juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Raffles Institution

**Raffles Institution** is an independent educational institution in Singapore. The school provides secondary education for boys only from Year 1 to Year 4, and pre-university education for both boys and girls in Year 5 and Year 6. The school offers the Gifted-Education Programme and the Integrated Programme. The schools is known to have 96 President's Scholars. The school alumni include first prime minister of Singapore, Lee Kuan Yew and the first president of Singapore, Yusof Ishak.

It was founded in 1823 as Singapore Institution by Sir Stamford Raffles, the founder of modern Singapore. It is the school with the longest history in Singapore. Its name was changed to "Raffles Institution" in 1868.

The current principal of Raffles Institution is Mr Aaron Loh, who replaced Mr Frederick Yeo when he left the school at the end of 2023.

## History

Sir Stamford Raffles founded Raffles Institution on 5 June 1823, making it the school with the longest history in Singapore. Raffles Institution was along Bras Basah Road at first, where Raffles City is now. The school moved to Grange Road in 1973, and then moved to its current location at Bishan in 1990. The Grange Road campus is now the MOE Teacher's Network.

## Other websites

- School Website

## Infobox (school)

- **name**: Raffles Institution
- **logo**: Common Driveway by RI and RJC at Bishan Campus.jpg
- **motto translation**: Hope of a Better Age
- **streetaddress**: 1 Raffles Institution Lane
Singapore 575954
- **country**: Singapore
- **type**: Independent School
- **founder**: Sir Stamford Raffles
- **sister school**: Raffles Girls' School
- **chairman**: Mr Choo Chiau Beng
- **principal**: Mr Aaron Loh
- **head**: Ms Ng Mei Sze
(Student Development, Year 5–6)
Dr Theresa Lai
(Academic Studies, Year 1-4)
Mrs Reavley Munn Ye
(Academic Studies, Year 5-6)
Mr Brian Lagman Ang
(Corporate Development, Year 1-6)
Mr Edward Ng
(Student Development, Year 1-4)
Mr Chen Ziyang
(Organisational Development, Year 1-6)
- **gender**: Single-sex education, Boys (Year 1-4)
Mixed (Junior college (Singapore), Year 5-6)
- **houses**: Year 1-4: Bayley, Buckley, Hullett, Moor, Morrison
Year 5-6: Bayley-Waddle, Buckle-Buckley, Hadley-Hullett, Morrison-Richardson, Moor-Tarbet
- **mascot**: Gryphon and eagle
- **team name**: Team Raffles
- **publication**: _The Rafflesian Times_
- **yearbook**: _The Rafflesian_
- **enrolment**: 4,000
- **image size**: 240px
- **head label**: Deputy Principals
Archipelago

An **archipelago** () is a chain or group of islands. The word _archipelago_ means "chief sea", from Greek _arkhon_ (_arkhi_-) ("leader") and _pelagos_ ("sea").

Archipelagos are usually found in the open sea; less commonly, a big landmass may neighbor them, an example being Scotland which has more than 700 islands surrounding the mainland. Many archipelagos are volcanic, forming along mid-ocean ridges or hotspots. Others are island arcs neighboring an oceanic trench. Many other processes create archipelagos, including erosion, deposition, and land elevation.

The four biggest countries that are mainly archipelagos are Japan, the Philippines, the United Kingdom and Indonesia (the world's biggest country that is an archipelago, according to the CIA World Factbook). The biggest archipelago in the world by size is in Northern Canada, the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, which is in the Arctic Ocean.
Baltic states

The **Baltic states** are three countries in Northern Europe to the east of the Baltic Sea and the south of the Gulf of Finland. They are, from north to south, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. The languages that are spoken in these countries are different: while Lithuanians and Latvians speak Baltic languages (Latvian and Lithuanian), Estonians speak a Finnic language (Estonian).

By their culture and history, the Baltic countries are close to the Nordic countries and were sometimes ruled by the Swedish Empire. The biggest difference in the history was that the Baltic countries were invaded and occupied by the Soviet Union in 1940 (during the Second World War), but not the Nordic countries. After the Second World War, the three Soviet-occupied countries would be called  Estonian SSR, Latvian SSR, and Lithuanian SSR.

All three Baltic countries had their freedom back in August 1991, a few months before the former Soviet Union came to an end. The governments and the people of the three countries all consider the 1940-1991 Soviet occupation to be illegal, which has been supported by the United States, European Union, and United Nations. Today, the Baltic countries are some of the most advanced and highest quality of life countries in the world. They became members of the European Union and NATO in 2004, joined the Schengen Area in 2007, and became part of the eurozone by 2015.

Paganism was the religion of Baltic people before most of them took Christianity during the Middle Ages. Baltic paganism never died out and some people are still pagans.
Topography

**Topography** means _the description of shape_. The word comes from Greek: **' "place" and  **' "(I) write". It is an important part of earth science.

When you talk of the topography of the land, you refer to the landscape features like valleys, hills and mountains, rivers and lakes, or the coastline. Everything that describes the form of the landscape, is part of the topography. Topographic maps show topography.

## Related pages

- Cartography
Bornholm

**Bornholm** is a small, rocky island in the Baltic Sea. Bornholm is a Danish island.

The island is a popular holiday resort for Scandinavians, Germans and Poles. Many yachters come here in the summer.

At the end of World War II, the island was "liberated" by the Soviet red army, and held for several months after the German surrender. The island lies far east of the demarcation line between the allied forces in Europe. For some time the Soviet presence looked like an occupation. It was not until April 5th, 1946 that the island at last was free.
But then the Danish government took over and the island is today a Danish colony. But the struggle for a free island still goes on as it can be seen on this page Free Bornholm
Santa Monica, California

**Santa Monica** is a beach town in California. It is next to Los Angeles, California, US.

It was made a city in 1886. In 2020, there were 93,076 people living there.

It is famous for the Santa Monica Pier that has many fun rides.

