juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Rochester, New York

**Rochester** is the fourth-largest city in the U.S. state of New York. It has a little over 200,000 people living in it and over a million people living in the metropolitan area. It is on the southern shore of Lake Ontario. It is between the cities of Buffalo and Syracuse.

## Media

WHEC NBC

WROC CBS

WXXI PBS

WOKR American Broadcasting Company

WUHF Fox Broadcasting Company

WGBT UPN

## Geography

Rochester is on the shore of Lake Ontario, one of the Great Lakes. Also, the Genesee River flows through it. In the area near Rochester, there are many streams, large hills called drumlins, and lakes, such as the Finger Lakes. The weather in Rochester is warm in the summer and cold in the winter, with a lot of snow falling in the winter and early spring.

## Economy and education

Rochester is the headquarters of Eastman Kodak, a company that makes cameras and camera film. Rochester is also the home to universities such as the University of Rochester and the Rochester Institute of Technology.

## Other websites

- City of Rochester
- Interesting Sights in Rochester
- Downtown Rochester
- Rochester's Deaf Community
Dragon (disambiguation)

A dragon is a legendary creature, typically with reptile-like traits.

**Dragon** might also mean:
- Komodo dragon
- Dragonfly, an insect
- Snapdragon, a flower
- Dracaena (plant), a genus of plants.
- Dragon (Yu-Gi-Oh!)
Shop

A **shop** or **store** is a place where people can go to buy items that they need or want. People might go to a shop to buy food, clothes, furniture, jewelry, or many other things. There are loads of shops in the world people can buy their things from.

People might also go to a repair shop if something is broken, and they want the shop to fix it. For example, someone might bring a broken bicycle to a bicycle repair shop.

Shops can be anything from large supermarket chains to small businesses.
One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (movie)

***One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest*** is a 1975 American drama movie based on Ken Kesey's novel of the same name, directed by Miloš Forman and starring Jack Nicholson and Louise Fletcher. It is set on a locked psychiatric ward in 1963 Oregon which is run by the tyrannical Nurse Ratched (Fletcher) and where the new patient Randle McMurphy (Nicholson) rebels against her. It was the first movie to win all five main Academy Awards since _It Happened One Night_. These awards included Best Picture, Best Actor (Nicholson), Best Actress (Fletcher), Best Director (Forman), and Best Adapted Screenplay. The movie was the 20th best ever, according to the American Film Industry's AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies list. The screenplay was also nominated for a BAFTA Award for Best Screenplay. The novel's writer, Kesey, disliked the movie, because it did not take the perspective (view) of a Native American character, Chief Bromden (a more important character in the book than in the movie).

## Other websites

- Talk of the movie's characters and themes
- Greatest Films
- Roger Ebert's Great Movies review

## Infobox (movie)

- **name**: One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest
- **caption**: Movie poster
- **director**: Miloš Forman
- **producer**: Michael Douglas
Saul Zaentz
- **writer**: Bo Goldman
Laurence Hauben
From the book by Ken Kesey
- **music**: Jack Nitzsche
- **cinematography**: Haskell Wexler
Bill Butler (cinematographer), Bill Butler
- **editing**: Sheldon Kahn
Lynzee Klingman
- **starring**: Jack Nicholson
Louise Fletcher
Brad Dourif
- **production companies**: Fantasy Films
N. V. Zwaluv
- **distributor**: United Artists
- **released**: November 19, 1975
- **runtime**: 133 minutes
- **country**: United States
- **language**: English
- **budget**: United States dollar, $4.4 million
Dr. Strangelove

***Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb*** (better known as only **Dr. Strangelove**) is a 1964 British-American black comedy movie directed and produced by Stanley Kubrick, and starring Peter Sellers.

The story concerns an unhinged United States Air Force general, Sterling Hayden as Jack D. Ripper. He orders a first strike nuclear attack on the Soviet Union. It follows the President, his advisers, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and a Royal Air Force (RAF) officer as they try to recall the bombers to prevent a nuclear apocalypse. It separately follows the crew of one B-52 bomber as they try to deliver their payload.

The key to the film is the acting of Peter Sellers, who played three main roles:

1. Dr. Strangelove, the President's Scientific Adviser in the War Room. This role is the key to the film's success. Strangelove, a wheelchair-using former Nazi scientist, has become a naturalized U.S. citizen. His former role slips into the film via his right arm, with its black-gloved hand. The arm persists in giving the Nazi salute, and Strangelove occasionally refers to the President as _Mein Fuhrer_. The accent is a brilliant copy of such German-origin Americans as Edward Teller, the "father of the H-bomb".
1. President Merkin Muffley, played as a decent midwesterner, such as Adlai Stevenson.
1. Group Captain Lionel Mandrake of the RAF.

Sellers was due to play Maj. Kong as well but exhaustion made him feign injury to get out of the role. The role of Maj. Kong went to Slim Pickens instead.

During the movie's ending, the world is blown up by a Soviet deterrence weapon, the  Cobalt-Thorium G  "doomsday machine", whose existence had not been announced. Vera Lynn's recording of "We'll Meet Again" is played as the world meets its end (it was a famous song of World War II).

This is sometimes said to be a movie of the book  Peter George's thriller novel _Red Alert_ (1958). But in this book Strangelove's character does not appear. It seems the director Stanley Kubrick had intended to use ideas from the book, but as the movie developed the influence of tragic-comedy and the genius of Peter Sellers changed its direction.

In 1989, the United States Library of Congress chose this movie to be kept in the National Film Registry. This means the movie will be protected from damage that happens to older film that was used to make movies.

