juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
XML

The **Extensible Markup Language** (short XML) is a markup language like HTML but is extensible. It's created by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). XML defines rules for the construction of a document. XML adds context to the information in a document. It does not say how this should be displayed.

Some programs get information out of an XML-document. To do that, they need an API.  There are many APIs for XML.JSON was built to replace this purpose of XML.

You can write a description of an XML document in a way that is useful for programmers. There are several languages for this; the best known is called DTD.

## Syntax

XML uses less than (<) and greater than (>) to show tags. For example, a paragraph in HTML would be `<p>`.

A closing tag is a tag used to enclose the value of the tag. The tag has a slash (/) before its name. For example, `</p>`

A tag which is empty can be represented as an opening tag but with a slash before the `>`. For example, `<p/>` (or `<p />`)

The XML specification defines a valid XML document as a well-formed XML document which also conforms to the rules of a Document Type Definition (DTD).

## Languages

The following languages are based on XML.

### Text

- XSL-FO
- DocBook
- DITA
- XHTML (HTML based on ALL)
- TEI (Text Encoding Initiative)
- NITF (News Industry Text Format)

### Images

- SVG (vector graphics)
- X3D (3D modelling language)
- Collada (Language to change informations between different 3D programs)

### Earth

- Geography Markup Language (GML)
- GPS Exchange Format (GPX): XML for GPS informatons
- Keyhole Markup Language (KML): coordinates for Google Earth
- OpenImmo : XML for Houses with position informations

### Multimedia

- SMIL (Informations with times from multimedia)
- MPEG-7 (for MPEG-7)
- Laszlo (LZX)

### Safety

- SAML (describe and send informations about safety)
- XML Signature
- XML Encryption

### Other

There are a lot more languages that use XML. A couple of them are:
- RSS
- WAP/WML

## Other websites

- XeML.net
- W3C XML Page

## Infobox (file format)

- **name**: XML
- **screenshot**: XML.svg
- **screenshot size**: 250px
- **extension**: .xml
- **mime**: `application/xml`
`text/xml`
- **uniform type**: public.xml
- **conforms to**: public.text
- **owner**: World Wide Web Consortium
- **genre**: Markup language
- **extended from**: Standard Generalized Markup Language, SGML
- **extended to**: List of XML markup languages, Numerous, including:
XHTML, RSS, Atom (standard), Atom, KML
- **standard**: [http://www.w3.org/TR/2008/REC-xml-20081126/ 1.0 (Fifth Edition)]
[http://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/ 1.1 (Second Edition)]
- **free**: Yes
World Money Fair

The **World Money Fair** is an international bourse of coins. A _bourse_ is where dealers, collectors and the public to buy, sell and trade coins.

In 1970 A. M Beck founded in Muinch the "Organisation of European Coins-Bourses", "Organisation Europäischer Münzen-Börsen" (OEMB) in German. He had the idea to build up a stronger market for the collecting of coins.

Two years later the organisation organized in Basel the 1st international bourse of coins. During the time it was developed to the "World Money Fair". Today more than 40 nations are members of this organisation. In 2006, the bourse is at the 1st time in Berlin. At the start the German Secretary of State Karl Diller presented the new German 2 Euro Coin. It shows the Holstentor of Lübeck.
Autocracy

**Autocracy** is a form of government where a single person holds all the power. That person (called an autocrat) can do anything they want legally or politically. They make all decisions, and there is no separation of powers. They may use propaganda, censorship, and/or violence to control people.

Two types of autocracy exist today: absolute monarchies and dictatorships. According to one report, 71% of the world's 2024 population lives in an autocracy.

In modern times, most autocrats have gained power as part of a larger nationalist, communist, or fascist movement. Once in power, they eliminate all other kinds of authority in the country, like judges, the legislature, and political parties. All totalitarian regimes are autocracies.

Having an autocratic government does not mean the country is governed well or governed poorly. It is just a description on how it is set up.

## History

Some of the earliest human governments were autocracies. For much of recorded history, almost everybody lived in an absolute monarchy, an empire, or a dictatorship.

### Pre-modern times

The Roman Empire under Augustus is an early example. In 27 BCE, Augustus founded the Empire after the end of the Roman Republic.  Augustus officially kept the Roman Senate while gathering all power and influence for himself.

Between the years 139 - 192, the Eastern Han Dynasty under Dong Zhuo was an autocracy.

The Aztec Empire in Mesoamerica (c. 1345-1521 AD) was an autocracy. The Aztec Emperor alone ruled the Empire and its military. He was also the religious figurehead behind the empire's aggressive foreign policy. (During this time, the priesthood supported a pantheon that demanded human sacrifice, and most of the nobility were warriors who had captured many prisoners for these sacrificial rites.)

### Modern times

More recently, the Empire of Japan under Hirohito (1926-1989) was an autocratic government. Some dictators have been called autocratic in recent years.

Robyn Elrick wrote: > _Autocracy is the dark mirror of democracy. While democracy is based on our freedom to speak and assemble freely, and requires a range of choices in who and what to vote for, autocracies are the opposite._

## Related pages

- De facto rule
- Absolute monarchy
- Dictatorship
- Byzantine Empire
- Political polarization
- Theocracy
- Totalitarianism
Oligarchy

**Oligarchy** is a form of government. In an oligarchic system, all the power is held by a small group of people. It is usually the most powerful people who govern the state. The kingship alternated between three leading families. Oligarchy can be a form of dictatorship.

## Rule by the best

An oligarchy where _the best_ rule is called _Aristocracy_.

