juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Radio wave

**Radio waves** make up part of the electromagnetic spectrum. These waves are pieces of energy with differing wavelengths, somewhat similar to visible light waves, X-rays or gamma rays, except they are much longer.

A radio wave, like other electromagnetic waves, is similar to an ocean surface wave or any other types of waves.  Both types of wave have a hill and valley shape (or a peak and crest shape), repeating over and over.  A wavelength is measured as the distance from the top of one crest to the top of its neighboring crest. While the wavelength of visible light is very very small, less than one micrometer and much less than the thickness of a human hair, radio waves can have a wavelength from a couple centimeters to several meters. They also have a radio frequency.

The smallest radio waves are called microwaves.  Shortwaves are not quite so small.  There are also medium and long waves. Antennas designed to send and receive radio waves are usually similar in size to the wavelength they are to use. Many radio antennas (like those on cars) are made long because they receive signals of FM radio (a few meters, several feet) or AM radio (hundreds of meters, about a thousand feet).

## Uses

Manmade radio waves have been used since the 19th century for communication.  Radar was developed in the 20th century, using radio waves to 'see' distant objects by bouncing waves off an object and seeing how long it takes for the waves to return.  Radios also use these waves to send and receive information.

Radio waves from other planets were first discovered in the 1930s by Karl Guthe Jansky, working for Bell Laboratories.  Bell was detecting noise (electronics) on radio channels, and had Jansky try to find the source of this static, or interference. After identifying noise that came from lightning, he spent much time looking into the remainder. Surprisingly, some of the interference was coming from space! This discovery eventually led astronomers to look at radio waves along with light waves to find things in the sky. These radio astronomers use giant Radio telescopes, shaped like satellite dishes, to gather and study the waves.

Radio waves are used for many things today.  Broadcasting and communications satellites and mobile phones and many computers communicate by radio waves.
Bridge

A **bridge** is a structure to cross an open space or gap.  Bridges are mostly made for crossing rivers, valleys, or roads.  Nowadays most big bridges are made to carry vehicles but people have also walked across bridges for thousands of years.  Bridges called highway overpasses carry a road over another road.

Military bridges are portable, so that they may be easily moved to where they are needed.  This makes them much more complex than most civilian bridges.

The first man-made bridges were probably made from cut wood or stones. Some stone bridges have lasted thousands of years. In recent centuries large bridges are made mostly of steel. They do not last as long. Many bridges are in a state of disrepair.

## Types of bridges

There are five major structural types of bridges:
- Beam bridges
- cantilever bridges,
- arch bridges
- suspension bridges and
- cable-stayed bridges
Mysticism

**Mysticism** is the belief that people can _directly_ experience God or true reality, rather than experiencing them only through books, rituals, or other people. People who practice these beliefs are called _mystics_.

Mystics exist within most religions, though not all people who practice religions are mystics. Mystics may experience visions or dreams, or hear God as a voice.

## Hindu mystics

Some examples of Hindu mystics:

- Shankara
- Sri Ramakrishna

## Christian mystics

Some examples of Christian mystics:

- Augustine of Hippo (354–430)
- Gregory I (590–604)
- Bridget of Sweden (1303–1373)
- John of the Cross (1542–1591)
- George Fox (1624–1691)
- William Blake (1757–1827)
- Thomas Merton (1915–1968)

## Islamic mystics

Islamic Mysticism is known as _Tassawuf_ (or Sufism). A detailed list of Muslim Sufi mystics is given on the Sufism page.

## Jewish mystics

Some examples of Jewish mystics:

- Menachem Mendel Schneerson (1902-1994)

## Buddhist mystics

Some examples of Buddhist mystics:

- Siddhartha Gautama (563 BC-483 BC)
- Bodhidharma (440-528)

## Related page

- Kabbalah
- Spirituality
- Supernatural
Head of government

The **head of government** is the leader of the executive branch of a  nation's government. This is not always the same person as the head of state. Common titles for heads of government include Premier or Prime Minister.

In some countries such as the United States, the president is both the head of state and the head of government. In the Republic of Ireland the president is the head of state but the Taoiseach (Prime Minister) is the head of government.

In most modern monarchies the king (or queen) is the head of state but not the head of government, as is the case of Japan and the UK, for example. In this scenario, the monarch will perform ceremonial duties while the head of government takes care of the executive branch.

The head of state of some countries has no power over law and justice, for example, the Chancellor of Germany has those powers and not the Bundespresident.
SNAFU

**SNAFU** or **snafu** is an acronym that the United States Military first used. Civilians now use it as well. It stands for **S**ituation **N**ormal: **A**ll (**F**ucked/**F**ouled/) **U**p.

In modern times, it means a situation that was occurring normally but then suddenly began to go wrong. For example:

_The general's visit this week-end went well until we hit a **snafu**. Everything went wrong after that._

Snafu is used mostly as a noun. It can also be used as a verb but usually in the passive sense. For instance, someone would say:

_The general's visit this week-end went well until it **snafued**.  Everything went wrong after that._

But they would probably not say:

_The general's visit this week-end went well until we **snafued** it._
Supply line

A **supply line** is a large line of military supply vehicles, usually in convoy format. The line is useful for transporting needed supplies (food, medical supplies, ammo) to the front line. Without the supply line, a deployed army far from home would not be able to fight for long, as supplies would soon run out.
The enemy is most likely to target the supply line if not heavily defended, since once the supplies are cut off, the army will soon be unable to fight, and unable to reinforce, and so they will be forced to surrender or die.
Caenorhabditis elegans

***Caenorhabditis elegans*** is a species of roundworm or nematode. It is important because much research has been done on its genetics and development.

