juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Uzi

The **Uzi** is a type of submachine gun (SMG). It is famous for being very small and easy to carry, much more easily than any SMG made in World War II. It does this by loading magazines inside the grip, much like a pistol. It was not the first submachine gun to do this, but the Uzi was the first used on a large scale.

There are different kinds of Uzis: Mini Uzi, which is a smaller version of the Uzi; Micro Uzi, which is only slightly larger than a standard pistol; Para Micro Uzi, which was made for Counter Terrorist Units; and the Uzi Pistol, which is semi-automatic (it fires one bullet every time you pull the trigger).  All of these kinds of Uzis are still in use by the special forces today. It is slowly being replaced by the MP-5.

## History

Uzis were invented by an Israeli army officer, Uziel Gal. This gun was first used in 1956. Uzis were used in the 1967 Six Day War by Israel. They are made by Israel Military Industries and also by the Belgian weapon company, FN.

Even though Uziel Gal told his manufacturers not to name the weapon after him, they ignored his request and did so anyway.

## Other websites

- Israel Weapon Industries (I.W.I.): Mini Uzi and Micro Uzi
- The official Uzi website
- Uzi history, parts, discussion forum
- Uzi in parts (in German)
- Uzi history and lore
- Video of Uzi being fired (Japanese audio)
- Video of suppressed Uzi being fired

## Infobox (weapon)

- **name**: IMI Uzi (MP-2)
- **image**: Uzi of the israeli armed forces.jpg
- **origin**: Israel
- **type**: Submachine gun
- **is ranged**: yes
- **service**: 1954–present
- **used by**: See _Uzi#Users, Users_
- **wars**: Suez Crisis
Six-Day War
Vietnam War
Yom Kippur War
Colombian armed conflict (1964-present), Colombian internal conflict
Sri Lankan Civil War
Portuguese Colonial War
Falklands War
Invasion of Grenada
1982 Lebanon war
South African Border War
Rhodesian Bush War
Somali Civil War
Mexican Drug War
Syrian Civil War
Griselda_Blanco#Miami_drug_war, Miami Drug Wars
- **designer**: Uziel Gal
- **design date**: 1948
- **manufacturer**: Israel Military Industries
Israel Weapon Industries
FN Herstal
Norinco
Lyttleton Engineering Works (under Vektor Arms)
RH-ALAN
Group Industries
- **production date**: 1950–present
- **number**: 10,000,000+
- **variants**: See _Uzi#Military variants, Variants_
- **length**: *  stockless
*  folding stock collapsed
*  folding stock extended
- **cartridge**: 9×19mm Parabellum
.22 LR
.45 ACP
.41 Action Express, .41 AE
- **action**: Blowback (arms), Blowback, open bolt
- **rate**: 600 rounds/min
- **velocity**: 400 Metre per second, m/s (9mm)
- **range**: 200 m
- **feed**: 10 (.22 and .41 AE)
16 (.45 ACP)
20, 25, 32, 40, 50 (9 mm) magazine (firearm), magazines
- **sights**: Iron sights
Post-hardcore

**Post-hardcore** is a musical genre that evolved from hardcore punk, itself a part of the broader punk rock movement. One of the main influences on this genre is the band Fugazi.

Post-hardcore uses elements of hardcore, along with emo, metal, alternative rock or whatever, to create a more experimental sound. It can be more melodic than normal hardcore, but sometimes is heavier.

## Post-hardcore contributors

1. Fugazi
1. Thrice
1. Enter Shikari
1. Alexisonfire
1. Boysetsfire
1. Silverstein
1. Rites of Spring
1. Maylene and the Sons of Disaster
1. The Red Jumpsuit Apparatus
1. Matchbook Romance
1. The Bled
1. From First to Last
1. My Chemical Romance
1. We Came as Romans
1. Story of the Year
1. From Autumn to Ashes
1. Underoath
1. Hawthorne Heights
1. Senses Fail
1. Pierce the Veil
1. Escape the Fate
1. Sleeping with Sirens
1. Moose Blood

## Infobox (music genre)

- **name**: Post-hardcore
- **color**: crimson
- **bgcolor**: white
- **cultural origins**: Late 1980s, 80's, USA's East Coast
- **popularity**: Large in the United Kingdom, UK, Canada and parts of the United States, US
Outflow (meteorology)

**Outflow** is a term for the air that flows away from a thunderstorm. Lots of outflow show that a storm is "healthy".

The "edge" of the outflow boundary can often be detected by weather radar. Convergence occurs along the leading edge of the downdraft. Convergence of dust, aerosols, and bugs at the leading edge will lead to a higher clear air signature. The signature of the leading edge is also influenced by the density change between the cold air from the downdraft and the warm environmental air. This density boundary will increase the number of echo returns from the leading edge. Clouds, hydrometeors and new thunderstorms can also develop along the outflow's leading edge. This makes it possible to locate the outflow boundary when using precipitation mode. The image to the right depicts a particularly strong ouflow boundary ahead of a line of storms. Often, the outflow boundary will bow in the direction it is moving the quickest.
Mellotron

The **Mellotron** is a musical instrument, which appeared in the 1960s. It was the world's second sampled keyboard after the Chamberlin. Mellotrons contained  strips made from the sounds of other musical instruments. Instead of sounding exactly like the original instruments, the Mellotron had a unique sound.

Mellotrons did not travel well, and had to be carefully set up every time they were moved. They became popular in recording studios, and with musicians who could leave them in one location.

The Beatles liked the sound of the Mellotron, and used it in many of their songs, like "Strawberry Fields Forever". John Lennon, a member of the Beatles, owned a Mellotron that he kept in his home studio. Paul McCartney and George Harrison, also members of the band, owned Mellotrons and used them in their solo recordings. Harry Nilsson also used a Mellotron on some of his recordings.

