juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Migros

**Migros** is a supermarket chain found in Switzerland and other countries.

## History

It was started in 1925 by Gottlieb Duttweiler. He started in Zürich with a wagon and sold products 40% cheaper than others. At first, he sold only coffee, rice, sugar, noodles, coconut oil and soap. Later, he started selling more and in 1926, Duttweiler built his first market, also in Zürich.

## Other websites

- Migros Switzerland website

## Infobox (company)

- **company name**: Migros
- **company logo**: Migros.svg
- **company type**: Co-operative
- **foundation**: 1925
- **location**: Zürich, Canton of Zürich, ZH,
- **num employees**: 79 000 (2006)
- **products**: supermarkets, petrol, electronics, books, homewares, etc... _(mainly)_
- **revenue**: 20.64 billion CHF (2006)
- **operating income**: 754 million CHF (2006)
- **homepage**: [http://www.migros.ch/ www.migros.ch]
SSH file transfer protocol

In computing, the **SSH File Transfer Protocol** (sometimes called **Secure File Transfer Protocol** or **SFTP**) is a network protocol that implements file transfer between computers. It is often used as a more secure alternative of an FTP protocol, which transmits file contents, folder contents and even passwords without encryption.

SFTP protocol is built on top of SSH protocol which is used as a transport layer over the port 22 and is implemented by an SSH server such as OpenSSH.
SFTP is different from SCP, which is another protocol relying on an SSH connection. It is also different from FTPS, which used SSL to encrypt the connection itself, rather than sending the data through an SSH tunnel.

Many popular FTP programs have added support for SFTP. Access to the SFTP server can be granted either through a username, a password or by using a  public key.
Computer security

**Computer security **is a branch of information technology known as information security which is intended to protect computers. Computer security has three main goals:

- Confidentiality: Making sure people cannot acquire information they should not (_keeping secrets_)
- Integrity: Making sure people cannot change information they should not (_protecting data_)
- Availability: Making sure people cannot stop the computer from doing its job.

Computer security involves telling computers what they are _not to do_. This makes computer security unique because most programming makes computers _do_ things. Security takes much of a computer's power.

Basic computer security methods (in approximate order of strength) can be:

- Limit access to computers to "safe" users.
- Peripherals that block any "unsafe" activity.
- Firewall and antivirus software.

An example of complexity and pervasiveness of the issue is vending machines, per _Hackers Lurking in Vents and Soda Machines_ April 7, 2014 New York Times.

## Related pages

- Cybercrime
- FreeOTFE - Disk encryption
- Internet safety
- Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) - Email encryption
- Memory safety
Mark Odejobi

**Mark Odejobi** born 18 January, 1988 in London, England is a former rugby union player for England sevens and the London Wasps. He played as a winger.

## Other websites

- Wasps profile
Damien Varley

**Damien Varley** (born 29 October 1983 in Limerick) is an Irish rugby union player for Munster in the Pro 12 and Heineken Cup. He plays as a Hooker. Varley plays his club rugby with Garryowen. Before he played for the London Wasps.

## Life

Varley went to St. Munchin's College in Limerick. He scored two tries when his school won the Munster Schools Rugby Senior Cup final in 2002. He then studied at the University of Limerick. Varley played his first game for Munster in May 2006 against Ospreys in the Celtic League. In 2008, Varley joined the English club London Wasps on a one-year contract. He scored a try for them in his first game against Leicester Tigers.

## Other websites

- Wasps profile
Hamtaro

***The Adventures of Hamtaro*** (とっとこハム太郎, _Tottoko Hamutarō_, literally _Trotting Hamtaro_) is a Japanese children's anime preschool series created by Ritsuko Kawai. The main character is a hamster named Hamtaro.

## Plot

After moving into a new town, Hamtaro finds that he's in the company of lots of different hamsters, making up a group of hamster friends that go on crazy adventures through the city. Before they save Laura and other humans from nasty predicaments, however, they have to learn how to save themselves.
Finn Harps F.C.

**Finn Harps** are a football team in County Donegal, Republic of Ireland. They play in the League of Ireland First Division.

The club is managed by Darren Murphy. Their current chairman is Ian Harkin.
Sadomasochism

**Sadomasochism** is a word which is mostly used in a social (non-medical) way. It means that people get together to either give or receive pain and humiliation. Usually it's a form of sex play.

_Sadists_ enjoy inflicting pain on others or humiliating them. _Masochists_ get pleasure from being tortured, hurt, or humiliated.
Lanzarote

**Lanzarote** is one of the Canary Islands.

## Geography and Climate

Lanzarote is one of the two islands in the east of the Canary Islands. It is located 100 km west of the Western African coast line and 11 km north of the neighbouring island Fuerteventura.
Its dimensions are from east to west coast 16.5 km, from north to south 60 km.
The island was created by volcano eruptions.
There is only limited natural vegetation on the island.
About 130,000 people live on Lanzarote. The largest town on the island is Arrecife.

## Economy

Lanzarote has one international airport at Arreceife (airport code ACE). Lanzarote's economy is mainly supported by tourism.
Many tourist come to the island for sunbathing, swimming, windsurfing, walking or snorkeling.

There are a few agricultural producers on the island, and in particular there are some vineyards producing local wines.

