juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Inca rope bridge

**Inca rope bridges** were simple suspension bridges over canyons and gorges to provide access for the Inca Empire. Bridges of this type were suitable for use since the Inca people did not use wheeled transport - traffic was limited to pedestrians and livestock. These bridges were an important part on the Inca road system and are an excellent example of Inca innovation in engineering. They were frequently used by runners delivering messages throughout the Incan empire.

## Other websites

- The Last Inca Suspension Bridge: A Photo Album (various images of amazing Inca Bridges and pathways, old and new.)
- Boston University, Inca Bridge to the past This bridge was also in use of crossing when they were at war.

## References

- _Incas: Lords of Gold and Glory_, 1992, Virginia: Time-Life Books.

- Finch, Ric, 2002, _Keshwa Chaca: Straw Bridge of the Incas_:  Ithaca, N.Y., South American Explorer, n. 69, fall/winter 2002, p. 6-13.  Copies of this issue may still be available for purchase from the South American Explorer.

- Gade, D.W., 1972, _Bridge types in the central Andes_:  Annals of the Association of American Geographers, v. 62 (1), p. 94-109.    [Shows the bridge at Huinchiri and predicts the art of building it will be lost within another generation;   fortunately, this prediction has proven untrue, and ethnic/adventure tourism may help save this bridge for posterity.]

- Malaga Miglio, Patricia, and Gutierrez, Alberto, (pub. date unknown), _Qishwachaca_:  Rumbos (magazine published in Peru), p. 30-34.

- McIntyre, Loren, 1973, _The Lost Empire of the Incas_:  National Geographic Magazine, v. 144, n. 6, p. 729-787.

- McIntyre, Loren, 1975, _The Incredible Incas and Their Timeless Land_: Washington D.C., National Geographic Society, 199 p.

- Roca Basadre, David and Coaguila, Jorge, eds., 2001, _Cañon delApurimac, La Ruta Sagrada del Dios Hablador_:  Lima, Empresa Editora ElComercio, S.A., 78 p.

- _Secrets of Lost Empires_:  Inca, 1995, NOVA program, available on video.

- Squier, Ephraim George, 1877, _Peru:  Incidents of Travel and Exploration in the Land of the Incas_:   New York, Harper Bros., 577 p.

- Von Hagen, Victor, 1955, _Highway of the Sun_:  New York, Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 120 p.

- Chmielinski, Piotr, 1987, _Kayaking the Amazon_:  National Geographic Magazine, v. 171, n. 4, p. 460 - 473.
Ewok

**Ewoks** are a fictional race of small, bear-like creatures from George Lucas' _Star Wars_ universe. They first appeared in the film _Return of the Jedi_.

They live on the forests on the moon of the Planet Endor. They often wear the skins or skulls of animals they have hunted. The most famous Ewok is Wicket W. Warwik, a brave Ewok who destroyed an entire Imperial shield projector. The Ewoks were also well known for their victory against the Empire in the "Battle of Endor".
Inca road system

The **Inca road system** (_El Camino Inca_) of Peru was the most extensive of many roads and trails that were constructed in pre-Columbian South America.

It went across the Andes mountains and reached heights of over 5,000 metres (16,500 feet) above sea level. It covered approximately 22,500 kilometres (14,000 miles) and provided access to over three million square kilometres of territory.

The Incas did not use the wheel for transportation, and did not have horses until Spanish conquistadors arrived in Peru in the 16th century. As a result, the trails were used almost exclusively by people walking, sometimes accompanied by pack animals, usually llamas.

The Inca people used the trails to transport goods and to relay messages, carried via knotted-cord quipu and by memory. Runners could carry messages over as much as 240 km (150 mi) per day, working in relay fashion much like the Pony Express of the 1860s in North America.

There were approximately 2,000 inns, or _tambos_, placed at even intervals along the trails. The inns provided food, shelter and military supplies to the tens of thousands who traveled the roads.

## Main routes

The most important Inca road was the _Camino Real_, as it is known in Spanish. It is 5,200 km (3,230 mi) long. It began in Quito, Ecuador, passed through Cusco, and ended in what is now Tucumán, Argentina.

By land, the Camino Real went across the Andes mountain range. At its highest, it reaches altitudes of more than 5,000 m.

_El Camino de la Costa_, the coastal trail, is 4,000 km (2,420 mi) long and ran parallel to the sea. It was linked with the Camino Real by many smaller routes.

## Inca trail to Machu Picchu

Today, the most popular of the Inca trails for trekking is the _Capaq Nan trail_, which leads from the village of Ollantaytambo to Machu Picchu, the so-called "Lost City of the Incas". There are many well-preserved ruins along the way, and hundreds of thousands of tourists from around the world make the three- or four-day trek each year, accompanied by guides.

The Inca Trail to Machu Picchu is actually three routes, which all meet up near Inti-Pata, the 'Sun Gate' and entrance to Machu Picchu. The three trails are known as the _Mollepata_, _Classic_ and _One Day_ trails, with _Mollepata_ being the longest of the three. Passing through the Andes mountain range and sections of the Amazon rainforest, the Trail passes several well-preserved Inca ruins and settlements before ending at the Sun Gate on Machu Picchu mountain. The two longer routes require an ascent to beyond 12,000 ft (3,660 m) above sea level, which can result in altitude sickness.

## Further reading

- _Inca: Lords of Gold and Glory._ Virginia: Time-Life Books, 1992.
- _Andean World: Indigenous History: Culture and Consciousness_ by Kenneth Adrien.

