juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Joseph Haydn

**Franz Joseph Haydn** (31 March 1732 – 31 May 1809) was an Austrian composer. He was one of the most famous composers in the Classical music period. He is often called the "Father of the Symphony." He also taught Ludwig van Beethoven and a friend of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (Mozart considered him a mentor).

## Life

Haydn's father made wheels for a living. He had the skills of a blacksmith, stonemason, and carpenter. He used that skill in his spare time to make musical instruments for his family to play. The Haydn family would give informal weekend concerts. One of Joseph's relatives thought that Joseph had a great singing voice and should go with him to a boarding school where he would start studying to become a priest.

Haydn did not like it very much at the boarding school, but his voice developed to a point where he was selected to be a part of the Boy's Choir of the Vienna Cathedral. He stayed there until his voice changed. Haydn made a living teaching lessons and playing in the streets for handouts until he met Nicola Porpora, who hired Haydn as an accompanist and general servant.

Eventually Haydn got a job working for Nicholas Esterhazy. He worked for the Esterhazys for over 30 years. He wrote symphonies, string quartets, operas, piano sonatas, and other pieces.

After he was released from his duties with the Esterhazys, Haydn travelled to London. Even at the age of 60 he was still active and wrote some of his most famous symphonies there. While in London, he heard Handel's Messiah, and was inspired to write two oratorios of his own, The Seasons and The Creation. While working on these oratorios in Vienna, Haydn gave lessons to Ludwig van Beethoven. Beethoven had first wanted to study with Mozart, but by the time Beethoven was ready to study in Vienna, Mozart had died.

The house in Vienna where Haydn wrote his oratorios has been turned into a museum called 'Haydnhaus'. There visitors can see the piano by Anton Walter that composer was using for writing music. Haydn was so well-respected in Vienna that he was known as "Papa Haydn" and his influence on music was profound and great.
Orthology (language)

- _For the use in evolutionary biology, see Orthology (biology)_
**Orthology** is the study of the right use of words in language. The word comes from Greek _ortho_- ("correct") and -_logy_ ("science of"). This science is a place where psychology, philosophy, linguistics, and many otherwife fields of learning come together. The most noted use of _Orthology_ is for the selection of words
for the language of Basic English by the Orthological Institute.

The book, _The Meaning of Meaning_, by C.K. Ogden and I.A. Richards, is an important book dealing with orthology. The term _Orthology_ comes from the book _The Grammar of Science_ by Karl Pearson.
1712

**1712** (MDCCXII) was a leap year starting on Friday in the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Tuesday in the Julian calendar.

## Events

- January 26 – Tuscarora War: More than half of the Native Americans in Colonel John Barnwell's Carolina militia desert during the crossing of the Cape Fear River.
- January 29 – Tuscarora War: Colonel John Barnwell's Carolina militia attack the sprawling Tuscarora farming community of Torhunta by focusing on Fort Narhantes. Many Tuscarora captives are enslaved.
Toei Company

**Toei Company, Ltd.** (東映株式会社 _Tōei Kabushiki-gaisha_ (pronounced _toe ay_) is a Japanese film, television production, and  distribution corporation. Based in Tokyo, Toei owns and operates thirty-four movie theaters across Japan, studios at Tokyo and Kyoto; and is a shareholder in several television companies. It is notable for anime franchises such as _Dragon Ball Z_, _One Piece_ and _Sailor Moon_, and live action dramas known as tokusatsu, and jidaigeki historical dramas.

## History

**Tokyo-Yokohama Films** (東横映画 _Tō-Yoko Eiga_, incorporated in 1938, had previously erected its facilities immediately east of the Tōkyū Tōyoko Line, they managed the Tōkyū Shibuya Yokohama studio system prior to V-J Day. From 1945 through the Toei merger, Tokyo-Yokohama Films leased from the Daiei Motion Picture Company a second studio in Kyoto. Through the merger, they gained the combined talents and experience of different actors. On October 1, 1950, the **Tokyo Film Distribution Company** was incorporated; in 1951 the company purchased **Ōizumi Films**.

In 1956, Toei established an animation division, Toei Animation at the former Tokyo-Ōizumi animation studio, purchasing the assets of **Japan Animated Films** (originally founded in 1948)

Toei was a pioneer in the use of transformation in live-action martial-arts dramas, a technique developed for the _Kamen Rider_, _Metal Heroes_ and _Super Sentai_ series; The genre currently continues with _Kamen Rider_ and _Super Sentai_.

On April 6, 2020, Toei created their official YouTube channel and uploaded some of their oldest tokusatsu series (from the 50s to 90s).

## Other websites

- toei.co.jp - Company webpage

## Infobox (company)

- **name**: Toei Company, Ltd.
- **native name**: 東映株式会社
- **native name lang**: ja
- **romanized name**: Tōei Kabushiki-gaisha
- **logo**:
- **logo size**: 100px
- **logo alt**: A hollow triangle, with the kanji characters for Toei placed inside it.
- **image**: Kyobashi Edogrand 2019.jpg
- **image caption**: Headquarters in Chūō, Tokyo
- **predecessor**: Toyoko Eiga Company
Ōizumi Films
- **type**: Public company, Public
- **foundation**: (as Tōkyō Eiga)
- **founder**: Keita Goto (industrialist), Keita Goto
- **location city**: Chūō, Tokyo
- **location country**: Japan
- **location**: Kyobashi Edogrand, 2-1 Kyōbashi, Tokyo, Kyōbashi 2-chome
- **area served**: Worldwide, with a focus in Japan
- **industry**: Film and television
Video games
- **products**: Motion pictures, publicity materials
- **services**: Film and TV distribution and marketing
- **revenue**: ¥ 66,300,000,000
- **revenue year**: As of March 2006
- **num employees**: 343
- **num employees year**: As of March 1, 2019
Naoko Takeuchi

**Naoko Takeuchi** ((武内直子 Takeuchi Naoko), born 15 March 1967), is a manga artist from Japan. She lives in Tokyo. She wrote the manga Sailor Moon, which was so popular it was made into an anime, musicals, video games and more. Her husband, Yoshihiro Togashi, is the creator of _YuYu Hakusho_ and _Hunter × Hunter_.