## Other websites

- Web Centers of Art, Culture and Tourism of Lanzarote
- Official Lanzarote Website
- Pictures of Lanzarote
McMahon Line

The **McMahon Line** is a demarcation line drawn on a map referred to in the Simla Convention, a treaty between Britain and Tibet signed in 1914.

It is named after Henry McMahon, a diplomat who signed the agreement.

After India became independent from Britain in 1947 and China invaded Tibet in 1950, the line became the border of India and China. Some people disagree, but it is now part of the real boundary between China and India (called the Line of Actual Control).

This disagreement was a reason for a war between China and India in 1962 (the Sino-Indian War).

## Related pages

- Arunachal Pradesh
- Durand Line
- Radcliffe Line

## Further reading

- GlobalSecurity.org, India-China Border Dispute
- Kawaguchi, Yuki. "Arunachal Pradesh Territorial Dispute between India and China,"  _ICE Case Studies_ (US). No. 161, November, 2005.
Theodor Heuss

**Theodor Heuss** (31 January 1884 in Brackenheim - 12 December 1963 in Stuttgart) was a German politician. He was the first person elected to a regular term as President of the Federal Republic of Germany.

Heuss was born in Brackenheim, near Heilbronn. He studied art history and state studies in Munich and Berlin.
He received his doctorate in 1905 in Munich. In 1908 he married Elly Heuss-Knapp (1881-1952). He worked for a political magazine from 1908 to 1912, and then for a regional newspaper. In 1910 he joined the Progressive People's Party and stayed there until 1918.
Between 1923 and 1926 he published the magazine _Die Deutsche Nation_ ("The German Nation"). Heuss became a member of the German Democratic Party (Deutsche Demokratische Partei, DDP) and was a member of parliament for two periods.

In 1933 Heuss voted for the Enabling Act (Ermächtigungsgesetz) against his personal beliefs, following his party.
After World War II Heuss was the first Minister of Culture in Baden-Württemberg. He was one of the founders of the Free Democratic Party of Germany after WW II.

In 1949 he was elected as first President of the Federal Republic of Germany. He was reelected once.

## Infobox (officeholder)

- **honorific-prefix**: His Excellency
- **name**: Theodor Heuss
- **image**: Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1983-098-20a, Heuss.jpg
- **caption**: President Heuss in 1953
- **office**: President of Germany, President of the Federal Republic of Germany

- **term start**: 12 September 1949
- **term end**: 12 September 1959
- **chancellor**: Konrad Adenauer
- **predecessor**: Karl Dönitz

- **successor**: Heinrich Lübke
- **birth place**: Brackenheim, Kingdom of Württemberg, German Empire
- **death place**: Stuttgart, Baden-Württemberg, West Germany
- **profession**: Journalist
- **alma mater**: Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München
- **children**: 1
- **party**: Progressive People's Party (Germany), Progressive People's <small>(1910–1918)</small>German Democratic Party, German Democratic <small>(1918–1933)</small>Democratic Party of Germany, Democratic <small>(1947–1948)</small>Free Democratic Party (Germany), Free Democratic <small>(1948–1963)</small>
- **nationality**: German
- **signature**: Theodor Heuss Signature.svg
India–Pakistan maritime trespassing

**India-Pakistan maritime trespassing** refers to the frequent trespassing and violation of respective national territorial waters of India and Pakistan in peacetime. Most trespassing is common to Pakistani and Indian fishermen operating along the coastline of the Indian state of Gujarat and the Pakistani province of Sindh within the disputed region of Rann of Kachchh.
Bangladesh–India border

The **Indo-Bangladeshi barrier** is a 4,000-kilometer fence that India is presently constructing to seal off the Indian-Bangladeshi international border from what was formerly East Bengal. East Bengal was a partitioned region of Bengal, called East Pakistan from 1956 to 1971. This obstruction is virtually isolating Bangladesh from the rest of India to a very large extent nowadays, since the Modi Govt. intervention, regarding the disputes along Indo-Bangla Border, along with the records of illegal immigrants of people belonging to both of the nations.
Tipper Gore

**Mary "Tipper" Elizabeth Gore** (née **Aitcheson**; born August 19, 1948) is an American author, photographer, writer, and educator. She was the second lady of the United States from 1993 to 2001 as the wife of the 45th vice president of the United States, Al Gore.

## Early life and education

Mary Elizabeth Aitcheson was born on August 19, 1948 in Washington D.C. to John Aitcheson Jr. and Margaret Carlson Aitcheson. She later grew up in Arlington, Virginia and she was later raised by both her mother and grandmother after her parents divorced.

She attended schools and universities such as, St. Stephens and St. Agnes School, Garland Junior College, Boston University, Vanderbilt University, and George Peabody College. Aitcheson later pursued and graduated with both a Bachelor of Arts and Master of Arts.

## Marriage and family

Aitcheson met Al Gore at his senior prom in 1965 and they began dating afterwards. On May 19, 1970, they married at the Washington National Cathedral. They have four children named, Karenna, Kristin, Sarah, and Albert Gore lll.

## Second Lady of the United States (1993–2001)

Gore assumed the role and duties as the second lady of the United States on January 20, 1993 succeeding, Marilyn Quayle when her husband inaugurated as the 45th vice president of the United States. As second lady, Tipper served as the mental health policy advisor to the president. Her goals were to destroy the stigma surrounding mental illness and to bring awareness to the need for affordable mental health care. In 1999, she hosted the first White House conference on mental health. That same year, she launched the National Mental Health Awareness Campaign to encourage Americans to seek treatment for mental illness.

