juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Creativity

**Creativity** is the ability of a person or group to make something new and useful or valuable, or the process of making something new and useful or valuable. It happens in all areas of life - science, art, literature and music.

As a personal ability, it is difficult to measure. The reason is that we don't understand the mental processes that help some people be more creative than others. Judging who and what is creative is also controversial. Some people say only things that are historically new are creative, while other people say that if it is new for the creator and the people around them, then it is also creativity.

Some think that creativity is an important thing that makes humans different from apes. Others recognize that even apes, other primates, other mammals, and some birds adapt to survive by being creative (for example - primates using tools). Liane Gabora believes that all culture comes from creativity, not imitation. Therefore, these people say, human science should focus on it (pay special attention to it): Ethics for example would focus on finding creative solutions to ethical dilemmas. Politics would focus on the political virtues that need some creativity. Imitation would not be the focus of education. Linguistics might be more interested in how new words are created by culture, rather than in how existing ones are used in grammar.

Intellectual interests (recognized as intellectual rights or intellectual property in the law) are a way to reward creativity in law, but they do not always work very well. A good example is copyright which is supposed to pay writers and artists, but may only pay lawyers to make (imitative) arguments in court.

Creativity is a central question in economics, where it is known as **ingenuity** (the ability to come up with new ideas) or **individual capital** - capacities that individuals have, that do not arise from simple imitation of what is known already. This is separate from the instructional capital that might try to capture some of that in a patent or training system that helps others do what the individual leader or founder of the system can do. In urban economics there are various ways to measure creativity - the Bohemian Index and Gay Index are two attempts to do this accurately and predict the economic growth of cities based on creativity.

## Related pages

- Art
- Genius
- Imagination
- Innovation
Cosmology

**Cosmology** is the branch of astronomy that deals with the universe.

NASA defines cosmology as "The study of the structure and changes in the present universe". Another definition of cosmology is "the study of the universe, and humanity's place in it".

Modern cosmology is dominated by the Big Bang theory, which brings together observational astronomy and particle physics.

Though the word _cosmology_ is recent (first used in 1730 in Christian Wolff's _Cosmologia Generalis_), the study of the universe has a long history.

## History

Until the Renaissance people thought the universe was only the planets up to Saturn, and stars. With the invention of the telescope, we could see more of the universe. Early in the 20th century, astronomers thought the Milky Way was the entire universe. Later, with astrophotography and spectroscopy, astronomers (for example Edwin Hubble) showed that the Milky Way was only one of many galaxies.

Modern cosmology is considered to have started in 1917 with the final paper of Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity. This made physicists realize that the universe changed. When a scientific discipline begins to change an idea that is believed by many people, it is known as a paradigm shift. Many scientists debated if there were other galaxies. The debate ended when Edwin Hubble found Cepheid Variables in the Andromeda Galaxy in 1926.

The Big Bang model was then proposed by Belgian priest, Georges Lemaître in 1927. This was supported by Edwin Hubble's discovery of the redshift in 1929. Later the discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation was made. This was found by Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson in 1964.

All of these discoveries have been supported in the 21st century. Some more observations of the cosmic microwave background radiation were found by the COBE, WMAP, and Planck satellites. Some more observations of the redshift were found by the 2dfGRS and SDSS. An astronomical survey looks at a place in space. A redshift survey is a survey that looks for redshifts.

On 1 December 2014, at the _Planck 2014_ meeting in Ferrara, Italy, astronomers reported that the universe is 13.8 billion years old and is composed of 4.9% regular matter, 26.6% dark matter and 68.5% dark energy.

According to Dr Robert Massey, deputy director of the Royal Astronomical Society, the evidence for a rethink of what has been a central plank of astronomy is growing.

"This is the seventh large structure discovered in the universe that contradicts the idea that the cosmos is smooth on the largest scales. If these structures are real, then it's definitely food for thought for cosmologists and the accepted thinking on how the universe has evolved over time," he said.

## Key terms

- Mass
- Gravity
- Electromagnetic radiation
- Dark matter
- Dark energy
- Speed of light
- Age of the Universe

## Related pages

- String theory
- Earth science
- Inflation
Cooking

**Cooking** is a process to make food ready to eat by heating it.

## Methods

Cooking is often done in a kitchen using a stove or an oven. It can also be done over a fire (for example, over a campfire or on a barbecue).

The heat for cooking can be made in different ways. It can be from an open fire that burns wood or charcoal. It can be on a stove or in an oven that uses propane, natural gas, or electricity.

There are several different ways to cook food. Boiling cooks food in hot water. Frying (deep or shallow) cooks food in hot butter, fat or oil. Baking and roasting cook food by surrounding it with hot air. Grilling means cooking food on a metal grill that has heat under it.

People often cook meat by boiling, roasting, frying, or grilling it. Some foods such as bread or pastries are usually baked.

