Interlingua grammar

**Interlingua** is a planned language. It uses words that are found in most West-European languages. It was made by IALA. They are a group of people (the most known was Alexander Gode) that worked on it for more than 20 years. The first dictionary for the language was finished and published in 1951. Interlingua was created on the base of languages: English, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian.

## Spelling

The vowels in Interlingua are pronounced like in Spanish or LFN (another planned language). The consonants are pronounced, for the most part, like in English or LFN.

Interlingua keeps much of the spelling of Latin words, more near to the forms in English and French than to them in the other Romance languages. For example, it keeps q ([k]), y ([i]), ch ([k]), ph ([f]), rh ([r]), and th ([t]). It keeps also the common use of double consonants. More, it allows versions like ch for [ʃ], s between vowels like [z], c before e/i like [ts], g before e/i like [ʒ], qu before e/i like [k], etc.

Accent is not indicated, even in exceptions, but it follows, for the most part, a system of rules similar to that of LFN.

### Collateral spelling

Interlingua has also a "collateral" spelling, that simplifies the complications above to a system more like this of Spanish or LFN. This collateral spelling has the same status, but in reality it is not much used by adherents. The details:

1. double letters are simplified, except _ss_, for example _ecclesia > eclesia, adducer > aducer, interrogar > interogar._
1. vowel _y_ becomes _i,_ for example _tyranno > tirano._
1. _ph_ becomes _f,_ for example _phonetic > fonetic._
1. _ch,_ when pronounced like _k,_ becomes _c,_ except before _e o i,_ for example _christo > cristo._
1. _rh_ and _th_ become _r_ and _t,_ for example _rhetoric > retoric, pathetic > patetic._
1. _g_ and _gi_, when pronounced like French _j_, become _j_, for example _sage > saje, sagio > sajo._
1. _-isar_ and derivations become _-izar,_ for example _civilisar > civilizar._
1. _-te_ becomes _-t,_ except when the accent is on the third syllable from the end, for example _animate > animat._
1. _-nne, -lle,_ and _-rre_ become _-n, -l,_ and _-r,_ for example _perenne > peren, belle > bel, bizarre > bizar._

## Articles

- _un_ - a/an
- _le_ - the
- _al_ - to the
- _del_ - of the

## Nouns

The plural is _-s_ after a vowel, _-es_ after a consonant, but _-hes_ after final _c_:
- _catto > cattos_ - cat > cats
- _can > canes_ - dog > dogs
- _roc > roches_ - rook > rooks (of chess)

Interlingua has no grammatical gender. Some words distinguish female from male by changing _-o_ into _-a_, or by adding _-essa_. Other ones have two different forms. But the most of words do not distinguish:
- _puero > puera_ - boy > girl
- _tigre > tigressa_ - male tiger > female tiger
- _rege > regina_ - king > queen
- _jornalista_ - journalist (male or female)

## Adjectives

Adjectives do not change for agreement with nouns. They can precede or follow the noun, except numbers, that always precede the noun. In general, short adjectives precede and long adjectives follow.
- _belle oculos = oculos belle_ - beautiful eyes
- _un bon idea, un idea ingeniose_ - a good idea, an ingenious idea

To compare, use _plus_ or _minus_ and _le plus_ or _le minus_:
- _un plus feroce leon_ - a more ferocious lion
- _un traino minus rapide_ - a less rapid train
- _le plus alte arbore_ - the highest tree
- _le solution le minus costose_ - the less costly solution

One can use the suffix _-issime_ for the absolute superlative:
- _un aventura excellentissime_ -  the most excellent adventure

The adjectives _bon_, _mal_, _magne_ (big), and _parve_ (little) have alternative irregular forms :

- {|
|-
|_bon › plus bon › le plus bon_ ||   || or ||   || _bon › melior › optime_
|-
|_mal › plus mal › le plus mal_ ||   || or ||   || _mal › pejor › pessime_
|-
|_magne › plus magne › le plus magne_ ||   || or ||   || _magne › major › maxime_
|-
|_parve › plus parve › le plus parve_ ||   || or ||   || _parve › minor › minime_
|}

## Adverbs

There are two kinds of adverbs: first form and second form. Adverbs of first form are a closed class of grammatical words, like _quasi_ (almost), _jam_ (already), and _totevia_ (nevertheless). Adverbs of second form are an open class derived from adjectives by adding the suffix _-mente_ (or _-amente_ after final _c_):
- _felice > felicemente_ - happily
- _magic > magicamente_ - magically

