juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Key lime

The **Key lime** is a citrus fruit. Its Latin name is  _Citrus aurantiifolia_ (often, less correctly: _C. aurantifolia_), or _Citrus_ x _aurantiifolia_ (Christm.) Swingle. It is also known as the **Mexican lime**, **West Indian lime** or **Bartender's lime**. It is a shrub that grows to about 5m in height.

Its fruit is 2.5-5 cm in diameter (1-2 in). The fruit is yellow when ripe but usually, it is picked green. It is smaller, seedier, has higher acidity, a stronger aroma, and a thinner rind than that of the more common Persian lime. It is valued for its unique flavor compared to other lime.  The Key lime usually has a more tart and bitter flavor. It is perhaps most distinguished as an ingredient in the Key lime pie.

_C. aurantiifolia_ is a shrubby tree, that grows to 5 m (16 ft), with many thorns. Dwarf varieties are popular with home growers and can be grown indoors in winter in colder climates. The trunk rarely grows straight, with many branches that often originate quite far down on the trunk. The leaves are ovate 2.5–9 cm (1–3.5 in) long. They resemble orange leaves (the scientific name _aurantiifolia_ refers to the leaves' resemblance). The flowers are 2.5 cm (1 in) in diameter. They are yellowish-white with a light purple tinge on the margins. Flowers and fruit appear throughout the year but are most abundant from May to September  .

_C. aurantiifolia_ originally came from  Southeast Asia.  It was introduced through the Middle East to North Africa and Europe during the Crusades. Spanish explorers then took it to the West Indies (at some point including the Florida Keys) contemporaneously with Columbus, then tropical and sub-tropical North America including Mexico, Florida, and later California .  The English name "lime" was derived from the Persian name لیمو _Limu_ in this course.  "Key" would seem to have been added sometime after the Persian lime cultivar became more important commercially in the United States. This was after the hurricane of 1926. The hurricane destroyed most U.S. _C. aurantiifolia_ plants.  Some plants growing in the wild in the Keys survived the hurricane.  Since the North American Free Trade Agreement came into effect, many Key limes are grown in Mexico and Central America. They are also grown in Texas and California.

## Footnotes

1. Alphabetical List of Plant Families with Insecticidal and Fungicidal Properties
1. _Citrus aurantiifolia_ Swingle
1. _Citrus aurantiifolia_ Swingle
Persian lime

**Persian Lime** (_Citrus x latifolia_), also known as **Tahiti lime** or **Bearss lime** is a kind of citrus fruit. It is the primary citrus fruit grown commercially in the U.S. It is sold simply as a "lime". The fruit is about 6 cm in diameter. Very often, it has slightly nippled ends. It is usually sold quite green, although it yellows as it reaches full ripeness. It is larger, thicker-skinned, and less aromatic than the key lime. The key lime is grown more often worldwide. The Persian lime is bigger than the key lime, and has fewer seeds. The plant is also hardier, and has no thorns on the bushes. The fruit also has a longer shelf life.

Persian limes are less acidic than key limes and do not have the bitterness that lends to the key lime's unique flavour. Persian limes are sold primarily in six sizes, known as 110's, 150's, 175's, 200's, 230's and 250's. They are grown primarily in Florida in the U.S. The Persian lime became more important when key lime orchards were wiped out by a hurricane in 1926. Persian lime orchards themselves were devastated by Hurricane Andrew in 1992. Large numbers of Persian limes are grown, processed and exported every year primarily from Martínez de la Torre, Veracruz, Mexico, to the American, European and Asian markets. U.S. Persian lime imports from Mexico are handled mostly through McAllen, Texas.

## References

- Tahiti lime botany, agriculture, and history
- history and use of limes
- history and varieties of limes
- Key limes and others
Kaffir lime

The **Kaffir lime** (_Citrus hystrix _DC., Rutaceae), also known as **kieffer lime**, **makrut** or **magrood**, is a citrus fruit native to Indonesia. It is widely grown worldwide as a garden shrub. It is usually grown for its fruit, the lime. The leaves are used for cooking. Vegetable oil obtained from the leaves is used to make perfumes.

## The plant

The plant is a  very thorny bush with aromatic leaves. The oil obtained from the rind of the fruit can be used as an insecticide. The plant is well suited to being grown in a container. The green fruits are different from other limes because of their bumpy and rough exterior. They are also quite small, about 4 centimetres across. The leaves are shaped like an hourglass. The leaves and the leaf-shaped stem are widely used in the cuisine of Cambodia, Thailand and Laos.

_Citrus x hystrix_ leaves are also popular in Cambodia but less so in Vietnam. Malay, Burmese and Indonesian (especially Balinese and Javanese; see also Indonesian bay leaf) cuisines use them sporadically with chicken and fish.

The leaves can be used fresh or dried and can be stored frozen.

Although the most common product of the _Citrus x hystrix_ tree is its leaves (which give a sharp Lime/neroli flavour to Cambodian base paste known as Krueng, Thai dishes such as tom yum and Indonesian food such as sayur assam - literally _sour vegetables_), the juice and rind of the small, dark-green gnarled fruit (known as jeruk obat - literally _medicine citrus_) are used in traditional Indonesian medicine.

The zest is widely used in Creole cuisine and to impart flavour to "arranged" rums on Réunion and Madagascar.