## Other websites

- Inca trail map
- Inca trail tour
- Interactive Map Interactive Map
- Inca Trail to Machu Picchu Interactive Map
- Inca Trail to Machu Picchu Information
Jason

**Jason** was a hero in Greek mythology. He was born in Thessaly, northern Greece. Jason was the captain of the ship called the _Argos_. The men who helped to sail the boat were called the Argonauts. The word Argonaut comes from the name of the boat: Argo and the word ending -naut meaning "sailor".

Jason and the Argonauts went to find the Golden Fleece. His father was Aeson, the rightful king of Iolcus. Jason fell in love with the daughter of the Golden Fleece's owner. Her name was Medea. Medea helped Jason get the Golden Fleece from her father. Jason and Medea killed the owner of the Golden Fleece and returned to Jason's city, Iolcus. Medea then killed Jason's half-brother Pelias so Jason could be in charge. When she was found out, Jason and Medea went to live in the Greek city of Corinth. Jason then married the princess of Corinth so they could stay. The story of Jason, the Argonauts, and the Golden Fleece is told in two modern movies: _Hercules_ starring Steve Reeves, and _Jason and the Argonauts_ starring Todd Armstrong.
Color code

A **color code** is a system for displaying information by using different colors.  Color codes are often difficult or impossible for blind and color blind people to understand.

Examples of color codes:
- Bottled gases
- Electrical wiring
- Electronic color code
- Web colors for HTML color codes
- 25-pair color code
- Fire extinguishers
- Hanky code
- Jumper cables
- Traffic lights
- Navigation lights, sea marks and characteristic lights
- Ribbon colors _see:_ :Category:Ribbon symbolism
- U.S. Department of Homeland Security's Advisory System
- Utility color codes

_The Color Code_ is also the title of a book (References, Joseph et al., 2002) combined with a nutritional practice by the same name in another book publication (Heber, 2001). _The Color Code_ combines food science, medical knowledge and nutritional practices to encourage consumer intake of colorful plant foods for achieving optimal health.

## References

- Heber D. _What Color Is Your Diet? The 7 Colors of Health_, ReganBooks, HarperCollins, 2001,
- Joseph JA, Nadeau DA, Underwood A. _The Color Code: A Revolutionary Eating Plan for Optimum Health_, Hyperion, 2002,
Complementary color

**Complementary colors** are pairs of opposite colors.  What is meant by _opposite_ can be different between color science, art, and printing.

## Color science

In color science, "complementary colors" are colors opposite to each other on the color wheel.  Primary colors and secondary colors are paired in this way:

- red and cyan (<span style="background-color:#FF0000;color:white;"> red </span> <span style="background-color:#00FFFF;color:black;"> cyan </span>), where cyan is the mixture of green and blue
- green and magenta (<span style="background-color:#00FF00;color:white;"> green </span> <span style="background-color:#FF00FF;color:black;"> magenta </span>), where magenta is the mixture of red and blue
- blue and yellow (<span style="background-color:#0000FF;color:white;"> blue </span> <span style="background-color:#FFFF00;color:black;"> yellow </span>), where yellow is the mixture of red and green

Along with these pairs, there is another pair of complementary colors: the basic color and the tertiary color made by mixing two other complementary colors.
- black and white (<span style="background-color:#000000;color:white;"> black </span> <span style="background-color:#FFFFFF;color:black;"> white </span>), where white is the mixture of red, green, and blue

## Afterimages

If a person stares at a single color for about a minute then looks at a white surface, an afterimage of the complementary color will appear. This is because of _eye fatigue_. For example, if the person stares at a red color, the photoreceptors (cells in the eye which catch colored light) for red light in the retina (the back part of the eye) become fatigued.  When photoreceptors are fatigued, they are less able to send information to the brain. If the person then looks at white light, all photoreceptors will send information.  Because the photoreceptors for red light are fatigued, the information they send will not be as strong as the information about the other colors, and the illusion of seeing the complementary color, cyan, is made.

## Art and design

Because of the limited range of colors that was available throughout most of the history of art, many artists still use a traditional set of complementary pairs, including:

- red and green
- blue and orange
- yellow and purple

The complement of each primary color (red, blue, or yellow) is roughly the color made by mixing the other two in a subtractive system (red + blue = purple; blue + yellow = green; red + yellow = orange). When two complements are mixed, they produce a gray or brown.

The use of complementary colors is an important aspect of art and graphic design. This also extends to other fields such as contrasting colors in logos and retail display. When placed next to each other, complements make each other appear brighter. On an artistic color wheel, complementary colors are placed opposite one another.  Although these artistic complements are not complements under the scientific definition, most artistic color wheels are laid out roughly like the HSV color wheel.
Decriminalization

**Decriminalization** (or **decriminalisation**) is keeping something illegal while removing any sentence, fine, or other punishment. A common example is cannabis, which many countries have not legalised but have removed any punishment.
Battledress

**Battledress** is a general term for the military uniform worn into combat, as opposed to 'display' dress and formal uniforms worn at parades and functions. It may be either monochrome (often a shade of green or brown) or in military camouflage colours.

## References

- _Khaki: Uniforms of the CEF_ by Clive M. Law (Service Publications, 1998).

## Other websites

- www.canadiansoldiers.com: extensive discussion of Canadian Army uniforms, insignia, and traditions from 1900 to 2000
SketchUp

**SketchUp** is a 3D modelling program made for architects, engineers, and movie-makers. It is easier to use than most programs used for three dimensional drawings. SketchUp was created by the company @Last Software and released in August 2000. In 2006, @Last Software was bought by Google. They released SketchUp6 in January 2007. SketchUp6 can use add-ons that let things that were built with the program be made into files that can be used with Google Earth. In 2012, SketchUp was bought by Trimble Navigation.

