juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Heraclitus

**Heraclitus** of Ephesus or **Herakleitos** (c.535 – 475 BC) was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher. He was a native of Ephesus, Ionia, on the coast of Asia Minor.

His teaching, as we have it now, is a series of epigrams. This means his teachings are sayings and remarks, rather than systematic essays. Heraclitus is famous for his doctrine of change being central to the universe. His famous sayings, "All is flux", and "You cannot step twice into the same river" is still remembered today. Another of his sayings appeals to some psychologists:
- "You cannot discover the depths of the psyche, even if you travelled every road to do so, such is the depth of its meaning".

Often it is difficult to understand what he was trying to say. He believed in the unity of opposites, stating that "the path up and down are one and the same".
- "Good and bad are the same". In many of these 'opposite ends' pairs, if one never happened, then the other would be meaningless.
His utterance that "all things come to be in accordance with this _logos_," (literally, "word," "reason," or "account") has been the subject of many interpretations.
_Logos_ became a technical term in philosophy, beginning with Heraclitus, who used the term for a principle of order and knowledge.

Diogenes Laërtius states that Heraclitus' work was "a continuous treatise _On Nature_, but was divided into three discourses, one on the universe, another on politics, and a third on theology." Theophrastus says (in Diogenes) "... some parts of his work are half-finished, while other parts make a strange medley".

Diogenes also tells us that Heraclitus deposited his book as a dedication in the great temple of Artemis, the Artemisium, one of the largest temples of the 6th century BC, and one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Ancient temples were regularly used for storing treasures, and were open to private individuals under exceptional circumstances. Many later philosophers refer to the work.

## References

- Robinson T.M. 1987. _Heraclitus: Fragments: a text and translation with a commentary_. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. .

## Infobox (philosopher)

- **region**: Western philosophy
- **era**: Ancient philosophy
- **image**: Utrecht Moreelse Heraclite.JPG
- **caption**: _Heraclitus_ by Johannes Moreelse
- **name**: Heraclitus
- **birth place**: Ephesus, Ionia (satrapy), Ionia, Achaemenid Empire, Persian Empire
- **death date**: (age )
- **main interests**: Metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, politics, cosmology
- **influences**: Anaximander, Pythagoras, Bias of Priene, Zoroaster, Homer
- **influenced**: Parmenides, Plato, Aristotle, Socrates, Stoicism, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Hegel, Friedrich Engels, Engels, Friedrich Nietzsche, Nietzsche, Martin Heidegger, Heidegger, Alfred North Whitehead, Whitehead, Oswald Spengler, Spengler, Karl Popper, Popper, Terence McKenna, McKenna, Walter Pater, Pater, D. H. Lawrence
- **notable ideas**: Logos, "everything flows", unity of opposites
- **school tradition**: Ionian
Thales

**Thales of Miletus**, about 624 BC – 546 BC, was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher. He was from Miletus in Asia Minor. Many, notably Aristotle, regard him as the first philosopher in the Greek tradition.

According to Bertrand Russell, "Western philosophy begins with Thales".  Thales attempted to explain natural phenomena without reference to mythology and was tremendously influential in this respect. Almost all of the other pre-Socratic philosophers follow him in attempting to provide an explanation of ultimate substance, change, and the existence of the world—without reference to mythology. Those philosophers were also influential, and eventually Thales' rejection of mythological explanations became an essential idea for science.  He was also the first to define general principles and set forth hypotheses. As a result he has been called the "Father of Science", though maybe Democritus is more deserving of this title.

In mathematics, Thales used geometry to solve problems such as calculating the height of pyramids and the distance of ships from the shore. He is the first known individual to whom a mathematical discovery has been attributed. Also, Thales was the first person known to have studied electricity.

## Infobox (philosopher)

- **color**: #B0C4DE
- Thales
- **image**: Thales.jpg
- **caption**: Thales
- **name**: Thales of Miletus (Θαλής ο Μιλήσιος)
- **birth**: about 547-546 BC
- **death**: about 547–546 BC
- **school tradition**: Ionians, Ionian Philosophy, Milesian school, Naturalism (philosophy), Naturalism
- **main interests**: Ethics, Metaphysics, Mathematics, Astronomy
- **influenced**: Pythagoras, Anaximander, Anaximenes of Miletus, Anaximenes
- **notable ideas**: Water is the physis, Thales' theorem
Hardancourt

**Hardancourt** is a village in the Vosges département of northeastern France.
Anaximander

**Anaximander** (;  _Anaximandros_; c. 610 – c. 546 BC) was a Pre-Socratic Greek philosopher who lived in Miletus, a city of Ionia. He belonged to the Milesian school and learned the teachings of his master Thales. He succeeded him and became the second master of that school where he counted Anaximenes and Pythagoras amongst his pupils.

Little of his life and work is known today. According to available historical documents, he is the first philosopher known to have written down his studies, although only one fragment of his work remains. Fragmentary testimonies found in documents after his death provide a portrait of the man.

## Other websites

- _Philoctete_ – Anaximandre: Fragments ((Grk icon))
- _The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy_ – Anaximander
- Extensive bibliography by Dirk Couprie
- Anaximander entry by John Burnet  contains fragments of Anaximander

## Infobox (philosopher)

- **region**: Western Philosophy
- **era**: Pre-Socratic philosophy
- **image**: Anaximander.jpg
- **caption**: Raphael representing Anaximander (Roma, Museo Nazionale Romano). Probably Roman copy of an earlier Greek original. This is the only existing image of Anaximander from the ancient world.
- **name**: Anaximander
- **birth date**: c. 611 BC
- **death date**: c. 546 BC
- **school tradition**: Ionians, Ionian Philosophy, Milesian school, Naturalism (philosophy), Naturalism
- **main interests**: Metaphysics, astronomy, geometry, geography
- **influences**: Thales of Miletus
- **influenced**: All pre-socratic philosophy, in particular: Anaximenes of Miletus, Anaximenes, Pythagoras, Democritus, Greek astronomy
Anaximenes of Miletus

**Anaximenes** () of Miletus (c. 585 BC-c. 525 BC) was a Greek Pre-Socratic philosopher from the latter half of the 6th century, probably a younger contemporary of Anaximander, whose pupil or friend he is said to have been.

