juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Vulcan (Star Trek)

**Vulcans** are a humanoid species in the fictional _Star Trek_ universe from the planet Vulcan. They are noted for their attempt to live by reason and logic with no interference from emotion. In one episode of Star Trek The Next Generation Android Data and Spock work together to solve a Romulan cypher. Spock remarks that Data has achieved the perfect Vulcan state of Pure Logic without emotion.  Data remarks that Spock despite his efforts  still feels emotion which Data is trying to achieve. They were the first extraterrestrial species encountered by humans. They became one of the founding members of the United Federation of Planets. Vulcans are featured in all twelve Star Trek series, six of which featured a Vulcan as a main character.

## Related pages

- Vulcan, Alberta - a town in Canada that has incorporated _Star Trek_ themes due to its name.
- Stoicism

## Bibliography

- Star Trek: The Magazine v3#10 (February 2003 - "Romulan Propulsion Historical Overview" by Rick Sternbach & Tim Earls)
- Spock's World Diane Duane Pg. 359 Pocket Books, a division of Simon & Schuster Inc.  1230 Avenue of the Americas, NY, 10020 Paperback Edition 1989.
Keck Observatory

The **W. M. Keck Observatory** is a pair of two large, ground-based telescopes located at Mauna Kea, Hawaii. Sitting four km (more than two miles) above sea level, the paired telescopes are used to examine light from distant stars in great detail. The primary mirrors of each of the two telescopes are 10 meters (33 feet) across, making them slightly smaller than the Gran Telescopio Canarias primary mirrors.

However, all of the light collected by the Keck Observatory primary mirrors (75.76m2) is sent to the secondary mirror and the instruments, compared to GTC's primary mirror, which has an effective light-collection area of 73.4m2, or 25.4 square feet less than each of the Keck Observatory primary mirrors. Because of this fundamental difference in design, Keck Observatory's telescopes arguably remain the largest steerable, optical/infrared telescopes on Earth.

## Related pages

- La Silla Observatory
- Very Large Telescope

## Other websites

- W.M. Keck Observatory (official site)
- The Mauna Kea Observatory (official site)

## Infobox (telescope)

- **locmapin**: USA Hawaii
- **location**: Waimea, Hawaii County, Hawaii, US
HED meteorite

The **HED meteorites** are a group of achondrite meteorite types:
- _Howardites_
- _Eucrites_
- _Diogenites_

These are all thought to have come from the crust of the asteroid 4 Vesta. Their differences are due to different geologic histories of the parent rock. Their crystallization ages are between 4.43 and 4.55 billion years ago, by their radioisotope ratios.
Metamorphic rock

A **metamorphic rock** is a type of rock which has been changed by extreme heat and pressure. Its name is from 'morph' (meaning form), and 'meta' (meaning change).

The original rock gets heated (temperatures greater than can be very hot 🔥 (1500 bars). This causes profound physical and/or chemical change. The original rock may be sedimentary rock, igneous rock

or another older metamorphic rock.

There is always more pressure and higher temperature under the Earth's surface. In the root of a mountain chain or a volcano these forces will be enough to change shape of the strata and the minerals it is made of. Sedimentary rock which has been near such forces often looks as if a giant had twisted it and heated it over a fire. Examples of metamorphic rock:
- Marble is a metamorphic rock formed from limestone.
- Slate is a metamorphic mudstone or shale.
- Quartzite is a metamorphic sandstone.

The recrystallisation of minerals after heating generally causes the destruction of any fossils the rocks might have contained. These rocks are formed when igneous or sedimentary rocks are subjected to extreme heat and pressure. As a result, they undergo a complete change in their form and characteristics. Rocks who have been changed in this way are called metamorphic rocks.

### Regional metamorphism

Regional metamorphism, or dynamic metamorphism, occurs in great masses of rock. Rocks can be metamorphosed just by being at great depths below the Earth's surface. There they get high temperatures and the great weight of the rock layers above.

Much of the lower continental crust is metamorphic, except for recent igneous intrusions. Horizontal tectonic movements such as the collision of continents create orogenic belts. High temperature, pressures and deformation occurs along these belts. If the metamorphosed rocks are later uplifted and exposed by erosion, they are seen as long belts or other large areas at the surface.

### Contact metamorphism

Contact metamorphism occurs when magma is injected into the surrounding solid rock (country rock). The changes that occur are greatest where the magma comes into contact with the rock. The temperatures were highest there and decreased with distance from it.

### Metamorphic minerals

Every mineral is stable only within certain limits. When certain minerals appear in metamorphic rocks this shows the approximate temperatures and pressures the rock experienced. These minerals are known as _index minerals_. Sillimanite, kyanite, staurolite, andalusite, and some garnet are examples.

Other minerals, such as olivines, pyroxenes, amphiboles, micas, feldspars, and quartz may be found in metamorphic rocks. These minerals formed during the crystallization of igneous rocks. They are stable at high temperatures and pressures and may remain chemically unchanged during the metamorphic process.

## Related pages

- List of rocks
- Igneous rock
- Sedimentary rock
- List of minerals

## Other websites

- Metamorphic textures - Middle East Technical University
- Metamorphism - U. of Alabama
- Types of metamorphism - Tulane U.
- Contact metamorphism example
Extrusion

**Extrusive** means to the mode of igneous volcanic rock formation in which hot magma from inside the Earth flows out (extrudes) onto the surface as lava or explodes violently into the atmosphere to fall back as pyroclastics or tuff. This is opposed to intrusive rock formation, in which magma does not reach the surface.

**Extruded** when talking about an artificial material like soft metals like aluminium, plastic or glass means that it is pushed out of a nozzle when the material is in a soft state. The shape of the nozzle will vary depending on the shape required in the finished product
Intrusion

An **intrusion** is magma (melted rock) which cools and becomes solid under the Earth's surface.  It occurs when there are lines of weakness such as faults, joints, or bedding planes in the crust. Then magma enters these lines of weakness.  By contrast, an extrusion is magma which cools into rock above the surface of the crust. Both intrusive and extrusive rocks are classed as igneous rocks.

