juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
United States Department of Commerce and Labor

The **United States Department of Commerce and Labor** was a Cabinet department of the United States government.

The department was created on February 14, 1903. Later, on March 4, 1913 the name changed to the Department of Commerce. Then, its bureaus and agencies specializing in labor moved to the new Department of Labor.

The department was administered by the United States Secretary of Commerce and Labor.
United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare

The **United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare** (also known as **HEW**) was a cabinet-level department of the United States government from 1953 until 1979.  It was administered by the United States Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare.  In 1979, a separate Department of Education (ED) was created from this department, and HEW was renamed as the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS).

## History

President Warren G. Harding proposed a Department of Education and Welfare as early as 1923, and similar proposals were also recommended by subsequent presidents, but for various reasons was not implemented.  It was only enacted as part of _Reorganization Plan Number 1 of 1953_, transmitted to Congress by President Dwight D. Eisenhower on March 12, 1953. HEW ran a Community Public Health Program, which was famous for its grants to cities like Chicago for rat control. It ran a Solid Waste program focused on municipal waste issues, like how to build sanitary landfills rather than dumps. It also had a radiation program under which it wrote standards on things like microwave ovens. When the EPA was created in 1970, it assumed a number of HEW’s programs that related to environmental protection, including its pesticides program and half of its radiation program.

To date, this was the only department of the U.S. government to be created through presidential reorganization authority, in which the president is allowed to create or reorganize bureaucracies as long as neither house of Congress passed a legislative veto. This power to create new departments was removed after 1962, but in the early 1980s, the Supreme Court declared legislative vetoes unconstitutional.

## References

<div class='references-small'>

</div>
United States Post Office Department

The **Post Office Department** is the former name of the United States Postal Service when it was a Cabinet department. It was headed by the United States Postmaster General.

The Postal Service Act signed by President George Washington on February 20, 1792 established the Department. Postmaster General John McLean was the first to call it the Post Office _Department_ rather than just the "Post Office." The organization became more important in the government when President Andrew Jackson asked his Postmaster General, William T. Barry, to sit as a member of the Cabinet.

During the Civil War, postal services in the  Confederacy were provided by the Confederate States of America Post Office Department, headed by Postmaster General John Henninger Reagan.

The Postal Reorganization Act signed by President Richard Nixon on August 12, 1970, replaced the cabinet-level Post Office Department with the independent United States Postal Service.  The Act took effect on July 1, 1971.

## Infobox (government agency)

- **agency name**: United States Post Office Department
- **seal**: Seal of the United States Post Office Department (1837–1970).svg
- **seal width**: 180px
- **formed**: February 20, 1792
- **dissolved**: July 1, 1971
- **superseding**: United States Postal Service
- **chief1 name**: United States Postmaster General
United States Department of Education

The **United States Department of Education** is a Cabinet-level department of the United States government. Created by the Department of Education Organization Act (Public Law 96-88), it was signed into law by President Jimmy Carter on October 17, 1979, which began operating on May 4, 1980.

## Infobox (government agency)

- **agency name**: United States
Department of Education
- **type**: Department
- **seal**: Seal of the United States Department of Education.svg
- **seal width**: 175px
- **seal caption**: Seal of the U.S. Department of Education
- **logo**: Flag of the United States Department of Education.svgborder
- **logo width**: 175px
- **logo caption**: Flag of the U.S. Department of Education
- **picture**: Usdepartmentofeducationbuilding.jpgborder
- **picture caption**: Lyndon Baines Johnson Department of Education Building, Department Headquarters
- **preceding1**: United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
- **preceding2**: Office of Education
- **jurisdiction**: Federal government of the United States
- **headquarters**: Lyndon Baines Johnson Department of Education Building, 400 Maryland Avenue, Southwest, Washington, D.C., United States, U.S. 20202
- **budget**: $68 billion (2016)
- **chief1 name**: Linda McMahon
- **chief1 position**: United States Secretary of Education, Secretary
- **chief2 name**: Penny Schwinn
- **chief2 position**: United States Deputy Secretary of Education, Deputy Secretary
- **keydocument1**: Department of Education Organization Act
United States Department of Housing and Urban Development

The **United States Department of Housing**, often abbreviated **HUD**, is a Cabinet department of the United States federal government. Although its beginnings were in the House and Home Financing Agency, it was founded in 1965 to develop and execute policy on housing and cities. It has largely scaled back its urban development function and now focuses primarily on housing.

The department was established on September 9, 1965 when President Lyndon Johnson signed the Department of Housing and Urban Development Act  into law. It stipulated that the department was to be created no later than November 8, 60 days following the date of enactment. The actual implementation was postponed until January 13, 1966, following the completion of a special study group report on the federal role in solving urban problems.

HUD is administered by the United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development.