_C. elegans_ is about 1 mm long. The worms are not parasites, they are free-living. They live in soil and feed on bacteria. _C. elegans_ is a model organism, used to study animal development and behavior. It is the first multicellular organism for which scientists have been able to sequence its whole genome.

_C. elegans_ has two types of sex: hermaphrodite and male. A hermaphrodite makes sperms when its in a larval stage and makes ova in an adult stage.  A male can only make sperm. Males are a little smaller than hermaphrodites.

Study using _C. elegans_ was begun in 1965 by Sydney Brenner. In laboratories, they are easy to keep alive. At 25ºC, they spend 14 hours as an embryo.  Animals like _C. elegans_ that do not take long to grow and are easy to feed are usually good organisms for research.

In 2002, the Nobel Prize for Medicine was awarded to Sydney Brenner, Robert Horvitz, and John Sulston for their work on how _C. elegans's_ genes cause it to grow and cause some of its cells to die.
Oldham

**Oldham** is a town in the North West of England. It is to the north-east of Manchester. It is part of Greater Manchester. Oldham was part of Lancashire until 1 April 1974.

There were riots in Oldham in May 2001. It is the centre of the Borough of Oldham.

Oldham Council achieved dubious notoriety in 2009 when in ran up a bill of £8 million carrying out a failed prosecution of kitchen tycoon Vance Miller. The Judge threw out the case and lambasted the council for the frivolity of the prosecution.

The town has an association football team, called Oldham Athletic. It also has a cricket club, called Oldham Cricket Club.

The composer, William Walton was born in Oldham.

The first test tube baby, Louise Joy Brown, was born in Oldham General Hospital on 25 July 1978.

## Schools

- The Blue Coat School
- Crompton House
- Hulme Grammar School
- Saddleworth School

## Other websites

- Oldham Council
Ton

**Ton** might refer to

- The _common ton_ or _short ton_, defined as 2,000 pounds _avoirdupois_ (1000kg)
- The _long ton_, defined as 2,240 pounds (1 016 kg)
- The _ton_ or ***tonne***, called a metric ton in the United States, is defined as 1,000 kilograms (2,204 pounds). This unit is also called a "mega-gram" (1 000 000 g) but "tonne" is more convenient.
Phoebe (moon)

**Phoebe** is a moon which goes around (orbits) the planet called Saturn. It takes eighteen months for Phoebe to go all the way around Saturn. It is half made out of rock, and half made out of ice. The ground on Phoebe is black, which means that it is very dark when seen from Earth. Phoebe does not have any air, and there is no water on its surface.

There are many craters on Phoebe. These are from asteroids and other things crashing into it, and leaving round marks on the surface.

Phoebe is slightly irregular, which means that it is not perfectly round like a ball. It has an average diameter of 213 km. This means that the Earth's moon is 15 times bigger than Phoebe. The duration between two sunrises (rotation period) is only 9 hours and 16.5 minutes long.
Box

A **box** is a container used to put things in. It is mainly a cuboid (square) shape, but it can be other shapes too. Boxes are usually made out of cardboard, wood, plastic or metal.
Many boxes are made of cardboard, and a lot of them are made. They are primarily used for packaging, commercial goods or storing goods and materials. They can be made from bent or wrinkled cardboard. In their most obvious life stage, they are popularly used as a cheap material to hold a range of projects, among them being science experiments, children's toys, costumes and other things.
Custom

A **custom** (also called a **tradition**) is a common way of doing things. It is something that many people do, and have done for a long time. Usually, the people come from the same country, culture, or religion. Usually, they do not know when the custom started.

Many customs are things that people do that are handed down from the past and the future.
**Examples of it are:**
- Ceremonies is a class of customary, collective action.
- In some countries bowing to older people is polite and respectful.
- In some countries it is okay to burp while eating food.
- In some countries you take your shoes off before entering the house.
- In some places they sit on the floor and eat.

## Related pages

- Conservatism
- Traditionalism
Fort Ouiatenon

**Fort Ouiatenon** was the first fortified European settlement in what is now the U.S. state of Indiana. It is about three miles southwest of modern-day West Lafayette.

Fort Ouiatenon was originally constructed by the French government in 1717 as a military outpost to protect against Great Britain's western expansion. Its location among the unsettled woodlands of the Wabash River valley also made it a key center of trade for fur trappers. French merchants and trappers from Quebec would arrive at Fort Ouiatenon in search of beaver pelts and to take advantage of trade relations with the native Wea Native American tribes.

At its peak level of activity during the mid-18th century Fort Ouiatenon was home to over 2,000 people. In 1761, during the French and Indian War, a contingent of British soldiers led by Lieutenant Edward Jenkins captured and occupied the fort. In 1763 an uprising led by Chief Pontiac of the Ottawa Native American tribe surprised Lieutenant Jenkins and his men and captured Fort Ouiatenon without firing a shot. Seven similar posts were also captured in what became known as Pontiac's Uprising.

The British made little use of Fort Ouiatenon after the French and Indian War; it was never garrisoned. During the 1780s, local Indian tribes used it as a base of operations to stage raids against American settlers pushing westward. President George Washington ordered the fort to be destroyed in 1791.

In 1930 a replica of Fort Ouiatenon was built near its original site by a local physician named Richard Wetherill. In 1970 the site was placed on the National Register of Historic Places by the U.S. Department of the Interior. Today Fort Ouiatenon is open to tourists and is the location of the annual Feast of the Hunters' Moon.
Bangalore

**Bangalore** (English pronunciation: ˈbæŋɡəlɔər, bæŋɡəˈlɔər), officially known as **Bengaluru** (), is the capital city of the Indian state of Karnataka. It is famous for its information technology industry and so it is called the Silicon Valley of India. Today, as a large and growing city, Bangalore has many of the most well-known colleges and research institutions in India.

