juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Head of state

The **head of state** is the leader of a country/sovereign state. The powers of a head of state may vary depending on the country. The head of state is usually the highest-ranking official in the country.

## Titles

In most republic countries, the head of state is called the president and is usually elected by the people.

In countries that are monarchies, the head of state is a monarch (such as a king), who gets the position through inheritance. There are many titles that a monarch could have, but they all have the same role as a head of state.

### Executive

Sometimes a head of state has an executive role. This means that they take part in leading the government. In these systems, the head of state is also the head of government. For example, the President of the United States is both the head of state and head of government of the US. There are many republics that operate like this but some monarchies still have a king who runs the government.

### Ceremonial

In other countries, the head of state may be a separate person from the head of government. In this system, the head of state has the role of representing the nation and being a neutral non-political leader while the head of government takes care of the executive. This system is used in many modern monarchies such as the United Kingdom. However, some republics such as the Republic of Ireland follow this system.
Zaza language

**Zaza language**, also called **Zazaki**, **Kirmanjki** and **Dimli**, is an Iranian language mainly spoken in eastern Turkey by the Zazas. It belongs to the northwest-Iranian group of Iranic languages. The Zaza language is related to Sangsarī, Māzandarānī, Tātī (Herzendī), Semnānī, Tāleshī, Kurdish, Persian and Balōchi. The number of Zaza speakers is not known exactly. Many people consider the Zaza language to be a dialect of Kurdish. But it has been shown that Zaza has is more similar to other Iranic languages such as Mazandarani than to Kurdish.

## Other websites

- Zaza-Gorani | Ethnologue Ethnologue on Zazaki (language)
- http://zazasiteler.tr.gg/  (Weblinks of Zaza people)
- Zazaki.de zazaki dimili zaza  Academic Research Center of Zazaki
- http://www.zazakikozmos.org/  Only Zazaki news
- http://www.zazaki-institut.de/  Zazaki Institute

## Infobox (language)

- **name**: Zaza
- **states**: Anatolia
- **region**: Main in Tunceli, Bingöl, Erzincan, Sivas, Elazığ, Erzurum, Malatya Gümüşhane Province, Şanlıurfa Province, and Varto, Adıyaman Province; diasporic in Mutki, Sarız, Aksaray Province, Aksaray, and Taraz
- **script**: Latin script
- **ethnicity**: Zazas, Zaza
- **speakers**: 1.6 million
- **date**: 1998
- **ref**: e18
- **familycolor**: Indo-European
- **fam2**: Indo-Iranian languages, Indo-Iranian
- **fam3**: Iranian languages, Iranian
- **fam4**: Western Iranian languages, Western
- **fam5**: Northwestern Iranian languages, Northwestern I
- **fam6**: Zaza–Gorani languages, Zaza–Gorani
- **iso2**: zza
- **lingua**: 58-AAA-ba
- **iso3**: zza
- **lc1**: kiu
- **ld1**: Kirmanjki (Northern Zaza)
- **lc2**: diq
- **ld2**: Dimli (Southern Zaza)
- **glotto**: zaza1246
- **glottorefname**: Zaza
Rectangle

In geometry, a **rectangle** is a shape with four sides and four corners. The corners are all right angles. It follows that the pairs of sides opposite each other must be parallel and of the same length.

People make many rectangular things, including most tables, boxes, books, and papers. The word comes from Latin words meaning "right" and angle".

A rectangle whose four sides have the same length is called a square.

## Formulas

If a rectangle has length  and width _w_, then_:_
- It has area .
- it has perimeter .
- Each diagonal has length .
- it has an aspect ratio of  : w.
- When , the rectangle is a square.
- When  is equal to the golden ratio, the rectangle is called a golden rectangle.

## Related pages

- Matrix (mathematics)
- Quadrilateral
- Rhombus
Trafalgar Square

**Trafalgar Square** is in the middle of London and is a large pedestrian square that is bounded on three sides by roads. It serves as a refuge and a major traffic intersection. Important roads go from the square: Whitehall goes to Parliament, the Mall goes to Buckingham Palace and the Strand goes to the City of London. The square is also close to Covent Garden and Charing Cross station and Charing Cross station.

More than 15 million people go to visit there every year. It contains a large statue of Admiral Horatio Nelson. The square celebrates the Battle of Trafalgar, which was fought in 1805, and contains Nelson's Column, a statue of Nelson mounted on a tall column, with four statues of lions around it. The column is 56 m tall, and the statue is 5 m tall. The National Art Gallery is one of several important buildings facing the Square.

A point in Trafalgar Square is regarded as the official centre of London in legislation, and when measuring distances from the capital.

## Uses

The square is visited by many tourists, mainly for pleasure and relaxation. There are, however, meetings and demonstrations in the square.

When the square was first built, demonstrations were banned. The ban lasted until the 1880s, when the new labour movement started to hold demonstrations. One group that did so was the Social Democratic Federation. On "Black Monday", on 6 February 1886, there was a major demonstration about unemployment that led to a riot in Pall Mall.

There were demonstrations in the 1980s against South African apartheid. In 1990, there were riots against the poll tax. In the 2000s, there were demonstrations against the Iraq War.

In recent years the square has become a gathering place for celebrations. When England won the Rugby World Cup in 2003, thousands of fans gathered in the square. Public festivities again happened when London won its bid to hold the 2012 Summer Olympic Games.

The square was also the scene of a large gathering after the terrorist bombings in London on 7 July 2005.