## Rule by the rich

If the richest people rule the country, this is called _Plutocracy_.

## Other websites

- Online Text: Leonard Whibley, _Greek Oligarchies: Their Character and Organisation_  (1896), still the only full-scale treatment of oligarchy in Classical Greece.
Land

**Land** can mean some territory, forming part of a country. Dry land is the parts of Earth's surface not covered by the ocean or other permanent body of water. About 29% of the surface of Earth is dry land, while the rest is covered with liquid water. Land can have different types of soil; it may be covered with stones, sand, dirt, etc. Sometimes it is not clear where land ends and a body of water begins.

## Amount and types of land

The total area of Earth is about 510 million km<sup>2</sup>. About 149 million km<sup>2</sup>, which is 29% of the surface, is land. Large masses of ice called glaciers cover 15 million km<sup>2</sup>, or 10% of the land area. The biggest continuous landmasses are called continents, and smaller landmasses, surrounded by water, are called islands.

19% of land on Earth (28 million km<sup>2</sup>), is barren: without plants. This includes deserts, beaches, and rocky areas with no soil. 26% of land (39 million km<sup>2</sup>) is forests. 8% of land (12 million km<sup>2</sup>) is shrubland or grassland. 1% of land (1.5 million km<sup>2</sup>) is cities, towns, and land used for infrastructure. The remaining 34% of land (51 million km<sup>2</sup>) is used for farming: 7% (11 million km<sup>2</sup>) for crops (plants) 27% (40 million km<sup>2</sup>) for livestock (animals).

## Formation of land

Even today, some land is being formed and some land is sinking into the ocean. The surface of the earth, which includes both the land and the ocean floor, is made of large pieces of rock called tectonic plates. Continental plates are thicker and lighter, so they stay at the top and make up the land surface. Oceanic plates are thinner and heavier, so they sink down and make up the ocean surface.

Tectonic plates move over time, which is called continental drift. When two continental plates push into each other, they fold upwards to make mountains. When they move apart, they form a rift valley: the East African rift valley is forming now. Islands can be formed by volcanoes: the Hawaiian islands are a good example. Over time, land can wear away through erosion and sink below sea level. This can be seen with the Hawaiian islands, because the newer islands are taller than the older islands.

## Related pages

- Geology
- Landscape
- Land (economics)

## Other websites

- Conserving Land for People
Surface

A **surface** is the outer part of something. Most surfaces have a width and a length, but no depth.

Surfaces are studied in geometry.

## Examples of Surfaces

- An apple has a skin on its surface.
- People live on the Earth's surface.
- A piece of metal is put in red paint. The metal is taken out of the paint. After, the outside of the piece of metal is red. The parts of the metal that are now red are called the _surface_ of the object.
- Boats move on the surface of the sea.
- Small insects can walk on the surface of the water, because of surface tension.
Sexual slavery

**Sexual slavery** is a special case of slavery or forced labour. Sexual slaves are like normal slaves, except for the following:
1. They are forced to engage in sexual activities. This includes forced labor that results in sexual activity, forced marriage and sex trafficking, such as the sexual trafficking of children. They may have been forced into prostitution.
1. The people are slaves, forced to do non-sexual labour. However, sexual relations with the slaves may be permitted, or even common.
1. They may be forced into sexual slavery with only one master. Often the fact that they really are slaves is hidden through marriages.

This term is also used in the Vienna Declaration of human rights and in humanitarian international law.

Official estimates of people in sexual slavery worldwide vary. In 2001 the International Organization for Migration estimated 400,000, the Federal Bureau of Investigation estimated 700,000 and UNICEF estimated 1.75 million.

## Different forms

Sexual slavery has many forms, such as sexual bondage to a single owner or ritual slavery linked to certain religious practices. An example of this is ritual servitude in some civilizations in Ghana, Togo, and Benin. Criminal organizations such as  Zwi Migdal also force people into prostitution. Non-consensual sexual activities were common as well.

In some cultures, Concubinage has been a traditional form of sexual slavery. In concubinage, women spent their lives in sexual servitude, notably Concubinage in Islam. In some cultures, enslaved concubines and their children had distinct rights and legitimate social positions.

## Modern types

Today, there are different types of sexual slavery:

- Adults are exploited for sexual activities. This is human trafficking for sexual purposes , and is often called sex trafficking.
- Children are exploited for sexual activities. This takes the forms of child sex tourism and Child pornography.
- Mainly women and children are sex slaves, who are trafficked. They must then produce sexual content online, which paying customers can watch. This is called cybersex trafficking.
- People are forced into marriage, which is used to hide the fact that they are sex slaves. This can include children forced to marry.
- Brides are kidnapped
- People become sex slaves as a result of wartime sexual violence
1784

## Events

- The Congress of the United States signs a treaty to end the American Revolutionary War.
- The Methodist Church is started by John Wesley.

## Births

- October 13 – King Ferdinand VII of Spain
- November 24 – Zachary Taylor, twelfth President of the United States (d. 1850)

## Deaths

- August 28 – Junípero Serra, Spanish missionary
- December 26 – Seth Warner, American Revolutionary War leader
Sildenafil

**Sildenafil** is an aphrodisiac. It is also called **Viagra**, **Revatio**, and in the Indian subcontinent ‒ **Caverta**.

## Medical uses

Sildenafil makes the blood vessels become wider. This lowers the blood pressure. Sildenafil mostly works in the penis and lungs. This medicine increases blood flow to the penis. This helps the penis become erect during sexual intercourse. Sildenafil also helps pulmonary hypertension. Because this medicine makes the blood vessels wider, it makes it easier for blood to flow. Sildenafil was patented in 1996 and first made to sell in 1998.

