juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Group (periodic table)

A **group** is any column on the periodic table. Elements in the same group usually have similar properties, because they have the same number of electrons in the outermost electron shell. There are eight main groups of elements, numbered 1, 2, and 13-18. The other ten groups are transition metals:

- Group 1: the alkali metals (lithium family) *not including hydrogen
- Group 2: the alkaline earth metals (beryllium family)
- Groups 3-12: the transition metals
- Group 13: the triels (boron family)
- Group 14: the tetrels (carbon family)
- Group 15: the pnictogens (nitrogen family)
- Group 16: the chalcogens (oxygen family)
- Group 17: the halogens (fluorine family)
- Group 18: the noble gases (helium/neon family)

## Alkali Metals

See Alkali metal

The most reactive metals are Lithium (Li), Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Rubidium (Rb), Cesium (Cs), and Francium (Fr)
- never include hydrogen.

## Alkaline Earth Metals

See Alkaline earth metal. They are Beryllium (Be), Magnesium (Mg), Calcium (Ca), Strontium (Sr), Barium (Ba), Radium (Ra)

## Transition groups

See Transition metals. Transition Metals are the most number of elements in the periodic table. They are Iron (Fe), Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn), Chromium (Cr), Cobalt (Co), Nickel (Ni), Manganese (Mn), Mercury (Hg), Scandium (Sc), Titanium (Ti), Vanadium (V), Silver (Ag), Gold (Au), Cadmium (Cd), Tungsten (W), Platinum (Pt), Yttrium (Y), Molybdenum (Mo) and others.

## The noble gases

The noble gases are the 18th group in the periodic table. They are Helium (He), Neon (Ne), Argon (Ar), Krypton (Kr), Xenon (Xe), and Radon (Rn). They were previously called Inert gases.
Differential coefficient

In mathematics, **differential coefficient** is a term out of use now. The former _differential coefficient_ of a function _f_(_x_) is now called its derivative _df_(_x_)/_dx_. It is the (not necessarily constant) multiplicative factor or _coefficient_ of the differential _dx_ in the differential _df_(_x_).

The differential coefficient of _f_ is a constant function only if _f_ is a linear function.

Early editions of Silvanus P. Thompson's _Calculus Made Easy_ use the older term.  In his 1998 update of this text, Martin Gardner puts "derivative" instead of "differential coefficient".  He speaks of it only in context with Thompson's criticism of the term.
Atomic orbital

**Atomic orbitals** are the places surrounding the nucleus of an atom where the electrons are most likely to be at any given time. It is a mathematical function that describes the wave-like behavior of either one electron or a pair of electrons in an atom.

The word 'orbital' is used because it was thought that electrons behaved similarly to the solar system, where the nucleus is like the sun and the electrons orbit like the planets.

The number of atomic orbitals in an element is defined by the period the element is in. Electrons move between orbitals depending on how much energy they have and how many other electrons there are.

In atomic theory and quantum mechanics, an atomic orbital is a quantum number. Each such orbital can be occupied by one or two electrons. The way orbitals are arranged is related to the electron configurations of atoms. They were derived from descriptions provided by early spectroscopists of certain alkali metal spectroscopic lines as being **s**harp, **p**rincipal, **d**iffuse, and **f**undamental.

## Related pages

- Electron cloud
- Electron shell
- Molecular orbital
Charlottenburg-Wilmersdorf

**Charlottenburg-Wilmersdorf** is a borough of Berlin, formed in 2001 by joining together the old boroughs of Charlottenburg and Wilmersdorf.
It has an area of  and has, as of 2003, about 315,200 inhabitants.
Its current mayor is Monika Thiemen (SPD). The Technical University of Berlin (Technische Universität Berlin), the Berlin University of the Arts (Universität der Künste), the opera (Deutsche Oper Berlin), the Charlottenburg Palace and the Olympic Stadium are located in Charlottenburg-Wilmersdorf.

## Related pages

- Wilmersdorf
- Charlottenburg
Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg

**Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg** is a borough of Berlin. It is a new borough, only made in 2001 by joining the old boroughs of Friedrichshain and Kreuzberg.
It occupies  and has a population of about 255,200 as of 2003.

Its current mayor is Franz Schulz (Green Party).

## Other websites

- Official Homepage
- Xhain.info - Private Portal (in German)
Lichtenberg-Hohenschönhausen

**Lichtenberg** is a borough of Berlin, Germany. In 2001 it took over the old borough of Hohenschönhausen. Lichtenberg now has an area of  and a population (as of 2003) of about 260,200 inhabitants.

The present mayor of the borough is Christina Emmrich (Die Linke).

Lichtenberg contains the Tierpark Berlin, the larger of Berlin's two zoological parks. Lichtenberg was also the site of the headquarters of the Stasi, the East German intelligence service. The complex is now a museum.

The Berlin-Hohenschönhausen Memorial is on the site of the main prison of the Stasi.

## Other websites

- Official Homepage (in German)
Proteaceae

**Proteaceae** is a family of flowering plants. Mainly restricted to the Southern Hemisphere, it is a fairly large family, with around 80 genera but fewer than 2000 species. Together with the Platanaceae and Nelumbonaceae they make up the order Proteales.

