juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Lake Erie

**Lake Erie** is one of the Great Lakes in North America. It is the second to the last in the Great Lake system before water flows into the St. Lawrence River. Like Lake Superior, Lake Huron, and Lake Ontario, Lake Erie is part of the boundary between the USA and Canada. In 1813 a naval battle was fought on the lake.

Most of the water that flows into Lake Erie flows through a small river, the Detroit River, that moves water down from Lake St. Clair past Detroit, Michigan. Some more water flows into Lake Erie from other rivers, including the Maumee and the Cuyahoga. At the foot of the Maumee is Toledo, Ohio. At the bend of the Cuyahoga is Cleveland, Ohio.

Water that flows out of Lake Erie flows past Buffalo, New York, and into the Niagara River.   The river pours over Niagara Falls, one of the largest waterfalls in North America, and then into the lowest of all the Great Lakes, Lake Ontario.
Chief Joseph

**Chief Joseph** (1840 – September 21, 1904; whose real name was **Hinmaton-Yalaktit**) was the chief of the Nez Perce Native Americans, a tribe that lived in what is now the Pacific Northwest of the United States.
His father was the leader of the Nez-Perce  before him, and his mother was a member of this tribe too.

When Joseph was young, his father always told him not to trust white men, he actually had problems with settlers. When his father died, Joseph became chief of the tribe, who resided in plateaus in Northeast Oregon, Southeast Washington and Western Idaho.

The turning point in their relationship to white men was the gold rush in 1863. It gave the US Government the opportunity to reduce their reservation to a small area in Idaho. Then, with the new waves of white men settling in the West, the Government wanted to drive Nez-Perces away from their territory.

Chief Joseph was extremely sad: this place was the tribe's territory where their ancestors were buried. In spite of that, he wanted to avoid conflict and remain in peace. In 1873 he decided to negotiate with the US Government. He travelled all the way to Washington D.C. and spoke to President Ulysses S. Grant. But he only got mean looks and little attention.

So a war began in 1877. The living conditions of Chief Joseph's tribe were awful: they had no food and no blankets. Some people were freezing to death. But the Nez-Perces impressed their enemy thanks to all the battles they won. Many men died on both sides. That's why Joseph decided to surrender. He gave up fighting in 1877.

He was destroyed by the death of his people, and also extremely disappointed: he felt betrayed by white people. He knew he could not trust them anymore. He was tired of being considered a savage. He felt it was not fair for people who were born on the same land to be treated differently. He delivered a lot of speeches on this subject, which are still really good examples of eloquence. But he did not feel listened to, and when he died in his reservation in 1904, the doctor said he "died from sadness". He was buried in Colville Native American Burial Ground, in Washington State.
Square mile

A **square mile** (sometimes written _mi²_ ) is a British and American unit of measurement of area. It is the area inside a square that has each side equal to one statute mile (5,280 feet or 1,760 yards). This way of talking about area is often used to say how much land there is on a farm, or in a city or country, for example.

One square mile is just less than 2.59 square kilometres.
Regions of Peru

A **Region** is the name for one of 25 areas into which the land is divided in Peru.

Provinces of Peru

- **Name of the region** (capital of the region)

1. Tumbes (Tumbes)
1. Piura (Piura)
1. Lambayeque (Chiclayo)
1. La Libertad (Trujillo)
1. Ancash (Huaraz)
1. Lima (Huacho)
1. Callao (Callao)
1. Ica (Ica)
1. Arequipa (Arequipa)
1. Moquegua (Moquegua)
1. Tacna (Tacna)
1. Cajamarca (Cajamarca)
1. Huánuco (Huánuco)
1. Pasco (Cerro de Pasco)
1. Junín (Huancayo)
1. Huancavelica (Huancavelica)
1. Ayacucho (Ayacucho)
1. Apurímac (Abancay)
1. Cusco (Cusco)
1. Puno (Puno)
1. Amazonas (Chachapoyas)
1. San Martín (Moyobamba)
1. Ucayali (Pucallpa)
1. Madre de Dios (Puerto Maldonado)
1. Loreto (Iquitos)
    *****     Lima Province (Lima)
Ica Region

**Ica** is one of 25 regions of Peru. The capital of the region is Ica.
Meat Puppets

The **Meat Puppets** are an alternative/punk rock group from Scottsdale, Arizona, USA. They were formed in 1980 by Curt Kirkwood (vocals, guitars), his brother Cris (bass) and Derrick Bostrom (drums). The band is probably best known for their 1994 radio hit "Backwater".

The band went on indefinite hiatus in 2001 as Curt formed two band projects Eyes Adrift (with Nirvana bassist Krist Novoselic and Sublime drummer Bud Gaugh) and Volcano (also with Sublime drummer Bud Gaugh). He also released a solo album. His brother Cris was in prison from August 2004 to 21 months.

In 2006, the Meat Puppets reformed and released a new album, _Rise to Your Knees_ in 2007.

As of November 2009, Shandon Sahm is back as the drummer in the Meat Puppets. He replaces Ted Marcus, who was a member from 2006.

The band was chosen by Animal Collective to perform their album _Up on the Sun_ live at the All Tomorrow's Parties music festival in May 2011.