## Other websites

- _Happy Birthday, Dr. Strangelove!_ April 3, 2014 Issue of _The New York Review of Books_

## Infobox (film)

- **name**: Dr. Strangelove
- **caption**: Theatrical release poster by Tomi Ungerer
- **director**: Stanley Kubrick
- **producer**: Stanley Kubrick
- **music**: Laurie Johnson
- **cinematography**: Gilbert Taylor
- **editing**: Anthony Harvey
- **studio**: Hawk Films
- **distributor**: Columbia Pictures
- **runtime**: 94 minutes
- **language**: English
- **budget**: $1.8 million
- **gross**: $9.4 million
Animal husbandry

**Animal husbandry** is the care and breeding of animals, particularly livestock. People have done this for a very long time; it is much older than agriculture. Nomadic people and people In rural areas often teach their children how to care for their animals. 4-H is an organization that also teaches children in the United States how to raise and care for farm animals.

Some people who specialize in animal husbandry try to make sure that the animals are well cared for, while others try to make sure that the animals cost as little as possible to raise.

Examples of animal husbandry are:

- Beekeeping
- Dog breeding
- Farming
- Horse breeding
- Pig farming
- Raising cattle
- Sheep farming
- Dairy farming

Animal husbandry includes domestication of animals to obtain animal products (like milk, meat, wool, leather), and use them for transportation.

### Dairy

Dairy farming is a branch of animal husbandry whereby dairy animals are raised for their milk. The cow is mainly used throughout the world to produce milk and milk products for human consumption. Other animals used to a lesser extent for this purpose include sheep, goats, camels, buffaloes, yaks, reindeer, horses and donkeys. In the past, cows were kept in small herds on family farms, grazing pastures and fed hay in winter, nowadays they are kept in larger herds, more intensive systems and the feeding of silage.

### Meat

Many animals are raised for their meat. Meat, mainly from farmed animals, is a major source of dietary protein around the world. Cattle generally produce a single offspring annually which takes more than a year to mature; sheep and goats often have twins and these are ready for slaughter in less than a year; pigs give birth to more than one litter of up to about 11 piglets each year. Horses, donkeys, deer, buffalo, llamas, alpacas, guanacos and vicunas are farmed for meat in various regions.

### Poultry

Poultry includes all birds domesticated by man. They are kept for their eggs and for their meat. They include chickens, turkeys, geese and ducks. Chickens are mainly used throughout the world for egg production. Methods for keeping poultry range from free-range systems, where the birds can roam as they will but at night they are kept in barns for their own protection, through semi-intensive systems where they are kept in barns and have perches, litter and some freedom of movement, to intensive systems where they are kept in cages.
1472

## Events

- February 20 – The Orkneys and Shetlands are annexed to the crown of Scotland
- Possible discovery of Bacalao (possibly Newfoundland, North America) and João Vaz Corte-Real.
- Beginning of extensive slave trade in modern Cameroon, as the Portuguese sail up the Wuori River.
- Fernão do Po claims the central-African islands Bioko and Annobón for Portugal.
- Banca Monte Dei Paschi Di Siena, the world's oldest bank, is founded.
Kassam Stadium

**Kassam Staudium** is an arena in Oxford, England. It is where Oxford United F.C. plays. It is the biggest arena in the blue square premier league conference national
Nucleotide

A **nucleotide** is an organic molecule. Nucleotides are the building blocks of the nucleic acids RNA and DNA. These two types of nucleic acid are essential biomolecules in all forms of life on Earth.

A nucleotide is composed of a nucleobase (nitrogenous base), a five-carbon sugar (either ribose or 2-deoxyribose), and one phosphate group. Nucleotides contain either a purine or a pyrimidine base. **Ribonucleotides** are nucleotides in which the sugar is ribose. **Deoxyribonucleotides** are nucleotides in which the sugar is deoxyribose.

In DNA, the purine bases are adenine and guanine, and the pyrimidines are thymine and cytosine. RNA uses uracil in place of thymine.  Adenine always pairs with thymine by 2 hydrogen bonds, while guanine pairs with cytosine through 3 hydrogen bonds, each due to their unique structures.

Nucleotides also play a central role in metabolism at a fundamental, cellular level. They provide chemical energy for the many cellular functions that need it. Examples are: amino acid, protein and cell membrane synthesis, moving the cell and cell parts (both internally and intercellularly), cell division, and so on. In addition, nucleotides work in cell signaling, and they are in important cofactors of enzymatic reactions (e.g. coenzyme A, FAD, FMN, NAD, and NADP<sup>+</sup>).

In experimental biochemistry, nucleotides can be labeled using radionuclides to make radionucleotides.
Voting

**Voting** is when a group of people decide something by saying what they want. It can be for electing a leader or representative, passing a law, and other things. When people are done voting, the votes are counted (often by machines) and the winner is determined.

Voting can be done in small groups (friends deciding what to do over weekend), societies (building committee deciding on whether to paint a building), nations (voting for president or - in some cases - voting for independence) and global (United Nations deciding how to limit nuclear weapon development).

Usually the side that gets most votes will win. This is called majority rule. The right to vote is called suffrage.

In some cases, a certain percentage may be needed to win a vote. This is often the case when voting to change the constitution of a country, or when electing a government official. When choosing a government official, there may be several rounds. In the first round, votes can be cast for all candidates. In the second round, only the two or three candidates with the most votes can be chosen.
Voting is done in democratic government.

There may also be different systens: In some cases, each person has one vote. Other systems may be like ranking, such as picking the three options the person sees most suitable, for example out of five.

Especially in bigger votes, it is often not be possible to track who cast a certain vote.

## Related pages

- Election
Joule

The **joule** (symbol: **J**) ( or sometimes ) is a unit in the SI system named after English physicist James Prescott Joule.

