**: 1103
1103
- **founder**: David I of Scotland,  King David I of Scotland
Alfred Kinsey

**Alfred Charles Kinsey** (June 23, 1894  August 25, 1956) was an American biologist. He was born in Hoboken, New Jersey.

In the first part of his career he was an entomologist specializing in gall wasps of the family Cynipidae. Later, he became famous for the research he did on human sexuality. His research had a great influence on social and cultural values in many parts of the world. It also had an influence on the sexual revolution of the 1960s and 70s.

Kinsey and his co-workers wrote two books which became known as the Kinsey Reports. They were based on thousands of interviews with men (first report), and then women. The aim was to find out how widespread or differentiated human sexual practices were. He developed the **Kinsey Scale** to measure sexual orientation. On one end of the scale, at the value 0, the individual is entirely heterosexual. On the other end, at value 6, he or she has a purely homosexual orientation. Kinsey was bisexual.

Kinsey died of heart disease and pneumonia in Bloomington, Indiana.

A biopic of him, _Kinsey_, was released in 2004.

- Research into sexual behaviour was also conducted by the Masters and Johnson research team: William H. Masters and Virginia E. Johnson.

## Early work

Kinsey wrote his doctoral thesis on gall wasps. In 1919, Kinsey was awarded a ScD degree by Harvard University, and he accepted an academic post in biology at Indiana University.

In 1920 he published several papers in the American Museum of Natural History in New York City. The papers introduced the gall wasp to the scientific community and described its phylogeny. Of the more than 18 million insects in the museum's collection, some 5 million are gall wasps collected by Kinsey.

## Biographies of Kinsey

- Christenson, Cornelia (1971). _Kinsey: A Biography_. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
- Drucker, Donna J. (2014). _The Classification of Sex: Alfred Kinsey and the Organization of Knowledge_. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.
- Gathorne-Hardy, Jonathan (1998). _Alfred C. Kinsey: Sex the Measure of All Things_. London: Chatto & Windus.
- Hegarty, Peter (2013). _Gentlemen's Disagreement: Alfred Kinsey, Lewis Terman, and the Sexual Politics of Smart Men_. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2013.
- Jones, James H. (1997). _Alfred C. Kinsey: A Public/Private Life_. New York: Norton.
- Pomeroy, Wardell (1972). _Dr. Kinsey and the Institute for Sex Research_. New York: Harper & Row.
Ruthenium

**Ruthenium** is a chemical element. It has the chemical symbol **Ru**. It has the atomic number 44. It is a rare metal. It is silver white. In chemistry it is placed in a group of metal elements named the transition metals. It is also part of the platinum group. Ruthenium is found in platinum ores.

Ruthenium is used as a catalyst in some platinum alloys.
Niobium

**Niobium** is a chemical element. It is sometimes named **columbium**. It has the chemical symbol **Nb**. It has the atomic number 41. It is a rare metal. Niobium is hard and grey. It is ductile. In chemistry it is placed in a group of metal elements named the transition metals. Niobium was discovered in a variety of a mineral called columbite (now called niobite). Niobite is an ore of niobium.

Niobium is considered a _technology-critical element_. It is used in alloys, such as to make special steels and strong welded joints. Less than 0.1% of Niobium significantly improves the strength of steel. It is in the superconducting alloys used in MRI scanners, which are one of the most important medical inventions of the modern age.

## Name and history

In 1801, Charles Hatchett claimed to have discovered a new chemical element in a sample from the United States. He named the mineral "columbite" and his element "columbium", after Columbia, another name for the United States. However, chemists were uncertain that columbium was a new element because of its similarity to tantalum. William Hyde Wollaston claimed that columbium and tantalum were the same element. Other chemists claimed that up to five new elements were in these minerals, one of which was named "niobium".

It took until 1864 to make pure tantalum and niobium and show there were only two elements in these minerals. One of these two elements was named "tantalum", but this showed that "niobium" and "columbium" were the same element. Americans preferred the name "columbium", while "niobium" was more common in Europe. Almost a hundred years later, IUPAC decided on the name niobium as part of an effort to make the names of chemical elements more universal.

## Production

Niobium and tantalum are in the same group, so their chemistry is very similar. Their ores make a solid solution series called coltan. Niobium and tantalum are both extracted from coltan by leaching. Pyrochlore is another important niobium ore, which can be reduced by aluminium or carbon to make ferroniobium..
Explosion

An **explosion** is a fast increase in volume and increase in energy made available.  It normally makes high temperatures and makes gases. Many natural events can make explosions, such as lightning, volcanic eruptions, meteors, and supernovae. People make explosions mostly by using chemical explosive materials.

A chemical explosion starts pressure waves in the medium where it happens.  Explosions are categorized as deflagrations if the pressure waves are subsonic and detonations if they are supersonic.  When a detonation happens, the resulting pressure waves are named shock waves.