Along with her work in mental health, Gore was a part of several other initiatives during her time as second lady. Tipper visited a refugee camp and an orphanage in Zaire on a personal trip to provide aid in the aftermath of the Rwandan genocide. She stayed in a United Nations camp to assist doctors and aid workers and also made an official visit to Honduras in 1998 following Hurricane Mitch to volunteer, bring medical supplies, and to survive the damage.

Gore was actively involved in her presidential campaign in 2000, making her own campaign stops and media appearances. She also acted as an advisor and hired Tony Coelho as chairman in part of her husband's presidential campaign. Her husband lost and was defeated by George W. Bush in a close tie in the race, due to a Florida recount. Gore served as the second lady from 1993 until her husband's term ended in 2001.

## Infobox (officeholder)

- **name**: Tipper Gore
- **image**: File:Tipper Gore Headshot.jpg
- **birth place**: Washington, D.C., United States, U.S.
- **order**: Second Lady of the United States
- **term label**: In role
- **term start**: January 20, 1993
- **term end**: January 20, 2001
- **vicepresident**: Al Gore
- **predecessor**: Marilyn Quayle
- **successor**: Lynne Cheney
- **spouse**: Al Gore (1970–2010, separated)
- **children**: 4
- **party**: Democratic Party (United States), Democratic
- **caption**: Gore in 2009
Second Lady or Second Gentleman of the United States

The **second lady of the United States** or **second gentleman** is the title held by the hostess of the Number One Observatory Circle. This is usually the wife or husband of the vice president of the United States, during the vice president's term in office.

Usha Vance is the current second lady of the United States, in role since January 2025 as the wife of Vice President JD Vance.

## Second Lady-Second Gentleman Designate

The second lady-second gentleman designate is the wife or husband of the vice president-elect of the United States. The vice president-elect was the candidate who won the presidential election alongside the presidential candidate, but is awaiting the inauguration to become vice president. The second lady-second gentleman designate is also awaiting the inauguration to become the second spouse.

The term corresponds to the term "incoming second lady or second gentleman", used for those wives of vice president-elects for the same period between their election and inauguration. Incumbent second spouses whose husband or wife have won re-election for a second term are not referred to as second lady-second gentleman designate, as they are already in office and are not waiting to become second spouse.

## Origins and Role

The second lady or second gentleman is not elected by the people of the United States. There are no official jobs he or she is officially required to perform and they are not paid for being the second spouse.

They are often involved in political campaigns and managements of the Number One Observatory Circle. They are involved in participating in social causes and representing the vice president at official and ceremonial occasions. They also accompany the vice president on foreign summits and events.

## Office of the Second Lady

The Office of the Second Lady helps the second lady carry out their duties as the official hostess of the Number One Observatory Circle. They are also in charge of all social and ceremonial events of the vice presidents official residence. The second lady has her own staff that includes a Chief of Staff, Director of Public Engagement and Policy, Deputy Director for Scheduling, Communications Assistant, and Associate Director of Projects and Special Assistant.

## Causes and initiatives

Since the early 2000s, a few second spouses have become public speakers, to promote public initiatives. A staff supports her or his agenda.

- Lynne Cheney: History of the United States
- Jill Biden: "Joining Forces"; military families
- Karen Pence: Art therapy; military families
- Doug Emhoff: Food security; climate change; combatting antisemitism

## List of living former second spouses

There are six living former second spouses

## Infobox (official post)

- **post**: Second Lady
- **body**: the United States
- **incumbent**: Usha Vance
- **incumbentsince**: January 20, 2025
- **style**: * Madam Second Lady
* Mrs. Vance
- **residence**: Number One Observatory Circle
- **inaugural**: Abigail Adams
(as second lady)
Doug Emhoff
(as second gentleman)
- **image**: File:Usha Vance, official portrait (2025) (cropped reasonable).jpg
Lynne Cheney

**Lynne Ann Vincent Cheney** (born August 14, 1941) is an American author and novelist. She was the second lady of the United States from 2001 to 2009 as the wife of the 46th vice president of the United States, Dick Cheney.

## Early life

Lynne Ann Vincent was born in Casper, Wyoming. Her mother, Edna Lolita (nee Lybyer), became a deputy sheriff, and her father, Wayne Edwin Vincent, was an engineer. She is a descendant of Mormon pioneers. She has family roots in Denmark, Sweden, England, Ireland, and Wales. She was raised Presbyterian and became Methodist after she married Dick Cheney.

## Books

Lynne Cheney is the author or co-author of several books:

- _Blue Skies, No Fences: A Memoir of Childhood and Family_ (2007) ()
- _Our 50 States: A Family Adventure Across America_ (2006) ()
- _A Time for Freedom: What Happened When in America_ (2005) ()
- _When Washington Crossed the Delaware : A Wintertime Story for Young Patriots_ (2004) ()
- _A is for Abigail : An Almanac of Amazing American Women_ (2003) ()
- _America: A Patriotic Primer_ (2002) ()
- _The Body Politic: A Novel_ (2000) ()
- _Kings of the Hill: How Nine Powerful Men Changed the Course of American History_ (1996) ()
- _Telling the Truth_ (1995) ()
- _Academic Freedom_ (1992) ()
- _American Memory: A Report on the Humanities in the Nations Public Schools_ (1987) ()
- _Sisters_ (1981; New American Library, Penguin Group) ()
- _Executive Privilege_ (1979) ()