## Infobox (government agency)

- **agency name**: United States Department of Housing and Urban Development
- **logo**: Flag of the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development.svgborder
- **logo width**: 175
- **logo caption**: Flag of the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development
- **seal**: Seal of the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development.svg
- **seal width**: 175
- **seal caption**: Seal of the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development
- **picture**: Department of Housing and Urban Development.JPGborder
- **picture caption**: Robert C. Weaver Federal Building, Department Headquarters
- **preceding1**: Housing and Home Finance Agency
- **jurisdiction**: Federal government of the United States
- **headquarters**: Robert C. Weaver Federal Building, 451 7th Street (Washington, D.C.), 7th Street Southwest, Washington D.C., SW, Washington, D.C.
- **employees**: 8,416 (2014)
- **budget**: $32.6 Billion (2014)
- **chief1 name**: Scott Turner (politician), Scott Turner
- **chief1 position**: United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development, Secretary
- **chief2 name**: TBD
- **chief2 position**: United States Deputy Secretary of Housing and Urban Development, Deputy Secretary
- **website**: [http://www.hud.gov/ hud.gov]
United States Department of Veterans Affairs

The **United States Department of Veterans Affairs** (**VA**) is a government-run military veteran benefit system with Cabinet-level status. It is responsible for administering programs of veterans’ benefits for veterans, their families, and survivors. The benefits provided include disability compensation, pension, education, home loans, life insurance, vocational rehabilitation, survivors’ benefits, medical benefits and burial benefits.
It is administered by the United States Secretary of Veterans Affairs.

The basic intention of the VA home loan program is to supply home financing to eligible veterans and to help veterans purchase properties with no down payment. The loan may be issued by qualified lenders.

## Infobox (government agency)

- **agency name**: United States Department of Veterans Affairs
- **logo**: Flag of the United States Department of Veterans Affairs.svgborder
- **logo width**: 200px
- **logo caption**: Flag of the Department of Veterans Affairs
- **seal**: Seal of the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs.svg
- **seal width**: 175px
- **seal caption**: Seal of the Department of Veterans Affairs
- **picture**: File:Department of Veteran Affairs DCJPG.jpg
- **picture width**: 175px
- **picture caption**: Washington, D.C. Headquarters
- **preceding1**: Veterans Administration
- **formed**:
(Cabinet rank )
- **jurisdiction**: Federal government of the United States, United States federal government
- **headquarters**: Veteran Affairs Building
810 Vermont Avenue NW
Washington, D.C., U.S.
- **motto**: "To care for him who shall have borne the battle and for his widow, and his orphan."
- **employees**: 377,805 (2016)
- **budget**: $180 billion (FY2017)
- **chief1 name**: Doug Collins (politician), Doug Collins
- **chief1 position**: United States Secretary of Veterans Affairs, Secretary
- **chief2 name**: TBD
- **chief2 position**: United States Deputy Secretary of Veterans Affairs, Deputy Secretary
- **child1 agency**: Template:USVA agencies, Several
Particle accelerator

A **particle accelerator**, also called an **atom smasher**, is a machine that accelerates (speeds up) particles and makes them travel at very high speeds.  Accelerators work by pushing particles like electrons, protons, or atomic nuclei (the centers of atoms) with electric fields and by steering them with magnetic fields. Their main use is to study particle physics.

The largest accelerators are used to study particles smaller than atoms; smaller accelerators are used to study atomic nuclei and make radioactive materials.   There are two kinds of particle accelerators: linear accelerators and circular accelerators. Linear accelerators move the particles in a line, while circular accelerators move the particles in a circle.   One example of a **particle accelerator** is the Large Hadron Collider at CERN. It is very big, stretching through two countries.  Another example is the Tevatron in the United States.  The cathode ray tube, used in 20th century televisions and computer monitors is also a simple accelerator for electrons.

When accelerated particles hit other particles such as atoms, smaller pieces come out. This helps people see particles smaller than an atom. Normally those particles cannot be seen, but they can in the particle accelerator.  This is because in some ways energy and matter are the same thing. At the high speed created in these machines, some of the movement energy is changed into matter. It is the opposite process that nuclear weapons use; nuclear weapons turn matter into energy.  Small amounts of antimatter are also created during the process.

The particle accelerator at CERN was set up to search for the Higgs Boson particle, which would complete the Standard Model of Particle Physics.

Particle accelerators often use very advanced technology. This makes them cost a lot of money which is usually paid by governments.
United States Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare

The **United States Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare** was the head of the United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.  The Secretary was a member of the President's Cabinet. In 1979, there was a division of the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare's position into separate secretaries of Health and Human Services and Education.

|colspan=4|Secretaries of Health, Education, and Welfare|||
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|1|Oveta Culp Hobby|1953–1955|Dwight D. Eisenhower|
|2|Marion Bayard Folsom|1955–1958|Dwight D. Eisenhower|
|3|Arthur Sherwood Flemming|1958–1961|Dwight D. Eisenhower|
|4|Abraham A. Ribicoff|1961–1962|John F. Kennedy|
|5|Anthony J. Celebrezze|1962–1965|John F. Kennedy, Lyndon Johnson|
|6|John William Gardner|1965–1968|Lyndon Johnson|
|7|Wilbur J. Cohen|1968–1969|Lyndon Johnson|
|8|Robert H. Finch|1969–1970|Richard Nixon|
|9|Elliot Lee Richardson|1970–1973|Richard Nixon|
|10|Caspar Weinberger|1973–1975|Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford|
|11|Forrest David Mathews|1975–1977|Gerald Ford|
|12|Joseph A. Califano Jr.|1977–1979|Jimmy Carter|
|13|Patricia Roberts Harris|1979–1979|Jimmy Carter|

## Living former secretaries of health, education, and welfare

As of , there are two living former health, education, and welfare, the older of the two being Joseph A. Califano Jr. (served 1977-1979). The most recent death of a former secretary of health, education, and welfare was that of Caspar W. Weinberger (served 1973-1975) on March 28, 2006. The living former secretaries of health, education, and welfare, in order of service, are:
Oveta Culp Hobby

**Oveta Culp Hobby** (January 19, 1905–August 16, 1995) was the first secretary of the United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, first commanding officer of the Women's Army Corps, and chairman of the board of the _Houston Post_.