## Other names

Other names for _Citrus x hystrix_:
- Burma: shauk-nu, shauk-waing
- Cambodia: krauch soeuch
- China: fatt-fung-kam
- Malaysia: limau purut
- Indonesia: jeruk purut, jeruk sambal
- Philippines: swangi
- Sri Lanka: kahpiri dehi, odu dehi, kudala-dehi
- Thailand: makrut, som makrut

## Terminology

_The Oxford Companion to Food_ () recommends that the name _kaffir lime_ should be avoided in favour of _makrut lime_ because _Kaffir_ is an offensive term in certain cultures and also has no clear reason for being attached to this plant. However _kaffir lime_ appears to be much more common.
Doctrine

**Doctrine** (Latin: _doctrina_) is a code of beliefs or "a body of teachings".

Doctrine often means several religious dogmas that a church teaches.
But it can also mean a principle of law, in the common law traditions, established through a history of past decisions, such as the doctrine of self-defense, or the principle of fair use.

In matters of foreign policy, a doctrine, also known as dogma, is group of fundamental rules for a nation's foreign policy. Examples include the Monroe Doctrine, the Stimson Doctrine, the Truman Doctrine, the Eisenhower Doctrine, the Nixon Doctrine, the Brezhnev Doctrine, the Kirkpatrick doctrine, and the Bush Doctrine.

## Religious usage

Examples of religious doctrines include:
- Christian Trinity and Virgin birth of Jesus
- Roman Catholic transubstantiation and immaculate conception
- Pentecostal Jesus-Only doctrine
- Calvinist predestination
- Methodist Prevenient Grace

One department of the Roman Curia is called the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith.

## Military usage

The term also applies to the concept of an established procedure to a complex operation in warfare. The typical example is tactical doctrine in which a standard set of maneuvers, kinds of troops and weapons are employed as a default approach to a kind of attack.

Examples of military doctrines include:
- Blitzkrieg of World War II
- Hit-and-run tactics
- Shock and Awe
- _Guerre de course_
- Mahanian of late 19th up to mid-20th Century
Citric acid

**Citric acid** is a weak organic acid. It can be found in citrus fruits. It is used by organisms for Krebs cycle. It acts like a preservative when added to food. It is also used to add a sour (acidic) taste to foods and soft drinks. In the European Union it is known as **E 330**, as a food additive.

Carl Wilhelm Scheele was the first who could extract citric acid from lemons, in 1782. The substance was probably known to alchemists, perhaps with a different name. The Arabian alchemist Geber is said to have discovered citric acid in the 9th century. Citric Acid contains 6 Carbon atoms, 8 Hydrogen atoms and 7 Oxygen atoms. Its chemical formula is C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>8</sub>O<sub>7</sub>.

## Main uses

- As a water softener
- It is often used in detergents, to avoid the smell of acid, esp. Acetic acid
- As a preserving agent
- Citric acid and its salts prevent blood clotting. Blood donations are kept liquid using citric acid.

## Other websites

- Citric acid analysis - free spreadsheet for titration of acids and pH calculation
Geber

**Jābir ibn Ḥayyān** (; ; died between 806 and 816), is the name for the writer of a great number of writings in Arabic. The writings together have the name **Jabirian corpus**. The most important subjects of these writings are: alchemy, cosmology, numerology, astrology, medicine, magic, mysticism, and philosophy.

Jabir's writings have in them the oldest known list of chemical substances. For the first time, the writings gave an explanation of how to produce an inorganic substance (ammonium chloride) from organic substances (such as plants, blood, and hair).

Modern scholars doubt the historical existence of Jabir. It is probable that one person did not write all of the writings in the Jabirian corpus. Instead, scholars see Jabir ibn Hayyan as a pseudonym that a group of writers used.

Translations into Latin of some of Jabir's Arabic writings (like the "Book of Mercy", and the "Book of Seventy") came into existence in the Middle Ages. In Latin, Jabir had the name "Geber", a transliteration of "Jabir".

In 13th-century Europe an anonymous writer, called pseudo-Geber, started to produce new writings about alchemy under the name Geber. People still read the  in the 17th century. The __ was one of the writings that pseudo-Geber produced in the 13th century. It was an influence on early modern chemists like Robert Boyle (1627–1691).
Carl Wilhelm Scheele

**Carl Wilhelm Scheele** (December 9, 1742 - May 21, 1786) a German-Swedish pharmaceutical chemist, born in Stralsund, Western Pomerania, Germany (at the time under Swedish rule), was the discoverer of many chemical substances, most notably discovering oxygen before Joseph Priestley and chlorine before Humphry Davy.
Micheline Calmy-Rey

**Micheline Calmy-Rey** (born 8 July 1945) is a Swiss politician. She was Switzerland's foreign minister as head of the Federal Department of Foreign Affairs. She was also a member of the Swiss Federal Council from 2003. She was President of the Confederation in 2007 and again in 2011. She resigned her office as member of the Federal Council on 31 December 2011.

## Other websites

- Official website

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## Infobox (officeholder)