## Past

The Square was last dug up in the 19th century in preparation to its present format. Discovered were the skeletons of lion, woolly mammoth, hippopotamus, and hyaenas. Very similar species were found in East London when Ilford was dug up.

The warm stage lasted from 125,000 to 24,000 years ago before the colder climate prevailed until modern times.
Official language

An **official language** is a language that has special status in a country or other organization. Usually, the government does its business in the official language. They are sometimes named in a country's constitution.

Some countries, like Switzerland and Luxembourg, have more than one official language. Other countries, such as the United States and Australia, may not have a _de jure_ official language set by law, but they may have one or more national languages that is considered _de facto_ official because it is used by the government and people in the country.

An official language does not have to be a written language. It can be a pidgin language (like in Papua New Guinea), or a sign language (like in New Zealand).

## De jure, de facto, and minority languages

A de jure language is a language that is officially recognized by the government. For example, Persian is the de jure language of Tajikistan. However, a de facto language is a language that is generally accepted as the official language but has no legal status. For example, English is a de facto language of the United States as it has no official status, The United States, however, no longer has a de facto language since Mr. Trump made English the official language. Other languages are not generally accepted as the official language, but are recognized as languages commonly spoken in the region. For example, Irish is a minority language of Great Britain, as it does not have official status but is commonly spoken there.

## Related pages

- European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages
- National language
- Lingua franca
Cake

A **cake** is a type of (usually) sweet dessert which is baked. Originally, it was a bread-like food, but no longer. Cakes are often made to celebrate special occasions like birthdays or weddings. There are many kinds of cakes. It can be baked in an oven. Some savory cakes are made on a griddle or a frying pan.

## Construction

Cakes are baked from a batter. Batter is made by mixing wet ingredients (like milk and eggs) with dry ingredients (like sugar and flour). The batter is baked in an oven. This way of baking is known as the muffin method, because muffins are made this way.

Vegan versions of the same cake abstain from using animal products such as dairy or eggs and instead substitute them with plant derived products such as nut milk and alginate-lecithin gel.

Just like bread, cakes rise in the oven because they contain many small air bubbles. As cakes rise, the air bubbles expand. This is why the cake batter expands in the pan (often to twice its original size). There are two ways of forming the air bubbles, which create different types of cakes. Almost every kind of cake belongs to one of these families.

### Creamed Fat

These cakes are made with butter or another fat, like vegetable shortening. The common way is to mix the fat and sugar, then add eggs, and then add flour. The fat should be soft. It should not be hard or liquid. Mixing sugar with fat creates many very small air bubbles. Most birthday cakes are made this way. Cupcakes are also made this way.

### Egg foam

These cakes are not made with solid butter or vegetable shortening. Some of these cakes are made with melted butter or vegetable oil. The common way is to mix the eggs and sugar, and then add flour. These cakes are often much taller, lighter and often spongier than creamed fat cakes. Angelfood cake and chiffon cakes are egg foam cakes. Most grocery stores with bakeries sell angelfood cakes. Angelfood cakes are made by beating egg whites with sugar. This traps a lot of tiny air bubbles. The eggs and sugar are mixed with other ingredients. Then, the cake is baked.

## Decorations

A cake can be decorated with icing (also called "frosting"), chocolate, fruit, and much more. A layer cake is made by stacking cakes with icing or filling between the layers. Birthday cakes are sometimes decorated with candles. Cakes can be served with berries or other kinds of fruit.

A large, rich cake is often called by the French word for "cake": "gâteau" (plural: "gâteaux", both singular and plural pronounced "GA-toe"). It may have a lot of cream. Some cakes can have edible paper on the top. A decoration often is what makes a cake special.
Gigabyte

The **gigabyte** (**GB**) is a unit of measurement in computers and similar electronic devices. It means exactly one billion bytes, usually referring to the number of bytes in a computer hard drive. It is often incorrectly used to mean 1 073 741 824 (2<sup>30</sup>) bytes, especially when referring to the random access memory (RAM) of a modern computer.

## Definitions

Nowadays, international standards bodies say the gigabyte should only be used to mean exactly 1 billion bytes, and that gibibyte is a better name for 1 073 741 824 bytes. In everyday use, people use _gigabyte_ to mean 1 073 741 824 bytes when talking about computer memory and 1 000 000 000 bytes when talking about computer disk space. One thousand gigabytes make one terabyte.

## Applications

This measurement is often used when measuring the capacity of computer memory, hard drives, or other storage devices.
Sailor

A **sailor** (or **seaman**) is a person who works at sea on a boat or ship. The sailor works under a captain. The term is only used when the person is working professionally (earning money or make a living).

Sailor is also the lowest rank in a navy.
Farmer

A **farmer** is a person who grows crops and raises animals to be used as food. This has been a common job for people since the beginning of civilization.

## What farmers do

The word _farmer_ usually refers to a person who has a field, orchard, vineyard, or garden where food is grown. This food is eaten or sold after it is harvested. Farmers may also grow raw materials for industrial purposes. Some examples of raw materials that are used in this way are:
- cereals for alcoholic beverages
- hides (animal skin) for leather
- maize/corn for plastics or fuel
- wool or cotton for yarns and making cloth
Some farmers also raise animals to be used for meat, milk, eggs or other things.

## Related pages

- Agriculture
Constellation

A **constellation** is a group of stars which make up imaginary outline or pattern in the night sky (the celestial sphere). Usually they are said to represent an animal, mythological person or creature in a shape. When seen, the group of stars seem to make a pattern.