Usually food is cooked in some kind of pot or pan.  Sometimes people cook food by putting it directly into the fire, or by wrapping the food in leaves before they put it into the fire.

## Cooks

A person whose job it is to cook food may be called a _cook_ or a _chef_.  The word _cooker_ means a machine or tool that a cook might use to cook food. Rice cookers and pressure cookers are examples.
Chat

To **chat** is to **talk** about ordinary things that are not usually very important. However, important issues can also classify as “chat”, for instance when organising gatherings, meetings or events, such as air show attendance.  A person can chat with another person, or to many people. People also use this word now for parts of the Internet where we can talk with many different people at the same time. Usually, people chat on the Internet in a chat room or messaging service like AOL Instant Messenger (AIM), Yahoo Messenger Windows Live Messenger or Tencent QQ. There are also programs which let people use different messaging services from one program, such as Pidgin.

Online Chat is real time, text-based, digital communication between two or more parties.

## Related pages

- Internet Relay Chat (IRC)
- Conversation
Cup

A **cup** is any kind of container used for holding liquid and drinking. These include:

1. teacup
1. paper cup

**Cup** may also mean:

1. Measuring cup, a measuring instrument for liquids and powders, used primarily in cooking
1. Cup (unit), a customary unit of volume and measure
1. Cancer of unknown primary origin, form of cancer
1. The cup of a brassière, the part that covers the breasts
1. A cup-shaped trophy or award for winning in a sport
Time Cube

**Time Cube** was a personal website created in 1997 by Otis Eugene Ray. On that website, Ray explained his theory of everything, known as "Time Cube". It described the planet Earth as having a cubic symmetry, and time as rotating four "corners". He also said that all of modern physics is wrong. Scientists reject these ideas, saying that they make no sense and cannot be tested.

On his site, Ray said that not believing in Time Cube would be "stupid and evil". Some of his comments were racist and discriminatory towards black people, Jews, and gay people. Many people found the site to be difficult to understand.

Ray spoke about Time Cube at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in January 2002. At MIT, a professor tried to cancel the lecture before it happened. Ray believed this was proof of a conspiracy to keep information about Time Cube hidden. Ray also spoke about Time Cube at the Georgia Institute of Technology in April 2005.

Ray died on March 18, 2015. He was 87 years old. His website went down in August 2015. It was last archived by the Wayback Machine on January 12, 2016.

## Related pages

- Conspiracy theory
- Pseudoscience

## Infobox (website)

- **name**: Time Cube
- **screenshot**: Time Cube.png
- **caption**: A picture showing the Time Cube theory
- **url**: timecube.com until August 2015
Archived at web.archive.org
- **commercial**: No
- **type**: Personal website
- **author**: Otis Eugene Ray
Census of Marine Life

The **Census of Marine Life** was a ten-year survey of life in the oceans, starting in 2000. Its head was Ron O'Dor of Dalhousie University in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. It used data from researchers all over the world. More than 70 nations were involved and over a billion US dollars were spent on it.

It was a major work of marine ecology. It was founded by J. Frederick Grassle.

The purpose of the Census of Marine Life was to say what is alive in our seas and oceans.

## Other websites

- Census of Marine Life website
Maize

**Maize** or **Indian corn** (called **corn** in some countries) is _Zea mays_, a member of the grass family _Poaceae_. It is a cereal grain which was first grown by people in ancient Central America. Approximately 1 billion tonnes are harvested every year. However, little of this maize is eaten directly by humans. Most is used to make corn ethanol, animal feed and other maize products, such as corn starch and corn syrup.

Maize is a leafy stalk whose kernels have seeds inside. It is an angiosperm, which means that its seeds are enclosed inside a fruit or shell. It is has long been a staple food by many people in Mexico, Central and South America and parts of Africa. In Europe and the rest of North America, maize is grown mostly for use as animal feed. In Canada and the United States, maize is commonly referred to as "corn".

Centuries of cross breeding have produced larger plants, and specialized varieties. Corn has become an important ingredient in American foods through the use of corn starch. People have long eaten sweet corn and popcorn with little processing, and other kinds after processing into flour for making cornbread, tortillas, and other artificial foods.

Maize has been a fruitful model organism for research in genetics for many years: see Barbara McClintock. Research has shown that artificial selection developed maize from a Mexican plant called Teosinte.

## The genus _Zea_

There are five species and many subspecies in the genus. They are all plants similar to the cultivated maize, with less developed cobs. The wild ones are sometimes called teosintes, and they are all native to Mesoamerica.
Civics

**Civics** is the study of government.  It most often refers to studying government in high school to prepare to be a good citizen.  In college, civics is usually called political science.  Since a city has the most unsimple government problems, the word for this study is like that for city.