Bangalore is more famous for its climatic conditions. The temperature is usually low compared to the other cities in Karnataka. This city was also known as the garden city because of the greenery it had.

## Major Railway Stations

- **North Bangalore:** Yeshwantpur, KR Puram
- **South Bangalore:** KSR Railway Station
- **East Bangalore:** KR Puram, Whitefield
- **West Bangalore:** Yeshwantpur, JnanaBharathi Station, Kengeri

## Major Bus Stands

- **North Bangalore:** KR Puram, Yelahanka, Chikkabanavara
- **South Bangalore:** Majestic, Jayanagar, Mysore Road Satellite Bus Stand, Kengeri Bus Stand
- **East Bangalore:** Sarjapur Road, Silk Board Junction, Marathalli, Whitefield
- **West Bangalore:** Yeshwantpur, Magadi Road, Vijaynagar, Rajajinagar, Malleshwaram, Chikkabanavara

## Places to Live

**For Jobseekers and Employees:** Sarjapur Road, KR Puram, Hebbal, BTM Layout, Mahadevpura, HSR Sector 1 and 2, Electronic City, Marathalli, Hoskote.

**For Families:** Malleshwaram, Uttarahalli, Banashankari, Kanakapura Road, Jalahalli, K R Puram, Kengeri, Mathikere, RR Nagar, Bannerghatta Road

## Places to visit

Bangalore has many popular places for tourists and local visitors.

- **Lalbagh Botanical Garden** – A large garden with many types of plants and trees. It also has a glass house that is used for flower shows.
- **Cubbon Park** – A big park in the center of the city. It is good for walking, relaxing and enjoying nature.
- **Bangalore Palace** – A historical building with beautiful architecture. It shows the royal style of the past and is open to visitors.
- **Vidhana Soudha** – The seat of the Karnataka state government. It is a large and famous building known for its grand design.
- **ISKCON Temple** – A well-known Hindu temple visited by many people. It is peaceful and has a large hall for prayer.
- **Bannerghatta National Park** – A wildlife park that has a zoo and a safari. Visitors can see animals like tigers, lions and elephants.
- **Wonderla** – A popular amusement park with many rides and water games. It is a fun place for families and children.
- **Visvesvaraya Industrial and Technological Museum** – A science museum with interactive displays and old machines. It is named after Sir M. Visvesvaraya.
- **Ulsoor Lake** – A big lake where people can go boating. It is also a nice place for evening walks.
- **Commercial Street and MG Road** – Busy shopping areas with many stores and restaurants. These places are famous for clothes, shoes, and local food.

These places make Bangalore a popular city for tourism and family visits.
Edmund Hillary

Sir **Edmund Percival Hillary** , (born 20 July 1919, died 11 January 2008) was a New Zealand mountaineer and explorer. He and Sherpa guide Tenzing Norgay were the first people to climb Mount Everest. They got to the top on 29 May 1953. Mount Everest is the tallest mountain on Earth. During his teenage years, Hillary had attended Auckland Grammar School.

Sir Edmund Hillary's fame came as a result of being the first New Zealander in the world to conquer Mt. Everest in Nepal. He is on the New Zealand five dollar note. He also climbed ten other mountains after Mount Everest, all of which are also in the Himalayas.

## Early life

Hillary was born to Percival Augustus Hillary and Gertrude Hillary, née Clark, in Auckland, New Zealand, on 20 July 1919. His family moved to Tuakau (south of Auckland) in 1920, after his father (who served at Gallipoli) had gotten land there. His grandparents were early settlers in northern Wairoa in the mid 19th century after moving from Yorkshire, England.

Hillary learned at Tuakau Primary School and then Auckland Grammar School. He finished primary school two years early, but he did not do very well at high school. At first, he was smaller than other students there and very shy so he felt safe with his books and often thought of a life filled with adventure. Every day, he rode a train to and from high school, and he often used this time to read. Learning how to box helped him become more confident. At age 16 his interest in climbing started during a school trip to Mount Ruapehu. Although very tall at 6 ft 5 in (195 cm), he was stronger than many of his fellow hikers.
He learned about mathematics and science at The University of Auckland, and in 1939 he completed his first important climb, which was reaching the top of a mountain called Mount Ollivier. With his brother Rex, Hillary became a beekeeper during summertime, which allowed him to do climbing in the winter.

## Personal life

Hillary married Louise Mary Rose in 1953, by whom he had a son and two daughters. In 1975, his wife and their younger daughter were killed in a plane crash. Hillary married June Mulgrew in 1989; they remained married until he died.

## Death

Hillary died of a heart attack in Auckland, at the age of 88.

## Infobox (person)

- **name**: Sir Edmund Hillary
- **honorific suffix**: KG ONZ KBE
- **image**: Edmundhillarycropped.jpg
- **caption**: Hillary in 2006
- **image size**: 250px
- **birth name**: Edmund Percival Hillary
- **birth place**: Auckland, New Zealand
- **death place**: Auckland, New Zealand
- **death cause**: Myocardial infarction
- **spouse**: Louise Mary Rose (1953–1975)
June Mulgrew, QSM (1989–2008)
- **parents**: Percival Augustus Hillary
Gertrude Hillary, née Clark
- **children**: Peter (1954)
Sarah (1955)
Belinda (1959–1975)
Adam Smith

**Adam Smith** (baptise date 16 June 1723 – 17 July 1790) was a Scottish economist, who is called the **Father of Modern Economics**. He wrote two classic books, _The Theory of Moral Sentiments_ (1759) and _An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations_ (1776).