## Related pages

- Statin
- Beta blocker
1825

## Events

- January 4 – King Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies dies and is succeeded by his son Francis I of the Two Sicilies.
- February 12 – The Creek cede the last of their lands in Georgia to the United States government, and migrate west
- March 4 – John Quincy Adams officially succeeds James Monroe as President of the United States.
- July 6 – The Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sønderborg-Beck gains possession of Glücksburg and changes his title to Friedrich Wilhelm, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg. The line of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg later became the Royal House of Greece, Denmark and Norway.
- July 30 – Malden Island (an uninhabited island in the central Pacific Ocean) discovered.
- August 6 – Bolivia gains independence from Peru as a republic with the instigation of Simón Bolívar
- August 25 – Uruguay declares independence from Brazil (See Uruguay's independence)
- September 27 – The world's first modern railway, the Stockton and Darlington Railway opens in England.
- October 26 – The Erie Canal opens – passage from Albany, New York to Lake Erie
- December 1 – Nicholas I of Russia succeeds his older brother Alexander I.
- Decembrist Revolt in Russia.
- The first horse-drawn omnibuses established in London
- First roller skates
- Aluminium discovered
- City of Brisbane founded – see History of Brisbane
- The electromagnet was invented by William Sturgeon

## Deaths

- May 2 – Michail Leontievich Bulatov, Russian military
1771

## Events

- January 17 – Johann Friedrich Struensee and Queen Caroline Matilda are arrested, leading to his execution and her banishment from Denmark
- July 17 – Massacre at Bloody Falls: Chipewyan chief Matonabbee traveling as the guide to Samuel Hearne on his Arctic overland journey, massacre a group of unsuspecting Inuit.
- September 8 – In California, Fathers Pedro Cambon and Angel Somera found Mission San Gabriel Arcangel in what is now San Gabriel, California.
- October 9 – The Dutch merchant ship Vrouw Maria sinks near the coast of Finland. Captain Raymund Lourens and his crew escape unharmed.
- November 16 – During the night the Tyne floods, destroying many bridges and killing several people; the main bridge at Newcastle upon Tyne is not completed until 1781
- Discovery of Oxygen.
- The territory of Baden-Baden is inherited by the Margrave of Baden-Durlach, forming Baden.
- Emperor Go-Momozono ascends to the throne of Japan
- Plague in Moscow – 57,000 dead
- The trade monopoly with Iceland is transferred to the Danish crown.

## Births

- April 13 – Richard Trevithick, English inventor (d. 1833)
- April 18 – Karl Philipp Fürst zu Schwarzenberg, Austrian field marshal (d. 1820)
- April 27 – Jean Rapp, French general (d. 1821)
- June 5 – Prince Ernest Augustus of Great Britain, King of Hanover (d. 1851)
- August 14 – Sir Walter Scott, Scottish writer (d. 1832)
- September 5 – Archduke Charles of Austria, Austrian general and statesman (d. 1847)
- September 23 – Emperor Kokaku of Japan (d. 1840)
- October 9 – Frederick William, Duke of Brunswick (d. 1815)
- October 23 – Jean-Andoche Junot, French general (d. 1813)
- November 14 – Marie François Xavier Bichat, French anatomist and physiologist (d. U momma)
1777

## Events

- The Cornish language died out
- 2nd edition of _Encyclopædia Britannica_ published
- January 3 – American Revolutionary War: American general George Washington defeats British general Charles Cornwallis at the Battle of Princeton.
- January 12 – Mission Santa Clara de Asís is founded in what is now Santa Clara, California
- January 16 – Vermont declares its independence from New York becoming an independent country, a status it retained until it joined the United States as the 14th state in 1791
- June 13 – American Revolutionary War: Marquis de Lafayette lands near Charleston, South Carolina to help the Continental Congress train its army.
- June 14 – Stars and Stripes adopted by the Continental Congress as the Flag of the United States.
- August 16 – American Revolutionary War:  Battle of Bennington – British forces are defeated by American troops.
- September 3 – Cooch's Bridge – Skirmish of American Revolutionary war in New Castle County, Delaware where the Flag of the United States was flown in battle for the first time.
- September 11 – Battle of Brandywine – Major American Revolutionary war victory for British in Chester County, Pennsylvania.
- September 19 – American Revolutionary War: First Battle of Saratoga/Battle of Freeman's Farm/Battle of Bemis Heights.
- October 4 – American Revolutionary War: Battle of Germantown– Troops under George Washington are repelled by British troops under Sir William Howe.
- October 17 – American Revolutionary War: Battle of Saratoga– American troops defeat the British.
- November 15 – American Revolutionary War: After 16 months of debate, the Continental Congress approves the Articles of Confederation in the temporary American capital at York, Pennsylvania.
- November 17 – Articles of Confederation submitted to the states for ratification.
- November 29 – San Jose, California founded.  It is the first _pueblo_ in Spanish Alta California.
- December 24 – Kiritimati discovered by James Cook
- The code duello is adopted at the Clonmell Summer Assizes as the form for pistol duels in Ireland.  It is quickly denounced but nevertheless widely adopted throughout the English-speaking world.
1757