## Famous people from Santa Monica

- Sandy Nelson (d. 2022)

## Other websites

- Santa Monica Convention and Visitors Bureau
- Santa Monica Chamber of Commerce
- Santa Monica Little League
- Santa Monica Public Library
- A Weekend in Santa Monica – slideshow by _The New York Times_
Tiny Tim

**Herbert Buckingham Khaury**, better known as **Tiny Tim** (April 12, 1932 – November 30, 1996), was an American singer and musician. He became popular in the late 1960s due to his appearances on television, and songs played on ukulele with a falsetto voice. His most famous song was "Tiptoe Through the Tulips". His best-remembered television appearances were on _Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In_ and _The Tonight Show_. His first wedding took place on _The Tonight Show_ in 1969, at host Johnny Carson's suggestion.

## Career

Tim was not just a performer, he was also an expert musicologist, who studied American music from the earliest days of the United States, and performed many historic songs in his act. Over time, he used his falsetto voice less, and performed most songs in his natural, baritone voice.

When his popularity as a pop star lessened, he performed in small nightclubs and other places, as he had earlier. During the 1980s, he toured with a circus, and appeared in a movie as a circus performer who turned to crime. In the 1990s, he recorded new music (including a Christmas album), and joined comedian Pat Paulsen in his latest mock campaign to become President of the United States, as Paulsen's running mate.

## Personal life

Married three times, his last wife was a former fan, who met him when she made a documentary about his life and career. One of his later supporters was radio talk show host Howard Stern. Tiny Tim died in 1996, after suffering a heart attack during a performance.
Kelvin

The **Kelvin scale** (symbol: K) is the SI unit of temperature. It is named in honour of the physicist William Thomson, the first Lord Kelvin (1824–1907).

## Definition

The Kelvin scale is defined by a specific relationship between the pressure of a gas and the temperature. This says that "the pressure of the gas is directly proportional to the temperature in Kelvin". This means that Kelvin is an absolute temperature scale, and scientists use this scale more than any other.

The kelvin is a base SI unit of measurement, since 2018 defined by setting the fixed numerical value of the Boltzmann constant _k_ to 1.380649×10<sup>−23</sup> J⋅K<sup>−1</sup>.

The temperature of the triple point of water is a hundredth of a degree Celsius above the freezing point, or 0.01 °C. The coldest possible temperature is called absolute zero and is equal to -273.15 degrees Celsius, or zero kelvin (0 K). By writing temperatures in kelvins one does not need to use negative numbers.

The absolute temperature scale was designed so that a change in temperature of 1 kelvin is equal to a change of 1 degree Celsius. This means that it is easy to convert a temperature from degrees Celsius to kelvin.
- To change a temperature in degrees Celsius into Kelvins you must add 273.15 units. For example, 0 degrees Celsius (0 °C), which is the temperature at which water freezes, is 273.15 kelvins (273.15 K).
- To change a temperature in Kelvins into degrees Celsius you must subtract 273.15 units. For example, 310 kelvins is 36.85 degrees Celsius, which is roughly the normal temperature of a human body.

It is important to notice that the name of this unit is simply _kelvin_ (with a lowercase initial), not "degree Kelvin". In English, it undergoes normal plural inflection as _kelvins_. For example, the boiling point of liquid nitrogen is 77 kelvins.

In everyday use, the kelvin is most commonly used to measure very low or very high temperatures, such as the temperature of liquid nitrogen or the temperature of a light bulb filament.

The rankine (or degree Rankine) is a related absolute temperature scale, but based on the degree Fahrenheit rather than the degree Celsius.

## Related pages

- Temperature
- Celsius

## Infobox (unit)

- **bgcolour**: blue
- **name**: Kelvin
- **standard**: SI base unit
- **quantity**: Temperature
- **symbol**: K
- **namedafter**: William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin
Tourism

**Tourism** means people traveling for fun and adventure. It includes activities such as sightseeing and camping. People who travel for fun are called "tourists". Places where many tourists stay are sometimes called "resorts". Places that people go to for tourism are called tourist destinations.

There are many reasons why people travel for fun:
- Some people travel to learn about the history or culture of a city or country, or about the people who live there, or their ancestors.
- People from cold places sometimes like to relax in the sun. Many people from northern Europe or North America travel to warmer places and visit beaches.
- Some people travel to do an activity which they cannot do at home. There are many ski resorts in the Alps of Switzerland and Austria, and seaside resorts in Greece and other warm countries.
- People sometimes visit friends and family in another city or country.
- Finally, some people enjoy a change in scenery. City people go to forests or deserts,  and vice versa.

## The tourism industry

The tourism industry has different parts. Some of these are:

- Transport; such as airlines, railways, boats, and road transport.
- Places to stay; such as hotels, camping grounds or parks, youth hostels, and bed and breakfasts.
- Food and drink; such as restaurants, cafes and bars.
- Tour guides know a place well, guide tourists to interesting places, and tell them about the place.
Package tour operators can offer all these services to a group who will go together. This can be cheaper than paying for them separately.

## Damage tourism can bring

Tourism can bring damage to the local area, and/or the tourists. Litter, scuba-diving and deforestation are problems for popular places such as St. Lucia, Hawaii and others. Scuba-diving can damage coral reefs which are home to hundreds of species of sea animals. Tourism can change culture when people learn each other's ways, and certain local traditions are being put aside for tourists.

## Related pages

- Tourist attraction

## Other websites

- Wikivoyage has tourism information for the whole world.
- Tourism Abbreviations, smartdefine.org
Berkshire

**Berkshire** is a county in southeast England. It is west of London. Its county town is Reading. In the past, a town named Abingdon was the county town, but this town is not in Berkshire any more.

Berkshire is also known as the **Royal County of Berkshire**.

