juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Valediction

A **valediction**  is a phrase used to say goodbye at the end of a letter. It also refers to the act of saying goodbye to someone. It comes from the Latin _vale dicere_, which means "to say farewell". Valedictions are normally written before the signature in a written message. The words used usually express respect or regard for the person to whom the message is written.

English valedictions often contain the possessive pronoun "yours"; for example, _Yours truly_. In the United Kingdom, _Yours sincerely_ or _Yours faithfully_ are most common.

### Old versions

In old letters, _Yours truly_ was often replaced with a longer sentence, for example:

- _I beg to remain, Sir, your most humble and obedient servant,_
    - _A. Name_

### Modern versions

_Yours sincerely_ is used when the person sending the letter knows the name of the person receiving the letter.

_Yours faithfully_ is used when the person who is receiving the letter is not known by name (i.e. the recipient is addressed by a phrase such as "Dear Sir/Madam").

## Drama and poetry

Valedictions may be a prophecy, a warning or just a comment. In some types of literature, everyone is allowed a last word. In Njall's Saga, men tend to say things like "Oh, you have chopped off my arm", before dying.

Stock characters tend to say predictable things. But in Shakespeare they are the way he moves the action along. Macbeth meets the three witches, who foretell his downfall without him realising it. They hail him as "Thane of Glamis and Cawdor", and that "he shall be King". He will not be defeated "until Birnam wood move to high Dunsinane".

## Other websites

- Google Answers list of Farewells
Saburo Sakai

**Saburo Sakai** (, _Sakai Saburō_, August 25, 1916 – September 22, 2000) was a Japanese naval pilot and fighter ace (_"Gekitsui-O"_) of the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War II. He was the 4th best Japanese pilot by number of enemy aircraft he shot down. He survived the war, and became a famous figure for his criticism of the War and the government of the Japanese Empire. He became a pacifist and a Buddhist and promised that he would never again kill another living thing, even a mosquito. Only months before his death, Sakai told reporters that he still prayed for the souls of the Chinese, American, Australian and Dutch pilots he had killed. He also helped Microsoft design the popular computer game _Combat Flight Simulator 2_.

Sakai claims he shot down 64 enemy airplanes. He shot down a B-32 Dominator on the last day of the war.

## Other websites

- The Last Samurai
- "Saburo Sakai passed away September 22, 2000"
- Memorial To Saburo Sakai
- Copy of Sakai's _New York Times_ Obituary
- Excerpt from _Samurai_
- WarbirdForum: An afternoon with Saburo Sakai
- Sakai's Mercy over Java
- Interview with Sakai during the production of _"Microsoft Combat Flight Simulator 2"_
- "A new-found friend, the man who killed my father"
- PBS: Secrets of the Dead
Southern Cross Station

**Southern Cross Station** is a railway station in Melbourne, Australia. It is one of five stations in the mostly underground City Loop and the main hub for V/Line's services outside Melbourne, via Bus and Train. The station was called **Spencer Street Station** until December 13, 2005

|colspan=5 align=center bgcolor=#008FF0 color=white|<span style="color:white>Station Navigation</span>|||
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|align=center|Anti - Clockwise|align=center|Flinders Street|
|align=center|Flagstaff|align=center|Clockwise|
|align=center|Previous Station|align=center|Refer to City Loop|
|align=center|North Melbourne|align=center|Next Station|
|align=center||align=center|Next Station|
|align=center|North Melbourne|align=center||
|align=center||align=center|Next Station|
|align=center|Flinders Street|align=center||
|colspan=5 align=center bgcolor="#AB53AC"|<span style="color:white"> **Entire regional network**</span>|||

## Other websites

- Southern Cross Station project
Flagstaff railway station

Flagstaff is a railway station in Melbourne, Australia

|colspan=5 align=center bgcolor=#008CD0 color=white|<span style="color:white;">Station Navigation</span>|||
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|align=center|Anti - Clockwise|align=center|Southern Cross|
|align=center|Melbourne Central|align=center|Clockwise|
|align=center|Previous Station|align=center|Refer to City Loop|
|align=center|North Melbourne|align=center|Next Station|
|colspan=5 align=center bgcolor=#008CD0|<span style="color:white;">**Entire network**</span>|||
Melbourne Central railway station

**Melbourne Central** is a train station in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. It is one of three underground stations on the Melbourne Underground Rail Loop (City Loop).  The station is underneath Melbourne Central Shopping Center. Melbourne Central has four platforms and four tracks. It was known as **Museum Station** when the Melbourne Museum was at the State Library of Victoria, across the street. Melbourne Central opened on January 24, 1981.

|colspan=5 align=center bgcolor=#008FF0 color=white|<span style="color:white">Station Navigation</span>|||
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|align=center|Anti-Clockwise|align=center|Flagstaff|
|align=center|Parliament|align=center|Clockwise|
|colspan=5 align=center bgcolor=#008FF0|<<span style="color:white">**Entire network**</span>|||
Parliament railway station

**Parliament** is an underground railway station in Melbourne, Australia. It is part of the suburban train network. It is one of the five stations on the City Loop. The city loop goes around the central business district.

Parliament has 4 platforms on two levels, like the other to underground stations on the city loop. Each level is for the trains leaving. The different levels are for trains going to the north and west suburbs or to the south and east suburbs. The station opened on January 22 1983.

Many people who work for the government use the station because it is underneath the Parliament House of Victoria. It is also at the intersection of Bourke Street and Spring Street. The tram routes 86, 95 and 96 on Bourke Street, tram routes 11, 12, 31, 42, 109, and 112 on Collins Street and the free City Circle tram stop near the station.