## Classical mechanics

1 J is defined as the amount of energy transferred to an object when a force of 1 newton (kg m s<sup>-2</sup>) is exerted on it over a distance of 1 metre (1 J = 1 N × 1 m), which is related to the W, a unit of power (P): One watt is defined as one joule per second of energy transfer. Algebraically, work done in classical mechanics (_W_) can be expressed as:

### Electronics

1 J is defined as the work done for one ampere of electric current to pass through an electric circuit with external resistance equivalent to one ohm per second. It can be illustrated by the following equations:

_E_ = _C_ _V_ — (1)
_V_ = _I_ _R_ — (2)
_P_ = _V_ _I_ — (3)
_E_ = _P_ _t_ — (4)

Combining (2), (3) and (4),

_E_ = _I<sup>2</sup>_ _R_ _t_

where _V_ is the voltage, _E_ is the electrical energy, _C_ is the charge, _I_ is the current, _R_ is the resistance, _P_ is the power and _t_ is the time of energy transfer.

## Atomic physics

Arithmetically, 1 J ≈ 6.24 × 10<sup>12</sup> MeV due to mass-energy equivalence. One unified atomic mass unit (**u**, **amu** or **Da**) is approximatey 931 MeV of energy (M = 10<sup>6</sup>).

**Derivation**
1 amu ≈ 1.66 × 10<sup>-27</sup> kg (¹⁄₁₂ mass of a carbon-12 isotope by definition). Speed of light (_c_) = 3.00 × 10<sup>8</sup> ms<sup>-1</sup>.

***ΔE = Δmc<sup>2</sup>***
_ΔE_ = (1.66 × 10<sup>-27</sup>)(3.00 × 10<sup>8</sup>)<sup>2</sup>
= 1.49 × 10<sup>-10</sup> J

∵ 1 eV ≈ 1.60 × 10<sup>-19</sup> J
1 MeV = 1.60 × 10<sup>-19</sup> × 10<sup>6</sup> J
= 1.60 × 10<sup>-13</sup> J

1.49 × 10<sup>-10</sup> J =  MeV = 931 MeV (3 _s.f._)

**∴ 1 amu ≈ 931 MeV**

## Related pages

- Energy

## Infobox (unit)

- **name**: Joule
- **standard**: SI derived unit
- **quantity**: Energy#Scientific energy, Energy
- **symbol**: J
- **dimension**: M⋅L<sup>2</sup>⋅T<sup>−2</sup>
- **namedafter**: James Prescott Joule
- **units1**: System of measurement, SI base units
- **inunits1**: 1 Kilogram, kg·Metre, m<sup>2</sup>/Second, s<sup>2</sup>
- **units2**: CGS units
- **inunits2**: erg
- **units3**: kWh
- **units4**: Calorie, kcal
- **units5**: British thermal unit, BTU
- **units6**: Electronvolt, eV
Carl Friedrich Gauss

**Carl Friedrich Gauss** (pronunciation: , Latin: **Carolus Fridericus Gauss**) (30 April 1777 – 23 February 1855) was a famous mathematician from Göttingen, Germany. Gauss contributed to many areas of learning. Most of his work was about number theory, statistics, and astronomy.

## Childhood

He was born in Braunschweig. That city was then part of the duchy of Braunschweig-Lüneburg. Today the city is part of Lower Saxony. As a child, he was a prodigy, meaning he was very clever. When he was 3 years old, he told his father that he had made a mistake on his complicated payroll. The child was correct.  Gauss also taught himself to read.

When he was in elementary school, his teacher once tried to keep the children busy, telling them to add up all the numbers from 1 to 100. Gauss did it quickly, like this: 1 + 100 = 101, 2 + 99 = 101, 3 + 98 = 101, and so on. There were a total of 50 pairs, so 50 × 101 = 5,050. The formula is . There are many other versions of this story.

The Duke of Brunswick gave Gauss a fellowship to the Collegium Carolinum, where he attended from 1792 to 1795. This meant that the Duke paid for the education of Carl Friedrich Gauss at the Collegium. After this, Gauss went to the University of Göttingen, from 1795 to 1798.

## Adulthood

When Gauss was 23, scientists spotted the asteroid Ceres but they did not see it for long enough to know its orbit. Gauss made calculations that let them locate it.

Later in life Gauss stopped working on pure math and turned to physics. He did work in electromagnetism and made an early electrical telegraph.

## Work

Gauss wrote Disquisitiones Arithmeticae which is a book about number theory. In that book he proved the law of Quadratic reciprocity. He also was the first mathematician to explain Modular arithmetic in a very detailed way. Before Gauss, mathematicians had used modular arithmetic in some cases but did not know much about using it broadly.

Gauss made important discoveries in Probability theory.

## Related pages

- Heptadecagon
- Gauss's law
- Normal distribution
1490s

The **1490s** was a decade that started on 1 January 1490 and ended on 31 December 1409.

It is distinct from the decade known as the ***150th decade*** which began on January 1, 1491 and ended on December 31, 1500.

## Events

- Christopher Columbus finds the American continent while looking for India. This leads to much exploring of the New World.
- Moors driven out of Spain.

## Births

- Philipp Melanchthon, German humanist and reformer
- King Ferdinand II of Aragon (1479–1516)
- Queen Isabella of Castile (1474–1504)
- King Henry VII of England (1485–1509)
- King Charles VIII of France (1483–1498)
- King Louis XII of France (1498–1515)
- Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor (1440–1493)
- Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor (1493–1519)
- King James IV of Scotland (1488–1513)
- Duke Ivan III of Russia
- King John I of Denmark

## Deaths

- Lorenzo de' Medici, Italian ruler
- Tupac Inca Yupanqui, Inca ruler of Tahuantinsuyu
Dairy product

**Dairy products** are foods that are made from animal milk. Usually, they are made from the milk of cows and goats, but they can be made from the milk of other animals as well.