## Cities, towns and villages

- Bracknell
- Datchet
- Caversham
- Hungerford
- Maidenhead
- Newbury
- Reading
- Slough
- Windsor, home of Windsor Castle, and which gives its name to the House of Windsor
- Wokingham

The towns below are not part of Berkshire now, but were in the past.
- Abingdon
- Didcot
- Wallingford
- Wantage
- Faringdon

## Infobox (england county)

- **name**: Berkshire
- **flag image**:
- **map**:
- **status**: Ceremonial counties of England, Ceremonial and Metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties of England, Non-metropolitan county (no county council)
- **region**: South East England
- **arearank**: List of ceremonial counties of England by area, Ranked 40th
- **area km2**: 1262
- **nuts3**: UKJ11
- **poprank**: List of ceremonial counties of England by population, Ranked
- **ethnicity**: 88.7% White
6.8% S.Asian
2.0% Afro-Carib.
- **mps**: *Adam Afriyie
* Richard Benyon
* Andrew Mackay
* Fiona Mactaggart
* Theresa May
* John Redwood
* Martin Salter
* Rob Wilson
- **subdivs**: #West Berkshire (Unitary)
# Slough (Unitary)
Buckinghamshire

**Buckinghamshire** (abbreviated **Bucks**) is a county in central England, near the south and London. The county town is named Aylesbury.

## Cities, towns and villages

Locations marked with a (*) are a part of the cerimonal county of Buckinghamshire, but are governed by the Borough of Milton Keynes.
- Amersham
- Aylesbury
- Beaconsfield
- Bletchley*
- Buckingham
- Chesham
- Eton*
- Fenny Stratford*
- High Wycombe
- Marlow
- Milton Keynes*
- Newport Pagnell*
- Olney*
- Princes Risborough
- Slough*
- Stony Stratford*
- Wendover
- Winslow
- Wolverton*

## Other websites

This section needs expansion.

## Infobox (england county)

- **name**: Buckinghamshire
- **flag image**:
- **arms image**:
- **map**:
- **status**: Ceremonial counties of England, Ceremonial & (smaller) Metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties of England, Non-metropolitan county
- **region**: South East England
- **arearank**: Ranked 32nd
- **area km2**: 1874
- **adminhq**: Aylesbury
- **iso**: GB-BKM
- **ons**: 11
- **nuts3**: UKJ13
- **poprank**: Ranked
- **council**: Buckinghamshire County Council
http://www.buckscc.gov.uk/
- **ethnicity**: 91.7% White
4.3% S.Asian
1.6% Afro-Carib.
- **mps**: *John Bercow
* Cheryl Gillan
* Paul Alexander Cyril Goodman, Paul Goodman
* Dominic Grieve
* Mark Lancaster
* David Lidington
* Phyllis Starkey
- **subdivs**: #South Bucks
# Milton Keynes (Unitary)
Computer monitor

A **computer monitor** is an electronic device that shows a viewer what is currently being displayed on a computer. Monitors often look like smaller televisions. The main difference between a monitor and a television is that a monitor does not have a television tuner to change channels. Monitors often have higher display resolution than televisions. A high display resolution makes it easier to see smaller letters and fine graphics.

There are three types of computer displays:
- The CRT monitor. These are big and heavy, and use a lot of desk space and electricity. It is the oldest technology used by monitors, and is based on the cathode ray tube technology that was developed for television. Monitors are made with better parts, which give a higher display resolution and picture sharpness than a television. This type of monitor is no longer popular.

- The LCD monitor, the most common kind of flat panel display. It is a newer technology than CRT. LCD monitors use much less desk space, are lightweight and use less electricity than CRT. They have been used for many years in the screens of laptop and notebook computers. They also work as touch screens in tablet computers, mobile phones, and other handheld technologies.
    - An **LED** Monitor (short for Light Emitting Diode) or LED display is an LCD Monitor that uses light emitting diodes for backlighting. The first LCD Monitors used cold cathode fluorescent lamps instead of LEDs to illuminate the screen.
- In the early 21st century, video projectors are now used in many places, like movie theaters, to show large images. These use various technologies to make the image including LCDs and Digital light processing (DLP), which uses very small mirrors to direct the light.
Diameter

In geometry, the **diameter** of a circle is a line from one side directly to the opposite side through the center. It can also be defined as the longest chord of a circle. The same explanations can be also used to describe the diameter in a sphere.

The letter _d_ or the symbol **⌀** are often used as a symbol for the diameter. The diameter's length is often called the diameter itself.

The diameter's length is twice the radius, and therefore the relationship between the diameter's length and radius can be shown with the equations:

and

## Related pages

- Circumference
- Pi
1892

## Births

- January 3 – J. R. R. Tolkien
- February 10 - Alan Hale Sr., American actor (d. 1950)
- July 23 – Haile Selassie I, Emperor of Ethiopia
- Sir Sikandar Hayat Khan, British Indian statesman and leader of the Punjab.

## Art, music, theatre, and literature

- December 17 – Tchaikovsky's _The Nutcracker_ premieres in St Petersburg.
1904

**1904** (MCMIV) was a leap year starting on Friday in the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Thursday in the Julian calendar.

## Events

- January 4 – In _Gonzales v. Williams_, the U.S. Supreme Court decided that citizens of Puerto Rico are not aliens and could enter the United States freely.
- February 8 – The Russo-Japanese War begins.

## Births

- January 18 – Cary Grant, English actor (d. 1986)
- April 22 – Robert Oppenheimer, American physicist (d. 1967)
- May 11 – Salvador Dalí, Spanish artist (d. 1989)
- June 2 – Johnny Weissmuller, American swimmer and actor (d. 1984)
- June 17 – Ralph Bellamy, American actor and comedian (d.1991)
- June 26 – Peter Lorre, Hungarian-born movie actor (d. 1964)
- August 12 – Tsarevich Alexei of Russia (d. 1918)

## Deaths

- May 1 – Antonín Dvořák, Czech composer (b. 1841)
- July 15 – Anton Chekhov, Russian writer (b. 1860)

nv:1901 – 1950
1642

## Events

- On September 2, the Puritans force the London theatres to close, ending the era of English Renaissance drama.

## Births

- December 25 (OS) – Sir Isaac Newton, English scientist (d. 1727)

## Deaths

- January 8 – Galileo Galilei, Italian astronomer (b. 1564)
1745

## Events

- June 4 – Frederick the Great destroys the Austrian army at the Battle of Hohenfriedberg.
- August 21 – Catherine the Great marries Peter III of Russia in Saint Petersburg.
- September 12 – Francis I is elected Holy Roman Emperor.

