juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Akrotiri and Dhekelia

**Akrotiri** and **Dhekelia** are two British overseas territories that border the Republic of Cyprus. They are used as military bases by the United Kingdom. The bases were kept by the United Kingdom after Cyprus changed from being a colony in the British Empire, to being an independent republic. The United Kingdom kept them because of the important location of Cyprus in the Mediterranean Sea.

## Military bases

The smallest of the bases is known as Akrotiri Sovereign Base Area or even the Western Sovereign Base Area.

## Infobox (dependency)

- **name**: Akrotiri and Dhekelia
- **settlement type**: British Overseas Territories, British Overseas Territory
- **official name**: Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia
- **image flag**: RAF Akrotiri flag.svg
- **image map**: Akrotiri and Dhekelia in United Kingdom.svg
- **map caption**: Location of Akrotiri and Dhekelia (red)
- **mapsize**: 250px
- **image map2**: Cyprus_SBAsInRed.png
- **map caption2**: Location of Akrotiri (left) and Dhekelia (right) in pink on Geography of Cyprus, Cyprus (pink, grey, and beige)
- **mapsize2**: 250px
- **subdivision type**: Sovereign state
- **established title2**: London-Zürich Agreements, Treaty of Establishment
- **established date2**: 16 August 1960
- **official languages**: English language, English
- **capital**: Episkopi Cantonment
- **largest settlement**: Akrotiri (village), Akrotiri
- **largest settlement type**: civilian settlement
- **government type**: _De facto_ stratocracy, stratocratic dependent territory, dependency under a constitutional monarchy
- **leader title1**: Monarchy, Monarch
- **leader name1**: Charles III
- **leader title2**: Administrator
- **leader name2**: Major-General Robert Thomson (British Army officer), Robert Thomson _ex officio_
- **national representation**: Government of the United Kingdom
- **national representation type1**: Minister
- **national representation1**: James Cleverly
- **area km2**: 256
- **population estimate**: 18,195
- **population estimate year**: 2020
- **population estimate rank**: not ranked
- **currency**: Euro (Euro sign, €)
- **currency code**: EUR
- **timezone**: Eastern European Time, EET
- **utc offset**: +02:00
- **timezone dst**: Eastern European Summer Time, EEST
- **utc offset dst**: +03:00
- **drives on**: left
- **calling code**: Telephone numbers in Cyprus, 357
- **postal code type**: Postcodes in the United Kingdom#British Overseas Territories, UK postcode
- **postal code**: BFPO 57 / BF1 2AT (Akrotiri)
BFPO 58 / BF1 2AU (Dhekelia)
- **blank name**: Geopolitical Entities and Codes (GEC)
- **blank info**: AX
- **image blank emblem**: RAF Akrotiri badge.svg
- **blank emblem type**: Emblem
Transcontinental country

A **transcontinental country** is a country that is in more than one continent.

## Examples

**Africa and Asia**
- Egypt, though the vast majority lives in Africa, and mostly around the Nile, and few people live in the Sinai Peninsula, which is in Asia.
- Yemen, though most its territory is located in Asia, the island of Socotra is geographically located in Africa.

**Africa and Europe**
- Spain, because the exclaves of Ceuta and Melilla are in mainland Africa and the Canary Islands are part of the African continental plate.
- Italy, most of Italy is in Europe but the Pelagie Islands are geographically located in Africa.
- Portugal, most of Portugal is in Europe but the archipelago of Madeira is geographically located in Africa.

**Asia and Europe**
- Azerbaijan
- Greece
- Georgia
- Kazakhstan
- Russia
- Turkey

**Asia and Oceania**
- Indonesia, controlling large islands in Oceania.
- Australia, the Christmas Island and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands are in Asia.

**America and Oceania**
- United States, because Hawaii is in Oceania.

**America, Oceania and Antarctica**
- Chile, because Easter Island is a province in Oceania and Chilean Antarctic is a claimed (but not officially accepted) territory in Antarctica.

**Oceania and Antarctica**
- Australia,  Australian Antarctic Territory is a territory in Antarctica.
- New Zealand,  Ross Dependency is a territory in Antarctica.

**Europe and America**
- France Saint Barthélemy, Martinique, Guadeloupe, and French Guiana (France)
- Iceland, divided between the Americas and Eurasia by the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.

**Europe, Africa, and America**
- France, because Réunion and Mayotte are regions of France.
- Portugal, because Madeira is part of the African continental plate and the westernmost islands of Corvo and Flores in the Azores are part of the North American continental plate.
Kurów

- _For the place of similar name in New Zealand see: Kurow_

**Kurów** is a town in south-eastern Poland, near Puławy and Lublin, on the Kurówka River. It is the main village of a gmina within the Lublin Voivodship and has 2826 people living there (as of 2010). The village was built before 1185 and made bigger between 1431 and 1442 with city rights based on the Magdeburg Law. The former President of Poland, Wojciech Jaruzelski was born in Kurów in 1923. Kurów is a town again since 2025.

## Other websites

- Wiki about Kurów
Scorpion

**Scorpions** are eight legged venomous arachnids of the order **Scorpiones**. They have a long body with an extended tail with a sting. The average adult scorpion is about  in length. The longest scorpion is the _Gigantometrus swammerdami_ (_Giant forest scorpion_) from India, which can be  long. There are about 1,750 species of scorpions worldwide.

The evolutionary history of scorpions goes back to the Silurian, 430 million years ago. They have adapted to a wide range of environments, and live on all continents except Antarctica. There are 13 living families. Only about 25 species have venom which can kill a human being.