Some common adverbs have short alternative forms that end with _-o_:
- _sol > solmente > solo_ - only

Like adjectives, adverbs use _plus_, _minus_, _le plus_, and _le minus_:
- _Illa canta plus bellemente que illa parla_ - She sings more beautifully than she speaks
- _Le gepardo curre le plus rapide de omne animales_ - The cheetah runs the most rapidly of all animals

The adverbs of _bon_ and _mal_ have alternative irregular forms:

- {|
|-
|_bonmente › plus bonmente › le plus bonmente_ ||   || or ||   || _ben › plus ben › le plus ben_ ||   || or ||   || _ben › melio › optimo_
|-
|_malmente › plus malmente› le plus malmente_ ||   || or ||   || _mal › plus mal › le plus mal_ ||   || or ||   || _mal › pejo › pessimo_
|}

### Personal pronouns

|||**singular**|**plural**|||||||||
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|**person**|**gender**|**subject**|**with preposition**|**object**|**reflective**|**possession**|**subject**|**with preposition**|**object**|**reflective**|**possession**|
|1|–|io|me|mi, mie|nos|nostre||||||
|2|–|tu|te|tu, tue|vos|vostre||||||
|3|**male**|ille|le|se|su, sue|illes|les|se|lor, lore|||
|**female**|illa|la|illas|las||||||||
|**thing**|illo|lo|illos|los||||||||

One can use the objective form for the direct object and the indirect object. Or, one can use the preposition _a_ before the pronoun for the indirect object:
- _Le caffe es excellente: proba lo!_ - The cafe is excellent - taste it!
- _Dice me le conto; dice me lo (Dice le conto a me...)_ - Tell the story to me; tell it to me.

The reflective pronouns are used when the subject of the verb is the same as the object (direct or indirect). Like in the Romance languages, the reflective is used much more than in English:
- _Deo adjuta les, qui se adjuta_ - God helps these who help themselves
- _Io me sibila un melodia_ - I whistle a melody to myself
- _Tu te rasava?_ - Did you shave yourself?
- _Francese se parla in Francia_ - French is spoken in France

Regarding the forms of possession, the longer forms are used in constructions like _le auto es le mie_ - the car is mine. But one can also use them more like strong adjectives than the short forms:
- _alicun amicos mie_ - some friends of mine
- _Matre mie! Es un piccante bolla de carne!_ - Mama mia! That is a spicy meatball!

Much speakers use _vos_ instead of _tu_ for courtesy in formal situations:
- _Esque vos passava un viage placente, Seniora Chan?_ - Did you have a nice journey, Mrs Chan?
- _Aperi vostre valise, Senior_ - Open your suitcase, sir

Use _illes_ for groups of persons with both men and women. _Illas_ can be used for groups of only women.

### Impersonal pronouns

_Il_ is an impersonal pronoun for using in constructions like _il pluve_ (it rains). _Il_ can also be used when the real subject is a clause that occurs later in the sentence.
- _Il deveni tarde_ - It is becoming late
- _Il es ver que nos expende multe moneta_ - It is true that we spend much money
- _Es bon que vos veni ora_ - It is good that you come now

_On_ is the pronoun used when the identity of the subject is not clear. The form for objects is _uno_:
- _On non vide tal cosas actualmente_ - One is not seeing such things just now
- _On sape nunquam lo que evenira_ - One knows nothing that will happen
- _On construe un nove linea de metro al centro urban_ - One constructs a new line of subway to the centre of the city
- _On collige le recyclabiles omne venerdi_ - One collects the recyclables every Friday
- _Tal pensatas afflige uno in le profundo del depression_ - Such thoughts afflict one in the depth of depression

### Demonstrative pronouns

|colspan=5|**demonstrative pronouns**||||
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|**role**|**number**|**gender**|**near**|**distant**|
|**adjective**|–|–|iste|ille|
|**pronoun**|**singular**|**male**|iste|ille|
|**female**|ista|illa|||
|**thing**|isto|illo|||
|**plural**|**male**|istes|illes||
|**female**|istas|illas|||
|**thing**|istos|illos|||