The process of forming intrusive rocks may take millions of years. As the rock slowly cools into a solid, the different parts of the magma crystallize into minerals. The crystals are usually larger than in extrusive rocks. Many mountain ranges, such as the Sierra Nevada in California, are formed mostly by intrusive rock. Often they are huge granite (or related rock) formations.

Intrusions vary widely, from mountain range sized batholiths to thin vein-like fracture fillings. When exposed by erosion, these cores called batholiths may occupy huge areas of Earth's surface. Large bodies of magma that solidify underground before they reach the surface of the crust are called plutons.

Intrusive structures may go between bedding planes of earlier 'country' rock. A sill is an intrusion which makes a table along bedding planes. A dyke is an intrusion which moves up, crossing older strata.

## Related pages

- Volcanic plug
Radiation pressure

**Radiation pressure** is the pressure exerted upon any surface exposed to electromagnetic radiation. If absorbed, the pressure is the energy flux density divided by the speed of light. If the radiation is totally reflected, the radiation pressure is doubled.  This happens because the waves that make up electromagnetic radiation carry momentum with them and pass that momentum on when they reach a surface.

A Crookes radiometer appears to demonstrate the pressure of light, but instead it demonstrate the energy that light brings to a surface.  The black side of each paddle absorbs most of the light's energy an causes the air near that surface to have a higher pressure.  So, while a Crookes radiometer turns because of pressure, it is air pressure caused by the heat energy that light brings to the device.

## Solar radiation at Earth

The solar radiation at Earth's distance from the Sun has an energy flux density of 1370 W/m<sup>2</sup>, and more than half of this energy reaches surface.  A calculation shows that this value of the flux would cause on an absorbing surface to experience 4.6 µPa of radiation pressure.  A convenient way to compare the Sun's energy flux and radiation pressure is to imagine the pressure and energy deposited on one square meter:

- Power =  (or about 1.4 kilowatts.)
- Force =

To understand how small a micro-newton is, convert calculate how much mass you need on Earth to get that force using :
- Mass =  (or about <big>½</big> milligram.)

The difference between the energy flux and the pressure is like the difference between the heat coming through a large window and the weight of a very small mosquito.

## Further reading

- Demir, Dilek,**"A table-top demonstration of radiation pressure"**,2011, Diplomathesis, E-Theses univie (http://othes.univie.ac.at/16381/)
Kirkwood gap

**Kirkwood gaps** are areas of the asteroid belt where asteroids are unusually scarce, as seen in the graph on the right. They are caused by orbital resonances with Jupiter.

The gaps were first noticed in 1857 by Daniel Kirkwood, who also correctly explained their origin in the orbital resonances with Jupiter while a professor at Jefferson College in Canonsburg, Pennsylvania.

## Other websites

- Article on Kirkwood gaps at Wolfram's scienceworld
- A method to create a short-term simulation .
Ca-Al-rich inclusions

**Ca-Al-rich inclusions** (**CAI**s) are inclusions found in  carbonaceous chondrites. These inclusions are about  long. They are light-colored and made of calcium and aluminum. High-temperature mineral<nowiki/>s are often found in CAIs. These objects are among the first solid objects to be created by the cooling  of a protoplanetary disk. CAIs are formed at much higher temperatures than the associated chondrules. They may have survived many high-temperature events while most chondrules are created in a single melting event.

The isotopic anomalies of CAIs give important information about the creation of the solar system. The studying of them suggests that the solar nebula collapsed soon after a nearby supernova. Radiometric dating shows that the CAIs formed about 2 million years before the chondrules formed.

## References

- Gilmour J. 2002. The Solar System's first clocks _Science_ **297**, 1658-1659.
- Amelin Y. _et al._ 2002. Lead isotopic ages of chondrules and calcium-aluminum-rich inclusions _Science_, **297**, 1678-1683.
- Krot A.N. 2002. Dating the earliest solids in our Solar System. _Planetary science research discoveries_. http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Sept02/isotopicAges.html
- Shukolyukov A. & Lugmair G.W. 2002. Chronology of asteroid accretion and differentiation 687-695, in Bottke W.F. _et al._ (eds) _Asteroids III_. University of Arizona Press.
Eucrite

**Eucrites** are achondritic stony meteorites that originate from the surface of the asteroid 4 Vesta, and as such are part of the HED meteorite group. They are the most common achondrite group with well over 100 distinct finds at present.

Eucrites consist of basaltic rock from the crust of 4 Vesta. They are mostly made up of Ca-poor pyroxene, pigeonite, and Ca-rich plagioclase (anorthite).

Eucrites are named from a Greek word meaning "easily distinguished".

## Other websites

- HED Group - Meteorites from Vesta
81P/Wild

Comet **81P/Wild**, also known as **Wild 2**, is a comet named after Swiss astronomer Paul Wild (pronounced _Vilt_), who discovered it in 1978.

It is believed that for most of its 4.5 billion-year lifetime, Wild 2 had a more distant and circular orbit. In 1974, it passed within only about one million kilometers of the planet Jupiter, whose strong gravitational pull altered the comet's orbit and brought it into the inner solar system. Its orbital period changed from 40 years to about 6 years, and its perihelion is now about 1.59 AU (astronomical unit).