- **name**: Micheline Calmy-Rey
- **image**: Micheline Calmy-Rey.jpg
- **office**: Member of the Swiss Federal Council
- **term start**: 1 January 2003
- **term end**: 31 December 2011
- **predecessor**: Ruth Dreifuss
- **successor**: Alain Berset
- **office2**: President of the Swiss Confederation, President of Switzerland
- **vicepresident2**: Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf
- **term start2**: 1 January 2011
- **term end2**: 31 December 2011
- **predecessor2**: Doris Leuthard
- **successor2**: Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf
- **vicepresident3**: Pascal Couchepin
- **term start3**: 1 January 2007
- **term end3**: 31 December 2007
- **predecessor3**: Moritz Leuenberger
- **successor3**: Pascal Couchepin
- **office4**: Vice President of Switzerland
- **president4**: Doris Leuthard
- **term start4**: 1 November 2010
- **term end4**: 31 December 2010
- **predecessor4**: Moritz Leuenberger
- **successor4**: Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf
- **president5**: Moritz Leuenberger
- **term start5**: 1 January 2006
- **term end5**: 31 December 2006
- **predecessor5**: Moritz Leuenberger
- **successor5**: Pascal Couchepin
- **office6**: Head of the Department of Federal Department of Foreign Affairs, Foreign Affairs
- **term start6**: 1 January 2003
- **term end6**: 31 December 2011
- **predecessor6**: Joseph Deiss
- **successor6**: Didier Burkhalter
- **birth place**: Sion, Switzerland, Sion, Switzerland
- **party**: Social Democratic Party of Switzerland, Social Democratic Party
- **spouse**: André Calmy
- **alma mater**: Graduate Institute of International Studies
Criss Angel Mindfreak

***Criss Angel Mindfreak*** is an American television program. The program is hosted by illusionist Criss Angel. Angel performs many different types of stunts and illusions on the program such as street magic, levitation, and setting himself on fire. The program was first shown on July 20, 2005. It is shown and distributed by the A&E network.

## Other websites

- Official Criss Angel website
- Official _Criss Angel Mindfreak_ TV Series website at A&E
- Titles & Air Dates Guide of _Criss Angel Mindfreak_ at epguides.com

## Infobox (television)

- **runtime**: 22 minutes
- **creator**: Criss Angel
- **starring**: Criss Angel
- **country**: United States
- **network**: A&E Network, A&E
- **num seasons**: 6
- **num episodes**: 96 episodes
Piano trio

A **piano trio** is a group of three instruments including a piano. Usually it is a piano, a violin and a cello. This combination of instruments has been a very popular form of chamber music from the Classical music period onwards. A **piano trio** can also mean a piece of music written for a piano trio to play.

Other combinations of piano with two instruments are often called by the featuring wind instrument. For example: Mozart wrote a trio for piano, clarinet and viola which is usually called a “clarinet trio”. Brahms wrote a trio for piano, violin and French horn which is usually called a “horn trio”.

Music for three people to play at one piano is called music for piano six hands.

## Famous music for piano trio

Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven all wrote several piano trios for the traditional combination of piano, violin and cello. Beethoven’s last piano trio has the nickname _Archduke_ because it was written for the Archduke Rudolph. Franz Schubert wrote two beautiful piano trios.

In the Romantic period some of the best piano trios were written by Felix Mendelssohn, Antonín Dvořák, César Franck and Pyotr Tchaikovsky.

In the 20th century Maurice Ravel and Dmitri Shostakovich each wrote a famous piano trio.

## Famous piano trios

Alfred Cortot, Jacques Thibaud and Pablo Casals were world famous musicians who played and recorded piano trios in the early 20th century.
During the second half of the 20th century the Beaux Arts Trio were the best known group. Today there are many young musicians who play piano trios, including three Japanese sisters called the Fujita Piano Trio who play a lot of their music all from memory.
Franz Grillparzer

**Franz Grillparzer** (born Vienna, 15 January 1791 – died Vienna, 21 January 1872) was an Austrian dramatist and poet. His dramas include three plays (a “trilogy”) called _Das Goldene Vliess_ (_The Golden Fleece_).

## Works

Two other famous plays are _Des Meeres und der Liebe Wellen_ (_The Waves of the Sea and of Love_) and _Der Traum, ein Leben_ (_The Dream, a Life_).  Although he said he was not interested in prose his short story _Der arme Spielmann_ (_The poor minstrel_) is probably the best known of his works and one of the best short stories of the 19th century.  Grillparzer wrote the funeral speech for Beethoven's funeral in 1827.

Legacy

An Austrian pastry is named after him: the Grillparzertorte.

## Infobox (writer)

- **birth place**: Vienna, Austria
- **image**: Grillparzer.jpg
- **caption**: Lithograph by Josef Kriehuber, 1841
- **death place**: Vienna, Austria
- **name**: Franz Grillparzer
Pastry

**Pastry** is the dough from which some baked products are made. Pastry dough is rolled out thinly and used as a base for baked products. It is made from ingredients such as flour, sugar, milk, butter, shortening, baking powder, and/or eggs. Common pastry dishes include pies, tarts, quiches and pasties.

Pastry is also the name given to various kinds of baked products. Small cakes, tarts and other sweet or savoury baked products are called "pastries."

## Related pages

- Cookie
- Croissant

## Infobox (food)

- **name**: Pastry
- **image**: Palmeras de hojaldre 1.jpg
- **image size**: 250px
- **caption**: Palmier pastries
- **main ingredient**: Often flour, sugar, milk, butter or shortening, baking powder, Egg (food), eggs
Johann Georg Albrechtsberger

**Johann Georg Albrechtsberger** (born 3 February 1736 in Klosterneuburg near Vienna; died 7 March 1809 in Vienna) was an Austrian composer, organist, music theorist and music teacher. He is most known today because he was Beethoven's teacher for a time.

## Life

From the age of seven, Albrechtsberger was a choirboy. He had lessons in organ and music theory.  As an adult, he had several jobs in churches in small towns.  He became Kapellmeister at St Stephen’s Church, Vienna in 1793. This was the best job for a church musician in the empire.

## Writing music

Albrechtsberger wrote hundreds of compositions. He wrote most of them before he got the job in Vienna. He wrote in a classical style. Albrechsberger enjoyed doing things with music which were not normally done. He would ask string players to tune their strings in different ways (called “scordatura”). He would also write slow movements with muted strings. As well as classical sonatas he wrote lots of fugues. Several people, including Mozart, thought of him as the greatest organist in the world.