- January 4 – Benjamin Rush
1838

## Events

- January 10 – a fire destroys Lloyd's Coffee House and the Royal Exchange in London.
- April 30 – Nicaragua declares independence from the Central American Federation (See Nicaragua's early history)
- May – The People's Charter drawn up in the United Kingdom demanding universal suffrage.
- May 26 – USA: Trail of Tears – forced relocation of the Cherokee tribe, killing at least 8,000.
- 1 August – Trinidad and Tobago: Slavery officially abolished
- 7 September – The paddlesteamer _Forfarshire_ foundered on the Farne Islands, UK, giving rise to the fame of Grace Darling, who rescued nine passengers.
- November 3 India: The Bombay Times and Journal of Commerce is founded. This paper was later renamed to The Times of India in 1861
- November 5 – Central American Civil War begins with Honduras' separation from the Central American Federation.
- December – Beginning of Pastry War: Mexico invaded by French forces

## Births

- January 4 – General Tom Thumb, American circus performer and entertainer (d. 1883)
- January 6 – Max Bruch, German composer (d. 1920)
- January 16 – Franz Brentano, German philosopher and psychologist (d. 1917)
- February 6 – Henry Irving, English actor (d. 1905)
- February 10 – Gustav Oelwein, founder of Oelwein, Iowa (d. 1913)
- February 18 – Ernst Mach, Austrian physicist and philosopher
- March 3 – George William Hill, American astronomer
- April 3 – John Willis Menard, African-American politician
- April 8 – Ferdinand von Zeppelin, German inventor
- April 12 – John Shaw Billings, M.D., American military and medical leader
- April 16 – Martha McClellan Brown, American temperance movement leader
- May 10 – John Wilkes Booth, the man who killed United States President Abraham Lincoln.
- May 20 – Jules Méline, French statesman
- September 23 - Victoria Woodhull - the first woman to be up for candidate for the President of the United States.
- September 28 – Sai Baba of Shirdi, Indian national saint (d. 1918)
- November 29 – Giovanni Losi, Italian Combonian catholic missionary (d. 1882)

## Deaths

- January 3 – Prince Maximilian of Saxony
- January 5 – Anthony Van Egmond, rebel leader in Upper Canada Rebellion of 1837 {died in jail}
- February 21 – Silvestre de Sacy, linguist
- March 13 – Poul Martin Møller, philosopher
- April 9 – Piet Uys, Voortrekker leader (in battle)
- May 17 – Charles Maurice de Talleyrand, French diplomat
- July 19 – Christmas Evans, preacher
- August 17 – Lorenzo Da Ponte, librettist for Mozart
- August 21 – Adelbert von Chamisso, German writer
- September 1 – William Clark, American explorer
- October 1 – Charles Tennant, Scottish chemist and industrialist
- November 21 – Georges Mouton, count of Lobau, Marshal of France
404

## Events

- January 1 – Last gladiator competition in Rome.
- Atticus of Constantinople becomes Patriarch of Constantinople.
- Honorius moves the capital of the Western Roman Empire to Ravenna.
- Saint Telemachus matyrdom.
1438

## Events

- Pachacuti who would later create Tahuantinsuyu, or Inca Empire became the ruler of Cusco
- January 1 – Albert II of Habsburg becomes King of Hungary
- March 18 – Albert II of Habsburg becomes King of Germany
- Eric of Pomerania, King of Sweden, Denmark and Norway loses direct control of Sweden. Karl Knutsson Bonde is elected Regent of Sweden.

## Births

- Adolf, Duke of Gelderland
- William Beaumont, 2nd Viscount Beamont
- Giovanni Michele Alberto da Carrara
- Sönam Choklang, 2nd Panchen Lama
- Henrique Esteves da Veiga de Nápoles
- Husayn Bayqarah
- John III of Egmont
- Manduulun Khan
- Louis II, Landgrave of Lower Hesse
- Louis de Bourbon, Bishop of Liège
- Ludovico II, Marquess of Saluzzo
- Marguerite de Bourbon
- Pachacuti
- Peter II, Duke of Bourbon
- Philip II, Duke of Savoy
- Reginald Ely
- Anne Woodville

## Deaths

- Humphrey FitzAlan, 15th Earl of Arundel
- Bagrationi, wife of John IV of Trebizond
- Barsbay
- Richard, Count of Étampes
- Alexander Lindsay, 2nd Earl of Crawford
- Edward of Portugal
- Ernest, Duke of Bavaria
- Dorothy Garai
- Conrad Justinger
- Adai Khan
- James II, Count of La Marche
- Thomas Mapilton
- Marie of Valois, Prioress of Poissy
- Johannes Nider
- Olaus Laurentii
- Giordano Orsini
- Khedrup Gelek Pelzang, 1st Panchen Lama
- Peter, infans of Aragón
- Jacopo della Quercia
- Ulrich of Richenthal
- Matilda of Savoy
- Shams al-Din 'Ali ibn Qutb al-Din
- Anne of Gloucester
- Simon Sydenham
1651

## Events

- January 1 – Charles II crowned King of Scotland in Scone. This is his first crowning.
- June 28 – June 30: The biggest battle of the 17th century, the Battle of Beresteczko, between Poles and Ukrainians is won by the Poles.
- September 3 –  English Civil War: Battle of Worcester – Charles II of England is defeated in the last main battle of the war.
Emperor

An **emperor** (female equivalent: **empress**) is a male who rules an empire. The word is taken from the Latin language _Imperator_. Often it is capitalized.

A woman who comes to power in an empire is called an empress. The wife of an emperor is also called an empress. An emperor or empress is often a hereditary monarch and comes to power when one of his parents, or relatives, dies. In some countries, people elected a new emperor from candidates.

The only emperor in the world today is the Emperor of Japan (_tennō_), but he lacks political power. The true leaders of Japan are the Diet and Prime Minister because the country is a parliamentary constitutional monarchy.