The lower platforms are 38 meters low. That means that they are the lowest in the city loop. Its escalators were the longest in the southern hemisphere, when the station opened.

|colspan=5 align=center bgcolor=#008CD0 color=white|<span style="color:white>Station Navigation</span>|||
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|align=center|Melbourne Central|align=center|Anti - Clockwise|
|align=center|Clockwise|align=center|Flinders Street|
|align=center|Previous Station|align=center|Refer to City Loop|
|align=center|Richmond|align=center|Next Station|
|align=center|Previous Station|align=center|Refer to City Loop|
|align=center|Jolimont|align=center|Next Station|
|colspan=5 align=center bgcolor=#008CD0|<span style="color:white">**Entire network**</span>|||
Asphyxia

**Asphyxia** or **asphyxiation** is a condition when a living body does not get enough oxygen. If this condition lasts long enough it can lead to unconsciousness, brain damage and death.

Asphyxia can injure or kill people. This sometimes happens during suicide, torture, and in warfare. It can also be used as a capital punishment. It is also sometimes used (non fatally in martial arts, and combat sports)Because the need to breathe is controlled by the amount of carbon dioxide in the lungs with blood, some victims may not experience an urgent need to breathe and may remain unaware of the shortage of oxygen in their body.
Richmond railway station, Melbourne

**Richmond station** is a railway station in Richmond, Australia. Richmond is an inner suburb of Melbourne.

The station is built on a bridge over Punt Road. It has ten platforms joined by three subways. All of Melbourne's eastern and south eastern railway lines meet here. These railway lines are:
- Frankston
- Glen Waverley
- Pakenham
- Sandringham,
- Cranbourne
- Belgrave
- Lilydale
- Alamein

The station is  from Flinders Street Station which is Melbourne's central railway station. Richmond station is close to the Melbourne Cricket Ground, Punt Road Oval and Melbourne Park. It is very busy during sporting and other special events.

Tram route 70 goes past Richmond Station along Swan Street.

Punt Road is under the station with a major interchange with Swan Street and Brunton Avenue.

## History

Richmond station has been moved and rebuilt four times. The first station in Punt Road was at ground level and opened on 8 February, 1859. It closed the same year on 12 December, 1859. On the same day the new station opened in Swan Street.

In 1885, a new station just north of Swan Street was opened. The new station was raised up and was not at ground level. It had six platforms. For some time, both the old and new stations were used, before the ground level Swan Street station was closed.

By the 1940s the station had begun to fall apart. It was so bad that the council said it should be pulled down. A new station was not built for another 20 years. On 26 March, 1960 the new station was opened west of the old one. The bridges at each end of the station across Punt Road and Swan Street were also rebuilt to fit the ten tracks. The old station was pulled down.

## Proposed redevelopment

The condition of Richmond station was a problem again in 2005. Melbourne held the 2006 Commonwealth Games. Richmond station was the gateway to many of the main venues. The station had a bleak appearance. The raised station did not have much shelter and could be windy and cold. It has poor access with steep ramps, stairs, and no lifts. This led the Victorian Government to think about building a new station. They decided it would cost too much money.

## Movie

The opening scene of the movie _Romper Stomper_ was filmed in Richmond station. In the movie it was called Footscray station.

|colspan=5 align=center bgcolor=#008FF0 color=white|<<span style="color:white">Station Navigation</span>|||
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|align=center|Previous Station _Anti - Clockwise_|align=center|Parliament|
|align=center|Flinders Street|align=center|Previous Station _Clockwise_|
|align=center|Previous Station|align=center|Refer to City Loop|
|align=center|East Richmond|align=center|Next Station|
|align=center|Previous Station|align=center|Refer to City Loop|
|align=center|South Yarra|align=center|Next Station|
|align=center|Previous Station|align=center|Flinders Street →|
|align=center|→ Caulfield|align=center|Next Station|
|colspan=5 align=center bgcolor=#008FF0|<<span style="color:white">**Entire metropolitan network**</span>|||
|colspan=5 align=center bgcolor="rgb(171,83,172)"|<<span style="color:white"> **Entire regional network**</span>|||
Bairnsdale railway line, Victoria

The **Bairnsdale railway line** is a regional railway in Victoria, Australia. It continues from the Pakenham metropolitan line. The part as far as Warragul used to be run with  Melbourne electric trains, but only for a period during the 1990s. It has 24 stations.

## List of stations

**Bold** stations are terminuses, _italic_ stations are staffed at least part-time (this has been confirmed).

Continues from the Pakenham metropolitan line.

- **Pakenham**
- Nar Nar Goon
- Tynong
- Garfield
- Bunyip
- Longwarry
- _Drouin_
- _Warragul_
- (Nilma, closed)
- (Darnum, closed)
- Yarragon
- Trafalgar
- _Moe_
- (Herne's Oak, unmanned crossing loop)
- _Morwell_
- ***Traralgon***
- (Flynn, Closed)
- Rosedale
- (Kilmany, Closed)
- (Fulham, Closed)
- _Sale_
- (Montgomery, Closed)
- (Stratford Junction, Closed)
- Stratford
- (Munro, Closed)
- (Fernbank, Closed)
- (Lindenow, Closed)
- (Hillside, Closed)
- ***Bairnsdale***

Branch lines went from Warragul to Noojee, Moe to Walhalla (a 2' 6" line), Thorpdale and Yallourn after the line from Hearne's Oak to Yallourn was closed to allow for a grater expansion of a brown coal mine, Morwell to Mirboo North, Traralgon to Stratford Junction via Maffra, which also included a branch line to Briagolong, and a short branch line from Bairnsdale to Bairnsdale Wharf, all of which have been closed.

