juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Light microscope

A **light microscope** or **optical microscope** works like a refracting telescope except that the object is very close to the objective lens. An object to be studied, for example a tiny organism so small it looks like just a dot, is put on a slide, which is usually a flat piece of glass. The clips on the microscope's flat stage hold the slide in place. The stage can be adjusted to add more light.  It also moves to allow different layers of the object to be in focus.  The user looks through the microscope eyepiece.  A mirror at the bottom of the microscope reflects light rays up to the object through a hole in the stage. Objective lenses magnify the image which is made even larger when it is seen through the eyepiece lenses. Some light microscopes are actually digital cameras, made to photograph small things but having no eyepiece.

Many microscopes, often used in colleges and high schools, normally have a top magnification of 40x with the option of having 4x and 8x. This lets the microscope show basic cells and other items.  Others can magnify hundreds of times, or thousands.

## Components

All modern optical microscopes designed for viewing samples by transmitted light share the same basic components of the light path, listed here in the order the light travels through them. Also almost all microscopes have the same 'structural' components:
- Ocular lens (eyepiece) (1)
- Objective turret or Revolver or Revolving nose piece (to hold multiple objective lenses) (2)
- _Objective_ (3)
- Focus wheel to move the stage (4 – coarse adjustment, 5 – fine adjustment)
- Frame (6)
- Light source, a light or a mirror (7)
- Diaphragm and condenser lens (8)
- Stage (to hold the sample) (9)
These entries are numbered according to the image on the right.

## Alternatives

Optical microscopes cannot show things that are smaller than light waves, because of the diffraction limit. Microscopes which can see smaller things include:
- Atomic force microscope (AFM)
- Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
- Scanning ion-conductance microscopy (SICM)
- Scanning tunneling microscope (STM)
- Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
- Ultraviolet microscope
- X-ray microscope

## Other websites

- Antique Microscopes.com A collection of early microscopes
- Historical microscopes , an illustrated collection with more than 3000 photos of scientific microscopes by European makers
- The Golub Collection, A collection of 17th through 19th Century microscopes, including extensive descriptions
- _Molecular Expressions_, concepts in optical microscopy
- Online tutorial of practical optical microscopy
- OpenWetWare
- Antonie van Leeuwenhoek: father of microscopy and microbiology
Culinary mustard

**Culinary mustard** is a condiment people use when making food. It comes from the seeds of the mustard plant.

## Preparation

Mustard is prepared by grinding the seeds of the Mustard plant, and mixing them with water or vinegar. Depending on which seeds are taken, and/or how much vinegar is added, the mustard may turn out hotter or less hot.

## Use

Most mustard is made available as a bottled condiment and can be spread on a slice of sandwich bread, salad, vegetables, meat or squirted onto a hotdog or a potato salad, along with ketchup, horseradish and other spices. It is often found in fast-food restaurants in the form of a small packet which the diner may open and squeeze into the dish of choice.

## Related pages

- Condiment
- Ketchup
- Spice
Condiment

A **condiment** is a prepared food that is put to other food, to make the food better or taste different. It usually is in the form of a sauce or a powder. Salt and pepper are examples of well-known condiments. Ketchup, mustard, relish, mayonnaise, horseradish, soy sauce and Worcestershire sauce are also well-known condiments.
Vinegar

**Vinegar** is a liquid containing mainly water and acetic acid and used mostly in cooking. It can be made from wine or other liquids containing alcohol, like cider, fermented fruit juices, or fermented malt. Ethanol is oxidized from the liquid, resulting in vinegar.

Vinegar made from dates is a traditional product of the Middle East. It can also be made through the use of certain bacteria. Vinegar contains about 5% of acetic acid. The acid makes it sour.

In cooking, it is often used as a condiment to add to salad, fish, french fries and vegetables like pickles and cabbage.  It is much used in salad dressings.

The pH of vinegar depends on how much acid is in it. Apple cider vinegar is typically between pH 4.25 and 5.00 if undiluted. Distilled vinegar has a pH of around 2.4.

There are many types of vinegar, such as balsamic, red wine, and apple cider vinegar. It is also shown above as well as the others.

## Other websites

- Vinegar -Citizendium
Insecticide

An **insecticide** is a pesticide made to kill insects and spiders.

Insects are very tough animals that have adapted to live and various climates and places.  Therefore, the poison used to kill them is also poisonous to humans.  It can be dangerous when you have vegetables.  This is why often people will rub an apple on cloth before eating it.  This polishes the natural wax on apple and rubs away some of the pesticides.  If you do not clean the clothing there is a risk pesticide might build up.
Paranoia

**Paranoia** is a mental health condition that affects a person's thoughts. A person with paranoia is called **paranoid**. Paranoia is a thought process heavily influenced by anxiety or fear, often to the point of irrationality and delusion.

A paranoid person's thinking is shaped by fear and anxiety. For example, the person may fear that other people are "out to get them" or are planning to hurt them. They may believe that video cameras are watching them, or that a certain group (like the police or CIA) is following them. They may also believe that other people can control their thoughts or use magic to hurt them. Even if these fears seem strange or absurd to others, they feel very real to the person with paranoia. They truly believe that they are in danger.

Paranoia is different from phobias. In a phobia, someone has an irrational fear, but does not blame anyone for this fear. A paranoid person will often make false accusations and say that something was intentional, when it was just coincidence or an accident.

If a person is truly paranoid, their fears must not be explained by common beliefs, like their religion. For example, some religions say that people can use magic to hurt others. So a person from one of those religions should not be diagnosed as paranoid just because he/she has this belief. They would also have to have other paranoid beliefs - which could not be explained by religious beliefs - to be diagnosed with paranoia.

