juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
School uniform

A **school uniform**  is a standard set of clothes that students wear when they go to some schools. It might have a particular color of trousers or skirt,  a matching shirt and sometimes a jacket or necktie, with matching shoes.

In some countries, like Germany, students can wear whatever they want whenever they want. In other countries, like England and India there is usually a standard dress code in school, usually a set of dressing for girls and one for boys. Boys and girls need to wear _school uniforms_ when they go to school. In many countries, such as the United States, some schools require wearing a uniform, and some do not.

Originally, school uniforms were introduced to hide the social differences between students, but uniforms can also help with safety. Using standard uniforms can also save the money needed to buy extra clothes as fashion to impress other people at school. Uniforms are also thought to improve discipline and school spirit.

However, school uniforms can also help with health and safety by having clothes which have been tested to be safer when worn. Some fabrics can cause skin rashes in some people, while a uniform can be made of comfortable fabrics. Also, loose-fitting clothes can get caught in machinery or playground equipment, which limits what activities children can do safely.

There are several types of economic bullying which can be lessened by use of school uniforms. When many students are from families with less money, sometimes students with more money have stood out because they wore newer shoes, where neither shoe was in poor shape. In schools where more students are rich, poorer students have been insulted for the old-style or tattered clothes they wore.
Primate

**Primates** are an order of mammals. It includes all lemurs, monkeys and apes, including humans. Most primates (but not humans) are mainly or entirely forest dwellers.

There are about 400 species of primates. All primates are similar to humans in many ways, but language is an important advantage which only humans have. Other primates have a pattern of calls and gestures, but not language as we know it.

Primates have hands with five fingers and flat fingernails (most other animals have claws or hooves). All primates are covered with fur (hair), but in humans the body hair is only noticeable in two places: on the head and around the genitals.

Primates are split into two groups: Strepsirrhini and Haplorhini. Haplorrhini includes larger monkeys such as, tarsiers and apes including humans. Strepsirrhini includes smaller monkeys such as lemurs, lorises, galagos (also called bush babies) and the aye-aye.

Primates are one of the few mammal groups which re-evolved full color vision. Even so, color vision in birds is better. Color vision was lost in mammals during the long period when dinosaurs ruled the Earth, and mammals were mainly small nocturnal animals.

Close contact between humans and non-human primates creates opportunities for zoonotic diseases to get to humans.  Virus diseases transmitted to humans include herpes, measles, ebola, rabies, and hepatitis.

## Classification

- Order Primates
    - Suborder Strepsirrhini
        - Lemurs
        - Lorises
    - Suborder Haplorhini
        - Tarsiers
        - Platyrrhini: New World monkeys
        - Catarrhini:
            - Old World monkeys
            - Apes and humans
Tropic of Cancer

The **Tropic of Cancer** is one of the five major circles of latitude (imaginary lines around the Earth) that are often marked on maps of the Earth. This is the parallel of latitude that is 23° 26' 22" north of the Equator. At every June Solstice the Sun passes straight overhead on the tropic. This never happens anywhere north of the Tropic of Cancer.

## Related pages

- Northern Hemisphere
- Eastern Hemisphere
- Western Hemisphere
- Seasons
- Solstice and equinox
- Equator
- Tropics
- Tropic of Capricorn
- Southern Hemisphere
- Arctic Circle
- Antarctic Circle
Equinox

An **equinox** is when the sun passes directly over the equator. There are two equinoxes each year.  Equinox can also mean either of the two days when this happens. On these days, the nights are equal in length at latitudes L° North and L° South. The word _equinox_ comes from two Latin words meaning "equal" and "night".

Around the day of the equinox, the length of the day is a little over twelve hours and the length of the night is a little under twelve hours. They are not exactly equal because the sun is not a point in the sky and because the sunlight bends as it comes to earth. The exact day and time when this happens depend on how far away from the equator it is being measured. They occur on or around March 21 and September 21. Solstices fall around June 21st and December 21st at odd intervals.

The equinoxes are the beginning of spring, and autumn (or _fall_ in the US).

The time of daylight is quite easy to measure. This was done in many cultures where festivals were celebrated at the equinoxes.

## Related pages

- Solstice
Teufelsbrücke

The **Teufelsbrücke** (bridge of the devil) is a bridge over the river Reuss in the Swiss canton of Uri.

## First bridge

The valley called _Schöllenenschlucht_ is an important access route to the St.Gotthard alpine pass. However, the valley is very narrow, featuring a dangerous river Reuss.

The first bridge across the river was built in 1230. This was a wooden bridge. This meant that due to bad weather it had to be replaced often.

In the 16th century, it was replaced by a bridge of stone. That stone bridge was heavily damaged in the Napoleonic wars in 1799. Nobody could use the bridge because of the damage. Trade with Italy was done over the alpine pass at Splügen.

The first bridge was completely destroyed on a stormy night in 1888.

## Second bridge

Only in 1820 could the order to build a new bridge be given. The construction of the bridge took 10 years.

## Third bridge

In the middle of the 20th century, the second bridge was no longer able to handle the traffic. A third bridge, featuring two lanes, one for each direction, was built in 1958.

## Myth of the creation of the bridge

Building the first bridge was very hard. According to a local myth, the first bridge was built by the devil himself. The condition attached was that the devil should get the soul of the first to pass over the bridge. So, when the bridge was finished, people chased a goat over the bridge. Of course, the devil was furious, so he went to pick up a large stone (called _Teufelsstein_, the devil's stone). He wanted to smash the bridge he just built to pieces. On his way to the ridge however, he encountered an old believing woman with a cross. Scared of the cross, he left the stone, and fled.