## His ideas

Anaximenes, like others in his school of thought, practised material monism, the idea that underlying reality is one single thing.

For him, the primary substance was air. it was an attempt to find a natural way to explain the world.
Eberhardt del’Antonio

**Eberhardt del’Antonio** (April 21, 1926 in Lichtenstein – February 22, 1997 in Dresden) was a German writer.

## Life

Eberhardt Del'Antonio was the son of a locksmith. He learned the job as a technical drawer. He was fighting for the German army during the Second World War.

## Publications

- _Gigantum_, Das neue Berlin, Berlin 1957
- _Titanus_, Das neue Berlin, Berlin 1959
- _Projekt Sahara_, Tribüne, Berlin 1962
- _Heimkehr der Vorfahren_, Das neue Berlin, Berlin 1966
- _Okeanus_, Greifenverlag, Rudolstadt 1988
- _Volle Kraft voraus_, Junge Welt, Berlin 1991 (with Jens Prockat)

## Other websites

- The Science Fiction of the DDR. Authors
Gorgias

**Gorgias** (, ca. 487-376 BC), Greek sophist, presocratic philosopher and rhetorician, was a native of Leontini in Sicily. Along with Protagoras, he forms the first generation of sophists. Several doxographers report that he was a pupil of Empedocles, although he would only have been a few years younger.

His theory was subjected of critique by Plato in his work _Gorgias_.
Sophism

**Sophism** can mean two very different things. In Ancient Greece, sophism was practiced by _sophists_, who were a group of teachers of rhetoric. In modern usage, a sophism is a confusing or slightly incorrect argument used for deceiving someone.

## Etymology

The word **sophism** derived from the Greek word σόφισμα ("sophisma" from σοφίζω). A similar Greek word σοφιστής ("sophistēs") means "wise-ist, one who does wisdom, one who makes a business out of wisdom," while σοφός ("sophós") means a "wise man".

## History

The ancient Greek philosopher Protagoras
(c. 490 – 420 BC) is often said to be the first sophist. Others include Gorgias, Prodicus, Hippias, Thrasymachus, Lycophron, Callicles, Antiphon and Cratylus. Plato opposed those sophists as they abused wisdom for self-interest and refused truth or justice.

## Modern usage

Nowadays, _sophism_, _sophist_ and _sophistry_ are derogatory words due to the influence of many philosophers in history. Sophism and Platonism were rival schools of thought. A _sophism_ is a statement to deceive someone in a debate or conversation to make themselves look right when they are wrong. Sophism sometimes shows up as difficult words and complicated sentences to coerce the audience into agreeing with them. _Ad hominem_ is an example of sophistry. A _sophist_ is a person engaging in sophism. _Sophistry_ means employing sophism for deceptive reasoning.
Protagoras

**Protagoras** () (ca. 490–420 BC) was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher. He is called one of the sophists by Plato, the Greek philosopher who followed Socrates. In Plato's dialogue _Protagoras_, he credits Protagoras with having invented the role of the professional sophist or teacher of virtue.

## Philosophy

It is thought that Protagoras used the phrase "Man is the measure of all things" (). By this, he meant that nothing is absolutely truth, but there are different truths for each person, and each person makes the truth for themselves. For example, one person might go outside on a cold day and feel some water in a bucket, and they will say that the water is warm. And another person might go outside on a hot day and feel the same water, but they will say that the water feels cold to them. Each person is right.

## Related pages

- Relativism

## Infobox (philosopher)

- **region**: Western Philosophy
- **era**: Pre-Socratic philosophy
- **color**: #B0C4DE
- **image**: Salvator Rosa - Démocrite et Protagoras.jpg
- **caption**: Democritus (center) and Protagoras (right) by Salvator Rosa
- **name**: Protagoras (Πρωταγόρας)
- **birth**: ca. 490
- **death**: 420 BC
- **school tradition**: Ionian Philosophy
- **main interests**: language, semantics, relativism
- **influenced**: Plato
- **notable ideas**: The "Antilogies", which consists of two premises: the first is "Before any uncertainty two opposite theses can validly be confronted", the second is its complement: the need to "strengthen the weaker argument".
Joshamee Gibbs

**Joshamee Gibbs** (known as **Mr. Gibbs** or **Master Gibbs**) is a fictional character in the _Pirates of the Caribbean_ movie series. Alongside Jack Sparrow and Hector Barbossa, he is one of the few characters to appear in every movie. Gibbs is played by Kevin McNally in the movies.

Writer Terry Rossio has said he actually thinks that Gibbs to be the most important character in the series.

Gibbs is first seen as a Royal Navy warrant officer aboard the vessel carrying Governor Weatherby Swann and his young daughter Elizabeth from England to Port Royal. Gibbs is highly scared of pirates.
Hallelujah (Leonard Cohen song)

"**Hallelujah**" is a folk-rock song by Canadian singer/guitarist Leonard Cohen. It was first released on his 1984 album _Various Positions_.

Following its increased popularity after being featured in the movie _Shrek_ (2001), it has been re-recorded by many different artists including Jeff Buckley, Anand Bhatt, Rufus Wainwright, Allison Crowe, k.d. lang, Tori Kelly, and Damien Rice.