Very often, people with paranoia also have other thought disorders, or mood disorders. Paranoia can be a symptom of schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and other mental illnesses.

In everyday talk, people may use "paranoid" to mean more normal worries. For example, someone may call a friend paranoid for thinking that his teacher hates him.
Delusion

A **delusion** is a false belief held by a person. When doctors talk about delusions, they mean that the false belief is the result of some disease. This is usually a disease of the mind, such as paranoia, schizophrenia or bipolar disorder, but not always. Delusions can come in many forms, such as persecutory delusions (a belief that the person is always being attacked), grandiose delusions (a belief that the person is very special), religious delusions (a belief that the person is a god), and more.

The psychiatrist Karl Jaspers created the first criteria for a belief to be considered a delusion:
- The person with the delusion is completely convinced that it is true.
- The delusion does not change even when it is proved to be wrong.
- The delusion is improbable or strange.
However, these guidelines have been criticized because none of the criteria are necessary to have a delusion. Studies show that delusions can change in intensity and confidence over time. Delusions also do not need to be false beliefs. Some religious beliefs cannot be proved false, so they cannot be used for a diagnosis.

A doctor or psychiatrist may say that a delusion is false because it _seems_ to be improbable or strange. Because psychiatrists do not always investigate a person's claims completely, they will sometimes wrongly diagnose a patient as delusional. This is called the Martha Mitchell effect, which was named after the wife of the attorney general in the Nixon administration. Martha Mitchell said illegal activity was happening in the White House. At the time, people thought she was mentally ill. However, she was proven right after the Watergate scandal.

Treating delusions is hard, but sometimes antipsychotics can be used. If the delusions are dangerous to the person or other people, the person may also be treated against their will.
Paganism

**Paganism** is a term that covers a great number of spiritual and religious beliefs, and someone who follows one of these beliefs is known as a Pagan.

## Overview

Some of those in ancient times, who are called _Pagans_ today, believed there was not just one god but a number of gods and goddesses.  The stories from Greek mythology are famous examples from a pagan religion. Pagans usually focus on spirituality and nature, rather than on doctrines and dogma. Not all pagans are polytheists (belief in more than one god). Some of them are monotheists (belief in only one god).

## Name

The word _pagan_ (with a lowercase _p_) is often used to describe anyone who holds religious beliefs that differ from the main world religions. A similar term is _heathen_.

## Today

Nowadays, _Pagan_ (with an uppercase _P_) often refers to people who follow Neo-Pagan religions that honour the Earth. The best known Neo-Pagan religion is Wicca. Another well-known neo-pagan faith is Druidism, but there are many other Neo-Pagan religions with different beliefs.

## Examples

- Wicca
- Asatru
- Tenrikyo
- Druidism
- Tengrism
- Kemetism
- Greek religion
- Baltic paganism
    - Dodekatheism
- Slavic paganism
- Finnish paganism
- Germanic paganism
- Ancient Meitei paganism
- Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism

## Surviving religions of earlier cultures

Enough has survived of the ancient religions of cultures from pre-modern Africa, South America, New Guinea and Japan to give us quite a clear picture. Since African slaves were taken to both South America and the United States, it is no surprise that their beliefs and practices still survive. Not, of course, as the main religion, but they do survive.

In a similar way, but much less well documented, are the ancient religions of other groups such as the Ainu in Japan, the tribes in New Guinea, the many tribes in Amazonia, and the fractured remnants of traditional religions in African countries.

### Characteristics

All these groups have one thing in common: they are not part of farming revolution which happened in the Middle East, and which spread quickly to Eurasia. The religions which started there are called the _religions of the book_ because their original beliefs were written down. Of course, writing was one of the original inventions of a settled people, one able to invest time and energy into activities which would be far more difficult for more traditional peoples.

## Related pages

- Taoism
- Sikhism
- Buddhism
- Christianity
- Agnosticism
- Abrahamic religions

## Other websites

- [news:soc.religion.paganism Usenet newsgroup for Pagans]
- The Witches Voice, a networking and education site
1578

**1578** (MDLXXVIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday in the Julian calendar.

## Events

- January 31 – Battle of Gemblours – Spanish forces under Don John of Austria and Alexander Farnese defeat the Dutch. Don John begins to recover control of the French-speaking Southern Netherlands
- August 4 – Battle of Al Kasr al Kebir – The Moroccans defeat the Portuguese. King Sebastian I of Portugal is defeated and killed in North Africa, leaving his elderly uncle, Cardinal Henry, as his heir. This initiates a succession crisis in Portugal.
- October 1 – Alexander Farnese, Prince of Parma, succeeds Don John as Spanish Governor-General of the Netherlands.
- Martin Frobisher held the first celebration of Thanksgiving by Europeans in North American at Newfoundland by the Frobisher Expedition.
- Tibet – Sonam Gyrso receives from prince Atlan Khan the title of "Talaï" and becomes the third Dalai Lama.
- Battle of Wenden – The Russians are defeated by the Swedes, who proceed to take Polotsk.
- The Ottoman Empire conquers Abkhazia.
- Sixth and so far the last outbreak of the sweating sickness in England
1504