## Other websites

- SketchUp official website

## Infobox (software)

- **name**: SketchUp
- **logo**: SketchUp Logo 2020.svg
- **logo size**: 200px
- **caption**: SketchUp Free
- **author**: @Last Software, Google
- **developer**: Trimble (company), Trimble Inc.
- **ver layout**: stacked
- **website**: https://blog.sketchup.com
- **operating system**: Windows 7 and later
OS X Mavericks, OS X 10.9 and later
- **language**: English (language), English, French (language), French, Italian (language), Italian, German (language), German, Spanish (language), Spanish, Korean (language), Korean, Japanese (language), Japanese, Brazilian Portuguese, Chinese language,  Chinese (Simplified and Traditional)
- **genre**: 3D computer graphics
- **license**: Freemium
Islamism

**Islamism** is a group of ideologies believing that the Muslim world should be run by Sharia law. Generally, it is the idea that Islam should guide both society and politics, as well as people's personal lives.

## Select list of Islamist groups

- ISIS
- Taliban
- Hamas
- Houthis
- Al-Qaeda
- Hezbollah
- Al-Nusra Front
- Lashkar-e-Taiba
- Hizbul Mujahideen
Valence, Drôme

**Valence** is a city in the south of France, along the Rhône river. It is in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region in the Drôme department in France.

## Sister cities

Valence is twinned with:
- Asti, Italy, since 1966
- Biberach an der Riss, Germany, since 1967
- Clacton-on-Sea, United Kingdom, since 1969
- Ijevan, Armenia, since 1996
- Gedera, Israel, since 1997

## Infobox (french commune)

- **name**: Valence
- **native name**: Valença
- **commune status**: Prefectures of France, Prefecture and Communes of France, commune
- **image**: Valence depuis Crussol (04).jpg
- **caption**: View of the city of Valence
- **arrondissement**: Valence
- **canton**: Canton of Valence-1, Valence-1, Canton of Valence-2, 2, Canton of Valence-3, 3 and Canton of Valence-4, 4
- **insee**: 26362
- **postal code**: 26000
- **population demonym**: Valentinois
- **mayor**: Nicolas Daragon
- **term**: 2014–2020
- **intercommunality**: Valence-Romans Sud Rhône-Alpes
- **image coat of arms**: Blason ville fr Valence (Drome).svg
- **elevation m**: 123
- **elevation min m**: 106
- **elevation max m**: 191
- **area km2**: 36.69
- **population**: 62481
- **population date**: 2012
Valence

**Valence** can stand for different things:

## Places

- Valence-sur-Rhône, a city in the south of France, capital of the Drôme department
- Valence-sur-Baïse, a city in the Gers region of France
- Villages in France:
    - Valence (Charente), a village in Poitou-Charentes
    - Valence (Tarn-et-Garonne) a village near Agen
    - Valence-d'Albigeois, a village near Albi
    - Valence-en-Brie, a village near Melun

## Science

- Valence (chemistry), a concept from chemistry
- Valence band, a concepts from Physics
- Valence quarks, a concepts from Physics
- Valence (biology), a concept from biology
Anvil

An **anvil** is a hard piece of metal which is used as a workbench when making things out of iron or steel. An anvil is used by a blacksmith when they need to hammer hot iron to bend it into the shape they want. A blacksmith can make new shoes for horses.

Anvils were known in the Bronze Age and possibly earlier. They were used in Ancient Greece and Ancient Egypt. They are still in use today, although not nearly as much as 100 years ago when there were many more horses.

Anvils are extremely heavy. They are made in different sizes. The 17th century writer John Bunyan was a tinker (someone who mends pots and pans). He walked around the villages of Bedfordshire with a small anvil and a few tools on his back. His anvil was wedge-shaped, so that he could knock it into the ground when he needed to do a repair. His anvil is now in the John Bunyan museum in Bedford.

## Use as a musical instrument

The anvil has sometimes been used as a percussion instrument because it makes a very loud sound when hit by the hammer. Usually musicians use a metal bar mounted on a sound-box. This sounds just as good as a real anvil (which would be very heavy to carry around).

Verdi wrote some famous music called the _Anvil Chorus_ in his opera _Il Trovatore_. Wagner asked for 18 anvils in _Das Rheingold_ in the scene which takes place below the earth where the Nibelungs are working at their forges. Albert Parlow wrote an _Anvil Polka_, Varèse used an anvil in _Ionisation_, Walton uses an anvil in _Belshazzar’s Feast_ and there is an anvil in the orchestra in Howard Shore's music for _The Lord of the Rings_ movie trilogy.

## Related pages

- Forge
- Iron
- Steel
- Blacksmith
- Silversmith
Pre-Columbian era

The **pre-Columbian** era means the history and prehistory of the Americas before there were important European influences on the American continent.

The word pre-Columbian refers to the era before Christopher Columbus, but sometimes it can include the history of American indigenous cultures as they continued to develop after the Christopher Columbus' first landing in 1492, until they were conquered or influenced by Europeans, even if this happened decades or even centuries after the arrival of Columbus.

Pre-Columbian can also mean cultures of any one of the great native civilizations of the Americas, such as those of Mesoamerica (the Aztec and Maya) and of the Andes (Inca, Moche and Chibcha).

## Related pages

- Native American
- Columbian Exchange

## References

- Sorenson, John L. and Johannessen, Carl L. (2006) "Biological Evidence for Pre-Columbian Transoceanic Voyages." In: _Contact and Exchange in the Ancient World_. Ed. Victor H. Mair. University of Hawai'i Press. pp. 238–297.

## Other websites

- Central Andes Prehistoric Sequence
Duct tape

**Duct tape**, sometimes called **duck tape**, is a very strong adhesive tape with a cloth backing . Usually duct tape is grey or black, but it is made in other colors including transparent, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, flames, zebra stripe, leopard spot, tye dye, and others. People use duct tape to repair many things, for example a broken handbag or a broken chair.

