juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Circadian rhythm

A **circadian rhythm** is a rhythm that repeats about every 24 hours.  Plants and animals have these built-in cycles which allow them to flower at the right time, sleep at the right time, etc.

These cycles are also called **circadian clocks**. The word "circadian" comes from the Latin _circa_, "around", and  _dies_, "day", meaning "about a day".  Biological time-keeping rhythms include daily, tidal, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms. However, most of these rhythms repeat once a day, so they are called circadian  from the Latin _circa_ (about) _dies_ (a day).

Circadian clocks are the internal clocks which make sure that the organism is doing the right thing at the right time. With more complex animals there is the matter of sleep, which seems to be universal amongst animals which have a brain.

Circadian rhythms do some amazing things, especially in the oceanic animals whose eggs are fertilised externally. This means the eggs and sperm have to be released at the same time by both sexes of the same species. Little is known about the physiology of how this coordination is achieved.

Animal clocks have three main parts:
- a central biochemical oscillator with a period of about 24 hours that keeps time;
- a series of input pathways to this central oscillator to allow  the clock to adjust itself;
- a series of output pathways that regulate rhythms in biochemistry, physiology, and behaviour throughout an organism.

In 2017, the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to Jeffrey C. Hall, Michael Rosbash and Michael W. Young "for their discoveries of molecular mechanisms controlling the circadian rhythm" in fruit flies (_Drosophila_).

The circadian rhythms, also called the "biological clock" or the "body clock", of humans and other animals, regulate many bodily functions including feeding, sleeping, body temperature and hormone production.

## Plants

The actual machinery in plants, fungi and bacteria are different from those in the animal clock. However, they do the same kind of thing in practice.
Stud (animal)

A **stud** in animal breeding is a male animal, such as a horse or dog, that is employed for breeding. The terms for the male of a given animal species (stallion, bull, rooster, etc.) usually mean that the animal is entire, that is, not castrated, and therefore capable of standing at stud. A specialized vocabulary exists for de-sexed animals.

A stud farm, in animal husbandry, is an establishment for selective breeding using stud animals.
Bullock

**Bullock** may refer to:
- Bullock (in British English), a castrated bull of any age
- Bullock (in North America), a young uncastrated bull
- Bullock (in Australia and New Zealand), an ox, an adult male bovine used for draught (usually but not always castrated)
- Bullock County, Alabama

## Related pages

- Bollocks
Bureaucracy

**Bureaucracy** is a concept. It is the structure and rules which control the activities of people that work for large organizations and government.

It has standardized procedure (rule-following), formal division of responsibility, hierarchy, and impersonal relationships. However, in practice, the interpretation and execution of policy can lead to informal influence.

Bureaucracy is a concept in sociology and political science. Four things are central to any definition of bureaucracy: a well-defined division of work between persons and offices, consistent patterns of recruitment, and stable careers. There is a hierarchy among offices, such that the authority and status are distributed between actors. Formal and informal networks connect people to one another, through flows of information and patterns of cooperation.

Examples of everyday bureaucracies include governments, armed forces, corporations, hospitals, courts, ministries and schools.

## Other websites

- Abstracts of academic books and articles about bureaucracy
- Kevin R. Kosar, "What ought a bureaucrat do?"  Claremont.org, (A review piece that ponders the values that should guide bureaucrats in their work.)
- Scientific Management and the Bureaucratic Organization  Summary of key concepts from on-line course.
Anzère

**Anzère** is a small village in the canton of Valais, Switzerland. It is north of Sion. It is a popular ski resort, with several ski schools.

## Skiing

The ski slopes in Anzère cover about 40 kilometers, with 1 cablecar, 2 chair lifts, and 8 T-bars.
There are several cafes in the area, and the entire area is known as Télé-Anzère.

## Town Centre

Facilities in and around Anzère's 'Place du Village' include both indoor and outdoor swimming pools, two supermarkets, many hotels, bars and nightclubs, as well as many restaurants and clothing shops. The 'Place du Village' is a person area right in the heart of the village, housing most of Anzère's cafes and restaurants. There is also an internet cafe, a crèperie and a children's play area.

## Other websites

- Anzère
Sion, Switzerland

**Sion** is the capital of the Swiss canton of Valais. In 2002, it had a population of 27,700.

Landmarks include the Basilique de Valère and Château de Tourbillon.

## Geography

As of 31 December 2005, 28,013 people lived in Sion. It is in the center of the Rhône valley. Sion is the economic and commercial hub of the region and canton.

The older area of the city still stays and is well preserved. As well as the two Château's, a number of other important buildings are there, such as the _Château de la Majorie_, the _Hôtel de Ville_ and the _Cathédrale Notre-Dame de Sion_.

## History

Sion started to develop during the time of the Celts.

It takes its name from the Latin word _Sedunum_. It housed the Romans with the rest of the surrounding area in the first century BCE.

The Roman Catholic Diocese of Sion is the oldest bishopric in Switzerland. It is one of the oldest north of the Alps.

On 1 January 2013, the former municipality of Salins merged into the municipality of Sion.

In 2017, Les Agettes became part of the municipality.

## Economy

The tertiary sector is the main economic sector in Sion. Tourism is also an important sector due to its historic _château's_ and museums.

Sion is the third largest wine making region in Switzerland, however, the valuable agricultural land and vineyards are undergoing constant regression due to the process of urbanisation.

Sion has also become an important medical site. The Sion-Region hospital is here next to the central institute of Valaisan hospitals and the _Romande_ clinic for physical rehabilitation (SUVA).

Finally, the commune has a waste incinerator which disposes of the waste from 44 surrounding communes. This incinerator has a catalytic converter, something that reduces harmful gases to acceptable levels. The heat created from the burning is converted into electrical energy that is then provided to local communes.

## Airshows

Public airshows have been held at the airfield of Sion. Participating aerobatic teams have included the Frecce Tricolori from Italy was well as the Patrouille de France.

## Transport

Sion is on the main railway line and the motorway. It also has an airport (Sion Airport).