## Anatomy

They have eight legs and a pair of grasping pedipalps (like claws). The tail is narrow, with segments. It usually has a forward curve over the back, ending with a venomous stinger.

Their body is in three parts. The front section is the _cephalothorax_; the abdomen is called the _mesosoma_, and the tail is the _metasoma_. The body is covered by an exoskeleton which gives them good protection.

## Survival in the desert

Scorpions have many ways to survive in the desert. They can slow down their metabolism. This allows them to survive on as little as one insect per year. This ability also allows them to shelter from the sun and heat for extended periods of time, using only little amounts of oxygen.
Many people also believe that their claws, or pincers, were once front legs that have turned into what they now are by going through evolution. Nevertheless, the scorpions' claws play a crucial part in their hunting and mating rituals.
Scorpions also possess a special, feather-like pair of organs, called pectines that they use to sense even the smallest of movements around them. This allows them to effectively track down and hunt their prey, either above or below the surface. This also warns them of possible dangers, such as other bigger hunters.
The scorpion’s most feared and recognized feature is its sting. The sting contains a neurotoxin, which the scorpion uses to paralyze the victim, so it would be easier to kill and eat. They also stay hidden under rocks and that makes their body temperature cool.

## Breeding cycle

The mating ritual of scorpions begins when the male and female connect claws. After this they verify that the other scorpion is of the same species, and is the opposite gender. After this, the male leads the female around until it finds a suitable spot to deposit its spermatophore. Once the male has found a suitable spot, he guides the female over it, where it enters her and fertilizes her. The mating ritual can take anywhere between 1 and 26 hours, depending on the male’s ability to find a suitable spot. Only a scorpion that has reached maturity may go through the mating ritual. A scorpion reaches maturity after it has gone through 5 to 7 moults.

## Related pages

- Arachnid
- Desert scorpion
1216

## Events

- April 10 – Eric X of Sweden dies. He is succeeded by Johan Sverkersson.
- April – Prince Louis of France, the future King Louis VIII, invades England in the First Barons' War
- July 24 – Ascension of Pope Honorius III; in the same year, he officially recognises the Order of Preachers (the Dominican Order)
- October 19 – Henry III becomes King of England, after the death of King John of England.
- Dresden, Germany becomes a city
- Ballintubber Abbey is founded by King Cathal Crovdearg O'Connor of Connaught in Ireland.

## Births

- Eric IV of Denmark (d. 1250)
- September 17 – Robert I, Count of Artois (d. 1250)

## Deaths

- Shota Rustaveli, Georgian poet (b. 1172)
- April 10 – King Eric X of Sweden (b. 1180)
- June 11 – Henry of Flanders, Emperor of the Latin Empire (b. 1174)
- July 16 – Pope Innocent III (b. 1161)
- October 19 – King John of England (b. 1167)
John Schlesinger

**John Richard Schlesinger**, CBE (16 February 1926 – 25 July 2003) was a British movie director. He was born into a Jewish family in London. He was openly gay. He died of a stroke in Palm Springs, California, United States.

Schlesinger's acting career began in the 1950s. He started to direct in 1956. By the 1960s he was not acting so he could just direct. His documentary _Terminus_ (1961), got a Venice Film Festival Gold Lion and a British Academy Award.  _A Kind of Loving_ won the Golden Bear award at the 12th Berlin International Film Festival in 1962.  Schlesinger's movie, _Midnight Cowboy_ (1969), made in the United States, was internationally successful. A story of two hustlers living on the fringe in the bad side of New York City, it was Schlesinger's first movie shot in the U.S. It won Oscars for Best Director and Best Picture. In 1996 he received the BAFTA Academy Fellowship Award, a lifetime achievement award.

## Filmography

- Feature and television movies (as Director)
- _A Kind of Loving_ (1962)
- _Billy Liar_ (1963)
- _Darling_ (1965)
- _Far From the Madding Crowd_ (1967)
- _Midnight Cowboy_ (1969)
- _Sunday Bloody Sunday_ (1971)
- _Visions of Eight_ (1973)
- _The Day of the Locust_ (1975)
- _Marathon Man_ (1976)
- _Yanks_ (1979)
- _Honky Tonk Freeway_ (1981)
- _Privileged _ (1982)
- _Separate Tables_ (1983) (TV)
- _An Englishman Abroad_ (1983)  (TV)
- _The Falcon and the Snowman_ (1985)
- _The Believers_ (1987)
- _Madame Sousatzka_ (1988)
- _Pacific Heights_ (1990)
- _A Question of Attribution_ (1991) (TV)
- _The Innocent_ (1993)
- _Cold Comfort Farm_ (1995) (TV)
- _Eye for an Eye_ (1996)
- _The Tale of Sweeney Todd_ (1998) (TV)
- _The Next Best Thing_ (2000)

## Infobox (person)

- **name**: John Schlesinger
- **birth name**: John Richard Schlesinger
- **birth place**: London, England, U.K.
- **death place**: Palm Springs, California, Palm Springs, California, United States, U.S.
Landjäger

**Landjäger** (or **Landjaeger**) is a type of German semidried sausage. The name stands for "hunter's sausage". It is smoked, so it does not need refrigeration. Usually, some of the water has also been taken out (they are dehydrated).
Gilbert and Ellice Islands

The **Gilbert and Ellice Islands** were a British protectorate from 1892 and colony from 12 January 1916. They are formed from two groups of islands in the Pacific Ocean. On 1 January 1976 the islands were split into two different colonies that became independent states. The Gilbert Islands have been the biggest part of the nation of Kiribati since 1979, and the Ellice Islands became Tuvalu in 1978.
Casablanca

**Casablanca** (classical Arabic name: **الدار البيضاء**, "the white house"; Spanish:**Casablanca**, "whitehouse") is a city in western Morocco, on the Atlantic Ocean.