## Other websites

- NASA Team Analyzes Stardust Particle Capture  January 18, 2006
- NASA/JPL homepage for Stardust project
- Stardust@Home Volunteer Particle Analysis Project
- IAU Ephemerides page for 81P
- Catalogue of all 72 raw images of Wild 2

## Infobox (comet)

- **name**: 81P/Wild
- **image**:  spacecraft]]
- **caption**: Enhanced image from the Stardust (spacecraft), Stardust spacecraft
- **discoverer**: Paul Wild (Swiss astronomer), Paul Wild
- **discovery date**: 1978
- **designations**: 1978 XI; 1984 XIV;
1990 XXVIII
- **epoch**: March 6, 2006
- **semimajor**: 3.45 Astronomical Unit, AU
- **perihelion**: 1.592 AU
- **aphelion**: 5.308 AU
- **eccentricity**: 0.5384
- **period**: 6.408 Julian year (astronomy), a
- **inclination**: 3.2394°
- **last p**: September 25, 2003
- **next p**: 2010
Barrel (weapons)

A **barrel** is a part of a gun. It is a long metal tube and main pressure containing component of the weapon that the bullet or projectile goes through after it is fired. Guns can have many different sizes of barrels. Usually, longer barrels make it easier for the bullet to hit the target more often. Barrels usually have spiral grooves on the inside called rifling. Barrels with grooves spin the projectile around faster as it exits the gun. This makes the projectile more stable in flight and more accurate.
Shell (projectile)

A **shell** is a type of projectile used in weapons. It is filled with explosive or other things such as an incendiary device. It is similar to a bomb but is made to be shot out of a gun. Shells are usually large caliber projectiles fired by artillery, armored vehicles (including tanks), and warships. A fuze detonates the explosive or releases whatever else the shell may be carrying.

Anti-tank guns fire thick shells without much explosive inside. Shells usually have the shape of a cylinder but taper towards the front end to form a point. However, special shells may use other shapes.

The kinds of explosives used (by NATO countries), in artillery shells: RDX, IMX-104, and TNT.
Ion thruster

An **ion thruster** is a type of spacecraft thruster. It works by using static electricity or magnetism to push ions (atoms that have an electric charge) out of the back of the spacecraft. It takes a very long time for the spacecraft to speed up, but the fuel is used very efficiently. A thruster that has very high efficiency is said to have a high specific impulse.

It has to be carried into outer space by a regular rocket, because the ions don't push hard enough for it to escape the Earth's atmosphere, but after it gets to outer space it can travel a very long way. An ion thruster needs lots of electricity to work, so the spacecraft needs a very good way of producing electricity, such as solar panels or a nuclear reactor.

Ion thrusters are good for travelling between things in space that are very far away from each other. One example of this is interplanetary travel. Ion thrusters are good for this because they are efficient and can thrust for very long times. Chemical rocket thrusters ("regular" rocket thrusters) can only burn for short times, because they use fuel quickly and not efficiently. Because of this, chemical rockets only thrust for short times at important places during the journey. Ion thrusters use fuel very slowly and very efficiently. This means that ion thrusters can thrust continuously for the entire journey. In a slightly surprising way, this makes spacecraft that use ion thrusters faster than spacecraft that use chemical rockets.

Ion thrusters have been used on small space probes. In 2011 the NASA space probe called Dawn used an ion thruster to get to the asteroid named Vesta. In 2015 the thruster brought Dawn to the dwarf planet named Ceres.
Submachine gun

A **submachine gun** is a type of gun that shoots many bullets, usually pistol bullets, when one holds down the trigger. A submachine gun is smaller than a machine gun and can easily be carried by one person. They are often used where people need to defend themselves in small areas, or people need to fire many bullets quickly. The first submachine guns were invented in the early 1900s. They are often used by the police and counter-terrorism units .

## History

In the early 20th century, experiments were made by converting  pistols from semi to fully automatic firearms. Automatic weapons with gunstock and firing pistol rounds were developed around the same time during World War I, by Italy, Germany, and the United States. The first dedicated designs were developed in the latter stages of World War I both as improvements on earlier stocked pistols, and to offer an advantage in trench warfare.

They were popularized in the 1920s and '30s as weapon of choice of American gangsters and police, in the form of the famous Thompson submachine gun, commonly referred to as the "Tommy Gun". Submachine guns rose to prominence as a frontline close-quarters combat weapon and commando firearm during World War II. They are now widely used by police SWAT, military commando, paramilitary, and counter-terror team members for a variety of situations.

Submachine guns are highly effective in close quarters; their lower-powered pistol cartridges make them generally more controllable in fully-automatic fire compared to assault rifles, while their small size and light weight grant maneuverability.  However, pistol bullets often are stopped by body armor or cover, and are short-ranged compared to intermediate and rifle cartridges.

### World War II developments

World War II developments were many and interesting. In Germany the development of machine carbines (_Maschinenkarabiner_) was notable.  From 1939 onwards the German Army analyzed combat conditions and developed new tactics and equipment requirements. The existing 7.92x57mm rifle cartridge was more powerful and long ranged than needed. Most combat took place at ranges less than 400 m (440 yards). A less powerful round (bullet) could be used. This meant a soldier could carry more ammunition, the weapon could be shorter, lighter and with less recoil. The gun could be an automatic.

Achieving this took time. Work in 1941 and 1942 led at last to a reliable weapon, the StG 44 (Sturmgewehr 44) "assault rifle 44". This was then produced in large numbers (over 600,000). It came too late to effect the Second World War, but was later adapted as the Soviet AK 47.

## Other websites

- WW2-era Small Arms
- Submachine gun -Citizendium
Elena V. Pitjeva

**Elena Vladimirovna Pitjeva** is a Russian theoretical physicist at the Institute of Applied Astronomy, Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg. She is noted for her work on ephemerides and is currently head of the Laboratory of Ephemeris Astronomy at the Institute of Applied Astronomy. Pitjeva is a member of the International Astronomical Union Commission 4: Ephemerides.

## Education

Pitjeva earned her undergraduate degree from the Faculty of Mathematics and Mechanics at A. A. Zhdanov Leningrad State University in 1972 in the specialty of astronomy. She earned an M.A. in theoretical physics in 1994 and a Ph.D. in theoretical physics in 2005. She was a student of Professor G.A. Krasinski.