## Other websites

- Official website
- Tourism guide

## Infobox (swiss town)

- **subject name**: Sion
- **image photo**: Sion 2.jpg
- **municipality name**: Sion
- **municipality type**: city
- **imagepath coa**: CHE Sion COA.svg
- **map**: Karte Gemeinde Sion.png
- **languages**: French
- **canton**: Valais
- **iso-code-region**: CH-VS
- **district**: Sion (district), Sion
- **postal code**: 1950
- **municipality code**: 6266
- **area**: 25.6
- **elevation**: 500
- **population**: 27,697
- **populationof**: December 2002
- **popofyear**: 2002
- **website**: www.sion.ch
- **mayor**: François Mudry
- **mayor party**: PDC
- **neighboring municipalities**: Ayent, Conthey, Grimisuat, Grône, Les Agettes, Nax, Nendaz, Saint-Léonard, Switzerland, Saint-Léonard, Salins, Switzerland, Salins, Savièse, Vernamiège, Vex, Switzerland, Vex
- **twintowns**: Colón, Entre Ríos, Colón (Argentina), Philippi, West Virginia, Philippi (United States)
Brig District

The **Brig District** is a part of the canton of Valais, Switzerland. It includes the following municipalities:

|Municipality name|Population <small>(31 Dec 2002)</small>!!Area in km²||
| --- | --- | --- |
|Birgisch|230|5.7|
|Brig-Glis|11,882|38.0|
|Eggerberg|377|6.0|
|Mund|584|40.2|
|Naters|7570|101.3|
|Ried-Brig|1860|47.5|
|Simplon|350|90.9|
|Termen|787|18.8|
|Zwischbergen|127|86.1|
Monthey

**Monthey** is the capital of the district of Monthey in the canton of Valais in Switzerland.

As of 2004, Monthey had a population is of 15,118 people (_Montheysans_).  Monthey is located on the west side of the Rhône valley, south to Lake Geneva. Monthey is important to Swiss industry, with many important companies including chemical companies. The city is close to the famous winter sports region, the Portes du Soleil.

## Other websites

- Monthey Homepage

## Infobox (swiss town)

- **subject name**: Monthey
- **municipality name**: Monthey
- **municipality type**: municipality
- **imagepath coa**: CHE Monthey COA.svg
- **languages**: French
- **canton**: Valais
- **iso-code-region**: CH-VS
- **district**: Monthey (district), Monthey
- **postal code**: 1870
- **area**: 22.7
- **population**: 15299
- **populationof**: 2005
- **website**: www.monthey.ch
- **mayor**: Fernand Mariétan
- **demonym**: Les Montheysans
- **neighboring municipalities**: Bex (VD), Châtel, Haute-Savoie, Châtel (FR-74), Collombey-Muraz, Massongex, Montriond (FR-74), Ollon (VD), Troistorrents, Val-d'Illiez, Vérossaz
- **twintowns**: Diekirch (Luxembourg), Ivrea (Italy), Tübingen (Germany)
Sierre

**Sierre** is the capital of the Sierre district in the Valais canton in Switzerland.

It has a population of 14,355. It is at the language border of the German-speaking upper part of the "_Wallis_" and the French-speaking "_Valais_". This city counts as one of the three official bilingual towns in Switzerland. Sierre is starting point for the tourist sites of the Val d'Anniviers including the villages of Vercorin, Chandolin, St-Luc Vissoie, St-Jean Chandolin, Grimentz, Zinal and Ayer. Sierre is connected with Crans-Montana by a cable car.

At the beginning of the 20th century, Sierre became economically important as very early aluminium smelting was possible because of its access to hydroelectricity.

## Other websites

- Official website

## Infobox (swiss town)

- **subject name**: Sierre
- **municipality name**: Sierre
- **municipality type**: city
- **imagepath coa**: CHE Sierre COA.svg
- **map**: Karte Gemeinde Sierre.png
- **languages**: French
- **canton**: Valais
- **iso-code-region**: CH-VS
- **district**: Sierre (district), Sierre
- **postal code**: 3960
- **municipality code**: 6248
- **area**: 19.2
- **elevation**: 533
- **population**: 14,355
- **populationof**: December 2002
- **popofyear**: 2002
- **website**: www.sierre.ch
- **mayor**: Manfred Stucky (CVP/PDC)
- **neighboring municipalities**: Chalais, Switzerland, Chalais, Chandolin, Chermignon, Chippis, Grône, Lens, Switzerland, Lens, Montana, Switzerland, Montana, Randogne, Saint-Léonard, Switzerland, Saint-Léonard, Saint-Luc, Switzerland, Saint-Luc, Salgesch, Venthône, Veyras, Switzerland, Veyras
- **twintowns**: Aubenas (France), Cesenatico (Italy), Delfzijl (Netherlands), Schwarzenbeck (Germany), Zelzate (Belgium)
Brig, Switzerland

**Brig** is the capital of the district of Brig in the canton of Valais in Switzerland.

## History

The historic town of 5,000 people is part of the **Brig-Glis** municipality. The name 'Brig' comes from _Briva_, or "bridge."  Its medieval name was _Briga dives_. It is a small town in the Swiss canton of the Valais, at the foot of the northern slope of the Simplon Pass, on the right bank of the Saltine stream, and a little above its junction with the Rhone. Its older houses look very Italian. Its buildings were built during the 17th century, because of a single member of the local Stockalper family.

## Location

Brig is close to the Swiss-Italian borders. The language used when talking between one another is a unique German dialect, used only in this canton. Brig is popular among winter sport athletes, since it is surrounded by many Alp summits. The town itself is close to Rhone river. Due to the height, the temperatures in winter often remain below zero, resulting in frost. During the summer season, heat can be intense.

The place of meeting in the town is the train station, which links it to other Swiss cities.

## Economy

The wealth of Brig is because of the Simplon Pass.   The opening of the carriage road across the Simplon (1807) and of the tunnel beneath the pass (1906), as well as the fact that above Brig is the steeper and less fertile portion of the Upper Valais (then much frequented by tourists), greatly increased the importance and size of the town.