## References

- Pando, Robert T. "Oveta Culp Hobby: A Study in Power and Control." Ph.D. dissertation, Florida State University, 2008, 220 pages.
- Treadwell, Mattie. _The Woman's Army Corps_ (1954)
Patricia Roberts Harris

**Patricia Roberts Harris** (May 31, 1924 – March 23, 1985) served as United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development, the last United States Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare and the first United States Secretary of Health and Human Services in the administration of President Jimmy Carter. She was the first African American woman to serve as a United States Ambassador, representing the U.S. in Luxembourg under President Lyndon B. Johnson, and the first to enter the line of succession to the Presidency.
Assistant Secretary of Housing and Urban Development for Housing

The **Assistant Secretary for Housing**, who also carries the title **Federal Housing Commissioner**, is a position within the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development. The Assistant Secretary is responsible for overseeing the $1.8 trillion Federal Housing Administration insurance portfolio. He or she also oversees the Department of Housing and Urban Development's regulatory responsibilities in the areas of the Real Estate Settlement Procedures Act, the housing mission of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, and the manufactured housing industry.

The Federal Housing Commissioner is appointed by the President and confirmed by the United States Senate. The Assistant Secretary is third in the order of succession for the office of Secretary of Housing and Urban Development. The Assistant Secretary is paid at level IV of the Executive Schedule, meaning he or she receives a basic annual salary.  Frank Cassidy currently serves as Federal Housing Commissioner and Assistant Secretary, having been nominated by President Trump in August 2025 and confirmed by the US Senate in December.

## References

United States Congress. “PN462-1 — Frank Cassidy — Department of Housing and Urban Development.” Congress.gov.
https://www.congress.gov/nomination/118th-congress/462￼
Henry Paulson

**Henry Merritt "Hank" Paulson Jr.** (born March 28, 1946) was the United States Treasury Secretary from 2006 to 2009 and member of the International Monetary Fund Board of Governors. He previously served as the Chairman and Chief Executive Officer of Goldman Sachs.

Paulson is co-chair with Tom Steyer and Michael Bloomberg for a  report called _Risky Business_ () by a coalition of top U.S. political and economic leaders from the political left, right, and center on the dire economic consequences from climate change (global warming), from lost property to ruined crops.

## Infobox (officeholder)

- **name**: Henry M. Paulson
- **image**: Henry Paulson official Treasury photo, 2006.jpg
- **title**: United States Secretary of the Treasury
- **term start**: July 3, 2006
- **term end**: January 20, 2009
- **president**: George W. Bush
- **predecessor**: John W. Snow
- **successor**: Timothy Geithner
- **birth place**: Palm Beach, Florida, Palm Beach, Florida
- **spouse**: Wendy Paulson
- **children**: Merritt Paulson, Henry Merritt Paulson III
Amanda Clark Paulson
- **alma mater**: Dartmouth College, Harvard University
- **party**: Republican (United States)
- **profession**: Investment banker
Reconquista

The **Reconquista** (Spanish and Portuguese word for "Reconquest"; Arabic: الاسترداد, "Recapturing") was a period of 800 years in the Middle Ages during which the several Christian kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula grew by conquering Al-Andalus (Arabic الأندلس), the Muslim states on the peninsula.

The Reconquista began shortly after the Islamic conquest of the peninsula. Much of the ideology of the Reconquista was common to most Crusades, and soldiers from all Christendom travelled to Iberia to fight the Muslims as an act of Christian repentance.

The Reconquista came to an end on 2 January 1492, with the capture of Granada. The last Muslim ruler of Granada surrendered his kingdom to Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, the Catholic Monarchs (Spanish: _los Reyes Católicos_). That event marked the end of Muslim rule on the peninsula.

## Bibliography

- Watt, W. Montgomery: A History of Islamic Spain. University Press of Edinburgh (1992).
- Watt, W. Montgomery: The Influence of Islam on Medieval Europe. (Edinburgh 1972).
- Timothy Reuter, Christopher Allmand, David Luscombe, Rosamond McKitterick (eds.), _" The New Cambridge Medieval History"_, Cambridge University Press, Sep 14, 1995, .
- Bishko, Charles Julian, 1975. _The Spanish and Portuguese Reconquest, 1095–1492_ in _A History of the Crusades, vol. 3: The Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries_, edited by Harry W. Hazard, (University of Wisconsin Press)

## Other websites

- Timeline of the Reconquista , The University of Calgary.
- Battles of Castile & Leon : 844–1521.
- Exiles from Andalusia .
John W. Snow

**John William Snow** (born August 2, 1939, in Toledo, Ohio) served as the 73rd United States Secretary of the Treasury. He replaced Secretary Paul O'Neill on February 3, 2003 and was succeeded by Henry Paulson on July 3, 2006, in a move that had been anticipated for several weeks. Snow submitted a letter of resignation on May 30, 2006, effective "after an orderly transition period for my successor."  To replace him, U.S. President George W. Bush nominated Henry M. Paulson, Jr.. Snow announced on Thursday, June 29, 2006 that he had completed his last day on the job; Robert Kimmitt served as acting secretary until Paulson was sworn in.