The devil's stone weighs 2000 tons. 300.000 Swiss Francs were used in 1977 to shift the stone 127 meters to make way for the motorway passing over the St.Gotthard pass.

Popular belief has it that the moving of the stone was the cause of an increased number of accidents on kilometre 16 on the St. Gotthard road tunnel.
1630s

The **1630s** was a decade that began on 1 January 1630 and ended on 31 December 1639. It is distinct from the decade known as the ***164th decade*** which began on January 1, 1631 and ended on December 31, 1640.

## Events and trends

- Thirty Years' War goes on in Europe.
- September 8, 1636 – Thanks to a vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, Harvard College is the first college in the Americas.

## World leaders

- King Christian IV of Denmark and Norway (1588–1648).
- King Charles I of England, Scotland and Ireland (1625–1649).
- Hong Taiji, Emperor of the Qing.
- King Louis XIII of France (1610–1643).
- Cardinal Richelieu, chief minister of France (1624–1642).
- Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor (1620–1637).
- Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor (1637–1657).
- Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange, Stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Overijssel and Gelderland (1625–1647).
- Pope Urban VIII (1623–1644).
- King Philip IV of Spain (1621–1665).
- King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden (1611–1632)
- Queen Christina of Sweden (1632–1654).
Lepton

**Leptons** are elementary particles with spin 1/2 (a fermion) that are not affected by strong nuclear force.  They are a family of particles that are different from the other known family of fermions, the quarks.

Electrons are a well-known example that are found in ordinary matter. There are six leptons: the electron, muon, and tau particles and their associated neutrinos. The different varieties of the elementary particles are commonly called "flavors", and the neutrinos here are considered to have distinctly different flavor. Of the six leptons, three have electric charge and three do not. The best known charged lepton is the electron (e). The other two charged leptons are the muon (µ) and the tau (τ), which are like electrons but much bigger. The charged leptons are all negative particles, their _antiparticles_ are positively charged (for example, the antiparticle of the electron, e<sup>-</sup>, is a positron, e<sup>+</sup>).

The superparticle of a lepton is called a "slepton."
1620s

The **1620s** was a decade that began on 1 January 1620 and ended on 31 December 1629. It is distinct from the decade known as the ***163th decade*** which began on January 1, 1621 and ended on December 31, 1630.

## Events and trends

- Permanent Dutch settlement of New York Bay and the Hudson River.
- Permanent English settlements in Massachusetts and Virginia.
1690s

The **1690s** was a decade that began on 1 January 1690 and ended on 31 December 1699. It is distinct from the decade known as the ***170th decade*** which began on January 1, 1691 and ended on December 31, 1700.

## Events and trends

- Thomas Neale designed Seven Dials
- The Salem Witchcraft Trials are held in Massachusetts Bay Colony (1692).
- Dutch explorer Arnout Vielle discovers the first trade route down the Ohio Valley, New York Colony financed and profitable (1692).

## World leaders

- King Christian V of Denmark (1670–1699).
- King Frederick IV of Denmark (1699–1730).
- Queen  Mary II of England and Scotland (1689–1694).
- King  William III of England and Scotland (1689–1702).
- King Louis XIV of France (1643–1715).
- Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor (1658–1705).
- Tsar Ivan V of Russia (1682–1696).
- Tsar Peter I of Russia (1682–1725).
- King Charles II of Spain (1665–1700).
- King Charles XI of Sweden (1660–1697).
- King Charles XII of Sweden (1697–1718).

## Deaths

- Daibhidh O Duibhghennain, d. 1696
Tootsie

***Tootsie*** is a 1982 American romantic comedy-drama movie from Columbia Pictures. It stars Dustin Hoffman as a struggling actor, who dresses as a woman and soon has a role in a soap opera.

In 1998 the United States Library of Congress chose the movie to keep in the National Film Registry.

## Theme song

The theme song to the movie, "It Might Be You", was a Top 40 hit in the U.S., and also hit #1 on the U.S. adult contemporary chart.  Stephen Bishop sang the song and the music was by Dave Grusin / Marilyn and Alan Bergman.

## Cast

- Dustin Hoffman as Michael Dorsey / Dorothy Michaels
- Jessica Lange as Julie Nichols
- Teri Garr as Sandy Lester
- Dabney Coleman as Ron Carlisle
- Charles Durning as Leslie "Les" Nichols
- Bill Murray as Jeff Slater
- Sydney Pollack as George Fields
- George Gaynes as John Van Horn
- Geena Davis as April Page
- Doris Belack as Rita Marshall
- Lynne Thigpen as Jo
- Estelle Getty as Middle Aged Woman
- Michael M. Ryan as Elderly Aged Man

## Awards

The movie was nominated for ten Academy Awards. Lange was the only winner, for Best Actress in a Supporting Role.

The nominations were:
- Best Picture: Sydney Pollack and Dick Richards
- Best Actor in a Leading Role: Dustin Hoffman
- Best Actress in a Supporting Role: Teri Garr
- Best Director: Sydney Pollack
- Best Original Screenplay: Larry Gelbart, Murray Schisgal and Don McGuire
- Best Original Song ("It Might Be You"): Dave Grusin (music), Alan Bergman (lyrics) and Marilyn Bergman (lyrics)
- Best Sound: Arthur Piantadosi, Les Fresholtz, Dick Alexander and Les Lazarowitz
- Best Cinematography: Owen Roizman
- Best Film Editing: Fredric Steinkamp and William Steinkamp

The movie was number two in the AFI's 100 Years... 100 Laughs list in 2000.

