juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
American League

The **American League** (or **AL**) is one of the two leagues that make up Major League Baseball (MLB). The other is the National League (or NL). The American League is made up of 15 teams. At the end of each season, five of these teams go to the "post-season" where one will win the American League championship. The champions of the American League plays against the champions of the National League in the World Series. The team that wins the World Series is the champion of Major League Baseball. Teams in the American league usually play against other teams in the American league, except for a few games a year when they play National league teams. There are 3 Divisions of the American League: AL East, AL Central, and AL West.

## Differences

From 1973 to 2021, the only big difference between the American League and the National League was that the AL used the "Designated Hitter" (or DH). The Designated Hitter is a player who does not play in the field, but is used to bat for the worst hitter in his team's "lineup" (usually the pitcher). The NL did not use the Designated Hitter, and all players in the "lineup" had to bat and field for themselves. If the DH played an NL game in an NL park, he often played First Base if at all.  If they play in an AL park, the NL team could use a DH. During the 2020 season, shortened to 60 regular-season games due to the public response to COVID-19, both leagues used the DH. The NL permanently added the DH in the 2022 season.

## Related pages

- National League
National League

The **National League** (or **NL**) is one of the two leagues that make up Major League Baseball (MLB). As of 2024, the NL has 15 teams. At the end of each season, six of these teams go to the "post-season" where one will win the National League championship. The champions of the National League plays against the champions of the American League in the World Series. The team that wins the World Series is the champion of Major League Baseball.

## Differences

The only big difference between the National League and the American League (AL) was that the AL used the "Designated Hitter" (or DH). The Designated Hitter is a player who does not play in the field, but is used to bat for the pitcher. The NL did not use the Designated Hitter, and all players on the team must bat and field for themselves. This was changed following the new CBA signed in 2022.

## Related pages

- American League
Statistical survey

**Statistical surveys** are collections of information about items in a population.

Surveys can be grouped into numerical and categorical types. A numerical survey is to get numbers as replies. For example:
> How many minutes, on average, do you spend eating breakfast?

This survey question is used to generate numbers in minutes. An example of a categorical question is:

> What is your favorite color?

The categories for this would be yellow, green, purple, etc... which are not numbers.

Surveys of human populations and institutions are common in political polling and government, health, social science and marketing research. A survey may concentrate on opinions or factual information depending on its purpose.

## Other websites

- American Association for Public Opinion Research (AAPOR)
- How to design a web-based statistical survey online.
- Ajeebo: Web based survey software tools directory
- Conducting Web-Based Surveys
- Free resources for methods in social research  has links to resources for surveys and sampling.
- Online Survey Best Practice
- Short Courses in Survey Methodology, sponsored by the Joint Program in Survey Methodology (JPSM) - University of Maryland-College Park and University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
- The EvaluationWiki  - The mission of EvaluationWiki is to make freely available a compendium of up-to-date information and resources to everyone involved in the science and practice of evaluation. The EvaluationWiki is presented by the non-profit Evaluation Resource Institute .
Social sciences

The **social sciences** are a group of academic disciplines that study human aspects of the world. Social Sciences includes anthropology, archaeology, economics, geography, political science, psychology, social philosophy and sociology. They are different from the arts and humanities, and application of the scientific method is important. Most of the social sciences require doing a lot of research, such as making surveys. Such research is called "social research". Some subjects, such as history, are sometimes social sciences and sometimes humanities.

The term "social sciences" has been used for over 200 years and mostly originates from a thinker named Auguste Comte. Many of the fields of social science have come about since then. In America, much of the thought and practice of social science came from the University of Chicago and other universities.

## Other websites

- Social Science Virtual Library
- UC Berkeley Experimental Social Science Laboratory
- Social Science Information Gateway  (UK)
- History of Social Science
- On the Social Sciences Critical Essays
- praxeology as the method of the social sciences
- in defense of extreme apriorism
Arts

**The arts** are a large part of culture, and the word means much more than "_art_". **The arts** include visual arts, literary arts (i.e. books and other writings) and performing arts (i.e. music, dance, drama).

Sometimes, in universities, it is shorthand for a wider group of subjects which are properly called the humanities. These include philosophy, theology, literature, languages, and history as well.

"The arts" are usually contrasted with "The sciences".

## Visual arts

Visual arts consist of any art that can be seen. This form of art doesn't change once it has been made.

### Painting

Painting is an art that uses pigments to create images. The oldest painting was made on a cave wall, in prehistorical times by a Neanderthal.

### Sculpting

Sculpting is an art that uses height, width, and depth. You can create a sculpture by carving or shaping things such as rock, metal, or wood.

### Architecture

Architecture is the art and science behind building and sculpture design. Architecture as an art involves making something look beautiful and appealing to others.

## Performing arts

Performing arts are those that occur when people show others their artistic skills. These include dancing and singing.