## Infobox (officeholder)

- **name**: John W. Snow
- **image**: John W. Snow.jpg
- **order**: 73rd
- **title**: United States Secretary of the Treasury
- **term start**: February 3, 2003
- **term end**: June 28, 2006
- **predecessor**: Paul O'Neill (cabinet member), Paul O'Neill
- **successor**: Henry Paulson
- **birth place**: Toledo, Ohio, Toledo, Ohio
- **party**: Republican Party (United States), Republican
- **alma mater**: Kenyon College
University of Toledo
University of Virginia
George Washington University Law School
Paul H. O'Neill

**Paul Henry O'Neill** (December 4, 1935 – April 18, 2020) was an American businessman and politician.

He served as the 72nd United States Secretary of the Treasury for part of President George W. Bush's first Administration. He resigned in December 2002 under pressure from the administration and became a harsh critic.

O'Neill was chairman and CEO of Pittsburgh-based industrial giant Alcoa from 1987 to 1999, and retired as chairman at the end of 2000. In 1995, he was made chairman of the RAND Corporation.

O'Neill died of lung cancer on April 18, 2020 in Pittsburgh, aged 84.

## Infobox (us cabinet official)

- **name**: Paul H. O'Neill
- **image**: OneillPaul.jpg
- **order**: 72nd
- **title**: United States Secretary of the Treasury
- **term start**: January 20, 2001
- **term end**: December 31, 2002
- **predecessor**: Lawrence H. Summers
- **successor**: John W. Snow
- **birth place**: St. Louis, Missouri, St. Louis, Missouri, U.S.
- **spouse**: Nancy O'Neill
- **death place**: Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U.S.
- **party**: Republican Party (United States), Republican
- **alma mater**: California State University-Fresno
Claremont Graduate University
Indiana University-Bloomington
Oliver Wolcott Jr.

**Oliver Wolcott Jr.** (January 11, 1760 – June 1, 1833) was United States Secretary of the Treasury from 1795 to 1800 and governor of Connecticut from 1817 to 1827.

## Infobox (officeholder)

- **name**: Oliver Wolcott
- **image**: Oliver Wolcott Jr by Gilbert Stuart circa 1820.jpeg
- **order**: 24th List of Governors of Connecticut, Governor of Connecticut
- **lieutenant**: Jonathan Ingersoll
David Plant
- **term start**: May 8, 1817
- **term end**: May 2, 1827
- **predecessor**: John Cotton Smith, John Smith
- **successor**: Gideon Tomlinson
- **office1**: Judge of the United States circuit court, United States Circuit Court for the Second Circuit
- **appointer1**: John Adams
- **term start1**: February 20, 1801
- **term end1**: July 1, 1802
- **predecessor1**: Seat established
- **successor1**: Seat abolished
- **office2**: 2nd United States Secretary of the Treasury
- **president2**: George Washington
John Adams
- **term start2**: February 3, 1795
- **term end2**: December 31, 1800
- **predecessor2**: Alexander Hamilton
- **successor2**: Samuel Dexter
- **birth place**: Litchfield, Connecticut, Litchfield, Connecticut, United States, U.S.
- **death place**: New York City, New York (state), New York, United States, U.S.
- **party**: Federalist Party, Federalist
Toleration Party, Toleration/Democratic-Republican Party, Democratic-Republican
- **relatives**: Oliver Wolcott Sr.
Roger Wolcott (Connecticut), Roger Wolcott
- **education**: Yale University
Litchfield Law School
- **signature**: O WolcottSig.svg
Samuel Dexter

**Samuel Dexter** (May 14, 1761 – May 4, 1816) was an early American statesman who served both in Congress and in the Presidential Cabinet.

Born in Boston, Massachusetts, to the Rev. Samuel Dexter, the 4th minister of Dedham, he graduated from Harvard University in 1781 and then studied law at Worcester under Levi Lincoln, Sr., the future Attorney General of the United States. After he passed the bar in 1784, he began practicing in Lunenburg, Massachusetts.

## Infobox (congressman)

- **name**: Samuel Dexter
- **image**: Samuel Dexter.jpg
- **imagesize**: 200px
- **state**: Massachusetts
- **district**: Massachusetts's 1st congressional district, 1st
- **term start**: March 4, 1793
- **term end**: March 3, 1795
- **preceded**: Fisher Ames
- **succeeded**: Theodore Sedgwick
- **order2**: United States Senate, United States Senator
from Massachusetts
- **term start2**: March 4, 1799
- **term end2**: May 30, 1800
- **predecessor2**: Theodore Sedgwick
- **successor2**: Dwight Foster (1757-1823), Dwight Foster
- **order3**: 4th United States Secretary of War
- **term start3**: May 13, 1800
- **term end3**: January 31, 1801
- **president3**: John Adams
- **predecessor3**: James McHenry
- **successor3**: Henry Dearborn
- **order4**: 3rd United States Secretary of the Treasury
- **term start4**: January 1, 1801
- **term end4**: May 13, 1801
- **president4**: John Adams
Thomas Jefferson
- **predecessor4**: Oliver Wolcott, Jr.
- **successor4**: Albert Gallatin
- **birth date**: May 14, 1761
- **birth place**: Boston, Massachusetts
- **death date**: May 4, 1816 (aged 54)
- **death place**: Boston, Massachusetts
- **party**: Federalist Party (United States), Federalist
- **alma mater**: Harvard University
- **profession**: Law
Kenneth Claiborne Royall

**Kenneth Claiborne Royall** (July 24, 1894 — May 25, 1971) was a United States Army general and the last person to hold the office of Secretary of War. That position was abolished in 1947, and Royall served as the first Secretary of the Army (a successory position) from 1947 to 1949.