The English word comes from Latin, the language of the old Roman Empire. At first, an _imperator_ was a powerful general (army leader) but, after Augustus, it was only used by their most powerful rulers. There have been many countries in history whose leaders are called "emperors" in English. The leaders of the Byzantine Empire (_basileus_, _Autokrator_) in Greece, the Holy Roman Empire (_imperator_, _Kaiser_) in Austria and Germany, Russian Empire, Serbia , and Bulgaria (_tsar_), and the Ottoman Empire (_sultan_, _padishah_, _khagan_, _kaysar_) in Turkey all said they were just new parts of the old Roman Empire.

The leaders of other countries who said they ruled the whole world or called themselves "King of Kings" are frequently also called emperors in English. For example, the old rulers of China (_Huangdi_), Iran (_Shah_), and Ethiopia (_Negusa negast_) are all known as emperors in English. There have also been emperors of France, Brazil , and Mexico, and the rulers of the United Kingdom called themselves the Emperors and empresses of India for a while.

## Countries ruled by Emperor

- China (221 BC – 1911, 1915–1916, 1917)
- Ethiopia (1137–1975)
- Japan (The only empire that currently exists)
- Ottoman Empire (1299–1923)
- Roman Empire (27 BC – 476)
    - Byzantine Empire (395–1453)
        - Latin Empire (1204–1261)
        - Empire of Nicaea (1204–1261)
        - Empire of Trebizond (1204–1461)
        - Empire of Thessalonica (1224–1246)
    - Western Roman Empire (395–476)
        - Carolingian Empire (800–843)
        - Holy Roman Empire (962–1806)
- Russian Empire (1721–1917)
- Empire of Vietnam (1802–1945)
- French Empire (1804–1814, 1815, 1852–1870)
- Haitian Empire (1804–1806, 1849–1859)
- Austrian Empire (1804–1867)
- Brazilian Empire (1822–1889)
- German Empire (1871–1918)
- Mexican Empire (1821–1823, 1864–1867)
- Indian Empire (1858–1947)
    - Mughal Empire (1526–1858)
- Korean Empire (1897–1910)
- Empire of Manchukuo (1934–1945)
- Central African Empire (1976–1979)
- Inca Empire (1438–1533)

## Related pages

- King
- Czar
- Kaiser
- Sultan
- Leader
Astrophysics

**Astrophysics** is the study of how stars, planets, and other things in the Universe work, and how we can learn about them. Astrophysicists use physics and chemistry to explain what astronomers find and see.

Astrophysics is also the study of how the Universe started and how it is changing with time. This part of astrophysics is called cosmology.

## History

For a long time, bodies in the sky seemed to be unchanging spheres moving in a circle. But on Earth, growth and decay happened, and natural motion was in a straight line. Therefore, people thought the celestial region was made of a fundamentally different kind of matter from that found on Earth.

During the 16th and 17th centuries, natural philosophers such as Nicolaus Copernicus, Johannes Kepler, Galileo, Descartes, and Newton, began to maintain that the celestial and terrestrial regions were made of similar material and were subject to the same natural laws.

When they were able to work out how the planets moved, the science of astrophysics was born. Sir Isaac Newton realized that the same rules of mechanics that he had found on the surface of the Earth also could be used to predict how the planets moved. He said, "As above, so below". By this, he meant that we can study how things work on this planet to find out how things work in space.

Later scientists looked at the light from stars using spectroscopy.  They were able to work out what they were made of, and how they changed with time.

## Types of astrophysics

There are two main types of astrophysics:

- **Observational astrophysics**. Observational astrophysicists use telescopes to study the Universe, but astrophysicists study the physics of what they see to explain the Universe.
    - Radio astronomy
    - Optical astronomy
    - Infrared astronomy
    - Ultraviolet, X-ray, and gamma-ray astronomy using space telescopes
- **Theoretical astrophysics** uses information from astronomers, theories, and mathematics to explain how the Universe works. Cosmology is a type of theoretical astrophysics. Problems investigated include:
    - Solar System: its formation and evolution
    - Star formation and evolution
    - Galaxy formation and evolution
    - large-scale structure of matter in the universe
    - Origin of cosmic rays
    - General relativity
    - Evolution of the universe
    - Hydrodynamics is used for mathematically modelling how gases behave. Strong magnetic fields found around many bodies can drastically change how these gases behave, affecting things from star formation to the flows of gases around compact stars.

### An example

Cecilia Helena Payne (later Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin) published her doctoral dissertation at Radcliffe College in 1925. She had discovered that hydrogen and helium were the main content of stars. More than that, the spectral classes relate to the temperature of stars. Despite Eddington's suggestion, her discovery was so unexpected that her dissertation readers told her to modify the conclusion before publication. Later research confirmed her discovery.

## Related pages

- Astronomy
- Celestial mechanics
- Quasar
Greek

**Greek** can mean:
- The modern Greek people
- A description of things or people from the European country of Greece
- A description of things or people from one of the ancient European city-states of Ancient Greece
- Greeks, the people of Greece
- The Greek language, the language people speak in Greece
    - Koine Greek, the language of the New Testament, spoken at the time of Christ
    - Ancient Greek language, the language spoken in Ancient Greece
- The Greek alphabet, the alphabet people use to write those languages
- Greek mythology
Relativity

The word **relativity** usually means two things in physics:

- The principle of relativity, which was originally thought up by Galileo Galilei, and later used by Albert Einstein as one of the important postulates (like rules) of the theory of relativity.
- The theory of relativity itself, which has two parts: special relativity and general relativity.
1894

## Events

- Outbreak of the First Sino-Japanese War
- June 30 – Tower Bridge in London opened.