In Kappa Rivista Italiana #62, she interviewed the creator of Silent Möbius, Kia Asamiya.
Kimigayo

"**Kimigayo**" (Kanji: 君が代, Hiragana: きみがよ, , meaning "His Imperial Majesty's Reign") is the national anthem of Japan. The anthem is based on a poem written by an unknown poet from Japan about one thousand years ago. The music was composed more recently, about two hundred years ago; however, it had to be rewritten shortly afterwards, because the original tune was unpopular.

Although popular for a long period and sung in situations where people from other countries would usually sing their country's national anthem, "Kimigayo" was only considered as Japan's official national anthem in 1999. The law that stated this also defined the Flag of Japan in a similar way.

The national anthem of Japan is one of the shortest national anthems in the world, containing only thirty-two syllables. Because it is so short, the anthem is normally played very slowly.

## Lyrics

|With Kanji characters|Kana (Hiragana) only|Rōmaji|Phonetic transcription (IPA)|English translation|!Poetic English translation by Basil Hall Chamberlain|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|<poem></poem>|<poem></poem>|<poem>_Kimigayo wa_ _Chiyo ni yachiyo ni_ _Sazare-ishi no_ _Iwao to narite_ _Koke no musu made_</poem>|<poem></poem>|<poem>May your reign Continue for a thousand, eight thousand generations, Until the tiny pebbles Grow into massive boulders Lush with moss</poem>|<poem>Thousands of years of happy reign be thine; Rule on, my lord, Until what are pebbles now By ages united to mighty rocks shall grow Whose venerable sides the moss doth line.</poem>|

## Other websites

- Listen to Kimi ga yo  (.ra format)

## Infobox (anthem)

- **title**: 君が代
- **transcription**: Kimigayo
- **english title**: His Imperial Majesty's Reign
- **image**: Kimigayo.score.svg
- **prefix**: National
- **adopted**: 1869
1999
- **sound**: Kimi ga Yo instrumental.ogg
- **sound title**: Played by the U.S. Navy Band
April Fools' Day

**April Fools' Day** is celebrated in many countries on April 1 every year. On this day, practical jokes (or _April Fools_) are played on friends and family. The jokes are done to embarrass them. In some countries, April Fools only last until noon, and if someone plays a joke after, they are an April Fool.

### Classical antiquity

People have set aside a special day for playing jokes for centuries. The ancient Romans had a holiday called _Hilaria_.

### Middle Ages

In the Middle Ages, New Year's Day was celebrated on March 25 in most European towns. In some areas of France, New Year's was a week-long holiday ending on April 1. Some people think that April Fools' started because those who celebrated on January 1 made fun of those who celebrated on other dates.

### United Kingdom

This custom makes no sense at all until one remembers how much colder the climate was before the 20th century. Great rivers like the Thames were frozen over in the winter, and young people used to skate on them in wintertime. In the United Kingdom, a person playing a joke would yell "April Fool!" at the recipient. According to tradition, the joking was supposed to stop at midday.

#### Scotland

In Scotland, April Fools' Day used to be for two days. One of them was called Gowk’s Day. "Gowk" in Scots can mean either a cuckoo or a fool. Playing pranks on someone on April Fools’ Day was called "hunting the gowk." A classic prank was to ask someone to deliver a closed letter with a note inside. This note would tell the receiver to send the messenger on another silly task, then another... until someone felt sorry for them.

### Nordic countries

In the Nordic countries, many news outlets would publish or broadcast a fake news story on April 1.

### France

In France, an April fools joke is called a "Poisson d'Avril" (April fish). One tradition there is to try and stick a paper fish on one's friends back, and shout "Poisson d'Avril!" when it is discovered.

## Media outlets

Sometimes a large media corporation would broadcast or publish a fake news story on April 1. For example, in 1957 the BBC broadcast a story about spaghetti trees. According to the story, people in Switzerland grew spaghetti on trees. Later, many people called the BBC asking how they could get a spaghetti tree.

## Infobox (holiday)

- **holiday name**: April Fools' Day
- **image**: Aprilsnar 2001.png
- **caption**: An "April Fools' Day" hoax marking the construction of the Copenhagen Metro in 2001
- **nickname**: All Fools' Day
- **date**: April 1
- **observances**: Humour
- **type**: Cultural, Western world, Western
- **significance**: Practical jokes
Canyon

A **canyon** (or **gorge**) is a big and deep crack in the ground, or a  very deep valley. Most canyons are made by rivers. A few are made by earthquakes. They can be big, like the Grand Canyon, or small.

Canyons can be formed by erosion by running water which will take rocks and soil away.
Pattern language

**Pattern language** is used to mean a system of patterns that have a certain meaning other than just the pattern.

## Method

The pattern can be a pattern which has a hidden meaning shown through any sense like sight, sound, touch, taste and smell.

## Sight

The most obvious form of sight-based pattern language comes in the form of writing. Nearly every language has a unique written form, which grammatically follows the spoken form.
National Maritime Day

In the United States, **National Maritime Day** is held every May 22 to honor people who have served in the United States Merchant Marine service.

The first National Maritime Day was May 22, 1933, based on a joint resolution passed by the United States Congress on May 20, 1933. Franklin D. Roosevelt was the first President to issue a proclamation about the day.