## Infobox (officeholder)

- **name**: Kenneth Claiborne Royall
- **image**: KCR portrait.jpg
- **order**: 56<sup>th</sup>
- **title**: United States Secretary of War
- **term start**: July 19, 1947
- **term end**: September 18, 1947
- **president**: Harry S. Truman
- **predecessor**: Robert P. Patterson
- **successor**: None
- **order2**: 1<sup>st</sup>
- **title2**: United States Secretary of the Army
- **term start2**: September 18, 1947
- **term end2**: April 27, 1949
- **president2**: Harry S. Truman
- **predecessor2**: None
- **successor2**: Gordon Gray
- **birth place**: Goldsboro, North Carolina
- **death place**: Durham, North Carolina
Pete Geren

**Preston M. Geren, III** (born January 29, 1952 in Fort Worth, Texas) was the 20th United States Secretary of the Army from 16 July 2007 to 16 September 2009.

He had already been acting United States Secretary of the Air Force, between 29 July 2005 and position he served in until the confirmation of his successor Michael Wynne on 4 November 2005.

Geren was also a member of the United States House of Representatives from Texas.

## Infobox (officeholder)

- **name**: Pete Geren
- **image**: Pete Geren, Secretary of the Army, official photo.jpg
- **office**: 20th United States Secretary of the Army
- **president**: George W. Bush
Barack Obama
- **term start**: March 9, 2007
- **term end**: September 16, 2009
- **predecessor**: Francis J. Harvey
- **successor**: John M. McHugh
- **office1**: Acting United States Secretary of the Air Force
- **president1**: George W. Bush
- **term start1**: June 29, 2005
- **term end1**: November 4, 2005
- **predecessor1**: Michael L. Dominguez
- **successor1**: Michael Wynne
- **state2**: Texas
- **term start3**: September 12, 1989
- **term end3**: January 3, 1997
- **predecessor3**: Jim Wright
- **successor3**: Kay Granger
- **birth name**: Preston Murdoch Geren III
- **birth place**: Fort Worth, Texas, U.S.
- **party**: Democratic Party (United States), Democratic
- **spouse**: Beckie Ray
- **children**: 3
- **relatives**: Charlie Geren, Charlie (Brother)
- **education**: Georgia Institute of Technology
University of Texas at Austin, University of Texas, Austin (Bachelor of Arts, BA, Juris Doctor, JD)
Astor markhor

The **Astor Markhor** or the **Flare-horned Markhor** (_Capra falconeri falconeri_) is an endangered species of Markhor. It is native to northern Pakistan, northern India and far-eastern Afghanistan. The range of the Astor markhor is very scattered. At one time considered an "endangered species", The Astor Markhor has large, flat horns, branching widely and then going up nearly straight with only a half turn. It is synonymous with _Capra falconeri cashmiriensis_ or **Pir Panjal Markhor**, which has heavy, flat horns, twisted like a corkscrew. The Astor Markhor also has a tendency to sexually segregate outside the mating season because of multiple different mechanisms. The females are usually confined to cliffs with less forage coverage, while the males live in areas with a lot more forage coverage.

Within Afghanistan, the Astor Markhor is limited to the east in the high and mountainous monsoon forests of Laghman and Nuristan. In Indian-occupied kashmir, this subspecies is restricted to a portion of the Pir Panjal range in southwestern Jammu and Kashmir. Throughout this range, Astor Markhor populations are scattered, starting east of the Banihal Pass (50 km from the Chenab River) on the Jammu–Srinagar highway westward to the disputed de-facto border with Pakistan. Recent surveys indicate it still occurs in catchments of the Limber and Lachipora Rivers in the Jhelum Valley Forest Division, and around Shupiyan to the south of Srinagar. In Pakistan, the Astor Markhor there is restricted to the Indus and its tributaries, as well as to the Kunar (Chitral) River and its tributaries. Along the Indus, it inhabits both banks from Jalkot (Kohistan District) upstream to near the Tungas village (Baltistan), with Gakuch being its western limit up the Gilgit River, Chalt up the Hunza River, and the Parishing Valley up the Astore River. It has been said to occur on the right side of the Yasin Valley (Gilgit District), though this is unconfirmed. The flare-horned Markhor is also found around Chitral and the border areas with Afghanistan, where it inhabits a number of valleys along the Kunar River (Chitral District), from Arandu on the west bank and Drosh on the east bank, up to Shoghor along the Lutkho River, and as far as Barenis along the Mastuj River. The largest population is currently found in Chitral National Park in Pakistan.
Kabul markhor

The **Kabul markhor** (_Capra falconeri megaceros_) is a goat-antelope native to Afghanistan and Pakistan. It is an endangered subspecies of the markhor. It is the 'Provincial animal of Afghania'.

## Related pages

- Markhor
Junagadh

**Junagarh City** () was the former capital of the former princely state of Junagadh, which was integrated into the Indian Union in 1948. It is now in the state of Gujarat.
Nirvana (album)

***Nirvana*** is a greatest hits album by American grunge band Nirvana, who disbanded in 1994 because the lead singer, Kurt Cobain died. The album was released on October 29, 2002.  It was almost not released because of a lawsuit by Cobain's wife Courtney Love. This was because of a song on the album, "You Know You're Right", that Love thought would be wasted on a box-set album. She thought it would work better on one CD. Soon after the lawsuit was settled, the album was released.