As well, several timber tramways existed from many of the stations between Pakenham and Yarragon.

## Other websites, maps, and timetables

- Traralgon to Melbourne timetable
- Bairnsdale to Melbourne timetable
- Statistics and detailed schematic map at the vicsig enthusiast website
Pakenham railway station

**Pakenham** is a railway station in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. It is in the suburb of Pakenham, on the Pakenham railway line. It is in Metcard <span style="color:blue">Zone 2</span>. It is the end of the Pakenham line, as well as a stop for regional trains going to Traralgon and Bairnsdale. The station contains 2 platforms.
North Melbourne railway station

**North Melbourne Railway Station** is the gateway for all west and northwest bound train lines in Melbourne, Australia. North Melbourne Railway Station is mainly used as an interchange point. The station was converted to a premium station in 1996, and has a small kiosk and a staffed ticket office. The station is actually in West Melbourne, the station's main entrance, at its east, is at intersection of Ireland Street and Railway Place. The station also has a western exit however this leads only to the rail yards.

The number 216 and 219 buses stop nearby the station.

## Redevelopment

On May 15, 2006, it was announced that the station is to be redeveloped. As part of the project, a new main entrance was created at the southern end of the station with new escalators, stairs and lifts installed for quicker access to other platforms and to help disabled passengers.

## Other websites

- Station to get $36m revamp

|colspan=5 align=center bgcolor=#008FF0 color=white|<<span style="color:white">Station Navigation</span>|||
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|align=center|Previous Station _Anti - Clockwise_|align=center|Southern Cross|
|align=center|Flagstaff|align=center|Previous Station _Clockwise_|
|align=center|Previous Station|align=center|Refer to City Loop|
|align=center|Kensington|align=center|Next Station|
|align=center|Previous Station|align=center|Refer to City Loop|
|align=center|South Kensington|align=center|Next Station|
|align=center|Previous Station|align=center|Refer to City Loop|
|align=center|Macaulay|align=center|Next Station|
|align=center|Previous Station|align=center|Southern Cross|
|align=center|Next Station|align=center|Footscray|
|align=center|Previous Station|align=center|Southern Cross|
|align=center|Next Station|align=center|Essendon|
|colspan=5 align=center bgcolor=#008FF0|<<span style="color:white">**Entire metropolitan network**</span>|||
|colspan=5 align=center bgcolor="rgb(171,83,172)"|<<span style="color:white"> **Entire regional network**</span>|||
Shushi Massacres

The **Shushi massacres**  were anti-Armenian pogroms during the Armenian-Azerbaijani war, 1920, when Azeri and Turkish army soldiers with participation of Kurdish gangs attacked the inhabitants of Shusha (Shushi). The massacres took place on March 22-26, 1920, and resulted in more than
20,000 Armenian deaths and the destruction of the town of Shusha in Nagorno-Karabakh.

## Background

On June 4-5, 1919, an armed Armenian-Turkish fight took place in Shushi. It was organized and started by Azeri Governor-General Khosrov beg Sultanov. The town was closed off by a blockade, and the Armenian population found itself needing food.

## Massacres in Shushi on March 22-26, 1920

From the very start of 1920, Governor Sultanov, breaking the  temporary treaty agreement of August 22, 1919, continued the blockade around Karabakh. He increased the number of armed forces in strategically important locations and gave weapons to the local Azeri population.

In the early morning of March 23, 1920, the Azeri army soldiers and Kurdish gangs attacked the Armenian part of town and began a horrible massacre of the Armenian population, which finished in March 26, 1920.

## Remembering

The famous Russian poet Osip Mandelstam, who was in Shushi in 1931, wrote a poem called "The phaeton driver" dedicated to this tragedy:

In July 1, 1997, the Baroness Caroline Cox gave a speech in the House of Lords, United Kingdom remembering the lives of Armenians who have been killed and specifically mentioned the occurrence in Shushi in 1920.

Research analyst Kalli Raptis in her book _Nagorno-Karabakh and the Eurasian Transport Corridor_ wrote: "'In July 1918, the First Armenian Assembly of Nagorno Karabakh declared the region self-governing and created a national Council and government. In August 1919, the Karabakh national Council entered into a provisional treaty arrangement with the Azerbaijani government in order to avoid military conflict with a superior adversary'. Azerbaijan's violation of the treaty culminated in March 1920 with the massacre of the Armenians of Nagorno-Karabakh's capital, Shushi (called Shusha by the Azerbaijanis)".

## Other websites

- United Nations document
- Shoushi Massacres of Armenians

## Publications

- Vahram Atanesian: 20,000 Armenians Died In Shushi Massacres of 1920 http://www.nkrusa.org/newsletter/montly_newsletter/2002/march_april/page4.html
- (in Russian) М. Григорян, "Из 35 тысяч армян не осталось в Шуши ни одного..." // "Голос Армении", 24 Марта 2007 г., http://www.golos.am/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=5213
Osip Mandelstam

**Osip Emilyevich Mandelstam** (also spelled **Mandelshtam**, ; January 15, 1891 – December 27, 1938) was a Russian poet and essayist.

Mandelstam was born in Warsaw, to a rich Jewish family. In 1900 Mandelstam entered the prestigious Tenishevsky school, which also counts Vladimir Nabokov and other significant figures of Russian (and Soviet) culture among its alumni. His first poems were printed in the school's almanac in 1907.

In April 1908 Mandelstam decided to enter the Sorbonne to study literature and philosophy, but he left the following year to attend the University of Heidelberg. In 1911, in order to continue education in the University of St. Petersburg, he converted to Methodism (which he did not practice) and entered the university the same year.