It was nominated for the BAFTA Award for Best Adapted Screenplay.

## Infobox (movie)

- **name**: Tootsie
- **director**: Sydney Pollack
- **producer**: Sydney Pollack
Dick Richards
- **writer**: Larry Gelbart
Barry Levinson (uncredited)
Elaine May (uncredited)
Murray Schisgal
from the story by Gelbart and Don McGuire
- **starring**: Dustin Hoffman
Jessica Lange
Teri Garr
Dabney Coleman
- **music**: Dave Grusin (also songs)
- **cinematography**: Owen Roizman
- **editing**: Fredric Steinkamp and William Steinkamp
- **distributor**: Columbia Pictures
- **released**: December 17, 1982
- **country**: United States
- **runtime**: 116 minutes
- **language**: English
Lynyrd Skynyrd

**Lynyrd Skynyrd** is an American southern rock band from Jacksonville, Florida. Their name comes from one of their school teachers who was named Leonard Skinner. They wrote songs including: "Sweet Home Alabama", "Simple Man" and "Freebird." The lead singer's name was Ronnie Van Zant. After Ronnie died, his brother Johnny Van Zant became lead singer. Lynyrd Skynyrd has been performing for 50 years now. They had a concert on October 6, 2023. They got their name from their highschool gym coach

## Plane crash

On October 20, 1977, the band was on tour flying to Baton Rouge, Louisiana for their next gig, when their 1977 Convair 240 plane ran out of fuel and crashed in a heavily wooded area. Ronnie Van Zant, Steve Gaines, backup singer Cassie Gaines, assistant road manager Dean Kilpatrick and the pilots were killed in the crash. The rest of the band and crew were injured and temporarily split up. They reunited in 1987 with Van Zant's younger brother Johnny as their new singer.

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Lynyrd Skynyrd
- **image**: Lynyrd Skynyrd band (1973).jpg
- **image upright**: 1.2
- **caption**: Lynyrd Skynyrd in 1973
- **origin**: Jacksonville, Florida, U.S.
- **past members**: See #Band members, band members section and List of Lynyrd Skynyrd members, members list article
Peter Handke

**Peter Handke** (born December 6, 1942 in Griffen (Carinthia)) is an Austrian author and translator of books.

Peter Handke is known for his extremely critical (and perhaps even absurd) plays. Perhaps his best-known play is called _Publikumsbeschimpfung_ (translates roughly as _insulting /offending the audience_).  The play consists of actors insulting and offending the audience, and later congratulating them for the good performance. The play has been labelled as  _antitheater_.

In 2019, Handke was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature.

## Other websites

- Peter Handke, _Song of childhood_
- "A son's long good-bye", _Svenska Dagbladet_, Karl-Erik Tallmo, September 23, 1988

## Infobox (writer)

- **name**: Peter Handke
- **image**: Peter-handke.jpg
- **birth place**: Griffen, Austria
- **occupation**: Novelist, Playwright
- **nationality**: Austrian
- **notableworks**: _The Goalie's Anxiety at the Penalty Kick_, _Slow Homecoming_
- **signature**: Signature of Peter Handke.svg
IDD

**IDD** is an abbreviation that could mean:
- International Direct Dialing (see also: List of country calling codes)
- Iodine deficiency disorders. This term is often in use when people talk of plans to stop it.
- Insulin-dependent diabetes
Density

**Density** is a measurement that compares the amount of matter an object has to its volume. An object with much matter in a certain volume has high density. An object with little matter in the same amount of volume has a low density.
Density is found by dividing the mass of an object by its volume:

where _ρ_ is the density, _m_ is the mass, and _V_ is the volume.

## Changes of density

In general, density can be changed by changing either the pressure or the temperature. Increasing the pressure always increases the density of a material. Increasing the temperature usually lowers the density, but there are exceptions. For example, the density of water increases slightly between its melting point at 0 °C and 4 °C. When water freezes, it expands by about 9% in volume, making ice that is less dense than liquid water. Water expands as it drops below 4 °C.

## Measures

Fresh water is often used as a standard of relative density. This is called specific gravity.

The most common SI units for density are g/cm<sup>3</sup> and kg/m<sup>3</sup>. When the numerator is much larger than the denominator, that means the substance has a higher density. When the denominator is much larger than the numerator, the substance has a lower density.

## Other uses of the term

"Density" sometimes means the ratio between other properties instead of mass and volume.  Then it means how much of a property can be found in a specific piece of what they are looking at.  For example, _population density_ is how many people live within the same amount of land area. The population density in the city is higher than the country side because people live closer to each other in the city. In computers, _storage density_ is how much data can fit on a data storage device in relation to its physical size. A Blu-ray disc has a higher storage density than a DVD which has a higher storage density than a CD, even though they all have almost exactly the same volume.

## Related pages

- Archimedes' principle
Gram

A **gram**, or **gramme**, is a unit of measure in the metric system. It measures mass, or how much matter something is. The symbol is **g**. One gram used to be defined as the mass of one cubic centimetre of pure water at 3.98 degrees Celsius. Now one gram is defined as 1/1000 of a kilogram. A milligram is 1/1000 of a gram.
Longitude

**Longitude** is a way to say where a place is on the Earth. It is measured starting from an imaginary north–south line called the Prime Meridian. (A meridian is an imaginary line drawn from the North Pole to the South Pole.) Longitude says how far east (positive numbers) or west (negative numbers) of the Prime Meridian any place is.