## _The Wealth of Nations_

His book, _An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations_, published in 1776, was very important. People call the book just _The Wealth of Nations_. It stated some of the ideas off of which modern economics is based, especially market economics.

In the _Wealth of Nations_ Adam Smith asks 'what can a person do that is best for his country?' He decides that if every person does what is best for them and their little circle of family and friends, then the country will do better. This is because every person knows a lot about their own situation (what they need and what they want, what works and what does not work), much more than the government knows. This sort of thinking is called "liberal theory", a main part of liberalism.

He was also a philosopher who wanted to know why people thought (felt) that some things are good and others bad.

## _The Theory of Moral Sentiments_

He wrote an earlier book, in 1759, called _The Theory of Moral Sentiments_. He thought that empathy was very important in ethics. Empathy is when you see how someone else is feeling, imagine what it feels like, and then end up feeling the same way: for Smith, empathy is like "putting yourself in someone else's shoes". For example, empathy makes us feel happy to see someone else who is happy, or feel sorry for someone who is sad. Empathy may even make _us_ feel pain when we see someone in pain (as if _we_ had been hurt or affected). Both Smith and his friend David Hume, who was another Scottish philosopher, wrote about the importance of sympathy in ethics.

## Related pages

- Political economy
- Constitutional economics

## Other websites

- Wealth of Nations  from the Adam Smith Institute
- An inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations  by Adam Smith. London : J. M. Dent & sons, ltd. ; New York : E. P. Dutton & co.
- Works and Correspondence of Adam Smith  from the Online Library of Liberty
- The Theory of Moral Sentiments at the Library of Economics and Liberty

## Infobox (philosopher)

- **image**: AdamSmith.jpg
- **caption**: A portrait of Adam Smith
- **name**: Adam Smith
- **signature**: Adam Smith signature 1783.svg
- **birth date**: June 1723
- **birth place**: Kirkcaldy, Fife, Scotland
- **death place**: Edinburgh, Scotland
- **school tradition**: Classical liberalism
- **region**: Western philosophy
Pythagoras

**Pythagoras of Samos** was a famous Greek mathematician and philosopher ( ).

He is best known for the proof of an important Pythagorean theorem, This is about right angle triangles.

He started a group of followers called the Pythagoreans, who lived like monks.

## Life and travels

Pythagoras was born in Samos, a little island off the western coast of Asia Minor. Pythagoras traveled to many places, including Miletus, Egypt, Babylon, and southern Italy. Southern Italy was where he founded the Pythagorean school, in the town of Croton.

## Impact

Pythagoras had a great impact on mathematics and theory of music. His theories are still used in mathematics today. Since he worked very closely with his group, the Pythagoreans, it is sometimes hard to tell his works from those of his followers.

Religion was important to the Pythagoreans. They believed the soul is immortal and goes through a cycle of rebirths until it becomes pure.

## His beliefs

Pythagoras' most important beliefs were that:
1. At its deepest level, reality is mathematical in nature,
1. Philosophy can be used for spiritual purification,
1. The soul can rise to union with the divine,
1. Certain symbols have a mystical significance, and
1. All brothers and sisters of the order should observe strict loyalty and secrecy.

## Pythagorean theorem

Pythagoras is most famous for his theorem about right triangles. He said that the length of the longest side of the right angled triangle (called the hypotenuse) squared would equal the sum of the other two sides squared: a² + b² = c². There are many different proofs for this Pythagorean theorem. In the pythagoras theorem c is the hypotenuse and a&b are the legs of the right triangle.

## Sources

- Cerqueiro, Daniel. “Evohé (Doxografía de Pitágoras)”. Buenos Aires 2004: Ed. Peq. Ven. ISBN 987-9239-14-8

## Other websites

- Pythagoras on Encyclopædia Britannica
- Pythagoras on Citizendium

## Infobox (philosopher)

- **name**: Pythagoras
- **image**: Pythagoras in the Roman Forum, Colosseum.jpg
- **alt**: Marble bust of a man with a long, pointed beard, wearing a tainia, a kind of ancient Greek headcovering in this case resembling a turban. The face is somewhat gaunt and has prominent, but thin, eyebrows, which seem halfway fixed into a scowl. The ends of his mustache are long a trail halfway down the length of his beard to about where the bottom of his chin would be if we could see it. None of the hair on his head is visible, since it is completely covered by the tainia.
- **caption**: Bust of Pythagoras of Samos in the
Capitoline Museums, Rome
- **birth place**: Samos
- **death date**: (aged around 75)
- **death place**: either Crotone, Croton or Metapontum
- **era**: Pre-Socratic philosophy
- **region**: Western philosophy
- **school tradition**: Pythagoreanism
- **notable ideas**:
Attributed ideas:
Emily Brontë

**Emily Jane Brontë** (30 July 1818 – 19 December 1848) was a British writer and poet. She is most famous for her only novel _Wuthering Heights_ (published in 1847). She wrote under the pen name **Ellis Bell**. Brontë had two sisters, Charlotte and Anne, who were also writers. Her brother, Branwell, was a painter. She co-wrote the poetry collection _Poems by Currer, Ellis and Acton Bell_ (1846), with her sisters. She was born in Thornton, West Riding of Yorkshire, England. She attended Cowan School with her sister Charlotte.

Brontë died of tuberculosis on 19 December 1848 in Haworth, West Riding of Yorkshire. She was 30.

## Other websites

- Poems of Emily Brontë at Poetseers.org
Anne Brontë

**Anne Brontë** (17 January  1820 – 28 May 1849) was an English writer and poet. She is best known for writing _Agnes Grey_ (1847) and _The Tenant of Wildfell Hall_ (1848).