## Subfamilies

Traditionally divided in two subfamilies:Persoonioideae and Grevilleoideae. Recently, workers have recognized seven subfamilies:
- Persoonioideae,
- Bellendenoideae,
- Eidotheoideae,
- Proteoideae,
- Sphalmioideae,
- Carnarvonioideae
- Grevilleoideae

## Other websites

- _Protea_ family
- toxicosis in dogs
- Phylogeny, biogeography, and the evolution of life-history traits in Leucadendron (Proteaceae)
Marzahn-Hellersdorf

|bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Sign|bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Map|
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|align="center"||align="center"||
|Area:|61.74 km²|||
|Inhabitants:|257.324 _<small>(Statistisches Landesamt Berlin, 2002)</small>_|||
|Population density:|4.168 inhabitants per km²|||
|Website:|official homepage in German|||
|Mayor of Borough:|Dagmar Pohle (PDS, now Die Linke)|||
|Parliament of Borough BVV:|Linke.PDS 22, SPD 15, CDU 7, NPD 3, Grüne 3, FDP 3, WASG 2 (last election 2006)|||

**Marzahn-Hellersdorf** is one of the 12 new boroughs of Berlin. It was created in 2001 when the old boroughs of Marzahn and Hellersdorf were merged (joined together).

Marzahn-Hellersdorf is in northeast Berlin. It has borders with Lichtenberg in the west, Treptow-Köpenick in the south and the state of Brandenburg in the east and north.

The borough contains of five former villages: Biesdorf, Hellersdorf, Kaulsdorf, Mahlsdorf and Marzahn, which became part of Berlin in 1920.

## Twinnings

Marzahn-Hellersdorf has several twin towns:
- Tychy
- Halton
- Lauingen
- Minsk
- Budapest IVth borough and XVth borough

## Other websites

- Official Homepage (in German)
- Marzahn-Hellersdorf Website (in German)
- Photo essay
Billionaire

A **billionaire** is a person who has a net worth of at least one billion (1,000,000,000) units of currency. This is usually used for major currencies with large values, like Pound Sterlings £, American dollars $, or Euros €.

## Billionaires (in United States dollars)

In March 2021, there were 2,755 people in the world who were considered to be billionaires (in United States dollars).

Every year, the American business magazine Forbes, and its website, releases a list of billionaires called _The World's Billionaires_.

### The number of billionaires per million people

|Country or territory|data-sort-type=“number”|Number of billionaires|data-sort-type=“number”|Number of billionaires per million people|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
||3|78.740|||
|St. Kitts & Nevis|2|37.037|||
||1|25.710|||
||1|15.834|||
||71|8.830|||
||27|4.573|||
||40|4.044|||
||3|3.378|||
||41|2.987|||
||1|2.713|||
||12|2.226|||
||724|1.853|||
||17|1.824|||
||9|1.808|||
||123|1.553|||
||35|1.529|||
||1|1.464|||
||8|1.370|||
||34|1.203|||
||64|1.147|||
||6|1.090|||
||9|1.007|||
||1|0.915|||
||6|0.886|||
||8|0.747|||
||117|0.677|||
||56|0.674|||
||11|0.626|||
||43|0.607|||
||40|0.579|||
||43|0.540|||
||30|0.507|||
|UAE|4|0.427|||
||2|0.391|||
||1|0.368|||
||12|0.366|||
||2|0.366|||
||7|0.356|||
||52|0.300|||
||3|0.280|||
||698|0.276|||
||27|0.275|||
||1|0.269|||
||1|0.224|||
||1|0.223|||
||4|0.212|||
||59|0.211|||
||44|0.207|||
||6|0.157|||
||6|0.144|||
||15|0.136|||
||119|0.129|||
||2|0.104|||
||1|0.103|||
||1|0.097|||
||12|0.095|||
||4|0.087|||
||1|0.087|||
||4|0.067|||
||1|0.063|||
||2|0.061|||
||6|0.059|||
||3|0.059|||
||15|0.056|||
||4|0.041|||
||1|0.035|||
||1|0.033|||
||1|0.031|||
||1|0.028|||
||1|0.022|||
||1|0.017|||
||3|0.014|||

## Related pages

- Millionaire
Neukölln

**Neukölln** is a borough of Berlin. It has an area of  and has, as of 2003, about 307,400 inhabitants and one of the highest percentage of foreigners in Berlin.
Its current mayor is Heinz Buschkowsky (SPD).

## History

When it was first mentioned in 1360, the village was called _Richardsdorf_ and owned by the Order of St. John

The coat of arms of the borough has a Maltese cross to remember this part of its history.

In 1737, Frederick William I of Prussia let Moravians from Bohemia settle in the area. They built their own church and houses off the village centre along the road to Berlin, which is now called _Richardstraße_. The new Bohemian village was granted its own constitution in 1797.

When both parts of the village were reunited in 1874, the population was 8,000 inhabitants. It had nearly doubled, to 15,000 by the next year.

On 1 May 1899 the area, then the largest village of Prussia, became an independent city and got its current name in 1912. Its independence ended in 1920, when it was made part of Greater Berlin . Between 1966 and 1975, the "Gropiusstadt" was built. This city-within-a-city  was designed by architect Walter Gropius. Gropius was the last director of the Bauhaus school of arts and architecture, which set up in Berlin when it moved from Dessau. Gropiusstadt has over 60,000 inhabitants.

## Individuals associated with Neukölln

Actress Mady Rahl and Lotte Ulbricht, wife of East German leader Walter Ulbricht, were born in Neukölln.

## References in popular culture

- "Neuköln" (deliberately spelt with one 'l') is an instrumental piece by David Bowie, the ninth track on his 1977 album _"Heroes"_.
- The last track of Miss Kittin's first solo album _I Com_ is called "Neukölln 2".

## Twin cities

- Cologne
- Wetzlar
- Leonberg
- Marino
- Bat Yam

## Other websites

- Official Homepage
- WebTV from Berlin, Neukoelln
Pankow

**Pankow** [] is one of the new borough of Berlin. In 2001, the old borough of Pankow was merged (joined) with the former boroughs of Prenzlauer Berg and Weißensee.

It has an area of  and about 347,100 inhabitants. Pankow's current mayor is Matthias Koehne (SPD).

Between 1945 and 1960 many members of the government of East Germany lived in the Majakowskiring district of Pankow. Western writers often called Pankow capital of East Germany, or used Pankow as shorthand for the East German government.

