juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Anarchy

**Anarchy** (from Greek αναρχια meaning "without a leader") is a word that has more than one meaning. Some of its meanings are:
1. When there is no leader, or when nobody has power over everyone (used in the anarchist movement).
1. When there is no political order, and there is confusion (used often in mass media)
1. When people do not have any reason to work together, or do not have anything that makes them feel like a group.

In the first meaning listed, an _anarchy_ might be a made-up or real society based on a group's beliefs about **anarchism** (see anarcho-communism).

In the second meaning listed, "anarchy" has to do with having no political order. The CIA World factbook  said that there was only one nation, Somalia, that was in a state of anarchy. In Somalia, the government was no longer in control, and some parts of the country were ruled by mobs and warlords who sometimes fight one another.

When there is no political order, more than one government or political authority might compete for the same food, oil, land, or groups of people. The word "Anarchy" can be used to describe this. However, because there is _more than one_ competing authority, a better word might be _polyarchy_. The difference between "anarchy" and "polyarchy" is important to someone who thinks that true anarchy would work well. The word for someone who thinks this is "**anarchist**", and the word for this kind of thinking is "**anarchism**". Anarchism has been thought about for hundreds of years. The book called "The Politics of Individualism" attempts to teach its readers that anarchism is not always simply an opposition to the government, but a complicated political movement against the domination of few people.

## Other uses of the word

Anarchy which follows the death of a ruler and ceases when his successor rises to power, is called interregnum (literally: "in-between rules").

(Another use of the word “Anarchy” is when it is said as “_The_ Anarchy”. This is the name that is sometimes given to the civil war and unsettled government in England when Stephen of England was King.) (See **The Anarchy**)
Bread

**Bread** is a type of baked food. It is mainly made from dough, which is made mainly from flour and water. Usually, salt and yeast are added. Bread is often baked in an oven. It can be bought all over the world.

Bread can be toasted or used to make sandwiches. Bread can be made into many different foods, like pizza. There are many different kinds of bread.

The two main types of bread are:
1. Leavened bread is made by adding yeast or other leavening agents to the dough. The yeast produces gas that makes the dough lighter. Leavened bread can be made into larger loaves baked in an oven. This is the main type of bread eaten in Europe, America, and many parts of Asia.
1. Unleavened flatbread is baked from a dough of water and flour, with no yeast. It is baked in flat rounds like tortilla or chapati. This type of bread cannot be made thick as it would be too dense to eat. Unleavened bread is eaten throughout Greece, Africa, parts of Asia, and as the Central America such as Pitta bread or tortilla. Baking can be done on a metal plate or hot stone, or in an oven.

The color and taste of the bread depending on the kind of flour used and the style of baking. Flour made from the whole grain gives darker bread. Flour made just from the polished wheat grain gives a very white bread. Rye and barley flour give darker types of bread. The type of flour also changes how long the bread can be kept before going bad. Some strains of wheat are resistant to fungus, but may not produce bread as tasty as a weaker strain.

## Religious breads

Christianity and Judaism have rules about the use of bread in their religions. Unleavened bread (matzo) is eaten by Jews during the Passover. The Catholic celebration of the Eucharist uses unleavened wafers.

Orthodox churches forbid the use of unleavened bread for the Eucharist (Old Testament) and permit leavened bread only as a symbol of the New. This was one of the three points of contention that brought about the schism between Eastern and Western churches in 1054.

## Types of bread

- Bagel
- Baguette
- Croissant
- Injera
- Khachapuri
- Lavash
- Markouk in Egypt and the Levant
- Matzo in all Kosher communities
- Naan
- North American biscuit
- Pita
- Pizza dough
- Pretzel
- Rice bread
- Roti
- Rye bread (Includes Pumpernickel)
- Scone
- Sprouted bread
- Tortilla
- White Bread
- Wholemeal bread

Bread is an important part of life in many countries because so many people eat it. In many cultures, bread is so important that it is part of religious rituals.

Cake is made in a similar way to bread but sugar, fat, and milk are added to the dough and often more ingredients.
Shinto

**Shinto** () is a form of Japanese animism. It has many _kami_, translated as gods or nature spirits. Some "kami" are just spirits of certain places, and some are the overall "kami" (like "Amaterasu", the Sun goddess). The word "Shinto" comes from the Japanese words "", _shin_—the word for spirit or god, and "", _tō_—the word for "the way" or "path". So, Shinto means "the way of the gods."

State Shinto was the main religion of Japan before World War II. During the period 1868 to 1945 the Japanese government used Shinto for propaganda. All Japanese were forced to register with their local shrine. All Shinto priests worked for the government. War was seen as a sacred duty. The Emperor of Japan was seen as a god. Japanese Buddhism was also involved with the war effort (See Zen at War).

Shinto has many rituals and customs, and some are done every day. Festivals are frequent. Some people mix Shinto and Buddhist rituals and beliefs.

- Although Jinja-Honcho manages almost all shrines, some, such as Yasukuni, are run separately.

- Amaterasu, the Sun Goddess, is seen as the holiest of all Shinto kami. Her shrine is in Ise, Japan.

## Related pages

- Shinto shrine

## Other websites

- Kokugakuin University Encylopedia of Shinto
Astronomer

An **astronomer** is a scientist who studies astronomy. Observational astronomers work in observatories with telescopes to collect information from things in outer space such as planets, stars, or galaxies. Theoretical astronomers study the collected information, and use it to help us understand how the universe behaves.

## Related pages

- List of Astronomers
Analysis

**Analysis** is the process of breaking a complex topic or substance into smaller parts to gain a better understanding of it. The technique has been applied in the study of mathematics and logic since before Aristotle (384–322 B.C.), though _analysis_ as a formal concept is a relatively recent development.