## Literary arts

Literary arts are those that occur as words. Most are written down, but in the ancient past, some long poems were only told in speech for hundreds of years before finally being written down!

## Conceptual art

Conceptual art is art in which the idea is more important than the actual beauty of the object.

## Other websites

- Dictionary of the history of ideas — Classification of the arts
- Open Directory — Arts
- National Endowment for the Arts — USA
- Arts Council — England
- Americans for the Arts
- ArtsJournal — Daily Arts News
- Arts — New York Times
- Arts — The Times
- Association of Hispanic Arts (AHA)
- History of Art: From Paleolithic Age to Contemporary Art
Minor League Baseball

**Minor League Baseball** is a level of professional baseball in North America. It is made up a many different teams which play in many leagues and levels of skill. Minor league teams are used by Major League Baseball (MLB) teams to have a place to put their players who they do not feel are skilled enough to play in the major leagues yet. They are also used to help injured major league players get ready to play in MLB again. These partnerships between major and minor league teams are called affiliations. Minor league teams generally play in cities that are too small for major league teams. City size usually increases with league level.

There are five different classifications (skill levels) in the minor leagues, these classes are (in order from lowest to highest):
- Complex League (or Rookie League)
- Single-A
- High-A
- Double-A (or AA)
- Triple-A (or AAA)

When a normal player is first drafted or signed by an MLB team, he is usually placed on a Complex League team, however more advanced players may start higher. If a player plays good in his league, he can be promoted or "called up" to the next league. If a player does not play well, he may be sent back down or removed from the team. This continues until a player gets to the major leagues, although most players never make it that far. This way, players are able to get better at baseball before having to play against tougher opponents. Almost all players in MLB had to play in the minor leagues first to become good enough to play in the major leagues. Most players spend four to five years in the minors before making it to MLB. However, skilled players can be called up earlier, while some may take more than 10 years to reach the majors.

Sometimes, major league players who are have been hurt will play a few games in the minor leagues before playing in the major leagues again, in order to see if they feel healthy enough to start playing again.

There are other professional baseball leagues that are not affiliated with major league teams. These are known as "Independent Leagues". In these leagues, players do not go to higher or lower levels of ability. Players on these teams are usually those not drafted by an MLB team. They may also be players who played in major or minor leagues and are trying to get back. Major league teams may hire these independent players to play for their teams.

## Leagues

**Triple-A**
- International League
- Pacific Coast League

**Double-A**
- Eastern League
- Southern League
- Texas League

**High-A**
- Midwest League
- Northwest League
- South Atlantic League

**Single-A**
- California League
- Carolina League
- Florida State League

**Rookie**
- Arizona Complex League
- Florida Complex League
- Dominican Summer League

**Off-season leagues**
- Arizona Fall League

**Showcase league**
- MLB Draft League

**Partner leagues**
- American Association
- Atlantic League
- Frontier League
- Pioneer League

## Other websites

- Minor League Baseball's official website
Nuclear proliferation

**Nuclear proliferation** is when a country starts making nuclear objects. On the right is a map showing who has nuclear reactors and weapons, and who could have them. When a country starts making nuclear weapons, they become a nuclear power.

## Dual use technology

Dual use technology means the possibility of military use of civilian nuclear technology for generating electricity. Many technologies and materials associated with the creation of a nuclear electricity program have a dual-use capability. These items can be used to make nuclear weapons if a country chooses to do so. When this happens a nuclear electricity program can lead to making atomic bombs. The crisis over Iran’s nuclear activities is an example.
François Bourdoncle

**François Bourdoncle** (born 1964) is founder and CEO of the search engine company Exalead.

## Literature

- _Semantic Analysis of Interval Congruences_, 1993, , Author François Bourdoncle, Springer-Verlag, London, UK.

## Other websites

- www.exalead.com/Francois.Bourdoncle
Exalead

**Exalead** [eg'zæli:d] is a company in Paris and founded in 2000 by Francois Bourdoncle. Its name comes from the association between
- the prefix _exa_ which means 10<sup>18</sup> (used as a generic term for size, to imply large coverage of pages)
- and the verb lead (as the customer is led through the search options)

Exalead tries to integrate research functions in one piece of software, combining Internet, desktop and enterprise functionality.

Exalead employs approximately 60 people in 3 countries (Paris in France, Milano in Italy and New York and San Francisco in the United States of America).
Amateur radio

**Amateur radio** is a hobby for people who like to talk using radio transmitters. Many people enjoy using amateur radio to talk to other amateur radio hobbyists in other countries. Amateur radio hobbyists also use their radio transmitters to get help in emergencies. Amateur radio is often called _ham radio_. Many people use their amateur radios for fun. People who use Amateur radio are often called _amateur radio operators_, _hams_ or _amateurs_.