## Events

- January 2 – The United Kingdom captures Calcutta, India.
- March 14 – On board the HMS _Monarch_, Royal Navy Admiral John Byng is executed by firing squad for breach of the Articles of War.
- May 6 – Battle of Prague – Frederick the Great defeats an Austrian army and begins to besiege the city.
- June 18 – Battle of Kolin – Frederick is defeated by an Austrian army under Marshal Daun, forcing him to evacuate Bohemia.
- June 23 – Battle of Plassey – 3000 British troops under Robert Clive defeat a 50,000 strong Indian army under Siraj-ud-Dawlah at Plassey.
- July 26 – Battle of Hastenbeck – An Anglo-Hanoverian army under the Duke of Cumberland is defeated by the French under Louis d'Estrées and forced out of Hanover.
- July 30 – Battle of Gross-Jägersdorf – A Prussian army under Hans von Lehwald is defeated by the Russian army of Marshal Stepan Apraksin.
- October 16 – Austrian raiders plunder Berlin.
- October 30 – Osman III dies and is succeeded as Ottoman Sultan by Mustafa III.
- November 5 – Battle of Rossbach. Frederick defeats the French-Imperial army under the Duc de Soubise and Prince Joseph of Saxe-Hildburghausen, forcing the French to withdraw from Saxony.
- November 22 – Battle of Breslau – An Austrian army under Prince Charles of Lorraine defeats the Prussian army of Wilhelm of Brunswick-Bevern and forces the Austrians behind the Oder.
- December 6 – Battle of Leuthen – Frederick defeats Prince Charles's Austrian army.
4 BC

Year **4 BC** was a common year starting on Tuesday or Wednesday of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the **Year of the Consulship of Sabinus and Rufus**.

## Events

- Herod Archelaus becomes the ruler of Judea. Herod Antipas rules Galilee and Perea.
- Publius Quintilius Varus leads Roman legions to Jerusalem to restore order. He crucifies 2,000 Jewish rebels.

## Births

- Jesus (possible)

## Deaths

- Herod the Great  14 Jan 1AD (b. 69 BC)
- Marcus Tullius Tiro, freedman of Cicero
Sylvester McCoy

**Percy James Patrick Kent-Smith** or **Sylvester McCoy** (born 20 August 1943) is a Scottish actor. He is best known for playing the seventh incarnation of the Doctor on _Doctor Who_ from 1987 to 1989, he also briefly played the Doctor in beginning of the 1996 TV movie.

## Infobox (actor)

- **name**: Sylvester McCoy
- **image**: Sylvester.McCoy.JPG
- **birthname**: Percy James Patrick Kent-Smith
- **birth place**: Dunoon, Argyll & Bute, Scotland
- **height**: 5'6"
- **othername**: Sylvester McCoy
- **homepage**: [http://www.sylvestermccoy.com Sylvester McCoy] - The Unofficial Site
- **known for**: Playing "Seventh Doctor, The Doctor" on _Doctor Who_
Paul McGann

**Paul McGann** (born 14 November 1959) is an English actor. He is best known for his roles in _Withnail and I_ (1987) and as the Eighth Doctor in the 1996 _Doctor Who_ television movie.
Georgia O'Keeffe

**Georgia O’Keeffe** (November 15 1887 – March 6 1986) was an American artist. She is known for her colorful close-up painting of flowers.

She was born on November 15, 1887 on a farm in Sun Prairie, Wisconsin. O'Keeffe studied art at the Art Institute of Chicago and the Art Students League of New York.

Georgia O'Keeffe married Alfred Stieglitz in 2010. Stieglitz was a famous photographer and he helped O'Keeffe gain success in her career. He owned the gallery which held her first solo exhibition.

In 1929 O'Keeffe traveled to New Mexico. She was inspired by the desert and light. She moved there in 1949.

In 1970 the Whitney Museum of American Art held a retrospective exhibition of her work.

O’Keeffe died on March 6, 1986 in Santa Fe at the age of 98.

## Auction record

O'Keefe holds the world auction record for a painting by a woman (November 2014). Her _Jimson Weed/White Flower No 1_ sold for $44.4m (£28.8m) at the O'Keeffe Museum in Santa Fe, New Mexico. O'Keeffe's large-format depictions of flowers which she painted as if they had been seen in close-up.

## Infobox (artist)

- **name**: Georgia O'Keeffe
- **image**: O'Keeffe-(hands).jpg
- **caption**: O'Keeffe in 1918, photograph by Alfred Stieglitz
- **birth name**: Georgia Totto O'Keeffe
- **birth place**: Sun Prairie, Wisconsin
- **death place**: Santa Fe, New Mexico
- **movement**: American modernism, Precisionism
- **awards**: National Medal of Arts
 Presidential Medal of Freedom
 Edward MacDowell Medal
- **field**: Visual arts: painting, sculpture, photography
Deadly nightshade

**Deadly nightshade** or **belladonna** (_Atropa belladonna_) is a well-known, hardy perennial shrub. It is a member of the nightshade family.

It can be found in a few different continents: Europe; North Africa; Asia; and North America, but is far less common there. Usually it grows in the shade. The plant does not like direct sunlight. Often it grows in places where the soil is rich in limestone.

## Dangers of belladonna

Most parts of the plant are known to be very poisonous. Children have died from eating as few as three berries. One leaf contains enough poison to kill an adult. The root usually contains the most poison.

The poison present in the plant is called atropine.

## Effects of the poison

The effects of atropine are dilated (big) pupils, hallucinations, and difficulty in seeing (the vision may not be as sharp as always, it may be difficult to focus on some object). Other symptoms include: problems keeping upright; feeling like one is flying; and being confused.
The pulse of the victim grows faster and faster, and the rate at which the heart is beating will go up. Toxic reaction to atropine causes fever, delirium, stupor (nearly being unconscious) and rash on head, neck and upper trunk. There may be agitation, difficulty in speaking and swallowing. Coma and convulsions usually come before death.
Perennial

A **perennial** is a plant that bears leaves and perhaps flowers every year.