## Unintentional explosions

**Unintentional explosions** can be caused when chemicals are mixed together, or when pressurized containers or flammable materials are heated or exposed to flames as in the Texas City disaster. To cause an explosion, pressure does not have to be present but is always a result of an explosion.

Several safety measures are used to prevent unintentional explosions.  Many countries require that chemicals, fuels, and pressurized containers that may explode be labelled with warning labels.  As well, many countries have regulations restricting the possession and use of potentially explosive materials so they will only go to appropriate industrial and research uses.  Transportation regulations require potentially explosive chemicals, fuels, and pressurized containers to be transported safely.

## Intentional explosions

**Intentional explosions** are caused when armies fire artillery or when air forces drop bombs on enemies.  Military engineers handle explosives and arrange intentional explosions during wartime.  Intentional explosions are also used by civilians in _demolition_.  They break up old and obsolete buildings and bridges, and break rock and stone for construction.  Explosions are made for activities such as mining, construction, and large-scale civil engineering projects such as building tunnels, roads, railways, and dams.

## Related pages

- Explosion protection
Rhodium

**Rhodium** is a chemical element. It has the chemical symbol **Rh**. It has the atomic number 45. It is a rare metal. It is silver white and hard. In chemistry it is placed in a group of metal elements named the transition metals. It is also part of the platinum group. Rhodium is found in platinum ores.

Rhodium is used as a catalyst in some platinum alloys. It is the most expensive precious metal.
Indium

**Indium** is a chemical element. It has the chemical symbol **In**. It has the atomic number 49. It is a rare metal which is soft, malleable, and poor (post-transition). Indium looks like zinc. Pieces of indium can easily be joined by pushing one piece into another. The chemistry of indium is quite like aluminium or gallium. Zinc ores are the main source of indium.

## Uses

The main use of indium is in the chemical compound indium tin oxide in liquid crystal displays. It is also used in very thin layers as a lubricant. In World War II it was used to coat bearings in aircraft.

Like other group 13 elements, indium is used to make III-V semiconductors. Indium phosphide and indium arsenide are binary (two-element) semiconductors made with indium. It is also used as a dopant for other semiconductors like boron nitride and silicon.
Francium

**Francium** is a chemical element with the chemical symbol **Fr** and an atomic number of 87.  It is a metal.  In chemistry it is placed in a group of metal elements named the alkali metals.  Francium is very radioactive.  It is in very small amounts in uranium and thorium ores.  It has the lowest electronegativity and electron affinity of all the chemical elements.

Francium reacts violently with water, as do all of the elements in group 1 on the periodic table.

Francium is one of the hardest to find elements on the planet Earth.  It is estimated that there are only about 15 grams or half an ounce in the Earth's crust at a single time.

Although chemists knew the element number 87 in the periodic table should exist, it was a long time before it was discovered.  In the early 1900s, nearly all boxes on the periodic table had been filled. Chemists knew that one element had been found to fit into each box. Francium was discovered in 1939 by a French chemist called Marguerite Perey. She named it after her home country, France.

## Isotopes

There are 34 known isotopes of francium ranging in atomic mass from 199 to 232. Francium-223 and francium-221 are the only isotopes that occur in nature.

Francium-223 is the most stable isotope, with a half-life of 21.8 minutes. Francium-223 is the fifth product of the actinium decay series as the daughter isotope of actinium-227. Francium-223 then decays into radium-223 by beta decay (1.149 MeV decay energy), with a minor (0.006%) alpha decay path to astatine-219 (5.4 MeV decay energy).

Francium-221 has a half-life of 4.8 minutes. It is the ninth product of the neptunium decay series as a daughter isotope of actinium-225. Francium-221 then decays into astatine-217 by alpha decay (6.457 MeV decay energy).

## Infobox (francium)
Rhenium

**Rhenium** is a chemical element.  It has the chemical symbol **Re**.  It has the atomic number 75.  It is a rare noble metal.  It is silver white.  In chemistry it is placed in a group of metal elements called the transition metals.  The chemistry of rhenium is similar to manganese. Discovered in 1908, rhenium was the second-last stable element to be discovered ('stable' meaning not radioactive). It was named after the river Rhine in Europe.

Nickel-based superalloys of rhenium are used in the combustion chambers, turbine blades, and exhaust nozzles of jet engines. These alloys contain up to 6% rhenium, making jet engine construction the largest single use for the element. The second-most important use is as a catalyst: rhenium is an excellent catalyst for hydrogenation and isomerization.

Rhenium found as a by-product of molybdenum refinement.

Rhenium is used in some manganese alloys.  Rhenium-molybdenum alloys are superconductors.