Dairy products include milk, cheese, butter, yogurt, ice cream...etc
Headstone

A **headstone**, **gravestone** or **tombstone** is a marker, normally made from stone, that is used to identify a person who is buried beneath it (in the grave).

These markers can be plain or beautifully carved with writing (epitaph or inscriptions) and pictures, but at times some gravestones can be unmarked, leaving a dead person unidentifiable.
Plasma

**Plasma** could mean:

- Plasma (physics), a state of matter
- Blood plasma
- Cytoplasm
- Plasma display
Blood plasma

**Blood plasma** is the yellow liquid part of blood. In normal blood, the blood cells are suspended in the plasma.

Plasma makes up about 55% of the total blood volume. It is mostly water (90% by volume) and contains dissolved proteins, glucose, clotting factors, mineral ions, hormones and carbon dioxide. Plasma is the transport medium for excretion.

In hospitals, blood plasma is prepared like this for blood transfusion. An anti-coagulant stops the blood clotting. Then tubes of blood are spun very fast in a centrifuge. The blood cells go to the bottom of the tubes. The plasma is poured into another container.

Hospitals may give patients:
1. Saline solution (pure water plus salt) for blood volume. This can be done quickly in an emergency.
1. Blood plasma.
1. Packed red cells.
1. Whole blood.

**Blood serum** is blood plasma without fibrinogen or the other clotting factors (that is, whole blood minus both the cells _and_ the clotting factors).

**Plasmapheresis** is a medical therapy which involves taking out blood plasma, treating it, and putting it back in the patient.

## Storage

Whole plasma may be stored frozen, or it may be stored dry. Dried plasma can be flown anywhere in the world, and is vital for the armed forces. The method was invented in the US in 1940, and used widely in World War II. The Army/Navy standard pack was two tin cans, each with 400cc bottles inside. One held the plasma, the other distilled (pure) water. The plasma could be restored in three minutes, and remained fresh for about four hours.
Folding

**Fold** or **folding** could mean:

- fold (geology)
- folding, in poker, is the act of withdrawing or forfeiting from a hand rather than meeting the bet
- folding ingredients together is a cooking technique
- protein folding
- origami, the art of paper folding
- pattern welding, the folding of metal
Mi Reflejo

***Mi Reflejo*** is the second studio album and the first Spanish-language album by American singer Christina Aguilera. It was released on 2000. There are 11 songs in this album. Six of them are new songs. Five of them are from her first album _Christina Aguilera_ but in Spanish.

This album was nominated Grammy Award as Best Latin Pop Album in 2001. It was the Latin Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Album.

## Infobox (album)

- **name**: Mi Reflejo
- **type**: studio
- **artist**: Christina Aguilera
- **recorded**: 1999-2000
- **genre**: *Latin pop
*Contemporary R&B, R&B
- **label**: RCA Records
- **producer**: *Rudy Perez
*Sergio George
- **prev title**: Christina Aguilera (album), Christina Aguilera
- **prev year**: 1999
- **next title**: My Kind of Christmas
- **next year**: 2000
Behavior

**Behavior** (or **behaviour**) is what a person or animal does and how they act. Behaviors may be conscious or unconscious. They may be inherited or learned. The term is also used for systems and for machines which interact with their environment. The term is not well-defined.

In experiments, behavior is the observed reaction which occurs when an organism is given a stimulus. Some organisms are more complicated than others and may be more aware of their surroundings. If their behavior is conscious it means that they know what they are doing. If they are not aware of what they are doing this is unconscious behavior.

Humans will pull their hand back without thinking if they accidentally touch something hot. This is done because we (and other animals) inherit nervous system reflexes which cause us to pull away from the thing that is causing the pain.

Behavior is linked to the nervous system as well as the endocrine system. The nervous system reacts, and notices what happens. The hormone system is much slower. It makes some kinds of behavior more, or less, likely. A simple example is the change from being a child to an adult. This involves a whole range of hormones which affect growth and behavior.

Behavior is also linked to learning. Organisms which are more complicated can learn better than those that are simpler. However, even the simplest animals show habituation, which is a primitive kind of learning. For organisms, learning means that they change their behavior because they remember having been in that situation before and know how to react.

People often use the word "behavior" to mean the way people interact with (behave towards) one another. Children are taught what is good behavior and what is bad behavior. Good behavior is about being polite and thoughtful to other people. It is the kind of behavior that people in a society expect from others.

## Related pages

- Behaviorism
Ankle

In anatomy, the **ankle** is the joint that links the foot to the leg.
Hurricane

A **Hurricane** is a cyclone type that is formed in the Atlantic Ocean and in the Eastern Pacific Ocean.

## Related pages

- Typhoon
- Cyclone
- Tropical cyclone
- Extratropical cyclone
Hayao Miyazaki

is a leader in the area of anime, or Japanese animation. His name is pronounced "Ha-ya-oh Me-ya-za-key". He worked with Isao Takahata.

His company made the animated movies _Spirited Away_ (2001), _My Neighbor Totoro_ (1988), _Kiki's Delivery Service_ (1989), _Porco Rosso_ (1992) and _Princess Mononoke_ (1997).

His company is named Studio Ghibli. In 2001, he won the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature for _Spirited Away_. It was the first anime to win the award in that category.

During a press conference at Italy's Venice Film Festival, he announced that he was going to retire from the production of feature-length films.

Miyazaki announced his retirement on September 2, 2013.