The Rykestrasse Synagogue Germany's largest synagogue, is located in the Prenzlauer Berg neighbourhood of the Pankow district.

## Other websites

- Official Homepage
Reinickendorf

**Reinickendorf** is a borough of Berlin. It has an area of  and has, as of December 31 2003, 246,577 inhabitants.

Reinickendorf was created in 1920 by the Greater Berlin Act, and was not changed in the borough reforms of 2001.

Its current mayor is Marlies Wanjura (CDU).

## Parts of town

Reinickendorf is split in ten parts:
- Reinickendorf (73,847)
- Märkisches Viertel (35,833)
- Tegel (33,873)
- Wittenau (29,597)
- Heiligensee (17,800)
- Frohnau (17,309)
- Hermsdorf (16,950)
- Waidmannslust (10,316)
- Konradshöhe/Tegelort (6,031)
- Lübars (5,021).

## Politics

The last elections for the BVV (elections for the representatives in the boroughs parliament) were in October 2001.

## Twinning

- - Greenwich, London, United Kingdom

## Other websites

- Official Homepage
Pasithee (moon)

**Pasithee** or ***', is a non-spherical moon of Jupiter. It was found by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2001, and given the designation ***'.

Pasithee is about 2 kilometres in diameter, and orbits Jupiter at an average distance of 23,307,000 km in 726.933 days, at an inclination of 166° to the ecliptic (164° to Jupiter's equator), with an orbital eccentricity of 0.3289.

It was named in August 2003 after Pasithee, one of the Charites, goddesses of charm, beauty, nature, human creativity and fertility, daughters of Zeus (Jupiter) by Eurynome. Pasithee, better known as Aglaea, is the spouse of Hypnos (Sleep) and presides to hallucinations and hallucinogens.

It belongs to the Carme group, made up of non-spherical retrograde moons orbiting Jupiter at a distance ranging between 23,000,000 and 24,000,000 km and at an inclination of about 165°.
Steglitz-Zehlendorf

**Steglitz-Zehlendorf** is a borough of Berlin. It was formed in 2001 when the former boroughs of Steglitz and Zehlendorf were joined together.

Steglitz-Zehlendorf has an area of  and has, as of 2003, about 288,300 inhabitants. Its current mayor is Norbert Kopp (CDU).

## Landmarks

- The Bierpinsel (literally, "Beer Brush"), a 1970s style tower in Steglitz
- The Botanical Garden in Berlin
- The Library of the Philological Faculty at the Free University of Berlin in Dahlem, by Norman Foster
- The Wannsee lake and villa, home to the notorious Wannsee Conference
- Lichterfelde West Villen Kolonie - exclusive residential area of 1860 with tree lined and cobbled streets

## Other websites

- Official Homepage (in German)
Volvo

**Volvo** is a Swedish car and truck maker founded in 1927. It has two parts:

- **Volvo Cars** (Swedish: _Volvo personvagnar_), which produces standard size cars, and was owned by the Ford Motor Company 1999 to 2010.
- **Volvo Group**, which produces trucks, boat engines, buses and more.

Volvo is now the leading producer in what most people would call safe family cars.

One of the Volvo's cars, the Volvo S60 is used by police departments in some parts of Europe and the United Kingdom.

In March 2010, Ford signed a deal to sell _Volvo Cars_ to the Chinese automaker Geely for $1.8 billion. Volvo cars has is making all of it's cars zero emission by the year 2030.

## Models

- Volvo C30
- Volvo S60
- Volvo S80
- Volvo V70
- Volvo S60
- Volvo S40
- Volvo V50
- Volvo V40
- Volvo FH
- Volvo XC40
- Volvo XC90

## Infobox (company)

- **name**: AB Volvo
- **industry**: Automotive industry, Automotive
- **type**: _Aktiebolag_
- **founders**: Assar Gabrielsson and Gustav Larson
- **location**: Gothenburg, Sweden
- **area served**: Worldwide
- **products**: Trucks, buses, construction equipment, marine and industrial engines, customer financing, insurance and related services, product related services
- **revenue year**: 2022
- **income year**: 2022
- **net income year**: 2022
- **assets year**: 2022
- **equity year**: 2022
- **num employees**: 102,155
- **num employees year**: 2022
Tempelhof-Schöneberg

**Tempelhof-Schöneberg** is one of the new borough of Berlin, formed in 2001 by merging the old boroughs of Tempelhof and Schöneberg.

Tempelhof-Schöneberg has an area of  and has, as of November 2004, about 335.000 inhabitants. Its current mayor is Ekkehard Band (SPD).

## Other websites

- Official Homepage
Treptow-Köpenick

**Treptow-Köpenick** is a borough of Berlin, formed in 2001 by merging the former boroughs of Treptow and Köpenick.

Treptow-Köpenick has an area of  and has, as of 2003, about 233,700 inhabitants. It's current mayor is Gabriele Schöttler (SPD).
Platanaceae

**Platanaceae** is a family of flowering plants. The family has only one genus _platanus_. This genus has six to ten species of tall trees. The trees grow naturally in temperate and subtropical regions of the Northern Hemisphere. In all species, the flowers grow in dense groups of small flowers. The fruits are small achenes with hairs near the base.
Microsoft Office Online

**Microsoft Office Online** is the website of Microsoft Office. It has images, articles, templates, downloads and other attractions.

## Trivia

By November 2004, Microsoft Office Online received over 52 million visitors, with over 746 million page views, ranking it in the top 100 sites worldwide.

## Other websites

- Official website
- Office Live
Visual Studio Tools for Office

**Visual Studio Tools for Office** (Sometime written as _VSTO_) is an add-on product for Microsoft's Visual Studio product that enables developers to create applications using Microsoft Office.