With 2.95 million people (September 2004 census), Casablanca is Morocco's biggest city.

Casablanca has a Mediterranean Climate with hot dry summers and wet rainy winters.

## Education

- EMLYON Business School
- Toulouse Business School

## Other websites

- Official web site of Casablanca
Flatulence

**Flatulence** (commonly known as **Farting** or **passing gas**)  is when gas leaves the anus. This sometimes happens with a sound that can be embarrassing to some people, but in some cultures it is treated like humor. The word flatulence comes from the Latin word _flatus_, which means blowing or breath, but people today usually call it farting. Children normally pass gas _30_ _times_ a day as their digestive system is not fully developed. Adults on the other hand only let wind approximately 15 times a day.

In mammals like humans, the gases come from two sources: swallowed air (for example, while eating, talking or drinking) and gases naturally created by bacteria in the body during digestion. Of the gases that come out during flatulence, most of it is nitrogen (which has the chemical formula N<sub>2</sub> and makes up between 21% to 89% of all the gases), followed by hydrogen (H₂), carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>), oxygen (O<sub>2</sub>) and methane (CH<sub>4</sub>).

## Other websites

- 7 Easy Ways to Tame Excessive Gas
Computability theory

**Computability theory** is part of computer science. Scientists want to know what can be computed, and what can not.

There is a model of a computer that is used for this. It is called the Turing machine. A Turing machine basically is a special typewriter with an endless ribbon. The machine is named after the mathematician Alan Turing.

A problem is _computable_ if it can be expressed in such a way that a Turing machine can solve it.

One of the best known examples is the Halting problem. The task is to write a program which says for all programs whether they will finally stop. This is impossible to decide. Mathematicians say the problem is undecidable.
Batman (city)

**Batman** is a city in southeast Turkey. It is the capital (city) of the province with the same name. In 2010, 325,000 people lived there. There are many Kurds in that area. The area has much oil and gas.

There is a railway track at Kurtalan, near this city. The track runs all the way to Istanbul. There is also an airport near Batman. The name is short for the Bati Raman mountains.

## Other websites

- Batman Municipality
Typewriter

A **typewriter** is a machine that is for typing on a piece of paper instead of writing by hand.  It has keys for typing letters, numbers, and symbols one at a time.  Typewriters were created in 1829.  Typewriters were originally invented to make writing faster and printing.  The earliest typing was done on stone, clay, or metal sheets by inscribing them.

A typewriter does not have computer memory.  As with writing with a pen, it is difficult to correct mistakes.  One advantage is that many of them are not electrical, so you do not need to plug them in.  Hackers cannot see what you have typed.  On many typewriters, a separate type element (called a typebar) corresponds to each key.  The first commercial typewriters were introduced in 1874. They did not become common in offices until after the mid-1880s.

Typewriters quickly became a necessary tool for almost all writing other than personal handwritten letters.  They were used a lot by professional writers, in offices, and for business correspondence in private homes.  Typewriters were common in most offices up to the 1980s.  After that, computers often replaced them. Nevertheless, typewriters are still common in some parts of the world. They are needed for a few specific applications, and they are popular in certain subcultures.  Early typewriters, and later cheap ones, were "manual" typewriters. This means they were powered completely by the user.  After the mid-20th century, electric typewriters with a motor became most common.

## Related pages

- Teletypewriter
Nocturnal animals

**Nocturnal** (Latin: _nox_ - night, darkness) animals are animals which are mainly active during the night. They hunt or feed during the night, and sleep during the day. Diurnal animals do it the other way around.

**Crepuscular** animals are mostly active near dawn, dusk, and sometimes when the full moon throws light. Domestic cats hunt mice and voles mostly at this time.

**Cathemeral** animals are equally likely to be awake and active at any time of day or night.

Many nocturnal animals have good night vision.  Their large eyes may be highly reflective when a bright light flashes on them. Owls and bats are typical nocturnal predators. More specifically, they have a larger cornea relative to their eye size than diurnal creatures. This increases their visual sensitivity in low-light conditions.

## Examples of nocturnal animals

- Owls
- Bats
- Hedgehogs
Czestochowa

**Częstochowa** is a city in south Poland on the Warta River. It has 248,894 residents. It has been in the Silesian Voivodeship (administrative division) since 1999, and was once the capital of Częstochowa Voivodship (1975-1998).

The town is known for the famous monastery of Jasna Góra Monastery, which is the home of the Black Madonna painting, a shrine of the Virgin Mary. Every year, thousands of people from all over the world come to Częstochowa to see it.

## City name

The name **Częstochowa** means Częstoch's place, and comes from the name of a person, Częstoch. It is mentioned in medieval documents also as Częstobor and Częstomir. Częstochowa is also known as Czestochowa, Czenstochov, and Chenstochov.

## Tourism

Currently, the city is one of the main tourist attractions in the area. It attracts hundreds of thousands of visitors every year.
The Black Madonna of Częstochowa, kept at the Jasna Góra Monastery, is a very popular attraction.
50s

_This is an article about the years 50 AD to 59 AD. Sometimes, _the 50s_ is used for the 1950s_.