**1504** (MDIV) was a leap year starting on Monday in the Julian calendar.

## Events

- January 1 – French troops surrender Gaeta to the Spanish under Cordoba.
- January 31 – France cedes Naples to Aragon.
- February 29 – Christopher Columbus uses his knowledge of a lunar eclipse that night to convince Native Americans to provide him with supplies.
- Michelangelo (Michelangelo Buonarroti) finishes his sculpture of David – August 8 it is erected in Florence.
- Moldavia, Stephan III the Great fights against Turkey and Poland.
- Baber besieges and captures Kabul.
- Ferdinand II of Aragon becomes King of Naples as Ferdinand III.
- Christopher Columbus return to Spain from his fourth voyage where he and his younger son, Ferdinand, explored the coast of Central America from Belize to Panama.
- Aldo Manuzio publishes Demosthenes.
- Grünenwald: "Crucifixion".
- Voyage of Juan de la Cosa to South America.
- A Funj leader, Amara Dunqas, founds the Black Sultanate (As Saltana az Zarqa) at Sennar. (History of Sudan (Coming of Islam to the Turkiyah))

## Births

- Roxelana, Polish wife of Suleiman the Magnificent (d.1558)
- August 6 – Matthew Parker, Archbishop of Canterbury (died 1574)
- Giovanni Battista Giraldi, Italian writer

## Deaths

- November 9 – King Frederick IV of Naples
- November 26 – Queen Isabella of Castile (born 1451)
- Domenico Maria Novara da Ferrara, Italian astronomer
1726

## Events

- George Friderich Handel becomes a British subject.
- Jonathan Swift publishes Gulliver's Travels.
- The city of Montevideo was established.
- Mary Toft allegedly gives birth to 16 rabbits in England, later revealed to be a hoax.
- The Gujin tushu jicheng, an immense Chinese encyclopedia, is printed using movable copper type.

## Births

- June 23  Victor Amadeus III, King of Sardinia (d. 1796)
- April 5  Benjamin Harrison V, signer of the United States Declaration of Independence (d. 1791)
- June 3  James Hutton, Scottish geologist (d. 1797)
- June 11  Maria Teresa Rafaela of Spain, daughter of Philip V of Spain (d. 1746)
- June 20  Louise Henriette de Bourbon, mother of Philippe Égalité (d.1759)
- September 1  François-André Danican Philidor, French chess player (d. 1795)
- December 1  Oliver Wolcott, signer of the United States Declaration of Independence (d. 1797)
- December 3  George Wythe, signer of the United States Declaration of Independence (d. 1806)

## Deaths

- August 8 - Margravine Johanna of Baden-Baden, Duchess of Orleans (b. 1704)
Courage

A person has **Courage** if they do something even though they are afraid. Courage can be doing things that other people think should be scary. A person has courage if they put themself in danger to save another person (this is called mental strength). If someone has courage, it is said that they are courageous, standing up for what you believe in (also called moral strength).

For example, someone may be said to have courage if they fight a lion, or save a baby from a burning building.

Courage is the opposite of fear and can also be called bravery and one of virtues.

## Related pages

- Hero
1710s

The **1710s** was a decade that started on 1 January 1710 and ended on 31 December 1719. It is distinct from the decade known as the ***172th decade*** which began on January 1, 1711 and ended on December 31, 1720.

## Events

- The Great Northern War

## World leaders

- King Louis XIV of France (1643–1715)
- King Louis XV of France (1715–1774).
- Queen Anne of Great Britain (1702–1714).
- King George I of Great Britain (1714–1727).
- Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor (1705–1711).
- Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor (1711–1740).
- Husayn, Shah of Persia during the Safavid dynasty
- Tsar Peter I of Russia (1682–1725).
- King Philip V of Spain (1700–1746).
- King Charles XII of Sweden (1697–1718).
- Queen Ulrike Eleonora of Sweden (1719–1720).
Fan (person)

A **fan** or **fanatic** is someone who like a thing, a person, or an idea. Things that fans might like are hobbies, sports (often a team), music, a kind of movie or book, or almost anything. There are lots of kinds of fans, including science fiction fans and fans of popular music stars, like The Beatles. Fans will meet with each other to talk about and share their interest, often in large groups called conventions.

The word _fanatic_ can also be used to talk about people who care a lot about politics, religion or their own group of people. Some fanatics can hurt other people whom they dislike, or who disagree with them.

In British English, **supporter** is their word for a person who likes and supports a sportsperson or a team. Many teams of some sports have thousands of supporters, for example, the football team Real Madrid. In American English, **supporter** is more often used to talk about people in politics. Supporters of a politician, a political party, or an idea such as a particular law may like their subject very much, but usually are not violent.
Caribbean Community

The **Caribbean Community** , or **CARICOM**, is a group of nations in the Caribbean Sea that have come together founded on 4 July 1973. They share their products, and they have a government to help organize the area. They are mainly together to help trade and their economies.

The full members are:

- Barbados
- Belize
- Dominica
- Grenada
- Guyana
- Haiti
- Jamaica
- Montserrat (a territory of the United Kingdom)
- Saint Kitts and Nevis
- Saint Lucia
- Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
- Suriname
- Trinidad and Tobago
- United States
1747

## Events

- Afghanistan becomes independent from Persia.
- February 11 – A combined French and Indian force, commanded by Coulon de Villiers, attacks British troops at Grand Pré, Nova Scotia.
- April 9 – The Scottish Jacobite Lord Lovat was beheaded by axe on Tower Hill, London, for high treason.
- May 14 – War of the Austrian Succession: First battle of Cape Finisterre.
- June 9 – Emperor Momozono rises to power in Japan, after Emperor Sakuramachi.