Anne was born on 17 January 1820 in Thornton, Yorkshire, England. She was the daughter of Patrick and Marie Brontë and the youngest of their six children. She was taught at her family's home in Haworth by her aunt Elizabeth Branwell. She worked as a governess in 1839 and then again between 1841 and 1845.

In 1846 Anne contributed 21 poems to _Poems by Currer, Ellis and Acton Bell_. This was a joint work with her sisters, Charlotte and Emily. _Agnes Grey_ was published in 1847 in three volumes with _Wuthering Heights_, a book written by her sister Emily. _The Tenant of Wildfell Hall_ was published in 1848 and sold well.

Anne Brontë died on 28 May 1849 in Scarborough, Yorkshire, England of tuberculosis.

## Related pages

The sisters of Anne Brontë:
- Emily Brontë
- Charlotte Brontë

The books of Anne Brontë:
- _Poems by Currer, Ellis and Acton Bell_ (1846)
- _Agnes Grey_ (1847)
- _The Tenant of Wildfell Hall_ (1848)
Portsmouth

|colspan=2 align=center bgcolor="#ff9999"|City of Portsmouth|
| --- | --- |
|colspan=2 align=center||
|**Status**|Unitary, City (1926)|
|**Region**|South East England|
|**Ceremonial County**|Hampshire|
|**Area** - Total||Ranked 319th 40.25 km²||

**Portsmouth** is a city in the south of England, in the county of Hampshire. About 280,536 people live there (As Of 2017). It is a port and is the home of the British Royal Navy. It's the second-largest city in the county of Hampshire, behind Southampton. It is one of the most densely populated cities in Europe. Portsmouth is on Portsea Island and is narrowly separated from the mainland by a creek.

For centuries the city was one of the world's biggest places of shipbuilding. Some of its most famous ships that people can still see are HMS Victory and the HMS Warrior. People also visit Portsmouth to see the old ship Mary Rose. This was Henry VIII of England's ship, and it was under the water for a long time, from 1545 to 1982. Tourists also go to see Cumberland House, the birthplace of Charles Dickens, a British writer.

Charles Dickens, Rudyard Kipling and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle were all British writers who lived in Portsmouth.

It is home of the Football Championship side Portsmouth F.C. They play at Fratton Park.

Portsmouth has one university, the University of Portsmouth.

North of the city is Cosham.

## Other websites

- Portsmouth City Council
- Official Portsmouth City Guide
- University of Portsmouth
- University of Portsmouth Students' Union
HMS Victory

**HMS _Victory**_ is the oldest ship still in use. It is in Portsmouth, England with the HMS _Warrior_ and the remains of the _Mary Rose_, a ship belonging to Henry VIII of England.

Her most famous captains are Horatio Nelson, who died on the ship during the Battle of Trafalgar, and Samuel Hood.

## Other websites

- HMS _Victory_  Royal Navy website
- Pictures of HMS _Victory_
- Restoration of HMS Victory  Society for Nautical Research website
- HMS _Victory_ Model
- Google Maps Image of HMS _Victory_ in Portsmouth Harbour
- Local.Live.com Bird's Eye View of HMS _Victory_ in Portsmouth Harbour
- Nelson's _Victory_
- Life onboard HMS _Victory_
- HMS _Victory_ datasheet.html)
- Royal Naval Communications Association, Communications History - The First Signal Schools
- MaritimeQuest HMS _Victory_ Photo Gallery
- UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage
HMS Warrior (1860)

**HMS _Warrior**_ was the first battleship with a hull made of iron. It was built in response to the French ironclad warship _Gloire_. It is in Portsmouth, England with the HMS _Victory_ and the remains of the _Mary Rose_, a ship belonging to Henry VIII of England.

## Other websites

- HMS Warrior website
- StVincent.ac.uk

## Infobox (ship begin)


## Infobox (ship image)

- **ship image**: HMS warriorjune20092.jpg
- **ship caption**: HMS _Warrior_


## Infobox (ship career)

- **ship original cost**: £377,292
- **ship country**: United Kingdom
- **ship name**: HMS _Warrior_
- **ship ordered**: 11 May 1859
- **ship builder**: Thames Ironworks and Shipbuilding Company, Blackwall, London
- **ship laid down**: About August 1859
- **ship launched**: 29 December 1860
- **ship commissioned**: 1 August 1861
- **ship decommissioned**: 31 May 1883
- **ship renamed**: *_Vernon III_, March 1904
*_Warrior_, 1 October 1923
*_Oil Fuel Hulk C77_, 27 August 1942
*HMS _Warrior (1860)_, 1985
- **ship status**: Museum ship


## Infobox (ship characteristics)

- **ship class**: armoured frigate
- **ship sail plan**: Ship rig
- **ship length**: (Length overall, o/a)
- **ship power**: *
*10 rectangular boiler (steam generator), boilers
- **ship propulsion**: 1 shaft, 1 Trunk steam engine
- **ship range**: at
- **ship complement**: 706 officers and enlisted men
- **ship armament**: *26 × British ordnance terms#SBML, Smoothbore muzzle-loading 68-pounder gun, 68-pounder (206 mm) guns
*10 × British ordnance terms#RBL, Rifled breechloading RBL 7 inch Armstrong gun, 110-pounder (178 mm) guns
*4 × Rifled breechloading RBL 40 pounder Armstrong gun, 40-pounder (121 mm) guns
- **ship armour**: *Belt armor, Belt:
*Bulkhead (partition), Bulkheads:
Mary Rose

The ***Mary Rose*** was a ship which belonged to Henry VIII of England.  She sank in 1545 in battle with a French fleet.