The word comes from the Ancient Greek ἀνάλυσις (_analusis_, "a breaking up", from _ana-_ "up, throughout" and _lysis_ "a loosening").

In this context, Analysis is the opposite of synthesis, which is to bring ideas together.

The following concepts are closely related to this basic idea:
- Mathematical analysis is the name given to any branch of mathematics that looks at what functions are, how they behave, and what things can be done with them.
- Analytical chemistry looks at the qualities of substances, and their composition.

## Some definitions

1. The process of breaking up a concept, proposition, or fact into its simple or ultimate constituents. _Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy_. 2nd ed, 1999, ed. Robert Audi.
1. Resolution into simpler elements by analysing. 2. (Maths) Use of algebra and calculus in problem-solving. _Concise Oxford Dictionary_. 1976, ed. J.B. Sykes.
1. The isolation of what is more elementary from what is more complex by whatever method. _Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology_. 1925, ed. James Mark Baldwin, Vol. I
1. The original Greek sense [was] a ‘loosening up’ or ‘releasing’. Geometry assumes a proposition to be true and searches for another known truth from which the proposition may be deduced. Physical science resolves complex wholes into their elements. _A Kant Dictionary_, 1995, by Howard Caygill.
1. The process of breaking a concept down into more simple parts, so that its logical structure is displayed. _Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy_. 1996, Simon Blackburn
1. Philosophical analysis is a method of inquiry in which one seeks to assess complex systems of thought by ‘analysing’ them into simpler elements whose relationships are thereby brought into focus. _Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy_. 1998, entry under ‘Conceptual Analysis’ by Robert Hanna
Foolishness

**Foolishness** is when someone acts without wisdom or sense. A foolish decision is one made without careful reasoning or judgement. An act of foolishness is called **folly**. A person who shows foolishness may be called a **fool**. It is different to stupidity, which is the lack of intelligence.

A _fool's errand_ is a useless piece of work.

A _fool's paradise_ a happy state for which there is no good reason.

The _wise fool_ is a common literary character, a person who appears at first to be unintelligent but then reveals him or herself to possess a grest deal of wisdom. An example of this is Sancho Panza in Cervantes' _Don Quixote_. Sancho is an uneducated peasant who at first seems to have little sense or experience. However, as the tale unfolds, he reveals himself to possess a wealth of common sense, first expressed through endless proverbs, but then through his own skill. In this sense he provides a comic juxtaposition to Quixote himself, who is highly educated but insane; both of them supply what the other lacks.

## Related pages

- Silliness
Matsuo Basho

**Matsuo Munefusa**, known as **Matsuo Bashō** (, 1644 - November 28, 1694) was a Japanese poet. He is known as the greatest maker of haiku, a kind of poetry with 17 syllables. The Japanese written language was difficult to master, but haiku was easy for him to write. Matsuo's haikus included characteristics of nature and the four seasons. The reader has to use their imagination to understand his poems.

According to Japanese custom, he is usually called _Basho_ without his family name, and his signature as a poet does not include his house name. He signed usually "はせを". He is one of the greatest writers of the Edo period, and he raised the haiku form to its highest level.

He was born in Iga, now a part of Mie prefecture in a samurai (Japanese warrior) family. After many years of samurai life he found that poetry would be his life work, and gave up being a samurai. He started his life as a poet when he served his lord as a samurai. Matsuo became educated in classical Japanese poems. First he named himself _Tosei_ (桃青) meaning "unripe peach in blue". Basho took this name because he admired a Chinese poet, Li Po whose name means _plum in white_.

He quit samurai life 1666, and in 1675 he moved to Edo, today called Tokyo. There, in 1678, he got to be a haiku master ("_Sosho_") and began the life of a working poet. In 1680, he moved to Fukagawa, where he had a house. This was just outside of Edo. One of his followers gifted him a banana plant (_basho-an_). He planted the plant and called himself _Basho_ because it became his favorite tree in his garden.

In his life, Basho visited many places. Those travels were important for his writings. He visited his disciples (followers) and taught them by making _renga_, a series of haiku, with them. He also visited famous places in Japanese history. These visits made his writing much stronger.

His most famous book is _Oku no Hosomichi_ ("The Narrow Road Through the Deep North"). This book was written after a trip. On the trip, Basho and his disciple left Edo on March 24, 1689. They went around Tohoku and Hokuriku, and returned to Edo in 1691. The trip in this book ends in Ogaki, Mino (Gifu prefecture today) with one of his haiku where he hinted that he wanted to visit Ise shrine after staying in Ogaki. Matsuo was considered to have written some of the most beautiful travel diaries ever written in Japanese.

Basho died because of disease in early autumn of 1694 in Osaka, while staying at a house of his disciple on a trip.  Before his death, he made a haiku as his last words:

- _Tabini yande / yume ha kareno wo / kake meguru_
    - On travel I am sick
    - My dream is running around
    - a field covered with dried grass
Colonization

**Colonization** is the act of the people of a country settling in another area or country to rule the place. An early example is the settlers who went from the cities of Ancient Greece to start new cities.

In 1492, Christopher Columbus landed in the Americas. This is how the Europeans learned that North America and South America were there.  The Europeans colonized the Americas. Because of this, and the killing of many Native Americans, most people now living in North America are mostly descendants of Europeans. Sometimes, science fiction stories talk about space colonization on space stations or planets other than the Earth.