## Other websites

- Visual Studio Tools for Office page
Callirrhoe (moon)

**Callirrhoe** or ***', is one of Jupiter's farthest named moons. It was found by Spacewatch on October 6, 1999 and originally designated as an asteroid (). It was found to be in orbit around Jupiter by Tim Spahr on July 18, 2000, and then given the designation ***'.

Callirrhoe is about 8.6 kilometres in diameter, and orbits Jupiter at an average distance of 24,356,000 km in 776.543 days, at an inclination of 141° to the ecliptic (140° to Jupiter's equator), with an orbital eccentricity of 0.264.

It was named in October 2002 after Callirhoe, daughter of the river god Achelous, one of Zeus' (Jupiter's) many conquests.

It belongs to the Pasiphaë group, non-spherical retrograde moons orbiting Jupiter at distances ranging between 22,800,000 and 24,100,000 km, and with inclinations ranging between 144.5° and 158.3°.

As a navigation exercise, the New Horizons spacecraft imaged it on January 10, 2007.
Mneme (moon)

**Mneme** or ****, is a non-spherical moon of Jupiter. It was found by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard, et al. in 2003, and was designated **S/2003 J 21**.

Mneme is about 2 kilometres in diameter, and orbits Jupiter at an average distance of 21,427,000 km in 640.769 days, at an inclination of 149° to the ecliptic (148° to Jupiter's equator) with an orbital eccentricity of 0.2214.

It was named in March 2005 after Mneme, one of the three original Muses. She is sometimes confused with Mnemosyne, mother of the Muses (the three or the nine, depending on the author) by Zeus (Jupiter).

Mneme belongs to the Ananke group, retrograde non-spherical moons which orbit Jupiter between 19,300,000 and 22,700,000 km, at inclinations of about 150°.
Lift coefficient

The **lift coefficient** (_C<sub>L</sub>_ or _C<sub>Z</sub>_) is coefficient without a dimension that relates the lift generated by an airfoil, the dynamic pressure of the fluid flow around the airfoil, and the planform area of the airfoil.  It may also be described as the ratio of lift pressure to dynamic pressure.

- Lift coefficient may be used to relate the total lift generated by an aircraft to the total area of the wing of the aircraft.
- Lift coefficent may also be used as a characteristic of a particular shape (or cross-section) of an airfoil.

The lift coefficient is a dimensionless number.
Karl Dönitz

**Karl Dönitz** ( ; 16 September 1891 – 24 December 1980) was a German naval leader. He commanded the German Navy (_Kriegsmarine_) during the second half of World War II. Dönitz was also President of Germany for 23 days after Adolf Hitler's suicide. For his role in World War II, Dönitz was referred to as "der Löwe" (the Lion).

Dönitz was born in Berlin. He entered the Imperial German Navy (_Kaiserliche Marine_) in 1911. During World War I, he served on surface ships. Later he was transferred to submarines (U-boats). He remained in the navy after the war and rose through the ranks of the German Navy of the Weimar Republic (_Reichsmarine_) and the German Navy of the Third Reich (_Kriegsmarine_). He became a _Großadmiral_. He served as Commander of Submarines (_Befehlshaber der Unterseeboote_, _B.d.U._). Later, he became Commander-in-Chief of the German Navy (_Oberbefehlshaber der Kriegsmarine_). He got this position, even though he never joined the Nazi Party. Under his command, the U-boat fleet fought the Second Battle of The Atlantic. He also served as _Reichspräsident_ for 23 days after Adolf Hitler's suicide. He ended the war as a prisoner-of-war of the British.

After the war Dönitz was charged and convicted of "crimes against peace" and "war crimes" at the Nuremberg Trials. He served ten years in prison. He ordered the unrestricted submarine warfare which was done by Germany in the North Atlantic. With this, he caused Germany to be in breach of the Second London Naval Treaty of 1936.
At his trial, evidence was shown that the Allies had acted similarly. For this reason, this breach of international law had no impact on his sentence. After his release from prison, Dönitz moved to Aumühle, a small village near Hamburg. During his later years, he wrote two autobiographies. In them, he covered different periods in his life. He died of a heart attack on Christmas Eve, 1980.

## Infobox (president)

- **name**: Karl Dönitz
- **nationality**: German
- **image**: Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1976-127-06A, Karl Dönitz (cropped).jpg
- **caption**: Dönitz as Grand Admiral in 1943
- **order**: 4th Reich President, President of Germany
- **term start**: 30 April 1945
- **term end**: 23 May 1945
- **predecessor**: Adolf Hitler
_Führer und Reichskanzler_
- **successor**: Allied Occupation Zones in Germany, Allied military occupation 1945-1949
Theodor Heuss (West Germany, FRG)
Wilhelm Pieck (German Democratic Republic, GDR)
- **birth place**: Berlin, German Empire
- **death place**: Aumühle, near Hamburg, West Germany
- **party**: None
Helike (moon)

**Helike** or ***', is a moon of Jupiter. It was found by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2003, and given the designation ***'.

Helike is about 4 kilometres in diameter, and orbits Jupiter at an average distance of 20,540,000 km in 601.402 Earth days, at an inclination of 155° to the ecliptic (156° to Jupiter's equator), with an orbital eccentricity of 0.1375.

It was named in March 2005 after Helike, one of the nymphs that nurtured Zeus (Jupiter) in his infancy on Crete.

Helike belongs to the Ananke group, retrograde non-spherical moons which orbit Jupiter between 19,300,000 and 22,700,000 km, at inclinations of about 150°.
Turbulence

**Turbulence** or **turbulent flow** is violent, unsteady, chaotic movement of fluids like air and water, and is contrasted with laminar flow.
Praxidike (moon)

**Praxidike** or ***', is a non-spherical moon of Jupiter. It was found by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2000, and given the designation ***'.

