juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Hailstone

A **hailstone** is a round ball of ice which falls out of a storm cloud. About 5000 hailstorms per year in the United States of America make hail 0.75 in or larger.

## The beginning of a hailstorm

A hailstone begins as a small water drop or a round snow pellet in a cloud. The drop grows by collecting many cloud drops. The little drop is blown by a strong wind inside the cloud to where it meets with some extremely cold water drops. These supercooled drops are still liquid water even though the temperature is below freezing. When the little drop mixes with these extremely cold drops, they join, and the little drop has now become a hailstone.

The little hailstone is thrown up inside the cloud, still collecting other cold drops. The hailstone gets bigger and bigger until it goes to the top of the cloud. Then, because there is no more wind, it falls back down through the cloud. While it is falling it gets even bigger as it bangs into more supercooled drops. If it goes down very fast it can hit the earth at up to 90 mph (144 km/h), bouncing like popcorn. If the hailstone hits dirt, it can actually bury itself.

## Hailstone sizes

The biggest hailstone recorded in the United States weighed 1.67 pounds (0.75 kg), and was 5.5 inches (14 cm) across. It fell near Coffeyville, Kansas, on September 3, 1970. The biggest recorded hailstone in the _world_ was 4.2 pounds (about 2 kg). It fell in Kazakhstan in Asia.

Hailstones are made of many rings of clear, cloudy ice. The rings show different amounts of freezing on the hailstone. The cloudy ice is because it freezes so quickly, trapping many small air bubbles. The clear rings are made by slow freezing of the water, which lets bubbles escape.

## Hail damage and protection

Hail does a very great amount of damage every year. Even small hail with strong winds can crush a field of wheat flat in a few minutes. It sometimes breaks windows, and can dent cars and roofs. Big hailstones can hurt and even kill small animals.

Because hail damages crops, there has been many efforts to stop hail. In the 16th century, farmers used to shoot cannons at thunderstorms, thinking this would destroy the hail. Cloud seeding (trying to make rain by putting dry ice crystals or a kind of smoke in clouds) is the more recent way, but it is expensive and we do not know for sure how well it works. To this day, there is no proved way of stopping hailstorms.

## Related pages

- Ice pellets
- Sleet (disambig page)

## Other websites

- Hail Research Information Center
- Hail factsheet
- The Economic Costs of Hail Storm Damage  NOAA Economics
- https://stormmaps.com/pages/hail-impact-reports  NOAA Economics
- Images
- Hail and hailstorms
- Major hail event in Brazil
- NOAA Hail Reports on Google map (non commercial)
Brake

A **brake** is a device for slowing or stopping a moving machine part. The most common brakes are for wheels, such as those on cars and bicycles.

The kinetic energy lost by the moving part is usually converted into heat by friction. There are also regenerative braking systems that store some of the energy in a flywheel or capacitor, or convert it to electricity to store in a battery or send to some other machine. The first braking systems were used on horse-drawn vehicles. The horse accelerated the cart to relatively high speeds and could not cope with its stopping by itself. The first mechanisms braked the wheel itself by means of a manual lever or a system of levers.

The first braking systems were used on horse-drawn vehicles. The horse accelerated the cart to high speeds and could not cope with its stopping by itself. The brake used a manual lever or a system of levers to press a wooden block onto the wheel, slowing it by friction. In wet weather, it was ineffective. Later, faster vehicles such as bicycle<nowiki/>s, train<nowiki/>s and automobile<nowiki/>s needed much better brakes, and many kinds were invented. Even some airplanes have brakes to slow them in the air.

## Related pages

- Railway brake
Bucket

A **bucket** is a container with a wide open top and a handle that is mainly used for carrying liquids.  In some cases, solids may also be carried in a bucket (like sand which is hard to carry in your hands).

Some buckets are used for work, and some more for leisure, as seen here  . A bucket used for work is often made of a strong material such as iron or steel and is used to carry things like coal or soil. A bucket used for leisure, e.g. for making sandcastles, is normally made of plastic.

In rare cases, a bucket may be worn as a piece of clothing, people may wear a bucket on their heads for humorous reasons. Buckethead is a famous example of this.

A free open source Minecraft server mod called Bukkit, an intentional misspelling of "Bucket" is very popular for Minecraft server development.
Emmy Award

The **Emmy Awards** are United States television production awards which are given out each year. They are the television version of the Academy Awards. The first Emmy Awards were given out on January 25, 1949 at the Hollywood Athletic Club. Shirley Dinsdale was the very first person to be given an Emmy in the first awards ceremony.

Three organizations give Emmy Awards:

- The Academy of Television Arts & Sciences gives the award for American prime time entertainment (not including sports).
- The National Academy of Television Arts & Sciences gives the award for daytime, sports, news, and documentary programming.
- The International Academy of Television Arts & Sciences gives the award for programming that is created outside the United States.

The best-known of the awards are the Primetime Emmy Awards (some of which are named "Creative Arts Emmys") and the Daytime Emmy Awards.

The Emmy Awards is a statuette of a woman with wings holding an atom. It was created by television engineer Louis McManus, using his wife as a model. The trophies are made by a company that has a manufacturing site at the El Dorado Correctional Facility, a prison in El Dorado, Kansas.

## Other websites

- Primetime Emmy Awards
- Daytime Emmy Awards
- International Emmy Awards
- Emmy Awards  at the Internet Movie Database

## Infobox (award)

- **name**: Emmy Award
- **imagesize**: 250px
- **caption**: Comedian Garry Shandling during the rehearsal of the 45th Primetime Emmy Awards, 1993
- **awarded for**: Excellence in the television industry
- **presenter**: Academy of Television Arts & Sciences, ATAS/National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences, NATAS/International Academy of Television Arts and Sciences, IATAS
- **country**: United States
- **website**: [http://www.emmys.tv/awards ATAS Official Emmy website]
 [http://www.emmyonline.tv/ NATAS Official Emmy website]
 [http://www.iemmys.tv IATAS Official Emmy website]
Pin

A **pin** is an object used to attach something to a surface. It is usually metal or plastic. Pins are usually sharp and are cheap to buy.