## Other websites

- Laboratory of Ephemeris Astronomy, Institute of Applied Astronomy
Socialist Reich Party

The **Socialist Reich Party of Germany** (German: _Sozialistische Reichspartei Deutschlands_) was a political party in West Germany. It was formed in 1949.

It was openly Neo-Nazi and admired Hitler. It split from the German Empire Party. Leaders included Otto Ernst Remer, a former Major General, and Fritz Dorls.

The SRP claimed West Germany's first Chancellor, Konrad Adenauer was a crony or puppet leader who was beholden to the United States, and that Karl Dönitz (who Hitler named as his successor in 1945) had been the last legally legitimate leader of Germany.

The SRP also falsely maintained that the Holocaust never happened, and for example, spread disinformation that the ovens used to cremate the murdered victims in the Dachau concentration camp were in fact built by United States military authorities after occupying Germany in 1945. The SRP wanted Europe to be dominated by a reunited Germany, a restored Reich that would neither be capitalist like West Germany or communist like East Germany.

The SRP never openly criticized the Soviet Union, and it is likely because the Soviets secretly funded the party to discredit and destabilize West Germany and its US allies.

The SRP had its own paramilitary organization, the Reichsfront.

The SRP had about ten thousand members and, in 1952, won 16 seats in the Lower Saxony Landtag election, and 8 seats in Bremen.

It was banned in 1952 by the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany, the only court in West Germnay with the power to do so.

## Other websites

- _Germany's New Nazis_ 1951 pamphlet about the SRP and other neo--nazi groups
International Fight League

The **International Fight League** was an American mixed martial arts (MMA) league and is the world's first MMA league. It was founded on January 7, 2006 and closed on July 31, 2008.

Instead of the established norm for MMA events, where matchups are strictly one-on-one affairs, each IFL card was a showdown between two teams of five fighters, each fighter fighting one match against another on the opposing team. The IFL was shown in the United States on Fox Sports Net and MyNetworkTV.

## Other websites

- IFL - Official Website
Labour and Social Justice – The Electoral Alternative

**Labour and Social Justice – The Electoral Alternative** ( or **WASG**) was a German political party founded in 2005 by people who did not like the Social Democratic–Green government.

On 16 June 2007, it merged with The Left Party.PDS to form The Left (_Die Linke_) party. At the time of merger, about 11,600 people were members.

## Infobox (political party)

- **country**: Germany
- **native name**: Arbeit & soziale Gerechtigkeit – Die Wahlalternative
- **logo**:
- **leader**: Klaus Ernst, Thomas Händel, Christine Buchholz, Axel Troost
- **foundation**: 22 January 2005
- **ideology**: Social democracy
 Democratic socialism
- **international**: none
- **european**: none
- **europarl**: none
- **colours**: Orange (colour), Orange
- **headquarters**: Königswarter Straße 16
D-90762 Fürth
- **website**: [http://www.w-asg.de www.w-asg.de]
Deutsche Reichspartei

The **Deutsche Reichspartei** (DRP) (_German Reich Party_, _German Imperial Party_ or _German Empire Party_) was a nationalist political party in West Germany. It was a merger of the German Conservative Party - Deutsche Right Party (DKP-DRP) and the old Hessian Nationaldemokratischen Partei (NDP).

Some of the DRP's founders were: Alexander Andrae, Oskar Lutz, Hans Bernd von Grünberg, Wilhelm Meinberg, Otto Heß, Hans Schikora, Heinrich Kunstmann, Adolf von Thadden.

In 1949 the Sozialistische Reichspartei (SRP) split from the DRP. This was because the Empire Party was not neo-Nazi, and did not want to be associated with Adolf Hitler.  Instead the party preferred to say how good the Second German Empire (1870-1919) was.

The Deutsche Reichspartei did become more national socialist after 1952. This is when the Sozialistische Reichspartei was banned by the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany and a lot of its members re-joined the Empire Party.

The party was not very successful in the 1950s, but seemed to be getting more popular after the state elections of 1959. But the success did not last, and the party held its final conference in 1964 when it was dissolved. It was quickly replaced by the new Nationaldemokratische Partei Deutschlands.

## Other websites

- _Germany's New Nazis_ 1951 pamphlet about the DRP and other neo--nazi groups
Fukuoka Prefecture

is a prefecture in the Kyūshū region of Japan on the island of Kyūshū. The capital city is Fukuoka.

## History

The area of Fukuoka Prefecture includes the old provinces of Chikugo, Chikuzen, and Buzen.

### Timeline

- **November 19, 1274** (_Bun'ei 11, 20th day of the 10th month_): Battle of Bun'ei
- **August 15, 1281** (_Kōan 4, 30th day of the 7th month_): Battle of Kōan

## Geography

Fukuoka Prefecture faces the sea on three sides.  The prefecture borders Saga, Ōita, and Kumamoto prefectures.  Fukuoka is near Yamaguchi Prefecture across the Kanmon Straits.

Fukuoka includes the two largest cities on Kyūshū, Fukuoka and Kitakyūshū. Small islands are near the north coast of the prefecture.

### Cities

There are 28 cities in the prefecture:

### Towns and villages

These are the towns and villages in each district of the prefecture

### National Parks

National Parks are established in about 18% of the total land area of the prefecture.

## Shrines and Temples

_Kōra taisha_, _Sumiyoshi-jinja_, _Hakosagi-gū_ and _Usa-jinjū_ are the chief Shinto shrines (_ichinomiya_) in the prefecture.