Theories of civics can be grouped as:

- Anarchist
- Capitalist
- Democrat
- Green
- Libertarian
- Republican

It contains the rule and regulations of the citizen to make the country democratic
Coin

A **coin** is a piece of metal that is used as currency, or money. The earliest coins were in Lydia, in what is Turkey today, in 7th Century BC. They were made from electrum, an alloy found in riverbeds.

Most people use coins as currency. They usually have lower value than banknotes. Most are made in government mints.

## Appearance

Many coins have unique or complicated decorations; one side often has the picture of a king or ither important person's head on it.

The different decorations on each side of a coin might be used to decide things randomly. This is called "tossing a coin".  A person can throw the coin into the air and catch it.  You then look at which side is facing up. If the head is facing up it is called "heads", if the other side is facing up it is called "tails". Before tossing the coin someone has to decide what each side means. Tossing a coin can be a type of gambling, which is illegal (against the law) in some countries.

## Collecting

Because coins have been made for a very long time, some people collect old coins. They can be much cheaper than other old things, especially if they are made of cheap metals like copper. Older coins normally cost more than newer ones, but rarity matters more-some coins from the 1920s cost vast sums, while some Roman coins cost very little.
Conceptual metaphor

A **conceptual metaphor** or **cognitive metaphor** is a metaphor which refers to one domain (group of ideas) in terms of another. For example, treating quantity in terms of direction:
1. _Prices are rising_.
1. _I attacked every weak point in his argument_. (Argument as war rather than enquiry or search for truth).
1. _Life is a journey_.
1. _Love_ talked about as if it were _war_ or _competition_.
1. _Time_ talked about as if it were a _path through space_, or a _quantity_ that can be saved or spent or wasted.

The idea of a conceptual metaphor came from a book by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson in 1980: _Metaphors we live by_.
- "The most recent linguistic approach to literature is that of cognitive metaphor, which claims that metaphor is not a mode of language, but a mode of thought". Donald Freeman.
A convention is to write conceptual metaphors in small capital letters, e.g. , with the target domain (idea being referred to) first, here "money," and the source domain (terms used to refer to it) second.

## Political metaphors

- **eminence grise**: literally, "grey man," from French. Colloquially, the power-behind-the-throne. An official close to the president or monarch who has so much power behind the scenes that he or she may double or serve as the monarch.
- **figurehead**: a leader whose powers are entirely symbolic, such as a constitutional monarch.
- **puppet government**: a government that is manipulated by a foreign power for its own interests.
- **star chamber**: a secretive council or other group within a government that possesses the actual power, regardless of the government's overt form.
- **character assassination**: spreading (usually) manufactured stories about a candidate with the intent to destroy his or her reputation in the eyes of the public.
- **landslide victory**: a huge victory for one side.
- **riding coattails**: victories by local or state politicians because of the popularity of more powerful politicians.
- **grassroots**: a political movement driven by the constituents of a community.
- **astroturfing**: public relations campaigns in politics and advertising that try to create the impression of being spontaneous, grassroots behavior.
- **straw man**: the practice of refuting an argument that is weaker than one's opponent actually offers, or which he simply has not put forth at all. A type of logical fallacy.
- **spin** (public relations): a heavily biased portrayal of an event or situation.
- **witch-hunt**: the hysterical pursuit of political enemies
- **bread and circuses**: satisfaction of shallow or immediate desires of the populace at the expense of good policy; also, the erosion of civic duty and the public life in a populace.

There are many more, enough to prove the importance of the metaphor in our lives.
Crust

**Crust** is a piece of bread where the edge where it is harder and darker.

Crust can also mean:
- Crust (geology) - the outer solid layer of a planet such as the Earth but other planets also.
- On Earth the crust can be divided into:
    - continental crust on which the land of the planet Earth sits
    - oceanic crust which forms most of the ocean floor
Comet

A **comet** is a ball of mostly ice that moves around in outer space. Comets are often described as "dirty snowballs". They are very different from asteroids.

The orbital inclinations of comets are usually high and not near the ecliptic where most solar system objects are found. Most of them are long-period comets and come from the Kuiper belt. That is very far away from the Sun, but some of them also come near enough to Earth for us to see at night.

They have long "tails", because the Sun melts the ice. A comet's tail does not trail behind it, but points directly away from the Sun, because it is blown by the solar wind.

The hard centre of the comet is the _nucleus_. It is one of the blackest things (lowest albedo) in the solar system. When light shone on the nucleus of Halley's Comet, the comet reflected only 4% of the light back to us.

_Periodic_ comets visit again and again. _Non-periodic_ or _single-apparition_ comets visit only once.

Comets sometimes break up, as Comet Biela did in the 19th century.  Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 broke up, and the pieces hit Jupiter in 1994. Some comets orbit (go around) together in groups. Astronomers think these comets are broken pieces that used to be one object.