During a disaster or emergency, amateur radio can be used to get help. When telephones do not work, it may be the only way to communicate. Some radio hobbyists volunteer to listen to emergency band frequencies in case there are distress calls. If the volunteers hear a distress call, they notify the appropriate authorities (for example the police or the Coast Guard).

## License

People must have a license to use Amateur radio legally. In most countries users must pass a test to get a license. In some countries there is more than one license grade. In some countries, people can use Amateur radio if they have a license from their home country.

There are many clubs for Amateur radio in many countries. These clubs do many things as a group and help people get their Amateur radio license.

## Talking

Amateur radio operators talk to each other in many ways. Some people talk with their voice, others use computers, television, or Morse code. They use many ways to get their signals to others. Most use shortwave radio signals that bounce off the sky. Some bounce off the moon or a satellite. Amateur radio operators have many ways to talk using the radio. Amateur radio satellites are called OSCAR's - Orbital Satellites Carrying Amateur Radio. Hams can also talk to astronauts and cosmonauts aboard the International Space Station (ISS).

## Fun

There are many ways to have fun with amateur radio. There are many games and contests. Amateur radio operators try to talk with as many others as possible. They then mail each other postcards called _QSL cards_ to confirm the contact. Contesters may try to see how far they can talk, or to how many different people they can talk.

Some hide a transmitter which sends out a signal and others try to find it using receivers. This is called _radio direction finding_ or _fox hunting_. Sometimes the event is done with cars, or as a foot race.

## In India

Amateur radio is practised by over 15,000 licensed users in India. The first amateur radio operator was licensed in 1921. By the mid-1930s, there were around 20 amateur radio operators in India. Amateur radio operators have played an important part in the Indian independence movement with the setting up of pro-independence radio stations in the 1940s.
Humanities

The **humanities** include languages, literature, music, philosophy, politics, history, media, the classics, religion, and the visual and performing arts. Additional subjects sometimes included in the humanities are anthropology, area studies, communications and cultural studies, although these are often regarded as social sciences. It was popular in the Renaissance ages.

The arts are usually considered as part of the humanities. These include visual arts such as painting and sculpture, as well as performing arts such as theatre and dance, and literature. Other humanities such as language are sometimes considered to be part of the arts, for example as the _language arts_.

The humanities study the human condition and mostly use methods that are analytic, critical, or speculative and not as empirical as natural and social sciences.

## Related pages

- Human nature
- Human science
- Liberal arts
- Trivium

## Other websites

- The Humanities Association - UK
- UK Humanities Hub
- Australian Humanities Review
- Australian Academy of the Humanities
- Virginia Foundation for the Humanities
- Mass Humanities / Massachusetts Foundation for the Humanities
John Hawkins

Sir **John Hawkins** (also spelled as **John Hawkyns**) (Plymouth 1532 – 12 November 1595) was an English shipbuilder, merchant, navigator, and slave trader. In 1571 he helped uncover a plot against Queen Elizabeth I of England.
Coconut palm

The **coconut** is a palm tree in the family Arecaceae (palm family). It is a large palm, growing to 30 m tall. It has leaves that are 4–6 m long. The term _coconut_ refers to the fruit of the coconut palm.

There are many coconut palms on the coasts of Indonesia, India, America, Bangladesh and Tanzania. People of this area use coconut milk in cooking. Women use coconut oil as oil for their hair. The coconut's shell is relatively hard, but can be broken. Because its shell is hard, it can be used as an ingredient to make craftworks.

Coconut milk is also used in many drinks. Coconut oil is often in food and soaps. People in Sri Lanka use coconut flowers for wedding celebrations. In the Maldives it is the National tree.

The coconut is not actually a nut, but is in fact a drupe. Coconuts grow in tropical countries. The flesh of a coconut is white and can be eaten raw or used in cooking. It is used in many of the foods we eat for flavour. It is native to tropical areas.

## Seed dispersal

Coconuts float on water and can float to another island and germinate there. It has often been noted that coconuts can travel up to 110 days, or 3000 miles, by sea and are still able to germinate.
Shawarma

**Shawarma** (; in ) is a meat sandwich eaten by people of the Arab world and the Middle East. It is served in round Arabic bread with meat and vegetables, with some spice or sauce of choice in it. Normally, the meat can either be lamb, beef, turkey, or chicken. Shawarma can also be spelled **chawarma**, **shwarma**, **shawerma**, or **shoarmais**.

It was first introduced by people from Turkey. They call it _çevirme_, which means "turning", because the meat can be turned around in the oven, but the Arabs changed its recipe from the Turkish Doner kebab.
Merchant

**Merchants** are people that deal with trade. That means they buy and sell goods that they do not produce themselves, in order to get profit.

Merchants can be two types:

1. A **wholesale merchant** works between producer and retail merchant. Some wholesale merchants only organise the movement of goods rather than move the goods themselves.
1. A **retail merchant** sells goods to consumers (including businesses), commonly known as retailers. A shop owner is a retail merchant.