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Meat Puppets
- **image**: Meat Puppets 2014.jpg
- **caption**: Meat Puppets performing in 2014
- **landscape**: yes
- **background**: group_or_band
- **origin**: Phoenix, Arizona, United States, USA
- **genre**: Alternative rock, Hardcore punk (early), cowpunk
- **years active**: 1980–1996, 1999–2002, 2006–present
- **label**: SST Records, SST, London Records, London, Atlantic Records, Atlantic, Rykodisc Records, Rykodisc, Anodyne Records, Anodyne, Megaforce Records, Megaforce
- **associated acts**: Nirvana (band), Nirvana, Eyes Adrift, Volcano (supergroup), Volcano
- **current members**: Curt Kirkwood
Cris Kirkwood
Shandon Sahm
Elmo Kirkwood (touring member)
- **past members**: Derrick Bostrom
Kyle Ellison
Ken Boucher (session bassist)
Andrew Duplantis
Troy Meiss (touring member)
Ted Marcus
Longboarding

A **longboard** is a type of skateboard. It is often longer than a regular skateboard. Longboard are made in many different shapes. They are often  faster than regular skateboards. This is because of the size of the wheel and what the board is made of. Longboards are commonly used for cruising, traveling and downhill racing. Downhill racing is known as longboarding. Longboard 'dancing' and 'freestyle' are also popular. In this, the rider uses skateboard-like motions and steps up and down the board.

## History

The first longboards were made by Preston Nichols in the 1940s and 50s. They replaced surfing when the waves were too dull. Early skaters made boards out of planks of wood and roller skates. It was called "Sidewalk Surfing". Longboards were first sold in 1959. Makaha, Jack's and Hobie were the first sellers. These early longboards were crude. They had wheels made of metal. Clay wheels were used later to make them safer. Longboarding became popular in the late 1950s and early 1960s. It had become much less popular by 1965. Longboarding started becoming popular again in 1972 when Frank Nasworthy and the Cadillac Wheel Company create the urethane longboard wheel. Urethane wheels let skaters move much faster than they could before. Reverse kingpins(RKP) also made them more stable.

These changes made the boards more stable. They helped downhill longboarding grow into a sport. The International Gravity Sports Association (IGSA) was its governing body. The cutout deck was added in the 1990s. It had sections cut out around the wheels. This stopped the wheels from touching the board during hard turns. There has been many changes to longboard technology because of the many different ways people ride them. Modern longboard decks can be made from many materials. These include fiberglass composites, aluminum and carbon fiber.

## Dimensions

Most boards are  in length. Widths vary from . Longboard are made in many shapes. These include pintails, swallowtails, flat-nose riders, drop-through decks, drop decks and boards with the same shape as a regular skateboard. Pintails have looser trucks and larger wheels. They are better suited for carving or a "smooth" feel. Drop decks and drop throughs let the rider be closer to the ground. This gives them a lower center of gravity which increases stability. This also makes the boards better for downhill racing. Mid-length boards,  have many different uses. They have more weight and bulk. This makes them move with a fluid motion by providing more momentum. The longboard's design lets rider make big turns or quick short carves. These movements are similar to the motions of surfers or snowboarders.
Graffiti

**Graffiti** (plural; singular: **graffiti** or **graffito**, however _graffito_ is rarely used except in archeology) is marks, scratching or drawings made on a surface on a public place. It is often created with paint or spray paint (paint that is sprayed from a can). A single mark could be called a **graffito** but the word graffiti is usually used, meaning that there is more than one mark. The word comes from Greek **' (_graphein_)  meaning "to write".

Graffiti can take the form of art, drawings or words. When done without a property owner's permission it can be considered vandalism. Sometimes it is just a person's name or a rude word. Sometimes it is a public political protest because graffiti is illegal without permission.

## Types

There are lots of different types of graffiti, and some people call some things graffiti that other people would not.

In some kinds of graffiti, people write their name in different ways. It is usually not their real name. Sometimes people write the name of their crew, which is a group of friends who write together. Small writing like a signature is called a **tag**. Bigger writing that is very round and has an outline is called a **throw up**. A graffiti writing with lots of detail is called a **piece''', which is short for masterpiece.

Some graffit is made of pictures. This can be a small picture or a large mural.

Graffiti can be legal or illegal. Some towns have walls that anyone is allowed to paint on. Sometimes the government or a business will pay someone to paint, to attract tourists or advertise something. Some graffiti artists like Keith Haring became very famous.

## History

Paintings were done on cave walls over 40,000 years ago in Australia. The oldest graffiti that used writing was in the Roman Empire, people wrote messages on walls. It wasn't considered vandalism, instead people saw it as just a way to talk to one another.

In the 1700s and 1800s in the United States, some people began to write "monikers" on trains. Monikers were pictures and fake names. One famous moniker was Bozo Texino.

Modern graffiti was made famous in New York City in the early 1960s and 1970s by the children of the working class. They called it "writing" and called themselves "writers." At first they wrote on trains, but when the New York Subway started to make it harder, writers moved into the city to write on walls instead.

In a 1971 New York Times article, Norman Mailer first used the term "graffiti" was first used to refer to the new kind of art people were painting on trains. This period of the early 1970s is known as the "Original School." Later in the 1980s, the next generation of graffiti artists is known as "Old School."

## Other websites

- Graffiti.CX  Online Graffiti Contest
- Graffiti art on train
- Graffiti.org.br
- Walls & bridges from south Belgium
- How to remove graffiti?
- Remove Graffiti From Different Surfaces?
- Graffiti art or vandalism
Appellation d'origine contrôlée

***Appellation d'origine controlée*** (AOC, "controlled designation of origin") is a French phrase which shows that a product comes from a certain area.