## History

Rhenium was discovered by Walter Noddack, Ida Noddack, and Otto Berg in Germany. In 1925, they reported that they detected the element in a platinum ore and in the mineral columbite. They also found rhenium in gadolinite and molybdenite. In 1928, they were able to remove 1 g of the element from 660 kg of molybdenite.

## Characteristics

Rhenium is a silvery-white metal. It has the third highest melting points of all elements. It is also the third densest element.

## Isotopes

Rhenium has one stable isotope which is rhenium-185. Rhenium that is found in nature is made up of 37.4% rhenium-185 and 62.6% rhenium-187. Rhenium has 33 known radioisotopes. They range from rhenium-160 to rhenium-194. The longest-lived radioisotope of rhenium is rhenium-183 which have a half-life of 70 days.

## Occurence

Rhenium is one of the rarest elements in Earth's crust. It the 77th most abundant element in the Earth's crust. Rhenium may not be found free in nature. It is found in small amounts in the mineral molybdenite.

## Production

Commercial rhenium is gotten from molybdenum roaster-flue gas. Some molybdenum ores contain 0.001% to 0.2% rhenium. Rhenium metal is made by reducing ammonium perrhenate with hydrogen at high temperatures.

## Uses

Nickel-based superalloys of rhenium are used in the combustion chambers, turbine blades, and exhaust nozzles of jet engines. Rhenium is used in superalloys, such as CMSX-4 (2nd generation) and CMSX-10 (3rd generation). These superalloys are used in industrial gas turbine engines like the GE 7FA. Rhenium filaments are used in mass spectrometers, ion gauges and photoflash lamps in photography. Rhenium-platinum alloys are used as a catalyst for catalytic reforming. Rhenium-188 and Rhenium-186 are used to treat of liver cancer.
Guaraní alphabet

The **Guaraní alphabet** is a system used to write the Guaraní language. The Guaraní language is used in Paraguay and some countries near it. The alphabet has 35 letters. These are:
- A, Ã, CH, E, Ẽ, F, G, G̃, H, I, Ĩ, J, K, L, M, MB, N, ND, NG, NJ, NT, Ñ, O, Õ, P, R, RR, S, T, U, Ũ, V, Y, Ỹ, ʼ.

"A", "E", "I", "O", "U", "Y" are vowels, just like English. Those letters with tildes on top make the same sound, except more nasal sounding. The apostrophe sounds like a glottal stop. The other letters are consonants.
Lake Victoria

**Lake Victoria** or **Victoria Nyanza** (also known as **Ukerewe** and **Nnalubaale**) is a lake in Africa. It is bordered and governed by the countries of Tanzania, Uganda and Kenya. The lake is in the western part of Africa's Great Rift Valley.

Lake Victoria is 68,800 square kilometres (26,560 mi²) in size. It is Africa's largest lake, and the second largest fresh water lake in the world. It was named for Queen Victoria. The White Nile flows out of the lake.

## Other websites

- Lake Victoria Citizendium
Tonsillitis

**Tonsillitis** is a disease. It is also known as **pharyngitis**, **laryngitis** and **Tonsillar infection**. Tonsillitis is caused by either a virus or bacteria. It is the inflammation and infection of the tonsils. The tonsils are in the back of the throat. The tonsils get inflamed and red. Other symptoms include headaches, fevers, back and neck aches, chills, bad breath, weak voice, fatigue, having trouble swallowing, and more. There are treatments for tonsillitis. One treatment is antibiotics. Medicines to relieve pain like Tylenol and Advil are also suggested. The tonsils may be removed surgically if it is medically necessary. This operation is called a _tonsillectomy_. It is the most effective way to get rid of the infection. All kinds of tonsillitis are contagious. Tonsillitis is spread by human contact.
Inflammation

**Inflammation** is the first reaction of the immune system to an infection or irritation. It is an attempt of the immune system to dispel invaders and repair the body. It can happen in many parts of the body and often involves the following five steps:

1. The inflamed spot becomes red.
1. The inflamed spot becomes hot.
1. The inflamed spot begins to swell.
1. The inflamed spot begins to feel uncomfortable.
1. The inflamed spot might cause surrounding organs to dysfunction.

The first four of these reactions have been known for a long time, since antiquity. Finding them is attributed to Celsus. The last one was added by Rudolf Virchow in 1858.

There are two types of inflammation: acute and chronic. Acute inflammations are more intense but short-lived, while chronic inflammations are less intense but long-lived. Examples of acute inflammation include skin disorders (e.g., psoriasis, dandruff) and arthritis, while chronic inflammation can be responsible for diseases such as cancer, heart disease, type 2 diabetes and Alzheimer's disease. Adoption of healthy diet, physical exercise and rest are some of the ways to reduce Inflammations.

## Related pages

- Infection
- Injury