The biggest National Maritime Day celebration was in 1946, the first National Maritime Day after the Allied Powers won World War II. That year, governors of many U.S. states also officially named the day National Maritime Day or _Maritime Day_ for their state. The first National Maritime Day after the end of the Korean War, in 1954, was also more widely celebrated than most.

In the 2006 annual proclamation by president George W. Bush, he made special mention of the Merchant Marine service's hurricane aid work following Hurricane Katrina and the other hurricanes of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season.

## References

- Joint Resolution of Congress text
- List of 1946 state and city proclamations
- Text of Bush proclamation
Nuclear fusion

**Nuclear fusion**            is the process of making a single heavy nucleus (part of an atom) from two lighter nuclei. This process is called a nuclear reaction. It releases a large amount of energy.

The nucleus made by fusion is heavier than either of the starting nuclei. However, it is not as heavy as the combination of the original mass of the starting nuclei (atoms). This lost mass is changed into lots of energy. This is shown in Einstein's famous _E=mc<sup>2</sup>_ equation.

Fusion happens in the middle of stars, like the Sun. Hydrogen atoms are fused together to make helium. This releases lots of energy. This energy powers the heat and light of the star.
Not all elements can be joined. Heavier elements are less easily joined than lighter ones. Iron (a metal) cannot fuse with other atoms. This is what causes stars to die. Stars join all of their atoms together to make heavier atoms of different types, until they make iron. The iron nucleus cannot fuse further because of its high nuclear binding energy. The reactions stop. The star eventually cools and die<nowiki/>s.

On Earth it is very difficult to start nuclear fusion reactions that release more energy than is needed to start the reaction.  The reason is that fusion reactions only happen at high temperature and pressure, like in the Sun, because both nuclei have a positive charge, and positive repels positive.  The only way to stop the repulsion is to make the nuclei hit each other at very high speeds.  They only do that at high pressure and temperature.  The only successful approach so far has been in nuclear weapons.  The hydrogen bomb uses an atomic (fission) bomb to start fusion reactions.  Scientists and engineers have been trying for decades to find a safe and working way of controlling and containing fusion reactions to generate electricity.  They still have many challenges to overcome before fusion power can be used as a clean source of energy.

## Related pages

- Stellar nucleosynthesis
- Supernova
Concertmaster

The **Concertmaster** (American English) or **leader** (British English) is the most important violinist in an orchestra.  He or she will sit in the front seat, by the conductor's left.  The word _concertmaster_ comes from the German _Konzertmeister_.

The leader will be the highest paid member of the orchestra.  He has to decide how the violins will play the music and write in the bowing.  He will decide where each member of the violins should sit.  He will probably also interview them and offer them the job in the orchestra.  He will talk to the conductor about anything the orchestra are not happy about (he may have to remind the conductor when it is time to stop the rehearsal!).  If part of the music is marked "solo" then he will play it as a solo while the other violins stop playing.

In the United States it is usual for the concertmaster to be on the platform before the concert and to tell the orchestra to tune their instruments, playing on his A string to give them the correct pitch.  In European orchestras it is usually the oboe that gives an A for tuning.  In Britain the leader usually comes on stage after the orchestra have tuned, and gets an applause.

## Some famous orchestral leaders

_of the past:_
- Arnold Rosé (Vienna Philharmonic)
_of today_:
- Gordan Nikolitch (London Symphony Orchestra)
- Glenn Dicterow (New York Philharmonic Orchestra)
- Peter Manning ( Royal Opera House Orchestra Covent Garden  )
Mutual assured destruction

**Mutual assured destruction** (**MAD**) is a military strategy in which two opposing military forces are powerful enough to completely destroy each other. It should help to avoid a nuclear war.  This usually happens when both forces have nuclear weapons.  If a state attacks another with nuclear weapons, the state attacked will potentially be able to attack back. The attacker must think that he will be destroyed with his victim if he attacks. The theory is that no state would start an attack if attacking its enemy means its own destruction.

The concept was first discussed by the futurist, theorist and military strategist Herman Kahn, the founder of the Hudson Institute, who first used the term "mutual assured destruction" in 1962 during the height of the Cold War. The acronym "MAD", was used by Donald Brennan, a strategist working in Kahn's Hudson Institute, in 1962. Brennan used the acronym cynically, spelling out the English word "mad" to argue that holding weapons capable of destroying society was irrational.
Stairway to Heaven

**Stairway to Heaven** was a 1971 song by Led Zeppelin. It was on the album Led Zeppelin IV.

## Hidden Satanic message

Some listeners claim that by reversing the song, a hidden Satanic message is revealed. The message is:

Oh, here's to my sweet Satan

The one whose little path would make me sad whose power is Satan

He'll give, he'll give you 666

There was a little toolshed where he made us suffer, sad Satan

It's unlikely such a message was intentionally hidden in the song; rather, it is just a bizarre coincidence.

Robert Plant later adressed this claim with the quote "we were too pissed of to play it normally at the time, let alone play it backwards"

## Other websites

- Stairway to Heaven songfacts, tabs, videos and audio , at the Stairway to Heaven website.
Thin Lizzy

**Thin Lizzy** are an Irish hard rock band that started in Dublin in 1969. Up to 1984 the band were led by bassist, songwriter, and singer Phil Lynott (1949-1986). The band's famous song "The Boys Are Back in Town" is still played a lot on classic rock radio stations.  Since Lynott's death, other former members have carried on using the band name.

Phil Lynott wrote most of the band's songs. The band's music showed many musical styles including: country music, psychedelic rock, Celtic music, and folk music which Lynott mixed with hard rock and heavy metal styles.

Thin Lizzy were listed at number 51 on VH1's _100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock_.