## Events and trends

- The Roman emperor Claudius is murdered in (54). Nero be comes emperor.
- Buddhism comes to China through the Emperor Ming of Han China

## Significant people

- Claudius, Roman Emperor (41–54).
- Nero, Roman Emperor (54–68).
- Kujula Kadphises, Kushan emperor
- Saint Paul, Christian evangelist
- Emperor Ming of Han China

## Births

- Juvenal, Roman poet.
- Domitian, Emperor of Rome

## Deaths

- Claudius, Emperor of Rome
- Agrippina the younger, mother of Nero
Twilight

**Twilight** means either **dawn** or **dusk** when the Sun is below the horizon but still lights the sky.

In the morning, dawn is when it is not dark any more, and the light of the sun is just starting to appear, before sunrise. In the evening, it is the other way around and that phenomenon is called dusk. At sunset, the sun disappears, and darkness is settling in. Light fades away.

The following have been defined:
- _Civil twilight_ is when the sun is less than 6° below the horizon. It ends at sunrise in the morning or follows sunset in the evening.
- _Nautical twilight_ is when the sun is between 6° and 12° below the horizon.
- _Astronomical twilight_ is when the sun is between 12° and 18° below the horizon.
For all these definitions, the horizon is at sea level.

## Related pages

- Aurora (mythology)
- Eos

## Other websites

- Definition of Twilight , US Naval Observatory
- Twilight time calculator
- Formulae to calculate twilight duration , by Herbert Glarner
Dusk

**Dusk** is the second twilight of the day. That occurs after sunset.
1291

## Events

- The Crusades end.
- Switzerland was founded.

## Births

- February 8 – King Afonso IV of Portugal (d. 1357)
- October 31 – Philippe de Vitry, French composer (d. 1361)
- Pope Clement VI (d. 1352)
- Theodore I of Montferrat (d. 1338)
- Aimone of Savoy (d. 1343)

## Deaths

- March 10 – Arghun, Mongol ruler
- June 18 – King Alfonso III of Aragon (b. 1265)
- June 26 – Eleanor of Provence, queen of Henry III of England
- July 15 – Rudolph I of Germany, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1218)
- Hong Dagu, Korean military leader (b. 1244)
- Talabuga, khan of the Blue Horde
European Central Bank

The **European Central Bank** (**ECB**) is the central bank for the euro. It administers the monetary policy of the eurozone, which is 19 EU member states and is one of the largest currency areas in the world. It is one of the world's most important central banks and is one of the seven institutions of the European Union  listed in the Treaty on European Union. The capital stock of the bank is owned by the central banks of all 28 EU member states. The Treaty of Amsterdam established the bank in 1998. Its  headquarters is in Frankfurt, Germany.  the President of the ECB is Mario Draghi, former governor of the Bank of Italy, former member of the World Bank, and former managing director of the Goldman Sachs international division (2002–2005).

The primary objective of the ECB, mandated in Article 2 of the Statute of the ECB, is to maintain price stability within the Eurozone. Its basic tasks, set out in Article 3 of the Statute, are to set and implement the monetary policy for the Eurozone, to conduct foreign exchange operations, to take care of the foreign reserves of the European System of Central Banks and operation of the financial market infrastructure under the TARGET2 payments system and the technical platform  for settlement of securities in Europe. The ECB has, under Article 16 of its Statute, the exclusive right to authorise euro banknotes. Member states can issue euro coins, but the amount must be authorised by the ECB beforehand.

The ECB is governed by European law directly. Its set-up is like that of a corporation in the sense that the ECB has shareholders and stock capital. Its capital is €11 billion held by the national central banks of the member states as shareholders. The initial capital allocation key was determined in 1998 on the basis of the states' population and GDP, but the capital key has been adjusted. Shares in the ECB are not transferable and cannot be used as collateral.

The **European Central Bank** is the main bank of the European Union. The main goal of the European Central Bank is to maintain price stability, in other words make sure inflation is below 2%. This is done by controlling the interest rates.

Presidents:
1. Wim Duisenberg (from the Netherlands): 1998-2003
1. Jean-Claude Trichet (from France): 2003-2011
1. Mario Draghi (from Italy): 2011-2019
1. Christine Lagarde (from France): 2019-present

## Infobox (central bank)

- **headquarters**: Frankfurt, Germany
- **bank name**: European Central Bank
- **image 1**: Logo European Central Bank.svg
- **established**: 1 June 1998
- **president**: Christine Lagarde
- **leader title**: President of the European Central Bank, President
- **currency iso**: EUR
- **currency**: Euro
- **borrowing rate**: 0.00% (Main refinancing operations)
0.25% (Marginal lending facility)
- **deposit rate**: -0.40% (Deposit facility)
- **website**: [https://www.ecb.europa.eu www.ecb.europa.eu]
Friendship

**Friendship** means familiarity with and liking of each other's mind.

People who are friends talk to each other and spend time together. They trust one another and also help each other when they are in trouble or are hurt. Friends are people that can be looked up to and trusted. Friends usually have similar interests. A friend is one who admires another person.

The strength of the bond of friendship between two people can vary. If the bond is very strong, they are called best friends.

There are expectations, demands, and complaints in friendship too. If friends do not match your expectations, it does not mean you will break the friendship. It is all about understanding, realizing, and helping whenever possible.

Friendship is both good and bad. Generally, it is only people of similar age, character, and background, mentality, etc., who can understand the problems of another person. Friends are needed for support and for sharing.

There are many different types of friendships. Most people find friends at a young age. Some do not have friends until much later in life, others will never make friends in their lifetime. Friendships can end. Friends leaving can be caused by differences in opinion or not talking to each other for a long time.