Longitude is measured using degrees, the same way an angle is. The Prime Meridian is 0° (zero degrees), and the farthest away is +180° eastward and -180° westward. Unlike latitude, which has the equator as a natural starting position, there is no natural starting position for longitude. Other meridians have been used in the past, but most scientists now agree to use the Prime Meridian.

For centuries navigators at sea were seldom able to know their longitude. The problem was solved by making better clocks (chronometers) in the early 19th century.

Unlike  latitude, longitude does not maintain a constant distance between degrees since meridians all come together at the poles and are far apart at the equator. This means people near the North or South Pole can cross many degrees of longitude by travelling a short distance. The time difference between longitudes is 4 minutes per degree. The distance between degrees of longitude is maximum at the equator.

## Related pages

- Latitude

What are the lines latitude and longitude
Oil platform

An **oil platform** is a large structure placed in the sea. It is used to drill for oil or natural gas at the bottom of the sea. The platform may be attached to the sea floor (stationary)or it might be movable(mobile).

In general, oil platforms are located on the continental shelf. As of 2006, drilling for resources up to 8km away from the platform was possible.
Continental shelf

A **continental shelf** is the part of the continent that is under water. The shelf was part of the land during the ice ages in the glacial periods, but under water in the interglacial periods. We are at present in an interglacial period.

Every continent is in the sea, like an island. Most of the island is above the water line, and we see it as a continent. Some of it though, is below the water line. Beyond the continental shelf, the bottom goes down to much greater depths.

The continental shelf is a shallow ocean. It varies in depth, up to 140 metres deep. It varies greatly in its width. At the leading edge of a moving continental plate there will be little or no shelf. The western edge of the Americas are an example. The shelf on a passive edge of a plate will be wide and shallow. The widest shelf is the Siberian shelf in the Arctic Ocean: it is 1500 km (930 miles) in width.

## Inland seas

There have been, at some periods, shallow seas _inside_ continents. These are called epicontinental seas. Much of present-day North America was covered by an epicontinental sea called the Sundance Sea during the Jurassic period. In the Cretaceous an even larger area was covered by the Western Interior Seaway.

## Ecology

Continental seas have the richest life of the oceans, more species and greater numbers than anywhere else. This is because it has both sunlight and nutrients for photosynthesis. This causes microscopic algae and cyanobacteria to bloom, and then animals eat the phytoplankton. Most of the nutrients in the oceans are washed down from the continents by rivers. In particular, the continents are almost the only source for some key elements such as iron. The lack of nutrients away from continents explains why so much of the Pacific Ocean is almost barren of life, and why the shelves are so rich in life.

## Topography

The shelf usually ends at a point of decreasing slope (called the **shelf break**). The sea floor below the break is the **continental slope**. The character of the shelf changes dramatically at the shelf break, where the continental slope begins. With a few exceptions, the shelf break is located at a remarkably uniform depth of roughly ; this is likely a hallmark of past ice ages, when sea level was lower than it is now.<sup>p43</sup>
Mariana Islands

The **Mariana Islands** (also **the Marianas**; up to the early 20th century sometimes called _Islas de los Ladrones_ meaning "Islands of Thieves") are a group of islands made up by the summits of 15 volcanic mountains in the western Pacific Ocean.

They are the southern part of a seamount range that goes on for 1,565 miles (2,519 km) from Guam to near Japan. The Marianas are the northernmost islands of a larger island group called Micronesia. The Marianas have a total land area of 396 square miles (1026 km²) and are composed of two administrative units:
- Guam is a US territory
- the Northern Mariana Islands (including the islands of Saipan, Tinian and Rota) comprise a Commonwealth of the United States .

The first European to discover the island group was Ferdinand Magellan in 1521. In 1667 Spain formally claimed them, and named them after Spanish queen consort and later regent Mariana of Austria.
Image scanner

In computing, an **image scanner** is a device used to transfer images or text into a computer. There are special models for scanning photo negatives, or to scan books. In the computer, the signal from the scanner is transferred to a digital image. This image can then be edited, printed, etc. All scanners have special parts which are used to take a picture from an object.

Charge-coupled device or Contact Image Sensor parts take the light from the object and change it into a digital signal. The digital signal is then transferred to the computer memory or is read in the scanner's processor. With some software it can be changed to a compressed digital image, like JPEG or PNG. Text printed or written by hand can be changed to ASCII code by an OCR program.

## Types

The main types of scanner
- _Desktop scanner_ (flatbed scanner). This is probably the most popular type. An object to be scanned (picture, image, text sheet) is put on the glass. Under the glass, there is a moving Image Sensor.
- _Hand scanner_. The device is moved on the paper by hand. It was popular during the 1990s.
- _Rotary scanner_ (drum scanner) used for fast scanning large numbers of sheets of paper.
- _Smartphone scanner_ scans a document by taking a photo with the smartphone's camera.