## Other websites

- Brig-Glis municipal website

## Infobox (swiss town)

- **subject name**: Brig
- **municipality name**: Brig
- **municipality type**: municipality
- **imagepath coa**: CHE Brig-Glis COA.svg
- **map**: Karte Gemeinde Brig-Glis 2013.png
- **languages**: German
- **canton**: Valais
- **iso-code-region**: CH-VS
- **district**: Brig (district), Brig
- **postal code**: 3900
- **municipality code**: 6002
- **area**: 38.0
- **elevation**: 691
- **population**: 11,882
- **populationof**: December 2002
- **website**: www.brig-glis.ch
- **neighboring municipalities**: Lalden, Mund, Naters, Ried-Brig, Simplon, Termen, Visp, Visperterminen
- **twintowns**: Langenthal, Switzerland, Langenthal (Switzerland), Domodossola (Italy)
Pennine Alps

The **Pennine Alps** are a mountain range in the western part of the Alps. They are in Switzerland (Valais) and Italy (Piedmont and the Aosta Valley).

They include the following peaks:

<div style="float:left; width:28%;">
|align=left|Name|align=left|Height (metres)|align left|Height (feet)|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Dufourspitze|4,638|15,217||||
|Ostspitz|4,632|15,197||||
|Grenzgipfel|4,618|15,151||||
|Nordend|4,609|15,121||||
|Zumsteinspitze|4,563|14,970||||
|Signalkuppe|4,554|14,941||||
|Dom|4,545|14,911||||
|Lyskamm|4,538|14,889||||
|Weisshorn|4,506|14,780||||
|Täschhorn|4,491|14,734||||
|Matterhorn|4,478|14,693||||
|Parrotspitze|4,432|14,541||||
|Dent Blanche|4,364|14,318||||
|Nadelhorn|4,327|14,196||||
|Grand Combin|4,314|14,164||||
|Lenzspitze|4,294|14,088||||
|Stecknadelhorn|4,241|13,914||||
|Castor|4,230|13,879||||
|Zinalrothorn|4,223|13,856||||
|Hohberghorn|4,219|13,841||||
|Alphubel|4,206|13,799||||
|Rimpfischhorn|4,199|13,776||||
|Strahlhorn|4,191|13,751||||
|Dent d'Hérens|4,171|13,684||||
|Breithorn|4,164|13,661||||
|Bishorn|4,153|13,625||||
|Pollux|4,092|13,425||||
|Ober Gabelhorn|4,073|13,364||||
|Allalinhorn|4,034|13,236||||
|Weissmies|4,031|13,226||||
|Lagginhorn|4,005|13,140||||
|Fletschhorn|3,993|13,110||||
|Grand Cornier|3,962|12,999||||
|Ruinette|3,879|12,727||||
|align=left|Name|align=left|Height (metres)|align left|Height (feet)|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Mont Blanc de Cheilon|3,870|12,697||||
|Cima di Jazzi|3,818|12,527||||
|Balfrin|3,802|12,474||||
|Pigne d'Arolla|3,796|12,454||||
|Mont Vélan|3,765|12,353||||
|Tête Blanche|3,750|12,304||||
|L'Évêque|3,738|12,264||||
|Mont Pleureur|3,706|12,159||||
|Aiguille de la Tsa|3,668|12,034||||
|Besso|3,667|12,031||||
|Mont Collon|3,637|11,932||||
|Diablons|3,605|11,828||||
|Mont Gelé|3,517|11,539||||
|Becca di Luseney|3,506|11,503||||
|Château des Dames|3,489|11,447||||
|Grand Tournalin|3,379|11,086||||
|Rosablanche|3,348|10,985||||
|Mont Avril|3,341|10,962||||
|Grande Rochère|3,326|10,913||||
|Corno Bianco|3,320|10,893||||
|Testa Grigia|3,315|10,876||||
|Sasseneire|3,259|10,693||||
|Grand Golliaz|3,240|10,630||||
|Pizzo Bianco|3,216|10,552||||
|Latelhorn|3,207|10,523||||
|Schwarzhorn (Augstbord)|3,204|10,512||||
|Gornergrat|3,136|10,289||||
|Mont Nery|3,070|10,073||||
|Bella Tola|3,028|9,935||||
|Monte Tagliaferro|2,964|9,725||||
|Riffelhorn|2,931|9,617||||
|Cima di Bò|2,556|8,386||||
Bernese Alps

The **Bernese Alps** are a group of mountain ranges in the western part of the Alps, in Switzerland. Although the name notes that they are in the Bernese Oberland region of the canton of Bern, some of the Bernese Alps are found in the cantons of Vaud, Fribourg, Valais, Lucerne, Uri, and Nidwalden.

## List of peaks

The main peaks of the Bernese Alps are:

|Name|colspan="2"|Elevation||
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Finsteraarhorn|4274 m|align="right"|14,026 ft|
|Aletschhorn|4182 m|13,721 ft||
|Jungfrau|4166 m|13,669 ft||
|Mönch|4105 m|13,468 ft||
|Grosses Schreckhorn|4080 m|13,386 ft||
|Grosses Fiescherhorn|4049 m|13,285 ft||
|Lauteraarhorn|4042 m|13,261 ft||
|Gletscherhorn|3983 m|13,067 ft||
|Eiger|3970 m|13,025 ft||
|Bietschhorn|3953 m|12,970 ft||
|Gross Wannehorn|3905 m|12,812 ft||
|Gross Nesthorn|3820 m|12,533 ft||
|Lauterbrunnen Breithorn|3779 m|align="right"|12,399 ft|
|Wetterhorn Mittelhorn|3708 m|align="right"|12,166 ft|
|Wetterhorn Jungfrau|3703 m|12,149 ft||
|Balmhorn|3698 m|12,133 ft||
|Silberhorn|3695 m|12,122 ft||
|Wetterhorn Rosenhorn|3691 m|12,110 ft||
|Blüemlisalphorn|3671 m|12,044 ft||
|Gross Doldenhorn|3647 m|11,966 ft||
|Atels|3636 m|11,930 ft||
|Tschingelhorn|3562 m|11,686 ft||
|Gspaltenhorn|3442 m|11,293 ft||
|Fleckistock|3418 m|11,214 ft||
|Gross Hühnerstock|3348 m|10,985 ft||
|Ewigschneehorn|3331 m|10,929 ft||
|Ritzlihorn|3282 m|10,768 ft||
|Wildhorn|3264 m|10,709 ft||
|Diablerets|3246 m|10,650 ft||
|Wildstrubel|3243 m|10,640 ft||
|Wellhorn|3196 m|10,486 ft||
|Mettenberg|3107 m|10,194 ft||
|Löffelhorn|3098 m|10,165 ft||
|Grand Muveran|3061 m|10,043 ft||
|Gross Wendenstock|3044 m|9987 ft||
|Sparrhorn|3026 m|9928 ft||
|Torrenthorn|3003 m|9853 ft||
|Grande Dent de Morcles|2980 m|align="right"|9777 ft|
|Schilthorn|2973 m|9754 ft||
|Eggishorn|2934 m|9626 ft||
|Uri Rothstock|2932 m|9620 ft||
|Schwarzhorn Grindelwald|2930 m|align="right"|9613 ft|
|Gross Siedelhorn|2881 m|9452 ft||
|Albristhorn|2764 m|9069 ft||
|Röthihorn|2759 m|9052 ft||
|Faulhorn|2683 m|8803 ft||
|Gummfluh|2461 m|8074 ft||
|Sulegg|2412 m|7914 ft||
|Vanil Noir|2395 m|7858 ft||
|Niesen|2366 m|7763 ft||
|Brienzer Rothorn|2351 m|7714 ft||
|Tour d'Aï|2334 m|7658 ft||
|Hohgant|2202 m|7225 ft||
|Stockhorn|2192 m|7192 ft||
|Kaiseregg|2189 m|7182 ft||
|Chamossaire|2116 m|6943 ft||
|Gemmenalphorn|2064 m|6772 ft||
|Rochers de Naye|1740 m|5710 ft||
|Moléson|2006 m|6582 ft||
|Dent de Jaman|1879 m|6165 ft||