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Thin Lizzy
- **img**: Thin Lizzy -1983.jpg
- **img size**: 300px
- **background**: group_or_band
- **origin**: Dublin, Republic of Ireland, Ireland
- **genre**: Rock music, Rock, hard rock
- **years active**: 1969–1984, 1996–2001, 2004–present
- **url**: [http://www.thinlizzyonline.com/ Official website]
- **current members**: Scott Gorham
Tommy Aldridge
Francesco DiCosmo
- **past members**: Phil Lynott
Brian Downey (drummer), Brian Downey
Eric Bell
Gary Moore
Brian Robertson
Snowy White
Darren Wharton
John Sykes
Aziz al-Abub

**Aziz al-Abub** (a.k.a. Ibrahim al-Nadhir or al-Nahdhir) was a Lebanese Hezbollah psychiatrist and mind control expert.

Aziz was a disciple of Ewen Cameron and a graduate of the Soviet Union's Patrice Lumumba Institute that specialized in mind control techniques.

Aziz al-Abub used mind-control, drugs and physical torture in the infamous 444-day (1984-1985) torture and mental derangement of American William Buckley in Beirut.
Hobbit

**Hobbits** are a fictional race in the Middle-earth world invented by J. R. R. Tolkien, also often called _halflings_.

They appeared in the books _The Hobbit_ and _The Lord of the Rings_. Several important main characters in those books are hobbits, such as Bilbo Baggins and Frodo Baggins.

Hobbits (or similar beings) have become very popular and are now often used in fantasy fiction and (video) games.

## Appearance

Hobbits are like small humans between two and four foot tall (between 60 and 120 centimeters). They have hair/fur on the top side of their feet, leathery foot-soles, and slightly pointed ears. They tend to be stout and often have brown and curly hair. Male hobbits do not have beards. Hobbits live longer compared to humans, and many hobbits reach the age of 100.

## Culture

Hobbits are a peaceful people and live a simple, pre-industrial life in the land which they call The Shire, and also in Bree-land.

A typical hobbit-house has a long hallway with rooms on both sides, and round doors and windows. Originally these were underground in hills, then the house was called a _smial_; but this architecture(style of building) is also used for 'normal' houses above ground.

## Related pages

- _The Hobbit_
- _The Lord of the Rings_
- Middle-earth
Bilbo Baggins

**Bilbo Baggins** is a Hobbit from _The Hobbit_ and _The Lord of the Rings_. He is a major protagonist of _The Hobbit_ and a minor protagonist of _The Lord of the Rings_.

## Fictional biography

Bilbo Baggins was greeted by Gandalf the Grey and a group of 13 Dwarves known as the Company of Thorin Oakenshield. He was offered to help them to take back Erebor from the dragon Smaug. At the Misty Mountain, he landed at a cave and met Gollum. He took Gollum's One Ring and went back to his Company. Decades after returning from Erebor, he celebrated his 111th birthday as well as his nephew Frodo's birthday. He wanted to keep the One Ring.

## Peter Jackson adaptations (2001-2003, 2012-2014)

In Peter Jackson's movie adaptations of both books, Bilbo was played by Martin Freeman when he was younger and Ian Holm when he was older.
Middle-earth

**Middle-earth** is a fictional fantasy world invented by J. R. R. Tolkien. Several of his books take place there, such as _The Hobbit_ and _The Lord of the Rings_. It is supposed to be a long gone mythological time of our earth.

Although Middle-earth is only one continent in Tolkien's world, it is often used for the whole fictional world and all stories Tolkien invented for it. Tolkien created and worked on Middle-earth through most of his life, and it is this creation for which he is most famous.

Middle-earth has its own geography, several different species and peoples (elves, dwarves, humans, hobbits), their languages, and a history that spans thousands of years. The stories of Middle-earth are also a kind of 'artificial myth'.

"Middle-earth" is called _Endor_ (or _Endóre_) and _Ennor_ in the fictional Elvish languages **Quenya** and **Sindarin**.

## Peoples

The oldest people of Middle-earth are the immortal **Elves**. Second were the **Dwarves**. After them came mortal **Men**. In the Third Age, there appeared another people, the **Hobbits**. There are also the tree-like **Ents**.

## Chronology

The history of the Middle-earth world is thousands of years long. Sometimes, when big historical events happen, a new _Age_ is begun, which starts counting again with the year 1.

- **First Age**: The First Age can be divided into the "First Age of the Trees" and the "First Age of the Sun". Saying a year and "First Age" often means a year in the "First Age of the Sun".
    - _First Age of the Trees_: Begins at the creation of the Two Trees. During it are the Awakening of the Elves and the Dwarves. It ends with the destruction of the Two Trees.
    - _First Age of the Sun_ (590 years): Begins with the creation of the Sun and Moon, and ends with the _War of Wrath_, the final imprisonment of Morgoth and the destruction of Beleriand.
- **Second Age** (S.A., 3441 years): Begins after the end of the _War of Wrath_. During it is the destruction of Númenor (T.A. 3319). Ends with the defeat of Sauron in the _War of the Last Alliance_.
- **Third Age** (T.A., 3021 years): Begins after the Last Alliance defeated Sauron. During it are the events of _The Hobbit_ (T.A. 2941) and the War of the Ring (T.A. 3018-3019). Ends with the destruction of the One Ring and the defeat of Sauron.
- **Fourth Age**: Follows the defeat of Sauron and the One Ring, but starts officially when the Bearers of the Rings left for the West. During this Age the Elves become less and leave, while the humans become the dominant people of Middle-earth.

## Related pages

- Middle-earth characters
- Middle-earth languages
- Middle-earth locations
10s

The **10s** were a decade that began on 1 January 10 and ended on 31 December 19.