Some products must come from a certain area and be made in a certain way in order to have the name of the product.  The most famous example is champagne, which must be fermented in the bottle and be made in the Champagne region of France.

The French government set up the _Institut national des appellations d'origine  et de la qualité_ (INAO, "National institute of controlled designation of origin") in 1935 to oversee the system.  Although usually linked with wines, the start of the system of protecting the name of goods started in the 15th century when the French parliament defined what could be called Roquefort cheese.

AOCs are most often found in connection with:
- Wine regions (like Bordeaux Entre-Deux-Mers AOC)
- Some ciders
- Some cheeses (like Roquefort) and Parmesan (in Italy)
Distillation

**Distillation** is a process where a mixture made of two or more liquids (called "components") with different boiling points can be separated from each other. The mixture is heated until one of the components boils (turns to a vapor).  The vapor is then fed into a condenser, which cools the vapor and changes it back into a liquid that is called _distillate_.  What remains in the original container is called the "residue". It is a common process in many industries.

Distillation is a physical separation process and not a chemical reaction. Some chemical processes are called "distillation" for historical reasons, like dry distillation or destructive distillation. These are a type of pyrolysis.

## Types

Fractional distillation uses a larger distillation column with more than one output. It is used to separate mixtures of multiple liquids. An oil refinery uses fractional distillation to purify crude oil, separating several different liquids for different uses.

Air separation uses a cryogenic process to distill air. This produces pure nitrogen, oxygen, argon, and trace gases.

## History

Distillation has been used for a long time. Iron Age people used distillation to make perfumes. Pepole also distill alcohol and produce alcoholic drinks such as liquor.

Distillation can be done anywhere, whether it's in a house or a laboratory, but in most countries it is illegal to distill alcohol without a license. Illegally distilled alcoholic drinks are in some places called _moonshine_.

Distillation is also the main way of desalination of water. In this case the salt is a solid that is in solution with the water. In alcohol distillation or  petroleum distillation, the things to be separated from their solution are two or more distillation liquids.
Lawyer

A **lawyer** (also called an "advocate", "attorney", "barrister", "counsel", "counsellor", or "solicitor") is someone who practices law. A lawyer has earned a degree in law, and has a license to practice law in a particular area.

If people have any problem regarding the law, they can contact a lawyer for advice.  A legal problem is referred to as a case.  A person can hire a lawyer to start a case against someone else, or to help with a case that has been started against them.  If the case goes to court, the lawyer will represent their client in court.  The lawyer will use their knowledge of the law to convince the court that the client is on the right side of the argument.  Lawyers also help people "settle out of court," which means that both sides of the argument agree to resolve the dispute ahead of time so that they will not have to go to trial.

When a person is accused of a crime, the person has a defense lawyer to try to show they have not committed a crime.  The lawyer arguing that they did do the crime is called the _prosecutor_.

Lawyers also prepare legal documents for their clients. Examples: buying or selling property or making a will (testament). Certain lawyers (called "commissioners of oaths" in England) can take legally binding witness statements which can be presented to the court.

Lawyers work in different settings.  Some work by themselves, while some work in law firms.  Some lawyers work for hospitals and private companies. Lawyers who work for private companies are usually called in-house counsel.

Lawyers generally charge a fee for the work that they do, but sometimes advice is offered freely, which is called "pro bono," meaning "for the public good."  In many countries, if a person is accused of a crime and unable to pay for a lawyer, the government will pay a lawyer to represent them using tax money.

## Infobox (occupation)

- **name**: Lawyer
- **image**: WE_Bok_CHM_VA0908.jpg
- **caption**: Willem Eduard Bok Jr. in his court dress
- **official names**: Attorney, advocate, barrister, counsel, judge, justice, solicitor, legal executive
- **activity sector**: Law, business
- **competencies**: Analytical skills
Critical thinking
Law
Legal research
Legal writing
Legal ethics
- **formation**: Admission to practice law, Professional requirements
- **employment field**: Courts, government, law firms, non-governmental organization, NGOs, legal aid, corporations
- **related occupation**: Barrister, Solicitor, legislature, Judge, Jurist, Advocate, Attorney at law, Attorney, Legal executive, Prosecutor, Law clerk, Law professor, Civil law notary, Magistrate, Politician
- **average salary**: Lawyer#Compensation, Earnings and compensation
Loreto Region

**Loreto** is Peru's most northern region. Covering almost one-third of Peru's territory, Loreto is the nation's biggest region.  It is also one of the least populated ones, because of its remote location in the Amazon rainforest. Its capital is the city of Iquitos.

## Boundaries

- Northwest: Ecuadorian provinces of Sucumbíos, Orellana, Pastaza and Morona-Santiago
- North: Colombian department of Putumayo
- Northeast: Amazonas Department, also in Colombia
- East: Brazilian states of Amazonas and Acre
- South: Ucayali and Huánuco regions
- West: San Martín and Amazonas regions

## Administrative divisions

The region is divided into eight provinces (_provincias_, singular: _provincia_), which are composed of 53 districts (_distritos_, singular: _distrito_). The provinces, with their capitals in parenthesis, are:
1. Maynas (Iquitos)
1. Alto Amazonas (Yurimaguas)
1. Datem del Marañón (San Lorenzo)
1. Loreto (Nauta)
1. Mariscal Ramón Castilla (Caballococha)
1. Putumayo (San Antonio del Estrecho)
1. Requena (Requena)
1. Ucayali (Contamana)

## Other websites

- INEI Peru
Iquitos

**Iquitos** is the capital city of the Loreto Region in northern Peru. It is on the banks of the Amazon River. Iquitos is the biggest city in the rain forest of Peru, with about 400,000 residents. It is a major port on the Amazon.