## Works directed by him

- _The Castle of Cagliostro, _ 1979
- _Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind,_ 1984
- _Castle in the Sky,_ 1986
- _My Neighbor Totoro,_ 1988
- _Kiki's Delivery Service,_ 1989
- _Porco Rosso,_ 1992
- _Princess Mononoke,_ 1997
- _Spirited Away,_2001
- _Howl's Moving Castle,_ 2004
- _Ponyo on the Cliff,_ 2008
- _The Wind Rises,_ 2013
- The Boy and the Heron, 2023

## Other websites

- Nausicaa.net
- Stubio Ghibli site (in Japanese)
Aymara language

The **Aymara language** is spoken by the Aymara tribe in Bolivia, Peru, and northern Chile. In Chile, only a third of the tribe say that they speak it well. An inflected language, it is one of the few Native American languages to have over a million speakers.

## Sources

- Currency and Displacement of the Aymara Language in Chile. Estud. filol. [online]. GUNDERMANN, H, GONZALEZ, H and VERGARA, JI. Sept. 2007, no.42 [cited 20 April 2008], p. 123-140.

## Infobox (language)

- **name**: Aymara
- **states**: Bolivia, Peru and Chile.
- **speakers**: 1.8 million in Bolivia
- **date**: 1987
- **speakers2**: 660,000 in Peru (2000–2006)
- **ethnicity**: Aymara people
- **familycolor**: American
- **fam1**: Aymaran languages, Aymaran
- **iso1**: ay
- **iso2**: aym
- **iso3**: aym
- **lc1**: ayr
- **ld1**: Central Aymara
- **lc2**: ayc
- **ld2**: Southern Aymara
- **map**: Aymara-language-domain-en-001.svg
- **mapcaption**: Geographic Distribution of the Aymara language
Zhou

**Zhou** is a Chinese name that refers to:
- one of two dynasties in 1122 BC - 256 BC and 690 AD - 705 AD;
- a political division in the modern-day country.

It is also the Chinese word for "U. S. state".

**Zhou** (周) is also a common Chinese surname. Famous people with that name include:
- Stephen Chow, Hong Kong actor and director
- Chow Yun-Fat, actor from _Anna and the King_ and _Bulletproof Monk_
- Zhou Enlai, People's Republic of China politician
- Jay Chou, singer
- Norm Chow, American football coach
- Olivia Chow, Canadian politician
- Zhou Yu, a great general of the Kingdom of Wu.
Politician

A **politician** (from Classical Greek πόλις, "polis")   can be anyone who seeks to get power  in any bureaucratic institution.  It is most used for a person active in party politics, or a person holding or seeking office in government.  In democratic countries, politicians seek elective positions within a government through elections or, at times, temporary appointment to replace politicians who have died, resigned or have been otherwise removed from office.  In non-democratic countries, they employ other means of reaching power through appointment, bribery, revolutions and intrigues.

Some politicians are experienced in the art or science of government.  Politicians propose, support and create laws or policies that govern the land and, by extension, its people.  The word politician is sometimes replaced with the word statesman.

Politicians have always used language, as in speeches or campaign advertisements.  They use common themes to develop their political positions in terms familiar to the voters.  Politicians become experts at using the media   With the rise of mass media in the 19th century they made heavy use of newspapers, magazines, and pamphlets, as well as posters.  The 20th century brought radio and television, and television commercials became the single most expensive part of an election campaign.  In the 21st century, they have become increasingly involved with social media based on the Internet and smartphones.

## Common political offices

- Alderman
- Assemblyman
- Chancellor
- City manager
- Congressperson
- Councillor
- County executive
- Governor
    - Lieutenant governor
- Mayor
    - Deputy mayor
- Member of Parliament
- Minister
- President
    - Vice President
- Prime Minister
- Representative
- Senator

## Other websites

- Noam Chomsky - Why Do Politicians Lie? YouTube
- Professor Colin Hay on 'Why we hate politics'; YouTube
Saturated fat

**Saturated fat** is a kind of fat. It has no double bonds. It has carbon atoms that are fully saturated with hydrogen. Saturated fats are usually solid at room temperature. They have no double bonds, while unsaturated fat has one or two. Due to no double bonds, their oxidation process is slow.

## Health

Saturated fat may be a risk factor for heart disease (CVD). The question has many controversial views.  Although most in the mainstream heart-health, government, and medical communities hold that saturated fat is a risk factor for CVD, some recent studies have produced conflicting results.

For a long time scientists have believed that eating saturated fat was a leading cause for heart attack, cancer, or other diseases. However, new research have shown that there is no connection between how much saturated fat you eat and heart diseases. This is still a controversial question.

Things like butter, coconut, lard and meat have lots of saturated fat.

## Compound

Saturated means that it holds all the hydrogen atoms that it can, meaning that all of the carbon (c) atoms have two hydrogen (H) atoms attached to it.

## Types

- Stearic acid
- Palmitic acid
- Myristic acid
- Lauric acid
- Caproic acid
- Caprylic acid
- Capric acid
- Butyric acid
- Propionic acid
- Acetic acid

## Related pages

- Unsaturated fat
- Polyunsaturated fat

## Other websites

- Foods high in saturated fat. http://www.healthaliciousness.com/articles/foods-highest-in-saturated-fat.php
Mackinac Bridge

The **Mackinac Bridge** is a suspension bridge in the U.S. state of Michigan. It connects that state's Upper Peninsula and Lower Peninsula. The bridge is  long. It carries a four-lane interstate highway, Interstate 75.  It was built by the state of Michigan.

The Mackinac Bridge passes over a strait of water that connects two Great Lakes, Lake Michigan (to the west of the bridge) and Lake Huron (to the east).

At the center of the Mackinac Bridge is a long suspension span. The bridge, made of steel and concrete, hangs from wires that run down from two huge, curved cables.

The government agency that runs the Mackinac Bridge charges motor vehicles a toll to drive over it.  In 2020, the toll was $4.00 for an automobile.