## Other websites

- Bernese Alps  at NASA Earth Observatory
Armenian National Committee of America

The **Armenian National Committee of America** (ANCA) is the largest and most influential Armenian American advocacy organization in the United States. Working in coordination with a network of offices, chapters, and supporters throughout the country and affiliated organizations around the world, the ANCA advances the concerns of the Armenian American community on a broad range of issues.

Beyond the Central offices of ANCA are in Washington DC, Boston and Los Angeles, ANCA has more than fifty local chapters and thousands of activists, it is cooperating with a large web of regional Armenian National Committees (or _Armenian Cause/Hay Tad_ Offices) in Armenia, Russia, France, the Middle East, Canada and Australia.

The executive director of ANCA is Aram Hamparian.

## Other websites

- Armenian National Committee of America website.
- ANC of Central California Official site
- An interview with ANCA executive director Aram Hamparian
Conthey District

**Conthey** is a district in the canton of Valais, Switzerland. It contains the following municipalities:

<div style="padding:1em 20px 1em 20px;">
|colspan="1" align=left bgcolor="#EFEFEF" width="190"|**Municipality name**|colspan="1" align=center bgcolor="#EFEFEF" width="100"|**Population** <small>(31. Dec. 2002)</small>|colspan="1" align=center bgcolor="#EFEFEF" width="100"|**Area in km²**|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Ardon|2306|20.4||||
|Chamoson|2613|32.4||||
|Conthey|6568|85.1||||
|Nendaz|5408|85.9||||
|Vétroz|4047|10.4||||
</div>
Mattertal

**Mattertal** is a valley in the Alps of Switzerland which begins on the side of the Matterhorn. The _Matterhorn_ is one of the most famous mountains in the world because of its beauty, and because it is hard to climb.

The _Mattertal_ is a valley that was made by a glacier (a slowly-moving river of ice) moving down from the mountain. This can be seen from the deep U shape of the valley. (Valleys made by a fast-running stream are V-shaped). Because the sides of the valley are very steep, there are often landslides. One can be seen in the photo taken near Randa village. Many houses in the villages are called chalets. These can be seen in the picture of Täsch village.

In the Mattertal are villages which include Zermatt, Täsch, Randa, Grächen, and St. Niklaus. Many tourists like to stay in the villages to see the view, to go walking, skiing or mountain climbing. The traditional work of the people is dairy farming, but many people work in the tourist industry.
Zermatt

**Zermatt** is a municipality in the district of Visp in the canton of Valais in Switzerland.

It is found to the north of the Matterhorn in the German-speaking and mostly Roman Catholic section of the canton, near the Italian border.

Zermatt has a local population of 5,500 people, but the actual population changes through the seasons as tourists come and go.

## Tourism

Zermatt is a famed ski resort and is a tourist destination. Until the mid-1800s, it was mostly a farming community; its name, as well as that of the Matterhorn itself, derives from the alpine meadows, or _matten_, in the valley. In the German language, the town is "Zur Matte", or "in the meadow."

The town was "discovered" mid-century by British mountaineers, most notably Edward Whymper, whose conquest of the Matterhorn made the village famous worldwide.

Zermatt is a closed village, which means that non-Swiss nationals are not permitted to buy property within the area.  May is the worst time to visit this city, as most of the streets are muddy.

## Hiking

Zermatt is a good place to start many hikes into the surrounding mountains, such as the Haute Route that ultimately leads to Chamonix in France.  A complex of cable cars and chair lifts carry skiers in the winter and hikers in the summer; the highest of them leads to the Klein Matterhorn, a small outcropping on the ridge between Breithorn and Matterhorn that offers cool views in all directions. It is possible to cross into Italy via the Cervinia cable car station.

## Transportation

Any automobile that uses an engine is not allowed in Zermatt because of concerns for air pollution.  Electric vehicles are allowed for local commerces. The Cantonal police allow some people to park in the northern section of this city.  Some emergency vehicles (firetrucks, ambulance,..) are also allowed to use combustion engines.

Most people reach Zermatt by train or cable car.  Trains also leave for Zermatt from Visp and Brig.

## Skiing

Zermatt is well known throughout the world for its great skiing, especially Triftji for its moguls. The high altitude results in consistent skiing continuously up until the summer.
Skiing in Zermatt is split up into four distinct areas; Sunnegga, Gornegrat, Klein Matterhorn and Schwarzsee. There is also a connection to Cervinia and Valtournenche in Italy.
Trail Map.