## Types of pins

- Bobby pin
- Hairpin
- Push pin
- Cotter pin
- Clevis pin
- Safety pin
Dining room

A **dining room** is a room used for eating and is usually near the kitchen. This is to make serving food easier.

Usually a dining room will contain a table with a set of chairs, normally positioned at the sides and end of a table. People often only use their dining rooms now for formal occasions and eating in the kitchen has become more popular.
Crown

A **crown** is a type of headdress worn by a monarch. They are usually worn when they are crowned or at important occasions. Also, crowns are now used as a symbol of the monarchy. They are also won by beauty pageant winners.

"Crown" is also a synonym for prize or reward. Crowns are awarded or won at contests. Beauty contests award crowns to the winning participant, for example. Couples chosen the King and Queen at a dance also receive crowns.

## Diadem

A **diadem** is a type of crown, an ornamental headband worn by monarchs and others as a badge of royalty.

## Related pages

- Papal tiara
Rudolf Hess

**Rudolf Walter Richard Hess** (**Heß** in German) (26 April 1894 – 17 August 1987) was a high-ranking leader in Nazi Germany and a member of Adolf Hitler's inner circle. He was the third most powerful man in the Third Reich from 1933 to 1941 (after Hitler and Hermann Göring).

## Early life

Rudolf Hess was born in Alexandria, Egypt, but moved back to Germany in 1908. He joined the army in World War I and was a soldier from 1914 until 1918.

## Nazi career

In 1920 Hess joined the Nazi Party, and in 1922 he joined the SA. He flew to Scotland during World War II in 1941 with the intention of putting an end to the war, but was arrested.

After the war, in 1946, Hess was tried at the Nuremberg Trials and sentenced to life imprisonment. He spent the rest of his life in prison until his death in 1987 at the Allied Military Prison in Spandau, Berlin. Since 1966 he had been the only prisoner there.

Hess's death was caused by strangulation by an electrical cord; officials recorded it as a suicide.
1780s

The **1780s** was a decade that began on 1 January 1780 and ended on 31 December 1789. It is distinct from the decade known as the  which began on January 1, 1781 and ended on December 31, 1790.

## Events

- American Revolutionary War ends
- George Washington becomes first President of the United States.
- United States Constitution
- French Revolution begins

## World leaders

- King Louis XVI (France)
- King George III (Great Britain)
- Emperor Joseph II (Holy Roman Empire)
- Frederick II of Prussia, King of Prussia
- Frederick William II of Prussia, King of Prussia
- Pope Pius VI
- Empress Catherine II (Russia)
- King Charles III (Spain)
- King Charles IV (Spain)
- Shahs of Persia (Zand dynasty)
1. Sadiq Khan, 1779–1782
1. Ali Murad Khan, 1782–1785
1. Jafar Khan, 1785–1789
1. Lotf Ali Khan, 1789–1794

## Births

- Washington Irving, American author (1783)
- Simón Bolívar, Venezuelan patriot, revolutionary leader and statesman (1783)

## Deaths

- Empress Maria Theresa of Austria
1510s

The **1510s** was a decade that began on 1 January 1510 and ended on 31 December 1519. It is distinct from the decade known as the ***152th decade*** which began on January 1, 1511 and ended on December 31, 1520.

## Events

- Martin Luther posts his 95 Theses on the door of the Wittenberg Castle Church, starting the Reformation.
- Protestant Reformation
- Selim I, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire conquers Palestine and Egypt, and declares himself Caliph.
- Hernán Cortés lands in Mexico.
- Ferdinand Magellan leaves Europe to go around the world.

## Births

- Saint Teresa of Avila, Spanish Carmelite nun and poet

## Deaths

- Leonardo da Vinci, Italian inventor and painter
Amin Maalouf

**Amin Maalouf** (; ; born 25 February 1949) is a Lebanese author. He studied sociology at the French University in Beirut. He was the director of the Beirut daily newspaper _an-Nahar_. But, he left the country 1975 at the start of the Lebanese Civil War. He moved to Paris and still lives there today.

Maalouf writes in French, and his works have been translated into many languages. He received the Prix Goncourt in 1993 for his book _Rock of Tanios_.

He uses his experiences of civil war and migration in writing his novels. The characters in his novels are wanderers. They may not have just one home country, language, or religions.

## Works of fiction

- _First Century after Beatrice_
- _Leo Africanus_
- _Rock of Tanios_ (Prix Goncourt 1993)
- _Samarkand_ (first published 1988 titled 'Samarcande')
- _Gardens of Light_
- _Ports of Call_ (first published 1996 titled 'Les échelles du Levant')
- _Balthasar's Odyssey_

## Works of non-fiction

- _Crusades through Arab Eyes_
- _On Identity_
- _In the Name of Identity_

## Other websites

- Amin Maalouf Official Site

## Infobox (person)

- **name**: Amin Maalouf
- **image**: Amin Maalouf par Claude Truong-Ngoc novembre 2013.jpg
- **caption**: Amin Maalouf by Claude Truong-Ngoc, 2013
- **birth place**: Beirut, Lebanon
- **occupation**: Writer, scholar and novelist
Bulb

- _For the electrical device that produces light, see Lightbulb._

A **bulb** is the part of some plants that is mostly under the dirt and stores food while the plant rests from growing.

Some well-known bulbs people grow to use as food are onions and garlic. Some bulbs grown for the decorative flowers are lilies, tulips, and some irises.

Some plant storage organs that are similar to bulbs but have different names are tubers, corms (swollen stems), tuberous roots, and pseudobulbs.
1520s

The **1520s** was a decade that started on 1 January 1520 and ended on 31 December 1529.