## Related pages

- Colony
- Nazism
- Fascism
- Annexation
- Colonialism
- Imperialism
- _Mein Kampf_
- Fascist Italy
- Protectorate
- World War II
- Nazi Germany
- Decolonization
- Russian Empire
- German Empire
Choreography

**Choreography** (dance-writing) is the art of making dances. It tells dancers how they should dance and move. The word has been used since the late 18th century to mean the art of composing dance.

## Overview

A person who does choreography is called a _choreographer_. A choreographer makes a dance based on music or a synopsis (a writing of what occurs in the dance). They may also act as trainers for professional dancers in ballet, stage shows and competitive ballroom dance. Their ideas may be recorded in dance notation, or on videos.

## Applications

Choreography is also used in other types of performances. In Ice skating and Ice dancing, the choreographer designs the moves the skates does. In theater, movies and television, a choreographer is used to design fight scenes. For example, Bob Anderson designed many of the swordfight scenes in the _Lord of the Rings_ movies as well as some of the _Star Wars_ movies. A person who does this type of choreography is usually called a _fight choreographer_.
Electrical cell

An **electrical cell** is a device used to generate electricity, or to make chemical reactions  by applying electricity. A battery is one or more cells, connected. This cell is also known as electrochemical cell.

## Cells producing electricity

The simple electrical cells were first developed in 1800s. They are also called _galvanic cells_, because an Italian scientist named Luigi Galvani invented these cells.

Special chemical reactions which occur inside the electrical cell, result in oxidation and reduction of the substances inside the cell. This produces electrical energy. Normal batteries work like this.

Some electrical cells produce electricity without using chemical energy. For example, solar cells produce electricity when they are exposed to sun light.

A plate of zinc and a plate of copper immersed in a dilute solution which contains acid or salt is an example of the chemical reaction based cell. The solution acts as an electrolyte (electric conductor). When the two plates are connected to a current meter with a wire, electric current will pass; this is because oxidation and reduction processes take place in this chemical reaction turning the zinc plate to a negative electrode and the copper plate to a positive electrode, and so the electrons flow from zinc to copper.

## Cells using electricity

Some chemical reactions need high energy to happen. An example is the breakdown of water into hydrogen and oxygen. An electrical cell (or an "electrolytic cell") is used for these reactions. It is a container which has to have a chemical reaction involving electrodes. The chemical substances are exposed to electrical power, and the electrolysis reaction happens inside the electrical cell.

Two pieces of metal are placed in water that has a little electrolyte such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, sodium bicarbonate, or sodium hydroxide added to it. An electric current is applied and gas comes out of each electrode. Some greenish-brown color may be seen too if iron was used.

There may also be a chemical reaction which will result in the explosion of the iron and has a strong blast radius (safety goggles recommended).

## Related pages

- Battery
Dry cell

**Dry cells** are a type of chemical cells. Dry cells are commonly used today in the form of batteries. Dry cells are used in many electrical appliances. Most dry cells are not truly dry; they still contain a liquid electrolyte, but it is immobilized in a paste or gel. Several truly dry, or solid-state, batteries have been developed, but none are commercially available yet.

## Types of dry cells

- Primary cells
    - Zinc-carbon cells, also known as Leclanche cells
    - Alkaline cells
    - Lithium cells
    - Mercury cells
    - Silver oxide cell
- Secondary cells
    - Nickel-cadmium cell
    - Lithium-ion cell
    - Nickel metal-hydride cell
    - Sealed lead acid battery

Primary cells are not rechargeable. They have to be thrown away after their chemicals are used.

Secondary cells are rechargeable. They can be used again.

## Related pages

- Battery
- Rechargeable battery
- Table of batteries
Sahel

The **Sahel** is a narrow belt of land in North Africa. It is a strip of land about 5500 kilometers long and 450 kilometres wide.  It lies at the southern edge of the Sahara Desert

The Sahel has a tropical semi-arid climate. It is between the dry desert land to the north and the forest areas to the south. The temperature is high throughout the year. There is little rainfall in the Sahel (between 100 and 150 mm and 600mm). It comes during summer months and may be unreliable. It may be very dry in some years, especially if a large area of low pressure, which brings rain, is not carried North over the Sahel by strong winds.

Sahel is the Arabic word for 'edge' or 'shore'.

The Sahel is facing a big problem, desertification.
The distribution of rainfall in the Sahel region is uneven. The rainfall in the region has been below average since 1970. Source needed The Sahel is becoming drier on the whole. The problem of drought affects most of the countries in the Sahel. As a result, crops and animals die. There is no vegetation to protect the soil, which is then removed by flash floods and strong wind. This leads to soil erosion. Finally, the desert spreads towards the surrounding areas.

With better medical services, the birth rate increases and the death rate decreases in the Sahel. As a result, the population in the Sahel is growing. To meet the ever-increasing demand for firewood, a lot of trees have been cut down. More land has become barren. This is called deforestation.

Furthermore, people farm intensively in order to grow more crops, the soil becomes infertile with a lack of nutrients. If this process continues for a long time, no crops can be grown. This is called overcultivation.

People keep animals for food due to the lack of good soil, the animals will have to eat grass and etc. But as the animals eat the grass, they also dug up the soil. As people keep too many animals, the demand for grass is too great. Soil erosion is caused while the animals keep digging the soil up as they eat, and the wind and rain blow away the soil. This process is called overgrazing.
Chemical change

A **chemical change** (**chemical reaction**) is a change of materials into other materials with different properties.

Chemical changes occur when a substance combines with another to form a new substance, or,  chemical decomposition into two or more different substances. These processes are called chemical reactions.

Burning of wood is a chemical change as new substances which cannot be changed back (e.g. carbon dioxide) are formed. For example, if wood is burned in a fireplace, there is not wood anymore but ash. Other examples  include burning of a candle, rusting of iron, baking a cake, etc. Special details that describe how a chemical change takes place are called chemical properties.