Excluding towns on islands, Iquitos is thought to be the largest city in the world that can not be reached by road. One can only get to Iquitos by boat, or by airplane. It is very remote, in the middle of the Amazon rainforest.

Iquitos was founded in 1747 by Jesuit José Bahamonde. Originally it was the home of the Iquito native tribe. About 100 years ago, Iquitos was a very rich town, because of the rubber industry. Today Iquitos relies mostly on tourism, wood industry and local trade.

## Other websites

- http://www.munimaynas.gob.pe/  (in Spanish) (uses Macromedia Flash)
- Iquitos information at biopark.org
Calvados (drink)

**Calvados** is an alcoholic drink. It is made from distilling cider in Normandy, one of the oldest Provinces of France (created in 911). It got its name from the place called Calvados which is famous for making it (sometimes called 'le Pays d'Auge'). It is also made in the  other places in Normandy including la Manche (Cotentin) and l'Orne (Domfront).

## How Calvados is made

The way to make Calvados is to distil cider twice. The first time it is done, the result is a liquid containing 28% to 30% alcohol. The second time it is done, the amount of alcohol is increased to about 40%.

Since 1942, the Calvados has its own _Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée (AOC)_, which means it is from one place. The rules are:
- The « Calvados Pays d’Auge » (25% of production): The Cidre needs to come from apples of the « Pays d'Auge ». Two rounds of distillation in a multi-pass still
- The « Calvados » (74 % of production): The apples used for the cidre need to be from Normandy.
- The « Calvados Domfrontais » (1% of production) : Base for the production are apples and pears from the region called « domfrontais », there is only one round of distillation in a still.

## How Calvados is served

Calvados can be served either dry or with ice, as a cocktail, an aperitif, or as a digestif. It goes very well with cheese, chocolate, dessert or ice cream. Crepes can also be served with Calvados.

Calvados can also be added to coffee. People usually do this at the end of dinner.

## Other websites

- Apples, cider and Calvados in Pays d'Auge, Normandy (Multilingual)*
- Ferme du Ponctey Normandy (Multilingual) *
Still

A **still** is a tool used to clean a liquid. It does this by first boiling the liquid and turning it into a gas. This gas is then cooled, changing it back into liquid. Stills get their name from the word di_still_ation. Distillation is the process of boiling and cooling a liquid to purify it. Stills are most often used to create alcohol, but they can also be used with any liquid. Some examples are medicines and perfumes.

There are two main types of stills: pot stills and reflux stills. In a pot still, the pot (like a large kettle) holding the liquid is heated. The hot gas is cooled in a simple neck, or tube, and collected. Pot stills are used for making alcohol like whisky. A reflux still is much more complex. It works with a continual flow of liquid going into the boiler, and a continual flow of distilled liquid coming out. The distilled liquid can also be put through the process several times, which is why it is called a reflux still. This allows for a more pure product, and the person working the still can control the level of purity. Reflux stills are used in the chemical and petroleum industries.
Ravioli

**Ravioli** is a type of Italian food pasta dish. It is usually two layers of pasta dough with a filling between the two layers. There are many different recipes, with different kinds of fillings. The most common fillings are meat, vegetables or blackboard cheese. People eat this kind of food with a sauce or melted butter.
The Bridge on the River Kwai

***The Bridge on the River Kwai*** is a British 1957 movie from Columbia Pictures, based on Pierre Boulle's 1952 book _The Bridge over the River Kwai_ (). The movie was mainly filmed in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) and also in England.

In 1941 the Japanese Army invaded Thailand.  They built a railway to link Bangkok to Rangoon.  Thousands of Asian workers and POWs (prisoners of war) died while working on the project.  Part of this project was building bridges over Thailand's Kwai Yai, at a place named Tamarkan, which is near a town named Kanchanaburi.

The deaths of the Asian workers and the prisoners were real events, but most of the book and the movie are not true.  The British soldiers were slaves; they did not help the Japanese.  Two bridges were built; one was made of wood, one was made of concrete and steel.  Both bridges stood for two years and were destroyed by bombers in 1945.

In the movie the bridge is destroyed by commandos.  A real train rode over the bridge as it blew up. (This can be compared to a scene in the 1927 movie, _The General_, which starred Buster Keaton.)

The movie is best known for the "Colonel Bogey March", the song that is whistled by the POWs. It is also known as the "River Kwai March".

The movie won 7 Academy Awards, one for Best Picture.  It also won the BAFTA Award for Best British Screenplay.

## Other websites

- Account of bombing crew

## Infobox (movie)

- **name**: The Bridge on the River Kwai
- **caption**: Video cover
- **director**: David Lean
Gus Agosti & Ted Sturgis (assistants)
- **producer**: Sam Spiegel
- **writer**: Pierre Boulle (novel)
Carl Foreman & Michael Wilson (screenplay)
- **music**: Malcolm Arnold
- **cinematography**: Jack Hildyard
- **editing**: Peter Taylor
- **starring**: Alec Guinness
Sessue Hayakawa
William Holden
- **studio**: Columbia Pictures
Horizon Pictures
- **distributor**: Sony
- **released**: 2 October 2 1957
- **runtime**: 161
- **country**: United Kingdom
- **language**: English language, English / Japanese language, Japanese / Thai language, Thai
- **budget**: United States dollar, $3 million (estimated)
Tannin

**Tannins** are bitter-tasting chemical compounds that bind proteins.
Tannins are present in the following:
- Wine
- Tea
- Cannabis

Tannins are also used in the treatment of leather, to make it more durable. Natural tannins for this purpose come from oak trees, but synthetic tannins are more used.
Cuisine

**Cuisine** refers to any style of cooking, including its practices, traditions and recipes. A cuisine is usually associated with a specific culture. It is mainly influenced by the ingredients that are available to that culture. Cooking methods, customs and ingredients together form meals that are unique to a particular region. When people talk about Italian cuisine, they are referring to the food that Italians are famous for. Cuisine is a French word that means "kitchen", but it originally comes from the Latin word _coquere_, which means "to cook".

Traditionally, cuisines are shaped by a number of things. In some religious traditions, certain foods are forbidden by law (an example is pork in Islam). Climate and trade affect the what ingredients are available. Climate may also affect the methods by which food is prepared. Before the exploration of Asia and America by Europeans, certain foods were not known to European cuisine. Tomatoes, maize, avocados and cacao, for example, did not enter European diets until merchants brought these ingredients back from the New World. In modern times, cuisines are becoming more and more multicultural. New cuisines continue to develop even today.

## Related pages

- :Category:Foods by nationality
- Diet
- Food
Some Like It Hot

***Some Like It Hot*** is a 1959 American comedy movie starring Marilyn Monroe, Tony Curtis, Pat O'Brien, Jack Lemmon and George Raft, and directed by Billy Wilder. It is seen by some as a remake of the 1951 German movie, _Fanfaren der Liebe_. (Michael Logan wrote the story for the version) The movie is set in 1929. It has been remade for the stage twice (in 1972 and 2002). It was ranked at Number One on the AFI's 100 Years... 100 Laughs list and fourteen on the AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies list.

## Other websites

- JenFlick.com Review
- Roger Ebert's Great Movies review

## Infobox (movie)

- **name**: Some Like It Hot
- **caption**: DVD cover
- **director**: Billy Wilder
- **producer**: Billy Wilder
- **writer**: Billy Wilder,
I.A.L. Diamond
- **music**: Adolph Deutsch
- **cinematography**: Charles Lang
- **editing**: Arthur P. Schmidt
- **starring**: Jack Lemmon,
Tony Curtis,
Marilyn Monroe,
Joe E. Brown,
Grace Lee Whitney
- **studio**: Ashton Productions,
The Mirisch Corporation
- **distributor**: United Artists (theatrical),
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (DVD)
- **released**: March 29, 1959
- **runtime**: 120 minutes
- **country**: United States
- **language**: English
- **budget**: United States dollar, $2.9 million
Salt (disambiguation)

**Salt** could mean:

- Salt, a chemical compound
- Table salt (sodium chloride), the salt that people eat
- Salt or Al-Salt, a city in Jordan
Heinz Fischer

**Heinz Fischer** (born 9 October 1938) is the former president of Austria. His wife is Margit Fischer.

## Infobox (president)

- **name**: Heinz Fischer
- **image**: Heinz Fischer 2018.jpg
- **order**: President of Austria
- **chancellor**: Wolfgang Schüssel
Alfred Gusenbauer
Werner Faymann
- **term start**: 8 July 2004
- **term end**: 26 January 2017
- **predecessor**: Thomas Klestil
- **successor**: Alexander Van der Bellen
- **birth place**: Graz, Styria (state), Styria, Nazi Germany, Germany
- **spouse**: Margit Fischer
- **party**: Social Democratic Party of Austria, SPÖ
Halogen

The **halogens** are chemical elements under the second-to-right column in the periodic table, also known as **Group 17**. The elements in the group are fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, astatine, and tennessine. Halogen literally means "salt becomer", but it is often said to mean "salt producer". They are very reactive, so they are likely to join with other elements on the left side of the periodic table to make compounds. This is because they are missing one electron. They are rarely found alone in nature. Fluorine is the most reactive, while the rest of the halogens become less reactive. Iodine is the least reactive. Astatine is very radioactive and hard to get.
Adultery

**Adultery** (informally known as **cheating** in non-religious situations) is a word used in religious texts like Exodus 20:14. Adultery applies to a married person having sex with someone other than the person who they are married to.

In countries where religion is important, adultery often comes with a heavy punishment. Some Muslim countries punish it with death by stoning. In most countries adultery is no longer a crime, but most people still see it as a bad thing.(see Gospel of John 8) If a person who is married takes part in adultery, that person's husband or wife would usually have the right to be able to go to court to divorce them.

## Word origin

The word adultery originates not from “adult”, as is commonly thought in English-speaking countries, but from the Late Latin word for “to alter, corrupt”: “adulterare”.  “Adulterare” in turn is formed by the combination of “ad” (towards), and “alter” (other), together with the infinitive form “are” (making it a verb). Thus the meaning is literally “to make other”. In contrast, the word “adult” (meaning a person of mature years) comes from another Latin root, “adolescere”, meaning to grow up or mature: a combination of “ad” (towards), “alere” (to nourish, to grow), and the inchoative infix “sc”(meaning to enter into a state of).

## Literature

Famous adulterers include :
- Paris (mythology) and Helen in the Iliad
- Lancelot and Guinevere
- David and Bathsheba the wife of Uriah (2 Samuel 11)
- Anna Karenina and Vronsky
- Madame Bovary by Gustave Flaubert
- Genji
- Hestor Prynne

- Othello

## Related pages

- Infidelity: the same concept, but without a religious background
Perjury

**Perjury** is the word used for a person that tells a lie while they are under oath (in a courtroom). Committing perjury is against the law, and can be punished with a jail or prison sentence.

Perjury is a serious crime because it might be used to take away the power of a court, which can lead to punishment for the wrong person. In the United States, perjury is a federal offense, and it can be punished by five years in prison. However, in California, a person who commits perjury can get the death penalty if the perjury led to a wrongful execution.

The rules of perjury also apply when a person says or does something _under penalty of perjury_, even if he or she never swore an oath. One example is the United States' income tax return, where people have to sign as true and correct under penalty of perjury. A person can be punished by three years in prison if he or she lies on the tax return.

A statement that involves _interpretation_ are not perjury because people can judge incorrectly without knowing it. Perjury only happens if a person wanted to do it and then actually did.

## Canada

The offence of perjury is written in section 132 of the Criminal Code. It is described by section 131, which says that perjury is when a person says something false when he or she knows that it is false. People who commit perjury can be imprisoned for fourteen years at most.

## European Union

A person in the Court of Justice of the European Communities swears anything he knows is false is guilty of perjury. Proceedings for perjury can happen in any place in the State and the offence can be treated as if it happened in that place.

## United States

Perjury in American law comes from the common law of England, which defined the it as giving a false testimony under oath that has to do with the issue.

### Definitions

The American legal system defines perjury as saying anything knowingly false under oath to a "competent tribunal, officer, or person". The punishment can be a fine or up to five years in prison or both.
Lust

**Lust** is a term for a strong desire or wanting, or maybe even needing, often for sexual acts, although it is also commonly used to talk of a _lust for life_ or a _lust for power_ or for other goals.

As a sexual desire, it is considered a sin (a failing) by Christianity, which lists it as one of the seven deadly sins.

"Lust" was originally an Anglo-Saxon word which meant "desire" or "appetite".
Bromine

**Bromine** (Br) is a chemical element. Its atomic number (which is the number of protons in it) is 35, and its atomic weight is 80. It is part of the Group 7 elements (halogens) on the periodic table. It is diatomic, which means that two atoms are stuck together to make a molecule in any bromine sample.

### Physical properties

Bromine is a red-brown liquid. Liquid elements are rare; only bromine and mercury are liquid at room temperature. It easily evaporates to make suffocating brown fumes. It has a bad smell. Its name means "stench of he-goats". It can become a metal at very high pressures.

It has two stable isotopes. They are <sup>79</sup>Br and <sup>81</sup>Br. There are about 29 other radioactive isotopes.

### Chemical properties

Bromine is quite reactive. Its reactivity is between chlorine, which is more reactive, and iodine, which is less reactive. It reacts with metals and nonmetals. Phosphorus reacts violently with bromine. Aluminum reacts in a similar way.  It can bleach things like chlorine. It reacts better in the light. It dissolves a little in water. Hot water makes it disproportionate into hydrobromic acid and hypobromous acid. Bromine can form compounds with substances such as sodium to form sodium bromide.

### Chemical compounds

Bromine forms compounds in many oxidation states: –1, +1, +3, +5, and (sometimes) +7. –1 is the most common. It is found as bromide. Bromides are not reactive. They are colorless solids that dissolve in water easily. Covalent bromides can be liquids or gases. The other compounds are all strong oxidizing agents. Their chlorine cousins are more common. +1 has the hypobromites, which are unstable. +3 has the bromites. Bromine dioxide is the only common bromine compound found in the +4 oxidation state. +5 has the bromates, which are more common than all the other ones except the bromides. Bromates are strong oxidizing agents and are sometimes added to flour. +7 has the perbromates. Perbromates are very unstable.

## Occurrence

Bromine is found as bromide in the ocean and in brine pools. The Dead Sea has a lot of bromide in it. Bromine is not an important part of our body, unlike its relatives chlorine and iodine.

## Preparation

Bromine is made by bubbling chlorine gas through a solution of a bromide. The bromide is oxidized to bromine, while the chlorine is reduced to chloride.

## Uses

It is mainly used to make organobromine compounds, organic compounds with bromine in them. Organobromines are used to put out fires. They used to be added to gasoline. Some were used as pesticides. Some inorganic bromides were used as sedatives. Bromine can also be used as a disinfectant. Silver bromide is used in film.

## Safety

Bromine is toxic and corrosive to skin. Bromine gas is irritating when it is breathed in, too. Bromine can react violently with many things.
Astatine

**Astatine** is a radioactive, chemical element. Its atomic number is 85, and its atomic weight is 210. It is part of the Group 17 (halogens) on the periodic table of elements. All of astatine's isotopes are short-lived; the most stable is astatine-210, with a half-life of 8.3 hours.

## History

The first creation of the element was in 1940 by Dale R. Corson, Kenneth Ross MacKenzie, and Emilio G. Segrè at the University of California, Berkeley, who named it from the Greek _estates_ (ἄστατος), meaning "unstable".

## Chemistry

Astatine is highly radioactive and all its isotopes have half-lives of approximately 8 hours or less, the longest being astatine-210 with a half-life of a bit over eight hours. Some of its isotopes may be found in nature, but because it is so unstable, only about an ounce exists in the Earth's crust at any point in time. Chemists say it is the rarest element in the Earth's crust. Less reactive than iodine, astatine is the least reactive of the halogens. Only a few compounds with metals have been found, in the form of astatides of sodium, palladium, silver, thallium, and lead.

## Uses

It can be used for cancer treatment and in radioactive tracers. This requires professional training. In the words of famous cartoonist Randall Munroe:
"There is no material safety sheet for astatine. If there was one, it'd be the word "NO" written over and over in charred blood."
Lourdes Flores Nano

Dr.**Lourdes Celmira Flores Nano** (born October 7 1959) is a Peruvian lawyer and politician. She is the leader of the Christian People's Party. She tried to become the mayor of Lima in 2010.

Flores Nano was born in Lima in 1959. She studied law at the Pontifical Catholic University of Peru. She studied for a Phd in Law from the Universidad Complutense de Madrid, one of the world's oldest universities in Madrid, Spain. She was a member of the Lima Municipal Council and then a member of the National Congress of Peru. In 2001 and 2006 she was a candidate in election for the President of Peru.
Novel

**Novels** are books that have one long story written in them. They are works of prose fiction and are longer than short stories and novellas.

There are many kinds of novels. For example, some are adventure stories, like _Treasure Island_ by Robert Louis Stevenson. There are horror stories like Mary Shelley's _Frankenstein_. There are also science fiction novels like _Dune_ by Frank Herbert, and humorous novels like _The Adventures of Tom Sawyer_ by Mark Twain. Novels in English are usually at least 60,000 words long. Some are much longer, at 150,000 words or more. Novels usually have 100 pages or more.

The first novels were written more than three hundred years ago. Some people say that _Don Quixote_ by Miguel de Cervantes is the first novel; it was first published in 1605.

## Genres of novels

There are many different genres, or categories, of novels. Some of these are:

- Campus
- Crime fiction
- Fantasy
- Gothic
- Horror
- Romance
- Spy
- Thriller
- Science fiction
- Speculative
- Westerns
- Picaresque
- Gothic Novel
- Sentimental Novel
- Weird fiction
1095

## Events

- The county of Portugal is established for the second time.
- Pembroke Castle is built in Wales.
- The cathedral in Valence, France is consecrated.
- Coloman becomes King of Hungary.
- March – Byzantine emperor Alexius I Comnenus sends ambassadors to Pope Urban II at the Council of Piacenza, to discuss sending mercenaries against the Seljuk Turks.
- November 18 – The Council of Clermont began. The council was called by Pope Urban II to discuss sending the First Crusade to the Holy Land.
- November – Pope Urban II preaches the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont; Peter the Hermit begins to preach throughout France.
- November 28 – On the last day of the Council of Clermont, Pope Urban II appoints Bishop Adhemar of Le Puy and Count Raymond IV of Toulouse to lead the First Crusade to the Holy Land.
Oak Lawn, Illinois

**Oak Lawn** is a village in Cook County, Illinois, USA. It is a suburb of Chicago.
1607

## Births

- January 10 – Isaac Jogues, Jesuit missionary to Native Americans (died 1646)
- March 20 – Lady Alice Boyle, Irish noblewoman (died 1667)
- March 24 – Michiel de Ruyter, Dutch admiral (died 1676)
- July 13 – Václav Hollar, Bohemian etcher (died 1677)
- November 1 – Georg Philipp Harsdorffer, German poet (died 1658)
- November 15 – Madeleine de Scudéry, French writer (died 1701)
- November 26 – John Harvard, American clergyman (died 1638)
- Archibald Campbell, 1st Marquess of Argyll (died 1661)
- Thomas Barlow, Bishop of Lincoln (died 1691)
- John Boys, Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports (died 1664)
- John Dixwell, English judge and regicide (died 1689)
- Jan Kazimierz Krasinski, Polish nobleman (died 1669)
- Claude de Rouvroy, duc de Saint-Simon, French courtier (died 1693)
- Thomas Wriothesley, 4th Earl of Southampton (died 1667)
- Yagyu Jubei Mitsuyoshi, Japanese samurai (died 1650)
- Francisco de Rojas Zorrilla, Spanish dramatist (died 1660)
500s BC

## Events

- 509 BC -the Roman Republic starts.
- 509 BC, September 13 - The temple of Jupiter on Rome's Capitoline Hill is dedicated on the ides (15th) of September.
- 508 BC - Office of _pontifex maximus_ made in Rome
- 507 BC - Cleisthenes, Greek reformer, takes power and increases democracy
- 506 BC - Battle of Bai ju: Forces of the Kingdom of Wu under Sun Tzu defeat the forces of Chu
- 505 BC - First pair of Roman consuls elected
- 502 BC - December 4: Solar eclipse darkens Egypt. (we think this because of scientific pattern, no clear historical record of observation)
- 502 BC - The Latin League defeats the Etruscans under Lars Porsenna at Aricia.
- 502 BC - Naxos rebels against Persian domination sparking the Ionian Revolt.
- 501 BC - Cleisthenes reforms democracy in Athens.
- 501 BC - Naxos is attacked by the Persian Empire.
- 501 BC - because of threats by the Sabines, Rome makes the office of dictator.
- 501 BC - Confucius is made governor of Chung-tu.
- 501 BC - Gadir (present-day Cádiz) is captured by Carthage. (approximate date)
- 500 BC - Bantu-speaking people come into south-west Uganda from the west. (approximate date)
- 500 BC - Refugees from Teos resettle Abdera.
- 500 BC - Darius I of Persia proclaims that Aramaic be the official language of the western half of his empire
- 500 BC - the end of the Nordic Bronze Age civilization in Oscar Montelius periodization system and the start of the Pre-Roman Iron Age
- 500 BC - the first republic in Vaishali Bihar India starts.
- c. 500 BC—Yayoi period starts in Ancient Japan.
- c. 500 BC—Oldest known Zapotec writing.
- The Gutaii tribe began around this time, in Middle and Southern Africa.

## Significant people

- c. 500 BC—Heraclitus, Greek philosopher
- Siddharta Gautama
- c. 585–501 BC—Pythagoras, mathematician

## Deaths

- Lucretia, Roman noblewoman
- Lucius Junius Brutus, Roman consul (509 BC)
- Aruns Tarquinius, Roman prince (509 BC)
- Shen Yin Shu, general of Chu, (506 BC)
- Titus Junius Brutus, Roman noble and monarchist conspiractor
- Tiberius Junius Brutus, Roman noble and monarchist conspiractor
Fossil fuel

**Fossil fuels** are fuels that come from old life forms that decomposed over a long period of time.  The three most important fossil fuels are coal, petroleum, and natural gas.

Petroleum and gas are hydrocarbons (molecules that have only hydrogen and carbon in them).  Coal is mostly carbon. These fuels are called fossil fuels because they are dug up from underground. Coal mining digs up solid fuel; gas and oil well<nowiki/>s bring up liquid fuel. Fossil fuel was not much used until the Middle Ages. Coal became the main kind of fuel with the Industrial Revolution.

## Uses

Most of the fuels that people burn, are fossil fuels. A big use is to make electricity. In power plants fossil fuels, usually coal, are burned to heat water into steam, which pushes a fan-like object called a turbine. When the turbine spins around, magnets inside the turbine make electricity.

Crude oil (petroleum) can be separated to make various fuels such as LPG, gasoline, kerosene, jet fuel, and diesel fuel.  These substances are made by fractional distillation in an oil refinery.  They  are the main fuels in transportation. That means that they are burned in order to move cars, trucks, ships, airplanes, trains and even spacecraft.  Without them, there wouldn't be much transport.

People also burn fossil fuels to heat their homes. They use coal less for this than they did long ago, because it makes things dirty. In many homes, people burn natural gas in a stove for cooking.

Fossil fuels are widely used in construction.

## Origin

All fossil fuels come from the periods in Earth's history when the Earth had huge tropical forests. In those periods, plants lived, grew and died, faster than they decayed. In other words, they were times when much of the dead vegetation did not entirely decompose. Instead it became coal and related substances such as peat.

The times of the great wetlands which produced coal and peat were in the Upper Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian), continuing in the first part of the Permian; the Jurassic and Eocene periods. Virtually all the worlds' coal dates to those periods.

## Problems

Most air pollution comes from burning fossil fuels. This can be reduced by making the combustion process more efficient, and by using various techniques to reduce the escape of harmful gases. This pollution is responsible for causing the earth to get warmer, called global warming. They are non-renewable resources; there is only a limited amount of coal, gas, and oil, and it is not possible to make more. Eventually fossil fuels will be too scarce to use. Peak oil may have already been reached, and some economist<nowiki/>s think coal will run out by 2200.

Renewable energy sources like biomass energy such as firewood are being used.  Countries are also increasing the use of wind power, tidal energy, and solar energy to generate electricity.  Some governments are helping automobile makers to develop electric cars and hybrid cars that will use less oil.

## Other websites

- The Climate Change Guide easy-to-understand information on fossil fuels and their impact on climate change (includes Global Warming)
George Morrow

**George Morrow** (c. 1934 - May 7, 2003) was part of the early microcomputer industry in the United States. Morrow  promoted (make popular) and improved the S-100 bus used in many early microcomputers. Morrow was also a member of the Homebrew Computer Club.

Starting in 1976, he designed and sold computers, computer parts, and accessories under several company names, including _Morrow Designs_. Morrow's companies built microcomputers that used the CP/M operating system. When IBM started selling their IBM PC personal computer in 1981, Morrow and other CP/M computer makers had trouble competing. Morrow Designs filed for bankruptcy in 1986.
Dietary mineral

A **dietary mineral** is a chemical element that a living thing needs to be part of what they eat, other from the four elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen which are already very common in living things.

One example of a dietary mineral is calcium, which humans and many other animals need to build strong bones and teeth, among other things. Iron is another mineral, which you can find in red meat or spinach. It is important for us to have iron as it creates red blood cells. Other common minerals include potassium and phosphorus.

## Related pages

- Vitamin
- Essential fatty acid
- Essential amino acid
Cleveland, England

**Cleveland** is an area in the North of  Yorkshire, England. That means it is in North East England.

As a non-metropolitan county it existed between 1 April 1974 and 31 March 1996. The districts which made up the county are now all unitary authorities.

## Infobox (historic subdivision)

- **name**: Cleveland
- **hq**: Middlesbrough
- **status**: Shire county, Non-metropolitan county
- **origin**: Teesside and environs
- **start**: 1974
- **end**: 1996
- **government**: Cleveland County Council
- **replace**: Hartlepool (borough), Hartlepool
Stockton-on-Tees (borough), Stockton-on-Tees
Middlesbrough
Redcar and Cleveland
- **map**:
_The former administrative county of Cleveland shown within England_
Hungarian

**Hungarian** can mean:
- Anything related to Hungary
- Hungarian language
- Hungarians, the people of Hungary