It is distinct from the decade known as the ***153th decade*** which began on January 1, 1521 and ended on December 31, 1530.

## Events

- Aztecs surrender to the Spanish conquistadors.
- Ferdinand Magellan takes a trip around the world, and discovers the Philippines and Guam.
- Martin Luther and the Protestant Reformation

## Births

- Anne Askew, English Protestant martyr (1521)
- Taqi al-Din, Muslim scientist (1526)

## Deaths

- Ferdinand Magellan, Spanish explorer (1521)
- Zhengde, Emperor of China (1521)
- Wijerd Jelckama, Frisian warlord and rebel (b. 1490)
- Marko Marulic, Croatian poet (1524)
- Vasco da Gama, Portuguese explorer (1524)
- Niccolò Machiavelli, Italian writer and statesman.
Wave

A **wave** is a kind of oscillation (disturbance) that travels through space and matter. **Wave** motions transfer energy from one place to another.

Waves play an important role in our daily life.  This is because waves are a carrier of energy and information over large distances. Waves require some oscillating or vibrating source. Ocean surface waves were the first known waves. Later, other kinds were discovered.

## Types of waves

In physics and technology, a wave (physics) carries energy that creates visible light, sound, and many other things. There are two categories of waves.
- Mechanical waves
- Electromagnetic waves

**Mechanical waves**

Waves which require any medium for their propagation are called mechanical waves.

One example of a mechanical wave is sound.

Sound can travel through air, water, or solids, but it can't travel through a vacuum. It needs the medium to help it travel.

Other examples include water waves, seismic waves, and waves traveling through a spring.
- Earthquakes produce seismic waves
- A wave in the water, such as an ocean surface wave, is a disturbance on the surface (top) of water,

### Electromagnetic waves

Waves which do not require any medium for their propagation are called electromagnetic waves.

For example:
- Radio waves and other electromagnetic radiation carry one type of energy.  X-rays, heat and light waves are some examples of electromagnetic waves.

## Related pages

- Radiation
Gluon

**Gluons** are what hold quarks together to make bigger particles called hadrons. Gluons carry the strong force between other quarks, so it is considered a force carrying particle. Photons do the same thing, but for the electromagnetic force. Also, like photons, gluons are spin-1 particles, and when a particle has spin-1 it is considered a boson.

Gluons are hard to study because although they exist in nature all the time, they are so small and require so much energy to break them away from quarks (about 2 trillion degrees) that scientists have only been able to find more about them from particle colliders such as  the Large Hadron Collider at CERN.

Murray Gell-Mann (though it might have actually been Edward Teller) gave them this name in 1962 for being similar to an adhesive or glue that keeps the nucleus together. Together with the quarks, these particles were called partons by Richard Feynman.
Humphry Davy

**Sir Humphry Davy, 1st Baronet**, FRS (Fellow of the Royal Society) (born 17 December 1778 in Penzance, Cornwall, England; died 29 May 1829 in Geneva City, Switzerland), was a Cornish chemist. His study of chemistry led to the first pure forms of some of the chemical elements such as water and sodium.
Myxobolus cerebralis

***Myxobolus cerebralis*** is a small Myxozoan parasite that eats the insides of fish like salmon and trout, causing **whirling disease**.

This is a problem in fish farming and also in natural fish populations. In the last 100 years, it has spread to most of Europe (including Russia), the United States, South Africa, and other countries.  In the 1980s, people found out that _M. cerebralis_ needs to live in a worm before it can live in a fish.  It infects both the fish and the worm by poking a hole in them and putting part of itself in.

Whirling disease hurts young fish the most, and can hurt bones and nerves. Fish with the disease do not swim very well, and they "whirl" or spin instead of swimming straight.  This makes it hard for the fish to get food and get away from danger.  Dealing with _M. cerebralis_ costs more money than most other parasites in its group (which are called "myxozoans"). People do not get sick with whirling disease, though; only fish do.

_M. cerebralis_ has become well-established, particularly in North America. It has caused the decline of whole cohorts of fish.

## Shape

_M. cerebralis_ has many stages ranging from single cells to bigger spores.  Scientists have not studied all the stages very well yet.

### Triactinomyxon stage

_M. cerebralis_ has many diverse stages ranging from single cells to relatively large spores, not all of which have been studied in detail.
The kind of _M. cerebralis_ that can attack fish is called a "Triactinomyxon", and there is a picture of it on the right.  There are three "tails" that are each about 200 micrometers long, and another piece that is about 150 micrometers (μm) long.  That piece has 64 cells in it. There are also three harpoon-like weapons that can attack the fish. They shoot into the fish, making a hole that the 64 cells can go into.  Those cells make more cells that go to the cartilage near the fish's brain.

### Myxosporean stage

The kind of _M. cerebralis_ that comes out of fish is called a "Myxospore". They are sort of round and fat in the middle like a lentil or a convex lens. They are about 10  micrometers across and are made of six cells.  Two are for the harpoon weapons, two are for protecting the Myxospore, and two are for going into a worm after the weapons make a hole. Myxospores from _M. cerebralis_ look a lot like Myxospores from other species that are sometimes in fish skin, muscle, or brains, and so it's hard to tell them apart.

## Other websites

- Report of the World Trade Organization on Australian restrictions on salmon imports
- The Whirling Disease Foundation
- The Whirling Disease Initiative
Neoclassical economics

**Neoclassical economics** is an economic theory that argues for markets to be free.  This means governments should generally not make rules about types of businesses, businesses' behaviour, who may make things, who may sell things, who may buy things, prices, quantities or types of things sold and bought.  The theory argues that allowing individual actors (people or businesses) freedom creates better economic outcomes.  These outcomes may be a higher average standard of living, higher wages, better average life-expectancies, and higher GDP.