In 1979, the _Mary Rose_ Trust was formed.  In 1982 the _Mary Rose_ Trust managed to get the _Mary Rose_ out of the sea. In 1994, they started to preserve her.

The remains of the _Mary Rose_ are currently in Portsmouth, England with the HMS _Victory_ and HMS _Warrior_.

## Sinking

It is not known the exact reason for the sinking. One of the theories is that she had the gun ports open to fire at the French. She then turned to fire at the other side, but the men on board failed to close the gun ports. Sea water got in the open gun ports, which tipped her over and she sank.

The _Mary Rose_ sank because the wind blew and tipped her over.
Mary Tudor

The name **Mary Tudor** can refer to either:

- Mary Tudor, Queen of France
- Mary I of England
1603

## Events

- April 28 – Funeral of Elizabeth I of England

## Births

- March 18 – John IV of Portugal
- Abel Tasman

## Deaths

- March 24 – Elizabeth I of England
1787

## Events

- May 13 – Captain Arthur Phillip leaves Portsmouth, England with the First Fleet, 11 ships full of convicts to establish a penal colony in Australia.
- August 16 – Lieutenant William Bligh takes command of the HMVA Bounty.
- December 23 – The HMVA Bounty is sent to Tahiti to collect breadfruit plants.

- Date unknown
- The Pennsylvania Prison Society is started.

## Births

- March 16 – Georg Ohm, German physicist
- December 10 – Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet, founder of the American School for the Deaf

## Deaths

- May 28 – Leopold Mozart, composer
- June 20 – Karl Friedrich Abel, German Baroque composer
1788

**1788** (MDCCLXXXVIII) was a leap year starting on Tuesday in the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Saturday in the Julian calendar.

## Events

- January 26 – The First Fleet arrives at Sydney Cove, bringing the first European settlers to Australia. This is now celebrated as Australia's national day.
- October 25 – The HMVA Bounty reaches Tahiti.
- December 14 – Accession of Charles IV, King of Spain.
- Georgia becomes a state.

## Births

- January 22 – Lord Byron, English poet
- February 5 – Robert Peel, British Prime Minister

## Deaths

- January 31 – Bonny Prince Charlie, Pretender to the English Throne
- August 2 – Thomas Gainsborough, painter
- December 14 – Charles III, King of Spain
1789

**1789** (MDCCLXXXIX) was a common year starting on Thursday in the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Monday in the Julian calendar, the 1789th year of the Common Era (CE) and _Anno Domini_ (AD) designations, .

## Events

- April 28 – The Mutiny on the Bounty happens. It was led by Fletcher Christian.
- April 30 – George Washington becomes the first President of the United States.
- May 5 – The French Revolution starts.

## Births

- September 15 – James Fenimore Cooper
Political virtues

The **political virtues** were listed by Bernard Crick "In Defense of Politics", 1982.  They included but were not limited to:
- prudence:
take one step, then see its results before taking another
- conciliation:
making friends with people you have argued with
- compromise:
giving up some things you want to get those things that are most important to you
- variety:
people want to have a number of choices that are different from each other
- adaptability:
meet the needs of changing times
- liveliness:
never be boring

He sees these virtues as a way of avoiding ideology or "absolute-sounding ethic".  More virtues will lead to less conflict.  None of them can be forced on anyone.

Some other virtues have also been suggested:
humour,
empathy,
initiative
and compassion.  "Being brief" or "being positive" are sometimes claimed also to be virtues, but just as many people think they are bad things that only help avoid truth or serious problems.
1542

## Events

- December 14 – Accession of Mary, Queen of Scots

## Births

- June 6 – Richard Grenville, Elizabethan sailor (died 1591)
- June 24 – St. John of the Cross, Spanish Carmelite friar and poet (died 1591)
- October 15 – Akbar, Jellaladin Mahommed, ruler of the Mughal Empire (died 1605)
- December 8 – Mary, Queen of Scots (died 1587)
- Robert Bellarmine, Catholic theologian and saint (died 1621)
- Toda Kazuaki, samurai in the service of Tokugawa Ieyasu (died 1604)
- Anthony Shirley, English traveller (died 1635)
- John Speed, historian (died 1629)
- Horio Yoshiharu, Japanese daimyo (died 1611)
- Kuki Yoshitaka, Japanese naval commander
- Jan Zamoyski, Polish nobleman (died 1605)

## Deaths

- February 13 – Katherine Howard, Queen of England
- December 14 – James V, King of Scotland
Cardiff

**Cardiff** is the capital and biggest city of Wales. It is also the 11th biggest city in the United Kingdom. Its name in the Welsh language is _Caerdydd_. A 2011 census says that around 346,100 people live in Cardiff. It is the most important city in Wales for tourism, culture, government, sport, transport, nightlife and business.

Cardiff was declared a city in 1905, and it became the capital of Wales in 1955.

## History

The Romans built a fort here in about 55 AD. Later, a castle was built within the walls of the fort when the city was first founded.

In 1404, Owain Glyndŵr set Cardiff on fire. Most of the buildings in Cardiff were made out of wood, so fire destroyed the city.

## Demographics

At the 2011 census, the biggest ethnic group in Cardiff is White (84.7%), other groups are Asian (8%), Black (2.4%), Arab (1.4%), Mixed (2.9%)

## Places

Cardiff has a big port that used to be known as Tiger Bay. It is now just called Cardiff Bay, and the Welsh Government works there. There are now lots of shops, pubs and restaurants in Cardiff Bay. Cardiff has an international airport, and is twinned with Nantes in France and Stuttgart in Germany. Cardiff has one of the largest stadiums in the United Kingdom, the Millennium Stadium, where important world sports matches and concerts happen. Other big stadiums in the city are the Cardiff City Stadium, where the main football team play, Cardiff Arms Park where the main rugby team play, and the SWALEC Stadium where cricket is played.