In the US, "merchant" is  any person while engaged in a business or profession or a seller who deals regularly in the type of goods sold.  Under the common law in the United States, merchants are held to a higher standard in the selling of products than those who are not engaged in the sale of goods as a profession. For example, when a merchant sells something, he or she is expected to give a warranty, guaranteeing that the product is fit to be sold, even if there is nothing in writing to this effect.

## Related pages

- capitalism
Warranty

In commercial and consumer transactions, a **warranty** is an obligation that an article or service that is sold has the quality the buyer can reasonably expect from the seller.

That often means that there must be a remedy. That means repair or replacement if the article or service is not as good as the warranty says. It is a breach of the warranty when the promise is broken, i.e., a product is defective or not as good as should be expected by a reasonable buyer.

In business and legal transactions, a warranty is an assurance by one party to the other party that certain facts or conditions are true or will happen. The other party is allowed to rely on that assurance and seek some type of remedy if it is not true or followed.

A warranty may be express or implied.

## Express warranty

An **express warranty** is typically a guarantee from the seller of a product that specifies the extent to which the quality or performance of the product is assured and states the conditions under which the product can be returned, replaced, or changed.

## Implied warranty

An implied warranty is one that arises from the nature of the transaction, and the understanding by the buyer.
To be "merchantable", the goods must reasonably conform to an ordinary buyer's expectations, i.e., they are what they say they are. For example, a fruit that looks and smells good but has hidden defects would violate the implied warranty of merchantability if its quality does not meet the standards for such fruit "as passes ordinarily in the trade".

## Breach of warranty

A warranty is violated when the promise is broken; when goods are not as should be expected, at the time the sale occurs, whether or not the defect is apparent. Most warranties exclude parts that normally wear out, and supplies that must be periodically replaced as they are normally used up (e.g., tires and lubrication on a vehicle).

Many people do not realize that extended warranties are not always provided through the manufacturer, but in some circumstances it may work to the consumer's benefit. For instance, when an auto warranty is provided through a dealership from the manufacturer, repairs on the vehicle are reimbursed at a lower negotiated rate.

## Legal aspects of warranties and disclaimers

In the United States, the rights and remedies of buyers and sellers of goods are governed by the Article 2 of the Uniform Commercial Code (UCC) as it has been adopted with variations from state to state.

## Car warranty

A car warranty is at least one year. Three years is more common. Five years is an extended warranty.

## Home warranty

A home warranty protects against the high costs of home and appliance repair by offering insurance coverage for appliances and equipment in the house.

## Related pages

- Guarantee

## Other websites

- (US) Federal Trade Commission: Warranty Information
- Home Warranty Companies
- Introduction to Laptop Warranties
- American Home Shield
Blue box

A **blue box** is a device that someone could use to make free telephone calls. It worked by playing back the same sounds that the telephone company employees used to program their equipment.

The most famous person to use a blue box was John Draper, who went by the name Captain Crunch. Draper taught Steve Wozniak how to build them. Wozniak and Steve Jobs sold blue boxes to fellow students at the University of California, Berkeley. One time, Wozniak used a blue box to call the Pope.

## Related pages

- Red box
Red box

A **red box** is a device that people used illegally in the 20th century to make free telephone calls at a payphone. It worked by playing back the same sounds that the payphone sends to the phone company when coins are put into it.

## Related pages

- Blue box

## Other websites

- "Frequently Asked Questions About Red Boxing" by Mr. Sandman
- All about the Red Box and related devices
- Red Boxing For Dummies
Silicon Graphics

**Silicon Graphics, Inc.** (Originally **Silicon Graphics Computer Systems**, often called **SGI**) was a company that made graphical workstation computers, high-performance computing servers, and graphics processing units. It was founded by Jim Clark in 1981 in Mountain View, California.

It is important to the history of the MIPS processor architecture, UNIX (through their own UNIX product, IRIX) and later, Linux.

## History

In the 1980s Silicon Graphics sold graphics terminals (a type of computer that provides graphics for a server) based on the Multibus architecture used by early Sun Microsystems computers. Later, these computers, called the IRIS series, became standalone computers running an operating system known as **GL2**.

After acquiring MIPS Computer Systems and the MIPS architecture rights, SGI moved to producing the Professional and Personal IRIS lines based on the MIPS R2000 and R3000 processors. These ran an operating system known as IRIX which continued active development and support until 2006.

SGI continued to develop the MIPS architecture and released many new computers based on the MIPS architecture and their custom graphics cards. By 1998 however a series of bad business decisions by then CEO Rick Belluzzo led to them losing money and they joined the Itanium alliance, which failed to deliver and cost SGI further money.

By 2006, the MIPS R10000 product line had been extended all the way to the R16000 version, but was more expensive and slower than competing Intel X64, IBM POWER, and Itanium products. This combined with bankruptcy led SGI to change to Itanium products under the Altix product line. But by 2009, they were acquired by Rackable Systems which named themselves Silicon Graphics International.