## Teaching

Albrechtsberger was a very important music teacher. Joseph Haydn thought he was the best teacher in Vienna. He was very interested in contrapuntal music of the Baroque period. He copied many fugues by Bach and other composers.

When Beethoven was a young man, he had some composition lessons from Joseph Haydn. When Haydn was going to travel to England for several months, he asked Albrechtsberger to teach Beethoven while he was gone. These lessons took place from 1793 to 1795. A few years later, Albrechtsberger said about Beethoven that “he learned absolutely nothing and will never accomplish anything decent”. Beethoven said that Albrechtsberger was a “musical pedant”. However, Beethoven still studied Albrechtsberger’s books on music theory. The string quartets which Beethoven wrote near the end of his life show the influence of Albrechtsberger.
Für Elise

"**Für Elise**" (German for _For Elise_) is the common name of the song "**Bagatelle in A minor**." It was written for the piano by the composer Ludwig van Beethoven in 1810. The song is thought to be written for Therese, a woman that Beethoven wanted to marry in 1810. It is believed that his handwriting was not translated correctly when the song was transcribed. This caused the piece to be known as " Für Elise" rather than " Für Therese".

The piece of music was not published until 1865. This was a long time after the death of Beethoven. It is one of the most well-known pieces of piano music in the world.

## Form

The piece is in rondo form. There is a main section (A) which appears three times. Between these three sections there are two other sections (B and C), so the form of the piece can be described as: A B A C A.

The main section has a time signature of 3/8. It is based on arpeggios which flow from one hand to the other. This is the section that many beginner pianists want to play. The two middle sections are harder to play at the correct speed. They have fast scales, arpeggios and left hand demisemiquavers (32nd notes).

## References

- Woodstra, Chris. et al. 2005. _All Music Guide to Classical Music_. All Media Guide, LLC. p. 104.

- What is the meaning of Beethoven’s ‘Für Elise’ – and who was Elise?

## Other websites

- Für Elise - and other Beethoven resources (includes the free sheet music)
Teplice

**Teplice**  () is a city in Bohemia, the western area of the Czech Republic.  Teplice (pronounced in Czech: “Tep-li-tse”) is a famous spa town where, in earlier times, lots of famous people went for holidays to improve their health.  Goethe, Beethoven, Chopin, Franz Liszt and Richard Wagner all stayed there.

Teplice lies between Prague and Dresden in a mountain area called Krušné hory (Iron Mountains).  In the year 762, hot springs were found there.  The waters from these springs helped people who were ill to get better so it became a spa town.

Since 1990, many buildings have been restored.  The Krušnohorské divadlo (Krušnohorské theatre) is now being refurbished.  The North Bohemia Philharmonic Orchestra give concerts there in the open air.  There is a museum and many restaurants, wine bars and cafés.  In the winter the mountain slopes are good for skiing.

## Other websites

- Official website
Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven)

**Symphony No. 9 in D minor**, Op. 125, is a symphony written by Ludwig van Beethoven. It is one of the most famous pieces of music ever written.

A symphony is a piece of music for orchestra. Beethoven wrote nine symphonies. This one, the last one he wrote, is very unusual because the last movement also has singing in it: there are four soloists (soprano, alto, tenor and bass) and a choir. This is why it is known as the “choral” symphony (“choral” means: “for choir”). It is a very long work, lasting more than an hour. This, too, was unusual.

This symphony has four movements. The first movement is in sonata form. The second and third movements come the other way round from the usual order: the second movement is the scherzo and the third movement is the slow movement. It is a theme and variations. The last movement sets the words of a poem by Friedrich Schiller, a famous poet who had only recently died. The poem was called _Ode an die Freude_ (in English: _Ode to Joy_). The poem has a strong message to all mankind: it is about living in peace and harmony together. It was written at the time of the French Revolution when these ideas were becoming very important in Europe.

The main tune of the last movement (sung to the words: “Freude, schöne Götterfunken, Tochter aus Elysium”) is one of the best known tunes in the world. Many children like to play it on instruments because the first part of the tune only uses five notes (it can be played on D, E, F-sharp, G, A). When the tune comes the first time in the symphony it is played by the cellos and double basses.

The _Ode to Joy_ was adopted as Europe's “National anthem” in 1972, with an official arrangement for orchestra written by Herbert von Karajan.

Beethoven had been interested in Schiller’s famous poem since he was young. In 1817 he started to write the first two movements of the symphony. In 1822 he decided to use Schiller’s poem in the symphony. Most of the rest of the symphony was written in 1823 and he finished it in 1824. It was first performed in May of that year. Beethoven conducted the performance. The story is told that he wondered why the audience were not applauding when it had finished. They were applauding, but Beethoven was deaf so he could not hear. Caroline Unger, the alto soloist, made him turn round, and he saw that people were applauding enthusiastically.
Mersenne prime

In mathematics, a **Mersenne number** is a number that is one less than a _power of two_.

- _M<sub>n</sub>_ = 2<sup>_n_</sup> − 1.

A **Mersenne prime** is a _Mersenne number_ that is a prime number. This however, is not sufficient. Many mathematicians prefer the definition of a Mersenne number where exponent _n_ to be a prime number.

For example, _31 = 2<sup>5</sup> − 1_, and 5 is a prime number, so 31 is a Mersenne number; and 31 is also a Mersenne prime because it is a prime number. But the Mersenne number _2047 = 2<sup>11</sup> − 1_ is not a prime because it is divisible by 89 and 23. And _2<sup>4</sup> − 1 = 15_ can be shown to be composite because 4 is not prime.