Compare: physical change. The opposite of a chemical change is a physical change. Physical changes are a change in which no new substances are formed, and the substance which is changed is the same. For instance, if a stick of wood is broken, there is still a stick of wood; it is just broken.

More examples include changes of shape, changes of states, passing electricity through a copper wire, breaking of wood, shattering of glass, pouring of water, etc. Special details which do not change in a substance without new substances being formed are called physical properties.
Physical change

A **physical change** is a type of change in which the form of matter is altered but one substance is not transformed into another. The size or shape of matter may be changed, but no chemical reaction occurs.

All physical changes are reversible and their mass does not change. Some examples are changes of shape, changes of states, and passing electricity through a copper wire. Physical changes could be: melting, freezing, boiling/evaporating, condensing, deposition and sublimation.

Many physical changes also involve the rearrangement of atoms most noticeably in the formation of crystals. Many chemical changes are irreversible, and many physical changes are reversible, but reversibility is not a certain criterion for classification. Although chemical changes may be recognized by an indication such as odor, color change, or production of a gas, every one of these indicators can result from physical change.
Ronald Reagan

**Ronald Wilson Reagan** ( ; February 6, 1911June 5, 2004) was an American politician, spokesperson and actor. He was the 40th president of the United States from 1981 to 1989. Before becoming president, he was the 33rd governor of California from 1967 to 1975. He was also the 9th and 13th president of the Screen Actors Guild from 1947 to 1952 and again from 1959 until 1960.

In 1964, his "A Time for Choosing" speech made Reagan popular with conservatives. He was elected governor of California in 1966. During his time as governor, he raised taxes, fixed the state's budget, and ended student protests in Berkeley. After running against and losing to president Gerald Ford in the 1976 Republican presidential primaries, Reagan won the Republican nomination and then a landslide victory over Democratic president Jimmy Carter in the 1980 United States presidential election.

## Infobox (officeholder)

- **birthname**: Ronald Wilson Reagan
- **image**: Ronald Reagan 1985 presidential portrait (cropped).jpg
- **caption**: Official portrait, 1985
- **office**: President of the United States
- **vicepresident**: George H. W. Bush
- **term start**: January 20, 1981
- **term end**: January 20, 1989
- **predecessor**: Jimmy Carter
- **successor**: George H. W. Bush
- **order1**: List of governors of California, 33rd
- **office1**: Governor of California
- **term start1**: January 2, 1967
- **term end1**: January 6, 1975
- **predecessor1**: Pat Brown
- **successor1**: Jerry Brown
- **office2**: President of the Screen Actors Guild
- **term start2**: November 16, 1959
- **term end2**: June 12, 1960
- **predecessor2**: Howard Keel
- **successor2**: George Chandler
- **term start3**: November 17, 1947
- **term end3**: November 9, 1952
- **predecessor3**: Robert Montgomery
- **successor3**: Walter Pidgeon
- **birth place**: Tampico, Illinois, U.S.
- **death place**: Los Angeles, California, U.S.
- **resting place**: Ronald Reagan Presidential Library, California, U.S.
- **party**: Republican Party (United States), Republican
- **otherparty**: Democratic Party (United States), Democratic (before 1962)
- **relations**: Neil Reagan (brother)
- **alma mater**: Eureka College (Bachelor of Arts, BA)
- **signature**: Ronald Reagan Signature2.svg
- **signature alt**: Cursive signature in ink
- **branch**:  United States Army Air Forces, U.S. Army Air Forces
- **serviceyears**: 1937–1945
- **rank**:  Captain (United States O-3), Captain
- **unit**: First Motion Picture Unit, 18th AAF Base Unit
- **order**: List of presidents of the United States, 40th
Japanese

**Japanese** might mean:

- Anything related to Japan
- Japanese language
- Japanese people
- Japanese cuisine
Marco Polo

**Marco Polo** was born in 1254 and died on January 8, 1324. He was an Italian trader and explorer. He was one of the first Europeans to explore Central Asia and East Asia. Many other explorers, including Christopher Columbus, looked up to him. He spoke four languages.

Marco Polo was known for the book, _Travels of Marco Polo,_ where he talked about Asia.

## Early life

Marco Polo was born in Venice, one of the most successful trading cities. Polo's mother died when he was very young and he was raised by his aunt and uncle. His father and uncle returned from their Silk Road travels when Marco was about 15 years old. Two years later, the three of them started their journey to Cathay (China). His family were well-known merchants, not explorers. He learned about writing, reading, and arithmetic, and how to do business.

## Travels

Polo went on a 24-year trip to China with his father and uncle during the Mongol Dynasty. He left Venice at the age of 17 on a boat that went through the Mediterranean Sea, to Acre, and later to Tabriz and Kerman. Then he travelled across Asia getting as far as Beijing. On the way there he went over mountains and through deserts, across scorching hot lands and places where the cold was unbearable. Arriving in Cathay at age 21, he served in Kublai Khan's court for 17 years. He left the Far East and returned to Venice by sea. There was sickness on board and 600 passengers and crew died. Nevertheless, Marco Polo survived the journey. Polo returned to Venice with treasures like ivory, jade, jewels, porcelain and silk.

Some scholars believe that while Marco Polo did go to China, they doubt that he went to all of the other places described in his book.