## Producers

- Canon
- HP
- Lexmark
- Mustek
- Plustek
- Other

## Related pages

- Digital camera

## Other websites

- Scanning tips
- More tips on scanning
- HP scanning
Scanner

**Scanner** may refer to:

## Technology

- Scanner (radio), for searching for and receiving radio broadcasts
- Image scanner, which digitizes a two-dimensional image
- 3D scanner, which digitizes the three-dimensional shape of a real object
- Neutron scanner, a scanner which utilizes neutrons to penetrate objects for analysis
- Port scanner, in computer networking
- Virus scanner (Antivirus)
- Vulnerability scanner, a computer program that probes for weaknesses
- Barcode reader, which reads the data encoded in a barcode
- Lexical analyzer, a computer program
- Stepper, a part of the photolithography process
- A rotating radar antenna
- An outside broadcasting control vehicle
- An automotive electronic control unit diagnostic tool
- An automated spotlight
- A biometric scanner, an electronic device with a sensor to read patterns or images from faces, irises and finger pads to create a biological template or profile
- WikiScanner, a tool that provides a searchable database of anonymous Wikipedia edits

## Popular culture

- Scanner (comics), a mutant appearing primarily in X-Men comics.
- Scanner (band), a German speed metal band
- Scanners (band), an alternative band from London
- Scanner, the stage name of British electronic musician Robin Rimbaud
- Scanner (Code Lyoko), a fictional teleportation device
- Scanner (_Half-Life_), a floating enemy in the _Half-Life_ video game series
- _Scanners Live in Vain_, a science fiction short story by Cordwainer Smith
- _A Scanner Darkly_, a science fiction novel by Philip K. Dick
- _Scanners_, a 1981 science fiction horror film
- In much science fiction, especially older science fiction, the term _scanner_ is used to refer to what is usually now termed a _computer monitor._

## Other

- A personality type described by self-help author Barbara Sher
Brassière

A **brassière**, commonly called a **bra**, is an undergarment for women. Its main purpose is to support their breasts, but is sometimes also used for sexual attraction in the form of lingerie. The bra is a nineteenth century invention which took off as a fashion garment in the 20th century.

## Brassière measurement

Brassière measurement (also called bust size or bra size) refers to the size of bra a woman wears. Bra sizes were first introduced in the 1910s. The sizes vary from one manufacturer to another. Bra size systems are often used to label off-shelf bras and not custom-made bras.

The term _cup_, in relation to bras, began being used in 1916 when two patents were issued. Cup sizes are given in letters such as A, B, C, D, E, F and G the Further the letter is the bigger the bra needed so for example a C size bra is bigger than an A size bra.
Bra sizes in most countries have a number and a letter (for example, 34B). The number comes from the measurement of the ribcage directly underneath the breasts. The letter is a measure of how much larger the breasts are than the ribcage. This is found by measuring the chest over the breasts (across the nipples) and subtracting the ribcage measurement from the breast measurement, then finding the matching letter of the alphabet. For example, someone with a 3-inch difference between the breast measurement and the ribcage measurement would have a C-cup bra. However, this does not always work, since different manufacturers have differently-sized bras. Many women prefer to find a brand and size that works for them by trial and error.

Many Males and Females can find looking at bulging bras arousing.
Torture

**Torture** is when someone puts another person in pain as a punishment or in order to force them to do or say something. This pain may be physical or psychological. People who have been tortured often suffer from long term physical problems or mental health issues and the person may even die.

## Reasons for torture

Reasons for torture can include punishment, revenge, political re-education, deterrence, and interrogation. Victims or third parties may be forced to take actions against their will. Torture may be for the sadistic gratification of those watching the torture.

### Torture for information

A common reason for torture is to get information from the victim, for example, to get confessions or the names of accomplices. Information got by torture is unreliable, because people suffering tend to say whatever the questioner wants them to say. Nevertheless, it was used for centuries by all kinds of societies. It was authorised by the Christian Church during the  Inquisition from 1252 to 1816.

In 1600 Anton Praetorius fought against torture and against the hunting of witches.

## Present day

Almost all countries agree that torture is a violation of human rights and one of crimes against humanity. On 10 December 1948, the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). Article 5 states, "No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment". To ensure human rights protection against torture, the Convention against Torture has adopted by United Nations in 1984.

Amnesty International is the leading non-governmental organisation against the use of torture. It has regularly reported on which countries it thinks still use torture. It says "Over the last five years, Amnesty has reported torture in at least three quarters of the world - 141 countries".
1680s

The **1680s** was a decade that began on 1 January 1680 and ended on 31 December 1689. It is distinct from the decade known as the ***169th decade*** which began on January 1, 1681 and ended on December 31, 1690.

## Events

- The Treaty of Ratisbon between France and England in 1684 ended the Age of Buccaneers.
- 1685: The Chinese army attacks a Russian post at Albazin. The events lead to the Treaty of Nerchinsk.
- Isaac Newton publishes _Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica_. In this document, he introduces his laws of motion, and his theory of gravity.
- The Glorious Revolution brings William and Mary to power in England.