## Infobox (officeholder)

- **name**: Lynne Cheney
- **image**: Lynne Cheney official photo.jpg
- **caption**: Official photo, 2005
- **office**: Second Lady of the United States
- **vicepresident**: Dick Cheney
- **term start**: January 20, 2001
- **term end**: January 20, 2009
- **term label**: In role
- **predecessor**: Tipper Gore
- **successor**: Jill Biden
- **order1**: National Endowment for the Humanities, Chair of the National Endowment for the Humanities
- **term start1**: May 21, 1986
- **term end1**: January 20, 1993
- **predecessor1**: William J. Bennett
<small>_John Agresto (acting)_</small>
- **successor1**: Sheldon Hackney
<small>_Jerry L. Martin and Donald Gibson (acting)_</small>
- **birth place**: Casper, Wyoming, U.S.
- **party**: Republican Party (United States), Republican
- **children**: Elizabeth Cheney, Elizabeth, Mary Cheney, Mary
- **relations**: Wayne Vincent and Edna Lybyer
- **alma mater**: Colorado College
University of Wisconsin-Madison
Graphium sarpedon

The **Common bluebottle** (***Graphium sarpedon***) is a species of swallowtail butterfly. It is found in South and Southeast Asia and in parts of Australia. There are 15 subspecies with different geographical distributions.
Bama Boyz

**The Bama Boyz** (a.k.a **the Bamaz**) are a Grammy-nominated, Dove Award winning, American record production, songwriting, and artist trio, with Eddie “E-Trez” Smith III, Jesse J. Rankins, Jonathan D. Wells as members.

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: The Bama Boyz
- **image**: Bama Boyz on the Tube.jpg
- **background**: group_or_band
- **alias**: The Bamaz, Bama Boys, Bamaz
- **origin**: Montgomery, Alabama
- **instrument**: Drum, Keyboard instrument, keyboards, synthesizers, Music sequencer, Sequencer, Guitar
- **genre**: electro music, Electro, Hip hop music, Hip hop, pop music, Pop, R&B, dance music, Dance
- **occupation**: record producer, Producers
- **years active**: 2003-present
- **label**: My Turn Entertainment, LLC
- **associated acts**: Beyoncé Knowles, Beyoncé, Solange Knowles, Destiny's Child, Trin-i-tee 5:7
- **website**: [http://www.thebamaz.com TheBamaz.com]
- **current members**: Eddie "E-Trez" Smith III,
Jesse J. Rankins,
 Jonathan D. Wells
Swallowtail butterfly

**Swallowtail butterflies** are large, colorful butterflies which form the family **Papilionidae**. There are at least 550 species, and though the majority are tropical, members of the family are found on all continents except Antarctica. The family includes the largest butterflies in the world, the birdwing butterflies of Australia (genus _ Ornithoptera_).
Graphium

***Graphium*** is a genus of swallowtail butterflies. They are commonly known as **swordtails**. They are native to Eurasia, Africa, and Oceania. The genus has over 100 species. These species are mostly tropical. Their coloration is variable. Their habitat varies from rainforests to savannahs. Some species have tails on their hind wings which may be long and swordlike. Others do not have any tails. _Graphium_ species are often seen at mud puddles.
Cube 2: Sauerbraten

***Cube 2: Sauerbraten*** (German for _“sour roast”, also known as Sauer_) is a cross-platform, _Quake_-like, first-person shooter computer game that runs on Microsoft Windows, Linux, FreeBSD and Mac OS X using OpenGL and SDL. The game features single-player and multiplayer game play and contains an in-game level editor, its main feature. The game engine is free and open source software, under the Zlib License, with commercial support available from the developer's own business counterpart, Dot3 Labs.

The game started as a redesign to the original Cube Engine, and its first release was made on May 6, 2004. The game gets updated quite regularly.

## Technology

_Cube 2: Sauerbraten_ was made out of the game Cube, but is much more advanced and a player can create new levels. Cube 2: _Sauerbraten_ was not made to look very good, but to allow easy map making within the game without making a big download. Cube 2 _Sauerbraten CTF Edition_ is less than 350 megabytes.  The game _Crysis_ is around 3,000 megabytes.

### Map editing

Maps are made out of cubes, which can be made longer or shorter and can be reshaped. These cubes can be mapped out easily, using the in-game editor. This means that both map-makers and players can make very big, detailed maps very quickly. This is not like other games such as _Quake_, where you need a lot of effort and bugfixing work to even get the map to work.

This simplicity in editing has resulted in a lot of maps released by players and developers. They are available on the _Quadropolis_ forums.

### Gameplay

The game has singleplayer and multiplayer modes. Multiplayer can be with LAN and Internet connection. Online game types are deathmatch, last man standing,"Capture" (where teams fight for control of parts on the map), Quake-style Capture the Flag, also instant-shot games (Instagib, Insta-clan-arena, insta-capture) as well as online multiplayer map editing, which is one of _Sauerbraten_'s most interesting and popular features. In single player modes the computer controls monsters against you.

## Media

The game has been shown in a Burger King television commercial, it received four out of five stars in a MacWorld UK review, and the game was mentioned in Issue 3 of Games for Windows: The Official Magazine (as well as their 101 Free Games Article), where it was described as being "perfect for both stingy and creative gamers alike".