The word constellation comes from Latin: _con-_, meaning together and _stella-_ meaning stars. Some examples of constellations are Ursa major, Orion, Taurus, Draco, Cancer etc.  Constellations were used to group stars.  Different places in the world may have different constellations, but today astronomy has a fixed set of 88 constellations.  This set is based on the Greek set and later some southern constellations were added, for example Antlia - the air pump.  Most constellations have names that come from Greek mythology, like Orion or Andromeda.

There are 12 constellations in the Zodiac. The Sun travels through the Zodiac once each year. There is also a thirteenth constellation Ophiuchus - the carrier of a serpent, which the Sun goes through. However, most people do not think that it is in the Zodiac.

## History

- No one knows who first saw the constellations. Ancient civilizations, like the Mayans, drew their own star maps of the skies with their constellations, very few of which we use today.
- Ptolemy's 48 constellations are still recognized by the IAU today, and the rest of the constellations were added later
Flood

A **flood** is an overflow of water. Floods are very hard to deal with.

## Overview

Floods are most commonly made due to an overflowing river, a dam break, snowmelt, or heavy rainfall. Less commonly happening are tsunamis, storm surge.
The most deadly flooding was in 1931 in China and killed between 2,000,000 and 4,000,000 people. The Kerala flood in India was another flood that has destroyed people's houses. During a flood, people try to move themselves and their most precious belongings to higher ground quickly. The process of leaving homes in search of a safe place is called a flood evacuation. Floods have inspired myths and legends, especially the story of the great flood.

## Pollution of drinking water

During a flood there is plenty of water logging and overflow of water;  it is mostly polluted and not safe to drink. If people drink this dirty water, they may suffer from diseases such as typhoid and cholera, hepatitis and other such diseases. People can get ready to survive a flood by filling many containers with fresh and clean drinking water and storing other emergency supplies like medicine and food. During a flood, people try to go to higher sides because the flood water cannot reach high areas. Also drains overflow and mix with clean water and people who drink it might fall ill.

## Causes

Flooding is usually caused when a volume of water within a water body, such as a lake, overflows outside it. Sometimes if a dam breaks, it suddenly releases a large amount of water. The result is that some of the water travels to land, and "floods" the area. Many rivers are in a channel, between river banks. They flood when the strength of the river causes it to flow beyond the banks. This is more common at bends or meanders. Flood damage can be prevented by moving away from places that flood. However, people have long liked to have their homes and businesses alongside water because water is good for agriculture and transport and in other ways. Floods are also caused due to improper management of drains.

### Rainfall

Rainfall is the most common cause. Snow melt is also a cause of flooding. Tsunamis and Storm Surge are less common ways that floods happen. Coastal Flooding is another common cause of flooding, and this is caused by low pressure systems or storms. There are many ways to control floods, such as improving the drainage and grading in a home, or installing a flood detection system.

## Related pages

- Noah
- Deluge myth
- Flood control
- Natural disaster
Government-in-exile

A **government-in-exile** is a group of people who claim they are the real government of a country, but who live in another country. These were common during World War II, when the axis powers took over several countries, and the leaders of those countries escaped to safety in other countries. When the war ended, most were able to return to their home countries.

Today, there are some governments-in-exile. They include:

- Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR) in the Tindouf Province of Algeria
- the government of the National Republic of Belarus exiled since 1920, currently led by Ivonka Survilla in Canada
- the Central Tibetan Administration, based in Dharamsala, India, founded by the 14th Dalai Lama of Tibet; Tibet was taken over by the People's Republic of China in the 1950s
- the former Provisional Government of Bangladesh, also known as the Mujibnagar Government, declared independence from Pakistan in 1971; it was exiled to Kolkata after attacks by the Pakistan armed forces, and existed until Bangladesh was recognized as a country in 1972.
- the former provisional Government of Afghanistan was ousted by the Taliban, claiming to be the real leaders of Afghanistan, which was taken over by the American military, after they left in 2021 following the War on Terror.

These groups usually have little or no diplomatic recognition by other countries. There were more governments-in-exile in the 20th century (especially during World War II), but many disbanded or regained power in their own country, or transferred their assets to the new government.

## Related pages

- Exile
Granite

**Granite** is a kind of igneous rock, found on Earth but nowhere else in the Solar System. It is formed from hot, molten magma. Its colour can be dark or light grey, brown, or even pink, according to the proportions of its minerals. It is called a plutonic rock because it forms under ground.

The magma is forced between other layers of rock by the pressure under the Earth's surface. The magma cools and turns slowly into solid stone. Granite has many different types of minerals in it. These include quartz, feldspar,  hornblende, and sometimes mica. As the magma cools, these minerals form crystals. The crystals can be seen easily if the granite is cut and polished.

Granite is a common stone on Earth, and makes up a big part of the crust (the Earth's outer layer). It is usually found in the continental plates of the Earth's crust. Although it forms under the surface of the Earth, there are many places where it has been forced upwards by tectonic movement. When plates in the Earth's crust move together, they get bent and pushed upwards. When this happens, granite mountains can be formed.

## Origin

Granite forms from silica-rich (felsic) magmas. It is the most abundant basement rock. It lies under the thin sedimentary rocks which cover the continents

## Chemical composition

A worldwide average of the chemical composition of granite, by weight percent, based on 2485 analyses:
|SiO<sub>2</sub>||
| --- | --- |
|Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>||
|K<sub>2</sub>O||
|Na<sub>2</sub>O||
|CaO||
|FeO||
|Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>||
|MgO||
|TiO<sub>2</sub>||
|P<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub>||
|MnO||

## Uses

Granite is dense, and can be cut, carved and shaped. It is resistant to water and pollution, and has a range of different colours.