## Arguments

Markets are an abstract idea: assumed to be all the 'actors' (businesses or people) selling one thing, service or type of thing or service, and all the 'actors' buying it.

### Theory

Markets will 'reach equilibrium' if all the sellers who want to sell at or below a given price have sold to all the buyers who are willing to buy at or above a given price.  the price is worked out in the market.

It may be easier to think about this in reverse: The market is not in equilibrium if people want to buy a haircut for ten (or more) dollars and someone is happy to sell the person a haircut for ten (or less) dollars, but for some reason this does not happen.

Neoclassical economists say this will not happen. Neo-Keynesians say it might, so the government could make the customer and the person selling the haircut happier by helping the customer somehow.

## Opposition

Neo-Keynesian economy is an alternative to Neoclassical economy. The major point of difference between neoclassical economics and neo-Keynesian economics is about whether 'markets' 'reach equilibrium'.
Nile

The **Nile** (النيل _an-nīl_) is a river in Africa. It is the longest river on Earth (about 6,650 km or 4,132 miles), though other rivers carry more water.

Its longest section starts in Lake Victoria, and flows into the Mediterranean Sea near Alexandria. It gets its name from the Greek word "Νεῖλος" (_Neil's_).

This longest part is called the White Nile. It flows from Lake Victoria in Uganda, and through Sudan to Khartoum. There it is joined by the Blue Nile to form the Nile proper, which then flows through Egypt. The Blue Nile comes from Ethiopia near the Red Sea. The two branches meet near Khartoum, in Sudan. About 300 million cubic metres of water flow down the Nile each day.

The Nile is essential to the drier countries in the north of Africa. On the Nile there are many boats: it is one of the easiest ways to get around. Historically, most cities in Egypt are built next to the river, and the pyramids are close to the Nile. The Nile has always provided most of the water used to grow crops in Egypt: much of the rest of the country is a desert. In ancient times the Nile flooded every year and the people would starve if there was not enough water for the crops. The Ancient Egyptians got papyrus from the Nile to write on. Papyrus is made from a plant which grows near the Nile.

Many different types of animals live in or near the waters of the Nile, including crocodiles, birds, fish and many others. Not only do animals depend on the Nile for survival, but also people who live there need it for everyday use like washing, as a water supply, keeping crops watered and other jobs.

Pyramids were built close to the Nile because they needed the granite stones from Aswan to be transported by barges down the Nile.

## History of the word Nile

The word "Nile" comes from Greek _Neilos_ (). Neilos came from the word "river valley". In the ancient Egyptian language, the Nile is called _Ḥ'pī_ or _iteru_, meaning "great river", represented by the hieroglyphs shown above (literally _itrw_, and 'waters' determinative). In Coptic, the words _piaro_ (Sahidic) or _phiaro_ (Bohairic) meaning "the river" (lit. p(h).iar-o "the.canal-great") come from the same ancient name.

## Other websites

- Nile River -Citizendium
Statue

A **statue** is a model of somebody or something, usually of a person or sometimes an animal. It is a sculpture. Several kinds of material can be used to make a statue, e.g. stone, bronze, clay, or wood. Statues are often at least life-size (the same size as the real person), but often they are much bigger, especially statues in the open air. Statues are often made to remember an important person (such as the statue of Alfred the Great), or to remember an event or an idea (such as the Statue of Liberty).

Usually there is some writing on a statue to say who the person is. This writing is called an epigraph. The statue may be standing on a base. This base is called a "plinth".

A **bust** is a statue of the head, shoulders and upper body of a person.

A **colossus** is an enormous statue.

A statue of someone on horseback (riding a horse) is called an **equestrian statue**.
Idea

When a person thinks of something, that which they think about is called an "idea".  Ideas are concepts which exist in the mind.  Nobody really knows how this works.  Ideas are a mental product.

One idea can change the whole world.  If someone has a better idea, they can try to convince others.

## Related pages

- Idealism
- Ideology
Connection

A **connection** is when two things are put together. This can either be a 'real' connection, like a chain linking two objects, or the word can be used in a figurative way. Figurative examples include a train connection between two cities, and mean the trains running between them.
Nobuo Uematsu

**Nobuo Uematsu** (植松 伸夫; Uematsu Nobuo, born 21 March 1959) is a Japanese video game music composer. He composed music for each role-playing games for Square Enix, including _Final Fantasy_ and _Chrono Trigger_.

## Other websites

- Nobuo Uematsu's official Japanese website
- Nobuo Uematsu's official English website
- Smile Please Co., Ltd. official Japanese website
- Unofficial Nobuo Uematsu website
Dharma

**Dharma** (or **dhamma**) is a concept that is part of many religions or spiritual beliefs that originated in the Indian subcontinent. It means _the law_ of spiritual growth of believers. Indian religions like Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism all believe in Dharma and are hence also known as Dharmic religions.

## In Buddhism

In Buddhism, the word "Dharma" also means the very old teachings of the Buddha. For example, The Four Noble Truths.

## In Hinduism

In Hinduism, dharma is the spiritual law for human beings. It is the way of goodness, truth and duty. For example, a child's dharma is to be a good student. Parents’ dharma is to raise and support their family. A teacher’s dharma is to teach, and the dharma of the police is to protect others. Each age brings new responsibilities, so dharma will change over your lifetime. It is everyone’s dharma to be honest, kind and religious, to do no harm to others and to be a good citizen. Hindus believe that following dharma fulfills the highest purpose on earth. When people follow dharma, they feel good about themselves.
Columbus

**Columbus** usually refers to:
- Christopher Columbus, the explorer
- Columbus, Ohio

It might also mean:
- Columbus, Georgia
- Columbus, Indiana
- Columbus, Kentucky
- Columbus, Mississippi
- Columbus, Montana
- Columbus, Wisconsin
Nucleus

**Nucleus** (plural: **nuclei**) means the center of something. It might mean:

- Cell nucleus, which is the part that controls the cell, or the very center
- Atomic nucleus, the center of an atom
- Comet nucleus, the solid, central part of a comet
- Nucleus (brain)
Walter Sisulu

**Walter Max Ulyate Sisulu** (18 May 1912 – 5 May 2003) was a South African activist and politician. He fought against apartheid. Sisulu was the Secretary-General of the African National Congress from 1949 to 1954. Over the next 10 years he was put in prison seven times.