## List of songs

1. "You Know You're Right"
1. "About a Girl"
1. "Been a Son"
1. "Sliver"
1. "Smells Like Teen Spirit"
1. "Come as You Are"
1. "Lithium"
1. "In Bloom"
1. "Heart-Shaped Box"
1. "Pennyroyal Tea"
1. "Rape Me"
1. "Dumb"
1. "All Apologies" (live at _MTV Unplugged_)
1. "The Man Who Sold the World" (live at _MTV Unplugged_. David Bowie cover)
1. "Where Did You Sleep Last Night" (live at _MTV Unplugged_. Only on Vinyl and International Versions)
1. "Something In The Way" (live at _MTV Unplugged_. (Only on Vinyl and Japanese CD Versions)

## Infobox (album)

- **name**: Nirvana
- **type**: greatest
- **artist**: Nirvana (band), Nirvana
- **cover**: Nirvana album cover.svg
- **alt**: "Nirvana" in silver on a black background
- **released**: October 29, 2002
- **recorded**: 1988–1994
- **genre**: *Grunge
*alternative rock
- **length**: 49:38 (US and Japanese CD)
54:46 (International CD)
- **label**: DGC Records, DGC
- **producer**: *Steve Albini
*Jack Endino
*Steve Fisk
*Scott Litt
*Butch Vig
- **prev title**: From the Muddy Banks of the Wishkah
- **prev year**: 1996
- **next title**: With the Lights Out
- **next year**: 2004
India–Pakistan border

The **Hindustan–Pakistan Border**, known locally as the International Border (IB), is the international boundary between the Republic of India and Pakistan that demarcates the Indian states of Punjab, Rajasthan and Gujarat from the Pakistani provinces of Punjab and Sindh except for Kashmir that is disputed (Line of Control). The border resulted from the Partition of India in 1947.

Wagah, the ceremonial point of crossing between India and Pakistan lies along this border between the Indian city of Amritsar and the Pakistani city of Lahore.

## "Working boundary"

The border between two countries is called an international border from Gujrat/Sindh to the Line of Control. The Kashmir region is divided by the 1949 UN ceasefire line into two parts and the de facto border dividing Pakistan-administered Kashmir from Indian-administered Kashmir has been called the Line of Control since 1972. On the south side of the border of the Jammu Division is Pakistan's Punjab border, and is called the _working boundary_ by Pakistan (which is a recent term) but the "international border" by India.

## Other disputes

- Rann of Kutch and the Kori Creek
- Ferozpur District
- Pathankot Tehsil
Emblem of Afghanistan

The **Coat of arms of Afghanistan** has appeared in some form on the Flag of Afghanistan since the inception of that nation. The most notable absence was during the 1980s when a Communist regime ruled the nation, and in the late 1990s, during the rule of the Taliban.

The latest incarnation of the coat of arms has the added inscription of the shahadah in Arabic at the top. Below it is the image of a mosque with a mehrab that is facing Mecca with a prayer mat inside. Attached to the mosque are two flags, taken to stand for flags of Afghanistan. Beneath the mosque is an inscription that states the name of the nation. Around the mosque is a garland. It is white.
USB hub

USB is an international standard of technology for connecting peripherals to computers and other devices that support it. An interface where a USB device can be connected is called a port. A **USB hub** is a special device which allows adding more USB ports. The additional ports share one USB connection to the computer; for this reason,  each of them cannot carry as much data as a direct USB connection can.

A hub may be bus-powered, which means it gets all its electrical power from the computer. This makes simple wiring, but it cannot give full power to its peripherals. A self powered hub has its own power cord, and can give full power to peripherals that need it.

There are different versions of the USB standard; main difference between the version is the maximum speed that is supported. The USB standard also defines different types of USB plugs.

A USB hub is a normal USB device, which was built for a given version of the standard. Certain models may support different versions of USB, while others may not.  As an example: USB 3.0 can transfer payload data at up to 5 GBits per second. USB 2.0 is limited to a transfer rate of 480 MBits per second. Connecting an USB 3.0 device to the computer using an USB 2.0 hub will limit the transfer rate to that of USB 2.0.
Key generation

**Key generation** is the process of generating keys for cryptography. The key is used to encrypt and decrypt data whatever the data is being encrypted or decrypted.

Modern cryptographic systems include symmetric-key algorithms (such as DES and AES) and public-key algorithms (such as RSA).  Symmetric-key algorithms use a single shared key; keeping data secret requires keeping this key secret.  Public-key algorithms use a public key and a private key.  The public key is made available to anyone (often by means of a digital certificate).  A sender will encrypt data with the public key; only the holder of the private key can decrypt this data.

Since public-key algorithms tend to be much slower than symmetric-key algorithms, modern systems such as TLS and its predecessor SSL as well as the SSH use a combination of the two in which:
1. One party receives the other's public key, and encrypts a small piece of data (either a symmetric key or some data that will be used to generate it).
1. The remainder of the conversation (the remaining party) uses a (typically faster) symmetric-key algorithm for encryption.

The simplest method to read encrypted data is a brute force attack–simply attempting every number, up to the maximum length of the key.  Therefore, it is important to use a sufficiently long key length; longer keys take exponentially longer time to attack, making a brute force attack invisible and impractical.

Currently, commonly used key lengths are:
1. 128-bits for symmetric key algorithms.
1. 1024-bits for public-key algorithms.

## Key generation algorithms

In computer cryptography keys are integers.  In some cases keys are randomly generated using a random number generator (RNG) or pseudorandom number generator (PRNG), the latter being a computer algorithm that produces data which appears random under analysis. Some types the PRNGs algorithms utilize system entropy to generate a seed data, such seeds produce better results, since this makes the initial conditions of the PRNG much more difficult for an attacker to guess.

