juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Rajasthan

**Rajasthan** is a state in northwestern India. It is the largest state of India in terms of land area; 132,150 mi² (342,269 km²). It is bigger than the Republic of the Congo but smaller than Germany. In traditional India geography it falls under the North Indian zone. The Thar Desert covers most parts of the state. The capital of the state is city of Jaipur.

Rajasthan is known for its rich history, vibrant culture, and barren landscapes. With a population of over 68 million(2011), Rajasthan is home to a diverse group of people, including the Rajputs, Jats, Meenas, and Bhils, who have contributed to the region’s unique identity and cultural heritage.

Before Indian independence the area of Rajasthan and parts of Eastern Pakistan were known as Rajputana; it consisted of many states of varying sizes ruled by Rajput kings.

## Rajasthani Singers

- Ila Arun
- Rajnigandha Shekhawat
- Seema Mishra
- Meme Khan
- Swaroop Khan
- Rapperiya Baalam
- Satkeer

## Districts

There are 50 districts in Rajasthan
- Anupgarh
- Balotra
- Beawar
- Deeg
- Didwana-Kuchaman City
- Dudu
- Gangapur City
- Jaipur North
- Jaipur South
- Jodhpur East
- Jodhpur West
- Kekri
- Kotputli-Behror
- Khairthal
- Neemkathana
- Phalodi
- Salumbar
- Sanchore
- Shahpura (Bhilwara)
- Sikar

## Divisions

- Barmer
- Chittaurgarh
- Bhilwara
- Nagaur
- Sawai madhopur

## Read About Rajasthan

- Population of Rajsthan In 2023
- Sex Ratio of Rajasthan in 2023

## Infobox (settlement)

- **official name**: Rajasthan
- **native name**: राजस्थान
- **nickname**: City of Kings (Rajea da Sehar)
- **settlement type**: State of India
- **image skyline**: Thar desert Rajasthan India.jpg
- **image caption**: Thar Desert in Rajasthan
- **image map**: IN-RJ.svg
- **map caption**: Location of Rajasthan in the Republic of India
- **image map1**: India Rajasthan location map.svg
- **map caption1**: Map of Rajasthan
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision type1**: Regions of India, Region
- **subdivision name1**: West India
- **leader title**: Governors of Rajasthan, Governor
- **leader name**: Kalraj Mishra
- **leader title1**: Chief Ministers of Rajasthan, Chief Minister
- **leader name1**: Bhajan Lal Sharma
- **leader title2**: Legislature of Rajasthan, Legislature
- **leader name2**: Unicameral (295 seats)
- **established title**: Established
- **area total km2**: 342239
- **area land sq mi**: 132140
- **population as of**: 2023
- **population total**: 90621012
- **population demonym**: Rajasthani
- **timezone**: Indian Standard Time, IST
- **utc offset**: +05:30
- **blank name**: Official language
- **blank info**: Rajasthani language, Rajasthani
- **blank1 name**: Additional
- **blank1 info**: Punjabi language, Panjabi
Tripura

**Tripura** () ()  is a state in Northeast India. It covers an area of .It is the 3rd smallest state of India. It is bigger than Lebanon but smaller than Kosovo. The capital city is Agartala.

## Infobox (state)

- **name**: Tripura
- **native name**: त्रिपुरा
 ত্রিপুরা
- **image seal**: Seal of Tripura.svg
- **image caption**: (clockwise from top) Clouded Leopard National Park; Rock-cut sculptures at Unakoti; Ujjayanta Palace; Neermahal palace
- **image map**: IN-TR.svg
- **image map1**: India Tripura locator map1.svg
- **map caption**: Location of Tripura in India
- **map caption1**: Map of Tripura
- **coor pinpoint**: Agartala
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision name**: India
- **established title**: Union territory
- **established date**: 1 November 1956
- **established title1**: State
- **established date1**: 21 January 1972
- **seat type**: Capital
- **seat**: Agartala
- **parts type**: List of Indian districts, Districts
- **parts style**: para
- **p1**: List of districts of Tripura, 8
- **leader title**: Governors of Tripura, Governor
- **leader name**: Satyadev Narayan Arya
- **leader title1**: Chief Ministers of Tripura, Chief Minister
- **leader name1**: Biplab Kumar Deb (Bharatiya Janata Party, BJP)
- **leader title2**: Deputy Chief Minister
- **leader name2**: Jishnu Deb Burman (Bharatiya Janata Party, BJP)
- **leader title3**: List of current Indian opposition leaders, Leader of opposition
- **leader name3**: Manik Sarkar (Communist Party of India (Marxist), CPI (M))
- **unit pref**: Metric
- **area total km2**: 10491.65
- **area rank**: 27th (2014)
- **population total**: 3671032
- **population as of**: 2011
- **population density km2**: auto
- **population rank**: 22nd (2014)
- **timezone1**: Indian Standard Time, IST
- **utc offset1**: +05:30
- **iso code**: ISO 3166-2:IN, IN-TR
- **registration plate**: List of RTO districts in India#TR.E2.80.94Tripura, TR-
- **blank name sec1**: Human Development Index, HDI
- **blank info sec1**: 0.663 (<span style="color:#fc0">medium</span>)
- **blank1 name sec1**: List of Indian states and territories by Human Development Index, HDI rank
- **blank1 info sec1**: 6th (2014)
- **blank2 name sec1**: Literacy in India, Literacy
- **blank2 info sec1**: 87.75 % (2011)
- **footnotes**: It was elevated from the status of Union-Territories by the North-Eastern Areas (Reorganisation) Act 1971
- **type**: States and union territories of India, State
- **seat1 type**: Most populous city
- **seat1**: Agartala
- **leader title4**: Tripura Legislative Assembly, Legislature
- **leader name4**: Unicameral (60 seats)
Szczecin