## Important people

- Caesar Augustus, Roman Emperor (27 BC – 14).
- Tiberius, Roman Emperor (14–37).
- Germanicus, Roman General
10s BC

## Significant people

- Caesar Augustus, Roman Emperor (27 BC – 14).

## Deaths

- Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa
40s

## Events

- The Roman emperor Caligula assassinated (41), succeeded by his uncle Claudius
- Roman conquest of Britain begins under Aulus Plautius, 43
Pontiac Silverdome

The **Pontiac Silverdome** was a domed stadium in the town of Pontiac, Michigan, near Detroit. It opened in 1975 and closed in 2007. The largest crowds to come to the stadium were for WrestleMania III on March 29, 1987, where the main event was a match between Hulk Hogan and André the Giant. The crowd attendance for that night reached 93,173, which is also the record for indoor attendance. The Detroit Lions NFL team played at the stadium from 1975 until 2001.
80s

The **80s** was the decade that started on January 1, 80 AD, and ended on December 31, 89 AD. During the 80s, the 9th decade began on January 1, 81 AD which is the 9th decade of the 1st century and the 1st millennium.

## Important people

- Titus Flavius Vespasianus, Roman Emperor (79–81).
- Titus Flavius Domitianus, Roman Emperor (81–96)
Estonian language

The **Estonian language** () is a Uralic language. It is mainly spoken in Estonia. The Estonian language is similar to Finnish and is one of the few national languages of Europe not to be an Indo-European language.

The Estonian alphabet uses the Latin alphabet. It has many vowels, including Ö, Ä, Õ and Ü.

It has been influenced by and adopted many words from German and Swedish.  The Estonian language also has different dialects.

## Sample words

|**Üks**|One|
| --- | --- |
|**Kaks**|Two|
|**Kolm**|Three|
|**Jah**|Yes|
|**Ei**|No|
|**Mina/Ma**|I|
|**Sina/Sa**|You (in singular)|
|**Tema/Ta**|He/She|
|**Meie/Me**|We|
|**Teie/Te**|You (in plural)|
|**Nemad/Nad**|They|
|**Olen/Mina olen**|I am|
|**Eesti**|Estonia|
|**Maja**|House|
|**Kodu**|Home|
|**Tee**|Way|

## Infobox (language)

- **name**: Estonian
- **nativename**: eesti keel
- **states**: Estonia
- **ethnicity**: Estonians
- **speakers**: million
- **date**: 2012
- **ref**: e18
- **familycolor**: Uralic
- **fam2**: Finnic languages, Finnic
- **script**: Latin script, Latin (Estonian alphabet)
Estonian Braille
- **nation**:

- **agency**: <small>Institute of the Estonian Language / Eesti Keele Instituut, Emakeele Selts</small> (semi-official)
- **iso1**: et
- **iso2**: est
- **iso3**: est
- **lingua**: 41-AAA-d
- **lc1**: ekk
- **ld1**: Standard Estonian
- **lc2**: vro
- **ld2**: Võro language, Võro
- **glotto**: esto1258
- **glottorefname**: Estonian
- **notice**: IPA
- **map**: Idioma estonio.PNG
- **mapcaption**: Distribution of estonian language
Chromosome

The **chromosomes** of a cell are in the cell nucleus. They carry the genetic information. Chromosomes are made up of DNA and protein combined as chromatin. Each chromosome contains many genes. Chromosomes come in pairs: one set from the mother; the other set from the father. Cytologists label chromosomes with numbers.

Chromosomes are present in every cell nucleus with very few and special exceptions. This means they are found in all eukaryotes, since only eukaryotes have cell nuclei. When eukaryote cells divide, the chromosomes also divide.

When a somatic (body) cell (such as a muscle cell) divides, the process is called mitosis. Before mitosis, the cell copies all the chromosomes and then it can divide. When they duplicate, chromosomes look like the letter "X". When they are doubled, the two halves are called chromatids (see diagram). The chromatids are joined at the centromere.

There are 46 chromosomes in a human as 23 pairs. Everyone has a set of chromosomes from their father and a set from their mother. They include a pair of sex chromosomes. The mother's eggs always contain an X chromosome, while the father's sperm contains either a Y chromosome or an X chromosome. That determines the sex of the child. If the child gets a Y chromosome from the father it is male. If it gets an X from the father, it is female.

To produce sex cells (gametes), the stem cells go through a different division process called meiosis. This reduces the 23 pairs (diploid) to 23 singles (haploid). These, when combined by fertilisation, produce the new set of 23 pairs.

Different animals have different numbers of chromosomes. If a person does not have the usual number of chromosomes, they may die or have one or more peculiarities. For example, they might get a genetic disorder like Down syndrome (extra chromosome 21), or Klinefelter syndrome (a male with two X chromosomes). Some genetic disorders are more common than others.

## Polytene chromosomes

**Polytene chromosomes** are over-sized chromosomes which have developed from standard chromosomes. Specialized cells undergo repeated rounds of DNA replication without cell division (endomitosis). Polytene chromosomes form when multiple rounds of replication produce many sister chromatids that are stuck together in parallel.

Polytene chromosomes are found in _Drosophila_ species and in nonbiting midges. They also occur in arthropods of the class Collembola,  ciliate protozoa, early stages of mammalian embryos, and suspensor cells in plants.

Polytene cells have a metabolic function. Multiple copies of genes allows a high level of gene expression. In _Drosophila_, for example, the chromosomes of the larval salivary glands have many rounds of endoreduplication.

**Chromosome puffs** (seen in diagram) are diffused uncoiled regions of the polytene chromosome. They are sites of active transcription.