## World leaders

- King Christian V of Denmark (1670–1699)
- King Charles II of England and Scotland (1660–1685)
- King James II of England and Scotland (1685–1688)
- Queen Mary II of England and Scotland (1689–1694)
- King William III of England and Scotland (1689–1702)
- King Louis XIV of France (1643–1715)
- Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor (1658–1705)
- King Peter II of Portugal (1667–1706)
- Tsar Feodor III of Russia (1676–1682)
- Tsar Ivan V of Russia (1682–1696)
- Tsar Peter I of Russia (1682–1725)
- King Charles II of Spain (1665–1700)
- King Charles XI of Sweden (1660–1697)
- Padshah Aurangazeb (Mughal Empire)
- Bhonsle Dynasty of the Marathas
1. Shambhaji (1680–1689)
1. Rajaram Chhatrapati (1689–1700)

## Births

- Stede Bonnet

## Deaths

- Pierre Corneille
Cheaper by the Dozen (movie)

***Cheaper by the Dozen*** refers to two movies based on the book of the same name by Frank Bunker Gilbreth, Jr. and Ernestine Gilbreth Carey:

- _Cheaper by the Dozen_ (1950 movie), the 1950 original, starring Clifton Webb
- _Cheaper by the Dozen_ (2003 movie), a 2003 remake starring Steve Martin, Ashton Kutcher and Hilary Duff
Dependency

**Dependency** has a number of meanings:
- Dependency theory
- In project management, a dependency is a link amongst a project's terminal elements.
- In computer science, dependency is a state in which one object uses the functions of another object.

- Dependency theory is an economic worldview.
- A dependent area is a classification of territory.
- A dependent territory.
- Co-dependency is a state of behaviour.
- A chemical dependency is such a strong need for a substance in order for an animal (usually a person) to function properly.
- A former or current colony, such as those governed by the United Kingdom.
Phasor

A **phasor** is a tool in mathematics. It is used to show numbers in a different coordinate system.  Certain electronic components have models that can be described more easily by the use of phasors.  Inductors add a +90º "phase", while capacitors add -90º "phase". Both elements work on the imaginary axis.  Resistors have 0º "phase", and are considered real.
1670s

The **1670s** was a decade that began on 1 January 1670 and ended on 31 December 1679. It is distinct from the decade known as the ***168th decade*** which began on January 1, 1671 and ended on December 31, 1680.

## Events

- The Franco-Dutch War
- Father Jacques Marquette continues to explore the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River.  Other Frenchmen explore North America.
- The Quakers come to America from England.
- Newton and Leibniz independently discover calculus.
- Popish Plot started by Titus Oates. Oates' aim is to kill King Charles II. Plot fails and ends in 1681.

## Deaths

- John Milton, British poet

## World leaders

- King Frederick III of Denmark (1648–1670).
- King Christian V of Denmark (1670–1699).
- King  Charles II of England and Scotland (1660–1685).
- King Louis XIV of France (1643–1715).
- Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor (1658–1705).
- King Michael Korybut Wisniowiecki of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1669–1673).
- King John III of Poland (1674–1696).
- King Peter II of Portugal (1667–1706).
- Tsar Aleksey I of Russia (1645–1676)
- Tsar Feodor III of Russia (1676–1682).
- King Charles II of Spain (1665–1700).
- King Charles XI of Sweden (1660–1697).
Margrethe II of Denmark

**Margrethe II** (_Margrethe Alexandrine Þórhildur Ingrid_; born 16 April 1940) was the Queen regnant of Denmark from 1972 until her abdication in 2024.

## Life

Princess Margrethe was born at Amalienborg Palace, Copenhagen. Her parents were Crown Prince Frederik and Crown Princess Ingrid. She was baptised on 14 May 1940 at the Naval Church in Copenhagen. As King Christian X of Denmark was also the King of Iceland at the time of her birth, the Princess was given an Icelandic name, _Þórhildur_ (spelled with the Icelandic thorn character, simplified as "th").

She studied archaeology at Girton College, Cambridge, from 1960 to 1961. She was also at the London School of Economics in 1965.

Margrethe was not born to be monarch, even though she was the eldest child of the Crown Prince, later King. At the time of her birth, only males could ascend the throne of Denmark.

The act of succession was changed in 1953.

Her father King Frederik IX died in 1972, and Queen Margrethe II became the first female Danish Sovereign.

In 2018, her husband Prince Henrik died of pneumonia in February and her first cousin Princess Elisabeth died in June.

On 31 December 2023, during her annual New Year's Eve address, Margrethe announced that she will abdicate the throne in favour of her son, Crown Prince Frederik, on 14 January 2024, exactly 52 years after she ascended the throne to Frederik X.

## Titles and styles

- 16 April 1940 – 14 January 1972: Her Royal Highness Princess Margrethe of Denmark
- 14 January 1972 – 14 January 2024: Her Majesty The Queen of Denmark
- 14 January 2024 –: Her Majesty Queen Margrethe

## Other websites

- The Queen's Homepage
- The Official Website of The Danish Monarchy
- Illustrations - Lord of the Rings

## Infobox (monarch)

- **name**: Margrethe II
- **image**: Drottning Margrethe av Danmark.jpg
- **caption**: Queen Margrethe II of Denmark in 2012
- **succession**: Queen of Denmark
- **reign**: 14 January 1972 – 14 January 2024
- **predecessor**: Frederick IX of Denmark, Frederick IX
- **successor**: Frederik X of Denmark, Frederik X
- **issue**: Frederik X of Denmark
Prince Joachim of Denmark, Prince Joachim
- **royal house**: Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, House of Glücksburg
- **father**: Frederick IX of Denmark
- **mother**: Ingrid of Sweden
- **birth place**: Amalienborg Palace, Copenhagen, Denmark
Enterprise architecture

**Enterprise architecture** is comprehensive framework used to manage and align an organization's business processes, information technology, computer hardware and software, local and wide area networks, people, operations and projects with the organization's overall strategy.

A strong enterprise architecture process helps to answer basic questions.