## Famous comets

- Halley's
- Hale-Bopp
- Shoemaker-Levy 9
- Ikeya Seki

## History of comets

For thousands of years, people feared comets. They did not know what they were, or where they came from. Some thought that they were fireballs sent from demons or gods to destroy the earth. They said that each time a comet appeared, it would bring bad luck with it. Whenever a comet appeared, a king would die. For example, the Bayeux Tapestry shows the return of Halley's Comet and the death of a king. Comets were also known to end wars and thought to bring famine. During the Renaissance, astronomers started to look at comets with less superstition and to base their science on observations. Tycho Brahe reasoned that comets did not come from the earth, and his measurements and calculations showed that comets must be six times farther than the earth is from the moon.

Edmond Halley reasoned that some comets are periodic, that is, they appear again after a certain number of years, and again and again. This led to the first prediction of a comet's return, Halley's Comet, named after him.

Isaac Newton also studied comets. He realised that comets make U-turns around the sun. He asked his friend Edmond Halley to publish this in his book _Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica_. Before Newton said this, people believed that comets go in to the sun, then another comes out from behind the sun.

In later years, some astronomers thought comets were spit out by planets, especially Jupiter.

All this new information and research gave people confidence, but some still thought that comets were messengers from the gods. One 18th century vision said that comets were the places that hell was, where souls would ride, being burned up by the heat of the sun and frozen by the cold of space.

In modern times, space probes have visited comets to learn more about them.

## Related pages

- List of comets

## Other websites

- Are Comets Made of Antimatter?
Cytology

**Cytology** is the study of the cells, especially their appearance and structure. Cells are the small parts that make up all living things, and their effects on each other and their environment.

There are two types of cells. Prokaryotic cells do not have a clear and easy-to-see nucleus, and do not have a membrane, or wall, around them. Eukaryotic cells have an easy-to-see nucleus where all of the cell's functions take place, and a membrane around them. The main organelles of a cell and their uses are:
- Mitochondria: produces energy for the cell
- Endoplasmic reticulum: makes proteins and carbohydrates for the cell to use
- Golgi bodies: store and package products that the cell uses
- Plastid (present in plant cells only): contains chemicals needed to photosynthesize (create energy from sunlight); in plants only.
- Nucleus: directs the actions of the cell
- Centrosomes: guides the cell in mitosis and meiosis, the processes for cell division.

## Related pages

- Cell biology is mostly about how cells work, and about cell division and molecular biology.
- Histology deals with techniques for looking at tissues under a microscope.
- Cytopathology is a medical discipline that deals with techniques for looking at cells under a microscope.
Cheese

**Cheese** is a dairy product that is made from milk from many different animals' milk. There are many types of cheese, such as cheddar, Swiss, and provolone.

Many things affect the form, texture, color and flavor of a cheese. These include the milk (cow or goat), if the milk has been pasteurized, the amount of butterfat, bacteria and mold in the cheese, how the cheese is made, how much fat is in the cheese, and how old the cheese is.

## Origin

People have been making cheese since before history was written down. It is not known when cheese was first made, but is known that cheese was eaten by the Sumerians in about 4000 BC.

## Classification

There are many different ways to classify cheeses. Some ways include:

- How long the cheese was aged
- The texture of the cheese. These include Hard, Soft and Softer.
- How the cheese was made
- how tasty the cheese is.
- What type of milk was used to make the cheese. This is mainly what animal the milk comes from, such as cows, sheep, and goats. The diet of the animal can also affect the type of cheese made from its milk.
- How much fat is in the cheese
- What color the cheese is (common colors are yellow, and white)

There are also man-made foods that some people use instead of cheese. These are called Cheese analogues.

Different types of cheese include:
Constitution

The **constitution** of a country (or a state) is a special type of law document that tells how its government is supposed to work. Every country has its own constitution, it tells how the country's leaders are to be chosen and how long they get to stay in office, how new laws are made and old laws are to be changed or removed based on law, what kind of people are allowed to vote and what other rights they are guaranteed, and how the constitution can be changed.

Limits are put on the Government in how much power they have within the Constitution _(see Rule of Law )_. On the other hand, countries with repressive or corrupt governments frequently do not stick to their constitutions, or have bad constitutions without giving freedom to citizens and others. This can be known as dictatorship or simply "bending the rules". A Constitution is often a way of uniting within a Federation.

The UK's constitution is not written in one single document like many other countries' are. In fact, the UK's constitution is not completely written down at all. Some of it can be found in writing, starting with Magna Carta of 1215 and the Bill of Rights Act 1689 and including more modern Acts of Parliament. Other parts of it are considered common law and are made up of the decisions of judges over many hundreds of years in a system called legal or judicial precedence. Because of this, some people say that the United Kingdom has a _de facto_ or "unwritten" constitution.