## Background

The song draws references to David ("there was a secret chord that David played and it pleased the Lord", "The baffled king composing Hallelujah") and Bathsheba ("you saw her bathing on the roof") in its opening verses.

"Hallelujah" experienced renewed interest following Cohen's death in November 2016 and appeared on multiple international singles charts, including entering the American _Billboard_ Hot 100 for the first time.

Cohen wrote around 80 draft verses for "Hallelujah", with one writing session at the Royalton Hotel in New York where he was reduced to sitting on the floor in his underwear, banging his head on the floor.

## Differences

Cohen sang a different version when he played the song in concert starting in 1988. A lot of other people who sing it mix lyrics from both versions, and occasionally make direct lyric changes; for example, in place of Cohen's "holy dove", Canadian-American singer Rufus Wainwright changed it to "holy dark", while Canadian singer-songwriter Allison Crowe sang "holy ghost".

## Meaning

Canadian singer k.d. lang said in an interview shortly after Cohen's death that she considered the song to be about "the struggle between having human desire and searching for spiritual wisdom. It's being caught between those two places." Former Barenaked Ladies frontman Steven Page, who sang the song at Canadian politician Jack Layton's funeral, described the song as being "about disappointing people".

## Charts

|Chart (1985–2016)|Peak position|
| --- | --- |
|59||
|1||
|66||
|1||
|59||

## Other websites

- 1984 version lyrics, on The Leonard Cohen Files
- 1988 version lyrics, on The Leonard Cohen Files
- BBC: Just whose hallelujah is it anyway? – article on writing and meaning of song
- The Birth of kd lang's "Hallelujah" out of the 'Spirit of Music' Perfect Sound Forever online music magazine presents... 2011 article, by philosopher Babette Babich
- BBC: Hallelujah! The rise and rise of Leonard Cohen's once-forgotten classic – 2012 report, by writer Alan Light
- Guitar chords

## Infobox (song)

- **name**: Hallelujah
- **type**: single
- **artist**: Leonard Cohen
- **album**: Various Positions
- **released**: December 1984
- **recorded**: June 1984
- **genre**: Folk rock
- **length**: 4:39
- **label**: Columbia Records, Columbia
- **writer**: Leonard Cohen
- **producer**: John Lissauer
Islamic State of Afghanistan

The **Islamic State of Afghanistan** was the name given to the nation of Afghanistan during the rule of the United Islamic Front for the Salvation of Afghanistan government. After 2001, the country was renamed Islamic Republic of Afghanistan.

Governmental Ideologies:
Tajik Islamic-Nationalism
Pan-Islamism
Sunni-Shia Unity
Pan-Jihadism

## Infobox (country)

- **conventional long name**: Islamic State of Afghanistan
- **native name**: دولت اسلامی افغانستان
- **image flag**: Flag of Afghanistan (1992–2001).svg
- **image coat**: Emblem of Afghanistan (1992–2002).svg
- **anthem**:
"Fortress of Islam, Heart of Asia"
(1992–1999; 2002)
- **image map**: LocationAfghanistan.svg
- **capital**: Kabul
- **religion**: Islam
- **demonym**: Afghans, Afghan
- **government type**: State terrorism (De jure) Islamic State (De facto)
- **leader title1**: President of Afghanistan, Qatil
- **leader name1**: Sibghatullah Mojaddedi (acting)
- **leader title2**: President of Afghanistan, Qatil
- **leader name2**: Burhanuddin Rabbani
- **leader title3**: President of Afghanistan, Qatil
- **leader name3**: Hamid Karzai (acting)
- **status**: Rump State (1996-2002)
- **life span**: 1992-2002
- **p1**: Democratic Republic of Afghanistan**1992:**
 Republic of Afghanistan
- **s1**: Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001)**1996:**
 Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan
- **flag p1**: Flag of Afghanistan (1987).svg
- **flag p2**: Flag of the Taliban.svg
- **p2**: Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan**2001:**
 Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan
- **flag s1**: Flag of the Taliban.svg
- **flag s2**: Flag of Afghanistan (2002–2004).svg
- **s2**: Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan**2002:**

Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan
Jeff Buckley

**Jeffrey Scott "Jeff" Buckley** (November 17, 1966 – May 29, 1997) was an American singer and guitarist. His father was Tim Buckley. He was also a musician.

Buckley died after drowning in the Wolf River in Memphis at the age of 30. His body was found on 4 June.

## Life and death

Buckley was born in Anaheim, California. He was the only son of Mary Guibert, a Panama Canal Zonian and Tim Buckley (1947-1975). Buckley is of Greek, French, Irish and Panamanian descent. Buckley was known as Scott "Scotty" Moorhead as a child. This name was based on his middle name and his stepfather's surname. His father died when he was eight years old.

Buckley died at the age of 30 on the evening of May 29, 1997. His death was ruled as an accidental drowning after he went missing after going swimming in the Wolf River Harbor which is a slackwater channel of the Mississippi River. His body was found floating on the surface on 4 June.