He was one of many people, including Nelson Mandela to be found guilty of treason during trials between 1956 and 1961. He was sent to prison for 6 years because of this. While free on bail, he went into hiding. He was found in 1963 and put on trial again. In 1964, he as sent to prison for the rest of his life. He was released from prison in 1989.

In 1991, he became the Deputy-President of the African National Congress. He held the position from July 1991 to 1994. Sisulu died from Parkinson's disease on 5 May 2003, aged 90.

## Other websites

- Anti-apartheid fighter Sisulu dies - BBC News article, dated Tuesday, 6 May 2003
- South Africa mourns Sisulu - BBC News article, dated Tuesday, 6 May 2003
- Nelson Mandela's tribute to Walter Sisulu - BBC News article, dated Tuesday, 6 May 2003
- The African Activist Archive Project website includes the audio of a January 1987 Interview with Walter Sisulu conducted in 1954 by George M. Houser of the American Committee on Africa. The website also includes photographs of Sisulu and demonstrations in the U.S. in support of the defendants in the Rivonia Trial.

## Infobox (politician)

- **image**: Sisulu_wedding_with_mandela_and_lembede.JPG
- **name**: Walter Max Ulyate Sisulu
- **office**: African National Congress#Deputy Presidents of the ANC, Deputy President of the African National Congress
- **term start**: July, 1991
- **term end**: 1994
- **predecessor**: Nelson Mandela
- **successor**: Thabo Mbeki
- **office2**: African National Congress#Secretaries-General of the ANC, Secretary-General of the African National Congress
- **term start2**: 1949
- **term end2**: 1954
- **predecessor2**: James Arthur Calata
- **successor2**: Oliver Tambo
- **birth place**: Ngcobo, Eastern Cape, Engcobo, Transkei (now Eastern Cape), South Africa
- **party**: African National Congress
- **spouse**: Albertina Sisulu
Hartford, Connecticut

**Hartford** is the capital city of the U.S. state of Connecticut. It is on the Connecticut River and only 24 miles from Springfield, Massachusetts. The city of Hartford had 121,054 people as of 2020. This is the third most people in the state behind Bridgeport and New Haven. It is an important center of Insurance. Airline service is provided from Bradley International Airport.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Hartford
- **settlement type**: List of capitals in the United States, State capital
- **image flag**: Flag of Hartford, Connecticut.svg
- **image map**: File:Hartford County Connecticut Incorporated and Unincorporated areas Hartford Highlighted.svg
- **map caption**: Hartford's location within Hartford County and Connecticut
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision name**: United States
- **subdivision type1**: State
- **subdivision name1**: Connecticut
- **subdivision type2**: County
- **subdivision name2**: Hartford County, Connecticut, Hartford
- **subdivision type4**: Metropolitan statistical area, MSA
- **subdivision name4**: Greater Hartford
- **established title**: Settled
- **established title2**: Named
- **established title3**: Incorporated (city)
- **established title4**: Consolidated
- **named for**: Hertford, Hertfordshire
- **unit pref**: Imperial
- **area total km2**: 46.76
- **area land km2**: 45.01
- **area water km2**: 1.75
- **area total sq mi**: 18.05
- **area land sq mi**: 17.38
- **area water sq mi**: 0.68
- **area urban km2**: 1388.0
- **area urban sq mi**: 535.93
- **population as of**: 2020 United States Census, 2020
- **population total**: 121054
- **population density km2**: 2689.5
- **population density sq mi**: 6965.1
- **population urban**: 977158 (List of United States urban areas, US: 47th)
- **population metro**: 1214295 (Metropolitan statistical area, US: 48th)
- **population demonym**: Hartfordite
- **population blank1 title**: CSA
- **population blank1**: 1489361 (Combined statistical area, US: 41st)
- **population density metro sq mi**: auto
- **population density urban sq mi**: 1,823.3
- **population density urban km2**: 704.0
- **population density blank1 sq mi**: auto
- **timezone**: EST
- **utc offset**: −05:00
- **timezone dst**: EDT
- **utc offset dst**: −04:00
- **elevation ft**: 30
- **postal code type**: ZIP Code, ZIP Codes
- **postal code**: 061xx
- **area code**: Area codes 860 and 959, 860/959
- **blank name sec1**: Federal Information Processing Standards, FIPS code
- **blank info sec1**: 09-37000
- **blank1 name sec1**: Geographic Names Information System, GNIS feature ID
- **blank1 info sec1**: 2378277
- **blank2 name sec1**: Primary airport
- **blank2 info sec1**: Bradley International Airport
- **blank3 name sec1**: Secondary airport
- **blank3 info sec1**: Hartford–Brainard Airport
- **blank1 name sec2**: Interstates
- **blank1 info sec2**:
- **blank2 name sec2**: U.S. Highways
- **blank2 info sec2**:
- **blank3 name sec2**: State routes
- **blank3 info sec2**:
Boise, Idaho

**Boise** is the capital and the most populous city in the U.S. state of Idaho.  It is also the county seat of Ada County.

The Anne Frank Human Rights Memorial is in Boise. It is the only human rights memorial in the US.

## Origin of name

Although different people believe different stories about the origin of the name, it is generally accepted that the name _Boise_ originates from the French word _boisée_ which means _wooded_.