## Births

- February 10 - Harold Macmillan, British Prime Minister
- April 17 – Nikita Krushchev, Soviet leader
- March 20 – Ky Ebright, American Olympic rowing coach (d. 1979)
- July 26 – Aldous Huxley, English writer
- November 27 - Katherine Milhous, American illustrator and writer (d. 1977)

## Deaths

- 1 January – Heinrich Rudolf Hertz
- 1 November - Alexander III of Russia Czar of Russia father of Czar Nicholas II
1191

## Events

- May 12 – Richard I of England marries Berengaria of Navarre.
- September 7 – Third Crusade: Battle of Arsuf – Richard I of England fights against Saladin at Arsuf. Result of battle is inconclusive.
- The monks of Glastonbury Abbey announce that they have found the burial sites of King Arthur and his Queen Guinevere.
- The city of Berne was founded by the duke Berthold V of Zähringen

## Births

- February 8 – Yaroslav II of Russia (d. 1246)

## Deaths

- March 27 – Pope Clement III
- Shahab-ud-din Suhrawardi the Sufi saint and mystic was executed.

## Miscellaneous

This is the year the popular game for Xbox 360, Assassin's Creed, is set.
1539

## Events

- May 30 – In Florida, Hernando de Soto lands at Tampa Bay with 600 soldiers with the goal to find gold.
- Hernando de Soto introduces Pigs into North America
- May – 6 Articles Statute of English Parliament, important in the English Reformation"
- September 4 – Henry VIII contracts to marry Anne of Cleves
- Lutheranism is forcefully introduced to Iceland, despite the opposition of Bishop Jon Aresson.
- The town of Shuya was founded

## Births

- November 1 – Pierre Pithou, French lawyer and scholar (died 1596)
- December 5 – Fausto Paolo Sozzini, theologian (died 1604)
- Luis Carvajal y de la Cueva, Portuguese Jewish explorer (died 1590)
- Georg Friedrich, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach (died 1603)
- Catherine Grey, Countess of Hertford (died 1568)
- Hasegawa Tohaku, Japanese painter (died 1610)
- Ikeda Katsumasa, Japanese military commander (died 1578)
- Laurence Tomson, Calvinist (died 1608)

## Deaths

- February 6 – John III, Duke of Cleves, born 3 August 1491
- March 12 – Thomas Boleyn, 1st Earl of Wiltshire, diplomat, politician, and father of Anne Boleyn (born 1477)
- May 7 – Guru Nanak, founder of Sikhism (born 1469)
- May 7 – Ottaviano Petrucci, Italian printer (born 1466)
- July 5 – St. Anthony Maria Zaccaria, founder of the Barnabite Order (born 1502)
- September 8 – John Stokesley, English prelate (born 1475)
- James Beaton, Scottish church leader
- Vannoccio Biringuccio, Italian metallurgist (born 1480)
- Hugh Cook Faringdon, Abbot of Reading
- George, Duke of Saxony (born 1471)
- Symeon Iwanowicz Trubczewski, governor of Kostroma
- Isabella d'Este, "First Lady of the Renaissance" (born 1474)
1431

## Events

- February 21 – The trial of Joan of Arc
- March 3 – Eugenius IV becomes Pope
- May 30 – In Rouen, France, 19-year old Joan of Arc is burned at the stake.
- Foundation of University of Poitiers
- Battle of Inverlochy
1574

**1574** (MDLXXIV) was a common year starting on Friday in the Julian calendar and a common year starting on Tuesday in the proleptic Gregorian calendar.

## Events

- April 14 – Battle of Mookerheyde:  Spanish forces under Sancho de Avila defeat the rebel forces of Louis of Nassau.  Louis is killed.
- May 30 – On the death of King Charles IX of France, he is succeeded by his brother King Henry of Poland, who becomes King Henry III.  His mother, Catherine of Medici, acts as Regent until Henry arrives from Poland.
- October 3 – The city of Leiden, besieged by the Spanish, is relieved by a Sea Beggar fleet under Louis Boisot.
- Murad III succeeds Selim II as Sultan of the Ottoman Empire.
Wombat

A **wombat** is a marsupial in the family **Vombatidae**. It lives in the Australian eucalypt forests. There are two genera with three living wombat species; the common wombat and the hairy-nosed wombats.

It is a medium-sized animal that makes a burrow by digging holes in the ground. Wombats are usually around a metre (40 in) long when they are fully grown.  It is a kind of animal known as a marsupial because it has a pouch on its belly that holds its young, although it faces back instead of forward like most marsupials.  Having the pouch face backwards prevents dirt from building up in the pouch and hitting the offspring in the face when digging.  When its young are born they spend some time growing in their mother's pouch before going into the world.  Wombats are herbivores. They eat plants, roots, and grasses.  They are nocturnal which means they sleep in the day and come out at night. Some wombats have thick brown fur and very small ears. They can weigh from 20 to 35 kilograms (45 to 80 lb). They can live up to 7 years.

Wombats are commonly known and recognised by their waste products. They are the only known mammals that excrete feces in cubic shape. This lets people easily know when wombat habitats are nearby. It also tells simply what the wombat may have eaten by examining the feces thoroughly.

## Taxonomy

- Family **Vombatidae**: Wombats
    - Common wombat (_Vombatus ursinus_)
    - Southern hairy-nosed wombat (_Lasiorhinus latifrons_)
    - Northern hairy-nosed wombat or yaminon (_Lasiorhinus krefftii_)

## Other websites

- Wombania's Wombat Information Index
- Russell The Wombat's Burrow
N.C. Wyeth

**Newell Convers Wyeth** (October 22, 1882 – October 19, 1945) was an American painter and book illustrator. He was born in Needham, Massachusetts. He was known for his illustrations for such books as _Robin Hood_, _Robinson Crusoe_, _The Yearling_, _The Last of the Mohicans_, and King Arthur. His daughters Henriette and Carolyn, his son, Andrew and grandson Jamie Wyeth were also painters. Wyeth's son Nathaniel was an inventor.

Wyeth was born in Needham, Massachusetts. He died in an accident at a railway crossing in Chadds Ford, Pennsylvania.