Some plants only bear leaves and flowers once, then they die. Such plants are called _annual_.

Other plants live for two years. They are called _biennial_.

Most trees and shrubs are perennial plants.
Shrub

A **shrub** or **bush** is a category of plants. A tree usually has one stem, which at some height has branches. A _shrub_ can have multiple stems from the bottom up. Usually, bushes do not grow as tall as trees, very often they are less than 1–2 m tall.

Very many  plants can be either shrubs or trees, depending on the growing conditions. Small, low shrubs such as lavender, periwinkle and thyme are often termed subshrubs. Shrubs can be either deciduous or evergreen.

A **shrubbery** is a garden with shrubs as the main feature.

## Shrubs as a botanical structural form

In botany and ecology a shrub is more specifically used to describe the particular physical structural or plant life-form of woody plants which are less than 8 meters high and usually have many stems arising at or near the base.

For example, a descriptive system widely used in Australia is based on structural characteristics based on life-form, plus the height and amount of foliage cover of the tallest layer or dominant species.

For shrubs 2–8 m high the following structural forms are categorized:
- dense foliage cover (70–100%) — **closed-scrub**
- mid-dense foliage cover (30–70%) — **open-scrub**
- sparse foliage cover (10–30%) — **tall shrubland**
- very sparse foliage cover (<10%) — **tall open shrubland**

For shrubs less than 2 m high the following structural forms are categorized:
- dense foliage cover (70–100%) — **closed-heath**
- mid-dense foliage cover (30–70%) — **heath**
- sparse foliage cover (10–30%) — **low shrubland**
- very sparse foliage cover (<10%) — **low open shrubland**

## Other websites

- Selecting Shrubs for Your Home (University of Illinois Extension)
Evergreen

An **evergreen** is a plant which keeps its leaves throughout the year. This is different from deciduous plants, which lose their leaves during the winter or wet seasons. There are many different kinds of evergreen plants, both trees and shrubs.
Deciduous

**Deciduous** means "temporary" or "tending to fall off" (deriving from the Latin word _decidere_, to fall off).
When talking about plants this means that the plant loses its leaves, usually in autumn. The leaves will then grow again in spring.

When referring to teeth, it means the teeth at the front of the mouth that grow and fall out and are replaced in childhood. They are called deciduous teeth.

In botany and horticulture, **deciduous plants** are trees, shrubs and herbaceous perennials which lose all of their leaves for part of the year. This is called abscission. Leaf loss happens in winter in temperate or polar climates.

With evergreens, foliage is shed differently from deciduous trees. They seem green year round. Plants that are intermediate may be called semi-deciduous; they lose old foliage as new growth begins. Other plants are semi-evergreen and lose their leaves before the next growing season, keeping some in winter or dry periods. Some trees, including a few species of oak, have desiccated leaves that stay on the tree through winter. These persistent dry leaves are dropped in the spring as new growth begins.

Many deciduous plants flower during the period when they are leafless, as this increases the effectiveness of pollination. Not having leaves also improves wind transmission of pollen for wind-pollinated plants and increases the visibility of the flowers to insects in insect-pollinated plants.
Shade

**Shade** is produced when the sun is shining and an object, a tree for example, blocks the direct sunlight so that it cannot reach a certain spot. The dark image which the object casts on the ground (or on another object) is called shadow, not _shade_.

**Shade** can also mean a darker or lighter color of the same base color. For example: in a picture of a tree's shadow, the grass in the shade will be a darker _shade_ of green than the grass out of the shade.
Shadow

A shadow is a dark area on a bright surface. It is caused by something that is blocking a source of light. A shadow's outline, called a silhouette, will have the same shape as the object blocking the light. Shadows can't form when it's dark.

Depending on the light source, or sources, a wide range of effects can be produced. A point source of light casts only a simple shadow, called an "umbra". A "penumbra" is the region in which only a portion of the light source may be blocked. If there is more than one light source, there will be several shadows, with the overlapping parts darker, and various combinations of brightness or even colours. The more diffuse the lighting is, the softer and more indistinct the shadow outlines become, until they disappear. The lighting of an overcast sky produces few visible shadows.

Astronomical shadows are usually sharp. This is because in space the light usually does not go through an atmosphere.Did you know that the sun is a star! And the sun is the biggest  and main light source in our solar system.
1553

**1553** (MDLIII) was a common year starting on Sunday in the Julian calendar.

## Events

- June 26 – Christ's Hospital and King Edward's School, Witley created by Royal Charter
- July 6 – Edward VI of England dies
- July 10 – Lady Jane Grey is proclaimed Queen of England – for the next nine days
- July 18 – Lord Mayor of London proclaims Queen Mary as the rightful Queen – Lady Jane Grey willingly gives up the title of queen.
- August 2 – Battle of Marciano. French forces invading Italy under Marshal Blaise de Monluc are defeated by an imperial army under the Marquis of Marignano and are forced to retreat into Siena, which is besieged by the imperial forces.
- August 3 – Queen Mary arrives in London
- August 22 – Duke of Northumberland, supporter of Jane Grey, executed
- September Protestant bishops in England are arrested and Roman Catholic bishops are restored
- September 23 – The Sadians consolidate their power in Morocco by defeating the last of their enemies
- October 27 – Calvinists burn Michael Servetus as a heretic in Geneva
- Battle of Sievershausen – Elector Maurice of Saxony defeats the Catholic forces of Margrave Albert of Brandenburg-Kulmbach. Maurice is mortally wounded.
- Shanghai is fortified for the first time.
1732

**1732** (MDCCXXXII) was a leap year starting on Tuesday in the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Saturday in the Julian calendar.