## Births

- January 15 – John Aikin, English doctor and writer (died 1822)
- January 19 – Johann Elert Bode, German astronomer (died 1826)
- January 26 – Samuel Parr, English schoolmaster (died 1825)
- February 19 – John "Walking" Stewart, traveller and philosopher (died 1822)
- February 21 – Eugenio Espejo, Ecuadorian scientist (died 1795)
- May 5 – Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor (died 1792)
- July 6 – John Paul Jones, American naval captain (died 1792)
- October 8 – Jean-François Rewbell, French politician (died 1807)
- December 12 – Anna Seward, English writer (died 1809)

## Deaths

- January 16 – Barthold Heinrich Brockes, German poet (born 1680)
- March 16 – Christian Augustus of Anhalt-Zerbst, father of Catherine II of Russia (born 1690)
- March 23 – Claude Alexandre de Bonneval, French soldier (born 1675)
- April 2 – Johann Jacob Dillenius, German botanist (born 1684)
- April 7 – Leopold I, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau, Prussian field marshal (born 1676)
- May 28 – Luc de Clapiers, marquis de Vauvenargues, French writer (born 1715)
- May 31 – Andrei Osterman, Russian statesman (born 1686)
- June – Nadir Shah, Persian leader (born 1688)
- June 19 – Alessandro Marcello, Italian composer (born 1669)
- July 9 – Giovanni Bononcini, Italian composer (born 1670)
- October 10 – John Potter, Archbishop of Canterbury (born c.1674)
- November 17 – Alain-René Le Sage, French writer (born 1668)
- December 2 – Vincent Bourne, English classical scholar (born 1695)
1762

## Events

- **Ongoing**
    - Seven Years War (1756 - 1763)

## Births

- August 12 – King George IV of the United Kingdom, Prince of Wales (d. 1830)
- November 1 – Spencer Perceval, British politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1812)

## Deaths

- Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten, German philosopher
1520

## Deaths

- Montezuma II (born 1466)
- Pier Gerlofs Donia (born 1480)
- April 6 – Raphael (born 1483)
Qaqortoq

**Qaqortoq**, also known by its Danish name _Julianehåb_, is a town in southwestern Greenland. With a population of 3,100, it is South Greenland's biggest town. It is the fourth biggest town in Greenland. The name Qaqortoq is Western Greenlandic, and it means "white". Qaqortoq also is the seat of the municipality of Qaqortoq which apart from the town itself includes three small settlements. Qaqortoq was founded by Norwegian Anders Olsen in 1775. Near Qaqortoq are the Hvalsey ruins, the most famous Norse ruins in Greenland.

## References

"_Greenland and the Arctic_". By Etain O'Carroll and Mark Elliott. Lonely Planet 2005. .

## Other websites

- 'Official' Qaqortoq website  (limited information in English)
- English version
Sisimiut

**Sisimiut** (also known by its Danish name 'Holsteinsborg') is a town in southwestern Greenland. With 5,247 people (as of 2005), it is the second biggest town in Greenland. It is 75 kilometers north of the Arctic Circle, and is Greenland's most northern year-round port which has no ice.

## Other websites

- Municipality of Sisimiut
Arctic Circle

The **Arctic Circle** is one of the five major circles of latitude (imaginary lines around the Earth) that are often marked on maps of the Earth. This is the parallel of latitude that (in 2000) runs 66° 33' 39" north of the Equator. North of this line, the Sun never rises at the Winter Solstice and never sets at the Summer Solstice.

The Arctic Circle is one way to say what part of the Earth is in the Arctic. The North Pole is in the center of the Arctic Circle.

Countries which are partly within the Arctic Circle are:
- Russia
- Canada
- Denmark (Greenland)
- United States of America (Alaska)
- Norway
- Sweden
- Finland
- Iceland (less than 1 square kilometre)

The position of the Arctic Circle is not fixed. It directly depends on the Earth's axial tilt. The axial tilt fluctuates within a margin of 2° over a 40,000-year period, mostly due to tidal forces from the orbit of the Moon. The tilt is currently diminishing, so the Arctic Circle is drifting northwards at a speed of about  per year.

## Related pages

- Northern Hemisphere
- Southern Hemisphere
- Eastern Hemisphere
- Western Hemisphere
- Seasons
- Solstice and equinox
- Equator
- Tropic of Cancer
- Tropic of Capricorn
- Antarctic Circle
- Circle of latitude
Kabul

**Kabul** is the capital and largest city of Afghanistan.

According to a 2012 estimate, the population of the city was around 3,289,000. Ths includes Tajiks, Pashtuns, Hazaras and some other smaller ethnic groups. It is the 64th largest and the 5th fastest growing city in the world.

It is 1,800 meters, or 5,900 feet above-sea-level. Kabul is over 3,500 years old.

## Districts

The city of Kabul is inside Kabul District - a district of Kabul Province. The city is also a municipality (_shārwāli_) - because it is also capital of a province; That municipality is divided into 22 administrative districts called municipal districts or city districts (_nāhia_); These districts (are the same, or) coincide with the official Police Districts (PD).