## _"Travels of Marco Polo"_

Soon after Polo returned from his journeys he fought in a war against Genoa, got captured and put in prison. When he was in prison, he became friendly with a fellow prisoner, Rusticello, who was a writer of romances and novels. He told the writer about all his adventures, which became a book called _The Travels of Marco Polo_. The published version was written by Rustichello da Pisa, based on what Polo had told him. It became famous throughout Europe. In the book he said that Kublai Khan's wealthy new empire had a postal system. He also talked about the Chinese people. China used paper money that was made from mulberry bark.
Herpes zoster

**Herpes zoster** (also known as **shingles** or **zona**) is a disease in humans.  The same virus that causes chickenpox also causes shingles. The symptoms are pain and a rash with blisters. The shingles vaccine reduces the risk of shingles. Antivirus medicine can reduce the seriousness and duration of shingles if started within 3 days of the rash.

## General information

Shingles is a viral disease produced by the varicella zoster virus (VZV), the same virus that causes chicken pox. Its symptoms include pain and a blistering rash that occurs along the nerves that contain dormant virus. You can not catch shingles. However, you can catch chicken pox through direct contact with someone who has shingles, by touching the area of the rash. Most people who get shingles are old.  It sometimes infects younger people, or people with a weakened immune system.  Stress may trigger shingles.  The disease starts with tingling, itchiness, or pain on an infected person's skin.  After a few days, the disease causes a blistering rash.  This rash may be on the trunk or face.  The rash  grows into small blisters filled with fluid.  These blisters dry out and crust over for several days.  The rash causes anything from mild itching to extreme pain.  The rash stays in one region of the body.

The shingles virus is contagious from person to person only by direct contact.  For this reason, persons with shingles are advised to limit contact with those who are not immune to chicken pox, those with increased risk are young children and pregnant women.  Contracting chickenpox when one is pregnant can be dangerous to the unborn child.

If people have had chickenpox, they cannot get chickenpox from someone else again.  However, it is thought that contact with a shingles patient may trigger a person's own dormant chickenpox virus to become shingles.

## Treatment

Doctors recommend antiviral drugs, steroids, antidepressants, anticonvulsants, and topical agents to treat shingles.  The antiviral drugs acyclovir, valacyclovir, and famcyclovir can reduce the severity of shingles.

## Prognosis

Shingles can be very painful and itchy.  It is not very dangerous to healthy people, and it usually ends without major problems. The rash and pain last 3 to 5 weeks. Sometimes, serious problems like temporary, partial facial paralysis, ear damage, or
encephalitis may occur. Persons with shingles on the upper half of the face need immediate medical attention: the virus may cause serious damage to the eyes. Most people who have shingles have only one attack of the disease in their lifetime. However, people with AIDS, cancer or weak immune systems may have multiple attacks.

## Other websites

- NIH Facts About Shingles
- NINDS Shingles Information Page
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz

**Heinrich Rudolf Hertz** (22 February 1857 – 1 January 1894) was a German physicist. In 1888 he discovered the radio waves previously predicted by Maxwell's equations. He also proved that light is a kind of electromagnetic waves. The unit for frequency is named after him.

Hertz was born in Hamburg in 1857. He studied engineering in Frankfurt and later at the University of Munich. He completed his PhD at the University of Berlin. He taught and continued research at the University of Bonn and University of Kiel.

He died from blood poisoning in 1894.
1850

## Events

- The speed of light in water was observed to be slower than that in air.

## Books

- _The Scarlet Letter_ by Nathaniel Hawthorne

## Births

- January 21 – Paul Vinzenz Busch, ringmaster (d. 1927)
- January 27 – Samuel Gompers, English-born labor leader (d. 1924)
- January 27 – Edward J. Smith, Captain of the Titanic (d. 1912)
- May 1 – Prince Arthur of the United Kingdom (d. 1942)
- May 8 – Ross Barnes, baseball player (d. 1915)
- May 12 –  Henry Cabot Lodge, U.S. statesman (d. 1924)
- May 21 – Giuseppe Mercalli, Italian volcanologist (d. 1914)
- July 12 – Otto Schoetensack, German anthropologist (d. 1912)
- September 2 – Albert Spalding, baseball player and sporting goods manufacturer (d. 1915)
- November 13 – Robert Louis Stevenson, Scottish writer (d. 1894)
- December 9 – Emma Abbott, American opera singer (d. 1891)
- December 21 – Zdenek Fibich, Czech composer (d. 1900)

## Deaths

- July 2 – Robert Peel
- July 9 - Zachary Taylor, 65, twelfth President of the United States, cholera (b. 1784)
1621

## Events

- February 9 – Gregory XV is elected pope.
- February 17 – Miles Standish is appointed as first commander of Plymouth Colony.
- March 16 – Samoset, a Wampanoag, visits the settlers of Plymouth Colony and greets them, "Welcome, Englishmen! My name is Samoset."
- March 22 – The Pilgrims of Plymouth Colony sign a peace treaty with Massasoit of the Wampanoags.
- April 5 – The _Mayflower_ sets sail from Plymouth on a return trip to Great Britain.
- The Swedish city of Gothenburg is founded by Gustavus Adolphus
- Riga falls under rule of Sweden
- Willebrord Snell discovers the laws of refraction.
1687

## Events

- March 19 – The men under explorer Robert Cavelier de La Salle murder him while searching for the mouth of the Mississippi River.
- April 4 – King James II of England issues the Declaration of Indulgence, suspending laws against Catholics and non-conformists.
- May 6 – Emperor Higashiyama succeeds Emperor Reigen on the throne of Japan.
- July 5 –  Isaac Newton's three laws of motion (_Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica_) is published.
- August 12 – Battle of Mohács, fight between Sultan Mehmed IV's Ottoman Turks and Emperor Leopold I's Austrian Habsburgs' forces commanded by Charles of Lorraine.
- September 28 – The Parthenon explodes, while being used as a gunpowder store.
- December 31 – The first Huguenots set sail from France to the Cape of Good Hope.