Mellotrons are largely obsolete but are still being made in small quantities. Today, digital instruments have mostly taken their place. Digital keyboards are portable, and can be used to make similar sounds anywhere. While digital keyboards have been used since the 1980's to replicate the sounds of many other instruments, they cannot accurately replicate the nuances and idiosyncrasies of the Mellotron because of complex physics involved in the tape playback system. This acknowledged drawback has led to the production of new Mellotrons since 1999.
Punta Cana

**Punta Cana**, named after a local cape, is a region in the easternmost tip of the Dominican Republic. Covering about 4,200,000 m<sup>2</sup> (about 1,100 acres), the region is home to a coastline of sandy white beaches and to a town of the same name. A region once named _Punta de Borrachón_ was merged with Punta Cana by the founding investors in 1969.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **official name**: Punta Cana
- **image skyline**: Punta_Cana10.jpg
Bayernliga

The **Bayernliga** (English: 'Bavaria League') is a German football league. It is the one of the German 5th divisions, and is the 2nd division of football in Bavaria. It was founded in 1945, as the Landesliga Bayern, which was an amateur league in Bavaria. In 1963, it became the 3rd division of German football. It remained the 3rd division until 1994, when it became the 4th division, after being replaced by the Regionalliga Süd. It remained the 4th division until 2008, when it became the 5th division.

## Champions of Bavarian League (Oberliga Bayern)

FC Augsburg is the most successful team. It has won the league seven times. Before 1969, it was called BC Augsburg. The next best teams are SpVgg Bayreuth with six titles and 1860 München with five titles, although two were won by the second team, TSV 1860 München Amateure.
Gavialidae

**Gavialidae** is a family of reptiles within the order Crocodilia.  There are only two surviving species, the Gharial (_Gavialis gangeticus_) and the False Gharial (_Tomistoma schlegelii_), which are each the sole living representatives of the two Gavialidae genera.
False gharial

The **false gharial** or **Malayan gharial** (_Tomistoma schlegelii_) is a fresh-water reptile. It looks like  a crocodile with a very thin and long snout, like that of the gharial. That is where the name of the species is from.

It has long been classed in the family _Crocodylidae_. However, recent immunological studies show it is more closely related to the gharial than was originally thought. So now classed in the family _Gavialidae_, after all.

The animal is native to six river systems in Sumatra and Malaysia. It can also be found in Borneo, Java, Vietnam, Thailand (not seen since 1970), and possibly Sulawesi. Fossils finds in southern China indicate that, at some point in the past, the species occurred there.

The false gharial, like all other crocodilians, lays eggs. It is a mound nester. Females usually mature at 2–3 m. Mated females will lay a clutch of 30-60 eggs in a mound of dry leaves or peat.  Once the eggs are laid, and construction of the mound is completed, she abandons her nest.  Unlike most other crocodilian species, the young receive no parental care and are at risk of being eaten by predators like wild boar, mongooses, big cats such as tigers and leopards, civets, and wild dogs. The young hatch after 90 days and are left to look after themselves.

The false gharial is threatened with extinction throughout most of its range. The drainage of its freshwater swamplands and clearance of surrounding rainforests removes its habitat. The animal is hunted frequently for its skin and meat and the eggs are often taken for human consumption. However, positive steps have been taken by the Malaysian and Indonesian governments to prevent its extinction in the wild.

## Sources

- Database entry includes a brief justification of why this species is endangered and the criteria used

## Other websites

- BBC News: 'Match-making' for rare male croc
Prime lens

A **prime lens** is a lens which has a fixed "zoom" or focal length. It is easier to make fixed focal lenses than to include them in a variable focus lens. Therefore, fixed focal lenses usually have a larger opening, known as an aperture, than comparable variable focus lenses. They are usually also of a higher optical quality.
Aperture

In optics and photography, an **aperture** is a hole where light can pass through.

## In photography

The aperture of a photographic lens is a hole that can be adjusted to different sizes, using the aperture ring. This ring is behind the lens, but in front of the shutter.  The aperture ring is a flat circle with a small hole in the centre. The small hole is called the _aperture_. The size of the aperture can be changed. When the aperture is very small only a small amount of light can enter the camera. When the aperture is big, a lot of light can get in.

This lets the photographer control the amount of light reaching the film or image sensor. The aperture is changed along with the  shutter speed to control the amount of light that enters the camera.  This amount of light is called the exposure.  Typically, a fast shutter speed will not let much light in (meaning the picture could come out too dark), so the photographer will use a larger aperture to correct for this.  A slow shutter speed will need a smaller aperture to stop the picture coming out too bright.

The size of the aperture is described as an "f-stop."  This is a number that describes the size of the hole in relation to the focal length of the lens.  A low number (such as f1.4 or f2.8) means the aperture is wide open, and lets in a lot of light.  A high number (such as f8 or f11) means that the aperture is small, and does not let in as much light.
Zoom lens

A **variable focus lens** (also called **zoom lens**) is a camera lens that can vary its focal length.

In general, such lenses have a lower aperture than comparable fixfocus lenses. Depending on the manufacturer common zoom lenses (in the 30–100mm focal range, for film photography) usually have a varying aperture, from 4 to 5.6, perhaps 3.3 to 5.6. There are also some zoom lenses with a fixed maximal aperture (to take the example from before: of 2.6 or 2.8, maximum). In contrast, fix-focus lenses in that range have maximum apertures of 1.4 to 2.

## Digital zoom

Digital cameras sometimes have a function called  _digital zoom_. This is a mathematical method which simply enlarges a part of the picture. The result is not as sharp as that of the optical zoom. When an optical zoom changes its focal length, this will also change the angle of view. Digital zooms simply make a small part of an image bigger, without changing the angle of view.

According to the reasoning expressed, a camera uses a convex lens to expand and enhance the image. Such lenses have a bulge in the middle and a taper at the edges. Allowing the rays of light to meet at a point called the focus. The majority of camera lenses are compound and have, for inset, a convex lens, a concave lens, and then a convex lens again. The primary element of a lens determines the magnification using moving it away or closer to an object.