## Related pages

- Provinces of Japan
- Prefectures of Japan
- List of regions of Japan
- List of islands of Japan
- Kyushu National Museum
- Giravanz Kitakyushu
- Fukuoka Art Museum
- Kyushu National Museum
- Dazaifu

## Other websites

- Fukuoka Prefecture website  ;  
- http://www.kyushu.com/fukuoka/
- http://diddlefinger.com/m/fukuokaken/

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Fukuoka
- **native name**: 福岡県
- **native name lang**: ja
- **settlement type**: Prefectures of Japan, Prefecture
- **translit lang1**: Japanese
- **translit lang1 type**: Romaji
- **translit lang1 info**: Fukuoka-ken
- **image flag**: Flag of Fukuoka Prefecture.svg
- **image seal**: Emblem of Fukuoka Prefecture.svg
- **seal type**: Symbol
- **image map**: Map_of_Japan_with_highlight_on_40_Fukuoka_prefecture.svg
- **map caption**: Location of Fukuoka in Japan
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision type1**: Regions of Japan, Region
- **subdivision name1**: Kyūshū (_Saikaidō_)
- **subdivision type2**: Island
- **subdivision name2**: Kyūshū
- **seat type**: Capital
- **seat**: Fukuoka, Fukuoka, Fukuoka
- **leader title**: Governor
- **leader name**: Seitaro Hattori (since April 2021)
- **area total km2**: 4,971.01
- **area rank**: 29th
- **population as of**: September 1, 2010
- **population total**: 5,071,732
- **population rank**: 9th
- **population density km2**: auto
- **iso code**: JP-40
- **blank name sec1**: Prefectural flower
- **blank info sec1**: _Ume_ blossom (_Prunus mume_)
- **blank1 name sec1**: Prefectural tree
- **blank1 info sec1**: Azalea (_Rhododendron tsutsusi_)
- **blank2 name sec1**: Prefectural bird
- **blank2 info sec1**: Japanese Bush Warbler (_Cettia diphone_)
- **blank3 name sec1**: Prefectural bird
- **blank name sec2**: Number of districts
- **blank info sec2**: 12
- **blank1 name sec2**: Number of municipalities
- **blank1 info sec2**: 60
- **website**: [http://www.pref.fukuoka.lg.jp/somu/multilingual/english/top.html www.pref.fukuoka.lg.jp/somu/
multilingual/english/top.html]
Regierender Bürgermeister

The **Regierender Bürgermeister** () of Berlin is the head of government of the city.  The Governing Mayor is the equivalent of the Minister President of the bigger States of Germany.

The Regierender Bürgermeister is elected by the Abgeordentenhaus (). He then appoints up to eight Senators. The Senators are ministers in charge of the departments of the city government. Two of the senators are also Mayors. The Mayors are the deputies of the Governing Mayor.
Alice in Chains

**Alice in Chains** is an American grunge band that formed in Seattle, Washington in 1987. They have sold an estimated 15 million albums in the US alone. Alice in Chains is sometimes thought of as a heavy metal band, but is mostly considered a grunge band.

Their debut album "Facelift" came out in 1990. They have put out a total of six studio albums during their career.

The band's first lead singer, Layne Staley, became addicted to drugs. He often wrote about drug addiction in his lyrics. He died in Seattle in April 2002 after a fatal drug overdose. William DuVall took over as the lead singer in 2006.

### Current members

- William DuVall - lead vocals, rhythm guitar (2006-present)
- Jerry Cantrell - lead & rhythm guitars, vocals (1987-2002, 2005-present)
- Mike Inez - bass, backing vocals (1993-2002, 2005-present)
- Sean Kinney - drums, percussion (1987-2002, 2005-present)

### Former members

- Layne Staley - lead vocals, rhythm guitar (1987-2002)
- Mike Starr - bass, backing vocals (1987-1993)

### Touring musicians

- Patrick Lachman - lead vocals (2005-2006)
- Scott Olson - acoustic guitar, bass (1996)

## Discography

- Studio albums
- _Facelift_ (1990)
- _Dirt_ (1992)
- _Alice in Chains_ (1995)
- _Black Gives Way to Blue_ (2009)
- _The Devil Put Dinosaurs Here_ (2013)
- _Rainier Fog_ (2018)

## Other websites

- Alice in Chains Official Site
- Jerry Cantrell Official Site
- Alice in Chains Equipment/Gear
- Alice in Chains Concert Chronology, discography, and session history

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Alice in Chains
- **image**: Alice in Chains Live Leeds 2018.jpg
- **caption**: Alice in Chains in 2018. From left to right: Mike Inez, William DuVall, Sean Kinney and Jerry Cantrell.
- **landscape**: yes
- **background**: group_or_band
- **alias**: Alice N' Chains, or AIC
- **origin**: Seattle, Washington
United States
- **genre**: Heavy metal music, Heavy metal, hard rock, alternative metal, grunge music, grunge, alternative rock, sludge metal, doom metal, hard rock, blues rock, folk rock, funk metal, jangle pop
- **years active**: 1987-2002, 2005-present
- **label**: Columbia Records, Columbia, Virgin Records/EMI Records, EMI, Capitol Records, BMG Rights Management
- **associated acts**: Mad Season
Jerry Cantrell
Class of '99
Slash's Snakepit
- **url**: [http://www.aliceinchains.com/ www.aliceinchains.com]
- **current members**: Jerry Cantrell
Sean Kinney
Mike Inez
William DuVall
- **past members**: Layne Staley
Mike Starr (musician), Mike Starr
Cockney Rejects

The **Cockney Rejects** is an Oi! punk rock band that formed in the East End of London in 1979.