Duct tape was designed during World War I. It was first used to keep water out of ammunition cases. It was found to work so well that people started using it to fix many other things. Duct tape was also called "100 mph tape" by the military because it is said the tape will still stick in winds at speeds of 100 miles per hour. Duct tape got its name from its use on heating and air conditioning ducts but oddly enough, that is the one use that the tape is not very good for. It is illegal in California to use duct tape on ducts and most professional builders in the United States are not allowed to use it either.

In the United States, people use duct tape in many action movies and television shows. Strips of duct tape can be used to tie a person up because it is very hard to get them off.

Duct tape is also great for making things like wallets, purses, clothes, and sometimes even sculptures. The use of it as an art medium is fairly new, though.
Text editor

A **text editor** is a program that is run on a computer that can create and change text.  The text can be saved into a file that is called a "text file".  Text editors can be used for a lot of things.  Many people use them to write documents.  Some people write code (like HTML or C++) using a text editor.

Some text editors can edit _rich text_.  Rich text allows **bold text**, _italic text_, and other things.  This is why rich text is different form "text file" which do not have **bold text** or _italic text_ properties.

Most text editors today support "search and replace". A computer will quickly find some text the user wants. The user can tell the computer to replace the found text with something else. This can be in part or all of the document.

Copy, cut and paste are other common options in text editors.  Copy allows users to instantly add a copy of text in one place to another place.  Cut and paste are similar, except that the text is moved from one place to another instead of being copied.  This is very useful when a writer wishes to put his paragraphs in a different order, for example.

Sometimes users make mistakes, or need to do the same thing over and over without getting bored. This is what the undo and redo features do. Users can reverse their mistakes, or quickly repeat their actions. Some text editors allow many mistakes in a row to be reversed; others allow only one or two.

## Related pages

- Hex editor
- Integrated development environment
- Word processor
- WYSIWYG
- WYSIWYM
Valency

- _This article is about the chemical concept of valence, or valency. Other meanings are at valence._

In chemistry, **valency** or **valence** is the number of chemical bonds that an atom of a certain element can form.

For a long time, people thought that this number was a fixed property of the element in question. They thought that carbon always has four bonds, oxygen always has two, and hydrogen always has one. The problem was seen only later. For example, phosphorous sometimes behaves as if it had three bonds, a valence of three. At other times, though, it seems to have five bonds.

IUPAC saw this problem, and proposed oxidation numbers. This means there is one number per chemical element. The problem with this approach is that it leaves aside most chemical properties of the elements in question.

A **valence band** is the highest occupied molecular orbital normally occupied by valence electrons for a given solid at absolute zero temperature.

## Related pages

- Valence electron

## Other websites

- "Valence" from the IUPAC _Gold Book_ (PDF file)
Valence (Charente)

- _This article is about a village in Poutou-Charentes, other meanings of the word are at Valence_
**Valence** is a village in France, in Poitou-Charentes. It is near Angoulême. In 1999, 240 people lived there.
Valence (Tarn-et-Garonne)

- _This article is about a village in the french department Tart-et-Garonne. Other meanings are at Valence_

**Valence** is a village in the Occitanie region of France. It is in the department Tarn-et-Garonne. In 1999, about 4800 people lived there. Together with 23 other, similar villages, it formed the _Communauté de communes des Deux Rives_. In that structure (that is, in all the villages together) there are about 15.500 people.

Valence is located 25 km from Agen, 45 km from  Montauban, 60 km from Cahors,  90 km from Toulouse and 160 km from  Bordeaux
Valence-d'Albigeois

- _This article is about a village near Albi. Other meanings are at Valence_

**Valence-d'Albigeois** is a village in the department of Tarn, in French region Occitanie. It is near Albi. In 1999, 1142 people lived there.
Valence-en-Brie

- _This article is about a village near Melun. Other meanings are at Valence_

**Valence-en-Brie** is a village in the Île-de-France region in France. It is located near Melun in the department Seine-et-Marne. In 1999, 583 people lived there.
Valence-sur-Baïse

- _This article is about the medieval bastide near Condom-en-Armagnac. Other meanings are at Valence_

**Valence-sur-Baïse** is a city in the Gers department of the Midi-Pyrénees region in France. It is near Condom-en-Armagnac. It was founded in 1274 by Gerald V, Count of Armagnac, and the Cistercian Abbey of Flaran as a Bastide (a fortified city). In 1999, 1151 people lived there. There is an old cisercian abbey at the place. Today the abbey serves as a cultural center. There is also a public washing basin, and a port, where ships can land.
Arcade

- _This is about an architecture. For the game arcade, check Video arcades._
In architecture, an **Arcade** is a passage or a walkway that is covered by arches or vaults. It can also be a covered walkway with arches (towards a place or a street).
Camouflage (disambiguation)

**Camouflage** can mean:
- Camouflage: protective colouration of living things
- Military camouflage used for uniforms, vehicles and ships
- Camouflage (band), a German synth-pop band
- _Camouflage (book)_, a science fiction novel by Joe Haldeman
- _Camouflage (TV series)_ short-lived U.S. game show on TV from 1961 to 1962
- A song by Stan Ridgway from 1986 ("I was a PFC on a search patrol hunting Charlie down...")
Military camouflage

**Military camouflage** is a type of clothing, fabric covering, or painted pattern used by militaries and armies to make it harder to see soldiers and weapons such as artillery guns and military vehicles. Camouflage clothes, fabric coverings, and paint use a colored pattern of several colors that is designed to blend in with the surroundings. Camouflage patterns are also used for hunting clothes.