The following are some basic points that one should remember about camera lenses:
Lens Aberration: One could easily guess that a simple maximum aperture convex lens could yield a warped image which is the reason for this aberration not being encouraged. This does not mean that the image will not be warped. It will be possible to make distorted images with the lens.
Aperture: This signifies the actual opening or hole, which lets the light through the lens. Widening of the aperture correlates with smaller f-stop numbers. The narrowing of the aperture correlates with larger f-stop numbers.
Depth of Field: This explains the extent of a photograph that remains sharp or in focus. Focusing on higher f-stop numbers produces a lot more of the image in focus. While lower f-stop number focusing produces images with a small depth of field
Maximum Aperture: This refers to the widest opening of the lens if any; some are not that big. The bigger the maximum aperture of the lens, the more it favors low-light shooting.
Belinda (moon)

**Belinda** is a closer moon to Uranus, a planet in the solar system. Belinda was found from the images taken by _Voyager 2_ on 1986, and it was given the designation **S/1986 U 5**. It is named after the heroine of Alexander Pope's _The Rape of the Lock_. It is also designated **Uranus XIV**.

Belinda belongs to Portia Group of moons, which also includes Bianca, Cressida, Desdemona, Portia, Juliet, Cupid, Rosalind and Perdita. These moons have similar orbits and photometric properties. Other than its orbit, radius of  45 km and geometric albedo of 0.08 almost nothing is known about it.

At the Voyager 2 images Belinda appears as a stretched object, the major axis pointing towards Uranus. The moon is very stretched, with its short axis 0.5 ± 0.1 times the long axis. Its surface is grey in color.

## Other websites

- Belinda Profile  by NASA's Solar System Exploration

## Infobox (planet)

- **name**: Belinda
- **bgcolour**: #ffc0c0
- **image**: Belinda.gif
- **discoverer**: Stephen P. Synnott / _Voyager 2_
- **discovered**: January 13, 1986
- **mean orbit radius**: 75,255.613 ± 0.057 kilometre, km
- **eccentricity**: 0.00007 ± 0.000073
- **period**: 0.623527470 ± 0.000000017 d
- **inclination**: 0.03063 ± 0.028° (to Uranus' equator)
- **satellite of**: Uranus (planet), Uranus
- **dimensions**: 128 × 64 × 64 kilometre, km
- **mean radius**: 45 ± 8 km
- **surface area**: ~25,000 square kilometre, km²
- **volume**: ~380,000 cubic kilometre, km³
- **mass**: ~4.9 kilogram, kg
- **density**: ~1.3 g/cm³ _assumed_
- **surface grav**: ~0.014 Acceleration, m/s<sup>2</sup>
- **escape velocity**: ~0.034 km/s
- **rotation**: synchronous
- **axial tilt**: zero
- **albedo**: 0.08 ± 0.01
- **single temperature**: ~64 Kelvin, K
Normal lens

In photography, the phrase **normal lens**  is used for camera lenses that have a focal length which is roughly the diagonal of the image projected inside the camera.  Camera lenses with a shorter focal length are called _wide-angle lenses_, those with a longer one _telephoto lenses_.

This gives a _natural perspective_.

|Film format|Image dimensions|Image diagonal|Normal lens focal length|
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|9.5 mm Minox|8 × 11 mm|13.6 mm|15 mm|
|APS C|16.7 × 25.1 mm|30.15 mm|28 mm, 35 mm|
|135|24 × 36 mm|43.27 mm|50 mm, 45 mm|
|120/220, 6 × 4.5 (645)|56 × 45 mm|71.84 mm|75 mm|
|120/220, 6 × 6|56 × 56 mm|79.20 mm|80 mm|
|120/220, 6 × 7|56 × 68 mm|88.09 mm|90 mm|
|120/220, 6 × 9|56 × 84 mm|100.96 mm|105 mm|
|large format 4 × 5 sheet film|96 × 120 mm (image area)|153.67 mm|150 mm|
|large format 8 × 10 sheet film|194 × 245 mm (image area)|312.51 mm|300 mm|

- In Digital photography the situation is more complex. The sensor type diameter is not the sensor diameter:
- (*) refers to tv-tube diameters that were standards in the 50's. The normal lens focal length is roughly 2/3 of the TV tube diameter.
- (**) this is a mathematical calculation because most of the cameras have zoom lenses.

|Sensor type|TV-tube diameter *|Image dimensions|Image diagonal|Normal lens focal length **|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|1/3.6"|7.1 mm|4.00 x 3.00 mm|5.00 mm|5 mm|
|1/3.2"|7.9 mm|4.54 x 3.42 mm|5.68 mm|5.7 mm|
|1/3"|8.5 mm|4.80 x 3.60 mm|6.00 mm|6 mm|
|1/2.7"|9.4 mm|5.37 x 4.04 mm|6.72 mm|6.7 mm|
|1/2.5"|10.2 mm|5.76 x 4.29 mm|7.2 mm|7 mm|
|1/2"|12.7 mm|6.40 x 4.80 mm|8.00 mm|8 mm|
|1/1.8"|14.1 mm|7.18 x 5.32 mm|8.93 mm|9 mm|
|1/1.7"|14.9 mm|7.60 x 5.70 mm|9.50 mm|9.5 mm|
|1/1.6"|15.9 mm|||10.5 mm|
|2/3"|16.9 mm|8.80 x 6.60 mm|11.00 mm|11 mm|
|1"|25.4 mm|12.80 x 9.60 mm|16.00 mm|16 mm|
|4/3"|33.9 mm|18.00 x 13.50 mm|22.50 mm|23 mm|
|(APS-C) 1/8"|45.7 mm|22.70 x 15.10 mm|27.3 mm|27 mm|
|DX|n/a|23.7 x 15.8|28.40 mm|28 mm|
|FF (35 mm film)|n/a|36 x 24 mm|43.30 mm|50 mm|
|(4 x 5 cm)|n/a|49.0 x 36.7 mm|61.22 mm||