## Related pages

- Kabul Province
- Wahida Amiri, Afghan activist

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Kabul
- **settlement type**: Metropolis
- **image caption**: From top left to right: A mountain behind a built-up neighborhood; The Arg (Kabul), Presidential Palace; Square with a large Soviet microdistrict in the background; Abdul Rahman Mosque; 16th-century Gardens of Babur
- **pushpin map**: Afghanistan#Asia
- **pushpin label position**: above
- **pushpin mapsize**: 300
- **pushpin relief**: 1
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision type1**: Provinces of Afghanistan, Province
- **subdivision name1**: Kabul Province, Kabul
- **subdivision type2**: No. of districts
- **subdivision name2**: 22
- **established title**: Capital formation
- **established date**: 1776
- **government type**: Municipality
- **leader title**: Mayor
- **leader name**: Abdullah Habibzai
- **area total km2**: 1023
- **elevation m**: 1791
- **population total**: 4,635,000
- **population as of**: 2015
- **population density km2**: auto
- **population note**: Kabul urban agglomeration
- **population demonym**: Kabuli, Kabulite
- **timezone**: Afghanistan Standard Time
- **utc offset**: +4:30
- **postal code type**: Postal code
- **postal code**: 100X, 101X, 105X, 106X
- **area code**: Telephone numbers in Afghanistan, (+93) 20
- **blank name**: Köppen climate classification, Climate
- **blank info**: Semi-arid climate#Cold semi-arid climates, BSk
Parfait

**Parfait** is a type of food that is eaten as a dessert. It is a French word that means _perfect_.

## Styles of Parfait

Parfaits are made differently in different countries.

### French Parfait

A common parfait is the French kind. A French parfait mixes sugar, whip cream, an egg yolk, sauce, cold fruit and frozen ice cream. French parfaits are usually served on a plate not in a glass.

### Japanese Parfait

Japanese parfait made mainly of ice cream and fruit with a sweet ingredient. It is served in a tall glass. It is a classic on a coffee shop menu. It is one of the more popular desserts.

## Varieties

- Fruit parfait
- Chocolate parfait
- Strawberry parfait
- Mango parfait
- Banana parfait
- Custard pudding parfait
- Green tea parfait
Angel food cake

- _Angel Cake is also the name of a doll in the Strawberry Shortcake series._

**Angel food cake** is an example of cake that became popular in the United States in the 19th century. It is also called **angel cake**. It is very light and fluffy. Because of this, it is named Angel cake because it is said to be "food for the angels."

Angel food cake needs the egg whites to be whipped until they are stiff, and carefully folded into the other ingredients. For this method of "leavening" to work well, it is helpful to have flour that has been made of softer wheat. This causes angel food cake to have a very light texture and taste.  Angel food cake should be cut with a serrated knife, as a solid blade tends to compress the cake rather than cut it.

Some people like to add aromatic spices to angel food cake.
Wrench

A **wrench** (or **spanner**) is a tool used to provide grip and turn nuts and bolts, and similarly shaped objects.

In British English, _spanner_ is the standard term. The most common shapes are called _open-ended spanner_ and _ring spanner_. The term _wrench_ is generally used for tools that turn non-fastening devices (e.g. tap wrench and pipe wrench), or may be used for a monkey wrench – an adjustable spanner.

What a wrench or spanner does is to grip. Pulling or pushing the handle to rotate gives mechanical advantage. It applies torque to turn objects – usually rotary fasteners, such as nuts and bolts – or keep them from turning.

## Adjustable wrenches

An adjustable spanner, or adjustable wrench, or crescent wrench in American English, is a tool. It may move its jaw to rotate nuts or bolts of different sizes. It was invented by Edwin Beard Budding (1795–1846), who also invented the lawnmower.
AFI's 100 Years... 100 Laughs

**AFI's 100 Years... 100 Laughs** is a list of the top one hundred comedy movies in American cinema. The American Film Institute presented it on June 14, 2000.

## The list

1. _Some Like It Hot_ (1959)
1. _Tootsie_ (1982)
1. _Dr. Strangelove_ (1964)
1. _Annie Hall_ (1977)
1. _Duck Soup_ (1933)
1. _Blazing Saddles_ (1974)
1. _M*A*S*H_ (1970)
1. _It Happened One Night_ (1934)
1. _The Graduate_ (1967)
1. _Airplane!_ (1980)
1. _The Producers_ (1968)
1. _A Night at the Opera_ (1935)
1. _Young Frankenstein_ (1974)
1. _Bringing up Baby_ (1938)
1. _The Philadelphia Story_ (1940)
1. _Singin' in the Rain_ (1952)
1. _The Odd Couple_ (1968)
1. _The General_ (1927)
1. _His Girl Friday_ (1940)
1. _The Apartment_ (1960)
1. _A Fish Called Wanda_ (1988)
1. _Adam's Rib_ (1949)
1. _When Harry Met Sally..._ (1989)
1. _Born Yesterday_ (1950)
1. _The Gold Rush_ (1925)
1. _Being There_ (1979)
1. _There's Something About Mary_ (1998)
1. _Ghostbusters_ (1984)
1. _This Is Spinal Tap_ (1984)
1. _Arsenic and Old Lace_ (1944)
1. _Raising Arizona_ (1987)
1. _The Thin Man_ (1934)
1. _Modern Times_ (1936)
1. _Groundhog Day_ (1993)
1. _Harvey_ (1950)
1. _National Lampoon's Animal House_ (1978)
1. _The Great Dictator_ (1940)
1. _City Lights_ (1931)
1. _Sullivan's Travels_ (1941)
1. _It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World_ (1963)
1. _Moonstruck_ (1987)
1. _Big_ (1988)
1. _American Graffiti_ (1973)
1. _My Man Godfrey_ (1936)
1. _Harold and Maude_ (1972)
1. _Manhattan_ (1979)
1. _Shampoo_ (1975)
1. _A Shot in the Dark_ (1964)
1. _To Be or Not to Be_ (1942)
1. _Cat Ballou_ (1965)
1. _The Seven Year Itch_ (1955)
1. _Ninotchka_ (1939)
1. _Arthur_ (1981)
1. _The Miracle of Morgan's Creek_ (1944)
1. _The Lady Eve_ (1941)
1. _Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein_ (1948)
1. _Diner_ (1982)
1. _It's a Gift_ (1934)
1. _A Day at the Races_ (1937)
1. _Topper_ (1937)
1. _What's Up, Doc?_ (1972)
1. _Sherlock, Jr._ (1924)
1. _Beverly Hills Cop_ (1984)
1. _Broadcast News_ (1987)
1. _Horse Feathers_ (1932)
1. _Take the Money and Run_ (1969)
1. _Mrs. Doubtfire_ (1993)
1. _The Awful Truth_ (1937)
1. _Bananas_ (1971)
1. _Mr. Deeds Goes to Town_ (1936)
1. _Caddyshack_ (1980)
1. _Mr. Blandings Builds His Dream House_ (1948)
1. _Monkey Business_ (1931)
1. _Nine to Five_ (1980)
1. _She Done Him Wrong_ (1933)
1. _Victor/Victoria_ (1982)
1. _The Palm Beach Story_ (1942)
1. _Road to Morocco_ (1942)
1. _The Freshman_ (1925)
1. _Sleeper_ (1973)
1. _The Navigator_ (1924)
1. _Private Benjamin_ (1980)
1. _Father of the Bride_ (1950)
1. _Lost in America_ (1985)
1. _Dinner at Eight_ (1933)
1. _City Slickers_ (1991)
1. _Fast Times at Ridgemont High_ (1982)
1. _Beetlejuice_ (1988)
1. _The Jerk_ (1979)
1. _Woman of the Year_ (1942)
1. _The Heartbreak Kid_ (1972)
1. _Ball of Fire_ (1941)
1. _Fargo_ (1996)
1. _Auntie Mame_ (1958)
1. _Silver Streak_ (1976)
1. _Sons of the Desert_ (1933)
1. _Bull Durham_ (1988)
1. _The Court Jester_ (1956)
1. _The Nutty Professor_ (1963)
1. _Good Morning, Vietnam_ (1987)
Irish Sea