Kitchen benches are often made of polished granite. Granite is found in many countries of the world. Some countries have beautifully patterned granite which is quarried (cut in open mines) and sold for building material.

## Other websites

- How to Cut Granite – Step-by-Step Guide
Syracuse, New York

**Syracuse** is a city in the U.S. state of New York. It is also the county seat of Onondaga County. Syracuse has a population of 148,620 and a metropolitan area population of 662,000.

Syracuse is sometimes called the "Salt City" because salt mining was once the main industry. Syracuse is named after Syracuse, Sicily, a city on the Italian island of Sicily.

Syracuse is home to Syracuse University and many company company offices.

## History

French missionaries were the first Europeans to be in this area.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Syracuse, New York
- **settlement type**: City
- **named for**: Syracuse, Sicily
- **nickname**: The Salt City, 'Cuse, The Emerald City, The Heart of New York, The Paris of New York
- **image flag**: Flag of Syracuse, New York.svg
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision type1**: State
- **subdivision type2**: Region
- **subdivision name2**: Central New York
- **subdivision type3**: Metro
- **subdivision name3**: Syracuse Metropolitan Area, Syracuse Metropolitan Statistical Area
- **subdivision type4**: List of counties in New York, County
- **subdivision name4**: Onondaga County, New York, Onondaga
- **government type**: Strong Mayor, Strong mayor-council
- **leader title1**: List of mayors of Syracuse, New York, Mayor
- **leader name1**: Ben Walsh (Independent politician, I)
- **leader title2**: city council, Common Council
- **established title**: Incorporated (village)
- **established title2**: Incorporated (city)
- **unit pref**: Imperial
- **area total km2**: 66.41
- **area total sq mi**: 25.64
- **area land km2**: 64.90
- **area land sq mi**: 25.06
- **area water km2**: 1.51
- **area water sq mi**: 0.58
- **area water percent**: 2.15
- **population as of**: 2020 United States Census, 2020
- **population total**: 148620
- **population density km2**: 2289.88
- **population density sq mi**: 5930.80
- **population metro**: 662,057 (US: List of Metropolitan Statistical Areas, 91st)
- **population urban**: 413,660 (US: List of United States urban areas, 102nd)
- **population density urban km2**: 884.7
- **population density urban sq mi**: 2,291.3
- **population demonym**: Syracusan
- **timezone**: North American Eastern Time Zone, Eastern
- **utc offset**: −5
- **timezone dst**: Eastern Daylight Time
- **utc offset dst**: −4
- **elevation m**: 116–135
- **elevation ft**: 380–440
- **postal code type**: ZIP Code
- **postal code**: 132xx
- **area codes**: Area code 315, 315, Area code 680, 680
- **blank name**: Federal Information Processing Standard, FIPS code
- **blank info**: 36-73000
- **blank1 name**: Geographic Names Information System, GNIS feature ID
- **blank1 info**: 0966966
- **population blank1**: 738,305 (US: List of Combined Statistical Areas, 72nd)
- **population blank1 title**: Combined statistical area, CSA
Syracuse

**Syracuse** might mean:
- Syracuse, Sicily, a city in Italy on the island of Sicily
- Syracuse, New York, an American city in the state of New York
- Syracuse Crunch, an ice hockey team from the city in New York
- Syracuse University, a university in the city in New York
- Syracuse, Kansas, an American city in the state of Kansas.
Soap opera

A **soap opera** is a television or radio program that airs in episodic series. This means that each episode continues telling a story, which, in turn, tells more of the last episode's story. A single story on a soap opera can be told for weeks, months, or sometimes even years.

In America, each soap opera airs every day, Monday through Friday, in the afternoon. Because they air at this time, they are sometimes called **daytime serials**. In the U.K. and other countries, the soap operas air in the evening, twice or three times a week.

This is a list of soap operas that air in America, in their current order of popularity:

1. _The Young and the Restless_
1. _The Bold and the Beautiful_
1. _General Hospital_
1. _Supernatural_
1. _Lost_
1. _Days of Our Lives_
1. _All My Children_
1. _As the World Turns_
1. _One Life to Live_
1. _Guiding Light_
1. _Passions_

There are still two soap operas that air in Australia, Network Ten's _Neighbours_ and the Seven Network's _Home and Away_. Strangely, _Neighbours_ is more popular in England than it is in Australia.

In the U.K., the most popular soap operas are _Coronation Street_ and EastEnders, which have been running since 1960 and 1985 respectively. _Coronation Street_ is about people who live in Manchester, in the northern part of England. _EastEnders_ is about people who live in an imaginary place called Walford in East London with most of the action taking place in Albert Square. Another popular soap opera is _Emmerdale_ which began in 1972, and it is about people who live in a small village in Yorkshire, also in the northern part of England. In the 1970s, _Crossroads_ became the most watched soap in England. It was shown from 1964 to 1988 and again from 2001 to 2003.

In Latin America (including Brazil), Spain, Portugal and Portuguese-speaking countries in Africa (like Angola), soap operas are called _telenovelas_, and usually run for a limited time.

## Related pages

- Dorama
- Serial
- Radio drama
- Playwright
- Theatre
The Young and the Restless

***The Young and the Restless*** is a very popular American soap opera. The show is the highest-rated soap opera, which means that more people watch it than any other soap opera. It aired its first episode on March 26, 1973. It is set in fictional Genoa City, Wisconsin. In the beginning, the show was about the Brooks family, who were very rich, and the Foster family, who were poor. Today, very few members of either family are still on the show.