Throughout modern times, the largest known prime number has very often been a Mersenne prime. Most sources restrict the term _Mersenne number_ to where _n_ is prime, as all Mersenne primes must be of this form as seen below.

Mersenne primes have a close connection to perfect numbers, which are numbers equal to the sum of their proper divisors. Historically, the study of Mersenne primes was motivated by this connection; in the 4th century BC Euclid demonstrated that if _M_ is a Mersenne prime then _M_(_M_+1)/2 is a perfect number. In the 18th century, Leonhard Euler proved that all even perfect numbers have this form. No odd perfect numbers are known, and it is suspected that none exist (if one does, it would have to be greater than 10<sup>2200</sup>).

It is currently unknown if there is an infinite number of Mersenne primes. Most mathematicians who have studied the question think there are an infinite number of Mersenne primes. Carl Pomerance, Samuel S. Wagstaff Jr. and Hendrik Lenstra developed a formula which they think should say about how many Mersenne primes there are under a given number.

The binary representation of 2<sup>_n_</sup> - 1 is _n_ repetitions of the digit 1.

For example, 2<sup>_5_</sup> - 1 = 11111 in binary.

The first four Mersenne primes were known by the Ancient Greeks. They are 3, 7, 31 and 127. The next, 8191, was discovered in 1456. Some people like trying to find big primes. Since there are tricks and algorithms to finding Mersenne primes quickly, the largest known primes are also Mersenne primes.

As of 2024, 52 Mersenne primes are known. The largest known prime number is Mersenne prime .
The Settlers II

***The Settlers II*** is a real-time strategy (RTS) computer video game. It was released by Blue Byte Software in 1996.
Granule

**Granule** is a generic term used for a small particle or grain.  The generic term is used in a lot of contexts.

- Granule (solar physics), visible structures in the photosphere of the Sun arising from activity in the Sun's convective zone
- Granule (cell biology), any of several submicroscopic structures, some with explicable origins, others noted only as cell type-specific features of unknown function
    - "Azurophil granule", a structure characteristic of the azurophil eukaryotic cell type
    - "Chromaffin granule", a structure characteristic of the chromophil eukaryotic cell type
- Martian spherules, spherical granules of material found on the surface of the planet Mars
- A specified particle size of 2–4 millimetres (-1– -2 on the φ scale)
Granule (cell biology)

In cell biology, a **granule** can be any structure barely visible by light microscopy. The term is most often used to describe a secretory vesicle.

## Leukocytes

A group of leukocytes called granulocytes contain granules and play an important role in the immune system. The granules of certain cells, such as Natural killer cells, contain components which can lead to the lysis of neighboring cells.

## Platelets

The granules of platelets are classified as dense granules and alpha granules.
Cytosol

The **cytosol** (also known as **intracellular fluid** (ICF) or **cytoplasmic matrix**, or **groundplasm**) is the internal fluid of the cell, and a part of cell metabolism occurs here.

Proteins within the **cytosol** play an important role in signal transduction pathways and glycolysis.

Cytosol mostly consists of water, dissolved ions, small molecules, and large water-soluble molecules (such as protein). It contains about 20% to 30% protein.

Normal human cytosolic pH is (roughly) 7.0 (i.e. neutral), whereas the pH of the extracellular fluid is 7.4.

The texture of cytosol being described as granular can be attributed to the fact that in order to study the texture, an electron microsope must be used, which requires a process of dehydration prior to study.

## References

_Life: the science of biology_. Purves, Sadava, Orians, Heller. Sunderland, MA. Sinauer Associates, Inc. 2004.  (ILM USA)
Joan Jett

**Joan Jett** (born September 1958) is an American singer and guitarist. She is best known for her number one single "I Love Rock n Roll". Jett has a punkish, tomboy appearance and is a Democrat.

In 2015, she was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Joan Jett
- **img**: Joan Jett May 2005.jpg
- **img capt**: Joan Jett, with The Blackhearts, performing at the "Tribute to Our Heroes" celebration at Fort Hood, Texas in May 2005
- **background**: solo_singer
- **birth name**: Joan Marie Larkin
- **alias**: Joan Jett
- **origin**: Wynnewood, Pennsylvania, United States
- **instrument**: singing, Vocals, guitar, bass guitar
- **genre**: hard rock, punk rock, glam punk
- **occupation**: Singer-songwriter, musician
- **years active**: 1975–present
- **label**: Blackheart Records, Blackheart, Epic Records, Epic, Boardwalk Records, Boardwalk, Ariola Records, Ariola, MCA Records, MCA, CBS, Warner Bros. Records, Warner Bros.
- **associated acts**: The Runaways, Joan Jett & the Blackhearts
Marble

- _For the toy, see marbles_
**Marble** is a metamorphic rock that developed from limestone. Most of the material is calcite (a crystalline form of calcium carbonate, CaCO<sub>3</sub>) and dolomite. It is often used for sculpture, as a building material, and for many other purposes.

The word 'marble' is also used for other stones that can be polished well and for ball shaped objects used for child games.

'Faux marble' is a wall painting technique that imitates the color patterns of real marble (not to be confused with paper marbling). Marble dust can be combined with cement or synthetic resins to make _reconstituted_ or _cultured marble_.