## Infobox (company)

- **name**: Silicon Graphics, Inc.
- **logo**:
- **type**: Public
- **traded as**:

- **foundation**:
Mountain View, California, Mountain View, California, U.S.
- **fate**: Chapter 11, Title 11, United States Code, Chapter 11 bankruptcy; assets acquired by Rackable Systems, which renamed itself Silicon Graphics International, Silicon Graphics International Corp.
- **location country**: Sunnyvale, California, Sunnyvale, California, U.S.
- **key people**: James H. Clark, Jim Clark
Wei Yen
Kurt Akeley
Edward R. McCracken, Ed McCracken
Thomas Jermoluk
Marc Hannah
Richard Belluzzo, Rick Belluzzo
- **industry**: Computer hardware and software
- **products**: High-performance computing, Visualization (graphic), visualization and Computer storage, storage
Constituent

**Constituent** may mean:

- Constituent (linguistics)
- Constituent (politics)
Constituency

A **constituent** is a voting member of a community or organization and has the power to appoint or elect. A **constituency** (also called an **electoral district**, **riding**, or **ward**) is all of the constituents of a representative. Constituents also have the power to remove their representative from the position to which they have appointed him or her. All of the constituents who are registered to vote are called the _electorate_.

In the United Kingdom, a parliamentary constituency is a district that elects a member of parliament. It is sometimes called a _Parliamentary seat_ or a _Division_. Constituencies for local government elections are called either _Wards_ or _electoral divisions_.

As of 2020, there are 650 House of Commons constituencies in the UK:
- List of Parliamentary constituencies in the United Kingdom
- MPs elected in the UK general election, 2005 lists the constituencies after that election.

Northern Ireland has 18 constituencies, each of which elect six MLAs to  the Northern Ireland Assembly under the Single Transferable Vote system.

The Scottish Parliament has 73 single-member constituencies, with the remaining 56 seats being selected by the Additional Member System (AMS).  Until the passage of the Scottish Parliament (Constituencies) Act 2004, the constituencies of the Scottish Parliament were identical to those of the House of Commons.

The National Assembly for Wales has 40 constituencies which are identical to the Welsh constituencies of the House of Commons.  Its remaining 20 seats are selected by AMS.

The London Assembly has 14 single-member constituencies.  Its remaining 11 seats are selected by AMS.

The United States House of Representatives has 435 constituencies called "Congressional districts" each electing one member.

The term "constituency" is usual in many countries, especially in members of the Commonwealth of Nations.
Cohesion

**Cohesion** may mean:

- Cohesion (chemistry): the intermolecular attraction between like-molecules.
- Cohesion (computer science): a measure of how well the lines of source code within a module work together to provide a specific piece of functionality.
- Cohesion (geography): the part of shear strength that is independent of the normal effective stress in mass movements.
- Cohesion (linguistics): the linguistic elements that make a discourse semantically coherent.
- Cohesion (music): a Manchester-based four-piece band playing uplifting indie guitar pop.
- Cohesion (structural): the sociological and graph theoretical conception and measurement for maximal group or graphical boundaries where related elements cannot be disconnected except by removal of a certain minimal number of other nodes
Local government

**Local governments** are administrative offices that are smaller than a state or province.  The term is used to contrast with offices at nation-state level, which are referred to as the central government, national government, or (where appropriate) federal government.

What a local government does changes depending on what country it is in, and even when they are similar what it is called often varies.  Common names for local governments include state, province, région, départment, county, prefecture, district, city, township, town, borough, parish, municipality, shire and village.  However all these names are often used informally in countries where they do not describe a legal local government.

## Related pages

- Decentralization
- Local Government Area

## Other websites

- Department of Local and Regional Democracy and Good Governance—Council of Europe
- Local Governments at USA.gov
- Japan Local Government Center
Constituencies of the Parliament of the United Kingdom

This is a list of the 646 constituencies currently represented in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom Parliament, as at the United Kingdom 2005 general election. Each constituency is represented by a single Member of Parliament (MP).

|colspan="2"|Contents|
| --- | --- |
|1 **England**||
|1.1 East Midlands|Derbyshire, Leicestershire, Lincolnshire, Northamptonshire, Nottinghamshire|
|1.2 East of England|Bedfordshire, Cambridgeshire, Essex, Hertfordshire, Norfolk, Suffolk|
|1.3 Greater London|North East, North West, South East, South West|
|1.4 North East England|Cleveland, Durham, Northumberland, Tyne and Wear|
|1.5 North West England|Cheshire, Cumbria, Greater Manchester, Lancashire, Merseyside|
|1.6 South East England|Berkshire, Buckinghamshire, East Sussex, Hampshire, Isle of Wight, Kent, Oxfordshire, Surrey, West Sussex|
|1.7 South West England|Avon, Cornwall, Devon, Dorset, Gloucestershire, Somerset, Wiltshire|
|1.8 West Midlands|Hereford and Worcester, Shropshire, Staffordshire, Warwickshire, West Midlands|
|1.9 Yorkshire and Humberside|Humberside, North Yorkshire, South Yorkshire, West Yorkshire|
|2 **Northern Ireland**||
|3 **Scotland**|Highlands and Islands, North East Scotland, Central Scotland, Fife, Lothian, South of Scotland, Ayrshire, Lanarkshire,  Glasgow, Dunbartonshire, Renfrewshire|
|4 **Wales**||
Stain