The government hangs colored lights from the big cable. The lights come on at night so that the bridge can be seen from many miles away.

The Mackinac Bridge was opened in 1957. This started a major economic boom in northern Michigan as tourists drove from all over North America to see the bridge, the Great Lakes, and the northern forests.

## Infobox (bridge)

- **bridge name**: Mackinac Bridge
- **image**: Mackinac Bridge from the air4.jpg
- **image upright**: 1.2
- **also known as**: _Mighty Mac_ or _Big Mac_
- **carries**: 4 lanes of
- **crosses**: Straits of Mackinac
- **locale**: St. Ignace, Michigan, St. Ignace and Mackinaw City, Michigan, Mackinaw City, Michigan
- **maint**: Mackinac Bridge Authority
- **design**: Suspension bridge
- **designer**: David B. Steinman
- **width**: (total width)
 (road width)
 (depth)
- **height**: (tower height);  (deck height)
- **traffic**: 11,600
- **toll**: $2.00 per axle for passenger vehicles ($4.00 per car). $5.00 per axle for motor homes, and commercial vehicles.
Unsaturated fat

**Unsaturated fat** is a kind of fat. It is different from saturated fat in that it is liquid at room temperature while saturated fat is more solid. Its molecules contains double bonds whose  carbon atoms that are not fully saturated with hydrogen. There are two types:
1. Monounsaturated; or those with one double bond
1. Polyunsaturated; or with more than one double bond
In cellular metabolism, an unsaturated fat molecule contains somewhat less energy (that is fewer calories) than the saturated fat molecule of the same length.

Examples of unsaturated fats are palmitoleic acid, oleic acid, myristoleic acid, linoleic acid, and arachidonic acid. Foods containing unsaturated fats include avocado, nuts, and vegetable oils such as canola and olive oils. Meat products contain both saturated and unsaturated fats.

## Health

Unsaturated fat is better for people than saturated fat. Some testing has shown that it can raise a person's HDL ("good" cholesterol) levels.
Unsaturated fat is also very important for a healthy brain.

People think that unsaturated fats are 'healthier' than saturated fats. The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommended that the amount of unsaturated fat consumed should not exceed 30% of one's daily caloric intake (or 67 grams given a 2000 Calorie diet). The new dietary guidelines have got rid of this recommendation at the request of the meat and dairy industries.

Most foods contain both unsaturated and saturated fats. Food packages promote only one or the other, depending on which is the largest share in the product. Various unsaturated fat vegetable oils, such as olive oils, also contain saturated fat.
Cold fusion

**Cold fusion** is a hypothesis about nuclear fusion at room temperature and normal pressure. Nuclear fusion is how many nuclei, the center of an atom, containing protons and neutrons, are forced together to form a heavier nucleus (singular of nuclei) and during that process, energy is released. Some scientists hope that this may be Earth's future energy source, but most scientists do not agree.

For nuclear fusion to take place, a large amount of energy is needed. With this energy, the atoms are pushed together, which are repelled by the electrostatic force (a force between protons which are particles in the nucleus of the atom and have a positive electrical charge). But once this force is overcome and the nuclei are pushed close enough together, another much more powerful force will take over: the strong nuclear force. It only operates at short distances, so when the nuclei are close enough, they attract each other because of the strong nuclear force which is stronger than the electrostatic force. It is hoped that the energy released by cold fusion is much greater than the energy used to push the atoms together.

In 1989 two scientists, Stanley Pons and Martin Fleischmann, published a paper in _Nature_, a reputable science journal, claiming to have created cold fusion. This was a very important story at the time. Other scientists were not able to repeat their experiments. This is why cold fusion is not generally accepted by scientists at the moment. Several dozen scientists are still working on cold fusion research. They publish in peer-reviewed journals and other academic sources regularly, but most are not convinced.

At the time, Cold fusion caused a large disruption in the scientific community, culminating on May 1st 1989 at a session of the American Physical Society where some scientists who unable to reproduce the original results successfully cast Cold fusion out of mainstream science.

## Other websites

- Barnhart _et al._ (2009) "Technology Forecast: Worldwide Research on Low-Energy Nuclear Reactions Increasing and Gaining Acceptance," Defense Analysis Report DIA-08-0911-003, _U.S. Defense Intelligence Agency_
- Marwan, Jan and Krivit, Steven B., eds., _Low energy nuclear reactions sourcebook_ (American Chemical Society/Oxford University Press, 2008; )
- Kitamura, A. _et al._ (2009) "Anomalous effects in charging of Pd powders with high density hydrogen isotopes" _Physics Letters A_ **373**(35):3109-12 doi:10.1016/j.physleta.2009.06.061
- Kim, Y.E. (2009) "Theory of Bose–Einstein condensation mechanism for deuteron-induced nuclear reactions in micro/nano-scale metal grains and particles," _Naturwissenschaften_ **96**(7):803-11.
- Szpak S, Mosier-Boss PA, Gordon FE (2007) "Further evidence of nuclear reactions in the Pd–D lattice: emission of charged particles" _Naturwissenschaften_, vol. 94 pp. 511–514.
Cusco Region

**Cusco** is a region in Peru. The capital is the city of Cusco.

Cusco Region is home to Machu Picchu, one of the most famous landmarks in South America.
Andy Richter

**Paul Andrew "Andy" Richter** (born October 28, 1966) is an American comedian and actor. He is best known for his former role as Conan O'Brien's sidekick on _Late Night with Conan O'Brien_. Richter was born in Grand Rapids, Michigan. He is the second of four children. He was raised in Yorkville, Illinois. While attending Columbia College, Chicago, he played in several Chicago comedy groups, including the Annoyance Theatre, before getting on _Late Night_.