## Related pages

- Karyotype
- Cell division
- Homologous chromosome
- Mutation#Chromosome mutations
- Genetics#Between Mendel and modern genetics
- Chromosome translocation
- Chromosome inversion
Giovanni Gabrieli

**Giovanni Gabrieli** (probably born Venice (date unknown), about 1553 - 57; died 21 August 1612, in Venice) was an Italian organist and composer.

He was very famous in his day and composed a great deal of church music; motets and madrigals. He lived at the end of the Renaissance period and beginning of the Baroque.

About 1575, Giovanni began working for Orlando di Lasso at the Bavarian court, as his uncle Andres Gabrieli had before him. Little is known of his time in Munich, and he left in 1579 after the death of his patron, Duke Albrecht. There is no record of Gabrieli's activities until 1584 when he'd returned to Venice. That year he replaced organist Claudio Merulo at Basilica di San Marco, church of Venice's patron saint. Due to Merulo's resignation, a contest was eventually held January 1, 1585 to fill his post, which Gabrieli won, having already occupied the position anyway. Giovanni and his uncle, who had raised him and taught him music, worked together only a short time at the church before Andres died in August 1585. Giovanni held his post until he died in 1612.

Also in 1585, Giovanni had been appointed as organist of Scuola Grande di San Rocco, where he composed ceremonial music.

During all this, he was also a music teacher. Heinrich Schutz was one of his students.

Giovanni is well known for being one of the first composers who specified volume markings and instrumentation in music.

## Other websites

- http://www.goldbergweb.com/en/history/composers/10946.php
- http://www.music.vt.edu/musicdictionary/appendix/composers/G/GiovanniGabrieli.html
Arcangelo Corelli

**Arcangelo Corelli** (17 February 1653  8 January 1713) was an Italian violinist and composer. He composed some of the most important Italian music of the Baroque period. He was also very famous as a violin player. Other violinists learned from his style of playing and developed the art of playing the violin. His works include sonatas and concerti grossi.
François Couperin

**François Couperin** (born in Paris on 10 November 1668; died in Paris, on 12 September 1733) was a French composer who lived in the Baroque period. Many of his relatives were composers. He is often called _François Couperin le Grand_ (The Great) because he was the most famous of the Couperin family. He is best known today for his harpsichord music. He wrote several pieces which he called _Ordres_ meaning the same as the word _suite_ i.e. a collection of dance movements. Sometimes these movements have strange titles and we cannot always be sure what they mean. Some of them may have been nicknames of people he knew. He also wrote important organ music. He never had a family of his own before he died.
Christoph Willibald von Gluck

**Christoph Willibald Ritter von Gluck** (born in Erasbach, July 2, 1714; died in Vienna, November 15, 1787) was a German composer. He is famous for his operas which were written in a new and exciting way. He was not interested in writing operas which were just a series of songs for singers to show off.  He wanted to make his operas into good pieces of drama. His operas had a big influence on later composers like Mozart, Weber and Wagner. He wrote Italian operas and French operas.
Jan Ladislav Dussek

**Jan Ladislav Dussek** (b. Ĉáslav, Bohemia, 12 Feb.1760; d.Saint-Germain-en-Laye, 20 March 1812) was a Bohemian composer of the Classical period.  He travelled a lot, living in Holland, Lithuania, Italy, France and England.  He lived nearly twelve years in London where he was a fashionable teacher and famous composer.  He is best remembered now for his piano music.
Frederick Delius

**Frederick Delius** (b.Bradford, 29 Jan.1862; d.Grez-sur-Loing, 10 June 1934) was an English composer. At first his parents did not let him study music, so he went off to Florida to work on an orange plantation. He later returned, studied music, and settled in France for the rest of his life. His music is often quite gentle and atmospheric, with chords that shift about in unusual ways. One of his best known orchestral works is _On Hearing the First Cuckoo in Spring_. In his last years he was very ill, but he still wanted to compose, so he dictated the music he heard in his head to a man called Eric Fenby.
Charlie Kaufman

**Charles Stuart "Charlie" Kaufman** (born November 1, 1958) is an American screenwriter.  Some of the movies he wrote screenplays for are _Being John Malkovich_, _Adaptation_, _Human Nature_, and _Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind_.  Charlie Kaufman is known for writing very surreal movies - that is, movies where the plot has things in it that could never happen in real life, or that make the audience notice that they are watching a movie.

He is one of the most celebrated screenwriters for now.

## Infobox (person)

- **name**: Charlie Kaufman
- **image**: Charlie Kaufman Fantastic Fest 2015-0257 (27441349145) (cropped).jpg
- **caption**: Kaufman at the 2015 Fantastic Fest
- **birth name**: Charles Stuart Kaufman
- **birth place**: New York City, U.S.
- **alma mater**: New York University (Bachelor of Fine Arts, BFA)
- **years active**: 1983–present
- **spouse**: Denise Monaghan
- **children**: 1
Oxbow lake

An **oxbow lake** is a lake, or area of water, in a U-shape. It is made by special bends in a river, called meanders, getting farther away from the river until they become separate. The river becomes straight and the bend becomes a lake. This happens due to floods or when a meander's neck gets too thin.

## Why does this happen?

Water flows at different speeds at different parts of the river. In the middle, farthest away from the sides (or banks), the water flows fastest. At the banks, the water flows slowest. When the river bends, water flows faster on the outside of the bend than the inside. The fast water on the outside 'erodes' the outside of the bend. This means it breaks bits of the bank off. At the same time, the slow water on the inside of the bend leaves behind mud, sand and parts of plants (deposition). Together, these make the bend move in the direction of the outside of the bend.

The bend moves farther and farther along until it leaves the river. The river becomes straight and the bend is left as an oxbow lake.
Sequel

A **sequel** is a type of new creation, like a movie, book, video game, or song, that follows or expands on a story from an earlier work. It is made because people liked the original and want more of it. Sequels let people see their favorite characters and settings again while adding new things to the story to make it interesting.