- In cinematography a focal length roughly equivalent to twice the diagonal of the image projected within the camera is considered normal.
|Film format|Image dimensions|Image diagonal|Normal lens focal length|
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|N-8|3.68 x 4.88 mm|6.11 mm|12 - 15 mm|
|Single - 8 (FUJI)|4.22 x 6.24 mm|7.53 mm|15 - 17 mm|
|Super - 8|4.22 x 6.24 mm|7.53 mm|15 - 17 mm|
|9.5 mm|6.5 x 8.5 mm|10.70 mm|20 mm|
|16 mm, magnetical sound|7.49 x 10.26 mm|12.70 mm|25 mm|
|16 mm, optical sound||||
|35 mm|18.00 x 24.00 mm|30.00 mm|60 mm|
|35 mm, sound|16.03 x 22.05 mm|40.53 mm||
|65 mm||||
|70 mm|52.6 x 23.0 mm|57.41 mm||
According to the _ASC Selected Tables, Charts, and Formulas for the Student Cinematographer_ (4th Edition, page 16), a **normal lens** is one with a focal length **equal to the diagonal** of the image format, **not twice the diagonal.** This definition is widely accepted within the cinematography community and reflects the standard used by professionals in the field.
The Ren & Stimpy Show

***The Ren and Stimpy Show*** is an American surrealist black comedy situation comedy animated television series created by John Kricfalusi, which aired from August 11, 1991 to October 20, 1996. The main characters are Ren Höek (John Kricfalusi, and (later) Billy West), a chihuahua, and Stimpson J. Cat (Billy West) (Stimpy for short).

The show premiered on Nickelodeon on August 11, 1991, and aired new episodes on the channel from the series.

The series ended on October 20, 1996, with the episodes "Sammy and Me" and "Last Temptation".

It was also shown on MTV, and was shown in other countries such as United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.

People who make cartoons think that _Ren and Stimpy_ is famous because of its classic cartoon style and gross humor that is different from other animated shows at the time, and then became a cult following. John Kricfalusi got fired after only one year of working on his show. He did not send his work on time and often fought with his friends at Nickelodeon, so they fired him. He made other shows but none were as popular as _Ren and Stimpy_.

Reruns of _Ren and Stimpy_ currently air on the Nicktoons Network.

## Characters

- Ren Höek
- Stimpy
- Mr. Horse
- Powdered Toast Man
- Muddy Mudskipper
- Mr. and Mrs. Pipe
- Announcer Salesman
- Haggis McHaggis
- Wilbur Cobb
- The Fire Chief
- Mrs. Buttloaves
- George Liquor

## Cast

- John Kricfalusi as Ren Hoek (seasons 1-2)
- Billy West as Stimpy and Ren Hoek (seasons 3-5)
- Harris Peet as Muddy Mudskipper
- Michael Pataki as George Liquor
Perdita (moon)

**Perdita** is a closer moon to Uranus. Perdita's discovery was not simple. The first pictures of Perdita were taken by the _Voyager 2_ spacecraft in 1986, but it was not seen on the photographs for more than ten years. In 1999, the moon was noticed and reported.

Because no further pictures could be taken to confirm its existence, in 2001 it was thought to be non-existent. However, in 2003, pictures taken by the Hubble Space Telescope managed to pick up an object where Perdita was supposed to be. This proved its existence at last.

After its discovery in 1999, Perdita was labelled **S/1986 U 10**. she was the daughter of Leontes and Hermione in William Shakespeare's play _The Winter's Tale_. The moon is also called **Uranus XXV**.

Perdita belongs to Portia Group of moons, which also includes Bianca, Cressida, Desdemona, Portia, Juliet, Cupid, Rosalind and Belinda. These moons have similar orbits and photometric properties. Unfortunately, other than its orbit, radius of  15 km, and geometric albedo of 0.08, almost nothing is known about it.

## Other websites

- Perdita Profile  by NASA's Solar System Exploration

## Infobox (planet)

- **name**: Perdita
- **bgcolour**: #ffc0c0
- **discoverer**: Erich Karkoschka / _Voyager 2_
- **discovered**: May 18, 1999 (in images dating back to January 18, 1986)
- **mean orbit radius**: 76,417 ± 1 kilometre, km
- **eccentricity**: 0.0012 ± 0.0005
- **period**: 0.638021 ± 0.000013 d
- **inclination**: 0.0 ± 0.3° (to Uranus' equator)
- **satellite of**: Uranus (planet), Uranus
- **dimensions**: 30 × 30 × 30 kilometre, km
- **mean radius**: 15 ± 3 km
- **surface area**: ~2,800 square kilometre, km²
- **volume**: ~14,000 cubic kilometre, km³
- **mass**: ~0.18 kilogram, kg
- **density**: ~1.3 g/cm³ _assumed_
- **surface grav**: ~0.0047 Acceleration, m/s<sup>2</sup>
- **escape velocity**: ~0.011 km/s
- **rotation**: synchronous
- **axial tilt**: zero
- **albedo**: 0.08 ± 0.01
- **single temperature**: ~64 Kelvin, K
135 film

**135 film** is the official name of the photographic film that is most used today. It is specified by ISO Standard 1007. It was introduced by Kodak in 1934 It was made for making still pictures, rather than movies. It is 35mm wide; that is why it is often also called **35mm** film.

It quickly grew in popularity. It became more popular than 120 film by the late 1960s. Since then, it has been the most popular photographic film format. Despite competition from formats such as 828, 126, 110 and APS, it remains so today.

Individual rolls of 135 film are enclosed in single-spool, light-tight, metal cassettes. This allows cameras to be loaded in daylight. The film is clipped or taped to a spool and exits via a velvet-covered slot. The end of the film is cut on one side to form a leader, which is to be inserted into a corresponding slot in the camera take-up spool. It has the same dimensions and perforation pitch as 35 mm movie print film. The perforations of 35mm movie camera film are a different shape, but close enough that it will work in most still picture cameras.
European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages

The **European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages** (**ECRML**) is a European treaty that was adopted in 1992.

It was designed by the Council of Europe to protect and promote historical regional and minority languages in Europe. It applies only to languages traditionally used by the nationals of the State Parties that are very different from the majority or official language. The treaty does not protect languages that are used by recent immigrants from other countries. Also, the treaty does not protect local dialects of the official or majority language.