The **Irish Sea** (sometimes called the **Manx Sea**) is a body of water that separates Ireland and Great Britain. It is known to be one of the most polluted seas in the world including the North Sea and the Mediterranean Sea. The sea is important to regional trade, shipping and fishing.  It is a source of power generation in the form of wind power and nuclear plants. Annual traffic between Great Britain and Ireland amounts to over 12 million passengers and  of traded goods.

## Economics

It covers  and at its deepest point is  deep. In 2008, about  of fish were caught. Shell fish made up three quarters of this amount.

The Irish Sea has 17 active oil and gas drilling platforms. It is estimated there are about 1.6 billion barrels of oil in the Barryroe oil field alone.

### Sealife

At least thirty species of shark can be found in the Irish Sea at different times. These include the basking, thresher, blue, mako and porbeagle sharks. There are about 12 species of Dolphin, porpoise and whales in the Irish Sea. These include the common dolphin, bottlenose dolphin and the harbor porpoise.
Party (disambiguation)

A **party** is a social gathering primarily for celebration and recreation.

**Party** could also mean an individual person, or group of individuals:

- Party (pronoun), used to identify a grammatical person:
    - "First-party" pronoun, such as we
    - "Second-party" pronoun, such as you
    - "Third-party" pronoun, such as they

- one or more participants in the context of a legal, business, or political relationship:
    - First party, a principal in the relationship (referring to self) or the obvious dominant principal
    - Second party, the other principals in the relationship
    - Third party (disambiguation), some other person or entity with some involvement (many uses across many disciplines)

- Party (law), a person or group of persons composing a single entity for the purposes of the law

- a **party** in politics:
    - Political party, an organization that seeks to attain political power within a government
    - Third party (politics), any minor party in any two-party system
    - The Party (politics) can refer to a dominant political party in a country, often the _only_ party (in a single party systems). For example, in reference to the Soviet Union, **the Party** means the Communist Party of the Soviet Union

- Wedding party, the bride, groom, bridesmaids, groomsmen and sometimes other participants in a wedding
- The members of an expedition, often armed. Sometimes synonymous with squad; e.g.:
    - Hunting party
    - Scouting party

**Parti** (a foreign spelling) may also mean:
- Architectural parti, the underlying idea behind a work of architecture.
- a foreign political party - possibly also "Partia"
    - See articles beginning in Parti, usually foreign political parties.

## Media

- Party (film), (1984)  by Govind Nihalani.
- "Party", a 2007 episode of _The Mighty Boosh_
- Party (Nick Swardson album), a comedy album by Nick Swardson

## Technology

- A **party**, in role-playing games, is a group of game characters working together for a common purpose, generally comprised of the participating player characters.
- Third-party developer, hardware or software developer not directly tied to the primary product that a consumer is using

in the **video game industry**:
- First-party developer, a division of a console manufacturer, who develops games for the company's video game console
- Second-party developer, a company that is tied to, and makes games specifically for, a console manufacturer
- Third-party developer, a company licensed by, but not directly tied to, a console manufacturer

## Other

- The Party (disambiguation)
- Surprise party, a celebration that is not made known to one or more of the guests until it occurs
Hatred

**Hatred** is an emotion of very strong dislike for someone or something. It is a desire to avoid, restrict, remove, or destroy that person or thing. It is often thought the opposite of love. Hatred can also be a form of projection.