## Events

- February 23 –  First performance of Handel's _Orlando_, in London
- June 9 – James Oglethorpe is granted a royal charter for the colony of Georgia.
- December 7 – The original Covent Garden Theatre Royal (now the Royal Opera House) is opened
- Genoa regains Corsica
- 139 members of the Paris Parlement are exiled by order of the King, but are eventually triumphant over the Crown, and secure their recall in December
- Cobalt discovered

## Births

- February 22 - George Washington, first President of the United States (d. 1799)
- April 5 - Jean-Honoré Fragonard, French artist
- April 13 - Frederick North, Lord North, Prime Minister of Great Britain from 1770 to 1782
- December 6 - Warren Hastings, first Governor-General of India
- Joseph Haydn, Austrian composer

## Deaths

- October 31 - Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia, Duke of Savoy
1768

## Events

- January 9 – Philip Astley stages the first modern circus (London)
- May 10 –  John Wilkes is imprisoned for writing an article for the _North Briton_ severely criticizing King George III. This action provokes rioting in London
- Secretary of State for colonies appointed in Britain
- Massachusetts Assembly dissolved for refusing to assist collection of taxes.
- Boston citizens refuse to quarter British troops
- France buys Corsica from Genoa
- Gurkhas conquer Nepal
- First of the weekly numbers of the _Encyclopædia Britannica_ are published; 100 are planned
- James Cook's first voyage: 1768-1771

## Births

- 12 February 1768 Francis I of Austria

## Deaths

- 3 March 1768 Nicola Porpora
Webcam

A **webcam** is a video camera that connects to a computer, and can let people see each other over the Internet. Most people that have webcams use them with an instant messenger to see each other at the same time. Webcams can also be used for recording videos and video blogs. The webcam can be part of a computer, mobile phone or it can be an independent device.

## History

The first webcam was developed in 1991 at Cambridge University and the first commercial camera started in 1994 and was made by Logitech.
Y-intercept

The **y-intercept** of a line on a graph is where the line touches (or intercepts) the y-axis (the numbered line going straight up).

The equation for straight lines is .  "" is the -intercept.

You can find the y-intercept of a graph by seeing where the x-coordinate equals 0. The y-coordinate of a point with a x-coordinate of 0 is the y-intercept.

## Related pages

- Algebra
The Last Waltz

**The Last Waltz** was final concert of the Canadian/American rock group The Band. It took place on Thanksgiving (November 26) in 1976 at the Winterland Ballroom in San Francisco, California. It was also made into a movie by Martin Scorsese, that came out in 1978.

Other musicians who were in _The Last Waltz_ concert were:
- Ronnie Hawkins
- Dr. John
- Bobby Charles
- Neil Young
- Neil Diamond
- Joni Mitchell
- Paul Butterfield
- Muddy Waters
- Eric Clapton
- Emmylou Harris
- Van Morrison
- Bob Dylan
- Ringo Starr
- Ronnie Wood
- Stephen Stills
- Carl Radle
1436

## Events

- April – Paris is recaptured by the French
- End of the Hussite Wars in Bohemia.  Sigismund is accepted as King.
- Alexandru I Aldea is replaced as ruler of Wallachia by Vlad II Dracul.
1241

## Events

- April 5 – Mongols of Golden Horde under the command of Subotai defeat feudal Polish nobility, including Knights Templar, in the battle of Liegnitz
- April 27 – Mongols defeat Bela IV of Hungary in the Battle of Sajo.
886

## Events

- The Glagolitic alphabet, devised by Cyril and Methodius, missionaries from Constantinople, is  adopted in the Bulgarian Empire.
- Alfred the Great captures London and renames it Lundenburgh. The boundaries between Wessex and the Danelaw are shifted.
- Alfred the Great builds a small harbour called Queenhythe slightly upstream from London Bridge.
- Alfred the Great mints the first halfpenny. Previous halfpennies had been pennies cut in half.
- Earl Aethelred is given control of London by Alfred the Great. Alfred's sister Ethelfleda marries Aethelred.
- Leo VI succeeds his stepfather Basil I as Byzantine emperor and replaces patriarch Photius with his brother Stephen I.
- Khan Boris I of Bulgaria establishes the Preslav and Ohrid Literary Schools.
- Charles II of France purchases peace with Vikings at Paris.
1204

## Events

- February – Byzantine emperor Alexius IV is overthrown in a revolution, and Alexius V is proclaimed emperor.
- April 12 – The Fourth Crusade take Constantinople by storm, and pillage the city for three days. End of the Fourth Crusade.
- May 16 – Baldwin, Count of Flanders is crowned emperor of the Latin Empire a week after his election by the members of the Fourth Crusade.
- Theodore I Lascaris flees to Nicaea after the capture of Constantinople, and establishes the Empire of Nicaea; Byzantine successor states are also established in Epirus and Trebizond.
- Boniface of Montferrat, a leader of the Fourth Crusade, founds the Kingdom of Thessalonica.
- The writings of French theologian Amalric of Bena are condemned by the University of Paris and Pope Innocent III.
- Valdemar II, King of Denmark, is recognized as king in Norway.
- Angers and Normandy are recaptured from England by Philip II of France.
- The Cistercian convent of Port-Royal is established.
- The district of Cham becomes subject to Bavaria.
- Philip of Swabia becomes a subject of Hermann I of Thuringia.
- Beaulieu Abbey founded.
- Jersey enjoys self-government thanks to the division of the Duchy of Normandy.