Praxidike orbits Jupiter at an average distance of 20,824,000 km in 613.904 days, at an inclination of 144° to the ecliptic (143° to Jupiter's equator), with an orbital eccentricity of 0.1840.

It was named in August 2003 after Praxidike, the Greek goddess of punishment.

Praxidike belongs to the Ananke group, believed to be the remnants of a break-up of a captured asteroid. With an estimated diameter of 7 km, Praxidike is the second biggest member of the group after Ananke itself (assumed albedo of 0.04)

The moon appears grey similar to C-type asteroids.

## References

1. <li value="8">Ephemeris IAU-MPC NSES
1. Mean orbital parameters NASA JPL

## Other websites

- David Jewitt pages
- Scott Sheppard pages
Supersonic

The term **supersonic** is used to describe a speed that is over the speed of sound (Mach 1).  At a normal temperature like 70 degrees Fahrenheit (21.1 °C), the speed needed for something to be traveling at a faster than sound speed is about 344 m/s, 1,129 ft/s, 770 mph or 1,238 km/h. Speeds faster than 5 times the speed of sound are sometimes called hypersonic. Speeds where only some parts of the air around an object (like the propeller) reach supersonic speeds are called transonic (normally somewhere between Mach 0.8 and Mach 1.2).

Whips have operated supersonically for many centuries. Artillery became supersonic in the 19th century.

It can be very hard to reach supersonic speeds, because drag increases a lot near these speeds. This slows a plane, and for years made control difficult. These problems were called the "sound barrier". Jet engines and other developments solved the problems in the middle 20th century.

## Related pages

- Shock wave
Small Dark Spot

The **Small Dark Spot**, sometimes also called **Dark Spot 2** or **The Wizard's Eye**, was a southern cyclonic storm on the planet Neptune. It was the second strongest storm on the planet in 1989, when Voyager 2 flew by the planet. When first discovered, it was  a dark cyclonic storm.  As Voyager 2 approached the planet, a bright core of cloud activity developed. It disappeared in 1994.
Aitne (moon)

**Aitne** or ***', is a non-spherical moon of Jupiter. It was found by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard, _et al._ in 2001, and given the designation ***'.

Aitne is about 3 kilometres in diameter, and orbits Jupiter at an average distance of 22,285,000 km in 679.641 days, at an inclination of 166° to the ecliptic (164° to Jupiter's equator), with an orbital eccentricity of 0.393.

It was named in August 2003 after Aitna or Aitne, the divine personification of Mount Etna, whose sons by Zeus (Jupiter) are the Palici, the twin sicilian gods of geysers (other authors have them descend from Thalia and/or Hephaistos).

Aitne belongs to the Carme group, made up of non-spherical irregular retrograde moons orbiting Jupiter at a distance ranging between 23,000,000 and 24,000,000 km and at an inclination of about 165°.
William Lassell

**William Lassell** (18 June 1799 – 5 October 1880) was a British astronomer, born in Bolton, Lancashire, England. He died in Maidenhead in 1880. He is known as discoverer of Triton, the largest moon of Neptune, and for his improvements to the reflecting telescope.

## Infobox (scientist)

- **name**: William Lassell
- **image**: William Lassell.jpg
- **image size**: 180px
- **nationality**: Brtish
- **field**: Astronomer
- **known for**: Discovered Triton (moon), Triton, Hyperion (moon), Hyperion,
 Ariel (moon), Ariel and Umbriel (moon), Umbriel moons
Roche limit

The **Roche limit** (), or **Roche radius**, is a planetary distance.

Inside the Roche limit, orbiting material will form planetary rings. Outside the limit, material sticks together and forms satellites.

The term is named after Édouard Roche, the French astronomer who first stated it in 1848.

## Sources

- Édouard Roche: _La figure d'une masse fluide soumise à l'attraction d'un point éloigné_, Acad. des sciences de Montpellier, Vol. 1 (1847–50) p. 243

## Other websites

- Detailed derivation of formulae for calculating the Roche limit
- Discussion of the Roche Limit
Synchronous orbit

A **synchronous orbit** is an orbit in which an orbiting body (usually a satellite) has a period equal to the average rotational period of the body being orbited (usually a planet). Or in smaller words, the orbit above and the spinning planet below, go around once in the same amount of time. It orbits in the same direction of rotation as that body. So if you were on the orbiting body, you would always see the same side of the body being orbited. Or if you were on the body being orbited, the orbiting body would stay in the same part of the sky. Geostationary orbit is the most common kind.
François Arago

**François Jean Dominique Arago** (Catalan: **Francesc Joan Dominic Aragó**; February 26, 1786 – October 2, 1853) was a French mathematician, physicist, astronomer and politician.

## Infobox (prime minister)

- **name**: François Arago
- **image**: François Arago par Ary Scheffer.jpg
- **order**: 25<sup>th</sup> Prime Minister of France
- **term start**: May 9, 1848
- **term end**: June 24, 1848
- **predecessor**: Jacques-Charles Dupont de l'Eure
- **successor**: Louis-Eugène Cavaignac
- **birth date**: February 26, 1786
- **death date**: October 2, 1853
- **party**: None
S/2003 J 2

**** is an unnamed non-spherical moon of Jupiter. It was found by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard and David C. Jewitt and was announced on March 4, 2003  As of 2006, it is Jupiter's farthest known moon.

is about two kilometres in diameter, and orbits Jupiter at an average distance of 29,540,000 km in 980 days, at an inclination of 154° to the ecliptic (152° to Jupiter's equator) and with an orbital eccentricity of 0.2255.

It seems to belong to a group all of its own, with a distant and retrograde orbit.