Mandelstam's poetry, acutely populist in spirit after the first Russian revolution, became closely associated with symbolist imagery, and in 1911 he and several other young Russian poets formed the "Poets' Guild" (Russian: Цех Поэтов, _Tsekh Poetov_), under the formal leadership of Nikolai Gumilyov and Sergei Gorodetsky.

In 1922 Mandelstam arrived in Moscow with his newlywed wife Nadezhda. At the same time his second book of poems, _Tristia_, was published in Berlin. For several years after that, he almost completely abandoned poetry, concentrating on essays, literary criticism, memoirs (_The Din Of Time_, Russian: Шум времени, _Shum vremeni_; Феодосия, _Feodosiya_ – both 1925) and small-format prose (_The Egyptian Stamp_, Russian: Египетская марка, _Yegipetskaya marka_ – 1928). As a day job, he translated (19 books in 6 years), then worked as a correspondent for a newspaper.

Mandelstam died in 1938 in prison.

Mandelstam's non-conformist, anti-establishment tendencies always simmered not far from the surface, and in the autumn of 1933 they broke through in the form of the famous "Stalin Epigram".

## Bibliography

- Osip Mandelstam: "Poems", chosen and translated by James Greene. Elek Books, 1977; revised and enlarged edition, Granada/Elek, 1980.
- Osip Mandelstam: The Noise of Time: Selected Prose (European Classics) (Paperback), translated by Clarence Brown Northwestern University Press; Reprint edition, 2002.
- Coetzee, J.M. "Osip Mandelstam and the Stalin Ode", _Representations_, No. 35, _Special Issue: Monumental Histories_. (Summer, 1991), pp. 72–83.
Forestry Commission

The **Forestry Commission** is a UK Government agency that was set up in 1918.

The commission is  responsible for many forests and woodlands in Great Britain. Its job is to protect and expand Britain's forests and woodlands and increase their value to society and the environment.

Some of its forests are pine trees which the commission manages and carefully cuts down trees for wood and paper making.  The money from this helps the commission to maintain it other forests which are not farmed but which are used for recreation, by people wanting to visit the countryside, and also to fund some scientific research into the ways to grow trees and to keep them healthy.

The Forestry Commission looks after a lot of the forests in the list of Forests in the United Kingdom
Arara, Paraíba

**Arara** is a Brazilian city in the state of Paraíba. Its population in 2007 was 12,920 inhabitants. Its area is 89 km².

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Arara
- **settlement type**: Municipality
- **official name**: The Municipality of Arara
- **image skyline**: Ararapb.jpg
- **imagesize**: 250px
- **image caption**: Panoramic view of the city
- **image flag**: Flag of Arara.svg
- **image seal**: Brasao arara pb.jpg
- **image map**: Paraiba Municip Arara.svg
- **mapsize**: 250px
- **image map1**: Brazil State Paraiba.svg
- **map caption**: Location of Arara in the Paraíba, State of Paraíba
- **subdivision type**: List of countries, Country
- **subdivision type1**: Regions of Brazil, Region
- **subdivision type2**: States of Brazil, State
- **subdivision name1**: Northeast Region, Brazil, Northeast
- **subdivision name2**:  Paraíba
- **leader title**: Mayor
- **leader name**: José Ailton Pereira da Silva  (PSL)
- **established title**: Founded
- **established date**: December 1, 1961
- **area total km2**: 99,112
- **elevation m**: 467
- **elevation ft**: 1,532
- **population as of**: 2014
- **population total**: 13258
- **population density km2**: 133.7
- **timezone**: Time in Brazil, BST
- **utc offset**: -3
- **blank name**: **Human Development Index, HDI** (2000)
- **blank info**: 0.551  – <span style="color:#fc0">medium</span>
Juan Crisóstomo de Arriaga

**Juan Crisóstomo de Arriaga y Balzola** (born Bilbao 27 January 1806; died Paris 17 January 1826) was an early 19th-century Spanish composer. He was still only 19 years old when he died. Like Mozart, he was a child prodigy and he might have become one of the world’s most famous composers if he had lived.

## His life

Juan Crisóstomo Arriaga was born in Bilbao, in the Basque Country in Spain. His father and older brother first taught him music. He started to compose when he was 11 years old, and by the time he was 15 he had already written 20 works. Many of these are now lost. He may have thrown them away, thinking that they were not very good. In 1921, he went to Paris where he studied the violin with Pierre Baillot, and counterpoint and harmony with François-Joseph Fétis at the Paris Conservatoire. He was so good that by 1824 he had become a teaching assistant in Fétis's class.

Arriaga died in Paris at the age of nineteen, probably of a lung disease and exhaustion.

## His music

Arriaga has been called “The Spanish Mozart”. His music, however, does not sound particularly Spanish. It has a more general European character, based on the style of Mozart and Beethoven. He wrote a symphony which sounds at times like Schubert. He also wrote an opera _Los esclavos felices_ ("The Happy Slaves"), and three string quartets. The string quartets were the only works that were published while he was still alive.
Conservatoire de Paris

The **Conservatoire de Paris** (**Paris Conservatoire**) is a music conservatory where students can study dance, drama and music.  It has now been split into two "Conservatoires".  One is for Acting, Theatre and Drama and is called the _Conservatoire National Supérieur d'Art Dramatique_ (CNSAD).  It is in the old building in the centre of Paris.  The other is called  _Conservatoire National Supérieur de Musique et de Danse de Paris_.  It is farther from the centre of the city.  This is where Music and Dance are taught.

The Paris Conservatoire has been famous for music since it was formed in 1795.  Nearly all famous French composers and performing musicians studied there, and many young musicians came from abroad to study.  It was, and still is, one of the best places to study music in the world.