To be protected, a language must be spoken either by the people living in a region or area of the country or by a minority in the country as a whole (languages such as Yiddish and Romani are covered by the treaty even if there is no "Romani region").

National official languages are not covered by the treaty, but some regional official languages are. For example, Catalan is official only in a region of Spain and so can benefit from the treaty. However, Irish cannot because it is an official language in Ireland even if it is a minority language. However, Irish is protected in Northern Ireland because it is not an official or national language of the United Kingdom.

France has signed the treaty, but the French constitution does not allow the government to support a language other than French.

There are two levels of protection. Every country that signed the treaty must give all qualifying languages the lower level of protection. Countries may decide to give some languages the higher level of protection. Countries then must do 35 things.

## Languages protected under the Charter

Here are the countries that have ratified the Charter and the languages for which the ratification was made:

## Related pages

- European languages
- Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities
- Languages of the European Union
- Language policy in France
- Universal Declaration of Linguistic Rights
- Vergonha

## Other websites

- European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages page (Legal Affairs, Council of Europe)
- More information
Finger Eleven

**Finger Eleven** is a Canadian rock band. it was formed in 1990. They are from Burlington, Ontario. There they had achieved minor success as a cover band, then as a full fledged band.

### Albums

- 1995 _Letters From Chutney_ (as Rainbow Butt Monkeys)
- 1997/1998 _Tip_
- 2000 _The Greyest Of Blue Skies_
- 2003 _Finger Eleven_
- 2007 _Them vs. You vs. Me_
- 2010 _Life Turns Electric_

## Other websites

- Official Website
    - U.S. Street Team
    - Canadian Street Team
- Finger Eleven on JBTV
- Audio Interview  recorded February 2007
- Interviews and Music Videos
- Finger Eleven Pagina En Español

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Finger Eleven
- **img**: MuchMusic Video Awards 2007 583.jpg
- **img capt**: Finger Eleven at the 2007 MuchMusic Video Awards
- **background**: group_or_band
- **origin**: Burlington, Ontario, Canada
- **genre**: Alternative metal
Post-grunge
 Hard rock
- **years active**: 1990—present
- **label**: Wind-up Records, Wind-Up
- **url**: [http://www.fingereleven.com www.fingereleven.com]
- **current members**: Scott Anderson
James Black,
Rick Jackett,
Sean Anderson,
Rich Beddoe
- **past members**: Rob Gommerman
Daughtry (band)

**Daughtry** is an American rock band formed in 2006 and fronted by Chris Daughtry. The band originated in McLeansville, North Carolina.

Their self-titled debut album was released in November 2006 and reached number one on the _Billboard_ 200. The album went on to sell more than six million copies in the United States, and has been certified six times platinum by the RIAA. _Daughtry_ was also named the best selling album of 2007 by _Billboard_, becoming the fastest-selling debut rock album in Nielsen SoundScan history.

## Albums

1. Daughtry (2006)
1. Leave This Town (2009)
1. Break The Spell (Daughtry album) (2011)
1. Baptized (2013)
1. Cage To Rattle (2018)
1. Dearly Beloved (2021)

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Daughtry
- **image**: Daughtry - 2022156134253 2022-06-05 Rock am Ring - Sven - 1D X MK II - 0211 - AK8I3849.jpg
- **caption**: Daughtry at Rock am Ring 2022
- **landscape**: yes
- **origin**: McLeansville, North Carolina, U.S.
- **years active**: 2006–present
- **current members**: * Chris Daughtry
* Brian Craddock
* Elvio Fernandes
*Marty O’Brien
* Anthony Ghazel
- **past members**: * Jeremy Brady
* Joey Barnes
* Robin Diaz
* Brandon Maclin
* Michael Chamberlain
* Josh Paul (musician), Josh Paul
*Jeremy Schaffer
* Josh Steely
Nefertiti

**Nefertiti** (pronounced at the time something like *nafratiːta) (c. 1370 BC  c. 1330 BC) was the Great Royal Wife of the Egyptian Pharaoh Akhenaten. She was the mother-in-law and may have been stepmother of the Pharaoh Tutankhamun. After her husband died, Nefertiti may have also ruled as pharaoh under the name Neferneferuaten.   However, some archaeologists do not think Nefertiti was Neferneferuaten.

Her name in English means "the beautiful (or perfect) woman has come". Nefertiti was one of the most powerful queens in Ancient Egypt.

## Background

Nefertiti was the first and most loved wife of Akhenaten. she might have reigned under the name of Ankhkheperure Neferneferuatan. She had six daughters with Akhenaten.

## Mystery

There are many tales about Nefertiti being born as a royal and her father being pharaoh Ay, but they are not confirmed. So it would be unlikely that she did become a pharaoh without royal blood. Her daughter Meritaten was born a royal, so she had more of a chance of becoming a pharaoh. Her parenthood is still a mystery. The only detail known is that they were nobles.

## Disappearance

Two of her daughters became queens of Egypt. In the 12th year of Akheneaton rule many of the princesses died, but what was more confusing was that Nefertiti vanished. So everyone assumed that she died like the other princesses. There was no record of Nefertiti’s death and no evidence that she was ever buried.

## Bust

She is best known for her bust, which is in the Altes Museum in Berlin, Germany.  This bust is considered to be a beautiful example of Egyptian art.

A man called Ludwig Borchardt with a team of people discovered a portrait bust of Queen Nefertiti. This bust captured all her beauty even though one of the eyes was damaged. The famous bust of Nefertiti was displayed at the museum of Berlin in the 1920’s. The queen's bust became known around the world.