The CTF edition was given a long review by Phoronix, a website focused on Linux and software reviews, as well as Linux.com, a website providing news related to free and open source software.

## Other websites

- Official Sauerbraten site
- Sauerbraten project at SourceForge.net
- Community Cube/Sauerbraten mapping and modding site
- Tool to monitor servers for cube-based games

## Infobox (vg)

- **title**: Sauerbraten
- **image**: Sauerbraten logo.png
- **developer**: Lee Salzman, Wouter van Oortmerssen, Mike Dysart, Robert Pointon
- **designer**: Wouter van Oortmerssen
- **platforms**: Cross-platform
- **released**: May 6, 2004
- **genre**: First-person shooter, Role-playing game
- **modes**: Multiplayer, Singleplayer
Speaker of the House of Commons

**Speaker of the House of Commons** can refer to:
- Speaker of the House of Commons (United Kingdom), which has historically comprised:
    - Speaker of the House of Commons of England (-1706)
    - Speaker of the House of Commons of Great Britain (1707-1800)
    - Speaker of the House of Commons of the United Kingdom (1801-)
- Speaker of the Canadian House of Commons (1867-)
- Speaker of the Northern Ireland House of Commons
Zlib License

The **zlib License** is an open source software license.

## The license

The words of the zlib License are:

<pre>
This software is provided 'as-is', without any express or implied
warranty.  In no event will the authors be held liable for any damages
arising from the use of this software.

Permission is granted to anyone to use this software for any purpose,
including commercial applications, and to alter it and redistribute it
freely, subject to the following restrictions:

1. The origin of this software must not be misrepresented; you must not
   claim that you wrote the original software. If you use this software
   in a product, an acknowledgment in the product documentation would be
   appreciated but is not required.
2. Altered source versions must be plainly marked as such, and must not be
   misrepresented as being the original software.
3. This notice may not be removed or altered from any source distribution.
</pre>

## Related pages

- List of software licenses

## References

- http://www.zlib.net/zlib_license.html
Plant cutting

**Plant cutting**, also known as striking/cloning, is a technique for vegetatively (asexually) propagating plants. With this method,  a piece of the source plant containing at least one stem cell is placed in a suitable medium such as moist soil, potting mix, coir or rock wool. The cutting then grows new roots, stems, or both, and becomes a new plant independent of the parent.
Ferdinand Lassalle

**Ferdinand Lassalle** (11 April 1825 — 31 August 1864) was a German jurist and socialist politician.

Lassalle was born in Breslau. His father sent him to a business school in Leipzig. Lassalle changed to the University of Breslau. He later studied in Berlin.
He studied Philosophy, Philology (Latin and Ancient Greek) and Law.

Lassalle took part in the revolutions of 1848-49. He was put into prison and later banned from Berlin. He lived in Düsseldorf that time. In 1859, Lassalle returned to Berlin.

Lassalle was a liberal politician in the early 1860s. The liberals had some struggles with Otto von Bismarck. Lassalle thought about the living conditions of the working class. He found that the idea of self-help would not help the working-class people. This led him to become a member of the Communist league. He was in opposition to Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels because of his different ideas on how the people should bring socialism.

Lassalle founded the Allgemeiner Deutscher Arbeiterverein (General German Workers' Association, ADAV) in 1863. This party later became the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD).

Lassalle was killed in a duel.

## Infobox (philosopher)

- **region**: Western philosophy, German philosophy
- **era**: 19th-century philosophy
- **image**: Ferdinand Lassalle (71687896).jpg
- **caption**: (1825–64)
- **birth place**: Breslau, Province of Silesia
- **death place**: Carouge, Switzerland
- **resting place**: Old Jewish Cemetery, Wrocław
- **nationality**: Germany
- **school tradition**: Social Democracy
- **main interests**: Politics, economics, philosophy, history
- **birth name**: Ferdinand Johann Gottlieb Lassal
Hans-Dietrich Genscher

**Hans-Dietrich Genscher** (21 March 1927 – 31 March 2016) was a German politician.

## Early life

Genscher was born at Reideburg, near Halle. Genscher served in World War II from 1943 to 1945. He joined the Nazi Party at the age of 18. After the war, he studied economics and law in Halle and Leipzig. He joined the East German Liberal Democratic Party (LDPD) in 1946.

In 1952, Genscher fled to West Germany. There he joined the Free Democratic Party (FDP). He passed his second state examination in law in Hamburg in 1954. After that, he became a solicitor in Bremen.

## Career

In 1965, Genscher was elected to the Bundestag, the West German parliament for the first time. From 1969 to 1974, he was Federal Minister of the Interior under Chancellor Willy Brandt.

Genscher was Foreign Minister and Vice Chancellor of Germany from 1974 to 1982 under Helmut Schmidt.  Two weeks later, he began to serve in the same positions under Helmut Kohl. He served the second time from 1982 to 1992.  He was Germany's longest serving Foreign Minister and Vice Chancellor.

## Death

Genscher died at his home in Wachtberg, Germany from heart failure on 31 March 2016, aged 89.