**Szczecin** () is a large city in Poland in West Pomeranian Voivodeship. As of 2005, 411,119 people live there. The city is on the river Odra (), near the border to Germany. It is one of the largest sea ports on the Baltic. It is the historical capital of the German province of Pomerania. Szczecin has got one of the biggest harbours on the Baltic Sea.

Szczecin borders with Police, a district town at the Oder River.
Metropolitan area

A **metropolitan area** is a metropolis and its surrounding suburbs. The word "metropolitan" comes from two Greek language words meaning "mother" and "city". A metropolitan area may be much larger than its inner city, and its suburbs may be smaller towns and villages which are now connected to the larger city as suburbanization has spread. The biggest such metropolitan area is that of Tokyo. 8.5 million people live in Tokyo itself, 36.5 million live in the _metropolitan area_.

A metropolitan area is a large urban area. The inner city may look little different from the surrounding area of buildings and roads. The entire built-up area is the metropolitan area. The inner city may be near the middle, or to one side. Some urban areas have more than one inner city.

Some places, such as in Australia, have metropolitan government. The entire metropolitan area is included as a part of the city, and the population of the suburban area is considered to be part of the city's population.

Sydney, for example, has a population of approx. 4.5 million people, which includes the population of the suburbs, although there are some places which are part of the Greater Sydney Area, whose population does not count toward the population of Sydney.

## Related pages

- List of largest cities (includes a list of metropolitan areas)
- Metropolis
Marathi language

**Marathi** (__) is the language spoken in Maharashtra, India. It is also Maharashtra's official language. The written script is Devanāgarī.

People living in Maharashtra and parts of neighboring states of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Chattisgarh and Andhra Pradesh, union-territories of Daman-diu and Dadra Nagar Haveli speak Marathi.

## Other websites

- Marathi News
- MarathiMati.net - Marathi Language Web Portal

## Infobox (language)

- **name**: Marathi
- **nativename**: __
- **imagecaption**: Marathi written in Devanāgarī and Modi script, Modi
- **image**: Devanāgarī and Modi scripts.svg
- **imagesize**: 200px
- **states**: India
- **region**: Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh parts of Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, and Daman and Diu
- **speakers**: 73 million
- **date**: 2007
- **familycolor**: Indo-European
- **fam2**: Indo-Iranian languages, Indo-Iranian
- **fam3**: Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan
- **fam4**: Southern Indo-Aryan languages, Southern Indo-Aryan
- **dia1**: Varhadi dialect, Varhadi , Maalavi, Khaandeshi, Ahirani,
- **script**: Devanagari
Modi alphabet, Modi (historical)
- **nation**: : Maharashtra, Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli
- **agency**: Maharashtra Sahitya Parishad & various other institutions
- **iso1**: mr
- **iso2**: mar
- **lc1**: mar
- **ld1**: Modern Marathi
- **lc2**: omr
- **ld2**: Old Marathi
- **linglist**: omr
- **lingname**: Old Marathi
- **notice**: Indic
Kaveri

**Kaveri** is a river, starting from Karnataka, and drains into the Bay of Bengal, in the state of Tamil Nadu.

The **Kaveri River**, also spelled Cauvery, is one of the most important rivers in South India. It flows through the Indian states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. The river gives water to millions of people and supports farming, drinking water and electricity.