Many movies and TV shows are based on people making friends. An example of a friendship would be that of Sierra, Olivia, Emma, Langli, and Mallory in the movie Eight grade Whittier.

The word _Friendship_ is also the official motto of Texas.

## Related pages

- Platonic love
- Cross-sex friendship

## Other websites

Friendship facts by RoastedBook.com
Clitoris

The **clitoris** is a female genital organ. It includes erectile tissue, glands, muscles and ligaments, nerves, and blood vessels. In an embryo there is a small raised point that grows into a clitoris in girls or a penis in boys. Inside the penis, there is the urethra, but there is no urethra in the clitoris. In women, the urethra is hidden behind the clitoris and in front of the vagina. Penises with male urethras are used daily for urination, and can be used for sex: semen passes out of the body through the male urethra.

Although the parts are placed differently, the clitoris is a match to the male penis. The clitoris causes females sexual pleasure, arousal and orgasm. Rubbing or applying other consistent pressure to it is usually needed to help the female have an orgasm.

During sexual arousal, erectile tissue fills with blood. This causes the clitoris to grow. It grows until orgasm happens. Also during arousal, touching the clitoris and other sensitive areas of the female genitals makes a woman's vagina change shape and release a lubricant. The lubricant and change of shape makes it easier for a man's penis to enter a woman and for sex to occur. Most of the clitorial body is hidden inside the hood, but only a small part of it may be seen outside the body. Adding the outside and inside parts, the clitoris is about the same size as the penis. The clitoris and penis grow from the same tissue in the womb; they bear many similar parts.

### Outside the body

The parts of the clitoris that can be seen from the outside are located from the _clitoral junction_ (the point where the outer lips meet at the base of the pubic mound) to the _fork_ (where the lower edges of the inner lips meet below the vaginal opening). The outside parts include:

- the _glans_: the head or tip. It is filled with nerve endings. The glans creates pleasurable feelings. It also increases a woman's sexual response.
- the hood: the fold of skin formed by the outer edges of the inner lips. It covers the glans. The hood is the same as the male foreskin.
- the inner lips: hairless and very sensitive to touch.

### Inside the body

The parts of the clitoris inside the body include erectile tissue, glands, muscles, blood vessels, and nerves. In both the clitoris and the penis, there are two types of erectile tissue. These are _corpus cavernosum_ (cavern-like body) and vestibular bulbs. These tissues fill with blood during sexual arousal. This causes an erection. The clitoral shaft is connected to the glans. It is just underneath the surface of the skin. The shaft is a round spongy erectile tissue. It is very sensitive like the glans. It feels like a hard ridge. The shaft is about  long. It moves toward the pubic mound for a short distance, then bends sharply and divides. This forms two thin legs. These legs are also made of spongy tissue. The legs spread out like the wishbone of a chicken.

## Related pages

- Clitoris (female reproductive system/anatomy) related: clitoral glans, corpus cavernosum clitoridis (female corpus cavernosum)
- G-spot
- Urethra, anus
- Penis
Łódź

**Łódź** () is the third-largest city in Poland. As of 2022, 411,310 people reside within the city. It is in central Poland, contained within the lodz voivodeship. In native polish, the name alludes to  "boat". The mayor of Łódź is Hanna Zdanowska.

## History

The first documents mentioning the city date from 1332. Łódź was awarded city rights (according to the Magdeburg law) in 1432. The Congress of Vienna decided in 1815 that the city should be part of Russia. Only in 1918 did the city fall back to Poland.

## Geography

The city is about 120 km south-west of Warsaw. In and around the city, there are some textile and electronics industries. Because of prolonged economic difficulties, there has been a decline in the population of the city. The city has a university and a film academy. Łódź has a humid continental climate (_Dfb_ in  the Koeppen climate classification).

## Sports

There are two major football teams in Łódź: the first is called ŁKS Łódź and the second is Widzew Łódź.

## Notable residents

- Grażyna Bacewicz, composer
- Max Factor, Sr., businessman, founder of the Max Factor cosmetics company
- Piotr Fronczewski, Polish actor
- Marcin Gortat, NBA basketball player for the Phoenix Suns
- Roman Polanski, cinema director, Oscar and Golden Palm winner
- Władysław Reymont, writer, Nobel Prize winner
- Paweł Rogaliński, journalist
- Artur Rubinstein, pianist, settled
- Julian Tuwim, poet
- Miś Uszatek, cartoon character
- Marek Saganowski, football player
- Adam Ostrowski, better known as O.S.T.R., rapper

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Łódź
- **settlement type**: City
- **image flag**: POL Łódź flag.svg
- **flag alt**: Flag
- **image seal**: POL Łódź COA.svg
- **seal alt**: Coat of arms (europeannationalhistorymusuem.org)
- **image skyline**: Lodz plac Wolnosci (dron 1).jpg
- **image alt**: Wolności Square
- **image caption**: Wolności Square in Łódź
- **pushpin map**: Poland
- **population total**: 411310 (Eurostar.org)
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision name**: Poland
- **subdivision type1**: Voivodeship
- **subdivision name1**: Łódź Voivodeship, Łódź
- **timezone1**: Central European Time, CET
- **utc offset1**: +1
- **timezone1 dst**: Central European Summer Time, CEST
- **utc offset1 dst**: +2
Kraków

**Kraków** (pronounced: ; in full **Royal Capital City of Krakow**, ) is one of the oldest and largest cities in Poland. In 2014, 759,800 people lived in Kraków. It is on the Vistula river. Krakow is the capital of Lesser Poland Voivodeship (_województwo małopolskie_); before that it was the capital of Kraków Voivodship (since 14th century).