The United States in 1787 began a trend in the writing of constitutions. The United States Constitution is also the shortest that people are still using, and it has been changed (amended) many times over the years. It was made after the colonists won their independence from Britain. At first they had the Articles of Confederation but the Articles were replaced with today's Constitution.

The Indian constitution of 1950 is the longest ever written constitution in the world. It originally consisted of 395 Articles arranged under 22 Parts and 8 Schedules. As of 2021, it has 470 Articles, 12 schedules, and 25 Parts with 5 appendices and 98 amendments.

## Related pages

- Constitutional law
- Constitutionalism
- Constitutional convention
- Constitutional economics
- Democracy
- International law
- Jurisprudence
- Rule of law
- Social contract
- US Constitution
Circle

A **circle** is a round, two-dimensional shape. All points on the edge of the circle are at the same distance from the center.

The point on the side. Mathematicians use the letter  for the length of a circle's radius. The center of a circle is the point in the very middle. It is often written as .

The diameter (meaning "all the way across") of a circle is a straight line that goes from one side to the opposite and right through the center of the circle. Mathematicians use the letter  for the length of this line. The diameter of a circle is equal to twice its radius ( equals  times ):

The circumference (meaning "all the way around") of a circle is the line that goes around the center of the circle. Mathematicians use the letter  for the length of this line.

The number Pi (written as the Greek letter _pi_) is a very useful number. It is the length of the circumference divided by the length of the diameter ( equals  divided by ). As a fraction the number  is equal to about  or  (which is closer) and as a number it is about .

The area, , inside a circle is equal to the radius multiplied by itself, then multiplied by  ( equals  times  times ).

## Calculating π

can be measured by drawing a circle, then measuring its diameter () and circumference (). This is because the circumference of a circle is always equal to  times its diameter.

can also be calculated by only using mathematical methods. Most methods used for calculating the value of  have desirable mathematical properties. However, they are hard to understand without knowing trigonometry and calculus. However, some methods are quite simple, such as this form of the Gregory-Leibniz series:

While that series is easy to write and calculate, it is not easy to see why it equals . A much easier way to approach is to draw an imaginary circle of radius  centered at the origin. Then any point  whose distance  from the origin is less than , calculated by the Pythagorean theorem, will be inside the circle:

Finding a set of points inside the circle allows the circle's area  to be estimated, for example, by using integer coordinates for a big . Since the area  of a circle is  times the radius squared,  can be approximated by using the following formula:

### Area

Using the radius:

Using the diameter:

Using the circumference:

### Circumference

Using the radius:

Using the diameter:

Using the area:

### Diameter

Using the radius:

Using the circumference:

Using the area:

### Radius

Using the diameter:

Using the circumference:

Using the area:

## Related pages

- Concentric
- Semicircle
- Sphere
- Squaring the circle
- Pi
- Tau

## Other websites

- Calculate the measures of a circle online
Capitalization

**Capitalization** (North American spelling), or **capitalisation** (British spelling), is a process to make one letter or more uppercase. The first letter of a sentence is capitalised in many languages, as are the first letters of proper nouns such as names of people and places. In German, however, all nouns are capitalized.

In the Latin alphabet, which is used in English, these are the uppercase or capital letters or majuscules:

A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z

These are the lowercase or small letters or minuscules:

a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z

The homonym "(to) capitalize" is a different word and it means "to fully fund as an investment".

## Names of capitalization styles

There are many ways to use capitalization and they have names.

### Sentence case

"The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog."

**Sentence case** is the standard case used in English prose and in many other languages. Only the first word is capitalized, except for proper nouns and other words which are generally capitalized by a more specific rule.

### Title case

"."

When something is written in **title case** (also known as **capital case** or **headline style**), all words are capitalized, except for certain minor words, such as "the", "of" or "and".

### All caps

""

When something is written in **all caps** (or **all-caps**), every single letter is uppercase, with no exceptions.

### Camel case

**Camel case** (or **CamelCase**) is the practice of writing compound words or phrases so that each next word or abbreviation is capitalized. It can either start with a lowercase or uppercase letter. Common examples are PowerPoint or iPhone.
Cube

A **cube** is a type of polyhedron with all right angles and whose height, width and depth are all the same. It is a type of rectangular prism, which is itself a type of hexahedron.

A cube is one of the simplest mathematical shapes in space. Something that is shaped like a cube can be called _cubic_.
Surface area of cube=6l^2
Lateral Surface area of cube=4l^2
Volume of cube=l^3

## Relative 2-dimensional shape

The basic difference between a cube and a square is, a cube is a 3D figure (having 3 dimensions) i.e. length, breadth and height while a square has only 2 dimensions i.e. length and breadth.
The 2-dimensional (2D) shape (like a circle, square, triangle, etc.) that a cube is made of is squares. The sides (faces) of a cube are squares. The edges are straight lines. The corners (vertices) are at right angles.  A cube has 8 corners, 12 edges and 6 faces, as in the most usual kind of dice. A tesseract carries this idea into the fourth dimension (4D) and is made of 8 cubes.