## Types of sequels

Sequels can be different depending on the medium and the original work. In movies, sequels can continue the same story, go back in time, or focus on different parts of the original. In books, sequels can start where the last book ended or tell what happened before. Some sequels are spin-offs, which means they focus on other characters or explore different parts of the original world.

## Purpose and significance

Sequels can be made to give fans what they want. They let people explore more of the world, learn more about the characters, and discover new ideas. Sequels are important because they build on the success of the original and keep the story going.

## Audience reception

People have different opinions about sequels. Some sequels become very popular, while others don't live up to the original. People are excited to see sequels, but they also want them to be as good as the original. The success of a sequel depends on things like how well the story is told and how the characters develop.

## Impact on pop culture

Sequels have had a big impact on popular culture. They have changed the way stories are continued and expanded in movies, books, and other forms of entertainment. Sequels create excitement and make fans want to talk about the story and buy related things. They also help create bigger worlds and universes.
Chicago Fire FC

**Chicago Fire FC** (officially **Chicago Fire Football Club**, and before 2020 **Chicago Fire Soccer Club**) is a soccer team that plays in Major League Soccer in Chicago.  They started in 1998 and won an MLS Cup in that year. The club is named after the Great Chicago Fire of 1871.

## League title

- Major League Soccer : 1
    - 1998

## League position

|Season|League|Position|
| --- | --- | --- |
|1998|Major League Soccer|Champions|
|1999|Major League Soccer|Quarterfinals|
|2000|Major League Soccer|Final|
|2001|Major League Soccer|Semifinals|
|2002|Major League Soccer|Quarterfinals|
|2003|Major League Soccer|Final|
|2004|Major League Soccer|5th / East|
|2005|Major League Soccer|Semifinals|
|2006|Major League Soccer|Quarterfinals|
|2007|Major League Soccer|Semifinals|
|2008|Major League Soccer|Semifinals|
|2009|Major League Soccer|Semifinals|
|2010|Major League Soccer|4th / East|
|2011|Major League Soccer|6th / East|
|2012|Major League Soccer|Knockout Round|
|2013|Major League Soccer|6th / East|
|2014|Major League Soccer|9th / East|
|2015|Major League Soccer|10th / East|
|2016|Major League Soccer|10th / East|
|2017|Major League Soccer|Knockout Round|

## Infobox (football club)

- **clubname**: Chicago Fire FC
- **upright**: 0.8
- **fullname**: Chicago Fire Football Club
- **stadium**: Soldier Field
Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
- **capacity**: 24,995 (nominal)
- **chrtitle**: Chairman
- **chairman**: Andrew Hauptman (majority)
Joe Mansueto (minority)
- **mgrtitle**: Head coach
- **manager**: Veljko Paunović
- **league**: Major League Soccer
- **season**: 2018 Major League Soccer season, 2018
- **position**: Eastern Conference: 10th
Overall: 20th
Playoffs: Did not qualify
- **website**: http://www.chicago-fire.com/
- **american**: true
- **current**: 2021 Chicago Fire season
- **pattern la1**: _chicagofire21h
- **pattern b1**: _chicagofire21h
- **pattern ra1**: _chicagofire21h
- **pattern sh1**: _chicagofire21h
- **pattern so1**: _3_stripes_navy
- **leftarm1**: 16164e
- **body1**: 16164e
- **rightarm1**: 16164e
- **shorts1**: 16164e
- **socks1**: FF0000
- **pattern la2**: _chicagofire21a
- **pattern b2**: _chicagofire21a
- **pattern ra2**: _chicagofire21a
- **pattern sh2**: _elmansoura2021a
- **pattern so2**: _color_3_stripes_on_white
- **leftarm2**: FFFFFF
- **body2**: FFFFFF
- **rightarm2**: FFFFFF
- **shorts2**: 16164e
- **socks2**: 16164e
Sporting Kansas City

**Sporting Kansas City** are an American football (soccer) team that plays in Major League Soccer in Kansas City, Kansas.

They started out as the Kansas City Wiz, before changing their name to the Kansas City Wizards in 1997. Later, in November 2010, they changed their name again to Sporting Kansas City, as the team was moving into a new stadium in the 2011 season. The stadium has been known by several names, first Livestrong Sporting Park, then Sporting Park, and now Children's Mercy Park.

## Honors

- MLS Cup (league champions): 2 (2000, 2013)
- Supporters' Shield (best regular-season record): 1 (2000)
- Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup: 2 (2004, 2012)

## League position

|Season|League|Position|
| --- | --- | --- |
|1996|Major League Soccer|Semifinals|
|1997|Major League Soccer|Quarterfinals|
|1998|Major League Soccer|6th / West|
|1999|Major League Soccer|6th / West|
|2000|Major League Soccer|Champions|
|2001|Major League Soccer|Quarterfinals|
|2002|Major League Soccer|Quarterfinals|
|2003|Major League Soccer|Semifinals|
|2004|Major League Soccer|Final|
|2005|Major League Soccer|5th / East|
|2006|Major League Soccer|5th / East|
|2007|Major League Soccer|Semifinals|
|2008|Major League Soccer|Quarterfinals|
|2009|Major League Soccer|6th / East|
|2010|Major League Soccer|3rd / East|
|2012|Major League Soccer|Semifinals|
|2012|Major League Soccer|Quarterfinals|
|2013|Major League Soccer|Champions|

## Other websites

- Official Homepage
- Official Website of Supporters Section: The Cauldron
- Official Wizards board, courtesy of BigSoccer