## Notable People

- Torrie Wilson: model
- Wayne Walker: former football player and Sports commentator

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Boise
- **settlement type**: List of capitals in the United States, State capital city
- **image seal**: Seal of Boise, Idaho.png
- **seal size**: 100px
- **nickname**: The City of Trees
- **motto**: Energy Peril Success
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision name**: United States
- **subdivision type1**: U.S. state, State
- **subdivision name1**: Idaho
- **subdivision type2**: List of counties in Idaho, County
- **subdivision name2**: Ada County, Idaho, Ada
- **established title**: Founded
- **established title2**: Municipal corporation, Incorporated
- **government type**: Strong-mayor
- **governing body**: Boise City Council
- **leader title**: List of mayors of Boise, Mayor
- **leader name**: Lauren McLean (Democratic Party (United States), D)
- **leader title1**: Council President
- **unit pref**: Imperial
- **area total sq mi**: 85.00
- **area land sq mi**: 84.03
- **area water sq mi**: 0.97
- **elevation ft**: 2700
- **population total**: 235,684
- **population rank**: U.S.: List of United States cities by population, 95th
- **population as of**: 2020 United States Census, 2020
- **population density sq mi**: 2860.54
- **population urban**: 433,180 (US: List of United States urban areas, 94th)
- **population density urban km2**: 1,201.3
- **population density urban sq mi**: 3,111.2
- **population metro**: 764,718 (US: List of Metropolitan Statistical Areas, 76th)
- **timezone**: Mountain Time Zone, MST
- **utc offset**: −7
- **timezone dst**: Mountain Time Zone, MDT
- **utc offset dst**: −6
- **postal code type**: ZIP codes
- **postal code**: 83701-83709, 83711-83717, 83719-83720, 83722, 83724-83726, 83728-83729, 83732, 83735, 83756, 83799
- **area code type**: North American Numbering Plan, Area code(s)
- **area code**: Area codes 208 and 986, 208, 986
- **blank name**: Federal Information Processing Standards, FIPS code
- **blank info**: 16-08830
- **blank1 name**: Geographic Names Information System, GNIS feature ID
- **blank1 info**: [http://geonames.usgs.gov/pls/gnispublic/f?p=gnispq:3:::NO::P3_FID:400590 400590]
- **area total km2**: 219.45
- **area land km2**: 216.96
- **area water km2**: 2.49
- **population density km2**: 1055.28
- **population demonym**: Boisean
- **elevation m**: 823
Des Moines, Iowa

**Des Moines** is a city in Iowa.  It is the capital city of Iowa.  The city had a population of 214,133 in the 2020 United States Census. It is the home of the Des Moines Art Center, a regional art museum, and the Pappajohn Sculpture Park, an outdoor sculpture garden.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Des Moines
- **settlement type**: List of capitals in the United States, State capital city
- **image skyline**: Morning Skyline - Des Moines, Iowa - Winter on the Des Moines River (24805016620).jpg
- **image caption**: The skyline of Downtown Des Moines
- **image flag**: Flag of Des Moines, Iowa.svg
- **flag size**: 122px
- **image seal**: Seal of Des Moines, Iowa.png
- **nickname**: "Hartford, Connecticut, Hartford of the West"
- **mapsize**: 250px
- **map caption**: Location within Iowa
- **pushpin map**: Iowa#USA
- **pushpin map caption**: Location in Iowa##Location in the United States
- **pushpin relief**: 1
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision name**: United States
- **subdivision type1**: U.S. state, State
- **subdivision type2**: List of counties in Iowa, Counties
- **subdivision name1**: Iowa
- **subdivision name2**: Polk County, Iowa, Polk, Warren County, Iowa, Warren
- **established title1**: Founded
- **established title2**: Municipal corporation, Incorporated
- **government type**: Council–manager
- **leader title**: Mayor
- **leader name**: Connie Boesen (D)
- **unit pref**: Imperial
- **area total km2**: 234.92
- **area total sq mi**: 90.70
- **area land km2**: 228.38
- **area land sq mi**: 88.18
- **area water km2**: 6.54
- **area water sq mi**: 2.52
- **elevation m**: 266
- **elevation ft**: 873
- **population as of**: 2020 United States census, 2020
- **population total**: 214133
- **population density sq mi**: 2428.39
- **population metro**: 709,466 (US: List of Metropolitan Statistical Areas, 81st)
- **population urban**: 542,486 (US: List of United States urban areas, 78th)
- **population density urban km2**: 932.0
- **population density urban sq mi**: 2,413.8
- **population blank1 title**: Combined statistical area, CSA
- **population blank1**: 890,322 (US: Combined statistical area, 66th)
- **population rank**: US: List of United States cities by population, 106th
IA: List of largest Iowa cities by population, 1st
- **leader title3**: Iowa's 3rd congressional district, U.S. Congress
- **leader name3**: Zach Nunn (R)
- **timezone**: North American Central Time Zone, CST
- **utc offset**: −6
- **timezone dst**: North American Central Time Zone, CDT
- **utc offset dst**: −5
- **blank name**: Federal Information Processing Standard, FIPS code
- **blank info**: 19-21000
- **blank1 name**: Geographic Names Information System, GNIS feature ID
- **blank1 info**: [http://geonames.usgs.gov/pls/gnispublic/f?p=gnispq:3:::NO::P3_FID:465961 465961]
- **postal code type**: ZIP Codes
- **postal code**: 50301-50340-50310-50316
- **area code type**: North American Numbering Plan, Area code
- **area code**: Area code 515, 515
- **population density km2**: 937.60
Baton Rouge, Louisiana

**Baton Rouge** is the French capital and second-largest city of the U.S. state of Louisiana. It has a humid subtropical climate (_Cfa_ in the Koeppen climate classification).