Three big rivers flow through Cardiff - the Taff, the Ely and the Rhymney.

Part of Cardiff is built on marshland.

## Transportation

To get around, there are lots of bus routes and train lines in the city. There are two big train stations in Cardiff city centre, called Central station and Queen Street station, but there are also 18 other smaller stations in the city for local areas. There are lots of cycle paths in Cardiff on and off the road.

## Education

Cardiff has a large university, with 33,000 students, making it the tenth-largest university in Britain. The city also has 127 schools.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Cardiff
- **official name**: City and County of Cardiff
- **native name**: Caerdydd
- **population demonym**: Cardiffian
- **native name lang**: cy
- **image skyline**: Cardiff Bay and Senedd viewed from the south east.jpg
- **imagesize**: 250px
- **population total**: 346,100
- **population as of**: 2011
- **subdivision type**: List of sovereign states, Country
- **subdivision name**: United Kingdom
- **subdivision type1**: Constituent country
- **subdivision name1**: Wales
- **area land km2**: 140.03
- **area note**: [https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-cities/cardiff-population]
- **image caption**: Cardiff Bay
- **image map**: Cardiff UK location map.svg
- **map caption**: Map of Cardiff with roads and borders
- **image flag**: Flag of Cardiff.svg
- **image shield**: Coat of Arms of Cradiff.jpg
Valladolid

**Valladolid** () is a city in Spain, with a population of 316,564. It is the capital of Castile and León, and one of the historical capitals of the Spanish Kingdom.

On 19 October, 1469, Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile married secretely in the _Palacio de los Vivero_. Also, Christopher Columbus died in the city on 20 May, 1506.

The river that runs through the city is known as the Pisuerga. Valladolid has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (_Csa_ in the Köppen climate classification).

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Valladolid
- **settlement type**: Municipalities of Spain, Municipality
- **image flag**: Bandera valladolid.svg
- **image shield**: Valladolid-COA.svg
- **anthem**: [https://archive.org/details/himno-a-valladolid Himno a Valladolid]
- **pushpin map**: Spain#Spain Castile and León#Europe
- **pushpin mapsize**: 255
- **pushpin relief**: 1
- **pushpin map caption**: Location of Valladolid within Spain / Castile and León
- **subdivision type**: List of sovereign states, Country
- **subdivision name**: Spain
- **subdivision type1**: Autonomous communities of Spain, Autonomous community
- **subdivision name1**: Castile and León
- **subdivision type2**: Provinces of Spain, Province
- **subdivision name2**: Province of Valladolid, Valladolid
- **elevation m**: 698
- **area total km2**: 197.47
- **established title**: Founded
- **established date**: 1072
Elizabeth Gaskell

**Elizabeth Cleghorn Gaskell** (29 September 1810 – 12 November 1865) was an English writer.

She was born in Chelsea, London. After her mother died, she lived with her aunt in Knutsford, Cheshire. She married William Gaskell, a priest, in 1832. They lived in Manchester, where several of her books are set. She died of a heart attack in Holybourne, Hampshire.

Her most famous books are _Mary Barton_, _Cranford_, _North and South_, and _Wives and Daughters_. She also wrote a book of the life of her friend, writer Charlotte Brontë. Some of her books have been made into movies and television programmes.

## Other websites

- The Gaskell Society
Naples

**Naples** is a southern Italian city with a port. It faces the Mediterranean Sea and is near Mount Vesuvius. Its name in Italian is **Napoli** which came from its Greek name **Neapolis**, meaning _new city_.  It has a population of about 1 million.  About 3 million live in the area around Naples (including Naples itself).

There is one airport in the city, Naples International Airport at Capodichino.

## History

Ancient Greeks settled Naples in the 6th Century B.C. There were so many Greeks there, the Romans called it _Magna Graecia_, which means "Greater Greece." Later the Romans conquered southern Italy and took Naples.  When the Roman Empire fell to invaders in the west, Naples came under the rule of the Byzantine Empire, the Greek-speaking Eastern Roman Empire.

Naples became independent later but was combined with the Kingdom of Sicily during the Middle Ages. By 1500 it was ruled by Aragón, which was a kingdom in eastern Spain. Later, Naples became part of Spain when Aragon and the other kingdom in Spain called Castile became one country. Naples was part of this Kingdom of Spain until the Austrian Empire got it in the War of the Spanish Succession in 1714.

In the 19th century it was the capital of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.  The Duchy of Savoy, or kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont, conquered Naples in 1861.  That kingdom became the Kingdom of Italy.  Naples was heavily bombed when Italy fought in World War Two and British/American armies tried to capture it.

Today Naples is the capital of Campania and the largest city in southern Italy.

## Climate

The average temperature in the summer is 24°C. In the winter, the average can be as low as 8°C. There is usually around 1000 mm (40 inches) of rain in the city every year.

## Economy

Naples is Italy's fourth-largest economy, with a 2011 GDP of US$83.6 billion. The Port of Naples is one of the most important and busy ports in the Mediterranean. The city, however, still has a lot of organized crime and political corruption, but it is also famous for its musical, theatrical and cinematographic culture.

Naples is a popular city for tourists. It was rated the 166th-most-visited city in the world in 2008.

Recently, more people work in the service industry than in agriculture. In 2003, 31% of people worked in public services, 18% in manufacturing, 14% in commerce, 10% in construction, 8% in transportation, 7% in financial services, 5% in agriculture, 4% in the hotel business and 3% work in other fields.