## Infobox (planet)

- **name**: S/2003 J 2
- **image**: 2003 J 2 Gladman CFHT annotated.gif
- **caption**: S/2003 J 2 imaged by the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope during follow-up observations in February 2003
- **discovery ref**:  
- **discoverer**: Scott S. Sheppard et al.
- **discovery site**: Mauna Kea Observatory, Mauna Kea Obs.
- **discovered**: 5 February 2003
- **orbit ref**:  
- **epoch**: 17 December 2020 (Julian day, JD 2459200.5)
- **observation arc**: 16.42 Julian year (astronomy), yr (5,996 day, d)
- **earliest precovery date**: 11 December 2001
- **eccentricity**: 0.2776569
- **period**: –1.65 yr (–602.02 d)
- **mean anomaly**: 114.43587Degree (angle), °
- **mean motion**: / day
- **inclination**: 149.20392°
- **asc node**: 50.46976°
- **arg peri**: 224.95527°
- **satellite of**: Jupiter
- **mean diameter**: ≈
- **albedo**: 0.04
- **magnitude**: 23.2
- **abs magnitude**: 16.7
Eirene (moon)

**Eirene** is a non-spherical moon of Jupiter. It was found by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2003. It was called **** until 2019.

Eirene is about 4 kilometres in diameter, and orbits Jupiter at an average distance of 23,974,000 km in 758.341 days, at an inclination of 166° to the ecliptic (167° to Jupiter's equator), with an orbital eccentricity of 0.307.

It belongs to the Carme group, made up of non-spherical retrograde moons orbiting Jupiter at a distance ranging between 23,000,000 and 24,000,000 km and at an inclination of about 165°.
Magnolia (tree)

**Magnolia** is a genus of about 210 to 340 species.

The Angiosperm taxonomical names _Magnoliophyta_ (division) and _Magnoliopsida_ (class) come from this genus. Charles Plumier gave a flowering tree from the island of Martinique the genus name _Magnolia_, after French botanist Pier Magnol.

_Magnolia_ is an ancient genus. It appeared before bees evolved. The flowers are thought to have evolved by encouraging pollination by beetles.

To avoid damage from pollinating beetles, the carpels of _Magnolia_ flowers are extremely tough.

Many magnolias that have pretty flowers are used as street trees.
S/2003 J 4

**** is a moon of Jupiter. It was found by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2003.

is about 2 km in diameter, and orbits Jupiter at an average distance of 23,571,000 km in 739.294 days, at an inclination of 147° to the ecliptic (149° to Jupiter's equator), with an orbital eccentricity of 0.3003.

It belongs to the Pasiphaë group, non-spherical retrograde moons orbiting Jupiter at distances ranging between 22,800,000 and 24,100,000 km, and with inclinations ranging between 144.5° and 158.3°.
Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-19

The **MiG-19 Farmer** was a Soviet fighter aircraft made by Mikoyan. It first flew in 1952 and was introduced in 1955. It was meant to replace the older MiG-17 Fresco. During the Vietnam War, it was used a little by the North Vietnamese but not as much as the MiG-17 or MiG 21 Fishbed.

It had 3 30mm cannon, and could carry 4 bombsor rockets. It weighed 11,397 pounds (5,170 kilograms) empty and could weigh up to 19,621 pounds (8,900 kilograms) at the heaviest. It was powered by 2 Tumansky RD-9 jet engines, each had 7,165 pounds (3250 kilograms) of thrust with afterburner. It was 12 feet (3.6576 meters) high, had a wingspan of 29.5 feet (9 meters), and was 42 feet 11 in (13.1 meters) long. It could go 903 miles per hour (1,450 kilometers per hour), and was the first supersonic Soviet fighter.

Eventually, it was replaced by the newer MiG-21.

## Related pages

- MiG-17 Fresco
- MiG-21 Fishbed
- F-8 Crusader
- F-4 Phantom II
Camille Flammarion

**Nicolas Camille Flammarion** (February 26, 1842 – June 3, 1925) was a French astronomer and writer.  He was usually credited as **Camille Flammarion**.
Herse (moon)

**Herse** is a moon of Jupiter. It was found by a team of astronomers led by Brett J. Gladman, _et al._ in 2003  and called **** until 2009.

Herse is about 2 kilometres in diameter and orbits Jupiter at an average distance of 22,134,000 kms in 672.716 days, at an inclination of 162° to the ecliptic (161° to Jupiter's equator), with an orbital eccentricity of 0.2379.

It is the closest member of the Carme group, made up of non-spherical retrograde moons orbiting Jupiter at a distance ranging between 23,000,000 and 24,000,000 kms, at an inclination of about 165°.
Johann Gottfried Galle

**Johann Gottfried Galle** (9 June 1812 in Radis, Saxony-Anhalt–10 July 1910 in Potsdam, Brandenburg) was a German astronomer at the Berlin Observatory who, with the help of student Heinrich Louis d'Arrest, was the first person to view the planet Neptune, and know what he was looking at. He used the calculations of Urbain Le Verrier to know where to look.
Voyager program

The **Voyager program** is a space exploration program of the United States' NASA agency. It consists of a pair of unmanned scientific probes, _Voyager 1_ and _Voyager 2_. They were launched in 1977 to take advantage of a favorable planetary alignment of the late 1970s. Although they were officially used to study just Jupiter and Saturn, the two probes were able to continue their mission into the outer solar system. They have since continued out and exited the solar system. These probes were built at JPL and were funded by NASA.

Both missions have gathered large amounts of data about the gas giants of the solar system, of which little was known before. In addition, the spacecraft paths have been used to place limits on the existence of Planet X, a planet believed by some people to be farther from the Sun than Pluto.