Richter left _Late Night_ in 2000. He said he wanted to focus on an acting career. His first major work was FOX's critically acclaimed but little watched _Andy Richter Controls the Universe_. It was cancelled after two short runs. His next FOX sitcom, _Quintuplets_, was not liked by the critics. It lasted only one season. He is married to actress Sarah Thyre. They have two children.

In addition to his television work, Richter has appeared in movies such as _Seeing Other People_, Olsen Twins' _New York Minute_, _Madagascar_, and _Cabin Boy_.

## Infobox (comedian)

- **name**: Andy Richter
- **image**: File:Andy Richter at the 2013 Final Four in Atlanta Georgia 02 (cropped).jpg
- **caption**: Richter at the 2013 NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament, 2013 Final Four in Atlanta, Georgia (U.S. state), Georgia
- **birth name**: Paul Andrew Richter
- **medium**: Television, film
- **nationality**: American
- **alma mater**: Columbia College Chicago
- **active**: 1988–present
- **genre**: Improvisational comedy, sketch comedy, cringe comedy, anti-humor, self-deprecation, blue comedy, alternative comedy, satire
- **children**: 2
Jennifer Granholm

**Jennifer Granholm** (born February 5, 1959) is a Canadian born American politician. Granholm was the 16th United States Secretary of Energy from 2021 to 2025 under the Joe Biden administration. She was the Governor of Michigan from 2003 to 2011.  Granholm was born in Canada and raised in California.  She ran for governor of Michigan in 2002, even though she had lived in the state for less than 15 years.

On December 15, 2020, President-elect Joe Biden nominated Granholm to be Secretary of Energy. Her nomination was confirmed by the United States Senate on February 25, 2021 with a 64-35 vote.

## Infobox (officeholder)

- **name**: Jennifer Granholm
- **image**: Secretary Jennifer Granholm.jpg
- **office**: 16th United States Secretary of Energy
- **president**: Joe Biden
- **deputy**: David Turk
- **term start**: February 25, 2021
- **term end**: January 20, 2025
- **predecessor**: Dan Brouillette
- **successor**: Chris Wright
- **order1**: 47th
- **office1**: Governor of Michigan
- **lieutenant1**: John D. Cherry, John Cherry
- **term start1**: January 1, 2003
- **term end1**: January 1, 2011
- **predecessor1**: John Engler
- **successor1**: Rick Snyder
- **office2**: 51st Michigan Attorney General, Attorney General of Michigan
- **governor2**: John Engler
- **term start2**: January 1, 1999
- **term end2**: January 1, 2003
- **predecessor2**: Frank J. Kelley
- **successor2**: Mike Cox (American politician), Mike Cox
- **birth place**: Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- **signature**: Jennifer Granholm (signature).svg
- **party**: Democratic Party (United States), Democratic
- **spouse**: Daniel Mulhern
- **children**: 3
- **education**: University of California, Berkeley (Bachelor of Arts, BA)
Harvard University (Juris Doctor, JD)
John Paul Stevens

**John Paul Stevens** (April 20, 1920 – July 16, 2019) was an American lawyer. He was a United States Supreme Court justice. He was nominated by President Gerald Ford in 1975. He voted with minority in Bush v. Gore case (2000). He also voted with majority in Furman v. Georgia case (1976), but later became against the death penalty. In 2010, he announced his retirement in the Supreme Court.

Stevens died on July 16, 2019 from problems caused by a stroke while under hospice care in Fort Lauderdale, Florida at the age of 99.

## Infobox (officeholder)

- **name**: John Paul Stevens
- **image**: John Paul Stevens, SCOTUS photo portrait.jpg
- **office**: Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States
- **nominator**: Gerald Ford
- **term start**: December 19, 1975
- **term end**: June 29, 2010
- **predecessor**: William O. Douglas, William Douglas
- **successor**: Elena Kagan
- **office1**: Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit
- **nominator1**: Richard Nixon
- **term start1**: November 2, 1970
- **term end1**: December 19, 1975
- **predecessor1**: Elmer Jacob Schnackenberg, Elmer Schnackenberg
- **successor1**: Harlington Wood, Jr., Harlington Wood
- **death place**: Fort Lauderdale, Florida, U.S.
- **spouse**: Elizabeth Jane Sheeren
Maryan Mulholland Simon
- **children**: 4
- **alma mater**: University of Chicago
Northwestern University School of Law, Northwestern University
- **signature**: John Paul Stevens Signature.svg
- **rank**:  Lieutenant commander (United States), Lieutenant Commander
- **branch**:  United States Navy
- **serviceyears**: 1942–1945
- **battles**: World War II
- **awards**: Bronze Star Medal, Bronze Star
World War II Victory Medal (United States), World War II Victory Medal
Presidential Medal of Freedom
Anthony Kennedy

**Anthony McLeod Kennedy** (born July 23, 1936) is a former Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. He was nominated by President Ronald Reagan on November 11, 1987, and took the oath of office on February 18, 1988, serving until July 31, 2018.

Kennedy became the most senior Associate Justice on the court following the death of Antonin Scalia in February 2016. after the retirement of Sandra Day O'Connor in 2006, he was the swing vote on many of the Court's 5–4 decisions. He authored the majority ruling in many of these cases, including _Lawrence v. Texas_, _Boumediene v. Bush_, _Citizens United v. FEC_, and _Obergefell v. Hodges_.

On June 27, 2018, Kennedy announced his retirement from the Supreme Court, effective July 31.

## Background

Kennedy was born in Sacramento, California, on July 23, 1936.  He went to Harvard University, Stanford University, and the London School of Economics.  He was a private lawyer, a professor, and in 1975, he was appointed by Gerald Ford to the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals.  In 1988, Ronald Reagan nominated him for the Supreme Court.  He became a member of the court on February 18, 1988. He has two sons and a daughter.