## Volume

- The volume of a cube is the length of any one of the edges (they are all the same length so it does not matter which edge is used) _cubed_.
- This means you multiply the number by itself, and then by itself again.
- If the edge is named 'd' (See Diagram), the equation would be this: Volume=d×d×d (or Volume=d<sup>3</sup>).

## Cube-shaped figures

- Dice
- Boxes
Cost of living

**Cost of living** is the amount of money it costs just to live in a certain place. It is measured using a list of things people need, like food and housing. Governments measure cost of living to give welfare (money or benefits for poor people) and to set minimum wage.

When the cost of living is higher than people can pay, a cost of living crisis happens. Causes for a cost of living crisis can be poverty, people making less money due to inflation, increased cost of needed items, and problems with the economy. This crisis can cause health effects right away and in the future.
Dissolution of the monasteries

The **dissolution of the monasteries** was an event that happened from 1536 to 1540, when English King Henry VIII took away the land and money that the nuns and monks of the Roman Catholic church owned. Henry VIII then gave this land and money to people that supported him.

This was also when Henry VIII made himself the new head of the Church of England (which is a type of Christianity). Parliament made the Act of Supremacy to give him the right to do both these things. It was part of the Protestant Reformation in England.
Deadline

A **deadline** is a time by which some task must be completed.

Very often, it means a time limit that is set in place by an authority - for example, a teacher tells students that they must turn in their homework in by a certain time. This is so the teacher is able to report fairly to his or her principal that every student had the same chance to do the work.

Deadlines may also be set by a time horizon that comes from something that is not a human authority, but part of nature.  For example, by sunset one must do those tasks requiring daylight.  However, a human must watch the sun and decide what light is strong enough to still be daylight, so time limits will still be involved even if one observes a horizon and sets a deadline oneself.

A way to remember this is that a time horizon is like the physical horizon where sunset happens and a time limit is a thing people set up to deal with this. A deadline is a thing powerful people set up to ensure less powerful people comply with their way of doing things.
Dutton's Speedwords

**Dutton Speedwords** is a made-up language written by Reginald John Garfield Dutton. The idea of **Dutton Speedwords** is to make frequent words short, and very frequent words very short. **Dutton Speedwords** can be used as a second language for international communications. Dutton Speedwords is also a shorthand writing system – this means you can use it to write quickly.

The method was made up by Reginald John Garfield Dutton (1886-1970) in 1922. It was first published in 1935. It was called _International Symbolic Script_. A year later, it was called _Speedwords_. It was changed in 1946 and 1951.

It has two uses; to be a language and to be used for writing quickly. Dutton hoped that this would mean more people would learn it because they could use it for two reasons.

The books that Dutton wrote about Speedwords are not printed anymore. But Speedwords is now being used by more people because they find it is good for working online. For example, it makes it faster to type an email.

Another way of writing quickly is Pitman's shorthand. This uses special symbols instead of letters. Speedwords uses Roman letters. This makes it easier to learn. It also means it can be typed using a normal keyboard. Each word means only one thing. This means you do not need to use different forms of the same word.

The words used in Speedwords are the same as the words used in many other languages. The words are like short versions of the writer's own language.

## Other websites

- overview of Speedwords by Richard K Harrison 1994

## Infobox (writing system)

- **name**: Dutton Speedwords
- **type**: shorthand
- **shform**: printed
- **typedesc**: and auxiliary language
- **creator**: Reginald J. G. Dutton
- **date**: 1922
- **published**: 1935, 1946, 1951, 1971
- **fam1**: Latin (script), Latin
- **note**: none
Dimension

**Dimensions** are the way we see, measure and experience our world, by using up and down, right to left, back to front, hot and cold, how heavy and how long, as well as more advanced concepts from mathematics and physics. One way to define a dimension is to look at the degrees of freedom, or the way an object can move in a specific space. There are different concepts or ways where the term dimension is used, and there are also different definitions. There is no definition that can satisfy all concepts.

In a vector space  (with vectors being "arrows" with directions), the dimension of , also written as , is equal to the cardinality (or number of vectors) of a basis of  (a set which indicates how many unique directions  actually has). It is also equal to the number of the largest group of straight line directions of that space. "Normal" objects in everyday life are specified by three dimensions, which are usually called length, width and depth. Mathematicians call this concept Euclidean space.

Dimensions can be used to measure position too. The distance to a position from a starting place can be measured in the length, width and height directions. These distances are a measure of the position.

In some occasions, a fourth (4D) dimension, time, is used to show the position of an event in time and space.

## Other Dimensions

In modern science, people use other dimensions. Dimensions like temperature and weight can be used to show the position of something in less simple spaces. Scientist study those dimensions with dimensional analysis.