## Related pages

- Paris
- Conservatoire
- Prix de Rome
Prix de Rome

The **Prix de Rome** was a scholarship (money prize) for art students in Paris. It was created in 1663 in France when Louis XIV was reigning. Every year the prize was given to promising young painters, sculptors, and architects. They had to finish a very difficult piece of work to show that they deserved to win the prize. The person who won the prize would get money so that he could go to Rome for a year to study. Sometimes they were allowed to stay longer if they were doing exceptionally good work.

In 1803, music was added to the subjects, and in 1804 engraving was added. Sometimes people won “second prize” which allowed them to study for a shorter period.

Many artists who won the Prix de Rome are now almost forgotten. On the other hand, there are many artists who became very famous but did not win the Prix de Rome. These people include Augustin Pajou Eugène Delacroix, Edouard Manet, Edgar Degas and the composers Ernest Chausson and Maurice Ravel. Ravel tried five times to win it. There was a big argument about this at the Paris Conservatoire, and rules were reorganized after that.

The Prix de Rome continued to be awarded until 1968 when it was stopped.

## Other websites

- The Prix de Rome Contests in Painting .
Caulfield railway station

**Caulfield** is a railway station in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. It is in the suburb Caulfield, on the Pakenham, Frankston and Cranbourne railway lines. At this station the Frankston line splits from the Pakenham and Cranbourne lines.

Caulfield is a Premium Station.

## Location

The station is between Sir John Monash Drive (formerly Railway Avenue) and Normanby Road. The tram route 3 and some bus routes stop here. The Caulfield campus of Monash University and Caulfield Racecourse are close to the station.

## Facilities

The station has four platforms. Two platforms make an island in the middle of the station. Platform 1 has a large red brick building. Platforms 2&3 ( the island platforms) contain a large red brick building with a waiting room and a ticket office. Platform 4 has a large red brick building. Outbound V/Line (country trains) services leave from this platform. A large Metcard ticket machine is inside the waiting room. This machine is able to sell most tickets. It also accept notes and coins. Small Metcard machines are  at the entrances to platforms 1 and 4. A subway is located underneath the station. This allows people to get to the island platform. It has a  Coca-Cola Red Engine take away food shop.

## History

Caulfield station was opened on Wednesday, 7 May 1879.
Officer railway station

**Officer railway station** is an ummanned railway station in Officer, Victoria. It is located in Metcard Zone 2.
ß

The letter **ß** (also known as **sharp S**, German: _Eszett_ or _scharfes S_) is a letter in the German alphabet. It is the only German letter that is not part of the basic Latin alphabet. The letter is pronounced  (like the "s" in "see") and is not used in any other language.

## Origin

Today's _ß_ was created around the 1900s. (See w:en:ß and w:de:ß for details on the so-called "Sulzbacher Form".) It has two origins, one in Blackletter and one in Roman type (also called Antiqua).

The letter came from the long s (_ſ_) and the normal _z_. Written fast by hand, they over time joined together to form a single glyph.

## Spelling

The _ß_ is used only in German and never at the start of German words. The uppercase _ß_ (_ẞ_) exists only for typesetting, such as in a dictionary. Instead of lowercase _ß_, one can also write _ss_. As no words start with double _s_ or _ß_, no uppercase _ß_ is necessary.

However, not every _ss_ can be written as _ß_. German often puts two or more words together to make a longer word. If the new word has _ss_, it cannot be written as _ß_.  For example, _Voßstraße_ is two words joined together (_Voß_ and _straße_). It can also be written as Vossstraße but not as _Vosßtraße_ because _sstraße_ (or _ßtraße_) is not a word, and the _ß_ is in the word _Voss_ (_Voß_).

The rules for German orthography have changed since 1996. Many common words that used to be written with _ß_ are now written with _ss_. For example, _Fluß_ (river) is spelled _Fluss_. When the preceding vowel is short, as in _Fluss_, _ss_ is used. However, the _ß_ is used when the preceding vowel is long as in _Straße_.like ss is replaced with ß like in: floß
General Motors railway station

**General Motors Railway Station** was a railway station in Melbourne, Australia.

The station was opened on November 18, 1956 to service the General Motors factory near it. The station had two platforms and a footbridge into the factory.  In 1991, the General Motors factory closed. Since the main purpose of the station was to support the factory, the station was no longer needed, but the station stayed open for eleven years after the factory had been destroyed. It was estimated to be the least used station in the entire city network. It had an average of eight passengers using it a day. The last trains stopped at the station on July 28 2002.

## Other websites

- General Motors station photo gallery #1 (metf2nk)
- General Motors station photo gallery #2 (Station pix by Somebody)
- PTUA: Monty Python Bureaucracy Closes Railway Station
- Victorian Railway Stations - General Motors
Agronomy

**Agronomy** is the study of soil in relation to how it affects plant growth. _Agronomists_ work to make methods that will improve the use of soil and increase the amount of food and fiber crops.

## Related pages

- Agricultural science
Metlink

- _This article is about the Melbourne public transport network. The same name is also used for public transport in Wellington._

**Metlink** was the marketing name  for all public transport operators' in Melbourne, Australia.

## Introduction

The _Metlink_ brand was introduced in 2003.

Under the new branding, railway station signage and timetables were colour-coded **<span style="color:blue;">blue</span>**, tram stop signs and timetables are **<span style="color:lime;">green</span>**, and the bus network is **<span style="color:orange;">orange</span>**. The regional train network is colour-coded **<span style="color:purple;">purple</span>**. This line colouring continues today, even in the Public Transport Victoria era.