### Studio albums

|Year|Album|
| --- | --- |
|1994|_Grace_|

### Singles

|Year|Album||
| --- | --- | --- |
|1995|_Grace_||
|1995|_Last Goodbye_||
|1996|_So Real_||
|1998|_Everybody Here Wants You_||
|2004|_Forget Her_||
|2006 2007 2008 2009||_Hallelujah_|

## Awards

- April 13, 1995 - "Grand Prix International Du Disque" by the Académie Charles Cros.
- 1995 - MTV Video Music Award for Best New Artist in a Video for "Last Goodbye" (nominated).
- 1995 - Rolling Stone magazine for Best New Artist (nominated).
- 1995 - #14 best song of 1995 in the world's largest voting competition for "Last Goodbye" by Triple J Hottest 100.
- 2006 - _Grace_ was named the #1 Modern Rock Classic of all Time by Mojo.
- 1998 - Grammy Award for Best Male Rock Vocal Performance for "Everybody Here Wants You" (nominated).
- 2003 - _Grace_ was ranked #303 of the 500 Greatest Albums by Rolling Stone.
- 2004 - His cover of "Hallelujah" was ranked #259 of the 500 Greatest Songs by Rolling Stone.
- 2008 - He was ranked #39 in Rolling Stone's 2008 list: The 100 Greatest Singers of All Time.
- 2009 - His version of "Hallelujah" was voted in 3rd place, Last Goodbye was 7th, Lover, You Should've Come Over was 56th and Grace came in 69th on the Triple J Hottest 100 of All Time.

## Other websites

- Jeff Buckley's Official website

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Jeff Buckley
- **img**: Jeff Buckley yearbook (1984).png
- **img size**: 250px
- **background**: solo_singer
- **birth name**: Jeffrey Scott Buckley
- **birth place**: Anaheim, California, Anaheim, California, United States
- **death place**: Memphis, Tennessee, Memphis, Tennessee, United States
- **instrument**: Vocals, Guitar
- **genre**: Alternative rock, Folk music, folk
- **occupation**: singer/songwriter
- **years active**: 1991–1997
- **label**: Columbia Records, Columbia
- **associated acts**: Tim Buckley, The A.M., Shinehead, Gods and Monsters (band), Gods and Monsters
- **url**: [http://www.jeffbuckley.com/ Official website]
Stigmata

**Stigmata** are marks on a person's body, that are like the wounds Jesus got from being crucified.

They supposedly happen to other religious people like Saint Francis of Assisi, as well as Jesus. The marks include nail holes in the hands and feet, as if the person had been crucified, but without that having happened.

## Contradictions

Those who believe in stigmata say that actual nails were not used, but the holes just appear as a miracle. Those who do not believe say it is not a miracle. They have other ways to explain those stories.
Flag of Turkmenistan

The **flag of Turkmenistan** was adopted on January 24, 2001 in the 2:3 ratio as Turkmenistan's national flag, though the flag was adopted in the 1:2 ratio on February 19, 1992. It is often described as the most detailed national flag in the world.

It features a green field with a vertical red stripe near the hoist side, containing five carpet guls (designs used in producing rugs) stacked above two crossed olive branches similar to those on the flag of the United Nations; a white waxing crescent moon, typical of Turkic symbology, and five white five-pointed stars appear in the upper corner of the field just to the fly side of the red stripe.

The green and red colors appear in this flag because they have been venerated historically by the Turkmen. The waxing crescent moon symbolizes the hope of the country for a shining future and the stars represent the five provinces (Welayatlar) of Turkmenistan-Ahal, Balkan, Dashhowuz, Lebap, and Mary.

The five traditional carpet designs along the hoist represent the five major tribes or houses, and form motifs in the country's state emblem and flag. These Turkmen tribes in traditional order (as well as top to bottom) are Teke (Tekke), Yomut (Yomud), Arsary (Ersary), Chowdur (Choudur), and Saryk (Saryq). The Salyr (Salor), a tribe that declined as a result of military defeat before the modern period, are not represented, nor are several smaller tribes or subtribes.

The wreath is one of the odder parts of the flag, added against the rules of heraldry and breaking up the carpet pattern. It was added as an afterthought to represent the "status of permanent neutrality," which was accepted by the United Nations General Assembly on December 12, 1995.
Philolaus

**Philolaus** (ca. 480 BC – ca. 385 BC, ) was a Greek Pythagorean and Presocratic. He argued that all matter is composed of limited and unlimited things, and that the universe is determined by numbers. He is credited with originating the theory that the earth was not the center of the universe.
Coat of arms of Turkmenistan

The **coat of arms of Turkmenistan** was created after Turkmenistan gained independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. The eight-point green starburst (known as the star of Rub El Hizb (۞), a symbol of Islam, to which a majority of Turkmen profess) with golden edges features in its center a red circular disc which carries sheaves of wheat, five carpet guls, and centered upon that a smaller blue circle with a lifelike (rather than heraldized) depiction of an Akhal-Teke horse, a source of pride for the Turkmen people. A variant of the emblem, which included different colors and rounded, was used from 1992 until 2003. http://www.statesymbol.ru/abroad/cis/20050803/39598373.htmlhttp://eh.lenin.ru/arms/3as/turkmenistan/tkm-ax.gif

The five traditional carpet motifs on the red disc represent the five major tribes or houses, and stand for the traditional and religious values of the country. These Turkmen tribes in traditional order are Teke (Tekke), Yomut (Yomud), Arsary (Ersary), Chowdur (Choudur), and Saryk (Saryq). The Salyr (Salor), a tribe that declined as a result of military defeat before the modern period, are not represented, nor are several smaller tribes or subtribes.

The green and red colors appear in this shield because they have been venerated historically by the Turkmen. The central elements are surrounded by sheaves of wheat that allude to the custom to welcome to guests with salt and bread. Atop the wheat and the red circle appear a waxing crescent moon of white, typical of Turkic symbology, and five five-pointed stars also of white. The waxing crescent moon symbolizes the hope of the country for a shining future and the stars represent the five provinces (Welayatlar) of Turkmenistan-Ahal, Balkan, Dashhowuz, Lebap, and Mary. Most of the elements of the coat of arms are present in the national flag.

Before independence from the USSR, Turkmenistan had a coat of arms similar to all other Soviet Republics. A single carpet _gul_, not matching any of the tribal patterns, was represented on the Coat of arms of the Turkmen SSR.