Today, the show tells stories about two cosmetics companies: **Newman Enterprises** and **Jabot Cosmetics**. Newman's president is Victor Newman (played by the actor Eric Braeden) and Jabot's president is Jack Abbott (played by Peter Bergman). These two men hate each other very much and would like to see the other fail. This hatred is the root of much of the story on the show.

## List of actors/characters on the show

|Actor|Role|
| --- | --- |
|Hunter Allan|Noah Newman|
|Peter Bergman|Jack Abbott|
|Vail Bloom|Heather Stevens|
|Eric Braeden|Victor Newman|
|Tracey E. Bregman|Lauren Fenmore Baldwin|
|Bryton|Devon Hamilton|
|Hayley Erin|Abby Carlton|
|Sharon Case|Sharon Abbott|
|Judith Chapman|Gloria Bardwell|
|Jeanne Cooper|Katherine Chancellor|
|Doug Davidson|Paul Williams|
|Michael Muhney|Adam Wilson|
|Matthew and Riley Esham|Fenmore Baldwin|
|Adrienne Frantz|Amber Moore|
|Daniel Goddard|Cane Ashby|
|Michael Graziadei|Daniel Romalotti|
|Amelia Heinle|Victoria Newman Hellstrom|
|Elizabeth Hendrickson|Chloe Mitchell|
|Christel Khalil|Lily Winters|
|Christian LeBlanc|Michael Baldwin|
|Kate Linder|Esther Valentine|
|Thad Luckinbill|J.T. Hellstrom|
|Joshua Morrow|Nicholas Newman|
|Emily O'Brien|Jana Hawkes|
|Nia Peeples|Karen Taylor|
|Eyal Podell|Professor Adrian Korbel|
|Greg Rikaart|Kevin Fisher|
|Melody Thomas Scott|Nikki Newman|
|Ted Shackelford|Jeffrey Bardwell|
|Michelle Stafford|Phyllis Summers Newman|
|Kristoff St. John|Neil Winters|
|Jess Walton|Jill Foster Abbott|
|Patty Weaver|Gina Roma|

## Infobox (television)

- **alt name**: Y&R
- **genre**: Soap opera
- **opentheme**: "Nadia's Theme"
by Barry De Vorzon and
Perry Botkin Jr.
- **country**: United States
- **language**: English
- **num seasons**: 52
- **creator**: William J. Bell
Lee Phillip Bell
- **network**: CBS
- **runtime**: 30 minutes (1973-1980)
60 minutes (1980-present)
- **camera**: Videotape
Multi-camera
- **executive producer**: Anthony Morina
Josh Griffith
(and others)
- **writer**: Josh Griffith
- **director**: Sally McDonald
Owen Renfroe
Casey Childs
Conal O'Brien
Michael Eilbaum
Steven Wilford
See below
- **num episodes**: 13,224
- **last aired**: present
Prem Rawat

**Prem Rawat** (previously known as **Maharaji**) was born in Hardiwar, a small village at the bottom of the Himalayas in North India on December 10, 1957.

Prem Rawat is a peace ambassador, who  also is an international writer of many books about inner peace, an experienced pilot, a musician and composer, a photographer and an expert, who teaches inner peace by the use of what he calls "self-knowledge".

He recently received a Dr title to acknowledge his accomplishments and books about peace, in the last 55 years

His father was Shri Hans Ji Maharaji from a royal background . Shri Hans was also a master teaching people about peace. In India a teacher is  called a guru ( somebody who can take you from darkness to light) Shri Hans did reach more than three million people. Prem Rawat reached over 1 billion people via radio, tv, Internet and via many on line and live peace conferences all over the world and received many prices for his hard work for peace and he met archbishop Tutu in South Africa.

Prem Rawat took over at the age of eight the peace mission of his father, when his father died. He travelled from India to England and the United States with Charanand, a student of Shri Hans, when Prem was only 13 years old in 1971.

He got married when he was  only 16 years old with Marolyn in 1975 and has 2 daughters and 2 sons. Now he lives in California. He shares self-knowledge for free, to help those interested to find inner peace.

You can find more details on his website tprf.org about the peace education program, the food for people program, medical help to people in India and support and help for inmates in jails all over the world.

Prem Rawat founded "The Prem Rawat Foundation", a nonprofit humanitarian organization, to address the fundamental human needs of food, water, and peace.

## Other websites

- Words of Peace Global
- Prem Rawat's personal web site
- The Prem Rawat Foundation
Aunt

An **aunt** is relationship that describes a woman who is a sibling of a parent or is married to a sibling of a parent. Aunts are sometimes called Auntie or Aunty. A man is a nephew to their Aunt and a woman is a niece. An **aunt** is part of an extended family. The child of an aunt's is a cousin. Often the word aunt is used with people who are not related to show closeness or respect.

In many cultures there are different words to describe a person's mother's sister and father's sister. In Latin a mother's sister is _matertera_ while a father's sister is _amita_.