## Other websites

- Zermatt.ch official website
- Air Zermatt website
- Municipality of Zermatt
- Burgergemeinde Zermatt
- Photo gallery dedicated to Zermatt and surrounding nature
- Webcams in Zermatt
- Images from Zermatt
- Scenic Zermatt Photos
Ajax the Lesser

**Ajax the Lesser** (Ancient Greek: Αἴας) was a Greek hero from the Trojan War, who was the son of Oïleus.

## Related pages

- Ajax the Great
Post-nominal letters

**Post-nominal letters** are letters after a person's name. They are used most in the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth realms to show that the person has a certain:
- job (e.g. JP for a magistrate (Justice of the Peace), or
- title (Kt for a Knight Bachelor or Bt for a Baronet, QC for a Queen's Counselor
- is a member of an order of chivalry e.g. OBE.

Academic degrees (qualifications from a university) can also be shown as postnominal letters, as can military awards (medals and decorations)
Corvidae

The **Corvidae** are the crow family.  They are all passerines, but unusually they do not have musical voices. They are intelligent.

There are over 120 species in the family. The word 'crow' is also used to describe birds in the genus _Corvus_. This genus includes the crows, jackdaws and ravens.

Crows are found on every continent except for the southern area of South America and Antarctica. Most crows are found in South America, Central America, Europe and Asia. There are 10 species each in Africa, Australia and North America.

A group of crows is called a _murder_ and, indeed, they are distinctly carnivorous.

## Description

Most members of the crow family are black, such as crows, rooks, choughs, ravens and jackdaws. However, not all crows are black. Magpies and treepies can be black and white, or blue and green, or brown. Jays are often blue and white.

Crows are some of the most intelligent birds in the world. Crows and rooks are good at using tools, for example sticks or twigs. Magpies can see themselves in a mirror and they understand that it is a reflection. Many crows live near to humans in towns and cities. Some crows (such as treepies) live in forests. They are more shy than the crows that live in cities.

Some crows in North America, Europe and northern Asia migrate. This means they travel to different places in summer or winter. Most crows are resident birds. This means they live in the same place all year round.

Many crows live in large groups. For example, many rooks nest together in large groups at the top of trees. This is called a rookery. Crows in big groups are often noisy. However, when it is the breeding season (this means when birds nest and have babies), crows can become angry and will scare off other crows.

Crows eat a variety of food. They will eat fledglings (baby birds) and eggs from nests, small animals (mice and rats), carrion (dead animals), vegetables and garbage. for much of the year, crows and rooks dig into grassland with their strong beaks, and eat various kinds of insect grubs and worms. Because they may attack the nest of other birds, crows may get mobbed by other species. This is when the defending birds group together to chase off the crow. Also, on farms, crows will eat vegetables and seeds. Farmers do not want this to happen so they make a scarecrow. This is an object made of straw and old clothes. It looks like a man and it may scare the crows away.

Crows make their nests in tall trees. They make the nest from large sticks. They usually lay 3–8 eggs. Both parents look after the fledglings.

## Main species

The family includes:
- crows
- rooks
- jackdaws
- ravens
- jays
- magpies
- treepies
- choughs
- nutcrackers.
Visp

**Visp** is the capital city of the district of Visp in the canton of Valais in Switzerland.

It has a population of about 7,000 people.  The two valleys are Mattertal and Saastal. It borders Brig-Glis.

Most of the people speak German.

## Economy

It has a chemical business named LONZA AG.  There are also several smaller businesses.

## Transportation

In 2007, Visp will become a junction of the Neue Eisenbahn-Alpentransversale or NEAT, connecting with many other rail-lines.

The bus and the train station of Visp and Brig is the starting point for many outdoor activities, trips, and tours in the surrounding mountain resorts of Zermatt and Saas-Fee.

## Other websites

- Official website

## Infobox (swiss town)

- **subject name**: Visp
- **municipality name**: Visp
- **municipality type**: municipality
- **imagepath coa**: CHE Visp COA.svg
- **map**: Karte Gemeinde Visp.png
- **languages**: French
- **canton**: Valais
- **iso-code-region**: CH-VS
- **district**: Visp (district), Visp
- **postal code**: 3930
- **municipality code**: 6297
- **area**: 13.22
- **elevation**: 658
- **population**: 6624
- **populationof**: December 2003
- **popofyear**: 2003
- **website**: www.visp.ch
- **neighboring municipalities**: Baltschieder, Brig-Glis, Bürchen, Lalden, Raron, Visperterminen, Zeneggen
Saint-Maurice, Switzerland

**Saint-Maurice** is the capital of the district of Saint-Maurice in the canton of Valais in Switzerland.

On 1 January 2013, the former municipality of Mex (VS) merged into the municipality of Saint-Maurice.

It is the site of the Roman outpost of Agaunum and the old Abby of Saint-Maurice, which has become a famous high school in Switzerland (_Collège de Saint-Maurice_).

It is not St. Moritz, a ski resort in the east part of Switzerland.

## Other websites

- Official website

## Infobox (swiss town)

- **subject name**: Saint-Maurice
- **municipality name**: Saint-Maurice
- **municipality type**: municipality
- **imagepath coa**: CHE_St_Maurice_COA.svg
- **map**: Karte Gemeinde Saint-Maurice.png
- **languages**: French
- **canton**: Valais
- **iso-code-region**: CH-VS
- **district**: Saint-Maurice (district), Saint-Maurice
- **postal code**: 1890
- **municipality code**: 6217
- **area**: 7.0
- **elevation**: 414
- **population**: 3,676
- **populationof**: December 2002
- **popofyear**: 2002
- **website**: www.saint-maurice.ch
- **neighboring municipalities**: Bex (VD), Collonges, Switzerland, Collonges, Evionnaz, Lavey-Morcles (VD), Massongex, Mex, Valais, Mex, Vérossaz
Conthey