## Frameworks

There are numerous enterprise architecture frameworks defined. Here is a list of a few prevalent frameworks:

- Zachman Framework
- TOGAF
- Agile Architecture
Mutilation

**Mutilation** is when the way a body looks is permanently changed. This change may be due to an accident, or it may be the result of torture.

Losing a part of the body (like a hand), or permanent scars (different looking skin after a bad injury heals) on the body, might be a result of mutilation.

## Related pages

- Amputation
- Female genital mutilation
- Scarification
- Body modification
- Self harm
Heiner Zieschang

**Heiner Zieschang** (born 12 November 1936 in Kiel; died 5 April 2004) was a German mathematician.  He was a professor at Ruhr-University Bochum from 1968 till 2002. In 1996 he was made an honorary doctor of the University of Toulouse and in 1997 he was an honorary professor of Moscow State University.

## Literature

- Heiner Zieschang: _Flächen und ebene diskontinuierliche Gruppen._ Berlin 1970,
- Heiner Zieschang: _On decompositions of discontinuous groups of the plane._ Math. Zeit. 151 (1976), 165-188
- Heiner Zieschang: _Surfaces and planar discontinuous groups_, Berlin 1980
- Heiner Zieschang: _Finite groups of mapping classes of surfaces._ Berlin 1981,
- Gerhard Burde ; Heiner Zieschang: _Knots_, Berlin [u.a.] 1985
- Ralph Stöcker, Heiner Zieschang: _Algebraische Topologie._ Teubner, Stuttgart 1988,
- Heiner Zieschang: _Lineare Algebra und Geometrie._ Stuttgart 1997,

## Other websites

- Heiner Zieschang at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
Jan Mayen

**Jan Mayen** is an island in the Arctic Ocean. It is part of Norway. The island's area is 373 km². A large part of the island is an active volcano, the Beerenberg, which is 2,277m high. Jan Mayen is 600 km north of Iceland, 500 km east of Greenland and 1000 km west of the Norwegian mainland.

There is a radio station and a meteorological station on the island. The staff at these stations are the only people living on the island.

## History

There are many claims and stories about discovery of the island. Some claims and possible discoveries are as early as the beginning of the 6th century. However, the first discovery that is certain was in 1614. The Dutchman Jan Jacobs May van Schellinkhout visited the island then and it is named for him. His first mate made maps of some of the coast.

It is incorrectly assumed that Henry Hudson discovered the island in 1607 and called it _Hudson's Tutches_ or _Touches_, but there is no evidence for this. Thereafter it was allegedly seen several times by navigators who claimed its discovery and renamed it. Thus, in 1611 or the following year whalers from Hull named it _Trinity Island_; in 1612 Jean Vrolicq, a French whaler, claimed in 1629 that he had discovered the island and called it _Île de Richelieu;_ and in 1614 English captain John Clarke named it Isabella.

The island has very few residents. The Long Range Navigation (Loran-C) base has a staff of 14 and a weather services station has a staff of four. The staff members of both stations live in Olonkinbyen. The island has no native people living on it, but is given the ISO 3166-1 country code SJ, the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) .no (.sj is allocated but not used ) and data code JN.  Its amateur radio call sign prefix is JX.

## Related pages

- Svalbard

## Other websites

- Satellite Radar image of Jan Mayen
- [warning from Norway's last outpost] https://www.vg.no/nyheter/innenriks/i/l3k8yA/jan-mayen-utposten-som-varmes-opp. 2023-10-09. VG.no
- Photographs and information on Jan Mayen
- Jan Mayen crew
- LORAN-C mast Jan Mayen
Gate

A **gate** is a place between two parts of a wall, or a fence which could be opened and closed to let people go through it.

In the Middle Ages, a city gate also allowed people to go into a (walled) city.

Nowadays, people also talk about _gates_ at airports. When going on an aircraft, people need to get together in a certain area of the airport first. They then pass through some kind of doorway to get onto the plane. That is what is called _gate_.
City gate

A **city gate** is a gate that is found in many medieval cities. It was the place where people could enter or leave a walled city. Very often, city gates were closed during the night.
Demo (software)

A **demo** is a small portion or sample of a product. Usually the product is music, video game, or computer program. Demos are usually given to people who might be interested the product to try it before buying and advertise the product.
Preview (computing)

A **preview** is a small piece of something used to show what the whole is like before it is generally available. Typically, previews exist for movies and possibly video games. They usually are a small portion of video showing what the game or movie is like to advertise it.

In software, a preview can be a feature that allows a user to see what a document looks like before the user prints it out, or posts it on a website.
Price

There are different definitions of **price**. Perhaps the simplest definition is to say "price is the value of a product (good) or service". A price is expressed in other goods, services, or in money.

Here is an example about price: Peter raises sheep for their wool. Sally raises chickens for their eggs. Winter is coming, so Sally wants to make a warm wool coat.
She first measures how much wool she needs for a coat. She thinks she needs the wool from 2 sheep for the coat. She then goes to Peter and asks him what he wants for the wool she needs. Peter then tells her the price he is asking for his wool. Sally might trade some of her chicken eggs for the wool.

Sometimes trading eggs for wool is difficult. So people invented something they called _money_. This is cash or currency used for trading.