## Related pages

- Flag of Turkmenistan
Pre-Socratic philosophy

The **Pre-Socratic** Greek philosophers were active before Socrates.  The popular usage of the term comes from Hermann Diels' work _Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker_ (_The Fragments of the Pre-Socratics_, 1903).

Most of what we know about the pre-Socractic philosophers come from quotations by later philosophers and historians. While most of them produced significant texts, none of the texts have survived in complete form.

The standard reference works in English are:
- Gompertz, Theodor 1901. _The Greek thinkers: a history of ancient philosophy. Volume 1: the beginnings_.  London: Murray.
- Guthrie W.K. 1962. _A history of Greek philosophy. Volume 1: The earlier presocratics and the Pythagoreans_. Cambridge University Press.

The fundamental idea which motivated most of the presocratics (as they are called) is naturalism. This is the idea that questions about life and the world can be answered without using myths, and that "the natural world is the whole of reality".

With the Greeks we see rational thought and scientific reasoning appear.

## List of philosophers and schools

- Milesian school
- Thales (624546 BC)
- Anaximander (610–546 BC)
- Anaximenes of Miletus (585–525 BC)
- Pythagorean Schools
- Pythagoras (582–496 BC)
- Philolaus (470–380 BC)
- Alcmaeon of Croton
- Archytas (428–347 BC)
- Heraclitus (535–475 BC)
- Eleatic School
- Xenophanes (570–470 BC)
- Parmenides (510–440 BC)
- Zeno of Elea (490–430 BC)
- Melissus of Samos (C.470 BC–unknown)
- Pluralist School
- Empedocles (490–430 BC)
- Anaxagoras (500–428 BC)
- Atomist School
- Leucippus (5th century BC, dates unknown)
- Democritus (460–370 BC)
- Sophism
- Protagoras (481–420 BC)
- Gorgias (483–375 BC)
- Thrasymachus
- Callicles
- Critias
- Prodicus (465–390 BC)
- Hippias (485–415 BC)
- Antiphon (person) (480–411 BC)
- Lycophron
- Anonymous Iamblichi
- Diogenes of Apollonia (c.460 BC–unknown)

## Other groupings

- Seven Sages of Greece
- Solon (c. 594 BC)
- Chilon of Sparta (c. 560 BC)
- Thales (c. 585 BC)
- Bias of Priene (c. 570 BC)
- Cleobulus of Rhodes (c. 600 BC)
- Pittacus of Mitylene (c. 600 BC)
- Periander (625–585 BC)
- Aristeas of Proconnesus (7th century BC ?)
- Pherecydes of Syros (c. 540 BC)
- Anacharsis (c. 590 BC)
- Theano (mathematician) (5th century BC, dates unknown)
Milesian school

The **Milesian school** was a school of thought founded in the 6th Century BC. The ideas associated with it are exemplified by three philosophers from the Ionian town of Miletus: Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes.
Pythagoreanism

**Pythagoreanism** is a term used for the esoteric and metaphysical beliefs held by Pythagoras and his followers, the Pythagoreans, who were much influenced by mathematics. They thought the world was made of numbers, and that various integer<nowiki/>s had distinct sacred meanings in their numerology.

Later resurgence of ideas similar to those held by the early Pythagoreans are collected under the term Neopythagoreanism.

## Pythagorean symbols

- Monad
- Dyad
- Triad
- Tetrad
- Pentad
- Decad
- Tetractys
- Vesica piscis
Anaxagoras

**Anaxagoras** (, fl. 480 BC – 450 BC) was a Pre-Socratic Greek philosopher. Anaxagoras was an Ionian Greek. He was born in Asia Minor, in Clazomenae. This was a town in what is now Turkey.

Anaxagoras was the first known atheist. He also introduced the concept of _νούσ_ (_nous_, or mind), the ordering force behind the Universe. But he did not take this idea any further.

He held that the Sun was not a god, but just material. It was a "red-hot mass many times larger than the Peloponnese". The Moon was a solid body with geographical features, and made of the same substance as the Earth.

Anaxagoras was eventually arrested and prosecuted for freethought. He was banished from Athens for impiety in 450 BC. However, his works were available in Socrates' day for a drachma.
Miletus

**Miletus** (mī lē' təs) (Ancient Greek: Μίλητος, literally  transliterated _Milētos_, Latin _Miletus_) was an ancient city on the western coast of Anatolia (in what is now Aydin Province, Turkey), near the mouth of the Maeander River in ancient Caria.
Tooth fairy

The **tooth fairy** is a mythical figure found in modern folklore. Around the world, families have many different traditions to celebrate the loss of a child's tooth, especially a first tooth. Many of the traditions involve throwing a tooth on a roof, under a house, burying it under a tree, or leaving it for a rodent.

One of the most famous traditions is leaving a tooth under a pillow for the tooth fairy. This tradition is very popular in the United States as well as other countries. The tooth fairy is said to take the tooth away while the child is sleeping and leave some money in its place. Sometimes the tooth fairy may also leave a note. If the child does not go to sleep the tooth fairy will not come.

Some people tell the story that the tooth fairy is named Fatina and lives in Neverland. The belief is that Fatina creates a magic powder from children's teeth that protects the fairies from hawks who might otherwise eat them.
893

## Events

- Simeon I succeeds Vladimir as king of Bulgaria.
- Galindo II Aznárez succeeds Aznar II Galíndez as Count of Aragon.
- Asser writes his _Life of King Alfred_.
- Battle of Benfleet: The Saxons defeat the Vikings.
- The Greek clergy is expelled from Bulgaria, and the Greek language is replaced with the Slav-Bulgarian vernacular (known as Old Church Slavonic).