## Types of camouflage patterns

Camouflage patterns used in desert areas, are beige and light brown. Camouflage patterns used in forested areas, mix different green and brown colors. Camouflage patterns used in urban areas mix grey, white, and black colors. Camouflage for snowy areas use white colors to blend in with the snow.

## History

Camouflage became an important part of modern military tactics when the accuracy of rifles and cannons improved at the end of the 1800s. But armies continued to use bright colours and designs until the 20th century. During World War II camouflage became a common feature in military uniforms. As well, many military vehicles such as planes and trucks were painted with camouflage patterns.

Different countries use different types of military camouflage patterns.

## References

- Alan Raven - The Development of Naval Camouflage 1914 – 1945
- Roy R. Behrens - Art and Camouflage: An Annotated Bibliography
- U.S. Army manual FM 21-76 on camouflage
- Guy Hartcup - Camouflage: A History of Concealment and Deception in War (1980)
- WWII War Department Field Manual FM 5-20B: Camouflage of Vehicles (1944)
- History of British Military Uniforms.

## Other websites

- Henrik Clausen
- Kamouflage.net
- Crye Precision's Multicam multi-environment pattern
- Roggenwolf digital camouflage
- Hyperstealth Biotechnology fractal camouflage
Democratic Republic of Georgia

The **Democratic Republic of Georgia** (**DRG**; Georgian: საქართველოს დემოკრატიული რესპუბლიკა, _Sakartvelos Demokratiuli Respublika_), 1918–1921, was the first modern establishment of a Republic of Georgia.

Georgia's capital was Tbilisi, and its state language was Georgian. Created on May 26, 1918, on the break-up of the Transcaucasian Federation, it was led by the Social Democratic Menshevik party. Facing permanent internal and external problems, the young state was not able to withstand the invasion by the Russian SFSR Red Armies. It collapsed between February and March 1921 to become a Soviet republic.

## Infobox (former country)

- **conventional long name**: Democratic Republic of Georgia
- **native name**: (Georgian language, Georgian)
- **common name**: Georgia (1918–1921)
- **region**: Caucasus
- **government type**: Republic
- **p1**: Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic
- **flag p1**: Flag of the Transcaucasian Federation.svg
- **s1**: Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic
- **flag s1**: Flag of the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic (1922–1937).svg
- **s2**: Turkey
- **flag s2**: Flag of Turkey.svg
- **image coat**: Coat of arms of the Democratic Republic of Georgia.svg
- **image flag**: Flag of Georgia (1918-1921).svg
- **flag**: Flag of Georgia (1918–1921)
- **image map**: Democratic Republic of Georgia 1920.svg
- **image map caption**: Claimed borders of the Democratic Republic of Georgia
- **national anthem**: _Dideba zetsit kurtheuls, Dideba Zetsit Kurtheuls_
<small>Praise Be To The Heavenly Bestower of Blessings</small>
- **capital**: Tbilisi
- **common languages**: Georgian language, Georgian (official)
Russian language, Russian, Armenian language, Armenian, Azerbaijani language, Azerbaijani, Svan language, Svan, Mingrelian language, Mingrelian, Laz language, Laz
- **religion**: Georgian Orthodox and Apostolic Church, Georgian Orthodox
- **title deputy**: Prime Minister of Georgia, Chairman
- **deputy1**: Noe Ramishvili
- **year deputy1**: 1918
- **deputy2**: Noe Zhordania
- **year deputy2**: 1918–1921
- **era**: Interwar period
- **date start**: May 26
- **year start**: 1918
- **event1**: Red Army invasion of Georgia, Soviet invasion
- **date event1**: 11 February 1921
- **event end**: Soviet Occupation Day, Georgia, Soviet annexation
- **date end**: 25 February
- **year end**: 1921
- **stat year1**: 1919
- **stat area1**: 107600
- **stat pop1**: 2500000
- **currency**: Georgian maneti
- **today**:
Alternative rock

**Alternative rock**  is a type of rock music that started between 1979-1981 and popular by the early 1990s rock is made up of various subgenres that have come out of the indie music scene since the 1980s, such as grunge, indie rock, Britpop, gothic rock, and indie pop.

These genres are sorted by their collective types of punk, which laid the groundwork for alternative music in the 1970s.

Examples of alternative rock bands include R.E.M., Nirvana, Radiohead, Oasis, Coldplay, and Imagine Dragons.

## Artists

- Default
- Three Days Grace
- Sun Kil Moon
- Creed
- Story of the Year
- Kutless
- Secondhand Serenade
- The Red Jumpsuit Apparatus
- Deep Blue Something
- Counting Crows
- Sixpence None the Richer
- The Verve Pipe

## Infobox (music genre)

- **name**: Alternative rock
- **color**: white
- **bgcolor**: crimson
- **cultural origins**: Late 1970s to early 1980s, United Kingdom and United States
- **popularity**: Limited before the success of grunge and Britpop in the 1990s. Widespread since then.
- **subgenrelist**: List of alternative rock genres
Anne Sullivan

**Anne Sullivan** (April 14, 1866 – October 20, 1936) was a teacher best known as the tutor of Helen Keller.  Anne Sullivan married John Macy in 1905.  Her health started getting worse in 1914, and she died on October 20, 1936 holding hands with Helen Keller.