## Related pages

- Politics of Germany

## Infobox (officeholder)

- **name**: Hans-Dietrich Genscher
- **image**: Genscher-19-09-2013.jpg
- **imagesize**: 200px
- **caption**: Hans-Dietrich Genscher, 2013
- **office**: Vice-Chancellor of Germany
- **term start**: 1 October 1982
- **term end**: 17 May 1992
- **predecessor**: Egon Franke (politician), Egon Franke
- **successor**: Jürgen Möllemann
- **term start2**: 17 May 1974
- **term end2**: 17 September 1982
- **predecessor2**: Walter Scheel
- **successor2**: Egon Franke (politician), Egon Franke
- **office3**: Minister for Foreign Affairs (Germany), Foreign Minister of Germany
- **term start3**: 1 October 1982
- **term end3**: 17 May 1992
- **predecessor3**: Helmut Schmidt _(acting)_
- **successor3**: Klaus Kinkel
- **term start4**: 17 May 1974
- **term end4**: 17 September 1982
- **predecessor4**: Walter Scheel
- **successor4**: Helmut Schmidt _(acting)_
- **office5**: Minister of the Interior of Germany
- **term start5**: 22 October 1969
- **term end5**: 16 May 1974
- **predecessor5**: Ernst Benda
- **successor5**: Werner Maihofer
- **birth place**: Reideburg, Weimar Republic, Germany
- **death place**: Wachtberg, Germany
- **party**: Free Democratic Party of Germany (1952–2016)
- **otherparty**: Nazi Party (1945)
Liberal Democratic Party of Germany (GDR) (1946–52)
- **spouse**: Barbara Schmidt Genscher
- **occupation**: Politician
Jonny Kennedy (rugby union)

**Jonny Kennedy** (born 16 February 1990) is an English rugby union player for Sale Sharks in the Guinness Premiership. He was born in Leighton, Cheshire. He plays as a centre or on the wing.

## Other websites

- Sale Sharks profile
Franz Müntefering

**Franz Müntefering** (born January 16, 1940) is a German politician. He used to be Chairman of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD).

Müntefering was born in Neheim-Hüsten near Arnsberg.
After his school time he was taught to became an industrial salesman.
He joined the Social Democratic Party in 1966.
He was member of the Bundestag (Federal Parliament) from 1975 to 1992 and again from 1998 to 2013.

1998 he was a member of the Landtag (state parliament) of North Rhine-Westphalia.
From 1992 to 1995 he was Secretary of Social affairs in the State of North Rhine-Westphalia.
From 1995 to 2001 he was Party Chairman in that state.

From 1995 to 1998 he was Bundesgeschäftsführer (federal executive director) of the SPD.
In 1998 he became Secretary for Transport and Infrastructure of Germany under Chancellor Gerhard Schröder.
From 1999 to 2002 he was Secretary General of the Social Democratic Party.
From 2002 to 2005 he was fraction leader in the Bundestag.

He was Party Chairman of the SPD from 2004 to 2005.
From 2005 to 2007 he was Secretary for Working and Social Affairs and Vice Chancellor of Germany under Angela Merkel in her Grand Coaltion.
In 2007 he gave up all his jobs - excepted the mandate in Federal Parliament - to care for his ill wife.
After the death of his wife he returned.

From 2008 to 2009 he was Party Chairman of the SPD again.

## Other websites

- Biography by German Bundestag
Nick Royle

**Nick Royle**  (born 1983)  is a current England Rugby Sevens International rugby union player. He plays as a winger.

He has played for Warrington, Widnes Vikings, Sale Sharks and Fylde.

## Other websites

- Sale Sharks profile
Carl Fearns

**Carl Fearns** (born 28 May 1989 in Liverpool) is an English rugby union player for Sale Sharks in the Guinness Premiership. He plays as a back-row.

## Other websites

- Sale Sharks profile
James Gaskell

**James Gaskell** (born 20 May 1990) is a rugby union player for Sale Sharks in the Guinness Premiership. He was born in Crewe, Cheshire. He plays as a lock.

## Other websites

- Sale Sharks profile
Martin Halsall

**Martin Halsall** (born 25 December 1984 in Blackpool, England) is a rugby union player for Sale Sharks in the Guinness Premiership. He plays as a prop.

## Other websites

- Sale Sharks profile
Alex Shaw

**Alex Shaw** (born 31 March 1987 in Maidstone, Kent, England) is a rugby union player for Sale Sharks in the Guinness Premiership. He plays as a back-row.

## Other websites

- Sale Sharks profile
Chris Leck

**Chris Leck** (born 21 May 1986 in Manchester, England) is a rugby union player for Sale Sharks in the Guinness Premiership. He plays as a scrum-half.

## Other websites

- Sale Sharks profile
Secret Water

***Secret Water*** is the eighth book in Arthur Ransome's _Swallows and Amazons_ series of children's books. It was published in 1939.

This book is set in and around Hamford Water in Essex, close to the resort town of Walton-on-the-Naze. It brings the Swallows and the Amazons together and introduces a new group of characters, the Eels and the Mastodon. Ransome sailed to Hamford Water, an area of salt marshes and low lying islands in his boat _Nancy Blackett_. He set the book in this tidal place which offered a new setting for his characters and chances to explore and map the area.

## Plot summary

The Swallows mean to sail in the _Goblin_ to Hamford Water and camp with their father, but he is called away on naval business. Instead he maroons them with a small boat (dinghy) on an island. Before he leaves, Father gives them a basic map of the area they call Secret Water and suggests they map the area before he returns to pick them up.
For a surprise, he has arranged for the Amazons to come down from the Lake District and join them with another dinghy.