**Conthey** is the capital of the district of Conthey in the canton of Valais in Switzerland.

## Other websites

- Official website

## Infobox (swiss town)

- **subject name**: Conthey
- **municipality name**: Conthey
- **municipality type**: municipality
- **image photo**: Conthey P1010175.jpg
- **imagepath coa**: CHE Conthey COA.svg
- **languages**: French
- **canton**: Valais
- **iso-code-region**: CH-VS
- **district**: Conthey (district), Conthey
- **postal code**: 1964
- **municipality code**: 6023
- **area**: 85.1
- **elevation**: 504
- **population**: 6568
- **populationof**: December 2002
- **website**: www.conthey.ch
- **mayor**: Jean-Pierre Penon
- **neighboring municipalities**: Ardon, Switzerland, Ardon, Bex (VD), Chamoson, Nendaz, Ormont-Dessus (VD), Savièse, Sion, Switzerland, Sion, Vétroz
Entremont District

**Entremont** is a district in the canton of Valais in Switzerland.

It has the following cities:

- Bagnes
- Bourg-Saint-Pierre
- Liddes
- Orsières
- Sembrancher
- Vollèges
Santeri Palin

**Santeri Palin** (also known as **Incánus**) (born September 15, 1983, Nokia, Finland.) is a Finnish poet who writes poems in Finnish and English. His first book _Elämän kolmio kuoleman syklissä – ajatuksia reunalta_ (_The Triangle of Life in the Cycle of Death – Thoughts from the Edge_) came out in 2006.

Palin is a fan of J. R. R. Tolkien and currently he is the president of _Kontu Internet Community_ (or _Verkkoyhteisö Kontu ry_ in Finnish) and the vice president of the _Finnish Tolkien Society_, which are Finnish Tolkien related communities.

## Bibliography

- _Elämän kolmio kuoleman syklissä_ (Pilot, 2006)
Sembrancher

**Sembrancher** is the capital of the district of Entremont in the canton of Valais in Switzerland.

A small scenic village of around 500 residents in the Bagnes Valley, it is close to the Verbier ski resort.

## Other websites

- Official webpage

## Infobox (swiss town)

- **subject name**: Sembrancher
- **municipality name**: Sembrancher
- **municipality type**: municipality
- **imagepath coa**: CHE Sembrancher COA.svg
- **map**: Karte Gemeinde CHE Sembrancher COA.svg
- **languages**: French
- **canton**: Valais
- **iso-code-region**: CH-VS
- **district**: Entremont (district), Entremont
- **postal code**: 1933
- **municipality code**: 6035
- **area**: 17.7
- **elevation**: 717
- **population**: 796
- **populationof**: December 2002
- **popofyear**: 2002
- **website**: www.sembrancher.ch
- **neighboring municipalities**: Bagnes, Bovernier, Orsières, Vollèges
- **twintowns**: Saint-Laurent-des-Arbres (France)
Münster-Geschinen

**Münster-Geschinen** is the capital city of the district of Goms in the canton of Valais in Switzerland. On 1 January 2004, the former municipalities of Münster and Geschinen merged into the new municipality of Münster-Geschinen and On 1 January 2017, the former municipalities of Münster-Geschinen, Blitzingen, Grafschaft, Niederwald and Reckingen-Gluringen merged into the new municipality of Goms.

## Other websites

- Official website

## Infobox (swiss town)

- **subject name**: Münster-Geschinen
- **municipality name**: Münster-Geschinen
- **municipality type**: former
- **imagepath coa**: CHE Goms COA.svg
- **languages**: French
- **canton**: Valais
- **iso-code-region**: CH-VS
- **district**: Goms (district), Goms
- **postal code**: 3985
- **municipality code**: 6074
- **area**: 48.7
- **elevation**: 1370
- **population**: 489
- **populationof**: December 2002
- **popofyear**: 2002
- **website**: www.muenster-geschinen.ch
- **neighboring municipalities**: Fieschertal, Guttannen (BE), Reckingen-Gluringen, Ulrichen
Microbiotheria

**Microbiotheria** are a small order of marsupial mammals with only one living species, the **Monito del Monte** (Spanish for 'little mountain monkey').

It is the only New World representative of the superorder Australidelphia; all other New World marsupials are part of the Ameridelphia.

The species is nocturnal and arboreal, and lives in thickets of Chilean bamboo in the temperate rain forests of the southern Andes. It eats mainly insects and other small invertebrates, supplemented with fruit.

At one time, they were placed in the order Didelphimorphia, the opossums, but due to many morphological differences, they were placed in another order. The skull's shape is strange, with many technical differences from the opossums.

## Phylogeny and biogeography

It has long been suspected that South American marsupials were ancestral to those of Australia. The two continents were connected via Antarctica in the early Cainozoic era.

Australia’s earliest known marsupial is _Djarthia_, a primitive mouse-like animal that lived about 55 million years ago. _Djarthia_ had been identified as the earliest known australidelphian, and this research suggested that the Monito del Monte was the last of a clade which included _Djarthia_.

In 2010, analysis of retrotransposon insertion sites in the nuclear DNA of marsupials confirmed the placement of the Monito del Monte in Australidelphia. It also showed its position as the most basal of that superorder.

The study also confirmed that the most basal of all marsupial orders are the other two South American lineages (Didelphimorphia and Paucituberculata, with the former probably branching first). This indicates that Australidelphia arose in South America (with the ancestors of all other living marsupials), and probably reached Australia in a single dispersal event after Microbiotheria split off (originated).
Dasyuromorphia

**Dasyuromorphia** are a fair-sized order of some of the more unusual carnivorous or insectivorous marsupials. They vary in appearance, from rodent-like to shrew-like to cat-like to dog-like. This order includes the ever-famous Tasmanian devil. In this order, most of the marsupials have a pouch on the belly. However, some of the broad-footed marsupial mice have only folds of skin instead of true pouches, and the numbat lacks a pouch entirely. There are 63 species in 3 families, although one of the families is probably extinct:

- **Dasyuridae** (quolls, native cats, marsupial mice, Tasmanian devils) 61 species
- **Myrmecobiidae** (numbats) 1 species
- **Thylacinidae** (Tasmanian wolf or thylacine - probably extinct) 1 species
Sea lion

**Sea lions** are several pinnipeds from the family Otariidae (eared seals). They live all around the world, except in the Atlantic Ocean.

Male sea lions have thick fur around the face and neck, which sometimes looks like a lion's mane. This is how they got the name "sea lion". Some, like the Steller sea lion, can roar. Sea lions are mammals, meaning they have fur, breathe air, give birth to live young, and feed milk to their young. Sea lions also eat meat, such as fish, squids, and sea birds. Sea lions are also fierce fighters.