Anne Sullivan was born in Feeding Hills, Hampden County, Massachusetts.  Her parents, Thomas Sullivan and Alice Clohessy, were poor Irish farmers who left Ireland in 1847 because of the Irish Potato Famine.  Sullivan taught Helen Keller sign language.  Anne and Helen lived together in Forest Hills, Queens, New York and Anne died there on October 20, 1936.  Anne was Helen's favorite teacher.  Helen wrote the book 'Teacher' about Anne.
Belgrade Philharmonic Orchestra

The **Belgrade Philharmonic Orchestra** is an orchestra based in Belgrade, Serbia.  It was founded in 1923. Its founder was Stevan Hristić, one of the most important Serbian composers and conductors. The  first concert of the Belgrade Philharmonic Orchestra took place on  April 28, 1923 with Hristić conducting.

The orchestra was the best orchestra in Yugoslavia.  By the 1960s it had become one of the best orchestras in Europe.  Then, during the 1990s there were wars in the areas which made up Yugoslavia.  For a time the orchestra were not allowed to play abroad.  It was a difficult time for them, and many players left.

In 2000, with Belgrade now the capital city of Serbia, the orchestra was built up again.  Many new players from other countries joined the orchestra, most of them were young.  Their concert hall was rebuilt.  They have worked with famous people such as Zubin Mehta, Sarah Chang and Nigel Kennedy.

However, the orchestra are facing difficult times again.  They need more money.  In 2009 they advertised in the city's newspapers that they were available to play at weddings, funerals, baptisms, divorces and saints' days.  Some people thought the advertisement was not the right thing for the orchestra to do, but it has attracted support from many young people.
Futrono

**Futrono** is one of the 12 municipalities in the province of Valdivia, in the region of Los Lagos of Chile. It is located on the north side of the Ranco lake, but the town of Futrono is not on the shore.

This place was a territory of mapuches indigenous. They called this town, _Futronohue_. Then, it becomes a port used to transport things to Puerto Nuevo, and after that to La Unión. In 1941, the municipality was created and that made it grow in population.

Now, Futrono has much more activity, for example; agriculture, tourism and high quality furniture companies.
Tigranes the Great

**Tigranes II**, more commonly known as **Tigranes the Great** (Armenian: Տիգրան Մեծ, _Tigran Mets_; Ancient Greek: Τιγράνης ὁ Μέγας _Tigránes ho Mégas_; Latin: _Tigranes Magnus_) was an Armenian king, from between 95 and 55 BCE. Tigranes's period, Kingdom of Armenia became, for a short time, most strongest and super power state to Rome's east. He was a member of the Artaxiad dynasty.

Tigranes was born around 140 BCE and was the son or nephew of Artavasdes I or Tigranes I.

Tigranes the Great represented the Artaxiad Royal House.

He was involved in many battles during his reign. He had battles against the Parthian, Seleucid, and Roman empires.

## Related pages

- Kingdom of Armenia (Antiquity) (Expanded lands massively)

## Infobox (monarch)

- **name**: Tigranes II
- **title**: King of Armenia
- **image**: Tigran Mets.jpg
- **caption**: Tigranes the Great on a coin
- **succession**: Kingdom of Armenia (Antiquity), King of Armenia
- **reign**: 95 BCE–55 BCE
- **predecessor**: Tigranes I
- **successor**: Artavasdes II of Armenia, Artavasdes II
- **royal house**: Artaxiad Dynasty, Artaxiad
- **father**: Tigranes I
- **spouse 1**: Cleopatra of Pontus, Cleopatra
- **religion**: Zoroastrianism
George Canning

**George Canning** PC, FRS (11 April 1770 – 8 August 1827) was a British statesman and politician who was Foreign Secretary and, briefly, Prime Minister.

## Entry into politics

Stratford Canning was a Whig and would introduce his nephew in the 1780s to prominent Whigs such as Charles James Fox, Edmund Burke, and Richard Brinsley Sheridan. George Canning's friendship with Sheridan would last for the remainder of Sheridan's life.

## Infobox (officeholder)

- **honorific-prefix**: <small>The Right Honourable</small>
- **name**: George Canning
- **smallimage**: George Canning.jpg
- **order**: Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
- **term start**: 10 April 1827
- **term end**: 8 August 1827
- **monarch**: George IV of the United Kingdom, George IV
- **predecessor**: Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool, The Earl of Liverpool
- **successor**: Frederick John Robinson, 1st Viscount Goderich, The Viscount Goderich
- **birth place**: Marylebone, London
- **death place**: Chiswick, Middlesex
- **alma mater**: Christ Church, Oxford
- **spouse**: Joan Canning, 1st Viscountess Canning
- **children**: 4
- **party**: Tory
- **order2**: Chancellor of the Exchequer
- **monarch2**: George IV
- **term start2**: 31 January 1823
- **term end2**: 20 April 1827
- **predecessor2**: Frederick John Robinson, 1st Viscount Goderich, Frederick John Robinson
- **successor2**: Charles Abbott, 1st Baron Tenterden, Charles Abbott
Chester city walls

The **Chester city walls** are big intact defensive walls around an important English city of Chester. The city has been defended with walls since the foundation of the Deva Victrix fort on the site in 79.

## History

The first walls were built to help the Roman fort in 79, although these were replaced by stronger stone walls between the 1st and 3rd century. The walls enclosed a far smaller area than the modern walls, with the south-western corner much farther from the River Dee.
Physicalism

**Physicalism** is the view that everything in the universe is made out of physical matter. Physicalism does not believe in gods, spirits, or other things that are not made of physical material.  A person who believes in physicalism is a physicalist. Materialism and physicalism are very similar concepts, because physicalism was a response to materialism. Physicalism is against idealism, which states that everything comes from mental processes.
Herd

A **herd** is a large group of animals. The term is used for mammals, particularly hoofed animals. Herding is a good example of collective animal behavior. Other terms are used for similar types of behavior in other types of animal. For example, a large group of birds is usually called a _flock_ (this may also refer to certain mammals as well) and a large group of carnivores is usually called a _pack_.