During the mid-early 19th century, Krakow became an independent city-state, under the name of "The Free, Independent and Strictly Neutral City of Krakow". However, it was annexed by Austria-Hungary in 1846.

Pope John Paul II was raised in Krakow and was its archbishop from 1964 until he was elected as Pope in 1978. When it was later announced that the city will host World Youth Day in 2016, it will be a tribute to the late Pope who became a saint in 2014.

From 2002 to 2024, the mayor of the city was Jacek Majchrowski. His successor was Aleksander Miszalski.

During World War II, there was once a ghetto in the city which held mostly the Jews of Kraków. The ghetto was liquidated for the final time in March 1943, with most of its inhabitants sent to the Treblinka extermination camp.

## Sister cities

Kraków is twinned, or maintains close relations with:

## Related pages

- Trams in Kraków

## Other websites

- Official website of the city
Frame of reference

In physics, a **frame of reference**, or **reference frame**, is a perspective that one uses to determine if an object is moving. A frame of reference consists of an object or environment that is considered to be stationary. Typically the observer is at rest in the reference frame; in this context, the term is "**observational frame of reference**."

For example, when you see a ball roll down a street, you can tell the ball is moving because the frame of reference is the streets, whatever may be on the side of the roads, or the Earth. All of these are frames of reference.

All measurements of motion will be compared to a frame of reference. Therefore, the most commonly used frame of reference is Earth itself, even though it moves. Stars are used as a frame of reference when discussing the motions of the Earth.

When we walk from one side of a ship to the other, our frame of reference is the ship; whether the ship is moving is not relevant to that frame of reference.

## Inertial frame of reference

An inertial frame of reference is a frame that is either not moving or moving at a constant velocity. In other words, an inertial frame of reference has no net force acting upon it, and therefore Newton's laws of motion are observed.

Inertial reference frames are often used in general relativity and special relativity to describe relative motion of observers or objects and the effects they will endure.

Inertial frames of reference are useful in everyday life as well. For example, consider a situation where two cars are traveling along a road. See Figure 1. If they are separated by a distance of 100 meters, the car in the black is moving at 10 meters per second and the car in front is moving at 5 meters per second, both relative to the ground.

There are three obvious inertial reference frames that can be used to determine when the cars will be even with each other: one where the back car is not moving but the front car is moving backwards at 5 m/s, one where the front car is stationary and the back car is moving forward at 5 m/s, or one where the ground is not moving and the cars are moving at their given velocities. These three perspectives all describe the situation accurately and are physically identical.

## Related pages

- General relativity
- Special relativity
- Cartesian coordinate system
- Lorentz transformation
- Principle of relativity
Broadway

**Broadway** is a -long main street in New York City. It is different from other streets in that it runs diagonally across the street grid of Manhattan, diagonally crossing newer streets. The street also goes through the Bronx. It continues north as U.S. Route 9 to Albany, the capital of New York State.

Times Square, where Broadway meets 7th Avenue and 42nd Street, is a center of entertainment and is famous for its many Broadway theatres and stage plays.

One of the New York City Subway lines, the BMT Broadway Line, runs under the street in Manhattan, south of Times Square. The IRT Broadway - Seventh Avenue Line runs under Broadway, north of Times Square.
Nutmeg

**Nutmeg** (_Myristica fragrans_) is a species of evergreen tree in the genus _Myristica_. It is found in tropical Southeast Asia and Australia.

Nutmeg powder can  cause allergic reactions.
Run (island)

**Pulau Run** is an island in Indonesia. It is one of the smallest Islands of the Banda Islands. It is about 3 km long and less than 1 km wide.

It used to be of great importance, because of the value of the spices nutmeg and _mace_. Both spices are from the same tree. The trees were only grown on the Banda Islands.  During the history of the spice trade sailors of the British East India Company of the second expedition of James Lancaster, John Davis and John Middleton who stayed in Bantam on Java first reached the Island in 1603. They made good contacts with the people who lived there.

Two wars were fought over the extremely costly spices.

The Treaty of Westminster ended the First Anglo-Dutch War of 1652–1654. According to the treaty, Run should have been returned to England. The first attempt in 1660 failed due to formal constraints by the Dutch; after the second in 1665 the English traders were expelled in the same year and the Dutch destroyed the nutmeg trees.

After the second Anglo-Dutch War of 1665–1667 England and the United Provinces of the Netherlands agreed in the Treaty of Breda to the status quo: The English kept the island of Manhattan which a fleet sent by the Duke of York (the future Charles II), had occupied illegally in 1664 and renamed from New Amsterdam to New York. Run was officially given to the Dutch.

The Dutch monopoly on nutmeg and mace was destroyed by the transfer of nutmeg trees to Ceylon, Singapore and other British colonies in 1817 after the capture of the main Island Bandalontor in 1810 by Captain Cole. This led to the decline of the Dutch supremacy in the spice trade, but there are still nutmeg trees growing on Run today.

## Further reading

- Milton, Giles.  _Nathaniel's Nutmeg: or the True and Incredible Adventures of the Spice Trader Who Changed the Course of History_.  Penguin, 1999.  ()
Shinty

**Shinty** a traditional game now mainly played in the Scottish Highlands. It involves 2 teams of twelve players using a stick (known as a "caman" from Scottish Gaelic) to put a ball in the opposing team's net.

It was once played over all Scotland but is now played mostly in the Scottish Highlands and Highland communities in the big Scottish cities. It is also played in universities and in America by enthusiasts.

The sport's rules and regulations are decided by the Camanachd Association.