Sigmund Freud said that hatred was a selfish feeling that wishes to get rid of whatever is making that person unhappy. The _Penguin Dictionary of Psychology_ says that hate is a "deep, enduring (long-lasting), intense emotion expressing animosity, anger, and hostility towards a person, group, or object."

Hatred can often cause the hate crime and International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights prohibits inciting hatred by the Article 20.
1270

## Events

- The Solomonid king Yekuno Amlak kills the last king of the Zagwe dynasty in Ethiopia. The Solomonids begin to rule Ethiopia, which they continue until 1974.
- Louis IX of France starts the Eighth Crusade by attacking Tunis.
- In Korea, the Sambyeolcho Rebellion begins.

## Births

- Jacob ben Asher, Spanish Rabbi (Jewish religious leader)

## Deaths

- King Louis IX of France
Ilulissat

**Ilulissat** (population 4,000) is the third largest city in Greenland. The town is about halfway up the country's west coast, at 69 degrees north latitude, about 200 kilometers north of the Arctic Circle. Illulisat is also known by its Danish name of **Jakobshavn** (or Jacob's Harbour). In direct translation, Ilulissat is the Greenlandic word for 'The Icebergs'. Ilulissat is Greenland's most popular tourist place, because it is near to the beautiful Ilulissat Ice Fjord - tourism is now the town's main industry. Ilulissat was the birthplace of the great polar explorer Knud Rasmussen, and his childhood home in the center of the town is now a museum dedicated to him.

## History

Inuit villages have been in the area of the ice fjord for at least three thousand years. The abandoned settlement of **Sermermiut** two kilometers south of the modern town of Ilulissat was once amongst the largest settlements in Greenland, with around 250 residents. The modern town was founded in 1741 by a missionary and a trader of fur, who had built a trading lodge in the area.

## Ilulissat ice fjord

The Ilulissat fjord goes west 40 kilometers from the Greenland icecap to Disko Bay, close to Ilulissat town. At its eastern end is the Jakobshavn Isbrae Glacier, the most productive glacier in the Northern Hemisphere. The glacier flows at a rate of 20-35 metres per day, resulting in around 20 billion tons of icebergs breaking off and leaving the fjord every year. On breaking up the icebergs come out into the open sea and at first, they travel north with ocean currents.  Soon, they start turning south and they go into the Atlantic Ocean.

The Ilulissat Icefjord was made a United Nations World Heritage Site in 2004.

## Transportation

Air Greenland has air services to Ilulissat.

## Related pages

- List of towns in Greenland

## Other websites

- Ilulissat tourist information site
Meridian

A **meridian** is an imaginary line of longitude drawn along the surface of the earth from the North Pole to the South Pole.

Geographers today measure these lines from what they call the Prime Meridian. It is the line of longitude that goes through the Royal Greenwich Observatory in Greenwich, England. They decided this at the 1884 _International Meridian Conference_.

Meridians, as lines of longitude, are measured in degrees. The Prime Meridian, as the starting point, is 0 (zero) degrees. Lines west of the Prime Meridian are either called _west_, as in "the longitude of Los Angeles, California is 118 degrees west", or as a negative number: "the longitude of Los Angeles, California is -118 degrees". Going the other direction, east of the Prime Meridian is always said as a positive number: "The longitude of Mecca is about 40 degrees east," or just "The longitude of Mecca is about 40 degrees."

## Related pages

- Eastern Hemisphere
- Western Hemisphere
- International Date Line
1700s

The **1700s** was a decade that began on 1 January 1700 and ended on 31 December 1709. It is distinct from the decade known as the ***171th decade*** which began on January 1, 1701 and ended on December 31, 1710.

## Events and trends

- The Bonneville Slide blocks the Columbia River near the site of present-day Cascade Locks, Oregon with a land bridge 200 feet (60 m) high. The river eventually removes the blockage, but this event is remembered in the local legends of the Native Americans as the Bridge of the Gods.
- The first newspaper to be published in English.
- The War of the Spanish Succession, started in 1701.
- The Age of Enlightenment
- The Industrial Revolution, a time period starting in the 1700s.
- The Scientific Revolution, another important cultural advance.

## World leaders

- King Frederick IV of Denmark (1699–1730).
- King William III of England and Scotland (1689–1702).
- Queen Anne of Great Britain (1702–1714).
- King Louis XIV of France (1643–1715).
- Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor (1658–1705).
- Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor (1705–1711).
- Tsar Peter I of Russia (1682–1725).
- King Philip V of Spain (1700–1746).
- King Charles XII of Sweden (1697–1718).
District

A **district** is an area or locality.  In some places, it is a kind of local government.

Some of the countries districts are used in are Austria, Belgium, China, England, Germany, Hong Kong, Serbia, Japan, Malaysia, Pakistan, India, Portugal, Switzerland, the United States, and many more.

In the South Asian subcontinent, including India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan, the common term for an official or government **administration district** is Zillah.  In other countries the word Daïra is used.

## Lists of districts

- Districts of Albania
- Districts of Austria
- Districts of Bangladesh
- Districts of Belize
- Districts of England
- Districts of Germany
- Districts of Japan
- Districts of Libya
- Districts of Northern Ireland
- Districts of Pakistan
- Districts of Slovakia
- Districts of Switzerland
Literacy

**Literacy** means the ability to read and write. Being able to read and write is an important skill in modern societies. Usually, people learn how to read and write at school. People who can read and write are called _literate_; those who cannot are called _illiterate_.

According to UNESCO, **illiteracy** is not being able to write or read a simple sentence in any language. They estimated that, in 1998, about 16% of the world's population were illiterate.