## Future role

Metlink has also been active in the use of 'value Metcards' (like credit cards but work only for trains) and is known for running a "funny" campaign called BATBYGOBSTOPL (Buying A Ticket Before You Get On Board Saves Time Or Problems Later).  In July 2007, Metlink launched a new campaign, "I Highly Recommend You Get on the Bus", featuring musical comedian Frank Woodley, to improve bus services. http://www.metlinkmelbourne.com.au/news/events_promotions/metropolitan_general/metlink_highly_recommends_you_get_on_the_bus

While they do not have control, representatives of the Bus Association of Victoria and V/Line have helped Metlink.

## Viclink

Victoria's regional bus and rail services will at some future date be brought under a similar brand to Metlink named **Viclink**. Signage upgrades at regional railway stations have started from October 2006 http://www.railpage.com.au/f-t11323361.htm . The signage will be fully implemented when V/Line is re-privatized following the completion of the Fast Rail project.

## Related pages

- Railways in Melbourne

## Other websites

- Official Metlink website
- Official Viclink website
- BATBYGOBSTOPL Metlink website

## Infobox (company)

- **company name**: Metlink Victoria Proprietary Limited
- **company type**: Private company, Private
- **foundation**: 2003
- **location**: Melbourne, Australia
- **area served**: Metropolitan Melbourne
- **industry**: Public transport
- **products**: Public Transport
- **homepage**: [http://www.metlinkmelbourne.com.au/ www.metlinkmelbourne.com.au]
Sanyo

**Sanyo** is a Japanese electronics company. They specialise in home appliances.

## Overview

Sanyo was founded in 1947 by Toshio Iue.

Panasonic acquired it in 2011.

As of 2018, the company's revenue was ¥84.678 billion.

## Other websites

Sanyo on Panasonic website
Celtic Frost

**Celtic Frost** was a thrash/black metal band from Zurich, Switzerland. The band was formed in 1984 and broke up in 1993. The reunited in 2001 and broke up again in 2008.

## Discography

Celtic Frost released 6 studio albums:

### Albums

- _Morbid Tales_ (1984)
- _To Mega Therion_ (1985)
- _Into the Pandemonium_ (1987)
- _Cold Lake_ (1988)
- _Vanity/Nemesis_ (1990)
- _Monotheist_ (2006)

## Other websites

- Official website

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Celtic Frost
- **img**: Celtic Frost live at Tuska 2006 modified.jpg
- **img capt**: Celtic Frost live at Tuska Open Air Metal Festival 2006.
- **img size**: 250
- **landscape**: Yes
- **background**: group_or_band
- **origin**: Zurich, Switzerland
- **genre**: Extreme metal
- **years active**: 1984–1993
2001–2008
- **label**: Century Media Records, Century Media, Noise Records (Germany), Noise, Metal Blade Records, Metal Blade
- **associated acts**: Hellhammer, Apollyon Sun, Mind Funk, Triptykon, Kharma, Coroner
- **url**: [http://www.celticfrost.com/ Official website]
- **past members**: Martin Eric Ain
Franco Sesa
Tom Gabriel Fischer
Curt Victor Bryant
Oliver Amberg
Ron Marks
Dominic Steiner
Reed St. Mark
Stephen Priestly
Erol Unala
Anders Odden
Privy council

The **Privy Council** is a group of advisors to a Monarch.

- The Privy Council of the United Kingdom
- The Queen's Privy Council for Canada
- The Privy Council of Northern Ireland
Cable knitting

Patterns called **cables** are created using special cable knitting needles.  The cables often look like braids.  They are typically used on sweaters, particularly on Aran sweaters from Ireland.
Maraghar Massacre

The **Maraghar Massacre** happened on April 10, 1992, during the Nagorno-Karabakh War.

## Other websites

- Photographs of the Maraghar Massacre  ** – Warning: Graphic Content**
- Christianity Today Article
- Ethnic cleansing in Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict
- UK House of Commons report
- Survivors of Maraghar massacre: It was truly like a contemporary Golgotha many times over
Circular knitting

**Circular knitting** or **knitting in the round** is a form of knitting that creates a seamless tube. It is done with circular or double-pointed needles. Socks, mittens, and sweaters can be made with circular knitting.
Knitting machine

**Knitting machines** are used to make knitted cloth for clothing or household items. They can make flat shapes or tubular shapes. The tubular shapes can be used for t-shirts.
Kirovabad pogrom

The **Kirovabad pogrom** was an attack by Azeris against the targeted Armenian population living in the Azerbaijani town of Kirovabad  in November 1988. It is estimated that at least 130 people were killed.

## Other websites

- Pogroms in Kirovabad - MIATSUM
Tree of Knowledge

In the Book of Genesis, chapters two and three, the **Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil** was a tree in the middle of the Garden of Eden, along with the Tree of Life. God Told Adam (and Eve) to never eat from this Tree. When Eve and Adam, ate the fruit from the Tree of Knowledge, they discovered that they were naked, and were banished from the garden and forced to survive through farming.

### In Judaism

According to the Jewish tradition, God telling Adam and Eve not to eat from the Tree was to give them free choice and allow them to earn perfection instead of getting it with a simple deed. According to this tradition, Adam and Eve would have become perfect and immortal had they not eaten from the Tree. After failing, they were sentenced to a long time of hard work to get themselves back into God's trust.

### In Christianity

In Christianity, the Tree of Knowledge is connected to the beginning of sin. By eating the fruit of the Tree, Adam and Eve tried to become like God.

### Trees in other religions

In Buddhism, the Buddha became enlightened under a Bodhi tree. While the biblical tree is usually seen as representing pleasure, the Bodhi tree gave pure knowledge.