## Births

- Louis the Child, last Carolingian ruler of the East Franks

## Deaths

- King Aznar II Galíndez of Aragon
- Stephen I, Patriarch of Constantinople
Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor

**Frederick Barbarossa** (December 1122 — 10 June 1190) was born in 1122 in the monastery Weingarten. He was the son of Frederick II, Duke of Swabia and Guelph Judith. Frederick had a cousin, called "Henry the Lion", who was his greatest enemy. In the year 1152, Frederick Barbarossa was crowned King of Germany.

## Nickname

He was named  by the northern Italian cities which he attempted to rule: Barbarossa means "red beard" in Italian and German.

Today people know Frederick Barbarossa as a powerful soldier, who tried to conquer Jerusalem and return it to the Christians.
He was born in 1122 in a monastery in Altdorf, which is now called Weingarten. During the Middle Ages, most women returned to their birth country, so it is very likely that Frederick’s mother had been born in Altdorf, too.

Frederick's nickname was _Barbarossa_ (“Redbeard”). This was because of his remarkable beard, which was red. “Barba” is the Latin word for beard. “Rossa” is also Latin and means “red”.

Frederick was raised formally and strictly. On 4 March 1142, at the age of 20, Frederick was crowned King of Germany. His cousin, Henry the Lion, was Frederick’s enemy for many years. Henry wanted to become King of Germany, too and therefore was angry when he found out that Barbarossa was to be king and also Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire.

In 1156, he married Lady Beatrix. They had many children. Frederick participated in the third crusade. He never actually reached Jerusalem. It is said that he drowned in the River Saleph in 1190. His soldiers carried his dead body to Jerusalem and buried him there.
1036

## Events

- Emperor Go-Suzaku ascends the throne of Japan.
- Edward the Confessor's younger brother Alfred Aetheling is blinded and murdered in an apparent attempt to seize the throne of England from Harold I.
- First appearance of the Flower Sermon in Buddhist literature

## Deaths

- c. February 5 – Alfred Aetheling, Anglo-Saxon prince
- May 15 — Emperor Go-Ichijō of Japan (b. 1008)
- June 12 — Tedald, Bishop of Arezzo
- June 13 — Ali Az-Zahir, caliph
- _date unknown_ – Sweyn Knutsson, son of Canute the Great
Cheap Trick

**Cheap Trick** are a rock band from Illinois, USA. They were very popular in the 1970s and 80s. Some of their hits include: Surrender, Dream Police and I Want You to Want Me. They are still very big in Japan and are called the "American Beatles" in Japan.

## Studio albums

- _Cheap Trick_ (1977)
- _In Color_ (1977)
- _Heaven Tonight_ (1978)
- _Dream Police_ (1979)
- _All Shook Up_ (1980)
- _One on One_ (1982)
- _Next Position Please_ (1983)
- _Standing on the Edge_ (1985)
- _The Doctor_ (1986)
- _Lap of Luxury_ (1988)
- _Busted_ (1990)
- _Woke up with a Monster_ (1994)
- _Cheap Trick_ (1997)
- _Special One_ (2003)
- _Rockford_ (2006)
- _The Latest_ (2009)
- _Bang, Zoom, Crazy... Hello_ (2016)
- _We're All Alright!_ (2017)
- _Christmas Christmas_ (2017)

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Cheap Trick
- **img**: Cheap Trick live 2007.jpg
- **img capt**: Cheap Trick in Baltimore, 2007.
- **img size**: 250
- **landscape**: Yes
- **background**: group_or_band
- **origin**: Rockford, Illinois, USA
- **genre**: Rock music, Rock, hard rock, power pop
- **years active**: 1973–present
- **label**: Epic Records, Epic, Warner Bros. Records, Warner Bros., Red Ant, Big3
- **associated acts**: Fuse (band), Fuse, Tinted Windows (band), Tinted Windows
- **current members**: * Robin Zander
* Rick Nielsen
* Tom Petersson
- **past members**: * Bun E. Carlos
* Randy Hogan
* Pete Comita
* Jon Brant
Strychnine

**Strychnine** is a poisonous substance which is naturally produced by the plant _Strychnos nux-vomica_. Together with brucine, another poison, strychnine is found in the leaves and seeds of this plant. They are a rather extreme example of the way some plants protect themselves against herbivores. The substances were discovered early in the 19th century, but it took about 150 years before Robert Robinson worked out their structure.

When purified, strychnine is a very toxic colorless crystalline alkaloid. It is very poisonous, the LD<sub>50</sub>  is about 10 mg. Strychnine is soluble in alcohol and chloroform, but not in water.

Strychnine has few uses today. It can act as a stimulant, much like caffeine, and is on the list of substances tested for doping in sports.
It was used as a pesticide, for killing small vertebrates such as birds and rodents.

## Poisoning

Strychnine causes muscular convulsions. It leads to death through asphyxia or exhaustion.  The most common source is from the seeds of the _Strychnos nux vomica_ tree. Strychnine is one of the most bitter substances known. Its taste is detectable in concentrations as low as 1 ppm.

Between 30 and 120 mg can kill an adult human. Strychnine is rapidly absorbed by the mucous membranes. If it is given under the skin, or intravenously, a quantity of 15 mg may be enough to kill an adult. Benzodiazepines (such as Diazepam) are used by default for emergency treatment.

Unlike the illustrations given in fiction crime novels, Strychnine is not very good for killing someone (when given orally). This is because even diluted at 1:130.000 it can still be tasted. Despite this, some murders happened with Strychnine. Thomas Neill Cream, a serial killer, used it on some of his victims.

Because of its high toxicity and tendency to cause convulsions, the use of strychnine in medicine was eventually abandoned once safer alternatives became available.