## Other websites

- Row over Nefertiti bust continues
- Do We Have the Mummy of Nefertiti?  by Marianne Luban, 1999 (predates Joann Fletcher's work).
- J. Kluger, A. Dorfman, _Nefertiti found?_, Time, June 16, 2003; online edition
- Tracking Nefertiti Discovery article on Joann Fletcher's work.
- King Tut tut tut The Sunday Times on Joann Fletcher's work.
- Spinning Nefertiti
- Discussion on the _Nefertiti found?_ program
- The Encyclopedia of El Amarna, examining her time and connections
- _Nefertiti_, a musical based on the Egyptian queen.
- Altes Museum, Berlin
- "Queen Nefertiti, Images & History"
- _Reconstruction of  Nefertiti's Face_
- "M.A. Mansoor Amarna Collection"
Wide-angle lens

A **wide-angle lens** is a lens that has a focal length that is shorter than that of the normal lens. Normal lenses have an angle of view of between 40° and 50°. Wide-angle lenses have an angle of view that is bigger.

For the 135 film format (the most popular photographic film type), normal lenses are 50mm focal length. 35mm (with an angle of view of 63 degrees) and 28mm (75°) are slight wide-angle lenses.

24mm (84°), 20mm (94°), 17mm (104°) and 14mm (114°) offer more extreme views (for 35mm film).

This is different for digital photography. Many digital cameras use smaller sensors. This means that the focal lengths have an angle of view that is smaller. That way, an 18mm lens mounted on a digital camera of this type gives an angle of view of the 28mm wide-angle lens, namely 75 degrees, for a multiplier of 1.5.

One kind of wide-angle lens is a fish eye lens.

Telephoto lens is the opposite. It has a long focal length, and a narrow angle of view.
Grand Duchy of Hesse

The **Grand Duchy of Hesse** () was a former state that existed in modern-day Germany. It was formed in 1806 after the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire as a result of the actions of Napoleon, who then elevated the former Landgraviate of Hesse-Darmstadt to the level of grand duchy. For this reason, this state was occasionally known simply as **Hesse-Darmstadt**.

## History

Because Hesse-Darmstadt was a member of Napoleon's Confederation of the Rhine, it was forced to give up a considerable amount of territory at the 1815 Congress of Vienna. The territory of the Duchy of Westphalia, which Hesse-Darmstadt received from the 1803 _Reichsdeputationshauptschluss_, was given to the Kingdom of Prussia. However, it received some territory on the western bank of the Rhine, including the important federal fortress at Mainz.

The Grand Duchy changed its name to the **Grand Duchy of Hesse and by Rhine** () in 1816.

## Subdivisions of Hesse

The Grand Duchy of Hesse was divided into three provinces:
- Starkenburg: (Capital: Darmstadt) Right bank of the Rhine, south of the Main
- Rhenish Hesse, (Capital: Mainz) Left bank of the Rhine, territory gained from the Congress of Vienna
- Upper Hesse (Capital: Giessen) North of the Main, separated from Starkenburg by the Free City of Frankfurt, which was later annexed by Prussia in 1866.

## Other websites

- Das Großherzogtum Hessen 1806–1918
- Großherzogtum Hessen (Kreise und Gemeinden) 1910

## Infobox (former country)

- **native name**: _Großherzogtum Hessen und bei Rhein_
- **conventional long name**: Grand Duchy of Hesse and by Rhine
- **common name**: Hesse
- **continent**: Europe
- **region**: Germany
- **country**: Germany
- **government type**: Monarchy
- **year start**: 1806
- **year end**: 1918
- **date start**: 13 August 1806
- **event end**: German Revolution
- **date end**: 9 November 1918
- **p1**: Landgraviate of Hesse-Darmstadt
- **flag p1**: Flag of Hesse.svg
- **s1**: Volksstaat Hessen
- **flag s1**: Flagge Großherzogtum Hessen ohne Wappen.svg
- **image flag**: Flagge Großherzogtum Hessen ohne Wappen.svg
- **image coat**: Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse_1806-1918.svg
- **image map**: Hesse in the German Reich (1871).svg
- **image map caption**: Grand Ducal Hesse within the German Empire
- **capital**: Darmstadt
- **latd**: 49
- **latm**: 52
- **latns**: N
- **longd**: 8
- **longm**: 39
- **longew**: E
- **leader1**: Louis I, Grand Duke of Hesse, Louis I
- **leader2**: Louis II, Grand Duke of Hesse, Louis II
- **leader3**: Louis III, Grand Duke of Hesse, Louis III
- **leader4**: Louis IV, Grand Duke of Hesse, Louis IV
- **leader5**: Ernest Louis, Grand Duke of Hesse, Ernest Louis
- **year leader1**: 1806–1830, 30
- **year leader2**: 1830–1848, 48
- **year leader3**: 1848–1877, 77
- **year leader4**: 1877–1892, 92
- **year leader5**: 1892–1918
- **title leader**: Rulers of Hesse, Grand Duke
- **stat year1**: 1910
- **stat area1**: 7688.36
- **stat pop1**: 1282051
Puck (moon)

**Puck** is a closer moon to Uranus. Puck was found from the images taken by _Voyager 2_ on December 30, 1985, and was given the designation **S/1985 U 1**.

In Celtic mythology and English folklore, _Puck_ is a mischievous sprite, imagined as an evil demon by Christians; the moon is named after the Puck who appears in Shakespeare's _A Midsummer Night's Dream_, in which he travels around the globe at night with the fairies. It is also designated **Uranus XV**.

Puck is the biggest of the small closer moons to Uranus. It is in the middle in size between Portia and Miranda, the smallest of the five bigger moons. Puck's orbit is also located between these two moons. Little is known about it aside from its orbit, its radius about 81 km, and its geometric albedo approximately 0.11.

Of the moons found by the _Voyager 2_ imaging team, only Puck was found early enough that the probe could be programmed to take pictures of it in some detail. Images showed that Puck has a shape of a slightly prolate spheroid (ratio between axises is 0.97 ± 0.04). Its surface is heavily cratered and is grey in color. There are three named craters on the surface of Puck. Observations with Hubble Space Telescope and large terrestrial telescopes found water ice absorption features in the spectrum of Puck.