A **stain** is a spot that has another color than the material on which it is found. It can occur without intention in the case of domestic stains on fabric, cloth, or other material, or it can be intentional. Stains are used intentionally in a variety of fields, including research (biochemical staining), technology (metal staining), and art (wood staining, stained glass.)

Different types of material can be stained by different substances, and stain resistance is an important characteristic in modern textile engineering.  Various laundry techniques exist to attempt to remove or minimize existing stains, and stain removers are an important type of chemical in laundry detergents. Some stand-alone stain removers also exist.

## Substances that may create stains

- blood
- chocolate
- coffee
- fruits and their juices, particularly orange juice
- grass
- grease
- ink (notably permanent marker)
- oil
- sauces (particularly tomato based)
- soda (particularly orange soda)
- sweat
- wine
- table salt
- talc, cornstarch or chalk
- borax
- lemon juice or lemon

### Fabrics

- carpet
- cotton
- leather
- silk
- various fabrics in shoes
- wool

### Stain removers

- bleach  (do not mix with ammonia)
- ammonia (do not mix with bleach)
- vinegar
- baking soda
- rubbing alcohol
- hydrogen peroxide
- cream of tartar
- sun
- club soda
Stainless steel

**Stainless steel**, also known as **inox steel**, is a steel alloy with a minimum of 10.5 or 11% chromium content by mass.

Stainless steel does not stain, corrode, or rust as easily as ordinary steel, but it is not stain-proof.

The term 'corrosion resistant steel' is used when the alloy has less than the 12% minimum of chromium, for example in the aviation industry. There are different grades and surface finishes of stainless steel, depending on where it will be used. Stainless steels have a higher resistance to oxidation (rust) and corrosion in many natural and man-made environments, Different stainless steels have different amounts of different metals in them, and they are good for different purposes. There are over 150 grades of stainless steel, of which fifteen are the most used.

The idea behind stainless steel was discovered in the first part of the 19th century, but it took about 80 years to develop a reliable industrial method. French, British and American inventors worked on this until a genuine stainless steel was produced. The invention of modern stainless steel can be dated to 1913, and it was done by Harry Brearley in Sheffield, Yorkshire.  A common use for stainless steel is cutlery (knives, forks, and spoons).  It was a big industry in the mid-20th century in Sheffield. Stainless steel is also used in aerospace engineering.

## Other websites

- Articles about stainless steel  by International Stainless Steel Forum
- What is stainless steel  by BSSA
- Euro Inox (multilingual portal)
- Comprehensive information about stainless steel by The Stainless Steel Information Center
- Comprehensive information about metallurgy of stainless steel by Cambridge University
- Life cycle costing of stainless steel
- Introduction to stainless steel by KOSA
Ferrous

**Ferrous** is an adjective coming from the Latin _ferrum_ (iron). One uses this word to indicate the presence of iron, mostly in metallurgy or related industries.
There are also non-ferrous metals, which are metals that have no iron in them at all.

**Ferrous** can also refer to iron in its +2 oxidation state.

_"Ferrous"_ is also the name of a song by Peter Gabriel.

## Related pages

- Iron compounds
Yellowcake

**Yellowcake** is a type of uranium powder. Yellowcake is made from rocks and minerals with uranium inside, like _uraninite_, after they are changed in a factory. Yellowcake can be made into fuel for nuclear reactors, or it can be used in making atomic bombs.
Ductility

**Ductility** is when a solid material stretches under tensile strain. If ductile, a material may be stretched into a wire. Malleability, a similar property, is a material's ability to deform under pressure (compressive stress). If malleable, a material may be flattened by hammering or rolling.

Both of these properties are aspects of plasticity.  Plasticity is how far a solid material can be deformed without fracture.  These properties are commonplace in metals, and are dependent on temperature and pressure.  This was investigated by Percy Williams Bridgman as part of his 1946 Nobel Prize–winning work on high pressures.

Ductility and malleability do not always go together. Gold has high ductility and malleability, but lead has low ductility and high malleability.  The word _ductility_ is sometimes used to embrace both types of plasticity.

Gold, copper, aluminium, and steel have high ductility.