## Detail

A maternal or paternal relative is one who is related through one's mother or father, respectively. For example, a maternal aunt is the subject's mother's sister. An in-law is a relationship that is not by blood, but instead by marriage. The in-law shares the in-law relationships of the spouse's relatives. For example, an aunt in-law could be the wife of the subject's uncle.
- **aunt**: parent's sister.
- **maternal aunt**: mother's sister.
- **paternal aunt**: father's sister.
- **half-aunt**: parent's half-sister.
- **double-half-aunt**: a person who is a half-sister of both of the subjects parents.
- **grandaunt** (or **great-aunt**): grandparent's sister.
- **great-grandaunt** (or **great-great-aunt**): great-grandparent's sister.
- **aunt-in-law**: uncle/aunt's wife.
- **aunt-in-law**: spouse's aunt.
- **co-aunt-in-law**: spouse's uncle/aunt's wife.
- **stepaunt**: stepparent's sister.
- **stepaunt**: parent's stepsister.
Homer

**Homer** is the name of the Greek poet who wrote the epic poems the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_. These are the earliest works of Greek literature which have survived to the present day, and are among the greatest treasures of the ancient world. They are a product of Mycenaean culture. The Iliad tells the story of the Trojan war, which took place around 1190 BC. The manuscripts of Homer were written much later, probably later than 800 BC.

## The history

What makes the history of this period so difficult is that the Mycenaean civilization was followed by several hundred years of decline, from which little or no writing has survived. This period, the Greek Dark Ages, ended around 800 BC, when once again we find Greek writing, though this time in their newly developed alphabetic script. Therefore, there is a distinct possibility that the Homeric epics had a life, perhaps a long life, as oral literature, spoken by story-tellers.

We know little about Homer, and the later Greeks also knew little about him. Some have doubted he was a real person; others think he was a woman.
A legend, has it that he was a blind poet who lived in Ionia. There is no definite evidence for any of these ideas.

There is archaeological evidence that Troy existed. The site of Troy has been discovered, and excavated. Therefore, it is a fair guess that the epic began as a long oral poem based on the siege of Troy, but with details added and changed as time went on. Homer's poetry is different from other poetry because it had to be short in order to be memorized.

## The date of Homer, and the transcription

The date of Homer's existence is not known. Herodotus said that Homer lived 400 years before his own time, which would place him at around 850 BC; but other ancient sources gave dates much closer to the time of the Trojan War. The date of the Trojan War was given as 1194–1184 BC by Eratosthenes.

Today, "the date of Homer" means the date of the writing down the oral poems, rather than the life of Homer. This is called the _transcription date_. The language suggests that the earliest possible date for the transcription is 800 BC, and the latest possible date is 600 AD.
Marquis de Sade

**Donatien Alphonse François, Comte de Sade**, (2 June 1740 – 2 December 1814), better known as the **Marquis de Sade**) was a French nobleman, writer and philosopher who was born in Paris. The de Sade family were French nobility, who came from Provence. Different members of the house held positions in the Church, and the French state at different times.

Once Donatien had grown up, he had troubles with the authorities several times. He was bisexual. He spent many years in prison and at a mental asylum.

The main points he was accused of were:
- Whipping a prostitute.
- Drugging prostitutes and later forcing them to have group sex, and also engage in sodomy.

On one of his escapades, he _"accidentally"_ raped a close relative of his, who was a nun. This caused his family to drop him, and to hand him over to the authorities.

For this, he was sentenced to death (while being absent). He later escaped the death penalty by moving to Italy.  The death penalty against him was later changed to a prison sentence.

In prison, he started to read about philosophy. He also started to write down his ideas. He tried to hide his writing, and also wrote in a very small print, so that the consumption of paper would not be noticed.

In later years, he was moved to an asylum (for the mentally ill), and gave his wife the possibility of a divorce.

After the French Revolution, he got out of the asylum, but in 1803 was declared mentally ill (and again was sent to the asylum). He died in the asylum in Val-de-Marne in 1814 at the age of 74.

The term 'sadism' was named after him. It refers to the habit of getting pleasure from giving pain.
Eurozone

The **Eurozone** (also called **Euro area** or **Euroland**) is the set of countries in the European Union which have adopted the Euro (€) currency. The European Central Bank is responsible for managing the supply of money within the eurozone and political decisions are taken by the "euro group", which is a meeting of the politicians from each euro country in charge of that country's economy.

EU members that are not part of the Eurozone are Denmark, Sweden, Poland, Czech Republic, Hungary, and Romania.

## Official members

There are 21 members in the Eurozone

Made the area on 1 January 1999

1 Austria

2 Belgium

3 Finland

4 France

5 Germany

6 Ireland

7 Italy

8 Luxembourg

9 Netherlands

10 Portugal

11 Spain

Joined on 1 January 2001

12 Greece

Joined on 1 January 2007

13 Slovenia

Joined on 1 January 2008

14 Cyprus

15 Malta

Joined on 1 January 2009

16 Slovakia

Joined on 1 January 2011

17 Estonia

Joined on 1 January 2014

18 Latvia

Joined on 1 January 2015

19 Lithuania

Joined on 1 January 2023

20 Croatia

Joined on 1 January 2026

21 Bulgaria

There are other countries outside the European Union which use the euro as well, but these are not officially in the eurozone.

## Other websites

- Eurozone -Citizendium
Ordinal number

**Ordinal numbers** (or **ordinals**) are numbers that show something's order, for example: 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th.

Suppose a person has 5 different T-shirts, and then lays them in front of the person, from left to right.

- At the far left, there is the red T-shirt.
- Right of that is the blue one.
- Next to the blue is the green one.
- Then there is the yellow one.
- And finally, at the far right is an orange T-shirt.

If the person then starts counting the shirts from the left, he would first see the red shirt. So the red shirt is the first T-shirt. The blue shirt is the second T-shirt. The green shirt is the third one, the yellow T-shirt is the fourth one and the orange T-shirt is the fifth and the last T-shirt.