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Baton Rouge
- **settlement type**: List of capitals in the United States, State capital city and Consolidated city–county, Consolidated city-parish
- **official name**: City of Baton Rouge
- **population total**: 227470
- **population demonym**: Baton Rougean
- **population density sq mi**: 2635.32
- **population density km2**: 1017.50
- **population urban**: 631326 (US: List of United States urban areas, 67th)
- **population density urban km2**: 615.0
- **population density urban sq mi**: 1,592.9
- **population metro**: 870569 (US: Metropolitan statistical area, 65th)
- **population rank**: US: List of United States cities by population, 99th
- **utc offset**: −6
- **population as of**: 2020 United States Census, 2020
- **timezone**: North American Central Time Zone, CST
- **timezone dst**: CDT
- **area water km2**: 5.71
- **area total km2**: 229.27
- **blank1 info**: [http://geonames.usgs.gov/pls/gnispublic/f?p=gnispq:3:::NO::P3_FID:1629914 1629914]
- **blank1 name**: Geographic Names Information System, GNIS feature ID
- **blank info**: 22-05000
- **blank name**: Federal Information Processing Standards, FIPS code
- **utc offset dst**: −5
- **elevation ft**: 46
- **elevation m**: 14
- **area code**: Area code 225, 225
- **postal code**: 70801–70817, 70819–70823, 70825–70827, 70831, 70833, 70835–70837, 70874, 70879, 70883, 70884, 70892–70896, 70898
- **postal code type**: ZIP Codes
- **area water sq mi**: 2.20
- **mapsize**: 270
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **imagesize**: 280px
- **map caption**: Interactive map of Baton Rouge
- **subdivision type1**: U.S. state, State
- **image flag**: Flag of Baton Rouge, Louisiana.svg
- **nicknames**: Red Stick, The Capital City, B.R.
- **subdivision name**: United States
- **subdivision name1**: Louisiana
- **area land km2**: 223.56
- **area land sq mi**: 86.32
- **area blank1 km2**: 204.89
- **area blank1 title**: Total
- **unit pref**: Imperial
- **subdivision type2**: Parish
- **established title2**: Municipal incorporation, Incorporated
- **established title1**: Settled
- **established title**: Founded
- **leader name**: Sid Edwards (Republican Party (United States), R)
- **leader title**: Mayor-President
- **subdivision name2**: East Baton Rouge Parish, Louisiana, East Baton Rouge
- **area total sq mi**: 88.52
- **pushpin relief**: yes
- **image blank emblem**: Wordmark of Baton Rouge.png
- **blank emblem type**: Wordmark
- **image shield**: Arms of Baton Rouge, Louisiana.png
Augusta, Maine

**Augusta** is the capital city of the U.S. state of Maine. As of 2020, 18,896 people live in Augusta.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Augusta
- **settlement type**: City
- **image skyline**: Old Post Office Augusta Maine 2013.jpg
- **imagesize**: 265px
- **image caption**: Old Post Office
- **pushpin map**: United States
- **pushpin mapsize**: 265px
- **pushpin relief**: yes
- **subdivision type**: List of sovereign states, Country
- **subdivision type1**: U.S. state, State
- **subdivision name1**: Maine
- **subdivision type2**: List of counties in Maine, County
- **subdivision name2**: Kennebec County, Maine, Kennebec
- **leader title**: Mayor
- **leader name**: Mark O'Brien
- **area total km2**: 142.8
- **population total**: 18,896
- **population as of**: April 1, 2020
- **population density km2**: 132.3
- **utc offset**: −05:00
- **postal code type**: ZIP code(s)
- **postal code**: 04330, 04332, 04333, 04336, 04338
- **blank name sec2**: Community Identification Number, MCN
- **blank info sec2**: 2301102100
Saint Paul, Minnesota

**Saint Paul** (often abbreviated **St. Paul**) is the capital city of the U.S. state of Minnesota. St. Paul and Minneapolis are known as the Twin Cities.

## Well-known people from Saint Paul

- F. Scott Fitzgerald, author
- Darnella Frazier, civil rights activist

## Other websites

- Saint Paul official city government website

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Saint Paul, Minnesota
- **settlement type**: List of capitals in the United States, State capital city
- **image skyline**: Saint Paul Photo Collage.jpg
- **image caption**: Clockwise from the top: Downtown Saint Paul as seen from Harriet Island, the Xcel Energy Center, the Saint Paul Cathedral, the Minnesota State Capitol, the Como Park Zoo and Conservatory, Marjorie McNeely Conservatory, and the historic James J. Hill House
- **image flag**: Flag of Saint Paul, Minnesota.svg
- **image seal**: Seal of Saint Paul, Minnesota.gif
- **nickname**: The Capital City, The Saintly City,  Pig's Eye, STP,  Last City of the East, Twin Cities (with Minneapolis)
- **named for**: St. Paul the Apostle
- **motto**: The most livable city in America.<sup>1</sup>
- **image map**: Ramsey County Minnesota Incorporated and Unincorporated areas St. Paul Highlighted.svg
- **mapsize**: 300px
- **map caption**: Location in Ramsey County, Minnesota, Ramsey County and the state of Minnesota
- **pushpin map**: USA Minnesota#USA
- **pushpin map caption**: Location within Minnesota##Location within the United States
- **pushpin relief**: yes
- **pushpin label**: Saint Paul
- **subdivision type**: List of sovereign states, Country
- **subdivision name**: United States
- **subdivision type1**: U.S. state, State
- **subdivision type2**: List of counties in Minnesota, County
- **subdivision name1**: Minnesota
- **subdivision name2**: Ramsey County, Minnesota, Ramsey
- **established title**: Municipal corporation, Incorporated
- **leader title**: Mayor
- **leader name**: Melvin Carter (Minnesota Democratic-Farmer-Labor Party, DFL)
- **total type**: City
- **unit pref**: Imperial
- **area total km2**: 145.31
- **area total sq mi**: 56.10
- **area land km2**: 134.61
- **area land sq mi**: 51.97
- **area water km2**: 10.70
- **area water sq mi**: 4.13
- **elevation m**: 214
- **elevation ft**: 702
- **population total**: 311,527
- **population as of**: 2020 United States Census, 2020
- **population density km2**: 2314
- **population density sq mi**: 5994
- **population metro**: 3,690,261 (US: List of Metropolitan Statistical Areas, 16th)
- **population rank**: City: List of United States cities by population, 64th MN: List of cities in Minnesota, 2nd
- **population blank1 title**: Demonym
- **population blank1**: Saint Paulite
- **postal code type**: ZIP codes
- **postal code**: 55101–55175
- **area code**: Area code 651, 651
- **website**: [http://www.stpaul.gov/ www.stpaul.gov]
- **timezone**: Central Time Zone (North America), CST
- **utc offset**: -6
- **timezone dst**: Central Time Zone (North America), CDT
- **utc offset dst**: -5
Helena, Montana