In addition, special collective nouns may be used for particular cases: for example a flock of geese, if not in flight, is sometimes called a gaggle. However, in theoretical discussions in behavioural ecology, the term "herd" is used for all these kinds of assemblage. A herd may also refer to one that tends and cares for such groups (e.i. shepherds tend to sheep, and goatherds tend to goats, etc.).

When an association of animals (or, by extension, people) is described as a "herd", that means that the group tends to act together (for example, all moving in the same direction at a given time), but that this does not occur as a result of planning or co-ordination. Rather, each individual is choosing behaviour that corresponds to that of the majority of other members, possibly through imitation or possibly because all are responding to the same external circumstances. A herd can be contrasted with a co-ordinated group where individuals have distinct roles. Many human groupings, such as an army detachments or sports teams, show such co-ordination and differentiation of roles, but so do some animal groupings such as those of eusocial insects, which are co-ordinated through pheromones and other forms of animal communication. Conversely, some human groupings may behave more like herds.

## Related pages

- Collective animal behaviour
Ungulate

**Ungulates** (meaning roughly "hoofed animal") are several groups of mammals. Most of them use the tips of their toes, usually as hooves, to support their body weight while moving.

As a descriptive term, "ungulate" normally excludes cetaceans (whales, dolphins, porpoises), because they do not have most of the typical morphological characteristics of ungulates. However, recent discoveries show that the Cetacea were descended from early artiodactyls.

Ungulates are typically herbivorous and many use specialised gut flora to digest cellulose. Some modern species, such as pigs, are omnivorous. Some prehistoric species, such as the Mesonychia, were carnivorous.

Ungulates include odd-toed ungulates such as horses, rhinoceroses and tapirs, and even-toed ungulates such as cattle, pigs, giraffes, camels, sheep, deer, and hippopotamuses. Cetaceans are also even-toed ungulates although they do not have hooves.

## Related pages

- Even-toed ungulate
- Odd-toed ungulate
Herd (disambiguation)

A herd is a large group of animals.  **Herd** may also refer to:

In **zoology**:

- Bachelor herd, gatherings of juvenile male animals who are still sexually immature
- Herding, the act of bringing individual animals together into a group
- Herding dog, dog that either has been trained in herding or that is a member of a breed developed for herding

In **sports**:

- David Herd (footballer), Scottish former football player
- Fred Herd, Scottish professional golfer from St Andrews
- Sandy Herd, Scottish professional golfer from St Andrews

In **psychology**:

- Herd behavior, situations in which a group of individuals react coherently without there being any co-ordination between them
- Herding instinct, social tendency in humans to identify with and model many behaviors and beliefs after a larger group of individuals with whom they identify

In **music**:

- The Herd (album), the self-titled first album from the Australian hip hop band
- The Herd (band), Australian hip hop outfit from the suburbs of Sydney
- The Herd (UK band), English pop group

In **other fields**:

- David Herd (anthologist), Scottish anthologist
- Herding Cats, phrase
- Richard Herd, American character actor in television and film
- Herd (film), a short film directed by Mike Mitchell (director)
Aylesbury

**Aylesbury** is the county town of Buckinghamshire in south central England. It had a population in 2001 of 65,173. Aylesbury is near London. Aylesbury was a major market town in Anglo-Saxon times. Aylesbury replaced Buckingham as the county town of Buckinghamshire in 1529 by order of King Henry VIII.

It is home to the Roald Dahl Children's Gallery and, since 2010, the 1,200 seat Waterside Theatre.

It is a popular London commuter town, thanks to its easy access to the A41, directly leading to the M25. As well as this, it is easy to take the train directly from Aylesbury to London to marleybonne

## Infobox (uk place)

- **country**: England
- **official name**: Aylesbury
- **population**: 56,392
- **population ref**: [http://www.neighbourhood.statistics.gov.uk/dissemination/LeadTableView.do?a=7&b=792114&c=aylesbury&d=16&e=15&g=424024&i=1001x1003x1004&m=0&r=1&s=1215272843533&enc=1&dsFamilyId=779]

Urban area 69,021

Aylesbury Vale district 174,900
- **static image name**: Kingsbury Square Aylesbury Bucks.jpg
- **static image caption**: Kingsbury, Aylesbury
- **static image 2 name**: Aylesbury Clocktower.JPG
- **static image 2 caption**: Aylesbury Clocktower
- **shire district**: Aylesbury Vale
- **shire county**: Buckinghamshire
- **region**: South East England
- **constituency westminster**: Aylesbury (UK Parliament constituency), Aylesbury
- **post town**: AYLESBURY
- **postcode district**: HP19, HP20, HP21
- **postcode area**: HP
- **dial code**: 01296
- **os grid reference**: SP818138
- **civil parish**: Aylesbury
Landsberg Prison

** Landsberg Prison** is a prison in the town of Landsberg am Lech in the southwest of the German state of Bavaria. It is about  west of Munich.

## History

The Landsberg Prison was built around 1910 on the town's western edge. Its most noted prisoner was Adolf Hitler. Hitler was there in 1924 after being found guilty of treason for his part in the Beer Hall Putsch. It was during his time at Landsberg that Hitler wrote his book _Mein Kampf_ (_My Struggle_) with help from Rudolf Hess. During the occupation of Germany by the Allies after World War II, the US Army named the prison as "War Criminal Prison No. 1". They held many Nazi war criminals there. Executions of war criminals were also done at Landsberg. The last of these executions happened on June 8, 1951. These were the last executions in the Federal Republic of Germany, then commonly known as West Germany.