## Births

- Haakon IV, King of Norway (died 1263)
- Heinrich Raspe, Landgraf of Thuringia (died 1247)
- Abû 'Uthmân Sa'îd Hakam al Qurashi, Ra'îs of Manûrqa (died 1282)

## Deaths

- January 1 – King Haakon III of Norway
- February 8 – Alexius IV Angelus, Byzantine Emperor
- March 31 – Eleanor of Aquitaine, queen of France and England
- August 11 – King Guttorm of Norway
- August 14 – Minamoto no Yoriie, Japanese shogun (born 1182)
- October 21 – Robert de Beaumont, 4th Earl of Leicester
- December 13 – Maimonides, Spanish rabbi and philosopher (born 1135)
- Ban Kulin – ruler of Bosnia (born 1163)
- Amalric of Bena, French theologian
- William de Burgh, English politician
- Emeric of Hungary (born 1174)
- Isaac II Angelus, Byzantine Emperor
- Suleiman II of Rum
- David Soslani, Prince of Ossetia
985

## Events

- Barcelona sacked by Al-Mansur
- Greenland colonized by Icelandic Viking Erik the Red (the date is according to legend but has been established as at least approximately correct – see History of Greenland)
- Lady Wulfruna founded the town that later became the city of Wolverhampton
- Henry the Wrangler restored as Duke of Bavaria
- Rajaraja Chola I becomes the Chola Emperor and brings in another golden era of Chola Empire

## Births

- Emma of Normandy, Queen of England and first Queen Mother of England; mother of Edward the Confessor and aunt of William the Conqueror (died 1055)
681

## Events

- August 9 – The Bulgars win the war with the Byzantine Empire; the latter signs a peace treaty, which is considered as the birth-date of Bulgaria
- Wilfrid of York is expelled from Northumbria by Ecgfrith and retires into Sussex
1593

## Events

- May 18 – Playwright Thomas Kyd's accusations of heresy lead to an arrest warrant for Christopher Marlowe.
- June 22 – Ottoman Empire defeated in Battle of Sisak, their first defeat in Europe.
- July 25 – King Henry IV of France returns to Catholicism, and is recognized as King in most of France.

## Births

- July 8 - Artemisia Gentileschi, Italian painter
- October 27 - Mumtaz Mahal, Mughal empress
1721

## Events

- Pope Innocent XIII becomes pope
- Johann Sebastian Bach composes the Brandenburg Concertos
- April 4 – Robert Walpole becomes the first Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
- September 10 – Treaty of Nystad is signed, bringing an end to the Great Northern War
- November 2 – Peter I is proclaimed Emperor of All the Russias

## Births

- April 19 - Roger Sherman, signer of the American Declaration of Independence (d.  1803)

## Deaths

- July 18 - Antoine Watteau, French painter (b. 1684)
- September 2 - Kwon Sang-ha, Korean writer
- September 17 - Marguerite Louise d'Orléans, Grand Duchess of Tuscany
- December 13 - Alexander Selkirk, Scottish sailor (original "Robinson Crusoe") (b. 1676)
Vedas

The **Vedas** are the four holiest books of the Hindu religion.

Each book has four major kinds of text – the Samhitas (mantras and benedictions), the Aranyakas (text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices), the Brahmanas (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and the Upanishads (texts discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge).  The Vedas are written in _Vedic Sanskrit_.

Later types of Hinduism that are very different from the types of Hinduism that follow the Vedas.

The four Vedas are:

- the Rigveda
- the Yajurveda
- the Samaveda
- the Atharvaveda

## Rigveda

Rigveda is the first of the four Vedas. Rigveda means a _Veda of praise_. This Veda has several verses (hymns).  This Veda is also the oldest Hindu holy book.

## Yajurveda

Yajurveda is the second of the four Vedas. Yajurveda means the Veda of the Yajus. Yajus were mantras sung during religious activities. Yajurveda is divided into two parts. The name of the first part is Black Yajurveda, called Taittiriya.The Taittirīya Upanishad is a Vedic era Sanskrit text, embedded as three chapters of the Yajurveda. It is a mukhya Upanishad, and likely composed about 6th century BC. The Taittirīya Upanishad is associated with the Taittirīya school of the Yajurveda, attributed to the pupils of sage Tittiri. The name of the second part is White Yajurveda, is called Vajasaneyi.

## Samaveda

Samaveda is the third Veda of the four Vedas. Samaveda means the Veda of sacred songs. This Veda also has many hymns. They were sung by the Hindu priests and other Hindus during religious activities.

## Atharvaveda

Atharvaveda is the fourth of the four Vedas. Atharvaveda means the _Veda of knowledge_.
The Atharvaveda holds key for the massive vedic knowledge on the sciences like medicine, sorcery and has many facts that the present generation is still trying to crack.

## References

- Flood, Gavin.  _An Introduction to Hinduism_. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 1996. .
- Michaels, Axel. _Hinduism: Past and Present_. Princeton University Press: 2004. .
- Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli;  and Moore, Charles A. _A Source Book in Indian Philosophy_.  Princeton University Press, 1957; Princeton paperback 12th edition, 1989. .
- Walker, Benjamin _Hindu World: An Encyclopedic Survey of Hinduism_, (Two Volumes), Allen & Unwin, London, 1968; Praeger, New York, 1968; Munshiram Manohar Lal, New Delhi, 1983; Harper Collins, New Delhi, 1985; Rupa, New Delhi, 2005, .
- Winternitz, Moriz. _History of Indian Literature_. Vol. 1 (of two volumes), p. 1. (Calcutta 1926)

## Bibliography

- .