## Other websites

- Puck Profile  by NASA's Solar System Exploration
- Page that includes a reprocessed version of the Voyager Puck image

## Infobox (planet)

- **name**: Puck
- **image**: Puck, moon of Uranus (1986).png
- **bgcolour**: #ffc0c0
- **discoverer**: Stephen P. Synnott / _Voyager 2_
- **discovered**: December 30, 1985
- **mean orbit radius**: 86,004.444 ± 0.064 kilometre, km
- **eccentricity**: 0.00012 ± 0.000061
- **period**: 0.76183287 ± 0.000000014 d
- **inclination**: 0.31921 ± 0.021° (to Uranus' equator)
- **satellite of**: Uranus (planet), Uranus
- **mean radius**: 81 ± 2 km
- **surface area**: ~82,400 square kilometre, km²
- **volume**: ~2,225,000 cubic kilometre, km³
- **mass**: ~2.9 kilogram, kg
- **density**: ~1.3 g/cm³ (assumed)
- **surface grav**: 0.028 Acceleration, m/s<sup>2</sup>
- **escape velocity**: 0.069 km/s
- **rotation**: synchronous
- **axial tilt**: zero
- **albedo**: 0.11 ± 0.1 (at 0.55 μm)
- **single temperature**: ~64 Kelvin, K
- **magnitude**: 20.2
Schinus

***Schinus*** is a large genus of Anacardiaceae. They are commonly known as **pepper trees**. They prefer tropic subhumid zones.
Californian pepper tree _S.areira_ native from Mexico to South America. Various species grown as ornamental, e.g. _S.areira_, and Brazilian pepper _S.terebinthifolius_.

## Other websites

- weed behaviour
- Germplasm Resources Information Network
- USDA
Mab (moon)

|bgcolor="#ffc0c0" colspan="2"|Discovery|||
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Mark R. Showalter and Jack J. Lissauer||||
|August 25, 2003||||
|97,736 km||||
|0.0025||||
|0.923 d||||
|0.1335° (to Uranus' equator)||||
|Uranus||||
|~24 km (_estimate_)||||
|~1,900 km<sup>2</sup> _(estimate)_||||
|~8,000 km<sup>3</sup> _(estimate)_||||
|~1.0 kg _(estimate)_||||
|~1.3 g/cm<sup>3</sup> _(estimate)_||||
|~0.0044 m/s<sup>2</sup> _(estimate)_||||
|~0.011 km/s _(estimate)_||||
|synchronous _(assumed)_||||
|zero _(assumed)_||||
|0.103||||
|{| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" border="0"||||
||~63 K K||}|
|0 kPa||||

**Mab** is a closer moon to the planet Uranus. It was found by Mark R. Showalter and Jack J. Lissauer in 2003 using the Hubble Space Telescope. It was named after Queen Mab, a fairy queen from English folklore who is noted in William Shakespeare's play _Romeo and Juliet_.

Because the moon is small and dark, it was not seen in the images taken by _Voyager 2_ during its Uranus flyby in 1986. However, it is brighter than another moon, Perdita, which was discovered from _Voyager's_ photos in 1997. This led scientists to look at the old photos again, and the moon was finally found in the images.

If it is as dark as Puck, then it is about 24 km in diameter. On the other hand, if it is brightly coloured like the neighbouring moon Miranda, then it would be even smaller than Cupid and comparable to the smallest farther moons.

Mab is heavily perturbed, meaning its movement is not only caused by the gravity of another large thing. The actual source for perturbation is still unclear, but is probably one or more of the nearby orbiting moons.

Following its discovery, Mab was given the code name **S/2003 U 1**. The moon is also known as **Uranus XXVI**.

## Other websites

- Hubble Uncovers Smallest Moons Yet Seen Around Uranus – Hubble Space Telescope news release (2003-09-25)
- Hubble Discovers Giant Rings and New Moons Encircling Uranus – Hubble Space Telescope news release (2005-12-22)
Telephoto lens

In photography, a **telephoto lens** is a lens. There are two different uses of the word. The less specific use is to mean a lens that has a longer focal length than a normal lens. Their angle of view is smaller than that of a normal lens. With telephoto lenses things look closer than they really are.

The other meaning of telephoto lens applies to lenses that are constructed in a special way so they can be shorter than their focal length.

For 35 mm film, 50 mm is a normal focal length. Typical telephoto lenses are 85 mm (28°50') and 100 mm (24°). They are used for portraits mostly. Other telephoto lenses that are used often are 135 mm (18°), 180 mm  and 200 mm. Many are zoom lenses.

Longer focal lengths (300 to 1200 mm) are used in sports and nature photography.

## Different focal lengths

Effect of different focal lengths on photographs taken from the same place:

The above photos were taken using a 35 mm camera, using lenses of the given focal lengths.
The 20 Hunchakian gallows

**The 20 Hunchakian gallows**, also known as _Ksan Gakhaghan_, ***The 20 Martyrs*** or ***The 20s***, is the common name for the Hunchakian activists who were hanged in the Sultan Bayazid square of Constantinople on June 15, 1915.

## History

The 7th General Convention of the Social Democrat Hunchakian Party which was held in Constanţa, Romania, in 1913, had a unique and great importance not only for the Hunchaks, but in the history of the Armenians as a whole. During the Convention, members stressed their concern of the Young Turk government's anti-Armenianism. The Hunchaks feared that this disregard would escalate as time passed, which ultimately did.

The Hunchaks also stressed the importance of a United Independent Armenia which would be impossible under the racist and autocratic Islamist Young Turk regime. Thus, the convention adjourned with two main objectives:

> I - As stated in its original program, the party was to move from licit to illicit activities, thus becoming once again a covert organization.
> II - To plan and assassinate the leaders of the Ittihad (Young Turk) party, the same leaders that carried out the Adana massacres of 1909, and thus the same leaders who at that moment were planning the annihilation of the Armenian people.

Unfortunately, these secret objectives were passed on to the Turks by an Armenian agent for the government; consequently as soon as the delegates arrived in Constantinople, they were arrested. By the end of the year a total of one hundred and forty Hunchak leaders were arrested.