Illiteracy is highest amongst the states of the Arabian Peninsula, and in Africa, around the Sahara. In those countries about 30% of men, and 40-50% of women are illiterate, by the UN definition. One of the causes of illiteracy is that someone who can manage to live without being able to read and write often does not have any reason to want to learn to read and write. Cultural factors also play a part, such as having a culture in which the oral tradition (communicating by speaking) is more important than writing. A tribe that mostly herds livestock, for example, may have no need to read or write.

There are two different kinds of illiteracy:

- People with primary illiteracy have never learned how to read or write.
- People who have learned some reading and writing, but not well enough for their work are called functionally illiterate. Perhaps they cannot write well enough to fill out a form, or to understand instructions in a manual. In most industrial countries, the main problem is **functional illiteracy**.

In English the word literacy has traditionally meant to be well educated. It also meant to be familiar with literature (to know about books). In the late 19th century the word came to include the ability to read and write. It still kept its larger meaning. In modern usage, literacy also means being able to read print, visual, and sound texts. To continue learning, students must be literate in more than just reading and writing text.

## Related pages

- Writing
- Reading
- Literacy test
- Aliteracy
- Functional illiteracy
- Right to education
Daffy Duck

**Daffy Duck** is a cartoon duck from the  _Looney Tunes_ cartoons. He stands on two legs, has a black body, a white ring about his neck, and a yellowish-orange beak. He first appeared in _Porky´s Duck Hunt_ in 1937. He was created by Tex Avery and Bob Clampett. In 1946, Daffy had started to change, and Daffy became less looney. Over the years, Daffy Duck had changed from a screwball and heckling character to greedy and a jealous character.

## Appearances

- _Space Jam_ (1996) -- (Main role)
- _Looney Tunes: Back in Action_ (2003) -- (Main role)
- _Space Jam: A New Legacy_ (2021) -- (Main role)

## Infobox (character)

- **name**: Daffy Duck
- **series**: Looney Tunes/Merrie Melodies
- **first**: _Porky's Duck Hunt_ ()
- **lbl1**: Developed by
- **alias**: Duck Dodgers
- **species**: American black duck
- **gender**: Male
- **nationality**: United States, American
- **family**: Billy (cousin)
Danger Duck (descendant)
- **image size**: 4px
1650s

The **1650s** was a decade that began on 1 January 1650 and ended on 31 December 1659. It is distinct from the decade known as the ***166th decade*** which began on January 1, 1651 and ended on December 31, 1660.

## World leaders

- King Frederick III of Denmark (1648–1670).
- Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland (1653–1658).
- Richard Cromwell, Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland (1658–1659).
- King Louis XIV of France (1643–1715).
- Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor (1637–1657).
- Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor (1658–1705).
- King John II of Poland (1649–1668).
- King John IV of Portugal (1640–1656).
- King Afonso VI of Portugal (1656–1667).
- Tsar Aleksey I of Russia (1645–1676).
- King Philip IV of Spain (1621–1665).
- Queen Christina of Sweden (1632–1654).
- King Charles X of Sweden (1654–1660).
Guillotine

The **guillotine** is a machine used to execute people by decapitation (chopping off their heads).

A guillotine is made of a heavy blade attached to a rack, which moves up and down on a vertical frame. When the executioner releases the rack, it falls and the blade cuts the convict's head off.

## History

Machines like the guillotine were first invented in the Middle Ages, and were used throughout Europe. For example, Scotland used a machine called the "Scottish Maiden".

Such machines were seldom used in France, until the French Revolution of 1789. Instead, aristocrats were executed by beheading and ordinary criminals by hanging. The guillotine became the only legal way to execute someone in France. The guillotine was used because it caused a quick death.  Everyone, rich or poor, died the same way, no matter what social class.

The guillotine was commonly used in France (including France's colonies), and in Switzerland, Italy, Belgium, Germany, Austria, and Sweden. Today, all of these countries have abolished (legally stopped) the death penalty. The guillotine is no longer used.

## French Revolution

The guillotine was the main instrument of execution.  Thousands of people in the French Revolution died by the guillotine, including King and Queen Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette.  Maximilien Robespierre executed them and about 16,000 other people with the guillotine in the Reign of Terror.   On July 28th 1794, Robespierre himself became the last victim.

### Joseph Guillotin

The guillotine is named after a French medical doctor, Joseph-Ignace Guillotin. Guillotin was against the death penalty. Realising he could not stop the death penalty, Guillotin instead tried to think of a quicker, less painful way of executing people. On October 10, 1789, he suggested using a machine to do all the executions.

The actual guillotine was designed by another doctor, Antoine Louis.  Guillotin did not help much with the design, but his name went down in history.  Against Guillotin's wishes, the new machine quickly became known as the  _Guillotine_. Guillotin regretted this until death in 1814.

### Design

The design for a quick, painless, decapitation machine was given to Tobias Schmidt, a German engineer.  Schmidt built the first guillotine and tested it, on animals at first, but later on dead humans. It was made of two fourteen-foot uprights joined by a crossbar, whose inside edges were grooved and greased with tallow; the weighted blade was either straight, or curved like an axe. The system was started by a rope and pulley, while the whole construction was set up on a platform. The first execution was in 1792.

## Later use

The guillotine was still the only legal way to execute a person in France until 1979, when France stopped using the death penalty. In Nazi Germany, the guillotine was used to kill prisoners sentenced for serious crimes like murder, treason, or conspiracy against the government.

## References

A guillotine was last used in West Germany in 1949 and East Germany in 1961.  The last person guillotined was the Tunisian murderer Hamida Djandoubi in 1977.