## Species

The pinniped species called "sea lion" are:
- Steller sea lion or northern sea lion (_Eumetopias jubatus_)
- Australian sea lion (_Neophoca cinerea_)
- South American sea lion or southern sea ion (_Otaria flavescens_)
- New Zealand sea lion (_Phocarctos hookeri_)
- California sea lion (_Zalophus californianus_)
Greywacke

**Greywacke**  is a type of sandstone. It is hard, and dark in color. It has different sized grains of quartz, feldspar, and small rock fragments set in a compact, fine clay matrix. It is mostly found in Palaeozoic strata. The larger grains can be sand-to-gravel-sized, and matrix materials make up more than 15% of the rock by volume.

The origin of greywacke was a problem. Gravel, sand and mud should not be laid down together, because river outflow drops heavier grains first. Now geologists think greywacke is formed by submarine avalanches or strong turbidity currents. These actions churn sediment and cause mixed-sediment slurries to occur. When this happens, the resulting rocks show various sedimentary features. Support for the turbidity current origin is the fact that deposits of greywacke are found on the edges of the continental shelves, at the bottoms of oceanic trenches, and at the bases of mountain formational areas. It also occurs in association with black shales of deep sea origin.
Carmina Burana

**Carmina Burana** is the name given to a collection of texts from the 11th and 12th century. There are over 240 texts in the collection, most of them written in Latin, some in Middle High German. Most of the texts are moral or satirical in nature. There are also texts about spring, or about love. Some of them are drinking songs, some of them were used as Minnesang.  Some of the songs contain hints for the melodies. For some, the melodies can be reconstructed.

The texts were written down around 1230. This happened either in an abbey in Styria, or near Brixen. They were discovered by Johann Christoph von Aretin in Benediktbeuern Abbey in 1803. Today, they are in the Bavarian State Library in Munich. There they can be found there as **Codex Buranus**, with the signature clm 4660/4660a.

Johann Andreas Schmeller edited them and published them as _Carmina Burana – Lieder aus Benediktbeuern_.

Carl Orff took 24 of them as _Carmina Burana_. He wrote the music for them. The work was first performed in 1937 in the Opera house in Frankfurt am Main. Together with his works _Catulli Carmina_ and _Trionfo di Afrodite_ he made a work containing all three, called _Trionfi_. Trionfi is performed much less than the Carmina Burana alone, though.

## Other websites

- Complete original text (without translation) from Biblioteca Augustana
- Text with translations from Teach Yourself Latin
- Athena Review
- Carmina Burana: An Analysis of Perfection , 1996.

- Carmina Vulgata  in linguam Ruthenicam versa
Vex, Switzerland

**Vex** is the capital city of the district of Hérens in the canton of Valais in Switzerland.

## Other websites

- Official website

## Infobox (swiss town)

- **subject name**: Vex
- **municipality name**: Vex
- **municipality type**: municipality
- **imagepath coa**: CHE Vex COA.svg
- **map**: Karte Gemeinde Vex 2011.png
- **languages**: French
- **canton**: Valais
- **iso-code-region**: CH-VS
- **district**: Hérens (district), Hérens
- **postal code**: 1981
- **municipality code**: 6089
- **area**: 13.0
- **elevation**: 939
- **population**: 1,388
- **populationof**: December 2002
- **popofyear**: 2002
- **website**: www.vex.ch
- **neighboring municipalities**: Hérémence, Les Agettes, Mase, Switzerland, Mase, Nax, Nendaz, Saint-Martin, Valais, Saint-Martin, Sion, Switzerland, Sion, Vernamiège
Dasyuridae

**Dasyuridae** is a family of marsupial carnivores. It has nearly all non-extinct members of the order _Dasyuromorphia_. This means the quolls, phascogales, antechinuses, dunnarts, planigales, and Tasmanian devil (about 55 species in all).

## Classification

- Famliy **Dasyuridae**
    - Subfamily _Dasyurinae_: quolls and allies
    - Subfamily _Phascogalinae_: phascogales and antechinuses
    - Subfamily _Sminthopsinae_: dunnarts and allies
    - Subfamily _Planigalinae_: planigales and ningauis
Mohammed Zahir Shah

**Mohammed Zahir Shah** (16 October 1914 – 23 July 2007) was the last King (_Shah_) of Afghanistan. He ruled for four decades, from 1933 to 1973.

Mohammed Zahir Shah became king of Afghanistan at the age of nineteen after the assassination of his father in November 1933. Since he was so young, his uncle, _Shah Mahmood Khan_ ran the government. Mohammed Zahir Shah took control and was able to keep Afghanistan’s neutral position in international politics.

In July 17, 1973, Mohammed Zahir Shah was no longer king after a bloodless coup. He died on .

## Infobox (monarch)

- **name**: Mohammed Zahir Shah
- **title**: King of Afghanistan
- **image**: King Zahir Shah of Afghanistan in 1963.jpg
- **caption**: King Zahir in 1950s
- **reign**: 8 November 1933 - 17 July 1973
- **predecessor**: Mohammed Nadir Shah
- **successor**: _Monarchy abolished_ Mohammed Daoud Khan as President of Afghanistan
- **spouse**: Humaira Begum (deceased 2002)
- **royal house**: House of Barakzai, Barakzai
- **father**: Mohammed Nadir Shah
- **mother**: Mah Parwar Begum
- **birth date**: 16 October 1915
- **birth place**: Kabul, Afghanistan
- **death place**: Kabul, Afghanistan
- **burial place**: Maranjan Hill
Obwalden

**Obwalden** is a canton of Switzerland. It is in the centre of Switzerland. As of 2004, 33,300 people lived there. Its capital is Sarnen.

## Geography

Lakes in the canton include: parts of Lake Lucerne, Lake Sarnen, Lungerersee, Wichelsee, Tannensee and Melchsee.

## Municipalities

There are seven municipalities: Sarnen, Kerns, Sachseln, Alpnach, Giswil, Lungern and Engelberg.

## Other websites

- Official site
- Obwalden.net  Official statistics
- Pilatus
- Titlis
- Obwalden map
French Community

The **French Community** () was the body which replaced  the French Union in 1958.   Under the 1958 Constitution, member territories, former French colonies, had a lot of independence, but France controlled the currency, defence, foreign affairs and national security.