The Kaveri begins in the Western Ghats, in a place called Talakaveri, located in the Coorg district of Karnataka. It travels over 800 kilometers before reaching the sea. Along the way, it passes through cities like Mysuru, Srirangam and Tiruchirappalli.

Many farmers use the Kaveri River to grow crops such as rice and sugarcane. It is also used for irrigation with the help of big dams like the Krishna Raja Sagara Dam and the Mettur Dam.

The river is also holy in Hindu religion. People believe that taking a bath in the Kaveri washes away sins. Many festivals and prayers happen near the river, especially during the Kaveri Pushkaram.
Bhopal

**Bhopal** is the capital of Madhya Pradesh, India, and the second largest city of the state, after Indore. Bhopal is also called the City of Lakes. It is the headquarters of Bhopal District. It is in the central part of India.

The city is believed to have first been called Bhojpal, named after the King of Bhoj. According to this theory, it was later changed to Bhopal.

Bhopal has an average elevation of 499 metres (1637 ft).

## Bhopal Disaster

In 1984 a poisoned gas was leaked from a private chemical factory at night when a worker was cleaning out a clogged pipe connected with a tank containing gas. The tank had 42 tons of methyl isocyanate (MIC) that was leaked at midnight and leaving more than 5,000 people and animals dead. Many people also became sick and they are still suffering from deadly diseases. This has been called as "World's worst industrial disaster".
Dialect

A **dialect** is a form of a language spoken by a group of people. People who live in the same place may share a dialect; this is called a "regiolect". People who are similar in some other way, such as social class, may share a dialect.

There is no absolute difference between a dialect and a language. British English and American English are different standard dialects of English. They differ slightly in spelling, pronunciation, and vocabulary. However, they are "mutually intelligible", which means people who speak either variety understand the other.

Deciding if something is a language or a dialect is sometimes a political decision as a way to make minority groups assimilate or become part of a nation's larger culture.  The linguist Max Weinreich once joked that "a language is a dialect with an army and a navy."

## Examples

Japanese and the Okinawan language are related, as they are Japonic languages, but they are not mutually intelligible. When Japan took over Okinawa during the Meiji Era, the Japanese government called the Okinawan language a dialect of Japanese. This was used to forbid Okinawans from speaking Okinawan and to force them to Japanese.

Catalan and Galician used to be considered as dialects of Spanish but are now recognized as languages. They are about as near to Portuguese and to Occitan, respectively, as they are to Spanish.

Hindi and Urdu are called different languages today, but they used to be the same language, Hindustani. After Pakistan became separate from India, Hindustani became called Urdu in Pakistan and Hindi in India. However, speakers of both can understand each other if they are using everyday speech. The two languages use different writing systems, but writing systems are not an accurate way to decide if languages are related.

English is definitely a language, but it once was Anglo-Saxon, a dialect of Old Saxon.

Chinese is called a language, but has hundreds of dialects, such as Mandarin, Cantonese, Wu, and Hokkien. Many of them are not mutually intelligible.

In past times, travel was difficult and so dialects developed in quite small regions. In Britain, there were dialects in the different parts of the country, and traces can stiill be heard today. The Romance languages were dialects of Latin that separated in that way.

Differences in dialects can be:

- words: people in England to _church_, but in Scotland, people go to _kirk._
- Pronunciation: the _r_ of _letters_ is silent in most of England but is pronounced by most of the United States.
- grammar: instead of _I dived_, some people say _I dove_.
In India, there are scores of dialects of Hindi language like Rajasthani, Bhojpuri, Chhattisgarhi, Magadhi, Haryanvi and others. Moreover,people whose native language is Hindi, may or maynot treat it as their mother tongue.

## Animal dialects

With certain kinds of birds, people have noticed that their singing is different in different geographical areas. They have called these variations dialects. Similar observations have been done with Orcas.