## Related pages

- Beer Hall Putsch

## Other websites

- Landsberg "The Hitlertown": The City of Youth
Melun

**Melun** is a city in France. It is the capital of the Seine-et-Marne department, in the Île-de-France region of France. The city is about 40 kilometres southeast of Paris, in a bend of the river Seine. Between Brie and Gâtinais. It is between 37 metres and 102 metres of above the sea. At the last count in 1999, 37.500 people lived there.

The city is home to the production of the Brie de Melun, a saltier variant of the Brie de Meaux. A school for police officers has been in the city since 1945. Other than that there are pharmaceuitical and aviation industries and a prison complex in the city.

The first historical mention of the city is in 52BC, as _Melodunum_. The modern name of the city comes from the name it had in the 6th century, _Meluneum_. Clovis I makes a duchy out of the city. He also has fortifications built. The city gains new importance. The city is also prone to raids of the vikings, most notably those in 852 and 866.

When the département Seine-et-Marne was formed on the 4th March 1790, Melun became its capital.

## Education

A campus of the École nationale de l'aviation civile (French civil aviation academy) is in Melun.

## Transports

- Melun Villaroche Aerodrome
Alsace

**Alsace** (Alsatian and Alemannic German: _Elsàss_, pre-1996 German: _Elsaß_) is an administrative region of France. In 2021, the departments of Bas-Rhin and Haut-Rhin, in France's Grand Est  administrative region, were combined to form the current **European Collectivity of Alsace**. The new entity is a territorial collectivity with all of the powers of a standard department, plus some of the powers of a French region. Alsace is on the eastern border of France, on the west bank of the Upper Rhine, next to Germany and Switzerland.

Before the region merged with Champagne-Ardenne and Lorraine in 2014, data from INSEE stated that about 1.8 million people lived there as of 2013. Its capital was Strasbourg, the largest city. It changed hands between France and Germany many times. Language, cuisine, music, dress and customs were Germanic, and very close to the Swabian ones across the Rhine. The overall culture was generally more German than French, being somewhere between German and French.

Alsace was part of the Holy Roman Empire and was still inhabited by people speaking a dialect of Upper German.  In the 17th century, all of Alsace was annexed (in steps) under King Louis XIV of France. He made it one of the provinces of France.

The Treaty of Verdun had divided the empire of Charlemagne in the 9th century, eventually causing Alsace to be frequently mentioned in conjunction with Lorraine, because the possession of these two _régions_ (as _Alsace-Lorraine_) was often contested in the 19th and 20th centuries.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Alsace
- **image map**: Alsace map.png
- **map caption**: Alsace is marked in red
- **image flag**: Flag of Alsace.svg
- **image shield**: Blason région fr Alsace.svg
Lorraine

**Lorraine** () is a former administrative region in the northeast of France. It is now part of the administrative region of Grand Est. In 2012, the population was 2,356,600.

Lorraine's capital was Metz.

The most important population centres were Nancy and Metz, with about 300,000 people each, followed by Thionville, with about 130,000. Other important cities were Epinal and Bar-le-Duc.

The departments in the region were Meurthe-et-Moselle, Meuse, Moselle, and Vosges.
Regions of France

France is divided into 18 administrative **regions** (_regions_). These regions are a kind of local government.

Thirteen regions are in Metropolitan France (the part of the country that is in Europe). Each region contains a few of the Departments of France. Corsica has a different status than the other 12 metropolitan regions. It is called _collectivist territorial_. Five regions are overseas.

The Law of Decentralization in 1982 created 27 regions. In 2016, some regions were combined and there are now 18.

|Flag|Region|Capital|Km2|Etymology||
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
||Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes|Lyon|align=center|69 711|Auvergne, Rhône-Alpes|
||Bourgogne-Franche-Comté|Dijon|align=center|47 784|Burgundy, Franche-Comté|
||Brittany|Rennes|align=center|27 208|Duchy of Brittany|
||Centre-Val de Loire|Orléans|align=center|39 151|North-central France; crosses the middle of the Loire Valley|
||Corsica|Ajaccio|align=center|8 722|Territorial collectivity|
|||Strasbourg|align=center|57 433||
||Hauts-de-France|Lille|align=center|31 813||
||Île-de-France|Paris|align=center|12 012|Province of Île-de-France|
||Normandy|Rouen|align=center|30,627|Duchy of Normandy|
||Nouvelle-Aquitaine|Bordeaux|align=center|84 061||
||Occitanie|Toulouse|align=center|72 724||
||Pays de la Loire|Nantes|align=center|32 082|None; created for Nantes|
||Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur (PACA)|Marseille|align=center|31 400|Former province of Provence|
|colspan="8" bgcolor="#C0C0C0"|_The following five overseas departments also have the special status of overseas region._|||||
||French Guiana|Cayenne|align=center|83 534|Overseas region|
||Guadeloupe|Basse-Terre|align=center|1 628|Overseas region|
||Martinique|Fort-de-France|align=center|1 128|Overseas region|
||Mayotte|Mamoudzou|align=center|374|Overseas region|
||Réunion|Saint-Denis|align=center|2 512|Overseas region|
Lower Normandy

**Lower Normandy** (called _Basse-Normandie_ in French) is a former  administrative Regions of France.  It is now part of the region of Normandy. The capital city was Caen. In 2007 about 1.4 million people lived there.

Lower Normandy became a region in 1956. The old region of Normandy was split into Lower Normandy and Upper Normandy. The departments in the region were Calvados, Manche, and Orne.

The economy is centered on agriculture. Cider is made there and livestock is farmed. There is a bit of textile industry as well. It was the first region of France when it comes to producing butter, cheese and horses. The west part of the region is used mainly for farming, because of the prairies. Camembert, Pont-l'évêque and Livarot cheeses come from this region.