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Cockney Rejects
- **img**: Cockney Rejects (Ruhrpott Rodeo 2013) IMGP5741 smial wp.jpg
- **img capt**: The Cockney Rejects in 2013
- **img size**: 300px
- **background**: group_or_band
- **alias**: The Rejects
- **origin**: East End of London, England
- **genre**: Punk rock
 Oi!
 Street punk
- **years active**: 1978–present
- **url**: [http://www.cockneyrejectsofficial.com/ www.cockneyrejectsofficial.com]
- **current members**: Jeff “Turner” Geggus Michael “Olga” Algar JJ “Chaos” Pearce and Ray Bussey
- **past members**: Chris Murrell
 Paul Harvey
 Vince Riordan
 Andy Scott
 Nigel Woolf
 Ian Campbell
 Keith Warrington
 Nobby Cobb
 Micky Burt
East End of London

The **East End of London**, known locally as the **East End**, generally means the area of central London, England, east of the medieval walled City of London and north of the River Thames. It is poorer and is cheaper to live in than the West End, so it has had many immigrants over the years, including Huguenot, Irish, Jews, Germans and more recently Bengalis.
Suidae

**Suidae** is the family to which pigs and their relatives belong. Several species are currently recognised, including the domestic pig. In addition to numerous species of wild pig, the family includes the babirusa and the warthog.

## Taxonomy

- Family _Suidae_
    - Genus _Babyrousa_: Babirusas
    - Genus _Hylochoerus_: Giant forest hogs
        - Giant forest hog, _Hylochoerus meinertzhageni_
    - Genus _Phacochoerus_: Warthogs
        - Warthog, _Phacochoerus africanus_
        - Desert Warthog, _Phacochoerus aethiopicus_
    - Genus _Porcula_: Pygmy Hog
        - Pygmy Hog, _Porcula salvania_
    - Genus _Potamochoerus_: Bushpigs
        - Bushpig, _Potamochoerus larvatus_
        - Red River Hog, _Potamochoerus porcus_
    - Genus _Sus_: Pigs
        - Wild boar, _Sus scrofa_
            - Domestic pig, _Sus scrofa domestica_
        - Family ?Maiaboarinae
    - Genus _Maiaboar_
    - Genus _Palaeoboar_
    - Genus _Deccaboar_
    - Genus  _Kumnoboar_
    - Genus _Tyloboar_
    - Genus _Cretaceoboar_
    - Genus _Magiboar_
    - Genus _Frosthutia_
    - Genus _Zeppelinoboar_
    - Genus _Aachenoboar_
    - Genus _Mycellum_
Trdat of Iberia

**T'rdat** (Georgian: თრდატი), sometimes Latinized as _Tiridates_, of the Chosroid Dynasty, was the king of Iberia (Kartli, eastern Georgia) from c. 394 to 406.

Georgian chronicles have said that he is the son of Rev, son of Mirian III, the first Christian king of Iberia. He is reported to have succeeded by his relative and son-in-law, Varaz-Bakur II, and to have been forced to pay tribute to the Sasanids of Iran. The chronicles praise his piety and credit Trdat with the construction of churches at Rustavi and Nekresi.

## Related pages

- Artaxiad dynasty of Iberia
Kingdom of Sophene

The** Kingdom of Sophene** (Armenian: Ծոփքի Թագավորութուն) was an Armenian kingdom, situated between ancient Armenia and Syria. It was ruled by the Orontids, an Armenian dynasty of Iranian origin. The kingdom was culturally mixed with Greek, Armenian, Iranian, Syrian, Anatolian and Roman influences. Founded around the 3rd century BCE, the kingdom maintained independence until  when the Armenian Artaxiad king Tigranes the Great conquered the territories as part of his empire. Sophene laid near medieval Kharput, which is present day Elazig.

## Kings of Sophene

- Sames I (ca. 260 BCE)
- Arsames I (ca. 240 BCE)
- Xerxes (ca. 220 BCE)
- Zariadres (ca. 190 BCE)
- Mithrobouzanes (ca. 188 BCE–163 BCE)
- Arkathias (second half of the 2nd century BCE)
- Artanes (or Arsakes) (reign ended ca. 95 BCE)

## Infobox (country)

- **conventional long name**: Kingdom of Sophene

- **common name**: Sophene
- **image map**: File:Roman East 50 CE Commagene highlighted-en.svg
- **capital**: Carcathiocerta
Arsamosata
- **religion**: Zoroastrianism
- **government type**: Monarchy
- **year end**: 95 BC
- **year start**: c. 260 BC
- **image map caption**: Map in Sophene in 50 AD (in left)
- **common languages**: Old Aramaic<small> (government, court)</small>
Armenian<small> (lingua franca)</small>
- **title leader**: King
- **leader1**: Sames I
- **leader2**: Artanes
- **event end**: Conquered by Tigranes the Great
- **flag s1**: Artaxiad coat of arms by PeopleOfAr.svg
Lady Katherine Grey

**Lady Katherine Grey** (25 August 1540 – 26 January 1568) was an English noblewoman. She was the sister to Lady Jane Grey and Lady Mary Grey. Her parents were Lady Frances Brandon and Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk, who were Marquess and Marchioness of Dorset and later Duke and Duchess of Suffolk.

## Life

Katherine (also spelled Catherine) was born in 1540 to Lady Frances Brandon and Henry Grey. Her parents were disappointed that she was a girl. However, Frances treated Katherine better than she treated her sister, Lady Jane Grey. Little is known about Katherine's early life before 1550.
Katherine was married at the age of twelve to Henry Herbert in May 1553. It was the same day her elder sister, Jane, was married to Guildford Dudley. Katherine's sister Jane was queen of England for nine days before Mary became Queen. Because of this, Katherine's marriage to Herbert was annulled.

### Appearance and personality

Katherine was considered even more beautiful than her sister Jane. She was a little short, but she had a delicate appearance. She had shining red-gold hair and her grandmother Mary Tudor's blue eyes. She also had white skin and no freckles, unlike her sister Jane.
Unlike her sister Jane, Katherine was not as smart and did not like her studies as much. She preferred playing with her pet dogs and birds.

### Later life

Katherine said that her life at Queen Mary's court was the best time of her life. She met her future husband during these years and received money from Mary every year. Mary's sister, Elizabeth, did not like Katherine much. She distrusted her and did not wish to see her married. Katherine had other plans.