Mathematicians also use dimensions. In mathematics, dimensions are more general. Dimensions in mathematics might not measure things in the world. The rules for doing arithmetic with dimensions in mathematics might be different than usual arithmetic rules.

## Dimensions and vectors

Vectors are used to show distances and directions. Vectors are often used in engineering and science, and sometimes in mathematics.

A vector is a list of numbers. There is one number for each dimension. There are arithmetic rules for vectors.

For example, if Jane wants to know the position of Sally, Sally can give Jane a vector to show the position. If Jane and Sally are in the world, there are three dimensions. Therefore, Sally gives Jane a list of three numbers to show her position. The three numbers in the vector Sally gives Jane might be:
1. Sally's distance north of Jane
1. Sally's distance east of Jane
1. Sally's height above Jane

## Related pages

- 3D
- 4D
- Hypercube, generalization of square and cube beyond three dimensions
- Minkowski spacetime, a four-dimensional manifold
- Space-time
Distance

**Distance** is how far one thing is from another thing. It is also a measure of the space between two things. It can be measured along any path. Thus, someone who goes around in a circle has traveled a distance, even though his position has not changed.

In geometry, the distance between two points _A_ and _B_ is sometimes written as . Pythagorean theorem is often used in the calculation of distance. Distance is a scalar, and thus is different from displacement.  Displacement is a vector that measures distance with a straight line (and in only one path). Displacement is the shortest way to travel the distance.

## Examples

- One ball is 5 feet from another ball. The distance between the two balls is 5 feet.
- John walks at a speed of 6 kilometres per hour for one hour. John walks a distance of 6 kilometres.
- A circle is a curved line. Each point on the circle is the same distance from the centre of the circle.

## Related pages

- Euclidean distance
- Norm (mathematics)
Depth

In math, the distance between the nearest end and the farthest end of an object is its **depth**.

For example, the depth of a box can be measured. When the distance between one end of the box and another end of the box is found, the box's depth was measured.

## Depth in Liquids

For liquids, the distance between the top or surface of the liquid and the bottom of the liquid is the liquid's depth.

For example, water is a liquid. If a container is filled with water, the distance between the top of the water and the bottom of the container is the water's depth.  If the depth is big, the water is **deep**.

## Related pages

- Volume
- Geometry
- Width
- Height
- Length
Definition

A **definition** in language explains what a word or phrase means. _Defining_ means giving a definition.

Other words with this meaning are _description_ and _explanation_. They describe what a word means and explains to the person when and where it can be used.

In mathematics, a definition is an exact way of saying what a mathematical concept is. It might not be the easiest way to say what it is, but it is used because it is exact. It can be used in a mathematical proof.
Diesel-electric

A **diesel-electric** engine is a diesel generator, a diesel engine that drives an electric generator. The generator feeds electric power to an electric motor which turns a driveshaft.  Its efficiency is higher than when an engine drives a shaft through gears.  Most locomotives and many ships use diesel-electric drive.

Many diesel-electric drives, especially small ones, store the electricity in a battery. Some designs also store braking energy in a flywheel, which can also charge a battery. However, these add even more complexity and weight to the vehicle, so are more appropriate for city driving where service stations are always available and there is much stop and go driving.

Because they do not require any change or investment in stations nor much in vehicle design, diesel-electric vehicles are believed to be the most likely replacement for today's internal combustion engine. When properly tuned, they have low emissions and they use only about one-third of the fossil fuel of most gasoline engines powering similar vehicles.

Honda and Toyota are presently delivering consumer priced diesel-electric cars. By contrast, hydrogen infrastructure is thought to be decades off, and is not fully implemented even in Iceland where there is abundant free geothermal electricity.

In countries like India, government is focusing on fully electric trains rather than diesel electric. That too electricity will be produced by renewable sources like Solar.

Many activists feel that promoting hydrogen is a stall, a way to avoid forcing the shift to diesel-electric vehicles in the nearer term.
Embassy

A foreign **embassy** is the official office of one country in another. It is usually in the capital city of the other country. It is where the ambassador and other representatives of the home country work. Much of the diplomacy (talk) between the two governments happens there.  They represent their country to the host government. The embassy represents the interests of the entire country and is fully responsible for the relationship between the two countries.

The head of the embassy is usually an ambassador, but can also be a minister, high commissioner, or other level of diplomatic personnel appointed by the sending country to represent it.
Earth science

**Earth science** is an all-covering term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. Earth science may also be called **geoscience**. Geoscience is the study of the architecture of the Earth.
Earth

**Earth** is the third planet from the Sun and the only place we know of where life exists. One big reason life can exist here is that Earth is an “ocean world.” This means it has a lot of water on its surface, and it is the only planet in our Solar System with liquid water that life can use. Most of Earth’s water is in the oceans, which cover about 71% of the planet’s surface. The rest, about 29%, is land. Most of this land is grouped into large continents, like North America, Africa, and Asia, which are mostly humid and covered with plants. Even the icy parts at the North and South Poles hold more water in their ice sheets than all of the lakes, rivers, and underground water combined.