In other situations, the key is created using a passphrase and a _key generation algorithm_, using a cryptographic hash function such as SHA-1.

## Related pages

- Distributed key generation: For some protocols no party should be in the sole possession of the secret key. Rather, during _distributed key generation_ every party obtains a share of the key. A threshold of the participating parties need to work together in order to achieve a cryptographic task, such as decrypting a message.
John Marshall

**John Marshall** (September 24, 1755 – July 6, 1835) was an American statesman and jurist who shaped American constitutional law and made the Supreme Court more powerful. Marshall was the fourth Chief Justice of the United States, working from February 4, 1801, until his death in 1835. He worked in the United States House of Representatives from March 4, 1799, to June 7, 1800, and, under President John Adams, was Secretary of State from June 6, 1800, to March 4, 1801. Marshall was from the Commonwealth of Virginia and a leader of the Federalist Party.

The longest working Chief Justice in Supreme Court history, Marshall ruled the Court for thirty years and was an important part of making the American legal system. His most important addition was judicial review; the power to stop laws that violate the Constitution. Marshall has been called the one that made the judicial branch special and powerful. Marshall also balanced the power between the federal and state government. He made sure the federal law was more powerful than state law and agreed with an expansive reading of the enumerated powers.

## Infobox (us cabinet official)

- **name**: John Marshall
- **image**: CJMarshall.jpg
- **order**: 4th
- **title**: Chief Justice of the United States
- **term start**: February 4, 1801
- **term end**: July 6, 1835
- **nominator**: John Adams
- **predecessor**: Oliver Ellsworth
- **successor**: Roger B. Taney
- **order2**: 4th
- **title2**: United States Secretary of State
- **term start2**: June 13, 1800
- **term end2**: February 4, 1801
- **president2**: John Adams
- **predecessor2**: Timothy Pickering
- **successor2**: James Madison
- **title3**: United States House of Representatives, U.S. Representative from Virginia
- **term start3**: March 4, 1799
- **term end3**: June 7, 1800
- **birth place**: Germantown, Virginia, Germantown, Virginia
- **death place**: Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States, U.S.A.
- **party**: Federalist Party (United States), Federalist
- **spouse**: Mary Willis Ambler
- **profession**: Lawyer, Judge
- **branch**: Culpeper Minutemen, Culpeper, Virginia Militia
- **rank**: Captain (land), Captain
- **battles**: American Revolutionary War
William H. Crawford

**William Harris Crawford** (February 24, 1772 – September 15, 1834) was an important American politician and judge during the early 19th century. He was United States Secretary of War from 1815 to 1816, United States Secretary of the Treasury from 1816 to 1825, and a candidate for President of the United States in 1824. He strongly believed in states' rights.

In 1875, Crawford appeared on the fifty-cent bill.

The town of Crawfordsville, Indiana, as well as Crawford County, Illinois; Crawford County, Iowa; Crawford County, Missouri; Crawford County, Arkansas; Crawford County, Wisconsin; Crawfordville, Georgia; and Crawford County, Georgia, are named after him, as are the city of Crawfordville, Georgia, and the town of Crawfordsville, Indiana.

## Infobox (us cabinet official)

- **name**: William Harris Crawford
- **image**: WilliamHarrisCrawford5.jpg
- **order**: 9th
- **title**: United States Secretary of War
- **term start**: August 1, 1815
- **term end**: October 22, 1816
- **president**: James Madison
- **predecessor**: James Monroe
- **successor**: John C. Calhoun
- **order2**: 7th
- **title2**: United States Secretary of the Treasury
- **term start2**: October 22, 1816
- **term end2**: March 6, 1825
- **president2**: James Madison (1816-1817)
James Monroe (1817-1825)
- **predecessor2**: Alexander J. Dallas (statesman), Alexander J. Dallas
- **successor2**: Richard Rush
- **birth place**: Amherst County, Virginia, United States, U.S.
- **death place**: Crawford, Georgia, United States, U.S.
- **party**: Democratic-Republican Party, Democratic-Republican
- **profession**: Lawyer, Politician, Judge, Farmer, Teacher
James McHenry

**James McHenry** (November 16, 1753 – May 3, 1816) was an early American statesman. McHenry was a signer of the United States Constitution. He was from Maryland. Fort McHenry was named for him. He was also a delegate to the Continental Congress from Maryland, and the third United States Secretary of War from January 27, 1796 to May 13, 1800, under Presidents George Washington and John Adams.

## Infobox (us cabinet official)

- **name**: James McHenry
- **image**: JMcHenry.jpg
- **order**: 3rd
- **title**: United States Secretary of War
- **term start**: January 27, 1796
- **term end**: May 13, 1800
- **president**: George Washington (1796-1797)
John Adams (1797-1800)
- **predecessor**: Timothy Pickering
- **successor**: Samuel Dexter
- **birth date**: November 16, 1753
- **birth place**: Ballymena, Ulster, Ireland
- **death date**: May 3, 1816
- **death place**: Baltimore, Maryland
Timothy Pickering

**Timothy Pickering** (July 17, 1745 – January 29, 1829) was a politician from Massachusetts who served in a variety of roles, most notably as the third United States Secretary of State, serving in that office from 1795 to 1800 under Presidents George Washington and John Adams.