### The symbol of the Tree

Symbolically, the fruit of the Tree of Knowledge tries to divide human action into Right or Wrong, Good or Evil and Lawful or Unlawful with privileges and punishments for each case.

## Related pages

- Adam and Eve
- Knowledge
- Morality
- Original sin
- Pelagianism
Royal Academy of Music

- _For the institution founded in London in 1719 for putting on performances of operas see George Frideric Handel._

The **Royal Academy of Music** is a conservatory in London where young people can study music. It was founded in 1822. Many musicians who became famous studied music at the Royal Academy of Music.

The Royal Academy of Music was officially founded (started) in 1822 and was opened the next year. King George IV was the patron of the conservatory. At first it had 21 students.

In 1830 it received its Royal Charter, but for many years it had financial problems and it was not until 1868, when the British Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone arranged for it to have a regular grant, that it began to do well. During the 19th century the academy was in Hanover Square, but in 1912 it moved to Marylebone Road near Regent's Park.

Since 1912 many changes and extensions have been made to the building. Many concerts are given in the Duke’s Hall and operas are performed in the Sir Jack Lyons Theatre. Many of the professors (teachers) at the academy come from other countries. The academy works together with King’s College, London where many of the students take a 4-year performance course. In 1997 they won some lottery money which helped them to get a new building for their collection of musical instruments. It has a large library which includes all the books and music which used to belong to the conductors Sir Henry Wood and Otto Klemperer.

Today the students come from over 50 countries. Students from abroad can attend a special “English for Musicians” course. There are over 600 students at the academy. The students have many opportunities to perform, both in the academy and in concerts in other places. Over 90% of the students find a career in music after they leave the academy.

The principal of the Royal Academy of Music is Jonathan Freeman-Attwood.

## Some famous people who studied at the Royal Academy of Music

- John Barbirolli (conductor)
- Arnold Bax (composer)
- Richard Rodney Bennett (composer)
- Harrison Birtwistle (composer)
- Dennis Brain (French horn|horn player)
- William Crotch (first Principal of the Royal Academy of Music)
- Sir Clifford Curzon (pianist)
- John Dankworth (jazz composer)
- Lesley Garrett (soprano)
- Evelyn Glennie (percussionist)
- Myra Hess (pianist)
- Elton John (rock musician) Junior Academy
- Freddy Kempf (pianist)
- Philip Langridge (tenor)
- Felicity Lott (soprano)
- Moura Lympany (pianist)
- Joanna MacGregor (pianist)
- Michael Nyman (composer)
- Sir Simon Rattle (conductor)
- Arthur Sullivan (composer)
- Eva Turner (soprano)
- Christopher Warren-Green (conductor)
- Sir Henry Wood (conductor)
Royal College of Music

The **Royal College of Music** is a conservatory in London where young people can study music.  Many musicians who became famous studied at the College.

The College was founded by Royal charter in 1882  The first president was the Prince of Wales (later King Edward VII) and later presidents have also been members of the royal family.  The first director was Sir George Grove and he was followed by Sir Hubert Parry.

The first building was opposite the west side to the Royal Albert Hall, but in 1894 the RCM moved to a larger building south of the Royal Albert Hall on Prince Consort Road.  The College is still there, but there have been many extensions and improvements to the building.

Today there are about 600 students at the RCM from some 50 countries.  About 170 of these are post-graduate students.  The college can award degrees and diplomas in music and current composers and performing musicians can study there.  The current director of the Royal College is Dr Colin Lawson.  The college has a large museum of musical instruments.  Next to the main building is a 400-seater opera house, the Britten Theatre, opened in 1986.

## Some famous people who studied at the Royal College of Music

- Thomas Allen (born 1944), singer
- Julian Anderson (born 1967), composer
- Malcolm Arnold (1921 - 2006), composer
- Arthur Bliss (1891 - 1975), composer
- Rutland Boughton (1878 - 1960),  composer
- Julian Bream (born 1933), guitarist and lutenist
- Benjamin Britten (1913 - 1976), composer
- George Butterworth (1885 - 1916), composer
- Samuel Coleridge-Taylor  (1875 - 1912), composer
- Thurston Dart (1921 - 1971), performer and musicologist
- Andrew Davis (born 1944), conductor
- Colin Davis (born 1927), conductor
- James Galway (born 1939), flautist
- Eugène Goossens (1893 - 1962), conductor
- Charles Groves (1915 - 1992), conductor
- David Helfgott (born 1947), pianist
- Gustav Holst (1874 - 1934), composer
- Herbert Howells (1892-1983), composer
- John Ireland (1879 - 1962), composer and pianist
- Dame Gwyneth Jones (born 1936), Wagnerian soprano
- Thea King (1925-2007), clarinetist
- Constant Lambert (1905 - 1951), composer and critic
- John Lill (born 1944), pianist
- Hamish MacCunn (1868-1916), composer and conductor
- Neville Marriner (born 1924), conductor
- Francis Monkman (born 1949), rock, classical and film score composer
- Peter Pears (1910 - 1986), singer
- Trevor Pinnock (born 1946), harpsichordist and conductor
- Edmundo Ros (1910—2011), band leader
- Cyril Smith (1909 - 1974), pianist
- Leopold Stokowski (1882 - 1977), conductor
- Joan Sutherland (born 1926), singer
- Michael Tippett (1905 - 1998), composer
- Mark-Anthony Turnage (born 1960), composer
- Fanny Waterman (born 1920), founder, chairman and artistic director of the Leeds International Pianoforte Competition musician
- Andrew Lloyd Webber (born 1948), composer
- Julian Lloyd Webber (born 1951), cellist
- William Lloyd Webber (1914 - 1982), composer
- Gillian Weir (born 1941), internationally-renowned organist
- John Williams (born 1941), guitarist
- Ralph Vaughan Williams (1872 - 1958), composer

## Other websites

- Royal College of Music website
Automated teller machine

An **automated teller machine** (**ATM**) is a machine that lets people take or deposit money that they have. It can also be used by someone to see how much money they have, or see and do other things with their bank account. In the United Kingdom, ATMs are often called _cash machines_, _cashpoints_ or the _hole in the wall_.