Marble has been used in construction for thousands of years. It was widely used by Greek and Roman sculptors and architects. Places named after the stone include Marble Arch, London; the Sea of Marmara; India's Marble Rocks; and the towns of Marble, Minnesota; Marble, Colorado; and Marble Hill, Manhattan, New York. The Elgin Marbles are marble sculptures from the Parthenon that are on display in the British Museum.  They were brought to Britain by the Earl of Elgin.

## Construction marble

In the construction trade, the term "marble" is used for any massive, crystalline calcitic rock (and some non-calcitic rocks) useful as building stone.

### Examples

Purbeck marble is a fossiliferous limestone found in the Isle of Purbeck, a peninsula in south-east Dorset, England. It has been quarried since at least Roman times as a decorative building stone. The industry is no longer active.

Tennessee marble is really a massive, highly fossiliferous gray to pink to maroon Ordovician dolostone, known as the Holston Formation by geologists.  "Tennessee marble" is not true marble.  Its crystalline nature gives it a resemblance to marble, especially when polished.

Carrara marble is a genuine marble. It is white or blue-grey and of high quality, popular for use in sculpture and building decor. It is quarried at the city of Carrara in the Lunigiana, the northernmost tip of modern-day Tuscany, Italy.
The illustration shows the _Pietà_, which is a masterpiece of Renaissance sculpture by Michelangelo. It is in St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City, and is the only piece Michelangelo ever signed.

## Industrial use of marble

Colorless marbles are a very pure source of calcium carbonate, which is used in a wide variety of industries.  Finely ground marble powder is a component in paint, toothpaste, and plastics; calcium carbonate can also be reduced under high heat to calcium oxide (also known as "quicklime"), which has many uses including being a primary component of most cements.

## Related pages

- list of minerals
- limestone
- granite
- sandstone
- Scagliola

## Other websites

- Inlaid marble
- Tips for cleaning marble
- Learning to carve by Marc Levoy.
Fan fiction

**Fan fiction** or **fanfiction** (also known as fanfic) is a name for fiction created by fans instead of the original author.

Fanfiction writers take fictional characters and settings from fictional (or sometimes historical) stories that were created by other people, and write original stories about them. People write fan fiction for many different book, television series, and movie fandoms.

When fanfiction first began, it was often only published in fan magazines. Today fanfiction, like many fandom activities, can be usually found on the internet. This has created many fanfiction communities. People in these communities post their fanfiction and receive feedback (reviews) from other community members.

There is also fan art (also called fanart), which is often drawings or other visual art based on a fandom.

## Related pages

- Fandom
- Fictional universe

## Other websites

- Fanfiction.net
Three Laws of Robotics

The **Three Laws of Robotics** are three rules which Isaac Asimov thought should be programmed into robots. The rules assume that robots will be human-type machines, able to walk about and do things. Asimov called these robots _positronic robots_. The laws are presented in his 'Robot' series of short stories and novels.

The first mention of the laws is in Asimov's short story _Runaround_ (written in 1942).
1. A robot may not injure a human being or, by failing to act, allow a human being to come to harm.
1. A robot must obey orders given to it by human beings, except where carrying out those orders would break the First Law.
1. A robot must protect its own existence, as long as the things it does to protect itself do not break the First or Second Law.

Later, Asimov added the Zeroth Law: "A robot may not harm humanity, or, by inaction, allow humanity to come to harm"; the rest of the laws are changed one by one so that there can be no reason for a robot to break the Zeroth Law. .

According to the _Oxford English Dictionary,_ the passage in Asimov's short story "Liar!" (1941) that mentions the First Law is the earliest recorded use of the word _robotics_. Asimov was not aware of this at the time; he assumed the word already existed by analogy with _mechanics,_ _hydraulics,_ and other similar terms denoting branches of applied knowledge.

The Three Laws form a theme in his _Robot_ series and the other stories linked to it, as well as his Lucky Starr series of science fiction for children.  Other authors working in Asimov's fictional universe have adopted them, and references (often parodic) appear in science fiction and other genres. Technologists in the field of artificial intelligence have speculated upon the role the Laws might have in the future.

## Other websites

- Worley, Gordon.  "Robot Oppression: Unethicality of the Three Laws ".
- "Frequently Asked Questions about Isaac Asimov", _AsimovOnline_ 27 September 2004.
- Ethical Considerations for Humanoid Robots: Why Asimov's Three Laws are not enough.
Nathuram Godse

**Nathuram Vinayak Godse** (, May 19, 1910 – November 15, 1949) was an Indian Hindutva Nationalist and convicted Criminal who was responsible for the assassination of Mohandas Gandhi.

## Biography

Nathuram Godse was born at Baramati, Pune District, British India. His father was Vinayak Vaman Rao Godse, his mother was Lakshmi (Godavari before marriage). His father was a fifteen-rupee-a-month employee of the post office. He would drop out of high school and become an activist for the party Hindu Mahasabha

### Motive

In his speech in Court, Naturam Godse stated the following as his reasons -

Gandhi's January 13, 1948 decision to fast to the death unless the Indian central government reversed a decision to withhold the transfer of 55 crore (550 million) rupees to the government of Pakistan. The transfer had been specified in the partition agreement, but the Indian government had refused to complete it, complaining of continued Pakistani rebel occupation of disputed parts of Kashmir.

The Indian government immediately reversed its decision to withhold the funds, which infuriated Godse and his fellow Hindu nationals.

### Attack

Godse assassinated Gandhi on January 30, 1948, approaching him during the evening prayer, bowing, and shot him three times at close range. Godse was convicted of murdering Gandhi, for which he was executed by hanging.