## Other websites

- Virtual tour of N.C. Wyeth's studio
- Robinson Crusoe text with illustrations by N.C. Wyeth
- N.C. Wyeth Biography

## Infobox (artist)

- **name**: N. C. Wyeth
- **image**: NC Wyeth ca1920.jpg
- **caption**: N. C. Wyeth, c. 1920.
- **birth name**: Newell Convers Wyeth
- **birth place**: Needham, Massachusetts, United States
- **death place**: Chadds Ford, Pennsylvania, United States
- **nationality**: American
- **field**: Illustration, painting
- **works**: _Treasure Island_
_Robinson Crusoe_
Turkey (bird)

The **turkey** is a large bird in the genus ***Meleagris***, native to North America. There are two extant turkey species: the wild turkey (_Meleagris gallopavo_) of eastern and central North America and the ocellated turkey (_Meleagris ocellata_) of the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico. In the United States, people traditionally eat turkey on the holiday of Thanksgiving.

## Naming

When people from Europe first saw turkeys in the Americas they thought the birds were a type of guinea fowl (_Numida meleagris_). This bird had been brought to central Europe from the country of Turkey. The name of that country stuck as the name of the bird.

The confusion with the name is also seen in the scientific name: _meleagris_ is Greek for guinea-fowl.
Arachnology

**Arachnology** is a science that studies arachnids. Examples of arachnids are spiders, scorpions, pseudoscorpions, and harvestmen. Ticks and mites are also arachnids but they sometimes are not included in arachnology. They are studied in acarology.

## Related pages

- Entomology
1227

## Events

- March 19 – Pope Gregory IX succeeds Pope Honorius III as the 178th pope.

- August 18 – Genghis Khan
Tom Skerritt

**Thomas Alderton Skerritt** (born August 25, 1933) is an American actor. He was born in Detroit, Michigan. He is best known for his roles in the films _M*A*S*H_ (1970), _Alien_ (1979), and _Top Gun_ (1986). He won an Emmy Award in 1993 and a Saturn Award in 2011.

## Infobox (military person)

- **embed**: yes
- **serviceyears**: 1951–1955


## Infobox (person)

- **name**: Tom Skerritt
- **image**: Tom Skerritt 2014 (cropped).jpg
- **caption**: Skerritt in 2014
- **birth name**: Thomas Roy Skerritt
- **birth place**: Detroit, Michigan, U.S.
- **occupation**: Actor
- **years active**: 1962–present
- **children**: 5
Trossingen

**Trossingen** is a town in South Germany (Baden-Württemberg). It is in a region called Baar, between the Swabian Alb and the Black Forest.

Trossingen is called a "music town". It has around 16,000 people who live there, there is the 'University of Music Trossingen', which is one of Baden-Württemberg's state conservatories, and there are other institutions specialized in musical education, like the 'Bundesakademie für musikalische Jugendbildung'  and the 'Hohner Konservatorium'. In 1857 the Matthias Hohner company was founded. Today, Hohner harmonicas and accordions are famous all over the world. Trossingen houses the German Harmonica Museum, too. Trossingen also has a historic railway: the _Trossinger Eisenbahn_. Several skeletons of the dinosaur _Plateosaurus engelhardti_ were found in Trossingen during excavations in the early 20th century. The local museum Auberlehaus houses several of the original bones.

## Distances

- Stuttgart (capital of Baden-Württemberg): about .
- Berlin (capital of Germany): about .
- the Black forest: about .
- Switzerland: about .

## Infobox (german location)

- **type**: Stadt
- **image photo**: Rathaus Trossingen weit.JPG
- **image caption**: The town hall in Trossingen
- **image coa**: DEU Trossingen offz. COA.svg
- **image flag**: DEU Trossingen Flag.svg
- **image plan**: Trossingen in TUT.svg
- **state**: Baden-Württemberg
- **region**: Freiburg Government Region, Freiburg
- **district**: Tuttlingen (district), Tuttlingen
- **elevation**: 699
- **area**: 24.20
- **population**: 16007
- **stand**: 2006-12-31
- **postal code**: 78635–78647
- **area code**: 07425
- **licence**: TUT
- **gemeindeschlüssel**: 08 3 27 049
- **mayor**: Dr. Clemens Maier
The Smurfs

***The Smurfs*** (French: _Les Schtroumpfs_) are fictional little blue beings created by Peyo, a Belgian cartoonist. They first appeared in 1958, and later in a cartoon television show created by Hanna-Barbera Productions in the 1980s. On September 12, 1981, they were featured on ABC on Saturday mornings as a cartoon series. The little blue creatures from Belgium became popular among all ages.

A feature movie called _The Smurfs_ was released in 2011. _The Smurfs 2_ was a sequel released July 31, 2013.

## Description

The smurfs are very small.  In cartoons in which they appear with humans, they are small enough to stand on a human hand.

Most Smurfs are male. There are only 3 females in the village: Smurfette, Sassette Smurfling, and Nanny Smurf.

Most Smurfs wear white pants and white Phrygian caps. Papa Smurf, Grandpa Smurf, and some of the Smurflings dress differently. Grandpa Smurf wears yellow clothes and Papa Smurf wears red clothes. The Smurflings are Sassette, Snappy, Slouchy, and Nat. Sassette and Nat do not dress like the other Smurfs at all, while Slouchy and Nat do dress like the others. In some comics, the Smurfs dress differently in color or clothing.

Smurfs live in mushroom-shaped houses in a village in a forest.

## Characters

- **Smurfette**, one of the female Smurfs
- **Papa Smurf**, the village leader
- **Brainy Smurf**, an intellectual show-off
- **Vanity Smurf**, is a narcissist. He has a flower in his hat. He often holds a hand mirror, staring into his own reflection.  In the Hanna-Barbera cartoon series, Vanity speaks in a feminine voice.
- **Grouchy Smurf**, is a grouch
- **Handy Smurf**, is a mechanic and inventor.
- **Hefty Smurf**, strong Smurf
- **Sassette Smurfling**, the only female Smurfling
- **Greedy Smurf**, the village's baker
- **Natural Smurf** **or Nat Smurfling**, can communicate with animals.
- **Grandpa Smurf**, the former "Papa Smurf"
- **Nanny Smurf**, the oldest female Smurf
- **Tailor Smurf**, makes clothes
- **Gustey** a brave smurf
- **Gargamel**, a human, and the enemy of the Smurfs. Gargamel is an evil wizard who is absolutely obsessed with the Smurfs. His main goal changes. Sometimes he wants to catch Smurfs to eat them. Most of the time he tries to capture them for use in a potion to make gold. Sometimes it is simply getting revenge.
- **Azrael**, is Gargamel's cat and chases Smurfs.
- **Scruple**, is Gargamel's assistant who failed wizard school. He was introduced later in the series.