They see some mysterious footprints which turn out to belong to the Mastodon, a local boy. He mistakes them for the Eels, another family who camp in the area regularly. Later the Eels arrive and are initially hostile before they settle down for a friendly war.

It seems that due to the distractions of war and being cut off by the tides, the chart will not be completed. However early in the last morning two separate groups of children complete it.

## Related pages

- Beaumont Cut

## Infobox (book)

- **name**: Secret Water
- **author**: Arthur Ransome
- **country**: United Kingdom
- **language**: English
- **series**: Swallows and Amazons series, Swallows and Amazons
- **publisher**: Jonathan Cape
- **release date**: 28 November 1939
- **media type**: Print (Hardcover & Paperback)
- **isbn**: 978-1-56792-064-2
- **isbn note**: (David R. Godine, Publisher: paperback, 1996)
- **preceded by**: We Didn't Mean to Go to Sea
- **followed by**: The Big Six
Gran Turismo (video game)

***Gran Turismo*** is a driving simulation video game created by Polyphony Digital for Sony PlayStation console. The game was first sold in 1997. There are seven main games of _Gran Turismo_ series and by late 2008 over 50 million _Gran Turismo_ games have been sold by Sony. Each of the games simulate many different types of car including small, big, racing, old, new, Formula one and concept cars such as the Nike 2022. The cars look very realistic. Gran Turismo games were one of the first video games to include music from famous artists. Sony also released three Gran Turismo Concept versions. The game play is races similar to all real-life car racing including racing driver tests and everything from one short lap races in slow cars to 24 hour Le Mans racing challenges in prototype cars.
Aramid

**Aramids** are polymers. The name stands for _aromatic polyamide_. Structurally aramids are similar to proteins.

## Overview

Stephanie Kwolek developed aramids at DuPont in 1965. DuPont uses the trade name _Kevlar_ for them.

Aramids are very present in security helmets, in splinter-resistant glass, in Ballistic vests. They are used as a replacement for asbestos as a building material, for gaskets and other sealings, but also as helpers to make sails, parachutes and similar tools.

## Chemistry

Aramids are a condensation polymer made from aromatic compounds connected by amide functional groups. The usual ingredients used to make aramids are an aromatic diamine and aromatic diacyl chloride, such as _p_-phenylenediamine and terephthaloyl chloride.
Brute force attack

A **brute force attack** is a term in cryptanalysis. It means trying to break a coded cyphertext by trying a lot of possibilities with fast computers. For example, a large number of the possible keys are tried in the key space. If successful , this decrypts the encrypted message.

## Overview

The theoretical possibility of a brute force attack is recognized by the cryptographic system designers. They work to make the cryptographic system very difficult for computers to break using brute force attack. For that reason, one of the definitions of "breaking" a cryptographic scheme is to find a method faster than a brute force attack.

The selection of an appropriate key length depends on how difficult it will be to break it using a brute force attack. By obfuscating the data before encryption, brute force attacks are less effective and more difficult to determine.

The brute force attack can be used together with a dictionary attack.

For symmetric encryption, a key size of 128 bits is considered secure against brute force by traditional computers. 192 or 256 bits is considered secure against quantum computers. Many old ciphers, such as DES, used short keys which made them breakable by brute force.
Information theory

**Information theory** is a branch of applied mathematics and electrical engineering.  Information theory measures the amount of information in data that could have more than one value.  In its most common use, information theory finds physical and mathematical limits on the amounts of data in data compression and data communication.  Data compression and data communication are statistical, because they guess unknown values.  The amount of information in data measures how easily it is guessed by a person who does not know its value.

A key measure in information theory is "entropy". Entropy quantifies the amount of uncertainty involved in the value of a random variable or the outcome of a random process. For example, identifying the outcome of a fair coin flip (with two equally likely outcomes) provides less information (lower entropy) than specifying the outcome from a roll of a dice (with six equally likely outcomes). Some other important measures in information theory are mutual information, channel capacity, error exponents, and relative entropy.
Block cipher

In cryptography, a **block cipher** is a symmetric key cipher which operates on a groups of bits of fixed length, called _blocks_, using an exact transformation. During encryption, a block cipher algorithm might take (for example) a 128-bit block of plaintext as input, and output a corresponding 128-bit block of ciphertext. The exact transformation is controlled using a second input — the secret key. Decryption is similar: the decryption algorithm takes, in this example, a 128-bit block of ciphertext together with the secret key, and output the original 128-bit block of plaintext.

One of the early block cipher designs was the Data Encryption Standard (DES), developed at IBM and published as a standard in 1977. A successor to DES, the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES); also using block cipher, was adopted in 2001. RC5 is a simple symmetric-key made by Ronald Rivest in 1994. RC6 is another made from RC5. RC stands for "Rivest Cipher", or alternatively, "Ron's Code".
Authentication

**Authentication** (pronounced  "aw-then-ti-keyt") (from Greek _αυθεντικός;_ real or genuine, from _authentes;_ author) is the actions taken to establish or verify something (or someone) as _authentic_. It is the method of verifying claims made by someone about the thing. This might involve confirming the identity of a person, the origins of an object (or something), or to make sure that a computer program (or user) is a trusted one. People are usually authenticated by something they know (password), something they have (key), or something they are (biometrics).