## Related pages

- Stress (mechanics)
MI

**MI** could mean:
- Myocardial infarction, commonly called a "heart attack"
- Michigan, a United States state
- _Mission: Impossible_ - 1996 movie
- Mutual information
Curse

A **curse** is a word which threatens the other person to have bad luck. Nobody knows if it really works or become true. Some people believe in them even so, that they become true by magic. For example, for fairy tales, the princes are cursed to become a beast or a frog (i.e. frog prince) by witches because of their bad behaviours. But in the end a princess saves them.

There was also something called a "curse tablet" which Romans used to curse people they did not like. They would often let them drift to the river so that the curse will be carried to where that person who has the curse. But many curses are made when people are jealous and they want that person who has the curse to not do well.

The opposite of a curse is a blessing.

## Related pages

- Evil eye
- Nithing pole
Tachycardia

**Tachycardia** is the fast beating of the heart. In adults, it refers to heart rates higher than 100 beats per minute. Tachycardia may be a normal physiological response to stress, but depending on the cause and how healthy the patient is, tachycardia could be harmful and need medical treatment. In some cases, tachycardia can cause death.

Tachycardia can be harmful in two ways. First, when the heart beats too rapidly, it may perform inefficiently. Second, the faster the heart beats, the more oxygen and nutrients the heart requires. This can be especially problematic for patients suffering from ischaemic heart disease.

## Infobox (symptom)

- **name**: Tachycardia
- **image**: Tachycardia_ECG_paper.svg
- **caption**: ECG showing sinus tachycardia with a rate of about 100 beats per minute
- **icd10**: -,
- **icd9**: ,
- **meshid**: D013610
Material fracture

A **fracture** is the separation of a body into more than one piece under the action of stress.

The word _fracture_ is often applied to bones of living creatures or to crystals or crystalline materials, such as gemstones or metal. Sometimes, fractures can happen without the object actually separating into two or more pieces.
Shear stress

**Shear stress** is a stress state where the stress is parallel to the surface of the material, as opposed to normal stress when the stress is perpendicular to the surface.

Shear stress is relevant to themotion of fluids upon surfaces, which result in the generation of shear stress.
Also constructions in soil can fail due to shear; e.g., the weight of an earth-filled dam may cause the subsoil to collapse, like a small landslide.

## Related pages

- Scissors work by shear stress
Tension

**Tension** may mean:
- Tension (mechanics), in physics, a force related to the stretching of an object
- High-tension line, sometimes used to refer to electrical voltage
- Stress (biology), physiological or mental stress
- Tension (music), the perceived need for relaxation or release created by a listener's expectations
- Suspense, in a dramatic work, leaving the audience feeling uncertain and interested about the outcome of certain actions
- Tenseness, in phonetics, describes a certain sound quality
- Tension (band), a rock band

## Related pages

- Surface tension
- Tensile stress
- Tensile architecture
Tension (mechanics)

**Tension** is a reaction force applied by a stretched string (rope or a similar object) on the objects which stretch it. The direction of the force of tension is parallel to the string, towards the string.

Tension exists also inside the string itself: if the string is made up of two parts, tension is the force which the two parts of the string apply on each other. The amount of tension in the string determines whether it will break, as well as its vibrational properties, which are used in musical instruments.

## Related pages

- Force (physics)
- Pulley
- Stress (physics)
Shear

**Shear** as a noun could mean:
- Bias (textile), in clothing design, fabric may be cut on the shear
- Cosmic shear, an effect of distortion of image of distant galaxies due to deflection of light by matter, as predicted by general relativity (see also weak lensing and gravitational lens)
- Geological shear, a form of fault
- Guillotine (metalwork), also called a shear, a machine used to cut sheet metal
- Shear line (locksmithing), in lockpicking, where the inner cylinder ends and the outer cylinder begins in a cylinder lock
- Shear line (meteorology), an area of wind shear
- Shear (mathematics), a particular kind of linear mapping, also called transvections
- Shear stress in physics, refers to a stress state that will cause **shearing** (see verb below) when it exceeds a material's shear strength,
- Wind shear, a difference in wind speed or direction between two wind currents in the atmosphere

**Shear** as a verb or **shearing** could mean:
- Sheep shearing, the process of removing the wool from a sheep
- Shearing interferometer, in optics, a simple and very common means to check the collimation of beams by observing interference
- Shearing (physics), the deformation of a material substance in which parallel internal surfaces slide past one another,
- Skin, specifically, the tearing and splitting of the layers
Flow