### Undated

- Change of emperor of the Ottoman Empire from Mehmed IV (1648-1687) to Suleiman II (1687-1691).

## Births

- January 27 – Johann Balthasar Neumann, German architect (died 1753)
- March 7 – Jean Lebeuf, French historian (died. 1760)
- June 24 – Johann Albrecht Bengel, German scholar (died 1757)
- September 7 – Durastante Natalucci, Italian historian (died 1772)
- October 4 – Robert Simson, Scottish mathematician (died 1768)
- October 21 – Nicolaus I Bernoulli, Swiss mathematician (died 1759)
- November 7 – William Stukeley, English archaeologist (died 1765)
- December 5 – Francesco Geminiani, Italian violinist and composer (died 1762)
- December 26 – Johann Georg Pisendel, German musician (died 1755)
- _date unknown_ Shahzada Assadullah Khan Abdali, Persian Governor of Herat (died 1720)

## Deaths

- January 13 – Jean Claude, French Protestant clergyman (born 1619)
- January 28 – Johannes Hevelius, astronomer (born 1611)
- March 19 – René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, French explorer (born 1643)
- March 22 – Jean-Baptiste Lully, French composer (born 1632)
- March 28 – Constantijn Huygens, Dutch poet and composer (born 1596)
- April 12 – Ambrose Dixon, Virginia Colony pioneer (born c.1628)
- April 16 – George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham, English statesman (born 1628)
- September 1 – Henry More, English philosopher (born 1614)
- September 12 – John Alden, Mayflower pilgrim (born c.1599)
- September 28 – Francis Turretin, Swiss theologian (born 1623)
- October 13 – Geminiano Montanari, Italian astronomer (born 1633)
- October 21 – Edmund Waller, English poet (born 1606)
- November 14 – Nell Gwyn, English mistress of Charles II of England (born 1650)
- December 16 – Sir William Petty, English philosopher (born 1623)
1822

## Events

- André-Marie Ampère discovered the attraction between current-carrying wires.
- The law of electric current and magnetic field was developed.
- The Sunday Times newspaper is first published in the United Kingdom.

## Births

- February 25 – Princess Charlotte of Cambridge, British royal (died 1916)
- April 27 – Ulysses S. Grant, eighteenth President of the United States (d. 1885)
- October 4 – Rutherford B. Hayes, nineteenth President of the United States (d. 1893)
- December 27 – Louis Pasteur, French scientist (died 1895)
1824

## Events

- Heat was discovered to be transferred from hot to cold objects.
- Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals founded.
- Brauerei C & A Veltins brewery founded
- Thomas Jefferson University founded
1826

## Events

- The first photograph was taken.

- John Adams second president, and third president Thomas Jefferson both died same day Independence Day.

## Births

- January 12 – William Chapman Rawlston, banker and financier
- January 26 – Louis Favre, Swiss engineer (d. 1879)
- February 16 – Joseph Victor von Scheffel, German poet (d. 1886)
- February 16 – Julia Grant, First Lady of the United States (d. 1902)
- March 4 – Theodore Judah, railroad engineer (d. 1863)
- March 24 – Matilda Joslyn Gage, pioneering feminist (d. 1898)
- March 29 – Wilhelm Liebknecht, German journalist and politician (d. 1900)
- April 6 – Gustave Moreau, French painter (d. 1898)
- May 3 – King Charles XV of Sweden and Norway (d. 1872)
- May 4 – Frederic Edwin Church, American painter (b. 1900)
- June 24 – George Goyder, Surveyor-General of South Australia (d. 1898)
- July 4 – Stephen Foster, American songwriter and poet (d. 1864)
- September 17 – Bernhard Riemann, German mathematician (d. 1866)
- November 13 – Charles Frederick Worth, English couturier (d. 1895)
- November 24 – Carlo Collodi, Italian writer (d. 1890)

## Deaths

- July 4 – John Adams, 90, second President of the United States, heart failure (b. 1735)
- July 4 – Thomas Jefferson, 83, third President of the United States, uremia (b. 1743)

## Books

- _Biographical Sketches and Interesting Anecdotes of Persons of Color_ – Abigail Mott
- _The Broken Heart_ – Catherine Gore
- _Cinq-Mars_ – Alfred de Vigny
- _Deeds of the Olden Time_ – Anne Hatton
- _Gaston de Blondeville_ – Ann Radcliffe
- _Granby_ – T.H. Lister
- _Die Harzreise_ (_The Heart's Journey_) – Heinrich Heine
- _Henry the Fourth of France_ – Alicia Lefanu
- _Honor O'Hara_ – Anna Maria Porter
- _The Last Man_ – Mary Shelley
- _The Last of the Mohicans_ – James Fenimore Cooper
- _Tales Round a Winter Hearth_ – Jane Porter & Anna Maria Porter
- _Vivian Grey_ – Benjamin Disraeli
- _Woodstock_ – Sir Walter Scott
1827

## Events

- People see individual particles of water move.

## Births

- February 5 – Peter Lalor, leader of miners rebellion at Eureka Stockade, Ballarat, Australia

## Deaths

- March 26 – Ludwig van Beethoven

## New Books

- _Book of Songs_  (poetry) – Heinrich Heine
- _Herzog Theodor von Gotland_ (play) – Christian Dietrich Grabbe
- _Hope Leslie_ – Catharine Maria Sedgwick
- _Intrigue_ – Henrietta Rouviere Mosse
- _I Promessi sposi_ (_The Betrothed_) – Alessandro Manzoni
- _The Lettre de Cachet_ – Catherine Gore
- _The O'Briens and The O'Flaherties_ – Sydney Owenson
- _The Prairie_ – James Fenimore Cooper
- _The Red Rover_ – James Fenimore Cooper
- _The Reign of Terror_ – Catherine Gore
- _The Wolf of Badenoch_ – Sir Thomas Dick Lauder
1815

## Events

- Fresnel developed the theory of light diffraction.
- Napoleon loses the Battle of Waterloo and is sent to Saint Helena.