## Related pages

- Digital signature
DES-X

In cryptography, **DES-X** (or **DESX**) is an alternative to the DES (Data Encryption Standard) block cipher designed to increase the complexity of a brute force attack using a technique called _key whitening_. As DES suffers from brute force attack **DES-X** was a trial to overcome such drawbacks.

## Related pages

- Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)
- Data Encryption Standard (DES)
- Triple DES (TDES)
Hostname

A **hostname** (also known as a **sitename**) is the unique name by which a network device (which may be a computer, file server, network storage device, copier, cable modem, etc.) is defined and known on a network.  The hostname is used to identify a particular host in various electronic communication networks such as the World Wide Web, e-mail or Usenet.

On the Internet, the terms "hostname" and "domain name" are often misused interchangeably, but there are small technical differences between them.

## Related pages

- Internet protocol suite
- Communications protocol
National Institute of Standards and Technology

The **National Institute of Standards and Technology** (**NIST**), known between 1901 and 1988 as the **National Bureau of Standards** (**NBS**), is a measurement standards laboratory which is a non-regulatory (non-controlled) agency of the United States Department of Commerce. The institute's mission is to promote U.S. innovation and industrial competitiveness by advancing measurement science, standards, and Technology in ways that enhance economic security and improve quality of life.
Key size

In cryptography, **key size** or **key length** is the size (measured in bits or bytes) of the key used in a cryptographic algorithm (such as a cipher). Typical key sizes in modern symmetric ciphers are 128, 192, and 256 bits. Older symmetric ciphers used only 40, 56, or 64 bits, which can be broken by brute force. 128 bits is considered secure against brute-force by traditional computers, but not quantum computers. 192 and 256 bit keys are considered quantum-safe, and AES keys of these lengths are approved for protecting top secret information. Asymmetric (public key) ciphers such as RSA need a much longer key to be secure. RSA keys are typically at least 2048 bits. A large key size alone does not necessarily mean a cipher is secure - there are many insecure ciphers which have a large key size but have other design flaws that allow them to be broken.
Kandinsky

**Wassily  Kandinsky**  ( – 13 December 1944) was a Russian painter, printmaker and art theorist.

He was one of the most important 20th-century artists. He was a major figure in modern art and painted some of the first modern abstract works.

_Der Blaue Reiter_ (The Blue Rider) was a group of artists that was started (1911) in Germany, by Kandinsky and Franz Marc. _Der Blaue Reiter_ also became an art movement.

His art changed several times during his life. It was fauvist, abstract, expressionist and constructivist in turn.

## Life

Born in Moscow, Kandinsky spent his childhood in Odesa. He enrolled at the University of Moscow and chose to study law and economics. Quite successful in his profession—he was offered a professorship (chair of Roman Law) at the University of Dorpat—he started painting studies (life-drawing, sketching and anatomy) at the age of 30.

In 1896 he settled in Munich and studied first in a private school, then at the Academy of Fine Arts, Munich. He went back to Moscow in 1914 after World War I started. He was unsympathetic to the official theories on art in Moscow and returned to Germany in 1921. There he taught at the Bauhaus school of art and architecture from 1922 until the Nazis closed it in 1933. He then moved to France where he lived the rest of his life, and became a French citizen in 1939.  He died at Neuilly-sur-Seine in 1944.

## Influences

Later in life he would recall being fascinated and stimulated by colour as a child. His fascination with colour symbolism and psychology continued as he grew. In 1889, he was part of an ethnographic research group which travelled to the Vologda region north of Moscow. In _Looks on the Past_, he tells how the houses and churches were decorated with such shimmering colours that, on entering them, he felt he was moving into a painting. This experience, and his study of the region's folk art (particularly the use of bright colours on a dark background), can be seen in much of his early work.

He was interested in geometry in art and philosophy. The creative aspect of the form is expressed by a descending series of circles, triangles and squares.

## Related pages

- List of Russian painters

## Infobox (artist)

- **name**: Wassily Kandinsky
- **image**: Vassily-Kandinsky.jpeg
- **nationality**: Russian; French
- **field**: Painting
- **training**: Academy of Fine Arts, Munich
- **movement**: Expressionism; abstract art
- **works**: _On White II_, _Der Blaue Reiter_
Public-key cryptography

**Public-key cryptography**, also called **asymmetric cryptography**, is a communication where people send messages that can only be read by those who have the key.

## A Metaphor

This kind of cryptography is like two magical paper shredders. Each can shred messages that only the other can unshred.

## Explanation

In public key cryptography, each user has a pair of cryptographic keys, which are long strings of random data. One of the keys is public, and can be shared with anyone, even bad actors. One of the keys is private, and must be kept secret. Information encrypted with the public key can be decrypted with the private key, and vice versa.

Incoming messages are encrypted with the _recipient's public key_ and can only be decrypted with their corresponding private key. The keys are related mathematically, but it is nearly impossible to get a private key from a public key.

The two main branches of public key cryptography are:
- **Public key encryption**: a message encrypted with a _recipient's public key_ cannot be decrypted except by the _recipient private key_. This is used to ensure secrecy.
- **Digital signatures**: a message signed with a sender's private key can be verified by anyone who has the sender's public key. So if the sender signed the message, no one can alter it. This is used to ensure authenticity.

They are often used together on the same message.

## Related pages

- Symmetric-key algorithm
- RSA algorithm