## Related pages

- Lect
Thanjavur

**Thanjavur** or **Tanjore** is a city in Tamil Nadu, India. It was the capital of earlier Chola Kingdom. It is called the _Rice Bowl_ of Tamil Nadu. Kavery river flows through Thanjavur.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Thanjavur
- **other name**: Tanjore
- **settlement type**: City
- **image skyline**: Thanjavur montage.jpg
- **image alt**: A montage image showing temple complex with temple tower in the centre, Maratha palace, paddy field, Rajarajachola Mandapam and Tamil University
- **image caption**: View of the Brihadeeswarar Temple, Maratha palace, paddy field, Rajarajan Manimandapam (Bell Tower) and Tamil University, Sivangangai Park
- **nickname**: Thanjai
- **pushpin map**: India Tamil Nadu
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision type1**: State
- **subdivision type2**: List of regions of India, Region
- **subdivision type3**: List of districts of India, District
- **subdivision name1**: Tamil Nadu
- **subdivision name2**: Chola Nadu
- **subdivision name3**: Thanjavur district, Thanjavur
- **government type**: Municipal Corporation
- **governing body**: Thanjavur Municipal Corporation
- **unit pref**: Metric
- **area total km2**: 36.33
- **area rank**: 11
- **elevation m**: 88
- **population total**: 222,943
- **population as of**: 2011
- **population density km2**: auto
- **population demonym**: Tanjorians
- **demographics type1**: Languages
- **demographics1 title1**: Official
- **timezone1**: Indian Standard Time, IST
- **utc offset1**: +5:30
- **postal code type**: Postal Index Number, PIN
- **postal code**: 613 xxx
- **area code**: 04362
- **area code type**: Telephone code
- **registration plate**: TN 49, TN68
- **image size**: frameless
- **demographics1 info1**: Tamil language, Tamil
Lozi

**Lozi** could mean:
- The Lozi language
- The Lozi people
- Lozi (Homeland)  (Bantustan) in South West Africa
Refugee

In 1951, the United Nations (UN) law called Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, said a **refugee** was a person who is forced to leave their country due to natural disasters or war and conflict.

> owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political opinion, is outside the country of their nationality, and is unable to or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail him/herself of the protection of that country.

In 1967 the Conventions’ 1967 protocol and regional conventions in Africa and Latin America were added to include persons who had fled war and violence in their country. A person who is seeking to be recognized as a refugee is an **asylum seeker**. In the United States a recognized asylum seeker is known as an **asylee**.

A **refugee** is a person who has to leave his or her country. This can be because of different reasons:

- It is no longer safe to stay, due to natural disaster such as flood or famine, war, or civil unrest
- Persecutions may be going on.
- The person may be unable to sustain himself or herself economically.
- The person might have been expelled
- The person might have to leave for religious reasons

## Other page

- Political asylum
- Refugee camp
Copperbelt

**Copperbelt** is a province in the northern part of Zambia. It is named after the copper reserves. It has an area of 31,328 km<sup>2</sup>. It occupies the upper portion of the Kafue river basin on the central plateau of southern Africa, 900 to 1,500 m above sea level.

It is one of the Zambia's ten provinces and the hub of the country.
Levy Mwanawasa

**Levy Patrick Mwanawasa** (September 3, 1948 – August 19, 2008) was a Zambian politician and lawyer. He was the President of Zambia from January 2002, until his death of a stroke in 2008.

## Infobox (officeholder)

- **name**: Levy Patrick Mwanawasa
- **image**: Levy Mwanawasa.jpg
- **caption**: Mwanawasa on 16 March 2006.
- **order**: 3rd President of Zambia
- **vicepresident**: Enoch Kavindele
Nevers Mumba
Lupando Mwape
Rupiah Banda
- **term start**: 2 January 2002
- **term end**: 19 August 2008
- **predecessor**: Frederick Chiluba
- **successor**: Rupiah Banda
- **birth place**: Mufulira, Northern Rhodesia
- **death place**: Paris, France
- **party**: Movement for Multiparty Democracy, MMD
- **spouse**: Maureen Mwanawasa
- **children**: 7
- **profession**: Lawyer
Cherokee

The **Cherokee** (Cherokee: ᎠᏂᏴᏫᏯᎢ, romanized: _Aniyvwiyaʔi_ or _Anigiduwagi_) are Native American tribes.

When Europeans first arrived in the 16th century, the Cherokee lived in the modern-day eastern and southeastern United States. However, the United States government forced most to move to the Ozark Hills.

The Cherokee were named one of "Five Civilized Tribes."

## History

Cherokee people did not live in tepees. They lived in houses made from wood.

In the 19th century, a man named Sequoyah introduced a form of writing the Cherokee language. For this, he was awarded a medal.The Cherokee tribe had two chiefs, a red and white chief. When the tribe was at war, the red chief would lead, and when there was peace within the tribe, the white chief would lead.

Chief John Ross was the leader of the Cherokee tribe from 1818 until 1867. He lived in Georgia before being forced to move to the place now called Oklahoma.

## Tribes today

The U.S. government officially recognizes three Cherokee tribes:
1. Cherokee Nation in Oklahoma.
1. United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians in Oklahoma.
1. Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians in North Carolina.