ATMs may be found in stores and shopping malls. They can also be found in other places. Sometimes, they can be found in bars or restaurants. Other times, at special events, people may set one up so the guests can use the machine, like at a fundraiser.

People need a debit card or credit card in order to use an ATM. They also need a personal identification number (PIN). A PIN is a code that lets them get into their account.

There are many scams with ATMs. In one scam, con artists look over the victim's shoulder and find their PIN. This is known as shoulder surfing. In another, they may put a video camera near the ATM to look at people using their PIN number. They then make cards using the PIN number and account number to be able to use that person's account.

In Germany, where people still use real money more than electronic money, there have been a lot of robberies from cash machines. 496 cash machines were blown up in 2022, with about €100,000 stolen each time.  Most of the thieves are Dutch men, say the German police.

In Japan old people are targeted by people who pretend to be members of their family in trouble.  In 2023 the National Police Agency were thinking about stopping people over 65 who had not used a machine for more than a year from using them.
Quilt

A **quilt** is a type of blanket made of three layers: a top piece of cloth, a layer of insulating material often called _batting_, and a bottom piece of cloth for backing. The layers are joined together either by sewing or by tying the layers together with pieces of yarn, thread, or ribbon.

The top layer of the quilt can be made from many pieces of cloth sewn together in patterns, known as _patchwork_. Other patterns can be made by running lines of stitching through the three layers.

Sometimes quilts are not used as bedding, but are works of art made to be hung on a wall (wall hangings) or used as decoration.

Quilting is done in many cultures, such as the Amish, in Hawaii, and in India.
Ribbon

A **ribbon** is a thin, flexible band, usually cloth but also plastic or sometimes metal.

Ribbons are mostly used for tying or decorating things. Ribbons can be used to tie a person's hair, decorate clothing or uniforms, or to tie up packages. A typewriter uses a cloth or plastic ribbon to hold the ink.
Wigmore Hall

The **Wigmore Hall** is a famous concert hall in London.  It is called a “recital hall” because it is designed for recitals: concerts given by one soloist, or sometimes a small group of musicians (chamber music). It is in Wigmore Street in the centre of  London, just north of Oxford Street.

The Wigmore Hall was built in 1901 by the German firm Bechstein who made pianos.  Originally it was called **Bechstein Hall**.  Bechstein’s showrooms were next door.  The hall was built in a Renaissance style, with alabaster and marble walls and a rectangular hall with a small, raised stage.  Above the stage the ceiling is in the form of a cupola which has a painting which shows the Soul of Music looking up at the Genius of Harmony: a ball of eternal fire whose rays are reflected across the world.  These are separated by thorns from the rest of the picture which includes a musician and, on the other side, Psyche inspiring a composer to write music.

The "Bechstein Hall" opened on 31 May 1901 with a concert given by the virtuoso pianist and composer Ferruccio Busoni and violinist Eugène Ysaÿe. During its early period many famous musicians played there, including Artur Schnabel, Pablo Sarasate, Percy Grainger, Myra Hess, Arthur Rubinstein and Camille Saint-Saëns.

Because it was owned by a German firm, the hall was seized as _enemy property_ during World War I. The hall with over 130 pianos was sold at an auction to Debenhams for a very small amount of money, and was re-opened as **Wigmore Hall** in 1917.  Musicians who have performed there since include Sviatoslav Richter, Vladimir Ashkenazy, Elisabeth Schwarzkopf, Victoria de los Ángeles, Sergei Prokofiev, Shura Cherkassky, Paul Hindemith, Andrés Segovia, Julian Bream, Peter Pears, Benjamin Britten and Francis Poulenc.

Today the Wigmore Hall seats 540 people.  Many concerts are broadcast on BBC Radio 3.  Famous musicians perform there, as well as young musicians who are just starting their career.

The Wigmore Hall publishes on its own record label "Wigmore Hall live" recordings of concerts that were given by famous musicians.  The pianos in the Wigmore Hall today are made by Steinway.

The Wigmore Hall's director is John Gilhooly.  His future plans include having lots of music by living composers

## Other websites

- Official Wigmore Hall Web Site
Punjab

**Punjab** or **Panjab** may mean:

- Punjab region, an area of South Asia spanning from eastern Pakistan to north-western India
    - Punjab (India), a state of India
    - Punjab (Pakistan), a province of Pakistan

In **former countries, states and provinces**:
- Punjab (British India), a former province
- Punjab Hill States agency, an administrative unit of British India
- Patiala and East Punjab States Union, a former state of India
- West Punjab, the part of the Punjab which became part of Pakistan
- East Punjab, the part of the Punjab which became part of the Republic of India.
In **other**:
- Punjab lasso, a weapon made of cat gut used to strangle people, mentioned in Gaston Leroux's novel _The Phantom of the Opera_
- Punjab, a character in the musical _Annie_
- Punjab (XMPP), an XMPP/Jabber server component for stateless applications and more

**See also**:
- Punjab Assembly (disambiguation)
House of Commons

**House of Commons** is the name of the lower house in several commonwealth parliaments

- House of Commons of the United Kingdom
- House of Commons of Canada

- The House of Commons of Southern Ireland (1921-1922)
- The House of Commons of Northern Ireland (1921-1971)