## Related pages

- List of chemicals in doping cases in sport
Alkaloid

An **alkaloid** is a chemical compound that can be made naturally. They contain basic nitrogen atoms. The name comes from the word alkaline and was used to describe any alkaline containing nitrogen. Alkaloids are made by a large variety of organisms, such as bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals and are part of the group of natural products (also called secondary metabolites). Many alkaloids can be purified from basic substances by acid-base extraction. Many alkaloids are toxic to other organisms. Some alkaloids have a bitter taste.

## Well-known alkaloids

All of the following alkaloids are produced by flowering plants. They are one of the main ways plants reduce or avoid being eaten by herbivores.
- Cocaine, used as an anesthetic and a stimulant, is an illegal drug when it is not used medically.
- Caffeine, used as a stimulant, is used as something addictive in coffee or tea. In this case and the following, herbivores can eat the leaves but they get heart palpitations if they eat too many.
- Nicotine, used as a stimulant in cigarettes, can also be used to treat certain forms of epilepsy.
- Morphine is made on large scales for using in treating severe pain. In a special slow-release form, it is sometimes used to help people get away from drug addiction.
- Quinine, used to treat certain forms of malaria, is sometimes used to give food a bitter taste.
- Curare, the poison dart substance, is originally a plant product from  _Strychnos toxifera_, which is later concentrated in poison dart frogs.
- Strychnine and brucine are toxic alkaloids produced by _Strychnos nux-vomica_. This is a close relative of _S. toxifera_.
Quinine

**Quinine**  is an alkaloid which can reduce fever, work against malaria, pain and swelling. The bark of the Cinchona family of trees contains quinine. Quinine can be made artificially, but this is more expensive than extracting it from the bark of the tree.  This tree is found in the Andes, South America, Indonesia, and Congo.

Quinine was the first treatment for malaria, known from 1631 in Europe, and probably much earlier to the native peoples of South America. Even today, quinine is used to treat certain forms of malaria, when other drugs fail or are unavailable. In that way, quinine is currently one of the best treatments for _malaria tropica_, which is caused by plasmodium falciparum. For the other forms of malaria, quinine is no longer used, as other drugs have replaced it.

## History

Quinine relaxes muscles, and was used by the Inca of Peru to stop people from shivering. Europeans first reported using quinine against malaria in Rome in 1631.

The best type of quinine used to treat malaria was found by Charles Marie de La Condamine in 1737. Quinine helped Europeans colonize Africa. A historian said that "it was quinine ... that gave colonists fresh opportunities to swarm into the Gold Coast, Nigeria and other parts of west Africa".

## Side effects

Quinine can cause cinchonism and even death (usually by pulmonary oedema) in some cases. Quinine can make someone paralyzed if it is injected into a nerve.  It is very toxic in overdose.

## Current uses

Quinine has a bitter taste. It was first added to drinks like Bitter Lemon and tonic water. Quinine was added to have some protection against Malaria. In China, it is sometimes added to drugs against the common cold. Quinine is also often used to add a bitter taste to food. Usually this has to be declared though. Quinine can also stimulate the muscles of the uterus. For this reason, pregnant women should not take too much of it. Sometimes it is used in combination with heroin.

## Related pages

- Blood
- Brain

## Other websites

- From intox databank
- From inchem
- Database file on Quinine from rain-tree.com
- Quinine news page - Alcohol and Drugs History Society
Progressive bluegrass

**Newgrass**, or **progressive bluegrass**, is a sub-genre of bluegrass music. The term “newgrass” originated in the 1970s, highlighting the words “new” and “bluegrass”.

In 2003, the Oxford English Dictionary listed “newgrass” as a new word.

The sub-genre departs from traditional bluegrass, as the style fuses other genres, particularly americana, folk, jazz, rock, and other styles.

Key features include non-traditional chord progressions, extended solos, non-traditional acoustic instruments, and/or electric instruments.

## Examples

- Alison Brown
- Alison Krauss
- Alison Krauss & Union Station
- Béla Fleck
- Byron Berline
- Cherryholmes
- Chris Hillman
- Clarence White
- Crooked Still
- Country Gazette
- David Grisman
- Danny Barnes
- David Grisman
- Dillard & Clark
- Doug Dillard
- Don Reno
- Eddie Adcock
- Eric Weissberg
- Floyds Row
- Frank Wakefield
- Greensky Bluegrass
- Gosdin Brothers
- Hot Rize
- J.D. Crowe
- Jerry Douglas
- John Jorgenson
- Jonathan Edwards
- Lady Maisery
- Lau
- Leftover Salmon
- Mac Wiseman
- Mandolin Orange
- Mark O’Connor
- Maura O’Connell
- Mike Auldridge
- Mountain Heart
- New Grass Revival
- Nickel Creek
- Ola Belle Reed
- Osborne Brothers
- Peter Rowan
- Ricky Skaggs
- Robin & Linda Williams
- The Bluegrass Album Band
- The Boys from Indiana
- The Country Gentlemen
- The Dillards
- The Duhks
- The Nashville Bluegrass Band
- The Nitty Gritty Dirt Band
- The Seldom Scene
- The String Cheese Incident
- Tony Furtado
- Tony Rice
- Tony Trischka
- Vassar Clements
- Vern Gosdin
- Vince Gill
- Yonder Mountain String Band
Hot Country Songs

**Hot Country Songs** is a chart published every week by _Billboard magazine_ in the United States.

This 60-position chart lists the most popular country music songs, calculated weekly mostly by airplay and occasionally commercial sales. Currently, the chart does not count digital downloads towards chart tabulation (although singles that are only available as downloads do chart if they receive enough airplay).
Neverland

**Neverland** is a fictional island that is the setting for the novel Peter Pan by J.M. Barrie. Peter Pan, his gang of "Lost Boys" and Tinkerbell, the fairy, live on Neverland. A gang of pirates led by Captain Hook and a band of Native Americans ("redskins" in the story) also live on the island.