Earth’s outer layer, called the crust, is made of big pieces called tectonic plates that slowly move around. When these plates push against each other, they can create mountains, volcanoes, and earthquakes. You can think of it like giant puzzle pieces slowly sliding and bumping into each other. Deep inside Earth, there is a liquid outer core. This spinning liquid creates a magnetic field around the planet, called a magnetosphere. The magnetosphere works like a protective shield, keeping most of the dangerous solar winds and cosmic radiation from reaching the surface, which helps life survive.

## Infobox (planet)

- **background**: LightSteelBlue
- **name**: Earth
- **symbol**:  and
- **image**: The Blue Marble, AS17-148-22727.jpg
- **image alt**: Photograph of Earth taken by the Apollo 17 mission. The Arabian peninsula, Africa and Madagascar lie in the upper half of the disc, whereas Antarctica is at the bottom.
- **caption**: _The Blue Marble_, Apollo 17, December 1972
- **time periastron**: 2023-Jan-04
- **asc node**: – J2000 ecliptic
- **satellites**: 1, the Moon
- **allsatellites**: yes
- **flattening**: 1/ (ETRS89)
- **surface grav**:
(exactly 1 Standard gravity, g<sub>0</sub>)
- **moment of inertia factor**: 0.3307
- **rot velocity**: 1674.4 km/h
- **single temperature**:
(Effective temperature, blackbody temperature)
- **atmosphere**: yes
- **temp name1**:  
- **min temp 1**: −89.2 °C
- **mean temp 1**: 14.76 °C
- **max temp 1**: 56.7 °C
- **abs magnitude**: −3.99
- **surface pressure**: (at sea level)
- **atmosphere composition**: Source:
- **note**: no
Et cetera

**Et cetera** means "and the rest" in Latin. It is typically used in English to continue a list longer than what can be written. The word _et cetera_ is often written as **etc.**. It is also rarely written as _&c_, or _&_. It is the same as _et_ ‒ formed by the joining of "e" and "t" into a single letter.

## Examples

- "Jane has a lot of pets. She has cats, dogs, cows, horses, rabbits, kangaroos, **etc.**"
- "Rocco ordered a lot of chips. He ordered cheese puffs, potato chips, Pringles, **etc.**"
- "Robert ordered a large amount of groceries to stock for later. He ordered eggs, carrots, tomatoes, potatoes **etc.**"
Experiment

An **experiment** is a test of an idea or a method. It is often used by scientists and engineers. An experiment is used to see how well the idea matches the real world. Experiments have been used for many years to help people understand the world around them. Experiments are part of scientific method. Many experiments are **controlled experiments** or even blind experiments. Many are done in a laboratory. But thought experiments are done in mind.

Experiments can tell us if a theory is false, or if something does not work. They cannot tell us if a theory is true. When Einstein said that gravity could affect light, it took a few years before astronomers could test it. General relativity predicts that the path of light is bent in a gravitational field; light passing a massive body is deflected towards that body. This effect has been confirmed by observing the light of stars or distant quasars being deflected as it passes the Sun.

Now, a hundred years or so after Einstein published his ideas, there have been many tests, all of which have been consistent with Einstein's predictions. But, one day, we might find the theory has some limits beyond which it does not work. What we test are implications of the theory, because the theory itself is too large and complicated to test all at once.

- "The universe does not tell us when we are right, only when we are wrong". – Karl Popper

## Controlled experiments

A controlled experiment is a kind of comparison. It often compares the results from experimental samples against control samples. Control samples are the same as the experimental sample, except for one difference. This difference is the one thing whose effect is being tested (the independent variable). A good example would be a drug trial. The sample or group receiving the drug would be the experimental group (treatment group); and the one receiving the placebo or an older treatment would be the control group.

## Difference with observational study

An observational study is used when an experiment would be difficult, unethical, or expensive. Observational studies are not experiments. Experiments can control for other variables, and it allows the researchers to change something. Observational studies often do not have random samples, and they often have many variables.

## Famous experiments

- Galileo Galilei did some experiments about free fall (1623)
- Benjamin Franklin showed that lightning is a form of electricity (1752)
- The Michelson–Morley experiment proved a flaw in old physics, and prompted Einstein's work (1887)
- Ivan Pavlov did some experiments about the classical conditioning of dogs (1927)
- The Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment proved DNA was the molecule which caused heredity (1944)
- Stanley Milgram showed that people follow orders; this became known as the Milgram experiment (1961)

## References

- Shadish, William R; Cook, Thomas D. & Campbell, Donald T. 2002. _Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for generalized causal inference_. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

## Related pages

- Experimental physics
- Experimental psychology