## Related pages

- Hindutva
- Yigal Amir

## Other websites

- Godse's deposition in court
- A pro-Godse site  with interviews and links
- Time Magazine's Feb 2000 interview of Gopal Godse
- Rediff's Jan 1998 interview of Gopal Godse
- Article discussing pro-Godse play
- Eyewitness to Gandhi assassination
- Eyewitness gives VIDEO account of Gandhi Assassination

## Infobox (person)

- **name**: Nathuram Godse
- **image**: Nathuram godse.jpg
- **caption**: Nathuram Godse at his trial for the murder of Mahatma Gandhi
- **native name**: नथुराम गोडसे
- **birth place**: Baramati, Pune District, Bombay Presidency, Maharashtra, India
- **death place**: Ambala Prison, Punjab Province (British India), Punjab Province, Dominion of India
<small>(present day Haryana, India)</small>
- **nationality**: Indian
- **known for**: Assassination of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi
Cradle of Filth

**Cradle of Filth** is an extreme metal band from England. Some people say the band’s musical style is black metal, others say that it is gothic metal, extreme metal, or many other different styles. Cradle of Filth had many different members. It was founded by Dani Filth in 1991. He is still the leader of the band. Cradle of Filth is very well known and has enjoyed success on TV and the radio.

## Albums

- _The Principle of Evil Made Flesh_ (1994)
- _Dusk and Her Embrace_ (1997)
- _Cruelty and the Beast_ (1998)
- _Midian_ (2000)
- _Damnation and a Day_ (2003)
- _Nymphetamine_ (2004)
- _Thornography_ (2006)
- _Godspeed on the Devil's Thunder_ (2008)
- _Darkly, Darkly, Venus Aversa_ (2010)
- _The Manticore and Other Horrors_ (2012)
- _Hammer of the Witches_ (2015)
- _Cryptoriana - The Seductiveness of Decay_ (2017)
- _Existence Is Futile_ (2021)
- _The Screaming of the Valkyries_ (2025)

## Members

- Dani Filth - Vocals
- Paul Allender - Guitar
- Charles Hedger - Guitar
- Dave Pybus - Bass
- Martin Skaroupka - Drums
- Sarah Jezebel Deva - Backing Vocals
- Rosie Smith - Live Keyboards

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Cradle of Filth
- **img**: Cradle of Filth 2005.jpg
- **img capt**: Cradle of Filth at 2005's Metalmania.
- **img size**: 250
- **landscape**: Yes
- **background**: group_or_band
- **origin**: Suffolk, England
- **years active**: 1991–present
- **label**: Cacophonous Records, Cacophonous, Music for Nations, Abracadaver, Sony Records, Roadrunner Records, Roadrunner
- **url**: [http://www.cradleoffilth.com cradleoffilth.com]
- **associated acts**: Dimmu Borgir, My Dying Bride, Angtoria, The Blood Divine, Brujeria (band), Brujeria, Primary Slave, Anathema (band), Anathema, Abgott, Imperial Vengeance
- **current members**: Dani Filth
Paul Allender
Dave Pybus
Martin Skaroupka
Charles Hedger
Sarah Jezebel Deva
Rosie Smith
Makoto Sakurai

is the leader and founder of the very right-wing hate group Zaitokukai (). It is one of the largest hate groups in Japan, with over 14,000 members as of March 2014. The name means "Citizens’ League to Deny Foreigners in Japan Special Rights." As the leader, Sakurai participates in demonstrations, appears in videos, and blogs.

Sakurai was arrested for spitting on another person at a protest. The United States Department of State criticized his actions with Zaitokukai.

## Other websites

- Sakurai's blog (Japanese)
George Adamski

**George Adamski** (April 17, 1891 – April 23, 1965) was a Polish-born American who became known in ufology circles after he said he photographed ships from other planets, met with aliens, and took flights with them. He considered himself to be a "philosopher, teacher, student and saucer researcher."
Efficiency

**Efficiency** could mean:

- Energy efficiency, useful work per quantity of energy
    - Energy conversion efficiency, desired energy output per energy input
    - Energy conservation, reducing the use of energy
    - Electrical efficiency, useful power output per electrical power consumed
    - Fuel efficiency, converting energy in fuel to kinetic energy or work
        - Specific impulse, in propulsion systems, a measure of fuel-efficiency
    - Volumetric efficiency, in internal combustion engine design
    - Lighting efficiency, visible light from a light source per unit of power, in lumens per watt
    - Mechanical efficiency, the effectiveness of a simple machine, mechanical advantage over ideal mechanical advantage
    - Thermodynamic efficiency, useful work per change in heat
        - Exergy efficiency, measure of 2nd-law themodynamic loss
        - Thermal efficiency, useful work per the higher heating value of the fuel
    - Radiation efficiency, ratio of radiated power to power absorbed at the terminals of an antenna
- Efficiency (aerodynamics), for fixed wing aircraft the Lift-to-drag ratio
- Efficiency (economics), a general term, to capture the amount of waste or other undesirable features
    - Pareto efficiency, making one individual better off, without making any other individual worse off
    - Kaldor-Hicks efficiency, like a less stringent Pareto efficiency
    - Allocative efficiency, an optimal distribution of goods
    - The optimisation of a social welfare function
    - Efficiency wages, paying workers more than the market rate for increased productivity
- Efficiency (statistics), a measure of desirability of an estimator
- Efficiency ratio, expenses as a percentage of revenue, etc.
- Efficiency Movement, of the Progressive Era 1890-1932, advocated efficiency in the economy, society and government
- Material efficiency, compares material requirements between construction projects or physical processes
- Textual efficiency, density of a message
- Algorithmic efficiency, the speed and space requirements of a computer program
- Quantum efficiency, a measure of sensitivity of a photosensitive device: the percentage of photons hitting the photoreactive surface that will produce an electron–hole pair
Manga Kenkanryu

is a Japanese manga book.