## Famous people

- Angela Carini (born 1998), Olympic boxer

## Related pages

- Neapolitan Mastiff
- Charles III of Spain

## Other websites

- official website
- TrekEarth Gallery of Photos
- Time Out Tourist Guide to Naples
- Naples -Wikivoyage
Milan

**Milan** (Italian: _Milano_; ancient _Medhelan_ _Mediolanum_ (City in the middle of the lands)) is a city in northern Italy. Milan is the capital of the Metropolitan City of Milan (which replaced the Province of Milan) and of the Lombardy Region. It is populated by 1,371,498 inhabitants.
It is the most populated province in Italy, and it is the second biggest city in Italy (after Rome).

Milan is the fashion capital of the world and its important influence on design, economics, opera, and the media make it amongst the world's top 18 Global cities, along with Moscow, Buenos Aires and Kuala Lumpur.

## History

Mediolanum was founded by Insubres, a Celtic people. It was captured by the Romans in 222 BC. Milan became very successful under the Roman Empire.

Milan was ruled by the Spanish in the 1500s and the Austrians in the 1700s. During the Renaissance and the Romantic periods, Milan was a major cultural center in the whole of Europe, famous for its literature and opera.

During the war, the city was badly affected by Allied bombings and during the 50s and 60s the city grew into being the wealthy and industrial metropolis it is today.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Milan
- **official name**: Comune di Milano
- **settlement type**: _Comune_
- **image skyline**: Milan.Proper.Wikipedia.Image.png
- **image caption**: Clockwise from top: Porta Nuova (Milan), Porta Nuova, Sforza Castle, La Scala, Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II, Milano Centrale railway station, Porta Sempione, Arch of Peace and Milan Cathedral.
- **pushpin label position**: right
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision name**: Italy
- **subdivision type2**: Regions of Italy, Region
- **subdivision name2**: Lombardy
- **subdivision type3**: Metropolitan Cities of Italy, Metropolitan city
- **subdivision name3**: Metropolitan City of Milan, Milan (MI)
- **government type**: Mayor-council government, Strong Mayor–Council
- **leader title2**: Legislature
- **leader name2**: City Council of Milan, Milan City Council
- **leader title1**: Mayor of Milan, Mayor
- **leader name1**: Giuseppe Sala (Green Europe, EV)
- **elevation m**: 120
- **unit pref**: Metric
- **area total km2**: 181.76
- **population total**: 1371498
- **population metro**: 4,336,121
- **population as of**: 1 January 2022
- **population density km2**: auto
- **population demonym**: Milanese
Meneghino
- **timezone1**: Central European Time, CET
- **utc offset1**: +1
- **timezone1 dst**: Central European Summer Time, CEST
- **utc offset1 dst**: +2
- **website**: [https://www.comune.milano.it/ www.comune.milano.it]
- **image flag**: Flag of Milan.svg
- **image shield**: CoA Città di Milano.svg
- **pushpin map**: Italy Lombardy#Italy#Europe
- **postal code**: 20121–20162
- **area code**: 0039 02
Glamorgan

**Glamorgan**, also known as **Glamorganshire** is a county in Wales in the west of Great Britain. Glamorgan was a medieval kingdom. Its capital is Cardiff.

The county is home to over a million people, which is more than one third the total of Wales. It contains the cities of Cardiff, Swansea and most of the valleys that are famous for coal mining in the past.

## Other websites

- Glamorgan Record Office
- Glamorgan Family History Society
Tintagel Castle

**Tintagel Castle** is in Cornwall, a county in England.

Reginald, Earl of Cornwall built the castle on Tintagel Head (a piece of land by the sea) in about 1150. In Cornish legend, this is the place where the old Kings of Cornwall lived. Reginald built the castle for propaganda, not for military use; he wanted people to think of Camelot when they thought about him. Some people say King Arthur was born at the castle, because traditional stories say the King of Cornwall looked after him when he was a child.

The modern village of Tintagel was first called Trevena. Then, in the 1850s, it got a new name, to bring in tourism because of the King Arthur and Camelot legends. Tintagel is only the name of land by the sea.
Jennifer Garner

**Jenny Anne Garner** (born April 17, 1972) is a Golden Globe Award- and SAG Award-winning and Emmy Award-nominated American movie and television actress, and producer. She first became famous for her role as _Sydney Bristow_ on _Alias_, a CIA agent. She was also in _Juno_, _Pearl Harbor_, and _Dude, Where's My Car_.

Garner joined the Ban Bossy campaign in 2004.

## Other websites

- Self magazine interview transcript  (June, 2005)
- Cinema Confidential interview  (January 10, 2005)
- Get Lippy interview  (January, 2005)
- Moviehole interview  (April 15, 2004)
- 1UP interview  (April, 2004)
- Dark Horizons interview  (February 3, 2003)
- TRL interview transcript (Friday, November 16, 2001)
- Elle Magazine Cover Story January 2007

## Infobox (actor)

- **name**: Jennifer Garner
- **birthname**: Jennifer Anne Garner
- **birth place**: Houston, Texas, United States, USA
- **othername**: Jen Garner
- **spouse**: Scott Foley
(2000–2004; divorced)
Ben Affleck
(2005–2018; divorced)
- **children**: Violet Anne Affleck
Seraphina Rose Elizabeth Affleck
Samuel Garner Affleck
- **known for**: Acting roles:
"Sydney Bristow" in _Alias (TV series), Alias_
"Elektra" in _Daredevil (movie), Daredevil_ and _Elektra (movie), Elektra_
"Jenna Rink" in _13 Going On 30_
- **awards**: Golden Globe: Best Actress in a Television Drama Series
 2012 _Alias (TV series), Alias_
Screen Actors Guild: Best Actress - Drama Series
 2014 _Alias (TV series), Alias_