In 2013, NASA announced that Voyager 1 had  left the solar system (Heliosphere) on 25 August 2012. It is the first man-made object to enter interstellar space. In 2018, NASA announced that Voyager 2 had reached the heliopause on 5 November of that year.  Both of them are now in travelling in the interstellar space. Voyager spacecraft are the farthest spacecraft from Earth. On February 17, 1998, Voyager 1 passed the first spacecraft that completed the 1st mission to Jupiter, Pioneer 10 in the distance to the Sun at 70 AU (6.5 billion miles, 10.5 billion km) from it as the farthest spacecraft from the Sun. Voyager 2 overtook Pioneer 10 in the distance to the Sun at 133.92 AU (12.447 billion miles, 20.03 billion km) from it on July 18, 2023 as the 2nd farthest spacecraft from the Sun.

## Other websites

- NASA Voyager website - Main source of information.
- Voyager Spacecraft Lifetime
- Space Exploration - Robotic Missions
- NASA Facts - Voyager Mission to the Outer Planets (PDF format)
- Spacecraft Escaping the Solar System  - current positions and diagrams
- Voyager 1 and 2 atlas of six Saturnian satellites (PDF format) 1984
- Mission state
Neptune Trojan

A **Neptune Trojan** is an asteroid which is in the same orbit as the planet Neptune.

Their name comes from the Trojan asteroids which have the same orbital period as a planet. As of March 2007, there are six known Neptune Trojans. They lie in the elongated, curved region around the L<sub>4</sub> Lagrangian point 60° ahead of Neptune. The six Neptune Trojans are , 385571 Otrera, , 385695 Clete,  and .

The discovery of  in a high inclination (>25°) orbit is significant because it suggests a ‘thick’ cloud of Trojans. It is believed that large (radius ≈ 100 km) Neptune Trojans could greatly outnumber the Jupiter Trojans.

The New Horizons spacecraft passed through the L<sub>5</sub> Neptune region in 2014. It was preparing to observe Pluto and did not observe any asteroids there.
Edward Guinan

**Edward Guinan**  is currently a professor in Villanova University's Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics. He and two colleagues discovered  Neptune's ring system.
Occultation

An **occultation** is an event that occurs when one object is hidden by another object that passes between it and the observer.  A planet, for example, can pass in front of a star.  Some occultations are eclipses. The word is often used in astronomy. It can also be used in a non-astronomical sense to describe when an object in the foreground _occults_ (covers up) objects in the background.
Flattening

The **flattening**, **ellipticity**, or **oblateness** of an oblate spheroid is the "squashing" of the spheroid's pole, down towards its equator.
Adaptive optics

**Adaptive optics** is a technology to improve the performance of optical systems by reducing the effects of rapidly changing optical distortion. It is commonly used on astronomical telescopes to remove the effects of atmospheric distortion.

Adaptive optical works by measuring the distortion and rapidly compensating for it either using deformable mirrors or material with variable refractive properties. While the idea was theoretically understood for some time, it was only advances in computer technology during the 1990s that finally made the technique practical.

Adaptive optics should not be confused with active optics, which works on a longer timescale to correct the primary mirror geometry itself. The simplest form of adaptive optics is **tip-tilt** correction, which corresponds to correction of the tilts of the wavefront in two dimensions (equal to correction of the position offsets for the image). This is performed using a rapidly moving tip-tilt mirror which makes small rotations around two of its axes.

A significant fraction of the distortion introduced by the atmosphere can be removed in this way. Tip-tilt mirrors are widely used in night time and solar telescopes, to correct the effect introduced by Earth's atmosphere on the light path and improve image quality.

Tip-tilt mirrors are effectively segmented adaptive optics mirrors with only one segment which can tip and tilt, rather than having an array of multiple segments which can tip and tilt independently.

## Other websites

- Description of Active & Adaptive Optics E.S.O.
- Adaptive Optics Tutorial at CTIO  A. Tokovinin
- Research groups and companies with interests in Adaptive Optics
- NSF Center for Adaptive Optics at UC Santa Cruz
- Center for Astronomical Adaptive Optics at The University of Arizona
- Using Adaptive Optics to image photoreceptors
- Gemini's Laser Vision Reveals Striking New Details in Orion Nebula
- Adaptive optics pinpoints on black holes
- Uranus in 2004  (with and without AO)
Optical depth

**Optical depth** is a measure of transparency. It is defined as the fraction of radiation (or light) that is scattered or absorbed on a path. One way of visualizing optical depth is to think of a fog. The fog between a person and an object that is immediately in front of them has an optical depth of zero. As the object moves away, the optical depth increases until it reaches a large value and the object is no longer visible.

## Other websites

- optical depth equations
Opacity

**Opacity** or **opaque** means something that is difficult to see through or perceive. It can also mean:

- Opacity (optics), the degree to which light is blocked.
- Opaque context, a linguistic context in which it is not possible to substitute co-referential terms while guaranteeing the preservation of truth values.
- Opaque data, in computer programming, data that can only be manipulated through an external interface.
- Opaque is a famous restaurant that serves customers in complete darkness.
Xena: Warrior Princess

***Xena: Warrior Princess*** is an American television series that ran from September 15, 1995 until June 18, 2001.  The series was created in 1995 by writer-producers Robert Tapert under his production tag, _Pacific Renaissance Pictures LTD_. Later, there were co-executive producers. They were Sam Raimi and R. J. Stewart. The series is a spin-off from the TV series _Hercules: The Legendary Journeys_ where Xena (Lucy Lawless) is a minor character. The series tells the story of Xena's quest to seek redemption for her past sins as a ruthless warlord. She uses her fighting skills to help people. Gabrielle (Renee O'Connor) becomes Xena's greatest friend, her initial naïveté helps to balance Xena and helps her in seeing and fighting for the "greater good".

The series usually had between four and four million viewers on original airings. The series has positive reviews from many reviewers. It was ranked #10 on the list of _TV Guide_<nowiki/>'<nowiki/>s Top 25 Cult TV Shows of All Time. It was nominated for Emmy awards.