## Related pages

- _The Truth about Nanjing_

## Infobox (animanga/header)

- **name**: Manga Kenkanryu
- **ja kanji**: マンガ 嫌韓流
- **ja romaji**: Manga – The Anti-Korean Wave
- **genre**: Political


## Infobox (animanga/print)

- **type**: manga
- **author**: Sharin Yamano
- **publisher**: Shin-yo-sha
- **first**: 26 July 2005
- **last**: 19 March 2015
- **volumes**: 10


## Infobox (animanga/footer)
Donkey Kong

**Donkey Kong** is a Nintendo video game character. He was first seen in a video game in 1981. He is a large gorilla who lives deep in the jungles of his very own island. Since 1994 he has worn a red necktie with his initials "DK" in yellow, his only piece of clothing. He appears as both the hero and villain of the _Donkey Kong_ games.

## Appearances in video games

- _Donkey Kong_
- Donkey Kong Jr.
- Donkey Kong 3
- Donkey Kong Jr. Math
- _Donkey Kong Country_
- Donkey Kong Country 2: Diddy's Kong Quest
- _Mario Kart 64_
- _Super Smash Bros._
- _ Mario Kart: Double Dash!!_
- _Mario Power Tennis_
- _Super Mario Strikers_
- _Super Smash Bros. Melee_
- _Mario Strikers Charged_
- _Super Smash Bros. Brawl_
- _Donkey Konga_
- _Donkey Kong Jungle Beat_ro:Donkey Kong

## Appearances in TV shows

Donkey Kong Country (TV series)

## Appearances in movies

- _The Super Mario Bros. Movie_
Sharin Yamano

is a Japanese manga artist. He is well known for his books, _Manga Kenkanryu_ (Hate Korea Wave) and _Manga Kenchogokuryu_ (Hate China Wave). He is thought to be anti-Korean and anti-Chinese, but the detail of his profile is not known well.
Multiculturalism

**Multiculturalism** is a word describing a society with many various cultures. It is the simple fact of cultural diversity.

## Multicultural society

In a multicultural society, there is not an official culture that is decided by those in charge for everyone. Instead, different cultures are similarly respected. A multicultural society emerges when persons from different countries migrate to one country, or an empire conquers many countries. Tolerance is a great help for multiculturalism. Xenophobia makes it difficult. A multicultural society would be composed of those from different ethnic backgrounds and cultures living and working together. Those from different backgrounds link with one another's culture, which shows the acceptance of their culture and background.

## Related pages

- Multilingualism
- Cultural assimilation
- Multiculturalism in Canada
Comfort women

**Comfort women** were women and girls forced into sexual slavery. These women, mostly Korean and Chinese, were forced by the Imperial Japanese Army in occupied territories before and during World War II. There are different estimates of how many comfort women there were. Most researchers say there were probably around 50,000 to 200,000 comfort women. One source says the number of comfort women was closer to 20,000 while another says there were as many as 410,000.
Glycolysis

**Glycolysis** is a metabolic process in most organisms. It is the first stage in cellular respiration. It allows both aerobic  and anaerobic respiration. Glycolysis releases only a small amount of energy. The word "glycolysis" comes from the Greek words γλυκύς (meaning "sweet") and λύσις (meaning "rupture").

Glycolysis is thought to be the archetype of a universal metabolic pathway. It occurs, with variations, in almost all organisms, both aerobic and anaerobic. The wide occurrence of glycolysis shows that it is one of the oldest known metabolic pathways.

Glycolysis has ten intermediate compounds, catalysed by ten different enzymes. Only the broad outline is described here.

### Preparatory phase

The first half of glycolysis is the preparatory phase. It starts off by adding a phosphate group to glucose (Glucose 6-phosphate). Next, the Glucose 6-phosphate is converted into Fructose 6-phosphate. Another phosphate group is added turning it into fructose -1,6- biphosphate. The fructose -1,6-biphosphate is then split in two, one part turning into G3P (Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate) and dihydroxyacetone phosphate. The dihydroxyacetone phosphate is converted into G3P, leaving us with the two G3P triose sugar molecules used in the Pay-off phase.

### Pay-off phase

The second half of glycolysis is known as the 'pay-off phase', by the net gain of the energy-rich molecules ATP and NADH. Since glucose leads to two triose (G3P) sugars in the preparatory phase, each reaction in the pay-off phase occurs twice per glucose molecule. This yields 2 NADH molecules and 4 ATP molecules, leading to a net gain of 2 NADH molecules and 2 ATP molecules from the glycolytic pathway per glucose molecule.

**Summary**: 2ATP → 4ATP + 2(NADH + H+) + 2 pyruvate (net production of 2ATP)

### Aerobic respiration

Cells performing aerobic respiration (respiration using oxygen) synthesize much more ATP, but not as part of glycolysis. These further reactions use the pyruvate from glycolysis.

Eukaryote aerobic respiration produces about 30 additional molecules of ATP for each glucose molecule.
Glycolysis, through anaerobic respiration, is the main energy source in many cells.

## Related pages

- Cellular respiration (overview)
- Link reaction
- Krebs cycle (Citric acid cycle)
- Electron transport chain (ETC)

## Other websites

- The Glycolytic enzymes in Glycolysis
- Metabolism, Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis - The Virtual Library of Biochemistry and Cell Biology
- Notes on glycolysis