If Peter does not need eggs, he will not trade his wool for eggs. The price for his wool _in eggs_ is zero, but Peter does need something else. So Sally goes to a market and sells some of her eggs for money. Then she goes to Peter and gives him money for the wool. How much money Peter wants for his wool is the price.
Doping

**Doping** or **dope** can mean:

- Adding a dopant to something
    - Doping (semiconductor), adding impurities into a semiconductor to change its electrical properties
- Doping in sport, the use of drugs to improve athletic performance
    - Blood doping, increasing the number of red blood cells in the bloodstream
    - Aircraft dope, a type of lacquer formerly used in airplane skins
1640s

The **1640s** was a decade that started on 1 January 1640 and ended on 31 December 1649. It is distinct from the decade known as the ***165th decade*** which began on January 1, 1641 and ended on December 31, 1650.

## Events

- The Qing dynasty begins in China.
- Europeans reach New Zealand and Tasmania.
- The English Civil War.

## Births

- William Penn, English Quaker

## Deaths

- Galileo Galilei, Italian writer and scientist

## World leaders

- King Christian IV of Denmark and Norway (1588–1648).
- King Frederick III of Denmark (1648–1670).
- King Charles I of England, Scotland and Ireland (1625–1649).
- King Louis XIII of France (1610–1643).
- Cardinal Richelieu, chief minister of France (1624–1642).
- Cardinal Mazarin, chief minister of France (1642–1661).
- Anne of Austria, Queen Dowager and Regent of France (1643–1651).
- King Louis XIV of France (1643–1715).
- Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor (1637–1657).
- Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange, Stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Overijssel and Gelderland (1625–1647).
- William II, Prince of Orange, Stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Overijssel and Gelderland (1647–1650).
- Pope Urban VIII (1623–1644).
- Pope Innocent X (1644–1655).
- King John IV of Portugal (1640–1656).
- King Philip IV of Spain (1621–1665).
- Queen Christina of Sweden (1632–1654).
1660s

The **1660s** was a decade that began on 1 January 1660 and ended on 31 December 1669. It is distinct from the decade known as the ***167th decade*** which began on January 1, 1661 and ended on December 31, 1670.

## Events

- The Great Fire of London in England.
- The Ottoman Empire attacks Europe, but is beat back at the Battle of Saint Gotthard.

## Births

- Cotton Mather, American pastor
- Queen Anne of Great Britain
- Jonathan Swift, Irish writer

## Deaths

- Blaise Pascal, French thinker
- Shah Jahan, Emperor of India
- Frans Hals, Dutch painter

## World leaders

- King Frederick III of Denmark (1648–1670).
- King Charles II of England (1660–1685).
- King Louis XIV of France (1643–1715).
- Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor (1658–1705).
- King John II of Poland (1649–1668).
- King Michael Korybut Wisniowiecki of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1669–1673).
- King Afonso VI of Portugal (1656–1667).
- King Peter II of Portugal (1667–1706).
- Tsar Aleksey I of Russia (1645–1676).
- King Philip IV of Spain (1621–1665).
- King Charles II of Spain (1665–1700).
- King Charles X of Sweden (1654–1660).
- King Charles XI of Sweden (1660–1697).
- Emperor Yohannes I of Ethiopia (1667–1682).
Unemployment

**Unemployment** or **joblessness** is when a person who is of normal working age (usually about 15-18 to about 60-65) does not have a paid job. They therefore do not get paid a salary. It is one of social issues and human rights violations. In some parts of the world, there are social networks to care for the unemployed.

## Overview

The unemployment rate is the number of unemployed people divided by the total population of that age group of a country. The unemployment rate is influenced by many things, including the government of a country to the average age of a country's population. Unemployment is a bad thing for society.

A certain amount of unemployment is natural. 'Full employment' does not mean no-one is out of work. Governments now aim to increase the number of jobs (which can be done) rather than cut out all unemployment (which cannot be done).

## Most affected groups

People with Autism and other mental disabilities are mistreated in the workplace, leading to only around 15% of autistic people being employed at all.

## Invisible unemployment

**Discouraged workers** are the number of people who do not have work but who are not counted in government reports. For example, people who have stopped looking for a job.  The **underemployed**  are people who work less than they want to do, or people who are overqualified for their job.
Salary

A **salary** is a type of payment a person gets for work done for a job. A _salary_ is usually paid for a fixed period of time, such as a month or a week. Generally, it does not matter how many hours are worked, the salary remains the same. If someone is not a salaried employee, they are generally an "hourly" employee and are paid a certain amount for each hour which is known as "wages."

## Related pages

- Minimum wage
- Worker
Instant noodles

**Instant noodles** are a product used in cooking - a type of pre-cooked noodle. These noodles are cooked at the factory and packaged as dried noodles, often with a special powder that adds flavor to the noodles. The dish is prepared very quickly (usually five minutes or less), simply by putting the noodles together in hot water and then adding the powder. A kind of noodle soup is then ready to eat.  Unlike most foods, they can be safely stored for a long time.

Instant noodles are very popular in Asia, and among many students and poorer people, because they are very cheap to produce and to buy. In the United States, a package of instant noodles sometimes costs only ten cents.  They are the main currency of the informal economy in US prisons.

In 2022, according to the World Instant Noodles Association 121 billion servings were sold.  If they were laid out in a line it would be 6.2 billion kilometres long.

Instant noodles are a highly processed food. They are high in carbohydrates and food additives, but low on essential elements such as fiber, vitamins and minerals.

There are many companies who manufacture Instant Noodles, some of them being:

- Maggi (Nestle)
- Toyo Suisan
- Nissin Foods
- Top Ramen
- Chings
- Tasty Treat
- Nongshim