The major forms are the adjective _iste_ or ille and the pronoun _iste_, _ista_, and _isto_, that can be plural. When the subject of a sentence has two possible predecessors, _iste_ refers to the second predecessor.
- _Iste vino es pessime_ - This wine is worst
- _Isto es un bon idea_ - This is a good idea
- _Janet accompaniava su soror al galeria_ - Janet accompanied her sister to the gallery
    - (a) _Illa es un artista notabile_ - Janet is a notable artist
    - (b) _Ista es un artista notabile_ - The sister is a notable artist

The adjective of distance is _ille_ o _aquelle_. The pronouns are the same as the personal pronouns.
- _Io cognosce ille viro; ille se appella Smith_ - I know that man; his name is Smith
- _Illo es un obra magnific_ - That is a magnificent work

### Relative and interrogative pronouns

The relative pronouns for persons and animals are _qui_ (subject and after prepositions) and _que_ (object):
- _Nos vole un contabile qui sape contar_ - We want an accountant who knows counting
- _Nos vole un contabile super qui nos pote contar_ - We want an accountant on who we can count
- _Nos vole un contabile que le policia non perseque_ - We want an accountant whom the police do not pursue

The relative pronoun for things is _que_ for all uses:

_Il ha duo sortas de inventiones: illos que on discoperi e illos que discoperi uno_ - There are two kinds of inventions: those which you discover and those which discover you

_Cuje_ - "whose" or "of which" - is used for persons and things:
- _un autor cuje libros se vende in milliones_ - an author whose books are sold in millions
- _un insula cuje mysterios resta irresolvite_ - an isle of which mysteries remain irresolved

All they above can be replaced by _le qual_ or _le quales_:
- _Mi scriptorio esseva in disordine – le qual, nota ben, es su stato normal_ - My desk were in disorder - which, note well, is its normal state
- _Duo cosinos remote, del quales io sape nihil, veni visitar_ - Two distant cousins, of which I know nothing, come to visit

The relative pronouns are also used as interrogative pronouns.

## Verbs

These are the most common forms of verbs (note exceptions in underlined letters):

||**ending**|**-ar**|**-er**|**-ir**|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|**Infinitive**|-r|parlar ("to speak")|vider ("to see")|audir ("to hear")|
|**Present**|-|parla|vide|audi|
|**Past**|-va|parlava|videva|audiva|
|**Future**|-ra|parlara|videra|audira|
|**Hypothetical**|-rea|parlarea|viderea|audirea|
|**Active participle**|-(e)nte|parlante|vidente|_audiente_|
|**Passive participle**|-te|parlate|_vidite_|audite|

The verbs do not vary for persons and plural, except for alternative versions for _esser_. The tenses normal are used for the subjunctive and the command. _Esse_, _habe_, and _vade_ have forms short for the present: _es_, _ha_, and _va_.

### Infinitives

Infinitives are used for both the infinitive and the gerund, and can be pluralized if needed:
- _Cognoscer nos es amar nos_ - To know us is to love us
- _Il es difficile determinar su strategia_ - It is difficult to determine his strategy
- _Illes time le venir del locustas_ - They fear the coming of the locusts
- _Le faceres de illa evocava un admiration general_ - Her actions evoked the general admiration

### Simple tenses

There are three simple tenses - past, present, and future. They are used for both the perfect (completed) and the imperfect, and for both the perfective and the non-perfective (continuing).
- _Io ama mangos; io mangia un justo ora_ - I love mangos; I am eating one right now
- _Mi auto es vetere e ha multe defectos: naturalmente illo va mal!_ - Me car is old and has many defects; naturally it goes badly!
- _Io vos diceva repetitemente: le hospites jam comenciava partir quando le casa se incendiava_ - I told you repeatedly: the guests were already beginning to leave when the house was set on fire
- _Nos volara de hic venerdi vespere, e sabbato postmeridie nos prendera le sol al plagia in Santorini_ - We will fly from here Friday evening, and Saturday afternoon we will be taking the sun at the beach in Santorini
- _Si ille faceva un melior reclamo, ille venderea le duple_ - If he made advertisings more good, he would sell twice

### Participles

Participles formation in Interlingua follows this simple pattern:
|Verb|Present part.|Past part.|Example|
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|- ar|stem + -nte|stem + -te|Amante / Amate|
|- er|stem + -nte|stem + -ite|Vidente / Vidite|
|- ir|stem + -ente|stem + -te|Dormiente / Dormite|
- _un corvo parlante_ - a speaking crow
- _Approximante le station, io sentiva un apprehension terribile_ - Approaching the station, I felt an awful apprehension
- _un conto ben contate_ - a well told story
- La Beltate dormiente - The Sleeping Beauty