## Other websites

- Muckno Mania festival breaks world record
Gregg Allman

**Gregg Allman** (December 8, 1947 – May 27, 2017) was an American rock musician. He was a member of the Allman Brothers Band with his brother, Duane Allman, which popularised Southern Rock in the 1970s. He married Cher, a well-known pop singer and actress after she divorced Sonny Bono in 1974. They had a son, Elijah Blue Allman, before divorcing in 1979. Until recently, he had continued to perform with his band **Gregg Allman and Friends** and last resided in Georgia with his family.

## Death

Following a series of health problems,  Gregg Allman died at his home in Savannah, Georgia, on May 27, 2017 due to complications of liver cancer. He was 69.

## Other websites

- Official Website

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Gregg Allman
- **img**: Gregg Allman (cropped).jpg
- **img capt**: Gregg Allman with the Allman Brothers Band in June 2011
- **background**: solo_singer
- **birth name**: Gregory Lenoir Allman
- **birth place**: Nashville, Tennessee, United States, U.S.
- **death place**: Savannah, Georgia, U.S.
- **instrument**: Singing, Vocals, Organ (music), Organ, Piano, Guitar
- **genre**: Southern rock
Blues music, Blues
Country music, Country
Gospel Music, Gospel
- **occupation**: Musician, Songwriter, Actor
- **years active**: 1965 – 2017
- **label**: Liberty Records, Liberty, Atco Records, Atco, Capricorn Records, Capricorn, Epic Records, Epic
- **associated acts**: The Allman Brothers Band, The Hour Glass, Gregg Allman Band, The Allman Joys
- **website**: [http://www.greggallman.com/ GreggAllman.com]
Allman Brothers Band

**The Allman Brothers Band** were an American southern rock band in the 1970s. It originally formed in 1969 with Duane Allman (slide guitar), Gregg Allman (vocals, organ), Dickey Betts (guitar), Berry Oakley (bass guitar), Butch Trucks (drums) and Jai Johanny "Jaimoe" Johanson (drums).

In 1971, soon after their first album went gold, Duane and Berry were killed in separate motorcycle accidents in the group's hometown of Macon, Georgia. The group still released  more albums and songs, most notably _Ramblin' Man_ and _Jessica_, which were their biggest hits.  _Rolling Stone_ ranked them 52nd on their list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time in 2004. The band is still touring as of 2008.

## Discography

- Studio albums
- _The Allman Brothers Band_ (1969)
- _Idlewild South_ (1970)
- _At Fillmore East_ (1971)
- _Eat a Peach_ (1972)
- _Brothers and Sisters_ (1973)
- _Win, Lose or Draw_ (1975)
- _Enlightened Pogues_ (1979)
- _Reach for the Sky_ (1980)
- _Brothers of the Road_ (1981)
- _Seven Turns_ (1990)
- _Shades of Two Worlds_ (1991)
- _Where it All Begins_ (1994)
- _Peakin' at the Beacon_ (2000)
- _Hittin' the Note_ (2003)

## Other websites

- Official Allman Brothers' website
- The Allman Brothers Band  at RollingStone.com

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: The Allman Brothers Band
- **img**: Allman Brothers Band 13 Mar 2010.jpg
- **img size**: 250
- **landscape**: yes
- **background**: group_or_band
- **origin**: Jacksonville, Florida, U.S.A.
- **genre**: Southern rock, blues rock, folk rock, hard rock, blues
- **years active**: 1969–1976, 1978–1982, 1989–present
- **label**: Capricorn Records, Capricorn, PolyGram, Arista Records, Arista, Epic Records, Epic, Sanctuary Records, Sanctuary
- **associated acts**: Gov't Mule, The Dead (band), The Dead, Derek Trucks, The Derek Trucks Band, Derek and the Dominos, Hour Glass (band), Hour Glass, Dickey Betts, Great Southern, Sea Level (band), Sea Level
- **current members**: Gregg Allman
Butch Trucks
Jai Johanny Johanson, Jai Johanny "Jaimoe" Johanson
Warren Haynes
Marc Quiñones
Oteil Burbridge
Derek Trucks
- **past members**: Duane Allman
Dickey Betts
Berry Oakley
Chuck Leavell
Lamar Williams
Dan Toler
David Goldflies
David "Frankie" Toler
Mike Lawler
Allen Woody
Johnny Neel
Jack Pearson
Jimmy Herring
London Borough of Hackney

The **London Borough of Hackney** is a London Borough in north and east London. It is extramural to the City of London.

## Infobox (london borough)

- **name**: London Borough of Hackney
- **short name**: Hackney
- **imagename**: Image:LondonHackney.png
- **status**: London Boroughs, London borough
- **area rank**: 349th
- **area km2**: 19.06
- **ons code**: 00AM
- **adminhq**: Mare Street, Hackney
- **ethnicity**: 59.4% White, including:
_  44.1% White British
  3.1% White Irish
  12.2% White non-British_
24.7% British African-Caribbean community, African-Caribbean
8.6% British Asian, South Asian
4.2% Mixed race
 1.2% British Chinese, Chinese
- **url**: [http://www.hackney.gov.uk/ LB Hackney]
- **leadership**: Mayor & Cabinet
- **mayor**: Jules Pipe
- **mps**: Diane Abbott
 Meg Hillier
- **gla constituency**: North East London
- **gla member**: Jennette Arnold
John Frost Bridge

The **John Frost Bridge** is a bridge in Arnhem. It was bombed after Operation Market Garden in September 1944. It was later rebuilt. Some parts of the bridge are still the same as they were in 1944.