The _first_, _second_, _third_, _fourth_ and _fifth_ in this case are ordinal numbers. They result from the fact that the person has many objects, and they give them an order (hence 'ordinal'). The person then simply counts those objects, and gives the ordinal numbers to them.

In set theory, ordinals are also ordinal numbers people use to order infinite sets. An example is the set  (or  for short), which is the set containing all natural numbers (including 0). This is the smallest ordinal number that is infinite, and there are many more (such as  + 1).

## Related pages

- Cardinal number
- Names of ordinal numbers in English
- Transfinite number
Gnome

The word **Gnome** can mean different things:

- A Gnome is a creature of myth.
    - Gnomes are elemental spirits of earth.
    - Gnomes are tiny, shaped like humans, with long beards.  A gnome is like a dwarf but smaller.  Gnomes like gems and mining.
- The GNOME desktop is a desktop environment for computers running Unix and Unix-like computer operating systems.
Republic

A **republic** is a form of government that has no monarchy and no hereditary aristocracy, and instead the head of state (the highest political authority) is an elected office It originates from Rome. In 509 BC, the Romans overthrew the Roman Kingdom and established a republic, a government in which citizens elected representatives to rule on their behalf.

National sovereignty lies in the authority of the government, not in an emperor or monarch. The word _republic_ comes from the Latin words **res publica**,  meaning a "public thing". For example, the United States and India are republics. However, the United Kingdom and Canada are not republics since they have a monarch (King Charles III in both cases).

Countries with a king or other monarch and free elections is called a constitutional monarchy, not republics. A constitutional monarchy resembles a republic because the constitution has been amended to remove power from the monarch and install institutions conforming to a philosophy of republicanism. That includes the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms, the Netherlands, Thailand, and countries in Scandinavia and elsewhere. What makes a republic different is that its laws are made and enforced without royal authority.

The head of state in a republic is generally a person who has been chosen by the citizens by direct election or by a group of elected representatives to act as the top representative of the people. In most republics, the head of state is called the president. In some countries, the president is elected and has a lot of political power. In others, the president does not hold much direct power but is important in the legal system for other reasons.

Sometimes, state is called a "republic" when its head is not called a "king". For example, the Roman Empire had an "emperor" and the Dutch Republic had a "stadholder", but they worked as hereditary monarchs.

Licchavi, in India, was an aristocratic state in the 6th and 5th centuries BCE and is nowadays sometimes called the first republic. The earliest republics that were much imitated later were Greek cities, for example democracy in Athens. The biggest difference from the other city-states was that people chose their leaders by voting or by lottery. Several Italian city-states during the Renaissance were ruled by a small group of aristocrats, and were called republics.
Noh

**Noh** or **No** (Japanese:能 Nō) is a major form of classical Japanese musical drama. It started in the 14th century and continues today. Noh is made up of _mai_ (dances), _hayashi_ (music) and _utai_ (words usually in songs). The performers use masks and dance slowly. Zeami and his father Kan'ami brought Noh to its present-day form during the Muromachi period.

## Types of Noh drama

Theater pieces of Noh are classified into 5 groups.
- Divine; the hero or heroine is divine like a god, heavenly people, and so on. The hero or heroine makes a benediction at the end of the drama.
- _Shura-mono_ (Warrior); the hero (rarely heroine) is a warrior, usually already dead.
- _Kazura-mono_ (Women); the heroine and often her love romance is the focus.
- _Zatsu-no_ (Miscellaneous); Noh which cannot be placed in the other four groups.
- _Oni-noh_ (_Oni_; demons) ; Non-humans, like _oni_, _tengu_ (fairy, lion), are the heroes of this type. Mainly it is played at the end of the program.

## Noh players

All Noh players are men. They have been taught their skills by their fathers. When a woman or girl appears in the drama, a male actor plays her role with a woman mask.

There are three types of Noh players: _shite_, _waki_ and _kyogen_. _Shite_ plays the hero or the heroine. He talks sings and dances. _Waki_ (meaning "Side") and plays the sidekick of _Shite_. The Waki usually plays the role of a traveler role. He introduces us to the world in the drama. _Kyogen_ appears in the middle of the drama if it has two parts, and plays the role of the local citizen. He talks to _Waki_ and makes him notice something new or realize what has happened.

## Music on Noh

_Hayashi_ means musical instrumentals. Two kinds of drum (_Tuzumi_, _Taiko_) and a flute (_Fue_) are used in the theater.
Manga

A **manga** () is a Japanese comic book.

Manga is drawn by a _mangaka_ () (Japanese for cartoonist: an artist of comics). Manga is usually read from right to left.

The word manga can be both singular and plural, and mean both the medium of comics or a single comic. It is a form of art that is used to draw comics and develop Anime (animation of manga art). Colors and symbols are important.