**Helena** is the capital city of the U.S. state of Montana. It is also the county seat of Lewis and Clark County. About 32,000 people lived there in 2020.

Surrounding features include Spring Meadow Lake State Park, Lake Helena, Helena National Forest, the Big Belt Mountains, the Gates of the Mountains Wilderness, the Missouri River, Canyon Ferry Lake, Holter Lake, Hauser Lake, and the Elkhorn Mountains.

## Notable people

- Max Baucus, former U.S. Senator
- Liz Claiborne, fashion designer
- Mike Cooney, Lt. Governor of Montana
- Charles Donnelly, president of the Northern Pacific Railway
- Myrna Loy, actress
- Charley Pride, country music singer

## Other websites

- City of Helena official website

## Infobox (settlement)

- **official name**: Helena, Montana
- **settlement type**: City
- **nickname**: Queen City
- **image skyline**: Helena capitol.jpg
- **image caption**: Montana State Capitol
- **image map**: Helena_LewisandClark.png
- **mapsize**: 250px
- **map caption**: Location in Lewis and Clark County, Montana
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision name**: United States
- **subdivision type1**: U.S. state, State
- **subdivision name1**: Montana
- **subdivision type2**: List of counties in Montana, County
- **subdivision name2**: Lewis and Clark County, Montana, Lewis and Clark
- **leader title**: Mayor
- **established title**: Founded
- **area total sq mi**: 16.90
- **area total km2**: 43.76
- **area land sq mi**: 16.86
- **area land km2**: 43.67
- **area water sq mi**: 0.04
- **area water km2**: 0.10
- **population as of**: 2020 United States Census, 2020
- **population total**: 32091
- **population metro**: 89832
- **population density km2**: auto
- **population density sq mi**: auto
- **timezone**: Mountain Time Zone, Mountain
- **utc offset**: -7
- **timezone dst**: Mountain
- **utc offset dst**: -6
Montpelier, Vermont

**Montpelier**
is a city in the U.S. state of Vermont that serves as the state capital. It is also the shire town (county seat) of Washington County. As the capital of Vermont, Montpelier is the site of the Vermont State House, the seat of the legislative branch of Vermont government. The Vermont State House has a golden dome. The population was 8,074 at the 2020 census. By population, it is the smallest state capital in the United States. The Vermont History Museum and Vermont College of Fine Arts are in Montpelier.

The state legislature made Montpelier the state capital in 1805.

## Other websites

- City of Montpelier, Vermont
- Kellogg-Hubbard Library
- Central Vermont Chamber of Commerce
- State of Vermont

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Montpelier, Vermont
- **settlement type**: List of capitals in the United States, State capital and city
- **named for**: Montpellier, France
- **image skyline**: Vermont State House Montpelier VT 2014 10 18 09.JPG
- **image caption**: The Vermont State House, Montpelier's best-known landmark
- **image flag**: Flag of Montpelier, Vermont.svg
- **image seal**: Seal of Montpelier, Vermont.svg
- **image map**: Washington County Vermont Incorporated and Unincorporated areas Montpelier highlighted.svg
- **map caption**: Location in Washington County, Vermont, Washington County in Vermont
- **pushpin map**: USA
- **pushpin label**: Montpelier
- **pushpin relief**: yes
- **pushpin map caption**: Location in the United States
- **subdivision type**: List of sovereign states, Country
- **subdivision type1**: U.S. state, State
- **subdivision type2**: List of counties in Vermont, County
- **subdivision name2**: Washington County, Vermont, Washington
- **subdivision type3**: List of regions of the United States, Region
- **subdivision name3**: New England
- **leader title**: Mayor
- **leader title1**: City Manager
- **established title**: Settled
- **established date**: 1787
- **established title2**: Incorporated (village)
- **established date2**: 1818
- **established title3**: Incorporated (city)
- **established date3**: 1895
- **unit pref**: Imperial
- **area total km2**: 26.54
- **area land km2**: 26.04
- **area water km2**: 0.50
- **area total sq mi**: 10.25
- **area land sq mi**: 10.05
- **area water sq mi**: 0.19
- **population as of**: 2020 United States Census, 2020
- **population total**: 8074
- **population density km2**: auto
- **population density sq mi**: su
- **population demonym**: Montpelierite
- **timezone**: Eastern Time Zone, EST
- **utc offset**: −5
- **timezone dst**: Eastern Daylight Time, EDT
- **utc offset dst**: −4
- **elevation m**: 159
- **elevation ft**: 522
- **postal code type**: ZIP codes
- **postal code**: 05601-05604, 05609, 05620, 05633
- **area code**: Area code 802, 802
- **blank name**: Federal Information Processing Standard, FIPS code
- **blank info**: 50-46000
- **blank1 name**: Geographic Names Information System, GNIS feature ID
- **blank1 info**: 1461834
- **blank3 name**: Interstates
- **blank3 info**:
- **blank4 name**: U.S. Highways
- **blank4 info**:
- **blank5 name**: State Routes
- **blank5 info**: