juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Boston, Lincolnshire

**Boston** is a town and small port in Lincolnshire, on the east coast of England.
Stade

**Stade** is a city in Lower Saxony, Germany. It is the seat of the district which is named the same as the city.

The city was founded in 994 when it was called "Stethu". A city on the banks of the Lower Elbe it became an important market town, and a port. It was given a town charter in 1209. From 1645 to 1712, the Stade was controlled by Sweden, who made it an important military town. On May 26, 1659, the "Great Fire" destroyed more than half the city.

## Infobox (german location)

- **type**: Stadt
- **name**: Stade
- **image photo**: Stade 2006, Hansehafen.jpg
- **imagesize**: 250px
- **image caption**: View of the old hanse-harbor of Stade
- **image coa**: DEU Stade COA.svg
- **state**: Niedersachsen
- **district**: Stade
- **elevation**: 9
- **area**: 110.03
- **population**: 56820
- **stand**: 2006
- **postal code**: 21680, 21682–21684
- **area code**: 04141, 04146
- **licence**: STD
- **gemeindeschlüssel**: 03 3 59 038
- **mayor**: Silvia Nieber
- **party**: SPD
Stade (district)

**Stade** is a district (_Landkreis_) in Lower Saxony, Germany. The district's seat is Stade.

## Cities and municipalities

|align=left width=25%|Cities|colspan=3 align=center width=75%|Samtgemeinden|||||
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
||#Buxtehude #Stade **Free municipalities** #Drochtersen #Jork||***1. Apensen** #Apensen<sup>1</sup> #Beckdorf #Sauensiek ***2. Fredenbeck** #Deinste #Fredenbeck<sup>1</sup> #Kutenholz ***3. Harsefeld** #Ahlerstedt #Bargstedt #Brest #Harsefeld<sup>1</sup>||***4. Horneburg** #Agathenburg #Bliedersdorf #Dollern #Horneburg<sup>1</sup> #Nottensdorf ***5. Lühe** #Grünendeich #Guderhandviertel #Hollern-Twielenfleth #Mittelnkirchen #Neuenkirchen #Steinkirchen<sup>1</sup>||***6. Nordkehdingen** #Balje #Freiburg<sup>1</sup> #Krummendeich #Oederquart #Wischhafen ***7. Oldendorf-Himmelpforten** #Burweg #Düdenbüttel #Engelschoff #Estorf #Großenwörden #Hammah #Heinbockel #Himmelpforten<sup>1</sup> #Kranenburg #Oldendorf|
||<sup>1</sup>seat of the Samtgemeinde|||||||

## Infobox (district de)

- **name**: Stade
- **state**: Lower Saxony
- **capital**: Stade
- **area**: 1266
- **kreisschlüssel**: 03359
- **carsign**: STD
- **url**: [https://www.landkreis-stade.de landkreis-stade.de]
- **image coa**: Wappen Landkreis Stade.svg
Hasselt, Netherlands

**Hasselt** is a small city seven km north of Zwolle city, in the province of Overijssel, the Netherlands. About 7,400 people were living there in 2021.

Hasselt was also a municipality. In 2001, it became a part of the new created municipality of Zwartewaterland, of which Hasselt is the seat.

Hasselt got city rights in 1252, and joined the Hanseatic League about 1350.

## References

- Plaatsengids.nl
Chain letter

A **chain letter** is a message that tries to convince the person who gets it to make copies of the letter and then pass them on to as many people as possible. A chain letter can be a type of meme. Common ways used in chain letters include stories that make the recipient feel sorry for the person, get-rich-quick pyramid schemes, and the use of superstition to threaten the recipient with bad luck, physical violence or death if he or she "breaks the chain" and does not follow the instructions given in the letter.
Stanisław Ulam

**Stanisław Marcin Ulam** (April 13, 1909 – May 13, 1984) was a Polish mathematician who took part in the Manhattan Project and proposed the design used for most thermonuclear weapon<nowiki/>s.

He also proposed using nuclear explosions to propel rockets, and he developed several mathematical tools in number theory, set theory, ergodic theory and algebraic topology. Above all, he is known by being a coauthor (with Nicholas Metropolis) of the Monte Carlo algorithm.

Ulam was of Jewish descent.
Reichsuniversität Straßburg

The **Reichsuniversität Straßburg** was founded 1941 by the National Socialists in Alsace. The purpose was to create a university continuousness to Universität Straßburg that existed till the 1. World War. Also, it was important for the German invaders to propagate the „pure German knowledge“ of National Socialistic character in occupied France. The Reichsuniversität was dissolved in 1944.

## References

- Teresa Wróblewska: _Die Reichsuniversitäten Posen, Prag und Strassburg als Modelle nationalsozialistischer Hochschulen in den von Deutschland besetzten Gebieten_. Marszalek, Toruń 2000,
- Wechsler Patrick: _La Faculté de médecine de la «Reichsuniversität Strassburg» (1941-1945)_, medical PhD, Nr. 191, Université Louis-Pasteur Straßburg, 1991
- Jens Th. Marx: _Die vertagten medizinischen Fakultäten zu Straßburg in ihren historischen, politischen, universitätskonstitutionellen und wissenschaftlichen Kontexten 1538 - 1944_, Heidelberg, Univ., Diss., 2008
Somatosensory system

The ***'somatosensory system***' is a sensory system that detects experiences labelled as touch or pressure, temperature (warm or cold), pain (including itch and tickle) and those that belong to proprioception. These are the sensations of muscle movement and joint position including posture, movement, visceral (internal) senses and facial expression. Visceral senses have to do with sensory information from within the body, such as stomach aches.

Touch may be considered one of five human senses; however, when a person touches something or somebody this gives rise to various feelings: the perception of pressure (shape, softness, texture, vibration, etc.), relative temperature and sometimes pain. Thus the term "touch" is actually the combined term for several senses. In medicine, the colloquial term "touch" is usually replaced with **somatic senses**, to better reflect the variety of mechanisms involved.

## Related pages

- Proprioception

## References

- Flanagan, J.R., Lederman, S.J. Neurobiology: Feeling bumps and holes, News and Views, Nature, 2001 Jul. 26;412(6845):389-91.
- Hayward V, Astley OR, Cruz-Hernandez M, Grant D, Robles-De-La-Torre G. Haptic interfaces and devices . Sensor Review 24(1), pp. 16-29 (2004).
- Robles-De-La-Torre G., Hayward V. Force Can OvercomFLARGUSe Object Geometry In the perception of Shape Through Active Touch . Nature 412 (6845):445-8 (2001).
- Robles-De-La-Torre G. The Importance of the Sense of Touch in Virtual and Real Environments . IEEE Multimedia 13(3), Special issue on Haptic User Interfaces for Multimedia Systems, pp. 24-30 (2006).

## Other websites

- 'Somatosensory & Motor research' (Informa Healthcare)
- Overview
- Somatic vs. Special senses
Schandmaul

**Schandmaul** is a medieval folk rock band from Munich, Germany. They formed in 1998. The members right now are: Thomas Lindner, Birgit Muggenthaler, Anna Kränzlein, Martin Duckstein, Stefan Brunner, Matthias Richter.

The first song (Teufelsweib) was recorded in 1998. In the following year they released their very first Album "Wahre Helden". In 2000, the Album "Von Spitzbuben und anderen Halunken" has been redorded and released. In 2001, the band was discorvered by a record label, which led to the rerelease of "Von Spitzbuben und Halunken".

## Discography

- Albums
    - _Wahre Helden_ (1999)
    - _Von Spitzbuben und anderen Halunken_ (2000)
    - _Narrenkönig_ (lit. _Jester's King_) (2002)
    - _Wie Pech & Schwefel_ (2004)
    - _Mit Leib und Seele_ (2006)
    - _Anderswelt_ (2008)
    - _Traumtänzer_ (2011)
    - _Unendlich_ (2014)
    - _Leuchtfeuer_ (2016)
    - _Artus_ (2019)

- Live albums
    - _Hexenkessel_ (2003)
    - _Kunststück_ (2005)
    - _Sinnfonie_ (2009)

- EPs
    - _Bin Unterwegs_ (June 2005)
    - _Kein Weg zu weit_ (February 24, 2006)

- DVDs
    - _Hexenkessel_ (2003)
    - _Kunststück_ (2005)
    - _Sinnbilder_ (2008)
    - _Sinnfonie_ (2009)
    - _Schandfilm_ (2011)

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Schandmaul
- **img**: Schandmaul German Band Living Room.jpeg
- **img capt**: Left to right: Lindner, Kränzlein, Duckstein, Richter, Brunner, Muggenthaler-Schmack.
- **landscape**: yes
- **background**: group_or_band
- **origin**: Munich, Germany
- **genre**: Medieval metal, Medieval rock
Medieval folk rock
Folk rock

Folk metal
- **years active**: 1998–present
- **label**: Fame Recordings
- **url**: [http://www.schandmaul.de/ www.schandmaul.de]
- **current members**: Thomas Lindner
Birgit Muggenthaler-Schmack
Anna Katharina Kränzlein, Anna Kränzlein
Martin Duckstein
Stefan Brunner
Matthias Richter
- **past members**: Hubsi Widmann
Flash (tattoo)

A **flash** (also known as a _tattoo flash_) is a design or picture that is used in order to create a tattoo. They often come in sets like a poster (called flash sheets), and can be seen in most tattoo shops.

Tattoo flashes are often drawn for general use, rather than being a custom made piece like some personal tattoos. However, some flashes have space for personalisation, for example space for the person to include a name in their tattoo.

Tattoo flashes come in a variety of different designs, and are divided into categories such as celtic, heart, arm band tattoos e.t.c. A person wanting a tattoo made from a flash chooses which design they like best. Then the tattooist uses a stencil to draw the basic design onto the skin of the person being tattooed, and afterwards starts to make the tattoo.

## Related pages

- Tattoo
Itch

**Itch** (Latin: **pruritus**) is an unpleasant sensation that leads to the desire or reflex to scratch. Itch has many similarities to pain and both are unpleasant sensory experiences but their behavioral response patterns are different. Pain creates a reflex withdrawal while itch leads to a scratch reflex. Nerve fibers for itch and pain both are in the skin, but information for them is sent centrally in two distinct systems that both use the same nerve bundle.

Historically, the sensations of itch and pain have not been considered to be independent of each other until recently where it was found that itch has several features in common with pain but has important differences.

## Causes

The feeling of itchiness can be caused by a movement of hair or the release of a chemical (histamine) from cells under the skin. Itchiness is regarded as protective, as it helps creatures remove parasites that land on their skin.

Itching can be caused by:
- Food poisoning
- Xerosis. This is the most common cause, frequently seen in winters.   Associated with older age, frequent bathing in hot showers or baths, and high temperature and low humidity environments.
- Skin conditions (such as psoriasis, eczema, sunburn, athlete's foot, hidradenitis suppurativa and many others). Most are of an inflammatory nature.
- Insect bites, such as those from mosquitos or chiggers.
- Allergic reactions to contact with specific chemicals, such as Urushiol from Poison Ivy or Poison Oak.
- Hodgkin's disease
- Jaundice (bilirubin is a skin irritant at high concentrations)
- Polycythemia, which can cause generalized itching due to increased histamine
- Scabies or infection with lice or worms
- Thyroid illness
- Shaving, which may irritate the skin
- Diabetes Mellitus
- Dandruff (an unusually large amount of flaking is associated with this sensation)
- Iron deficiency anemia
- Parasitic infections
- Psychiatric
- Medication:
    - Allergy - (due to reaction of an individual's immune system to certain chemical compounds)
    - Photodermatitis – (sun)light reacts with chemicals in the skin, leading to the formation of irritant metabolites
    - Directly (e.g. morphine and other opiates)
- Cholestasis
- Related to pregnancy:
    - Pruritic Urticarial Papules and Plaques of Pregnancy (PUPPP)
    - Gestational pemphigoid

## Treatment

A variety of over-the-counter and prescription anti-itch drugs are available.  Some plant products have been found to be effective anti-pruritics, others not.  Non-chemical remedies include cooling, warming, soft stimulation.

Sometimes scratching relieves isolated itches, hence the existence of devices such as the back scratcher.  Often, however, scratching can intensify itching and even cause further damage to the skin, dubbed the "itch-scratch-itch cycle".

## References

- Andrew D, Craig AD (2001). Spinothalamic lamina I neurons selectively sensitive to histamine: a central neural pathway for itch. _Nature Neuroscience_ Jan;4(1):9-10.
- National Cancer Institute (2003) "Pruritus" Retrieved Aug. 22, 2005.
Tony Hibbert

**Anthony James Hibbert** (born 20 February 1981) is an English former professional football player.

He is a defender who plays on the right side. He is well known at Everton for his tackling but his passing and crossing has let him down on more than one occasion.  He made his debut for Everton against West Ham United F.C.. In this game he won a penalty for Everton.  Hibbert was at Everton for all of his career.

## International career

Hibbert was called up to the England under-21 team in October 2002 for games against Slovakia and Macedonia but he did not play in either game due to a hamstring injury.

## Career statistics

Source:

|rowspan="2" style="width: 100pt"|Club|rowspan="2"|Season|colspan="3"|League|colspan="2"|FA Cup|colspan="2"|League Cup|colspan="2"|Europe|colspan="2"|Total|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|rowspan="16" valign="center"|Everton|2000–01|Premier League|3|0|0|0|0|0|—|3|0||
|2001–02|Premier League|10|0|1|0|1|0|—|12|0||||
|2002–03|Premier League|24|0|0|0|1|0|—|25|0||||
|2003–04|Premier League|25|0|3|0|3|0|—|31|0||||
|2004–05|Premier League|36|0|1|0|3|0|—|40|0||||
|2005–06|Premier League|29|0|4|0|1|0|4|0|38|0|||
|2006–07|Premier League|13|0|0|0|0|0|—|13|0||||
|2007–08|Premier League|24|0|1|0|2|0|7|0|34|0|||
|2008–09|Premier League|17|0|6|0|0|0|1|0|24|0|||
|2009–10|Premier League|20|0|1|0|2|0|7|0|30|0|||
|2010–11|Premier League|20|0|1|0|1|0|—|22|0||||
|2011–12|Premier League|32|0|2|0|2|0|—|36|0||||
|2012–13|Premier League|6|0|0|0|0|0|—|6|0||||
|2013–14|Premier League|1|0|2|0|1|0|—|4|0||||
|2014–15|Premier League|4|0|0|0|1|0|4|0|9|0|||
|2015–16|Premier League|1|0|0|0|0|0|—|1|0||||

## Honours

**Everton Youth**
- FA Youth Cup: 1997–98

**Everton**
- FA Cup runner-up: 2008–09

## Infobox (football biography)

- **name**: Tony Hibbert
- **image**: Tony Hibbert 1 (cropped).jpg
- **image size**: 180
- **caption**: Hibbert training with Everton F.C., Everton in 2009
- **fullname**: Anthony James Hibbert
- **birth place**: Liverpool, England
- **position**: Defender (association football)#Full-back, Right-back
- **youthyears1**: 1991–1998
- **youthclubs1**: Everton F.C., Everton
- **years1**: 1998–2016
- **clubs1**: Everton F.C., Everton
- **caps1**: 265
- **goals1**: 0
Saskia van Uylenburgh

**Saskia van Uylenburgh** (August 2, 1612 - June 14, 1642) was the wife of the Dutch painter Rembrandt van Rijn and the model for some of the great artist's paintings and drawings.
Ecliptic

The **ecliptic** is the plane of Earth's orbit around the Sun.

The Sun appears to move against the background of stars because the Earth orbits the Sun.

The invariable plane is the average plane of the orbits of the planets. Properly, it is defined as the plane passing through its barycenter (center of mass). The present ecliptic plane is inclined to the invariable plane by about 1.5°.
Janggu

The **janggu** (jahng goo) is a traditional Korean drum.  It has the shape of an hourglass. The drum has two ends. The person playing the drum can either hang it on their neck or put it on the floor. It is played with two sticks.
Kkwaenggwari

The **Kkwaenggwari** (kwang gah ree) is a small gong used in Korean folk music.

## Infobox (instrument)

- **background**: percussion
- **name**: KKhwaenggwari ()
- **image**: Korea-Ggaenggwari-01.jpg
- **classification**: percussion
Middle class

The **Middle class** describes people who are not aristocrats/upper class nor working class or underclass but have a fair standard of living. Depending on class model used, the _middle class_ may make up anywhere from 45% to 49% of households in the United States. They generally make up the largest group or the majority of the population in developed countries. In developing countries, the middle class, generally makes up a much smaller percentage of the population. There is a lower middle class and an upper middle class. In Marxism, middle class is the class below the upper class, who is the ruling class. The word _bourgeoisie_ may also be used as a synonym of middle class.

It may be defined by the jobs people do, or by how much they earn. In the United  Kingdom median disposable household income in 2022 was just under £33,000.  Many businesses target middle class people. The top 20% of UK householders are responsible for 40% of consumer spending.

## Related pages

- White-collar worker
- Proletariat
- Petite bourgeoisie
- Yuppie
Reverse osmosis

**Reverse osmosis** is a way of purifying water with the use of a filter (a membrane).  The particles in the water are left on the other side of the sheet, while the water travels through it.The main use is for purifying salt water, but it can also be used to purify other substances.
Democratic-Republican Party

The **Democratic-Republican Party** was founded by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison in 1792. It became the most popular political party until the 1820s. In the 1824 United States presidential election it split into several factions, one of which became the modern-day Democratic Party. Its members spoke of the party as the **Republicans**, **Jeffersonians**, **Democrats**, or combinations of these (**Jeffersonian republicans**, etc.). The party was based primarily on the concept of liberalism.

Jefferson and Madison created the party in order to oppose the economic and foreign policies of the Federalists, a party created a year or so earlier by Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton. Foreign policy issues were central; the party opposed the Jay Treaty of 1794 with Britain (then at war with France) and supported good relations with France before 1801. The party was against many of Hamilton's proposals concerning the Constitution.

Note that this party is different from the modern-day Republican Party.

## References

- Henry Adams, _History of the United States during the Administrations of Thomas Jefferson_ (1889; Library of America ed. 1986)
- Henry Adams, _History of the United States during the Administrations of James Madison_ (1891; Library of America ed. 1986)

### Biographies

- Cunningham, Noble E. _In Pursuit of Reason The Life of Thomas Jefferson_ () (1987)

### State studies

- Prince, Carl E. _New Jersey’s Jeffersonian Republicans: The Genesis of an Early Party Machine, 1789-1817_ (1967)

### Newspapers

- Stewart, Donald H. _The Opposition Press of the Federalist Era_ (1968), highly detailed study of Republican newspapers
- The complete text, searchable, of all early American newspapers are online  at Readex America’s Historical Newspapers, available at research libraries.

### Primary sources

- Adams, John Quincy. _Memoirs of John Quincy Adams: Comprising Portions of His Diary from 1795 to 1848_ Volume VII (1875) edited by Charles Francis Adams; (). Adams, son of the president, switched and became a Republican in 1808
- Cunningham, Noble E., Jr., ed. _The Making of the American Party System 1789 to 1809_ (1965) excerpts from primary sources
- Cunningham, Noble E., Jr., ed. _Circular Letters of Congressmen to Their Constituents 1789-1829_ (1978), 3 vol; reprints the political newsletters sent out by congressmen
- Kirk, Russell ed. _John Randolph of Roanoke: A study in American politics, with selected speeches and letters_, 4th ed., Liberty Fund, 1997, 588 pp. ; Randolph was a leader of the "Old Republican" faction
- Smith, James Morton, ed. _The Republic of Letters: The Correspondence of Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, 1776-1826_ Volume 2 (1994)

## Other websites

- A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787-1825
Strict construction

**Strict construction** means a restriction of judicial interpretation. In the United States, the phrase is also commonly used more loosely as a term for conservatism in the judiciary.

## Strict sense of the term

In its strict sense, strict construction requires a judge to apply the words as they are written and no farther, if the meaning of the text is clear. That is, judges should avoid drawing inference (interpreting) from a statute or constitution.

For example, Justice Hugo Black argued that the First Amendment's injunction that "Congress shall make no law," should be construed strictly: the term "no law," Black thought, admitted virtually no exceptions.
Race Horses (band)

**Race Horses** are an indie/pop band from Aberystwyth, Wales. They started in 2005 as **Radio Luxembourg**. Its members were Meilyr Jones, Dylan Hughes, Gwion Llewelyn and Alun Gaffey. They split in 2012.

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **background**: group_or_band
- **name**: Race Horses
- **origin**: Aberystwyth
- **label**: AM Records/Peski Recordings
- **website**: www.myspace.com/radiolux
- **current members**: Meilyr Jones, Dylan Hughes, Gwion Llewelyn, Alun Gaffey
- **instrument**: Vocals, Guitars, Synths, Organ, Drums, Percussion
Radio Luxembourg

**Radio Luxembourg** may mean:

- Radio Luxembourg (French), a radio station that began broadcasting from the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg in 1933
- Radio Luxembourg (English), a radio station that broadcasts in many languages between 1933 and 1992
- Radio Luxembourg (German), a radio station that has broadcast in the German language from the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg since the endof World War II
- Radio 1212, a black propaganda radio station that worked from 1944 to 1945
- Radio Luxembourg (DRM), a radio station that has broadcast in many languages since 2005
- Radio Luxembourg (band), a Welsh-language psychedelic pop band.
Federalist Party

The **Federalist Party** (or **Federal Party**) was an American conservative political party from 1792 to 1816. The Federalists controlled the federal government until 1801. Alexander Hamilton formed the party during George Washington's first term.  Hamilton  built a network of supporters for his financial policies.  Many supporters came from cities. These supporters grew into the Federalist Party, which wanted a fiscally sound and strong nationalistic government.

Hamilton and others published a number of newspaper essays in 1787 and 1788, which are known as Federalist Papers today.

In 1789, with the start of the new government under the Constitution, President George Washington appointed his former chief of staff, Alexander Hamilton, to the office of Secretary of the Treasury. Hamilton wanted a strong national government with financial credibility.

By 1790, Hamilton started building a nationwide coalition. He and his network of treasury agents tried to link together friends of the government, especially merchants and bankers, in the new nation's dozen major cities. His attempts to manage politics in the national capital to get his plans through Congress, then, "brought strong responses across the country. In the process, what began as a capital faction soon assumed status as a national faction and then, finally, as the new Federalist party."

The party opposed the War of 1812 and dwindled away after the war in 1816.

## Other websites

- A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787–1825

## Infobox (political party)

- **name**: Federalist Party
- **logo**:
- **lang1**: Other
- **name lang1**: Federalists
- **leader**: Alexander Hamilton (1789–1792)
John Jay (1792–1795)
John Adams (1795–1802)

DeWitt Clinton (1806–1813)
Rufus King (1813–1824)
- **founder**: Alexander Hamilton
- **foundation**: 1789
- **dissolution**: 1824
- **predecessor**: Anti-Administration party, Pro-Administration party
- **headquarters**: Washington D.C., U.S.
- **wing1 title**: Essays
- **wing1**: _The Federalist Papers_
- **wing2 title**: Newspaper
- **wing2**: _Gazette of the United States_
- **ideology**: Hamiltonian economic program, Hamiltonianism
Federalism in the United States#Federalism in the early Republic, Federalism
Traditionalist conservatism in the United States, Conservatism
Centralization
Modernization theory, Modernization
American School (economics), American School
Protectionism in the United States, Protectionism
Implied powers
Jay Treaty, Pro-Jay Treaty
American nationalism, Nationalism
- **position**: Right-wing politics, Right-wing
- **colors**: Black and  white
- **religion**: Congregationalism in the United States, Congregational church
- **seats1 title**: Senate (1798 and 1799 United States Senate elections, 1799)

- **seats2 title**: House (1798 and 1799 United States House of Representatives elections, 1799)

- **country**: United States
Coalition

A **coalition** is an alliance, where the members work together.

## Politics and government

A coalition government, in a parliamentary system, is a government made from a coalition of parties. This means the union of different political parties or groups for a purpose, usually for a short time.

In international relations, a coalition can be a group of nations united for a specific purpose, such as fighting a war.

## Other websites

- Mapleleaf Web – Coalition Governments in Canada
International relations

**International relations** is a branch of political science. Predominant study topics are politics, economics and law on a global level. It represents the study of foreign affairs and global issues among states within the **international system**, including the roles of states, diplomacy, international organizations (IGOs), non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and multinational corporations (MNCs).

## United Nations

The **United Nations** (**UN**) is an international organization that describes itself as a "global association of governments facilitating co-operation in international law, international security, economic development, and social equity"; It is the most prominent international institution. Many of the legal institutions follow the same organisational structure as the UN.

## Economic institutions

- World Trade Organisation
- World Bank
- International Monetary Fund
- African Development Bank
- Asian Development Bank

### Human rights

- United Nations Human Rights Council
- Human Rights Committee
- European Court of Human Rights
- Inter-American Court of Human Rights
- International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
- International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia
- International Criminal Court

### Legal

- International Court of Justice
- European Court of Justice
- African Court of Justice
- International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea

## Regional security arrangements

- ASEAN
- Arab League
- CIS
- CSCAP
- Maritime security regime
- NATO
- RECAAP
- SCO

## Related pages

- Diplomacy
- Neutrality (international relations)
- Realism theory
- Thomas Hobbes _Leviathan_
- Immanuel Kant _Perpetual Peace_
- Niccolò Machiavelli _The Prince_
- Jean-Jacques Rousseau _The social contract_
- Thucydides _The History of the Peloponnesian war_
Political science

**Political science** is a branch of social science that is concerned with theory, description, analysis and prediction of political behavior, political systems and politics.

Political scientists study the allocation and transfer of power in decision-making, the roles and systems of governance including governments and international organizations, political behavior and public policies. They measure the success of governance and specific policies by examining many factors, including stability, justice, material wealth, and peace.

## Related pages

- Law
- Constitutional economics
- Constitutional law
- Debate
- Diplomacy
- Freedom of speech
- Government
- International relations
- Jurisdiction
- Civics
- Nation
- Political economy
- Political philosophy
- Politics
- Policy
- State
- War

## Further reading

- _American Political Science Review_ - The Evolution of Political Science . APSR Centennial Volume - Special Issue - November 2006

## Other websites

- American Political Science Association
- International Political Science Association
- Political Studies Association of the UK
Thnks fr th Mmrs

"**Thnks fr th Mmrs**" is a 2007 song by Fall Out Boy. It is the second single from Infinity on High, the band's fourth album. It was released on March 27, 2007 in the United States. The title is "Thanks for the Memories" without the vowels.

The song was able to make it to #9 on the Pop 100, #11 on the _Billboard_ Hot 100, #13 on the Mainstream Top 40, #14 on the Adult Top 40, #14 on the Dance Club Songs, #19 on the Alternative Airplay, and #23 on the Rock Digital Songs charts. It was also certified 2× Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA).

It was used by Network Ten in Australia to promote the 2007 AFL Finals Series.

## Infobox (song)

- **name**: Thnks fr th Mmrs
- **artist**: Fall Out Boy
- **album**: Infinity on High
- **recorded**: December 2005–January 2006
- **length**: 3:23
- **label**: Island Records, Island
- **producer**: Babyface (musician), Babyface
- **prev title**: This Ain't a Scene, It's an Arms Race
- **prev year**: 2006
- **next title**: The Take Over, the Breaks Over
- **next year**: 2007
That's What You Get

"**That's What You Get**" is a 2008 song by Paramore. It is off the album _RIOT!_. Its music video was released on March 24, 2008.

It is the music video about which Hayley Williams said "You will really get to see who they are. We had a load of family and friends surround us for the video and it just felt so natural".

Also, in the video, the band plays in a room, as well as Williams outside singing to an audience and using body language.

## Infobox (song)

- **name**: That's What You Get
- **artist**: Paramore
- **album**: Riot!
- **released**: March 24, 2008 <small>(radio)</small>
- **recorded**: January 2007
- **genre**: Emo
alternative rock
pop punk
- **length**: 3:40
- **label**: Fueled by Ramen
- **writer**: Hayley Williams, Josh Farro and Taylor York
- **prev title**: Crushcrushcrush
- **prev year**: 2007
Dancing with the Stars

***Dancing with the Stars*** is an American television series where professional dancers are partnered with celebrities. The couples compete against each other in a dance competition and one couple is eliminated in each episode. The show began on June 1, 2005 and is shown on the ABC television network.  It is hosted by Alfonso Ribeiro. The show has different series which use various different names in over 40 countries. It was originally based on the British series _Strictly Come Dancing_.

A video game has been made based on the show.
Tartu

**Tartu** is the second biggest city in Estonia. The University of Tartu, the oldest and most famous in Estonia is found there. Around 102,000 people were living in Tartu as of 2008.

## Twin towns

These are the twin towns of Tartu:

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Tartu
- **official name**: Tartu linn
City of Tartu
- **settlement type**: City
- **imagesize**: 300
- **image caption**: From top to bottom: City Centre, Old Town of Tartu, University of Tartu
- **image flag**: Tartu flag.svg
- **flag size**: 100px
- **image shield**: Tartu coat of arms.svg
- **shield size**: 100px
- **blank emblem type**: Logo
- **blank emblem size**: 150px
- **motto**: _Heade mõtete linn_ ("City of good thoughts")
- **pushpin map**: Estonia
- **pushpin map caption**: Location in Estonia
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision type1**: Counties of Estonia, County
- **subdivision name1**: Tartu County
- **established title**: First settled
- **established date**: 5th century AD
- **established title1**: First mentioned
- **established date1**: 1030
- **established title2**: City rights
- **established date2**: before 1262
- **named for**: Tharapita, Taara or _tarvas_ (Aurochs)
- **leader party**: Estonian Reform Party, Reform Party
- **leader title**: Mayor
- **leader name**: Urmas Klaas
- **area total km2**: 38.80
- **area total sq mi**: 15
- **area land km2**: 37.9
- **area land sq mi**: 14.6
- **area water km2**: 1.3
- **area water sq mi**: 0.5
- **area water percent**: 3.39
- **elevation m**: 57.2
- **elevation ft**: 188
- **population total**: 96904
- **population rank**: List of cities and towns in Estonia, 2nd
- **population as of**: 2017
- **population density km2**: 2508.6
- **population density sq mi**: auto
- **demographics type1**: Ethnicity
- **demographics1 title1**: Estonians
- **postal code type**: Postal code
- **postal code**: 50050 to 51111
- **registration plate**: T
- **website**: [http://tartu.ee/?lang_id=2 tartu.ee]
- **elevation max m**: 79
- **elevation max ft**: 259
- **demographics1 info1**: 80.1%
- **demographics1 title2**: Russians
- **demographics1 info2**: 14.6%
- **demographics1 title3**: other
- **demographics1 info3**: 5.3%
- **timezone**: Eastern European Time, EET
- **utc offset**: +2
- **timezone dst**: Eastern European Summer Time, EEST
- **utc offset dst**: +3
Infinity on High

***Infinity on High*** is the third album by American rock band Fall Out Boy, released in February 2007 by Island. It sold very well in the US and worldwide. Four singles have been released from it. They are "This Ain't a Scene, It's an Arms Race", "Thnks fr th Mmrs", ""The Take Over, the Breaks Over"" and "I'm Like a Lawyer with the Way I'm Always Trying to Get You Off (Me & You)".

## Track listing

All songs written by Fall Out Boy, except when noted.
1. "Thriller" – 3:29
1. "The Take Over, the Breaks Over" – 3:33
1. "This Ain't a Scene, It's an Arms Race" – 3:32
1. "I'm Like a Lawyer with the Way I'm Always Trying to Get You off (Me & You)" – 3:31
1. "Hum Hallelujah" – 3:50 (Fall Out Boy, Cohen)
1. "Golden" – 2:32
1. "Thnks fr th Mmrs" – 3:23
1. "Don't You Know Who I Think I Am?" – 2:51
1. "The (After) Life of the Party" – 3:21
1. "The Carpal Tunnel of Love" – 3:23 (Fall Out Boy, Eisold)
1. "Bang the Doldrums" – 3:31
1. "Fame < Infamy" – 3:06
1. "You're Crashing, But You're No Wave" – 3:42
1. "I've Got All This Ringing in My Ears and None on My Fingers" – 4:06

## Infobox (album)

- **name**: Infinity on High
- **type**: Album
- **artist**: Fall Out Boy
- **released**: February 5, 2007 <small>(International)</small>
February 6, 2007 <small>(United States)</small>
August 28, 2007 <small>(New Zealand Platinum Edition) </small>
September 7, 2007 <small>(Australian Tour Edition)</small>
 November 20, 2007 <small>(Deluxe Limited Edition)</small>
- **recorded**: 2006 in Burbank, California, Burbank, California
- **genre**: Pop punk
Alternative rock
- **length**: 47:51
- **label**: Island Records, Island
- **producer**: Neal Avron, Babyface, Butch Walker, Patrick Stump
- **prev title**: From Under the Cork Tree
(2005)
- **next title**: Leaked in London
(2007)
Discrete cosine transform

A **discrete cosine transform** is a math process that can be used to make things like MP3s, and JPEGs smaller. It does this by breaking the sound or picture into different frequencies.

One way to calculate a discrete cosine transform is to use the Fourier transformation.
"Discrete" means that it works on discrete-time signals (sampled data).

## Sounds

For sounds, frequencies are the same as simple tones. You can make any sound by playing several tones at the same time. The discrete cosine transform is a way to find out which tones to play in order to make a given sound. The only difference between the tones is their pitch.

Human ears are good at hearing low pitches, but bad at hearing high pitches. If you use the DCT to break a sound into tones, you do not need to be as careful when playing the higher tones because people cannot hear them as well. MP3 encoders (programs which make MP3s) use this fact to make the sound smaller.

## Pictures

With pictures, frequencies are like stripes and checker patterns. Just like with sound, you can make any picture out of different frequencies. Also like sound, people's eyes are not as good at seeing high frequencies (hard edges and fine grain) as low frequencies (solid colors and smooth shades). JPEG encoders use this fact almost exactly the same way as MP3 encoders do.
Donald Tusk

**Donald Franciszek  Tusk** (, born 22 April 1957) is a Polish politician who is the current Prime Minister of Poland since 2023. He was prime minister before from 2007 to 2014. Before, he was the President of the European Council. He was the leader of the biggest Polish political party, Platforma Obywatelska (Civic Platform). In August 2014, Tusk was elected to become the next President of the European Council.

In March 2017, Tusk was reelected as President of the European Council.

On 11 December, Tusk was formally nominated to become Prime Minister for a second time, and assumed office on 13 December.

## Other websites

- Prime Minister | Council of Ministers | The Chancellery of the Prime Minister

## Infobox (officeholder)

- **name**: Donald Tusk
- **image**: Prime Minister Donald Tusk of Poland in the Oval Office in 2024 (cropped).jpg
- **caption**: Tusk in 2024
- **office**: Prime Minister of Poland
- **term start**: 13 December 2023
- **predecessor**: Mateusz Morawiecki
- **term start1**: 16 November 2007
- **term end1**: 22 September 2014
- **predecessor1**: Jarosław Kaczyński
- **successor1**: Ewa Kopacz
- **office2**: President of the European Council
- **term start2**: 1 December 2014
- **term end2**: 30 November 2019
- **predecessor2**: Herman Van Rompuy
- **successor2**: Charles Michel
- **office3**: Civic Platform, Leader of the Civic Platform
- **term start3**: 3 July 2021
- **predecessor3**: Borys Budka
- **term start4**: 1 June 2003
- **term end4**: 8 November 2014
- **predecessor4**: Maciej Płażyński
- **successor4**: Ewa Kopacz
- **office5**: European People's Party, President of the European People's Party
- **term start5**: 1 December 2019
- **predecessor5**: Joseph Daul
- **successor5**: Manfred Weber
- **term end5**: 1 June 2022
- **office6**: 10th term Sejm and 11th term Senate of Poland, Member of the Sejm
- **term start6**: 13 November 2023
- **constituency6**: Sejm Constituency no. 19, Warsaw I
- **term start7**: 23 September 2001
- **term end7**: 23 September 2014
- **constituency7**: Sejm Constituency no. 19, Warsaw I
- **office8**: Deputy Marshal of the Sejm of the Republic of Poland, Deputy Marshal of the Sejm
- **term start8**: 18 October 2001
- **term end8**: 18 October 2005
- **alongside8**: _Deputy Marshal of the Sejm of the Republic of Poland, see list_
- **1blankname8**: Marshal
- **office9**: Deputy Marshal of the Senate of the Republic of Poland, Deputy Marshal of the Senate
- **term start9**: 20 October 1997
- **term end9**: 18 October 2001
- **alongside9**: _Deputy Marshal of the Sejm of the Republic of Poland, see list_
- **1blankname9**: Marshal
- **1namedata9**: Alicja Grześkowiak
- **office10**: Senate of the Republic of Poland, Member of the Senate
- **term start10**: 21 September 1997
- **term end10**: 23 September 2001
- **constituency10**: Masovian Voivodeship, Masovian
- **birth name**: Donald Franciszek Tusk
- **birth place**: Gdańsk, Polish People's Republic, Poland
- **children**: 2
- **education**: University of Gdańsk
- **signature**: Donald Tusk Signature 2.svg
French polish

**French polishing** is a way of giving a high standard of finish to wood.

The careful and skilled multiple-layering of shellac polish on properly prepared wood when completed results in a lusterous, perfectly flat shine of a very high standard.  Indeed when applied correctly a French polished application can rarely be matched for sheer quality of finish.

Normally practiced by highly skilled craftsmen and women one might normally fine excellent examples of this superb finish in some of our stately homes although plenty of other examples exist. The advent of lacquered wood finishes has tended to make French polishing less needed in today's world.
Representative

**Representative** may refer to:
- Representation (politics)
- Representative democracy
- Legislator, someone who is part of a legislature
- House of Representatives
Irregular bone

The **irregular bones** are bones that from their peculiar form, cannot be grouped as long bone, short bone, flat bone or sesamoid bone.

Irregular bones serve some special purpose in the body:

(1) protection of nervous tissue (such as the vertebrae protect the spinal cord),

(2) affording multiple anchor points for skeletal muscle attachment (as with the sacrum), and maintaining pharynx and trachea support, and tongue attachment (such as the hyoid bone).

The irregular bones are: the vertebræ, sacrum, coccyx, temporal, sphenoid, ethmoid, zygomatic, maxilla, mandible, palatine, inferior nasal concha, and hyoid.
Political representation

In politics, **representation** describes how political power is given from a large group for a certain time period in the hands of a comparatively small group of its members. Representation usually refers to representative democracies, where elected officials (called _representatives_) nominally speak for their electors in the legislature.  Generally, only citizens have representation in the government in the form of voting rights. The term representation can be used in a number of different ways. Representation can be understood in terms of how legislators represent their constituents.

## References

- Ulbig, Stacy G. (2005) "Political Realities and Political Trust: Descriptive Representation in Municipal Government". _Southwestern Political Science Association Meeting_. Retrieved from http://courses.smsu.edu/sgu646f/conf/SWPSA2005.pdf  on July 19, 2005.
- Breakdown of Federal Highway Spending, State by State

## Other websites

- Analysis of reapportionment after the 1990 US census , from an Arizona State University website
Lag

**Lag** is a word that means to fail in keeping pace or to fall behind. This term is used a lot by people who are talking about video games that have a delay between when a player presses a button on a controller and something happening in the game. This happens more often during online gaming when the access point a player is using is far away or when other players are using slower connections, such as dial-up. The slowing down of a website when more people get onto that website can also be called lag.
Sortition

**Allotment**, also known as **sortition**, is a method of selection by some form of lottery. It is used to have an equal chance to be selected for those that are involved. For instance it is done by drawing coloured pebbles from a bag. In the democracy of Athens in Ancient Greece sortition was the main method for appointing officials. People thought it this method was one of the principal characteristics of democracy.

Aristotle saw equality and democracy in a close context:

> "Democracy arose from the idea that those who are equal in any respect are equal absolutely. All are alike free, therefore they claim that all are free absolutely... The next is when the democrats, on the grounds that they are all equal, claim equal participation in everything."

## Examples

- **Historical**
    - The Athenian democracy made much use of sortition, with nearly all government offices filled by lottery rather than by election.
    - The Doge of Venice was appointed by a lengthy procedure using alternating rounds of sortition and election.
    - The Signoria of Florence and other Italian city republics was elected by lot during the medieval period.

## Related pages

- Election
- Appointment

## Other websites

- Citizens' Assembly on Electoral Reform  (official website).
- South Australian Constitutional Convention  (official website)
- The Loka Institute  (official website)
- Sortition. Newsletter of the Society for Democracy including Random Selection (UK).
- A Citizen Legislature
- Integrating Public Voting And Random Selection for True Democracy
Round Table

The **Round Table** was a table used by King Arthur and his knights, in the legends about him. The Round Table was in Camelot, the castle where King Arthur and his knights lived. In the legends, they met at the table to talk about the safety of Camelot and the kingdom, and about what adventures and quests they could go on. This got them the name 'The Knights of the Round Table'.

## Shape

The shape of the table was very important. Most tables are rectangular, and have a place called the "head of the table". This is the narrow part at the top, where the leader usually sits. Because the table was round, it meant that the people who sat around it were all seen as equal.

## Characters

The table is used by King Arthur and his knights. King Arthur's wife, Guinevere, did not have a seat at the table, but King Arthur did take her advice on occasion. In some versions of the legend, the wizard who lived in Camelot, called Merlin, also had a seat at the table. He was seen by King Arthur as a good friend and adviser.

## Dangerous Chair (Siege Perilous)

Some legends also note a special chair at the Round Table, called the _Siege Perilous_, or 'Dangerous Chair'. Legend says that the seat could only be used by a knight who had a pure heart. A person with a pure heart was seen as someone who had committed no crimes or done any wrong. In the tale, anyone who sat in the chair but did not have a pure heart would die instantly. It was kept free by Merlin for the person who would one day find an object called the Holy Grail. This was a magical cup that was supposed to have been the one that Jesus drank out of during the Last Supper. In the story, this person was either Sir Galahad or Sir Percival, depending on what version of the story is told.

## Related pages

- King Arthur
- Camelot
- Knights of the Round Table
- Holy Grail
This Ain't a Scene, It's an Arms Race

"**This Ain't A Scene, It's an Arms Race**" is a single by Fall Out Boy. It is from the album _Infinity on High_. The song reached number 1 in New Zealand, the United States and Croatia.

## Video clip

The video clip starts off with the band finishing performing "Dance, Dance". They then walk off the stage, and one person starts playing "This Ain't a Scene, It's an Arms Race" on their mobile phone MP3 player. They then start performing the song in a recording studio. From the second verse, the band all do separate things.

## Infobox (song)

- **name**: This Ain't a Scene, It's an Arms Race
- **artist**: Fall Out Boy
- **album**: Infinity on High
- **released**: December 5, 2006
- **recorded**: 2005–2006
- **genre**: Pop punk
Alternative rock
- **length**: 3:32
- **label**: Fueled by Ramen, Island Records, Island Def Jam
- **prev title**: A Little Less Sixteen Candles, a Little More 'Touch Me'
- **prev year**: 2006
- **next title**: The Carpal Tunnel of Love
- **next year**: 2007
The Carpal Tunnel of Love

"**The Carpal Tunnel of Love**" is a 2007 single by Fall Out Boy. It was released in the United States on February 5, 2007, on the iTunes Store, and was not put out on a CD. The music video contains people from the television program _Happy Tree Friends_.

## Other websites

- Video Clip on YouTube

## Infobox (song)

- **name**: The Carpal Tunnel of Love
- **artist**: Fall Out Boy
- **album**: Infinity on High
- **released**: February 5, 2007
- **recorded**: 2006
- **genre**: Alternative rock, emo, Hard-rock
- **length**: 3:23
- **label**: Fueled by Ramen
Island Records, Island Def Jam
- **producer**: Neal Avron
- **prev title**: This Ain't a Scene, It's an Arms Race
- **prev year**: 2007
- **next title**: Thnks fr th Mmrs
- **next year**: 2007
The Take Over, the Breaks Over

"**The Take Over, The Breaks Over**" (the quotes are a part of the name) is a 2007 song by the band Fall Out Boy. It was released in 2007 on their album _Infinity on High_.

## Music video

The video focuses on Pete Wentz's dog, Hemmingway. The video, which was made in black and white, shows Hemmingway in a dream.

## Infobox (song)

- **name**: "The Take Over, the Breaks Over"
- **type**: Single
- **artist**: Fall Out Boy
- **album**: Infinity on High
- **released**: July 2, 2007 <small>(United Kingdom and Ireland)</small>
August 6, 2007 <small>(United States)</small>
September 22, 2007 <small>(Australia)</small>
- **recorded**: 2006
- **genre**: Pop punk, pop rock
- **label**: Fueled by Ramen
- **prev title**: Thnks fr th Mmrs
- **prev year**: 2007
- **next title**: I'm Like a Lawyer with the Way I'm Always Trying to Get You off (Me & You)
- **next year**: 2007