After spending two years in terrible conditions in Turkish prisons, and undergoing lengthy mock trials, twenty prominent figures were sentenced to death by hanging. A few weeks after the beginning of the Armenian genocide on June 15, 1915, all twenty men were hanged in the central square of Constantinople, known as Sultan Bayazid Square. Paramaz's last words before his hanging were:

Since their execution, the Twenty Martyrs have been a source of inspiration for thousands of young Armenians worldwide. In 2001, the monument of Paramaz and his 19 Hunchakian comrades was opened in Meghri, Armenia.

## List of hanged Hunchakians

- Paramaz
- Smpat Keljian
- Karnig Boyajian
- Hrand Yegavian
- Mourad Zakarian
- Yervant Topuzian
- Minas Keshishian
- Hagop Basmajian
- Mgrdich Yeretsian
- Boghos Boghosian
- Karekin Boghosian
- Yerevia Manoukian
- Tovmas Tovmasian
- Roupen Garabedian
- Apraham Mouradian
- Hovhannes Yeghiazarian
- Armenag Hampartsoumian
- Bedros Torosian (Dr. Benne)
- Aram Achekbashian (Krikor Garabedian)
- Kegham Vanig, one of the editors of "Gaidz" youth journal

Two other prominent Hunchakian activists, Stepan Sabah-Goulian and Varaztahd, were condemned to death _in absentia_.

## Related pages

- Slánský trial
- Doctors' plot
- Adana massacre
- Armenian genocide
- Hamidian massacres
Allowance

An **allowance** is usually an amount of money that a parent gives to their child.

Possible reasons why allowance is given:
- The parent might have extra money so they share or give it to their child.
- The parent might want to teach the child how to manage money.
- The parent might want the child to help them to do chores.
Social Democrat Hunchakian Party

The **Social Democrat Hunchakian Party** (**SDHP**) (), also known as **Hentchak** is one of the oldest political parties in Armenia and the first Socialist party in the Ottoman Empire and in Persia in the 1880s. It was founded in 1887 by Avetis Nazarbekian, Mariam Vardanian, Ruben Khan-Azat and others, who studied in Geneva, Switzerland, with the goal to gain Armenia's independence from the Ottoman Empire, which is part of Armenian national liberation movement. Its name, taken from its newspaper _Hunchak,_ means "Bell" in English, and is taken by party members to represent "awakening, enlightenment, and freedom."

## History

All of the 7 founders of Hunchakian party were Russian-Armenian Marxist students who had left Russia to continue their higher education in universities of Western Europe. They were young persons, in their twenties, and were from well‑to‑do bourgeois families who were financially supporting them. For the purpose of furthering revolutionary activity in Turkish Armenia, they formed the Hunchakian Revolutionary Party in August, 1887.

Hunchak party fought many battles against the Ottoman Empire, to free the Armenian people from Turkish rule. One of Armenia's famous national heroes Andranik Ozanian, at first, joined the Hunchak party, but disagreement with party policies led Andranik to leave the Hunchak ranks and join the Dashnak party.

### Democratic Republic of Armenia

The party also played role in establishment of Democratic Republic of Armenia, as party members took part in the Battle of Sardarapat, during the World War I at Caucasus Campaign, which defended the Armenian capital of Yerevan from Army of Islam of Ottoman Empire.

### Activities in Lebanon

In the 1950s, it clashed, sometimes violently, with the Dashnak Party, due to tensions that escalated when the ARF elected Bishop Zareh as Catholicos of Cilicia, a move that was rejected by the Hunchaks.  In the midst of increasing sectarian strife in the late 1960s and early 1970s, however, Lebanon's Armenian community began to close ranks, and in 1972, the Hunchakian Party ran a joint ticket with the Dashnaks.  In 2000, the Hunchakian Party joined forces with Rafik Hariri's Dignity party, which swept the city of Beirut.

## Modern

In the early 1990s, the party took part in the Nagorno Karabakh conflict.  The party today forms part of the opposition "Justice" bloc.

This party is also active in Lebanon, where it competes for the six National Assembly seats reserved for ethnic Armenians.  The party subscribes to a socialist ideology and advocates a planned economy for Lebanon.

## Affiliate organizations

The Hunchakian party has established affiliate organizations such as the AEBU which is an organization that helps with educational, health and social care, the Armenian Dkhrouhi Youth Association and HMM (Homenmen) which is a sporting organization (not to be confused with Homenetmen).

## Related pages

- Armenian Revolutionary Federation

## Other websites

- Party's Official Web Site

## References

- "The 89-th commemoration of the 20 Hunchakian martyrs" / Tchahagir Weekly, Cairo, 17 June, 2004, p. 1
Inverter

An **inverter** is an electric apparatus that changes direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC). It is not the same thing as an alternator, which converts mechanical energy (e.g. movement) into alternating current.

Direct current is created by devices such as batteries and solar panels. When connected, an inverter allows these devices to provide electric power for small household devices. The inverter does this through a complex process of electrical adjustment. From this process, AC electric power is produced. This form of electricity can be used to power an electric light, a microwave oven, or some other electric machine.

An inverter usually also increases the voltage. In order to increase the voltage, the current must be decreased. So, an inverter will use a lot of current on the DC side when only a small amount is being used on the AC side.

Inverters are made in many different sizes. They can be as small as 150 watts, or as large as 1 megawatt (1 million watts). Smaller inverters often plug into a car's cigarette lighter socket and provide 120 or 240 volt AC power from the car's 12 volt supply.

The earliest inverters consisted of a Motor–generator, a DC motor connected mechanically to an AC generator. A later design often used with vacuum tube car radios used a rapidly switching relay. Modern inverters are based on MOSFET or IGBT transistors.

## Types

- **Sine wave inverters** produce good-quality AC power. They use pulse-width modulation (PWM) to produce a true sine wave, which makes them expensive.
- A **modified sine wave inverter** produces a lower quality of AC power, with strong power system harmonics but is cheaper. The output of a typical modified sine wave inverter is a square wave with a pause between the change in direction. Various modulation strategies are used in cascaded multilevel inverters to reduce the harmonic contents. Modified sine inverters reduce the performance of some appliances, such as microwave ovens and appliances containing electric motors, and are known to damage some equipment including smoke detectors and some battery chargers.