When the Community was established, French President de Gaulle said that any country in the French Community could move to complete independence. Apart from Guinea, which chose by referendum in 1958 not to join the Community, all French-ruled territories in sub-Saharan Africa joined the French Community. They obtained independence in 1960.

## Related pages

- Colonialism
- Decolonization

## Other websites

- Communauté française
Usury

**Usury** is lending money for interest. Nowadays it usually means lending at a high, often extortionate rate of interest on a loan.

Usury is illegal in many parts of the world.  In muslim countries charging any interest at all is strictly illegal.

Some people argue that this is against the Old Testament, especially Exodus and Deuteronomy which states that those who lend to someone in need will be blessed, but the point about usury is the high levels of interest, not the act of lending in itself.

Aristotle also condemned usury as "contrary to nature" in his book on Politics, because it increases by itself and makes money without labour.
John Bates

**John Lewis Bates** (September 18, 1859 – June 8, 1946) was born in  Massachusetts.

He was a Republican, and was a member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives from 1894 to 1899; from 1897 to 1899 he was Speaker of the House. From 1900 to 1903 he was Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts.

In 1902, Bates was elected Governor, holding office from 1903 to 1905. Bates then retired to his private law practice in Boston. From 1917 to 1919 Bates was a delegate to the Massachusetts Constitutional Convention.

Bates was a member of the American Bar Association, the Freemasons, the Odd Fellows, and Beta Theta Pi.

## Other websites

- Official Commonwealth of Massachusetts Governor Biography

## Infobox (governor)

- **name**: John Lewis Bates
- **image**: GovJohnLBates.jpg
- **order**: 41st
- **office**: Governor of Massachusetts
- **term start**: January 8, 1903
- **term end**: January 5, 1905
- **lieutenant**: Curtis Guild, Jr.
- **predecessor**: Winthrop M. Crane
- **successor**: William Lewis Douglas
- **birth place**: Easton, Massachusetts
- **spouse**: Clara Elizabeth Smith
- **profession**: Lawyer
- **party**: Democratic Party (United States), Democrat
- **order2**: 38th Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts
- **term start2**: 1900
- **term end2**: 1903
- **governor2**: Winthrop M. Crane
- **predecessor2**: Winthrop M. Crane
- **successor2**: Curtis Guild, Jr.
Acoustic music

**Acoustic music** is music which is played by using acoustic musical instruments, i.e. instruments in which the sound is not made louder by electronic amplification. Before electronic musical instruments were created in the 20th century all instruments were acoustic.

Classical music is usually played using only acoustic musical instruments, although some 20th-century composers such as Karlheinz Stockhausen used electronic instruments, sometimes together with acoustic instruments.
Mandolin

The **mandolin** is a musical instrument, which literally means, a small soprano member of the lute family. It is played by hitting its strings and sounds similar in tone of a violin or a hammered dulcimer. The most common type of mandolin, which was first designed in Naples, has eight strings. It has a body made of wood and a fingerboard which has frets.
Bluegrass music

**Bluegrass music** is a form of American roots music. It has its own roots in Irish, Scottish and English traditional music. It is usually played using acoustic musical instruments, and electronic musical instruments are rarely used in bluegrass music. Traditional instruments used include the banjo, mandolin, fiddle, guitar and bass. Other instruments such as the dobro are also used.

There are many accomplished bluegrass artists including Bela Fleck, Tony Rice, Alison Krauss, Laurie Lewis, Sam Bush, Bill Monroe, and Earl Scruggs. There are many organizations devoted to this music such as the International Bluegrass Music Association (IBMA).

Many festivals are held around the country where professionals perform, amateurs gather to play, and workshops are given.
Leuk

**Leuk** (French **Loèche**) is a municipality of Switzerland and is the capital city of the district of Leuk in the canton of Valais in Switzerland.

Since it controls access to the Gemmipass, it had some importance from the time of Roman Raetia. The Leukerbad hot baths are just North of Leuk, towards the pass.

Loèche houses the installations of Onyx, the Swiss interception system for electronic intelligence gathering.

On 1 January 2013, the former municipality of Erschmatt merged into the municipality of Leuk.

## Other websites

- http://www.leuk.ch

## Infobox (swiss town)

- **subject name**: Leuk
- **municipality name**: Leuk
- **municipality type**: municipality
- **imagepath coa**: CHE Leuk COA.svg
- **map**: Karte Gemeinde Leuk.png
- **languages**: German
- **canton**: Valais
- **iso-code-region**: CH-VS
- **district**: Leuk (district), Leuk
- **postal code**: 3953
- **municipality code**: 6110
- **area**: 44.16
- **elevation**: 731
- **population**: 3376
- **populationof**: 2002
- **website**: www.leuk.ch
- **mayor**: Gaston Oggier
- **places**: Briannen, Gampinen, Leuk-Stadt, Pfyn, Pletschen, St. Josephsheim, Susten
- **neighboring municipalities**: Agarn, Albinen, Bratsch, Chandolin, Erschmatt, Guttet-Feschel, Inden, Switzerland, Inden, Salgesch, Turtmann, Varen, Switzerland, Varen
- **twintowns**: Münchwilen, Thurgau (Switzerland)
Raron

**Raron** is the capital city of the district of Raron in the canton of Valais in Switzerland.

## Other websites

- Official website

## Infobox (swiss town)

- **subject name**: Raron
- **municipality name**: Raron
- **municipality type**: municipality
- **imagepath coa**: CHE Raron COA.svg
- **map**: Karte Gemeinde Raron.png
- **languages**: French
- **canton**: Valais
- **iso-code-region**: CH-VS
- **district**: Raron (district), Raron
- **postal code**: 3942
- **municipality code**: 6199
- **area**: 30.26
- **elevation**: 638
- **population**: 1896
- **populationof**: December 2002
- **popofyear**: 2002
- **website**: www.raron.ch
- **neighboring municipalities**: Ausserberg, Baltschieder, Blatten (Lötschen), Bürchen, Niedergesteln, Unterbäch, Visp, Wiler (Lötschen), Zeneggen