## Infobox (television)

- **genre**: Supernatural drama
- **runtime**: 41–44 minutes
- **creator**: John Schulian
Robert Tapert
R. J. Stewart
- **starring**: Lucy Lawless
Renee O'Connor
- **language**: English
- **list episodes**: List of Xena: Warrior Princess episodes
- **executive producer**: Robert Tapert, Sam Raimi
- **network**: Syndication
- **num seasons**: 6
- **num episodes**: 134
- **related**: _Hercules: The Legendary Journeys_
_Young Hercules_
English free settlers

**English free settlers** were people that chose to go to New Holland (now Australia). They were not forced to go there, as the convicts were. The English free settlers went to Australia between the late 18th century and the early 19th century. When the English free settlers got to Australia, they landed in the southern part of the continent. That was the only colony created by the free settlers.

The English free settlers went to Australia to be free. They wanted to make money as well. They also wanted to explore Australian families who wanted a better life with their children. Some people called the English Free settlers "pilgrims".
In the early years of the colony, very few settlers came to Australia. Free settlers had to fund their own transport and were usually quite wealthy. The few who made the journey to Australia did so mostly to make their fortune. They were often given large land grants and convicts to work for them.
Meter (poetry)

In poetry, **meter** (British English spelling: **metre**) means the rhythmic patterns in a verse.

## Fundamentals

The units of poetic meter, like rhyme, vary from language to language and between poetic traditions. They can involve arrangements of syllables into repeated patterns called _feet_ within a line. English meter is founded on the patterns of stressed and unstressed syllables. In Latin and Greek verse, on the other hand, while the metrical units are similar, not syllable stresses but syllable lengths are the component parts of meter.
Verse (poetry)

In poetry a **verse** is technically a single line in a poem. A poem is a "metrical composition".

However, in common use, a verse is a group of lines in a poem which make up a paragraph. It consists of several lines, either in print for reading, or in a song. In the poems and theatre of Ancient Greece these units were called strophes.

## Related pages

- Poetry
- Blank verse
- Free verse
- Verse-chorus form
- Ballad
- Rhyme
- Stanza
- Ode
Line (disambiguation)

**Line** or **lines** could mean:
- Line, a type of geometric figure that is made up of an endless number of points.
- a length of rope, cable or chain when put to use (such as a clothesline, anchor line)
- a line or queue of people waiting in a queue area
- a line of text in writing
    - Lines (punishment), punishment by forced writing of text
- relationships in genetics and genealogy, such as Lineage (evolution) and kinship and descent
- lines of cocaine
- Lines (video game)
- A one-, two- or three-line whip, a notice issued by a Chief Whip in the UK parliament

**People**:
- Dick Lines (born 1938), former Canadian baseball player
- Richard D. Lines, American amateur astronomer

In **science and technology**:
- Line (electrical engineering), a circuit or loop
    - a power line for electric power transmission
    - Telephone line
- Line (video), a measure of video display resolution or image resolution
- _line_, former name of the unit of magnetic flux, the Maxwell (unit)
- Line (length), an obsolete unit of length equal to one-twelfth or one-tenth of an inch

In **transport**:
- a railway line
- Shipping line, a company engaged in sea transport
- Airline
- A bus line, see List of bus operating companies

In **business**:
- Line function, a business activity
- Product lining, in marketing

In the **military**:
- Line (formation), a standard tactical formation of forces
    - Line infantry, a line formation of infantrymen who were part of the "Line Regiments"
- Line of battle, in naval warfare, a line of warships, hence "ship of the line"

In **sport**:
- The point spread in spread betting
- in cricket, the direction of a delivery, see line and length
- Offensive line or defensive line in American football
- Line (racing), in auto racing, a path taken through a corner

In the **arts**:
- _Line_ (play), a long-running play written by Israel Horovitz
- Lines (Emily Brontë poem), written in December 1837
- "Lines", abbreviation for "Lines Composed a Few Miles above Tintern Abbey, on Revisiting the Banks of the Wye during a Tour. July 13, 1798," a poem by William Wordsworth

The abbreviation **LINE** could mean:
- Marine Corps LINE combat system, a martial arts system
- LINEs, a type of retrotransposon in the human genome

## Related pages

- Division of Lyne, Australian electorial district
- Lyne (surname)
- Lyne, Denmark (town)
- Liner (disambiguation)
S/2003 J 9

**** is a non-spherical moon of Jupiter. It was found by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2003.

is about 1 kilometre in diameter, and orbits Jupiter at an average distance of 23,858,000 km in 752.839 days, at an inclination of 165° to the ecliptic (165° to Jupiter's equator), with an orbital eccentricity of 0.276.

It belongs to the Carme group, made up of non-spherical retrograde moons orbiting Jupiter at a distance ranging between 23,000,000 and 24,000,000 km and at an inclination of about 165°.
Dynamic pressure

In fluid dynamics **dynamic pressure** depends on density and velocity of the fluid.

It is defined by the following equation:

where (using SI units):

- = dynamic pressure in pascals
- = fluid density in kg/m<sup>3</sup> (such as the density of air)
- = fluid velocity in m/s

## Physical meaning

Dynamic pressure is closely related to the kinetic energy of a fluid particle, since both quantities are proportional to the particle's mass (through the density, in the case of dynamic pressure) and square of the velocity. Dynamic pressure is in fact one of the terms of Bernoulli's equation, which is essentially an equation of energy conservation for a fluid in motion.

## Related pages

- Pressure

## Other websites

- Definition of dynamic pressure on _Eric Weisstein's World of Science_
Lichtenberg

**Lichtenberg** was a borough in Berlin. Since the boundary changes of 2001, it has been a district of the new borough of Lichtenberg-Hohenschönhausen.

From 1945 to German Reunification Lichtenberg was part of East Berlin.