## Infobox (football club)

- **clubname**: Sporting Kansas City
- **upright**: 0.8
- **fullname**: Sporting Kansas City
- **nickname**: Wizards
- **founded**: as
_Kansas City Wiz_
- **stadium**: Children's Mercy Park
Kansas City, Kansas
- **capacity**: 18,467
- **chrtitle**: Owner
- **chairman**: Sporting Club
- **mgrtitle**: Manager
- **manager**: Peter Vermes
- **league**: Major League Soccer
- **season**: 2018 Major League Soccer season, 2018
- **position**: Western Conference: 1st
Overall: 3rd
2018 MLS Cup Playoffs, Playoffs: Conference Finals
- **website**: http://www.sportingkc.com/
- **american**: true
- **current**: 2019 Sporting Kansas City season
- **pattern la1**: _skc17h
- **pattern b1**: _skc19H
- **pattern ra1**: _skc17h
- **pattern sh1**: _skc17h
- **pattern so1**: _skc17h
- **leftarm1**: A1D0FF
- **body1**: A1D0FF
- **rightarm1**: A1D0FF
- **shorts1**: A1D0FF
- **socks1**: A1D0FF
- **pattern la2**: _skc18a
- **pattern b2**: _skc18A
- **pattern ra2**: _skc18a
- **pattern sh2**: _skc18a
- **pattern so2**: _skc18a
- **leftarm2**: 000000
- **body2**: 000000
- **rightarm2**: 000000
- **shorts2**: 000000
- **socks2**: 000000
New England Revolution

The **New England Revolution** are a United States football (soccer) team from Foxborough, Massachusetts that plays in the Eastern Conference of Major League Soccer. They share the Gillette Stadium with the New England Patriots, a football team in the NFL.

The team is owned by Robert Kraft, who also owns the New England Patriots.

## History

The team won their first major trophy when they won the U.S. Open Cup in 2007. They won the North American SuperLiga in 2008.

## Related pages

- List of United States soccer teams

## Infobox (football club)

- **clubname**: New England Revolution
- **upright**: 0.8
- **fullname**: New England Revolution
- **nickname**: Revs
- **stadium**: Gillette Stadium
- **capacity**: 65,878 / 20,000
- **chrtitle**: President
- **chairman**: Brian Bilello
- **owntitle**: Owner
- **owner**: The Kraft Group
- **mgrtitle**: Head coach
- **manager**: Bruce Arena
- **league**: Major League Soccer
- **season**: 2018 Major League Soccer season, 2018
- **position**: Eastern Conference (MLS), Eastern Conference: 8th
Overall: 16th
Playoffs: Did not qualify
- **website**: http://www.revolutionsoccer.net/
- **american**: true
- **current**: 2019 New England Revolution season
- **pattern la1**: _newengland18h
- **pattern b1**: _newengland18H
- **pattern ra1**: _newengland18h
- **pattern sh1**: _newengland18h
- **pattern so1**: _3_stripes_white
- **leftarm1**: 0C2340
- **body1**: 0C2340
- **rightarm1**: 0C2340
- **shorts1**: FFFFFF
- **socks1**: 0C2340
- **pattern la2**: _newengland19a
- **pattern b2**: _newengland19A
- **pattern ra2**: _newengland19a
- **pattern sh2**: _newengland19a
- **pattern so2**: _newengland19a
- **leftarm2**: D1EAF0
- **body2**: D1EAF0
- **rightarm2**: D1EAF0
- **shorts2**: ADD8E6
- **socks2**: ADD8E6
Houston Dynamo

The **Houston Dynamo** are an American soccer team that plays in Major League Soccer in Houston, Texas.  In late 2005, the San Jose Earthquakes moved to the city because of financial problems in San Jose, California.

The Dynamo opened a new stadium, which opened as BBVA Compass Stadium and is now known as Shell Energy Stadium, in downtown Houston in May 2012, after playing their first seven games of the season on the road.

## League title

- Major League Soccer : 2
    - 2006, 2007

## League position

|Season|League|Position|
| --- | --- | --- |
|2006|Major League Soccer|Champions|
|2007|Major League Soccer|Champions|
|2008|Major League Soccer|Quarterfinals|

## Infobox (football club)

- **clubname**: Houston Dynamo
- **nickname**: Orange Crush

- **stadium**: Shell Energy Stadium
Houston, Houston, Texas
- **capacity**: 22,039
- **season**: 2022 Major League Soccer season, 2022
- **current**: 2023 Houston Dynamo season
- **upright**: 0.8
- **caption**: Houston Dynamo's crest
- **alt**: The star on the crest is an ad hoc adoption, likely a nod to Texas as it was its own nation
- **fullname**: Houston Dynamo
- **owntitle**: Owners
- **owner**: Gabriel Brener
Oscar De La Hoya
Ben Guill
Jake Silverstein
- **chrtitle**: Director of football, General manager
- **chairman**: Matt Jordan
- **mgrtitle**: Head coach
- **manager**: Ben Olsen
- **league**: Major League Soccer
- **position**: Western Conference (MLS), Western Conference: 13th
Overall: 25th
2022 MLS Cup Playoffs, Playoffs: Did not qualify
- **website**: http://www.houstondynamo.com/
- **american**: true
- **pattern b1**: _houston19H
- **pattern sh1**: _adidas_black
- **pattern so1**: _color_3_stripes_black
- **leftarm1**: FF8100
- **body1**: FF8100
- **rightarm1**: FF8100
- **shorts1**: FF8100
- **socks1**: FF8100
- **pattern b2**: _houston18A
- **pattern sh2**: _black_3_stripes_color
- **pattern so2**: _3_stripes_on_black
- **leftarm2**: 000000
- **body2**: 000000
- **rightarm2**: 000000
- **shorts2**: FF8100
- **socks2**: FF8100