In December 1560, she married Edward Seymour, 1st Earl of Hertford without Elizabeth I's permission. They planned to keep it a secret for a long time. However, Katherine became pregnant quickly and by July of the next year, she could not hold her secret any longer. She first tried to get help from Bess of Hardwick, but Bess screamed at Katherine and made her go away. Then she went to see Elizabeth's great favorite, Robert Dudley. He listened to Katherine but promised nothing. The next day he told Elizabeth everything. Elizabeth was angry with this and put both Edward and Katherine in prison. Katherine gave birth to a son in the Tower of London. The child's name was Edward.

Later, she gave birth to another son, also in the Tower of London. This made Elizabeth even more angry since Katherine was not supposed to see Edward. The couple would not see each other again after the birth. Katherine soon got tuberculosis. She died in January 1568. She is buried in Cockfield Chapel.
Elongation

**Elongation** is an astronomical term that describes the angle between the Sun and a planet, as viewed from Earth.

When an inferior planet (Mercury or Venus) is visible after sunset, it is near its **greatest eastern elongation**. When an inferior planet is visible before sunrise, it is near its **greatest western elongation**. The value of the greatest elongation (west or east), for Mercury, is between 18° and 28°; and for Venus between  45° and 47°. This value varies because the orbits of the planets are elliptical, rather than perfect circles.
Conjunction (astronomy and astrology)

**Conjunction** is a word used in astronomy and astrology. It means that, as seen from some place (usually the Earth), two celestial bodies appear near one another in the sky. The event is also sometimes known as an appulse.

The astronomical and astrological symbol of conjunction is  (in Unicode, U+260C ☌).

## Other websites

- Occultations of Saturn by Jupiter
- Image of 2001 occultation of Saturn by the Moon
- Planets conjunctions and mutual occultations 1000BC to 3000AD
- Conjunctions of planets with the main asteroids
Opposition (astronomy and astrology)

**Opposition** is a word used in observational astronomy (and also astrology). It is used when two objects in the sky are on the opposite side of the sky when viewed from the Earth.

In particular, two planets are in opposition to each other when their ecliptic longitudes differ by 180°.  When talking about a single object being in opposition, it is assumed to be opposite from the sun.

The Moon is in opposition to the Sun when it is a full moon.

The symbol of opposition is <big>☍</big>.

A planet (or asteroid or comet) is said to be "in opposition" when it is in opposition to the Sun as seen from the Earth. This is the best time to observe a planet because:
- it is visible almost all night, rising around sunset, culminating around midnight and setting around sunrise
- its orbit brings it closest to the Earth, making it appear bigger and brighter
- light reflects more brightly from bodies with rough surfaces, at that angle
Ophiuchus

**Ophiuchus** (Οφιούχος: say it 'Ofi-youkus'), is one of the 88 listed constellations. In Latin, it means "serpent-holder". It is near the celestial equator, and northwest of the center of the Milky Way. Ophiuchus is on the ecliptic, but is generally not considered to be in the zodiac.  Its brightest star is Rasalhague.

The Voyager 1 probe is within the borders of Ophiuchus.

## Related pages

- Ophiuchus Supercluster explosion

## Other websites

- The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Ophiuchus
- Star Tales – Ophiuchus

## Infobox (constellation)

- **name**: Ophiuchus
- **abbreviation**: Oph
- **genitive**: Ophiuchi
- **symbology**: the snake-holder / the medicine, healer
- **ra**: 17
- **dec**: 0
- **areatotal**: 948
- **arearank**: 11th
- **numbermainstars**: 10
- **numberbfstars**: 59
- **numberstarsplanets**: 4
- **numberbrightstars**: 5
- **numbernearbystars**: 8
- **brighteststarname**: Alpha Ophiuchi, α Oph (Ras Alhague)
- **starmagnitude**: 2.1
- **neareststarname**: Barnard's Star
- **stardistance**: 5.96
- **numbermessierobjects**: 7
- **meteorshowers**: Ophiuchids
Northern May Ophiuchids
Southern May Ophiuchids
Theta Ophiuchids
- **bordering**: Hercules (constellation), Hercules
Serpens, Serpens Caput
Libra (constellation), Libra
Scorpius (constellation), Scorpius
Sagittarius (constellation), Sagittarius
Serpens, Serpens Cauda
Aquila (constellation), Aquila
- **latmax**: 80
- **latmin**: 80
- **month**: July
George Boleyn

**George Boleyn** (1504? - May 17 1536) was the brother of his famous sister Anne Boleyn and his other sister Mary Boleyn. His parents were Thomas Boleyn, 1st Earl of Wiltshire and Lady Elizabeth Howard.

## Biography

George was born in 1504, probably in Blickling, although it is unsure. George Boleyn was well known for serving the King (Henry VIII ), he was most favored by him. His sister, Anne, became queen because of the help of his Uncle (The Duke of Norfolk) and his Father (Thomas Boleyn). His two sisters, Anne Boleyn (Second wife of Henry VIII), and Mary Boleyn (Mistress of the King) were his only two friends. They spent much time together. He married Jane Parker, also known as Lady Jane Rochford. He was not happy with his marriage, he was only engaged to her by their Uncle. As a Boleyn/Howard (Howard, Mothers maiden name) he had to obey. His obedience towards his family made him unhappy. He refused to sleep with his wife, so instead spent many nights with his sisters in Anne's rooms. Mary would be there, for she was Anne's lady in waiting. All three of the Boleyns were very close.