## Infobox (officeholder)

- **name**: Anthony Kennedy
- **image**: Anthony Kennedy official SCOTUS portrait.jpg
- **office**: Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States
- **nominator**: Ronald Reagan
- **term start**: February 18, 1988
- **term end**: July 31, 2018
- **predecessor**: Lewis F. Powell, Jr., Lewis Powell
- **successor**: Brett Kavanaugh
- **office1**: Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit
- **nominator1**: Gerald Ford
- **term start1**: May 30, 1975
- **term end1**: February 18, 1988
- **predecessor1**: Charles Merton Merrill, Charles Merrill
- **successor1**: Pamela Ann Rymer, Pamela Rymer
- **birth name**: Anthony McLeod Kennedy
- **party**: Republican Party (United States), Republican
- **spouse**: Mary Davis
- **children**: 3
- **education**: Stanford University
Harvard University   London School of Economics
- **signature**: Anthony Kennedy signature.svg
- **branch**: California Army National Guard
United States Army National Guard
- **serviceyears**: 1961
David Souter

**David Hackett Souter** (; September 17, 1939 – May 8, 2025) was an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. He served from October 1990 until his retirement in June 2009. Appointed by President George H. W. Bush to fill the seat left by William J. Brennan, Jr., Souter sat on both the Rehnquist and Roberts courts and came to vote reliably with the court's liberal members.

## Pre-Supreme Court

He was the only Justice during his time on the Court with court experience outside of a federal appeals court. He served as a prosecutor (1966–1968), in the New Hampshire Attorney General's office (1968–1976), as the Attorney General of New Hampshire (1976–1978), as an Associate Justice of the Superior Court of New Hampshire (1978–1983), as an Associate Justice of the New Hampshire Supreme Court (1983–1990) and briefly as a Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit (1990).

## Retirement

Following Souter's retirement announcement in May 2009, President Barack Obama nominated Sonia Sotomayor as his replacement.

Souter died at his home in Hopkinton, New Hampshire on May 8, 2025, at the age of 85.

## Related pages

- Supreme Court of the United States

## Infobox (officeholder)

- **name**: David Souter
- **image**: DavidSouter.jpg
- **office**: Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States
- **nominator**: George H. W. Bush
- **term start**: October 3, 1990
- **term end**: June 29, 2009
- **predecessor**: William J. Brennan Jr., William Brennan
- **successor**: Sonia Sotomayor
- **office1**: Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit
- **nominator1**: George H. W. Bush
- **term start1**: May 25, 1990
- **term end1**: October 9, 1990
- **predecessor1**: Hugh H. Bownes
- **successor1**: Norman H. Stahl
- **office2**: Associate Justice of the New Hampshire Supreme Court
- **nominator2**: John H. Sununu, John Sununu
- **term start2**: 1983
- **term end2**: 1990
- **predecessor2**: Maurice Bois
- **successor2**: Sherman Horton
- **office3**: Associate Justice of the New Hampshire Superior Court
- **term start3**: 1978
- **term end3**: 1983
- **office4**: 20th New Hampshire Attorney General, Attorney General of New Hampshire
- **governor4**: Meldrim Thomson Jr.
- **term start4**: January 15, 1976
- **term end4**: April 1978
- **predecessor4**: Warren Rudman
- **successor4**: Thomas D. Rath
- **birth name**: David Hackett Souter
- **birth place**: Melrose, Massachusetts, Melrose, Massachusetts, United States, U.S.
- **death place**: Hopkinton, New Hampshire, Hopkinton, New Hampshire, U.S.
- **party**: Republican Party (United States), Republican
- **education**: Harvard University (Bachelor of Arts, BA, Bachelor of Laws, LLB)
Magdalen College, Oxford (Bachelor of Arts, BA)
- **signature**: Souter signature.png
Stephen Breyer

**Stephen Gerald Breyer** (; born August 15, 1938) is an American politician, academic and lawyer. He was an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. He was appointed by President Bill Clinton in 1994. Breyer was generally associated with the more liberal side of the Court.

In January 2022, Breyer announced that he would be retiring from the Supreme Court at the end of the term. Breyer left the court on June 30, 2022 when his retirement became official. He was replaced by Ketanji Brown Jackson.

## Background

Breyer is of Jewish descent. Breyer generally supported a liberal interpretation of the law; he is pro-choice and pro-civil liberties. Breyer had the second-longest tenure as the most junior justice on the bench.  Breyer was also the only justice to appear on a quiz show (_Wait Wait Don't Tell Me_). Before being a judge, he was a professor at Harvard Law School and a judge on the First Circuit Court of Appeals. Breyer is an Eagle Scout.

## Infobox (judge)

- **name**: Stephen Breyer
- **image**: Stephen Breyer, SCOTUS photo portrait.jpg
- **office**: Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court
of the United States
- **nominator**: Bill Clinton
- **term start**: August 3, 1994
- **term end**: June 30, 2022
- **predecessor**: Harry Blackmun
- **successor**: Ketanji Brown Jackson
- **office1**: Chief Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit
- **term start1**: March 1990
- **term end1**: August 3, 1994
- **predecessor1**: Levin H. Campbell
- **successor1**: Juan R. Torruella
- **office2**: Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit
- **nominator2**: Jimmy Carter
- **term start2**: December 10, 1980
- **term end2**: August 3, 1994
- **predecessor2**: _Seat established_
- **successor2**: Sandra Lynch
- **birth name**: Stephen Gerald Breyer
- **children**: 3
- **education**: Stanford University (Bachelor of Arts, BA)
Magdalen College, Oxford (Bachelor of Arts, BA)
Harvard University (Bachelor of Laws, LLB)