## Infobox (us cabinet official)

- **name**: Timothy Pickering
- **image**: Timothy-Pickering.jpg
- **order**: 2nd
- **title**: United States Postmaster General
- **term start**: August 12, 1791
- **term end**: January 1, 1795
- **president**: George Washington
- **predecessor**: Samuel Osgood
- **successor**: Joseph Habersham
- **order2**: 2nd
- **title2**: United States Secretary of War
- **term start2**: January 2, 1795
- **term end2**: December 10, 1795
- **president2**: George Washington
- **predecessor2**: Henry Knox
- **successor2**: James McHenry
- **order3**: 3rd
- **title3**: United States Secretary of State
- **term start3**: December 10, 1795
- **term end3**: May 12, 1800
- **president3**: George Washington (1795-1797)
John Adams (1797-1800)
- **predecessor3**: Edmund Randolph
- **successor3**: John Marshall
- **order4**: United States Senate, United States Senator
from Massachusetts
- **term start4**: March 4, 1803
- **term end4**: March 3, 1811
- **predecessor4**: Dwight Foster (Massachusetts), Dwight Foster
- **successor4**: Joseph Bradley Varnum, Joseph Varnum
- **order5**: Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Massachusetts's Massachusetts's 3rd congressional district, 3rd district
- **term start5**: March 4, 1813
- **term end5**: March 3, 1815
- **predecessor5**: Leonard White
- **successor5**: Jeremiah Nelson
- **order6**: Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Massachusetts's Massachusetts's 2nd congressional district, 2nd district
- **term start6**: March 4, 1815
- **term end6**: March 3, 1817
- **predecessor6**: William Reed
- **successor6**: Nathaniel Silsbee
- **birth place**: Salem, Massachusetts, United States, U.S.
- **death place**: Salem, Massachusetts, United States, U.S.
- **party**: Federalist Party (United States), Federalist
- **alma mater**: Harvard University, Harvard College
- **profession**: Politician
- **branch**: Essex County, Massachusetts Militia
Continental Army
- **battles**: American Revolutionary War
Evan Longoria

**Evan Michael "Longo" Longoria** (born October 7, 1985) is a third baseman for the San Francisco Giants. Longoria began his MLB career with the Tampa Bay Rays before being traded to the Giants in 2017. He won the 2008 American League Rookie of the Year award. In 2009, he won the Silver Slugger and Gold Glove awards for American League third basemen. Longoria once again won the Gold Glove award in 2010 and 2017. He played for the Arizona Diamondbacks in 2023, also playing in his second World Series the same year. In 2025, he signed a one day contract to retire a Tampa Bay Ray, which he did on June 7, 2025.

## Infobox (baseball biography)

- **image**: Evan Longoria in 2018.jpg
- **width**: 200
- **caption**: Longoria with the San Francisco Giants in 2018
- **name**: Evan Longoria
- **team**: Tampa Bay Rays
- **number**: 3
- **position**: Third baseman
- **birth place**: Downey, California, Downey, California
- **bats**: Right
- **throws**: Right
- **debutleague**: MLB
- **debutdate**: April 12
- **debutyear**: 2008
- **debutteam**: Tampa Bay Rays
- **statyear**: May 31, 2021
- **statleague**: MLB
- **stat1label**: Batting average (baseball), Batting average
- **stat1value**: .267
- **stat2label**: Hit (baseball), Hits
- **stat2value**: 3,019
- **stat3label**: Home runs
- **stat3value**: 408
- **stat4label**: Run batted in, Runs batted in
- **stat4value**: 1,072
- **teams**: * Tampa Bay Rays (–)
* San Francisco Giants (-)
*Tampa Bay Rays ((-present)
- **awards**: * 6× Major League Baseball All-Star Game, All-Star (2008 Major League Baseball All-Star Game, 2008–2011 Major League Baseball All-Star Game, 2011, 2013 Major League Baseball All-Star Game, 2013-2016 Major League Baseball All-Star Game, 2016)
* World Series champion ()
* Major League Baseball Most Valuable Player, AL MVP (2010)
* AL Rookie of the Year ()
* 8× Gold Glove Award (2008-2010, 2013-2017)
* 3× Silver Slugger Award (2009, 2013, 2016)
* Fielding Bible Award (2010)
* Hitting for the cycle, Hit for the cycle on August 1, 2017
- **show-medals**: no
Nucleolus

A **nucleolus** (plural: nucleoli) is the part of a eukaryotic cell where ribosomes are made. Seen under a microscope, the nucleolus is a dark spot inside the cell's nucleus. It is made up of dense RNA and proteins. Prokaryotic cells also have ribosomes, but they don't make as many as eukaryotes do, and there is no visible nucleotatius. There is usually more than one nucleolus in a eukaryote cell. The nucleolus is not bounded by a membrane.

The nucleolus is made at a nucleolus organizer region (NOR), which is a chromosome region around which the nucleolus forms. Inside the nucleolus ribosomes are made. Ribosomes are molecular machines that synthesizes proteins. The ribosomes are exported through the nuclear envelope to the cytoplasm, where they do their work.

Nucleoli play a role in the cell's response to stress. They also help in the assembly of signal recognition particles.  Malfunction of nucleoli can be the cause of several human diseases.
Candice Bergen

**Candice Bergen** (born May 9, 1946) is an American actress.  In 1980, she was nominated for an Academy Award for "Best Actress in a Supporting Role" for her role in _Starting Over_. Bergen later acted as the title character in _Murphy Brown_. (1988-98, 2018-present).