## Births

- January 10 – John A. Macdonald, first Prime Minister of Canada (d. 1891)
- February 15 – Constantin von Tischendorf, German Biblical scholar (d. 1874)
- April 1 – Otto von Bismarck, German statesman (d. 1898)
- April 1 – Edward Clark, Governor of Texas (d. 1880)
- April 6 – Robert Volkmann, German composer (d. 1883)
- April 24 – Anthony Trollope, British writer (d. 1882)
- June 11 - Julia Margaret Cameron, British Indian photographer (d. 1879)
- August 5 – Edward John Eyre, explorer
- October 16 – Francis Lubbock, Governor of Texas (d. 1905)
- October 31 – Karl Weierstraß, German mathematician (d. 1897)
- November 2 – George Boole, English mathematician and philosopher (d. 1864)
- December 10 – Augusta Ada King (née Byron), Countess of Lovelace, early English computer pioneer (d. 1852)
- November 12 – Elizabeth Cady Stanton, American women's rights activist (d. 1902)
- December 21 – Thomas Couture, French painter (d. 1879)

## Deaths

- January 8 – Edward Pakenham, British general (killed in battle) (born 1778)
- January 16 – Emma, Lady Hamilton, English mistress of Horatio Nelson (born 1765)
- February 24 – Robert Fulton, American inventor (born 1765)
- February 26 – Prince Josias of Coburg, Austrian general (born 1737)
- March 4 – Frances Abington, English actress (born 1737)
- March 5 – Franz Mesmer, German developer of hypnotism (born 1734)
- April 21 – Joseph Winston, American patriot and Congressman from North Carolina (born 1746)
- June 1 – Louis Alexandre Berthier, French marshal (born 1753)
- June 16 – Friedrich Wilhelm, Duke of Brunswick, German noble and general (killed in battle) (born 1771)
- June 18 – Thomas Picton, British general (killed in battle) (born 1758)
- June 18 – Claude-Etienne Michel, French general (killed in battle) (born 1772)
- June 18 – Guillaume Philibert Duhesme, French general (killed in battle) (born 1766)
- August 2 – Guillaume Marie Anne Brune, French marshal (murdered) (born 1763)
- August 6 – James A. Bayard (elder), U.S. Senator from Delaware (born 1767)
- September 9 – John Singleton Copley, American painter (born 1738)
- September 20 – Nicolas Desmarest, French geologist (born 1725)
- October 13 – Joachim Murat, French marshal and King of Naples (executed) (born 1767)
- December 3 – John Carroll (priest), first American Roman Catholic Archbishop (born 1735)
- December 7 – Michel Ney, French marshal (executed) (born 1769)
- December 29 – Saartjie Baartman, sideshow performer
Deep house

**Deep house** is a type of house music. It has influences from disco music and jazz music. The BPM of deep house is usually 100 - 128.

## Infobox (music genre)

- **name**: Deep House
- **color**: black
- **bgcolor**: Darkblue
- **popularity**: originated in the US in the mid-1980s, grew popular in the 1990s.
Cytokine

**Cytokines** are a group of signalling molecules made by cells. They help to control the immune system and fight disease. They are similar to hormones and, as we learn more about each, distinctions between the two are fading.

Cytokines carry signals locally between cells, and these signals have an effect on other cells. They are made of proteins, peptides, or glycoproteins. The cytokines are a large family of polypeptide regulators that are produced throughout the body by many groups of cells.

Some well-known cytokines include interferon, prostaglandin and interleukins. Cytokines can be detected using the ELISA and ELISPOT techniques.

Cytokines work by signal transduction. Each cytokine has a matching cell-surface receptor. Then cascades of signals inside the cell changes cell functions. This may include the regulation of several genes, the production of other cytokines, or an increase in surface receptors for other molecules.

## Related pages

- Cytokine storm
- Signal transduction
- Signal (biology)
1858

## Events

- Charles Darwin proposes the natural selection of species.
- A civil war between conservatists and liberals starts in Mexico.
- The British Empire or rule, begins in India after the surrender and exile of the last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah II

## Births

- January 7 – Eliezer Ben-Yehuda, Russian-born advocate of the Hebrew language (d. 1922)
- January 10 – Heinrich Zille, German illustrator and photographer (d. 1929)
- January 11 – Harry Gordon Selfridge, American department store magnate (d. 1947)
- March 10 – Kokichi Mikimoto, Japanese pearl farm pioneer (d. 1954)
- March 18 – Rudolf Diesel, German inventor (d. 1913)
- March 23 – Ludwig Quidde, German pacifist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1941)
- April 23 – Max Planck, German physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1947)
- June 16 – King Gustaf V of Sweden (d. 1950)
- June 16 – William Dickson Boyce, founder of the Boy Scouts of America (d. 1929)
- July 9 – Franz Boas, German anthropologist (d. 1942)
- August 1 – Hans Rott, Austrian composer (d. 1884)
- August 11 – Christiaan Eijkman, Dutch physician and pathologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1930)
- August 27 – Giuseppe Peano, Italian mathematician (d. 1932)
- September 18 – Kate Booth, the oldest daughter of William and Catherine Booth (d. 1955)
- October 3 – Eleonora Duse, Italian actress (d. 1924)
- October 27 – Theodore Roosevelt, twenty-sixth President of the United States, Nobel Peace Prize recipient (d. 1919)
- November 20 – Selma Lagerlöf, Swedish writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1940)
- November 30 – Jagdish Chandra Bose, Indian physicist (d. 1937)
- December 22 – Giacomo Puccini, Italian composer (d. 1924)
- December 25 – Herman P. Faris, American temperance movement leader (d. 1936)
1899

**1899** (MDCCCXCIX) was a common year starting on Sunday in the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Friday in the Julian calendar, the 1899th year of the Common Era (CE) and _Anno Domini_ (AD) designations, .