## Downfall

George Boleyn had a very close relationship with his sister Anne. He was also close with his other sister, but Mary focused more on her family with her husband (William Stafford). George and Anne's downfall happened when Henry VIII accused them of incest. Mary Boleyn was not with them at the time of their exile. She chose to hide because of her children. If she had not hidden herself, she too would have been killed. It was likely a false charge by Henry VIII so he could get rid of Anne Boleyn. George's wife claimed that George and Anne had an affair. At her own execution, Lady Jane Rochford claimed that "God has permitted me to suffer this shameful doom as punishment for having contributed to my husband's death. I falsely accused him of loving in an incestuous manner, his sister, Queen Anne Boleyn. For this I deserve to die."
Tsitsernakaberd

**Tsitsernakaberd** () is a memorial for the victims of the Armenian Genocide. It is on a hill overlooking Yerevan, Armenia. Every year on April 24, Armenians gather here to remember the victims of the 1915 Armenian Genocide that took place in the Ottoman Empire carried out by the Turkish government. In 1965 to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the Genocide after a million people demonstrated for 24 hours; the demonstrations are now known as the 1965 Yerevan Demonstrations. In response, the genocide memorial construction began in 1966 and it was completed in 1968. In Yerevan, the capital of Armenia, crowds of people walk to the Tsitsernakaberd Genocide Memorial to lay flowers at the eternal flame.

## Related pages

- Armenian Genocide
- Montebello Genocide Memorial
- Marseille Genocide Memorial
- Genocide Remembrance Day
- 1965 Yerevan Demonstrations

## Other websites

- Tsitsernakaberd
Mary Boleyn

**Mary Boleyn** (about 1499 – 19 July 1543) was the younger sister of Anne Boleyn, the second wife of King Henry VIII. They had a brother named George Boleyn.  There have been many stories and books about Mary Boleyn, so historians are not sure what is true about her.

## Early Life

Mary was born some time between 1500 and 1507 at Blickling Hall in Norfolk.  Her parents were Sir Thomas Boleyn and Lady Elizabeth Howard. While her parents had her sister Anne educated at the court of Margaret of Austria, Mary was probably educated at home.  She had a well-rounded education for a woman in the 1500s.  Among Mary's other skills, she could speak French.

In 1514, Mary's father got her a job as maid of honor to Mary Tudor, the sister of King Henry VIII. Mary Tudor was going to be married to King Louis XII of France.  Mary and the other maids traveled with Mary Tudor to France, where Mary Tudor was married.  Only a few months after the wedding, however, King Louis died and Francis I became king. Mary Tudor went back to England but Mary Boleyn stayed in France.

There were rumours that Mary Boleyn became King Francis's mistress, but some historians think the rumours may not be true.  They think the rumours may have been about trying to make the Boleyn family look bad so Henry VIII could divorce Anne Boleyn.

## Marriage and mistress

In 1519, Mary went back to England to marry William Carey.  Soon, she became King Henry VIII's mistress. Some historians think that King Henry was the father of Mary's two children, Catherine Carey and Henry Carey, but it is also possible that her husband William Carey was their father. Mary was Henry VIII's mistress for years, possibly until as late as 1526.

## Widowhood

After Mary's husband died, she had money problems.  Her sister Anne took Mary's son Henry as her ward and paid for his education.

In 1526, Mary married again.  She married a soldier named William Stafford without her family's permission.  Anne and the rest of Mary's family were angry with her.  Mary and Stafford had one child, but historians do not know what happened to him or her.

After Anne and George Boleyn were executed, Mary's parents began to speak to her again.  After her father and grandmother died, they left Mary half the Boleyn property.  But Mary Boleyn had to fight for it in law court.  Mary died in Rochford Hall in 1543.

## Infobox (noble)

- **name**: Mary Boleyn
- **image**: Mary Boleyn.jpg
- **caption**: Portrait of Mary Boleyn
- **spouse**: William Carey (courtier), William Carey, of Aldenham
William Stafford (courtier), William Stafford, of Chebsey
- **noble family**: Boleyn family, Boleyn
- **father**: Thomas Boleyn, 1st Earl of Wiltshire
- **mother**: Lady Elizabeth Howard
- **birth date**: 5 February 1499
- **birth place**: Blickling Hall, Norfolk
- **issue**: Catherine Carey, Catherine Carey, Lady Knollys
Henry Carey, 1st Baron Hunsdon
Anne Stafford
Edward Stafford
Cubic centimetre

A **cubic centimetre** (symbol **cm³** or **cc**) (U.S. spelling: **cubic centimeter**) is a commonly used unit of volume extending the derived SI-unit cubic metre and corresponds to the volume of a cube measuring 1 cm × 1 cm × 1 cm. One cubic centimetre corresponds to a volume of  of a cubic metre, or  of a litre; therefore, 1 cm³ = 1 mL. In many scientific fields, the use of cubic centimetres has been replaced by the millilitre. The medical and automotive fields are two of the few fields wherein the term cubic centimetre was never discontinued in the United States. In the United Kingdom millilitres are used in preference to cubic centimetres in the medical field.

One cubic centimetre of water is equal to 1 gram.
Geometric albedo

The **geometric albedo** of an astronomical body is the ratio of its actual brightness at zero phase angle (i.e. as seen from the light source) to that of an _idealized_ flat, fully reflecting, diffusively scattering (Lambertian) disk with the same cross-section.

The **visual geometric albedo** refers to the geometric albedo quantity when accounting for only electromagnetic radiation in the visible spectrum.
Welcome to the Black Parade

"**Welcome to the Black Parade**" is the first single and fifth track from My Chemical Romance's third studio album, _The Black Parade_. It was released on September 11, 2006 on iTunes and October 9, 2006 on CD. It is the band's ninth single. The studio version was available on MySpace on September 2, 2006. The song became the group's first number one in the UK on October 15, 2006, and later rose to number one on the Modern Rock Tracks on October 26, 2006, where it would stay for seven weeks. It was originally intended to be called "The Five Of Us Are Dying."

The song ranked at #17 on Rolling Stone's "The 100 Best Songs of 2006".

## Other websites

- "Welcome to the Black Parade" sound track at _The Black Parade_ official website