Neverland is a land of fantasy where no one gets older and Peter Pan remains a child forever. To reach **Neverland**, Peter Pan states one must fly "second to the right, and straight on till morning".

## Related pages

- Peter Pan
International Bluegrass Music Association

The **International Bluegrass Music Association**, or **IBMA**, is a trade association to promote bluegrass music.

Formed in 1985, IBMA established its first headquarters in Owensboro, Kentucky.  In 1988 they announced plans to create the International Bluegrass Music Museum as a joint venture with RiverPark Center in Owensboro.  In 1990 IBMA established the World of Bluegrass, a combination trade show, concert, and awards presentation.  This was originally set in Owensboro, before moving to Louisville, Kentucky in 1997.  Nashville, Tennessee hosted this event in 2005 and 2006, and will continue as the host location in the future.  In 1991 IBMA established the International Bluegrass Music Hall of Honor at the International Bluegrass Music Museum to recognize lifetime contributions to bluegrass, both by performers and non-performers.  In 2003 IBMA relocated its offices to Nashville, Tennessee.

## Other websites

- IBMA: http://www.ibma.org
The Used

**The Used** or simply **Used** is an American post hardcore band. They formed in the year 2000 and have released a number of albums since then. Their first album was called _The Used_. Their latest album is called _Heartwork_, and was released in 2020.

They have always been signed to one record label named Reprise. In 2004, singer Bert McCracken's girlfriend at the time was pregnant with their child and she died from a drug overdose. For that reason, their second album was named _In Love and Death_. Around that time, the band also took on a new drummer.

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: The Used
- **img**: MuchMusic Video Awards 2007 608.jpg
- **img capt**: From left to right: Quinn Allman, Dan Whitesides, Bert McCracken, Jeph Howard.
- **image size**: 200
- **years active**: 2000–present
- **origin**: Orem, Utah, United States
- **genre**: Emo, alternative rock, post hardcore, pop punk, punk rock
- **current members**: Bert Mccracken
Quinn Alman
Jepha Howard
Dan whitesides
Bobo-Dioulasso

**Bobo Dioulasso** is a city in Burkina Faso. It is the second largest city in Burkina Faso. A census taken in 2006 stated that 435,543 people lived in the city; 215,968 were male and 219,575 were female.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **official name**: Bobo Dioulasso
- **image skyline**: BoboDioulasso-Market.JPG
- **imagesize**: 250px
- **image caption**: The market in Bobo Dioulasso
- **subdivision type1**: Regions of Burkina Faso, Region
- **subdivision name1**: Hauts-Bassins Region
- **subdivision type2**: Provinces of Burkina Faso, Province
- **subdivision name2**: Houet Province
- **population as of**: 2006
- **population total**: 435543
- **timezone**: Greenwich Mean Time, GMT
- **utc offset**: +0
Koudougou

**Koudougou** is a city in Burkina Faso. It is the third largest city in Burkina Faso. A census taken in 2006 stated that 82,720 people lived in the city; 40,229 were male and 42,491 were female.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **official name**: Koudougou
- **image skyline**: Koudougou-TrainStation.JPG
- **imagesize**: 250px
- **image caption**: A railway station, train station in Koudougou
- **image shield**: Armoirie kodougou 2.png
- **subdivision type1**: Regions of Burkina Faso, Region
- **subdivision name1**: Centre-Ouest Region
- **subdivision type2**: Provinces of Burkina Faso, Province
- **subdivision name2**: Boulkiemdé Province
- **subdivision type3**: Departments of Burkina Faso, Department
- **subdivision name3**: Koudougou Department
- **population as of**: 2006
- **population total**: 82720
- **timezone**: Greenwich Mean Time, GMT
- **utc offset**: +0
Banfora

**Banfora** is a city in Burkina Faso. It is the fourth largest city in Burkina Faso. A census taken in 2006 stated that 72,144 people lived in the city; 36,392 were male and 35,752 were female.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **official name**: Banfora
- **image skyline**: Market in Banfora.jpg
- **imagesize**: 250px
- **image caption**: The market in **Banfora**
- **subdivision type1**: Regions of Burkina Faso, Region
- **subdivision name1**: Cascades Region
- **subdivision type2**: Provinces of Burkina Faso, Province
- **subdivision name2**: Comoé Province
- **subdivision type3**: Departments of Burkina Faso, Department
- **subdivision name3**: Banfora Department
- **population as of**: 2006
- **population total**: 72144
- **timezone**: Greenwich Mean Time, GMT
- **utc offset**: +0
Ouahigouya

**Ouahigouya** is a city in Burkina Faso. It is the fifth largest city in Burkina Faso. A census taken in 2006 stated that 70,957 people lived in the city; 35,017 were male and 35,940 were female.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Ouahigouya
- **image skyline**: Ouahigouya road.jpg
- **imagesize**: 300px
- **pushpin map**: Burkina Faso
- **pushpin map caption**: Location within Burkina Faso, French West Africa
- **pushpin mapsize**: 300
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision type1**: Regions of Burkina Faso, Province
- **subdivision name1**: Nord Region (Burkina Faso), Nord Region
- **subdivision type2**: Provinces of Burkina Faso, Province
- **subdivision name2**: Yatenga Province
- **established title**: Founded
- **established date**: 1757
- **elevation m**: 315
- **population as of**: 2012
- **population total**: 86569
- **timezone**: Greenwich Mean Time, GMT
- **utc offset**: +0