### Composed tenses

Instead of the simple tenses, one can use composed forms. For the past, one can use _ha_ and other forms of _habe_, with the past participle:
- _Le imperio ha cadite_ - The empire has fallen

For the future, use _va_ and other forms of _vade_, with the infinitive:
- _Io va retornar_ - I will return

Used rarely, _velle_ with the infinitive is the hypothetical composed:
- _Io velle preferer facer lo sol_ - I would prefer to do it alone

The passive is formed by using _es_ or other forms of _esser_ with the passive participle:
- _Iste salsicias es fabricate per experte salsicieros_ - These sausages are made by expert sausage makers

The passive to the Past Perfect is created by using **habeva essite** with the passive participle:
- _Nostre planeta habeva essite surveliate durante multe annos_ - Our planet has been surveyed for many years

### Other forms

Here are examples of various forms of commands:
- _Face lo ora!_ - Do it now!
- _Le imperatrice desira que ille attende su mandato_ - The empress wants him attend to her command
- _Va tu retro al campo; resta vos alteros hic_ - You: return to the camp; The rest of you: stay here
- _Cliccar hic_ - Click here
- _Que tu va via!_ - I want you to go away!
- _Que illes mangia le tortas_ - Let them eat cake / They can eat cakes
- _Que nos resta hic ancora un die / Vamos restar hic ancora un die_ - They must still remain here for a day / Let we still remain here for a day

_Sia_ is the interrogative form and the subjunctive of _esser_:
- _Sia caute!_ - Be cautious!
- _Sia ille vive o sia ille morte..._ - Whether he is live or he is dead...
- _Que lor vita insimul sia felice!_ - Let their life together be happy!

### Alternative versions of _esser_

Because the verb _esser_ is irregular in many European languages, Interlingua allows the use of versions:
- _es_ - present
- _sia_ - command and subjunctive
- _era_ - past
- _sera_ - future
- _serea_ - hypothetical

Some persons use also these forms of _esser_ in the present tense:
- _son_ - plural
- _me so, nos somos_ (much rarely)

### Verbs with two roots

Because Interlingua is a "neo-Latin" language, it keeps any of the double roots of Latin that survive in the Romance languages and English. For example:
- _sentir_ ("to feel") > _sentimento, sensor_
- _repeller_ ("to repulse") > _repellente, repulsive_
- _ager_ ("to act") > _agente, actor_

Many speakers of Interlingua prefer the use of the more recognizable form in international vocabularies, and drop the other ones.

## Syntax

The normal order of words in Interlingua is subject-verb-object, but one can use other orders if the meaning is clear:
- _Ille reface horologios_ - He repairs clocks
- _Amandolas ama io tanto, io comprava un amandoliera_ - I love almonds so much that I bought an almond orchard

But pronouns tend to follow the order of the Romance languages - subject-object-verb - except for infinitives and commands, that has the object after the verb:
- _Ille los reface_ - He repairs them
- _Nos vole obtener lo_ - We want to obtain it
- _Jecta lo via!_ - Throw it away!

If two pronouns - first the object direct and second the indirect object - occur with the same verb, the indirect object goes first:
- _Io les lo inviava per avion_ - I sent it to them by plane
- _Io la los inviava per nave_ - I sent them to her by ship

### Questions

One can form questions in different ways:

1. By putting the verb before the subject:
- _Ha ille arrivate?_ - Has he arrived?
- _Cognosce tu ben Barcelona?_ - Do you know Barcelona well?
- _Te place le filmes de Quentin Tarantino?_ - Do you like the films by Quentin Tarantino?

2. By using a word of question instead of the subject:
- _Qui ha dicite isto?_ - Who has said this?
- _Que cadeva super te? Un incude_ - What fell on you? An anvil

3. By adding the particle _esque_ (or, more rarely, _an_) to the beginning of the sentence:
- _Esque illa vermente lassava su fortuna a su catto?_ - Did she leave her fortune to her cat?

4. By change the tone of the sentence, or by adding a question mark, without change the normal order:
- _Tu jam ha finite tu labores?_ - Have you already finished your work?

## References

- Gode, Alexander, and Hugh E. Blair. _Interlingua: a grammar of the international language_. Storm Publishers, New York, 1951.