It has a common ancestor with the Irish game of hurling and hurlers and shinty players sometimes hold internationals.

## Other websites

- An Interesting Site about the Sport
- The Camanachd Association website.
1229

## Events

- February 18 – The Sixth Crusade: Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor signs a ten-year truce with al-Kamil, regaining Jerusalem, Nazareth, and Bethlehem with neither military engagements nor support from the papacy.
- March 18 – Sixth Crusade of Emperor Frederick II ends in truce with Sultan al-Kamil and coronation of Frederick as King of Jerusalem.
- Catalans capture island of Majorca from Muslims.
- University of Paris strike of 1229.
- Foundation of the University of Toulouse in Toulouse, France.
- Founding of the city of Turku, Finland.

## Deaths

- January 17 – Albert of Buxhoeveden, German soldier
- Yaqut al-Hamawi, Arab biographer and geographer (born 1179)
1626

## Events

- September 30 – Nurhaci, chieftain of the Jurchens and founder of the Qing Dynasty dies and is succeeded by his son Huang Taiji.
- November 18 – The new St Peter's Basilica in the Vatican is consecrated, the anniversary of that of the previous church in 326.
- Spanish establish a trading colony on Taiwan.
- Peter Minuit, director of the New Netherland colony, begins a policy of "purchasing" Manhattan from the Lenape.
- Work begins on building the sailing ship Vasa.
- The Duchy of Urbino is incorporated into the Papal States.
- The English Parliament impeach George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, favorite of Charles I of England.
- Charles I dissolves Parliament.
- The Dutch settle Manhattan, founding the town of New Amsterdam. The town would transform into a piece of what is now New York City.
- In New England, the Town (later City) of Salem, Massachusetts is founded at Naumkeag
1399

**1399** (MCCCXCIX) was a common year starting on Wednesday in the Julian calendar.

## Events

- February 3 – death of John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster
- September 30 – Accession of Henry IV of England
- October 13 – Coronation of Henry IV of England
- November 1 – Accession of John VI, Duke of Brittany

## Deaths

- February 3 – death of John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster
54

**54** is a common year in the 1st century.

## Events

- October 13 – Roman Emperor Claudius dies after being poisoned by Agrippina, his wife and niece.
- Nero succeeds Claudius as emperor of Roman Empire
- Patriarch Onesimus succeeds Stachys the Apostle as Patriarch of Constantinople.
- Judea is returned piecemeal to Agrippa I's son Marcus Julius Agrippa between 48 and 54.
- Saint Paul begins his third mission.
- Apollos, a later assistant of Paul, is converted to Christianity in  Ephesus
- Maiden Castle, Dorset in Dorset was captured from the Celtic Durotriges by Vespasian.
48

**48** is a year in the 1st century. It was a leap year starting on Monday  of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Vitellius and Poplicola**.

## Events

- Roman Emperor Claudius makes Agrippa II superintendent of the Temple in Jerusalem
- Probable date of the Apostolic Council
- The Silures, with the help of Caratacus, revolt against the Romans in Britain.
- The Hsiung-nu empire ends
- Gallic nobles are admitted to the Roman Senate

## Births

- Ts'ai Lun, inventor of paper (d. 121)
- Ulpia Marciana, sister of emperor Trajan (d. 112)

## Deaths

- Valeria Messalina, third wife of emperor Claudius
- Pompey - military and political leader of Roman Republic
1244

## Events

- Dogen Zenji establishes the Eiheiji temple in Japan, in doing so founding the Soto sect of Zen Buddhism.
- Sultan Malik al-Muattam razes city walls.
- James I of Aragon reconquers Altea, Spain.
1253

## Events

- July 6 – Mindaugas is crowned as King of Lithuania.
- July – William II, Count of Holland defeats the Flemish army at Westkapelle.
- A series of naval wars begins between the Italian city-states of Genoa and Venice, which will continue sporadically until 1371.
- King Henry III of England meets with English nobles and church leaders to reaffirm the validity of Magna Carta.
- Pope Innocent IV returns to Rome, having left nine years earlier in 1244 to depose Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, and being unable to return until after Frederick's death due to the agitation throughout Europe caused by that action.
- Having rebuffed the armed forces of Conrad IV of Germany, Pope Innocent IV offers Sicily to Edmund, son of King Henry III of England.
- Galicia becomes a vassal state to the expanding Mongol Empire.

## Deaths

- January 19 – Dogen, Japanese founder of the Soto school of Zen Buddhism
- August 11 – Clare of Assisi, Italian follower of Francis of Assisi (born 1194)
- October 9 – Robert Grosseteste, English statesman and theologian
- Wenceslaus I, King of Bohemia
- Theobald IV of Champagne (born 1201)
- Saint Richard of Chichester
- King Henry I of Cyprus (born 1217)
- Amadeus IV of Savoy (born 1197)
1627

## Events

- July 22 – English under the Duke of Buckingham invade the Ré Island in support of the Huguenots in La Rochelle. The invasion does not go well.
- A Dutch ship makes the first recorded sighting of the coast of South Australia.