## Other websites

- A translation of Rig Veda
- The Vedas at sacred-texts.com
- Vedas: Rig, Sama, Yajur, and Artharva
Prime Minister of Greenland

The **Prime Minister of Greenland** (, lit _Leader of the Government_; ), officially referred to as the **Premier**, is the head of the Government of Greenland. The incumbent prime minister is Múte Bourup Egede of the Inuit Ataqatigiit party.

The prime minister is usually leader of the majority party in the Parliament of Greenland. Jonathan Motzfeldt became Prime Minister after home rule was granted to Greenland in 1979.

## List of prime ministers of Greenland

|rowspan=2||rowspan=2|Portrait|rowspan=2|Name|colspan=3|Term of office|rowspan=2|Party|rowspan=2|Elected|rowspan=2|Cabinet(s)|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
||**Jonathan Motzfeldt**|1 May 1979|18 March 1991||Siumut|1979 1983 1984 1987|Motzfeldt I–II–III–IV|||||||
||**Lars-Emil Johansen**|18 March 1991|19 September 1997||Siumut|1991 1995|Johansen|||||||
||**Jonathan Motzfeldt**|19 September 1997|14 December 2002||Siumut|1999|Motzfeldt V–VI|||||||
||**Hans Enoksen**|14 December 2002|12 June 2009||Siumut|2002 2005|Enoksen I–II|||||||
||**Kuupik Kleist**|12 June 2009|5 April 2013||Inuit Ataqatigiit|2009|Kleist I–II|||||||
||**Aleqa Hammond**|5 April 2013|30 September 2014||Siumut|2013|Hammond|||||||
||**Kim Kielsen**|30 September 2014|23 April 2021||Siumut|2014 2018|Kielsen I–II–III–IV–V–VI–VII–VIII|||||||
||**Múte Bourup Egede**|23 April 2021|_Incumbent_||Inuit Ataqatigiit|2021|Egede I–II|||||||

## Infobox (official post)

- **post**: Prime Minister
- **body**: Greenland
- **insignia**: Coat of arms of Greenland.svg
- **insigniasize**: 75
- **insigniacaption**: Coat of arms of Greenland
- **flag**: Flag of Greenland.svg
- **flagborder**: yes
- **flagcaption**: Flag of Greenland
- **image**: Múte Bourup Egede May 2021.jpg
- **incumbent**: Múte Bourup Egede
- **incumbentsince**: 23 April 2021
- **department**: Naalakkersuisut, Government of Greenland
- **status**: Excellency, His Excellency
(diplomatic)
- **member of**: Cabinet of Greenland
- **seat**: Inatsisartut, Nuuk
- **appointer**: Inatsisartut, Parliament
- **termlength**: Four years, renewable
- **precursor**: List of governors of Greenland, Governor of Greenland
- **formation**: 1 May 1979
- **first**: Jonathan Motzfeldt
- **website**: [http://naalakkersuisut.gl/en/Naalakkersuisut/Departments/Formandens-departement The Premier's Office]
Minister (government)

A **Minister** can be a Member of Parliament, or a Clergyman (person who works as a Minister in the Church).  This article talks about a Minister as a Member of Parliament.

Many countries have Ministers who deal with special things related to how people live.  You can find out about them by looking at the Wikipedia in their own language.  Ministers in the United States are called "Cabinet Secretaries".

## Ministers in the United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom and other countries that follow the Westminster System, a Minister is a Member of Parliament who has a special role dealing with a certain area of Government.  In the British Government, there are Ministers for lots of different things, like Children, Work & Pensions and Culture, Media & Sport.  There are descriptions (things that describe) of what these people do at the bottom of this page.

Ministers in the government report to the Prime Minister, who also tells them what they need to do in relation to their jobs.  The Deputy Prime Minister also reports to the Prime Minister.

Other Ministers, even though they are not called Ministers, include the Foreign Secretary, and the Home Secretary.

## What are these jobs?

**Minister for Children**

The Minister for Children looks after children's rights - these are laws which take care of how children are treated by their parents or guardians (a guardian is someone who looks after a child when their parents are not able to), and their care in society.  The job means that this Minister has a special role in the lives of all children in the UK.

**Minister for Work and Pensions**

This Minister looks after jobs (Employment) and money given to people who are in need (Welfare Benefits).  They set the rules saying what people who have no job must do to try and get one, and how much money people who have no job or are in need, get to live on.  The Minister also sets rules about what happens to people who do not do enough to find a job, or who break the law by working while they are getting Welfare Benefits.

**Minister for Culture, Media and Sport**

This Minister has a special role which means they promote (make popular) British Culture and Traditions.  They also take care of Broadcasting laws and laws about what newspapers and television stations can and cannot do.  Also, they have a duty to promote sporting activities which take place in Britain and help the government attract major sports events to Britain (the recent decision to let Britain host the Olympic Games in 2012 is an example of this).

There are a lot of other Ministers in the Government.
Jealousy

**Jealousy** or **envy** is a feeling (or emotion) people get when they want what others have. This is a negative feeling. When someone is jealous of someone else, they usually dislike the other person. These particular emotions are usually caused by a person having a certain object or quality which you desire but can not obtain. Jealousy is caused by lacking of self confidence and judging your abilities. Jealousy is not reasonable.