## Types

- ***Yōji*** (幼児向け漫画) - manga for people aged 1–4
- ***Kodomo*** (or Jidō) manga (児童漫画、子ども漫画) - manga that appeals to many small children
    - _Doraemon_
    - _Kureyon Shinchan
- ***Shōnen*** (少年漫画) - A boy is usually the main character in these types of manga. The storyline is mostly about adventure/fighting.
    - _Weekly Shōnen Jump_ (published by Shueisha)
        - _Bleach_
        - _Naruto_
        - _Black Clover_
        - _One Piece_
        - _Dragon Ball_
        - _The Prince of Tennis_
        - _Gintama_
        - _Death Note_
    - _Weekly Shōnen Sunday_ (published by Shōgakukan)
        - _InuYasha_
        - _Detective Conan_
        - _Major_
        - _Magi_
    - _Weekly Shōnen Magazine_ (published by Kōdansha)
        - _Fairy Tail_
        - _Fighting Spirit (manga)_
    - _Monthly GFantasy_ (published by Square Enix)
        - _Black Butler_
- ***Shōjo*** ( - Manga that features human emotions and relationships. Mostly for girls aged 13–17.
    - _Ciao_ (published by Shogakukan)
    - _Chuchu_ (published by Shogakukan)
    - _Sho-Comi_ (published by Shogakukan)
    - _Ribon_ (published by Shueisha)
    - _Nakayoshi_ (published by Kodansha)
        - _Sailor Moon_ - an example of _shōjo_ manga published by _Nakayoshi_
    - _LaLa_ (published by Hakusensha)
    - _Hana to yume_ (published by Hakusensha)
- ***Seinen*** - manga that is written for college-aged young men
    - _Young animal_ (published by Hakusensha)
        - _Berserk_
        - _Nana to Kaoru_
        - _Futari Ecchi_
        - _Ai Yori Aoshi_
    - _Young King OURs_ (published by Shōnen Gahōsha)
        - _Hellsing_
    - _Young Ace_ (published by Kadokawa Shoten)
        - _Another''
- ***Seijin*** (成人漫画) - manga that might appeal to men more than women
- ***Josei/Redikomi*** (女性漫画　レディースコミック、レディコミ) - (abbreviation of English "LADIes' COMIc") manga that might appeal to women more than men
- ***Shōnen-ai*** (少年愛) - manga that features a romantic relationship between two male characters. Also known as Yaoi
- ***Shōjo-ai*** (少女愛) - Manga that features a romantic relationship between two female characters. Another name Yuri(百合).

## Related pages

- Anime
- Cosplay
- Mangaka
- Light novel
- Otaku
- Hentai
- Ecchi
- Manhwa  – Korean comic books
Spree

The **Spree** is a river in the north-east of Germany.
It runs through the centre of Berlin. The river is  long.
Mandrake

- _For the Linux variant, see Mandriva Linux_

**Mandrake** is the common name of a number of plants in the Nightshade family, genus **Mandragora**. The roots often look like man or woman, or can be easily made to resemble them. The plant has been used in witchcraft for a long time.

According to this literature, the plant shrieks in pain, when it is pulled from the ground. This shriek is able to make a person deaf. He might also lose his mind, or even be killed, if he is unprotected.

Mandrake (Mandragora officinalis) has been used as an anaestethic for a long time. For this, it was usually prepared in an  alcoholic solution.
GNU

**GNU** is the name of a computer operating system. The name is short for **_G**NU's **N**ot **U**nix_. Richard Stallman leads the GNU Project. The popular Linux operating systems made using the Linux kernel have many GNU tools too. So, many projects and developers call the Linux-based operating systems _GNU/Linux._

The GNU project was started by Richard Stallman in 1983. He wanted to create a computer system that was all free and open-source software. Users could change, share and publish new work based on GNU. He and a group of developers started by creating copies of each piece of UNIX software. The rest of GNU was the kernel, called the GNU Hurd, which is not yet finished. The more popular Linux kernel is often used instead.

## Related pages

- GNU Compiler Collection

## Other websites

- GNU User Groups
Acronym

An **acronym** is a word whose letters are the first letters of other words. People often create a short acronym that means the same thing as a much longer phrase (set of words).  This is faster and shorter to say than the long phrase.

## S -

- COBOL - **CO**mmon **B**usiness **O**riented **L**anguage
- LASER - **L**ight **A**mplification through **S**timulated **E**mmission of **R**adiation
- QUANGO - **Qu**asi-**a**utonomous **n**on-**g**overnmental **o**rganisation
- RADAR - **RA**dio **D**etecting **A**nd **R**anging
- SARS  - **S**evere **A**cute **R**espiratory **S**yndrome
- SCUBA - **S**elf-**C**ontained **U**nderwater **B**reathing **A**pparatus
- SNAFU - **S**ituation **N**ormal: **A**ll **F**ouled **U**p

An acronym usually must be able to be spoken as word. Other abbreviations such as ASAP (**a**s **s**oon **a**s **p**ossible), USA (the **U**nited **S**tates of **A**merica), ECU (**E**uropean **C**urrency **U**nit), FBI (**F**ederal **B**ureau of **I**nvestigation), NBA (**N**ational **B**asketball **A**ssociation) have combinations of letters that are not pronounced as a single word. People just say the letters, one after another.

These three-letter acronyms, and some more obscure four-letter ones such as ISDN are more often called initialisms. The word "acronym" comes from the Greek _acro_ "extreme" and _onymous_ "name".

## Extremes

The world's longest acronym, according to the _Guinness Book of World Records_ is NIIOMTPLABOPARMBETZHELBETRABSBOMONIMONKONOTDTEKHSTROMONT (). It is 56 letters long (54 in Cyrillic). It is from the _Concise Dictionary of Soviet Terminology_ and means "the Laboratory for Shuttering, Reinforcement, Concrete and Ferroconcrete Operations for Composite-monolithic and Monolithic Constructions of the Department of Technology of Building Assembly Operations of the Scientific Research Institute of the Organization for Building Mechanization and Technical Aid of the Academy of Building and Architecture of the USSR."

## Related pages

- Initialism
- Abbreviation
- List of acronyms and initialisms

## Other websites

- Acronym Finder - an acronym website with many ways to search for acronyms.
- All Acronyms - a website with many acronyms