**Flow** may mean:

- Flow, another name for "flux" in physics, which is the rate at which something travels through a given cross section
    - In fluid mechanics, the word flow is often used to mean a complete description of the motion of a fluid.  See also volumetric flow rate
        - In circulatory physiology, the word flow (e.g. of blood or lymph fluid) is commonly used as shorthand for regional flow, i.e., flow standardised to the volume or mass of a region of tissue under study (SI units: mL/s/mL or mL/s/g)
    - Flow cytometry, abbreviated "flow", in certain laboratory applications, is a technique for counting, examining and sorting microscopic particles suspended in a stream of fluid
- Environmental flow, in ecology, the discharge or level of water necessary in a river or water source to sustain a healtly ecosystem
- Dataflow and workflow, terms that describe the flow of data in a mostly non-linear succession of computing steps
- Flow (mathematics), the one-dimensional (continuous, differentiable) action of a group, usually arising in the solution of differential equations
    - Examples include geodesic flow, Hamiltonian flow and Anosov flow
- Network flow, an assignment of flow to the edges of a directed graph in graph theory
- Flow (psychology), the feeling of complete and energized focus in an activity, with a high level of enjoyment and fulfillment (a concept popularised by the book _Flow_ by Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi)
- Flow (television), in television studies and programming, the sequence of television material from one element to the next
- Flow (journal), an online journal of television and media studies
- FLOW (band), a J-Pop group
- Flow binding system, abbreviated "flow", a US based manufacturer of proprietary snowboard bindings*flOw, a Flash game that will be available on the PlayStation 3
- Flow, the total value of sales or purchases in an accounting period, usually a quarter or a year in economics and accounting
- "Flow", in hip hop and poetry, a verb or noun described as the ability to start and maintain a verse of lyrics
- "Flow", the section of a skatepark which is meant to be ridden without pushing, usually consisting of banks, hills, funboxes, etc.
IOU

**IOU** means "I Owe You" or "I Owe Unto". It is a note between two people that is used to say that one person owes something to the other as debt. It is usually used for currency. I.O.U.'s are most often only used between people that know each other very well, for example, friends.
Inorganic compound

An **inorganic compound** is a chemical compound that does not have carbon–hydrogen bonds that is, it is _not_ an organic compound. That means it is not a carbon-based compound.

## Types of inorganic compounds

The division between the two types of compound is not absolute. Some carbon-containing compounds are traditionally considered inorganic. Many chemicals in nature are not compounds, but are ions. Sodium, chloride, and phosphate ions are essential for life, as are some inorganic molecules such as nitrogen, carbon dioxide, water and oxygen. Aside from these simple ions and molecules, virtually all compounds covered by biochemistry contain carbon and can be considered organic or organometallic.

Major types of inorganic compounds may  include:
- Minerals, such as salt, asbestos, silicates, ...
- Alloys, like brass, bronze, ...
- Most compounds involving non-metallic elements, like silicon, phosphorus, chlorine, oxygen, for example water

## Related pages

- Inorganic chemistry
Applied mechanics

**Applied mechanics**, also known as **theoretical and applied mechanics**, is a branch of the physical sciences and the practical application of mechanics.  Applied mechanics examines the _response of bodies (solids and fluids) to external forces_.  Some examples of _mechanical systems_ include the flow of a liquid under pressure, the fracture of a solid from an applied force, or the vibration of an ear in response to sound.  A practitioner of the discipline is known as a mechanician.

Applied mechanics, as its name suggests, bridges the gap between physical theory and its application to technology.
Mechanics

**Mechanics** is a branch of physics which looks at objects that are moved by forces (including other bodies, or forces of nature). A person working in this discipline is known as a mechanician.

Mechanics started in ancient Greece where Aristotle studied how things moved when they were thrown through the air. Since then Galileo, Kepler and Newton figured out a lot more about mechanics.

## Significance

Mechanics started out as the study of parts of the world that are big enough for humans to see them. Mechanics studies the movement of all Matter in the universe. It studies gravity, strong and weak interactions, and Electromagnetism.

### Different Types of classical mechanics

- Kinematics, the study of motion
- Astrodynamics, spacecraft navigation, orbital eccentricity, etc.
    - Celestial mechanics, motions of planets and other astronomical objects
- Solid mechanics, elasticity, the properties of (semi-)rigid bodies
- Acoustics, sound in solids, fluids, etc.
- Hydraulics, fluids in equilibrium
- Applied / Engineering mechanics
- Statistical mechanics, large assemblies of particles
- Relativistic or Einsteinian mechanics, universal gravitation

### Newton

Newton proposed three laws of motion.
1. An object will stay at a constant speed unless a force acts on it.
1. F= Ma: the overall force acting on an object is the mass of the object times the object's acceleration.
1. For every action there is an equal but opposite reaction.

### Quantum mechanics

The following are categorized as being part of Quantum mechanics:
- Particle physics, the motion, structure, and reactions of particles
- Nuclear physics, the motion, structure, and reactions of nuclei
- Condensed matter physics, quantum gases, solids, liquids, etc.
- Quantum statistical mechanics, large assemblies of particles

## Related pages

- Kinematics
- Mechanical engineering
- Physics

## Other websites

Blogs:
- iMechanica: the web of mechanics and mechanicians
- Mechanics Blog by a Purdue University Professor
- The Mechanics program at Virginia Tech