## Events

- January 1 – Queens and Staten Island join with New York City.
- June 19 - The United Kingdom and Egypt begin ruling Sudan together.

### Date unknown

- Thomson measures the charge and mass of an electron.
- The 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane hits the Bahamas, Florida and North Carolina

### January

- January 17 – Al Capone, American gangster (d. 1947)

### February

- February 10 - Cevdet Sunay, 5th President of Turkey (d. 1982)
- February 17 – Priscilla Bonner, American film actress (d. 1996)
- February 23 – Erich Kästner, German children's writer (d. 1974)

### March

- March 27 – Gloria Swanson, American actress (d. 1983)

### April

- April 22 – Vladimir Nabokov, Russian writer (d. 1977)
- April 29 – Duke Ellington, American pianist and jazz musician (d. 1974)

### May

- May 10 – Fred Astaire, American dancer and actor (d. 1987)
- May 24 – Kazi Nazrul Islam, Bangladeshi poet (d. 1976)

### July

- July 1 – Konstantinos Tsatsos, President of Greece (b. 1987)
- July 7 - George Cukor, American director (d. 1983)
- July 11 – E. B. White, American writer (d. 1985)
- July 17 – James Cagney, American actor (d. 1986)
- July 21 – Ernest Hemingway, American author (d. 1961)
- July 22 – Sobhuza II of Swaziland, King of Swaziland (d. 1982)
- July 23 – Gustav Heinemann, 3rd President of Germany (d. 1976)

### August

- August 13 – Alfred Hitchcock, English movie director (d. 1980)
- August 28 – Chang Myon, 2nd, 7th Prime Minister of South Korea (d. 1966)
- August 28 – Charles Boyer, French actor (d. 1978)

### September

- September 3 – Frank Macfarlane Burnet, Australian physician and virologist (d. 1985)
- September 23 - Louise Nevelson, American sculptor
- September 26 – S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike, Prime Minister of Sri Lanka (d. 1959)

### October

- October 4 – Franz Jonas, President of Austria (d. 1974)

### November

- November 24 – Zalman Shazar, 3rd President of Israel (d. 1974)
- November 29 - Genevieve Tobin, American actress (d. 1995)

### December

- December 3 – Hayato Ikeda, Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1965)
- December 19 – Martin Luther King Sr., American Baptist preacher (d. 1984)
- December 25 – Humphrey Bogart, American actor (d. 1957)
Bright Eyes (band)

**Bright Eyes** is an American indie rock band. The people in the band are Conor Oberst, a singer-songwriter; Mike Mogis, a musician and producer; and other friends and session musicians from Omaha, Nebraska, USA.

Many people think the band's songs are about Oberst, but Oberst has said that they are not. For example, one song, "Padraic My Prince", tells the fictional story of a mother drowning her son in a bathtub. In interviews, Oberst has said that he sings about such things to make rich emotions.

### Albums

- _Letting Off the Happiness_ (1998)
- _Fevers and Mirrors_ (2000)
- _A Collection of Songs: Recorded 1995-1997_ (2000)
- _Lifted or the Story Is in the Soil, Keep Your Ear to the Ground_ (2002)
- _Vinyl Box Set_ (7 LP's) (2003)  This collection contains Oberst's first five releases plus bonus material.
- _I'm Wide Awake, It's Morning_ (2005)
- _Digital Ash in a Digital Urn_ (2005)
- _Cassadaga_ (2007)
- _The People's Key_ (2011)
- _Down in the Weeds, Where the World Once Was_ (2020)

### EPs/Singles

The band has made many extended plays (EPs) and singles.
- _Every Day and Every Night_ EP (1999)
- "Don't Be Frightened Of Turning The Page" (2001)
- "Oh Holy Fools: The Music of Son, Ambulance & Bright Eyes" (2001)
- "Drunk Kid Catholic" CDS (2001)
- _There Is No Beginning To The Story_ EP (2002)
- _Lover I Don't Have To Love_ CDS (2002)
- _Home: IV_ EP (2004)
- _One Jug of Wine, Two Vessels_ EP (2004)
- "Lua" (2004)
- _Take It Easy (Love Nothing)_ (2004)
- _Four Winds_ EP (2007)

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Bright Eyes
- **img**: BrightEyes-2007.jpg
- **img capt**: Conor Oberst of Bright Eyes performs at the Lied Center in Lawrence, Kansas on October 23, 2007
- **landscape**: yes
- **background**: group_or_band
- **origin**: Omaha, Nebraska, Omaha, Nebraska, United States
- **genre**: Indie rock, indie folk, emo
- **years active**: 1995present
- **label**: Saddle Creek Records, Saddle Creek
Polydor
<small>(outside North America)</small>
- **associated acts**: Desaparecidos (band), Desaparecidos
Commander Venus
Park Ave.
The Faint
Conor Oberst and the Mystic Valley Band
Monsters of Folk
- **url**: [http://www.thisisbrighteyes.com thisisbrighteyes.com]
- **current members**: Conor Oberst
Mike Mogis
Nate Walcott