- The aurochs are hunted to extinction, the last being killed by poachers in Poland.
- England places the first European settlers on Barbados.
- Siege of La Rochelle begins
- Korea becomes a tributary state of China
1645

## Events

- January 10 – Archbishop of Canterbury William Laud executed for treason on Tower Hill, London.
- January 14 – English Civil War: Fairfax appointed Commander-in-Chief.
- January 29 – English Civil War: Armistice talks opened at Uxbridge.
- February 2 – Covenanters defeated by Montrose at the Battle of Inverlochy
- February 15 – English Civil War: New Model Army is founded officially
- February 29 – English Civil War: Uxbridge armistice talks failed.
- March 4 – English Civil War: Prince Rupert left Oxford for Bristol.
- March 31 – Fearing the spread of the plague, Edinburgh Town Council bans all gatherings except weddings and funerals
- April 3 – Lords pass Self-Denying Ordinance.
- April 10 – Because of the plague, Edinburgh town council orders that the college graduation ceremony should be brought forward so that students can leave the city (in November 19, teaching continues in Linlithgow)
- April 23 – English Civil War: 150 Irish soldiers bound for service with King Charles, were captured at sea by parliamentarians who celebrated St George's Day by joyfully killing them all at Pembroke.
- May 9 – Covenanters defeated by Montrose at the Battle of Auldearn.
- June 1 – English Civil War: Prince Rupert' army took sacked Leicester
- June 10 – English Civil War: Cromwell confirmed as Lieutenant-General of Cavalry.
- June 14 – English Civil War: Battle of Naseby – 12,000 Royalist forces are beaten by 15,000 Parliamentarian soldiers
- June 28 – English Civil War – the Royalists lose Carlisle.
- July 2: Fight at Alford, Aberdeenshire.
- July 10 – English Civil War: Cromwell won the Battle of Langport, Somerset.
- July 23 – Alexei Mikhailovich, Tsar of Russia came to the throne.
- September 10 – English Civil War: Prince Rupert surrendered Bristol.
- September 13 – Covenanters defeated Montrose at the Battle of Philiphaugh, Selkirk.
- September 24 – English Civil War: Parliamentarians defeated Royalist cavalry at the Battle of Rowton Heath.
- October 8 – English Civil War: Final crushing of Basing house begun.
- October 8: Jeanne Mance founds the Hôtel-Dieu de Montréal, the first hospital in North America.
- October 11 – English Civil War The re-fortification of Bourne, Lincolnshire castle against threatened Royalist attack, was begun.

- Siege of Raglan Castle during the English Civil War
- The Long Parliament outlaws the 1559 version of the Book of Common Prayer
- Beginning of the Maunder Minimum, a time period when sunspots became exceedingly rare
- Founding of the Stolberg-Wernigerode branch of the family of counts of Stolberg and Wernigerode in Germany
- Wallpaper begins to replace tapestries as a wall decoration
- Mechanical calculating machine invented by Blaise Pascal.
1072

## Events

- William I of England invades Scotland, and also receives the submission of Hereward the Wake.
- Osbern FitzOsbern becomes Bishop of Exeter.
- January 10 – Normans conquer Palermo in Sicily.
1263

## Events

- October – King Alexander III of Scotland defeats the Viking armada of King Haakon IV of Norway in the Battle of Largs.
- King James I of Aragon conquers Crevillente, Spain from the Moors during the Reconquista.
- Mindaugas, the only Christian king of Lithuania, is assassinated by his cousin Treniota.
- The chieftains of the eastern part of Iceland become the last to pledge fealty to the Norwegian king, bringing a more complete end to the Icelandic Commonwealth and the Icelandic civil war.
- Genoa captures the city of Chania on Crete from the Venetians.
- Hulagu Khan is defeated in an attempted invasion north of the Caucasus.
- Based on Magdeburg Law Żnin (Poland) was given city rights
1264

## Events

- Before May – Second Barons' War, a civil war in England, begins.
- May 12 to May 14 – The Battle of Lewes of the Second Barons' War is fought between Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester and King Henry III of England in Sussex. By the end of the battle, de Montfort's forces capture both King Henry and his brother, future King Edward I, making de Montfort the "uncrowned king of England" for 15 months before Edward escapes captivity and recaptures the throne.
- June 18 – The Parliament of Ireland meets at Castledermot in County Kildare, the first definitively known meeting of this Irish legislature.
- In Spain, King James I of Aragon reconquers the cities of Orihuela in Alicante and Elx in Valencia from the Moors, ending over 500 years of Islamic rule.
- The Thuringian War of Succession ends.
- The state of Hesse gains its independence from Thuringia and becomes a free state of the Holy Roman Empire.
- In the Peerage of England, the title Baron de Ros, the oldest continuously held peerage title in England, is created by writ of summons.

## Births

- May 26 – Prince Koreyasu, Japanese shogun (died 1326)
- Pope Clement V (died 1314)
1641

## Events

- The Long Parliament passes a series of laws written to help keep Charles I's absolutist policies.
- August 10 – Charles I of England runs from London to the north
- Irish Rebellion of 1641 – revolt of the Gaelic Irish in Ulster against the English settlers
- The Dutch found a trading colony on Dejima, near Nagasaki, Japan.
- Portugal is ousted from Malacca by the Dutch.
- Claudio Monteverdi's opera _Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria_ is first performed.
- Moses Amyraut's _De l'elevation de la foy et de l'abaissement de la raison en la creance des mysteres de la religion_ is published.
- The Norwegian city of Kristiansand was founded by King Christian IV
814

## Deaths

- January 28-Charlemagne, King of the Franks
Manx

The word **Manx** could mean many things related to the Isle of Man:

- The Manx language, also known as Manx or Manx Gaelic
- The Manx people, an ethnic group in the Isle of Man
- The Manx cat, a domestic cat breed
- The Manx Shearwater, a seabird
- The Manx Pound, the currency of the Isle of Man
- Manx cattle, Manx horse, Manx pig and Manx sheepdog, some extinct animals from the Isle of Man
- Manx Radio, the national radio station of the Isle of Man