## Infobox (country)

- **conventional long name**: Cherokee Nation
- **common name**: Cherokee
- **native name**: ᎠᏂᏴᏫᏯᎢ
- **image flag**: Flag of the Cherokee Nation.svg
- **image map**: Cherokee language map.png
- **capital**: Tahlequah, Oklahoma
- **official languages**: Cherokee language
- **demonym**: Cherokee
- **government type**: Tribe
Indian reservation
- **date start**: c. 1500
- **s1**: British Empire
- **flag s1**: Flag of the United Kingdom.svg
- **flag s2**: Flag of the United States.svg
- **s2**: United States
- **today**: United States
Soup

A **soup** is a kind of food. People make soups by boiling things in water. Then they put the things they boiled into a bowl and eat them. Vegetables are in most soups. You can also put meat in soups. Soups that are thicker than normal, with more meat or vegetables, are stews. The liquid in soup is broth.

Traditionally, soups are classified into two main groups: clear soups and thick soups. The traditional French types of clear soups are bouillon and consommé. Thick soups are classified by the type of thickening agent used. Purées are vegetable soups thickened with starch. Bisques are made from puréed shellfish or vegetables thickened with cream. Cream soups may be thickened with béchamel sauce; and veloutés are thickened with eggs, butter, and cream. Other ingredients commonly used to thicken soups and broths include egg, rice, lentils, flour, and grains. Most soups include carrots and potatoes. Some of the most common soups are chicken soup, tomato soup, pumpkin soup, and sopa de fideos.

Canned soup can be condensed, which requires adding water (or sometimes milk), or it can be "ready-to-eat," which requires no additional liquid before eating. Condensed soup (invented in 1897 by Campbell Soup Company chemist John T. Dorrance) allows soup to be packaged in a smaller can and sold at a lower price than other canned soups.  The "ready-to-eat" variant of soup can be prepared by simply heating the contents of the can on a kitchen stove or in a microwave oven. Soups like these can be used as a side dish. Soups are usually warm and crisp and can be accompanied with many things such as toast, bread and more. A popular British and American dish is tomato soup with grilled cheese.

## Related pages

- List of soups
1420s

The **1420s** was a decade that began on 1 January 1420 and ended on 31 December 1429. It is distinct from the decade known as the ***143rd decade*** which began on January 1, 1421 and ended on December 31, 1430.

## Events and trends

- Masaccio and Masolino paint the Brancacci Chapel, in Florence, Italy.
- Brunelleschi designs the church of Church of San Lorenzo, Florence.
- Joan of Arc leads the army of France.
- May 21: Treaty of Troyes With the Burgundian faction dominant in France, King Charles VI of France acknowledges Henry V of England  as his heir, and as virtual ruler of most of France
- June 2: Catherine of Valois marries King Henry V of England
- September 1:   a 9.4 M<sub>S</sub>-strong earthquake shakes Chile's Atacama Region causing tsunamis in Chile as well as Hawaii and Japan.
Phobos

**Phobos** (Greek for "fear", is the root word of _phobia_) is one of the sons of Ares and Aphrodite in Greek mythology and the twin brother of Deimos. He is known as the god of fear, panic, flight and battlefield rout. He went with his father into battle, driving his chariot and spreading fear in his path. As a son of Aphrodite, goddess of love, each twin also represented the fear of loss.

The larger and innermost of Mars' two moons was named after him, and the other was named after Deimos.
Deimos

**Deimos** (;  - "dread" or "terror") is the god of terror in Greek mythology. He is one of the sons of Ares and Aphrodite. He is the twin brother of Phobos, god of fear. He and his brother would often go with their father as he rode into battle in his chariot. Deimos, the smaller of Mars' two moons, is named after him.
Krakatoa

**Krakatoa** (Indonesian name: _Krakatau_) is an active volcano in the Sunda Strait, Indonesia. There are many different ways the name has been spelled. The volcano has erupted repeatedly in known history. The best known of these events occurred in late August 1883.

On 22 December 2018 the central cone collapsed and caused a tsunami in the Sunda Strait. More than 400 people were killed.

## The 1883 eruption

The 1883 eruption ejected more than six cubic miles (25 cubic kilometers) of rock, ash, and pumice,  and made the loudest sound ever recorded by human beings. The sound was heard as far away as Perth in Australia (3,500 km; 2,200 miles), and the island of Rodrigues near Mauritius (4,800 km; 3,000 miles). Many thousands of people were killed and injured by the eruption, mostly in the tsunami (giant wave) which followed the explosion.

The pressure wave from the final explosion was recorded on barographs around the world, which continued to register it up to 5 days after the explosion. The recordings show that the shock wave from the final explosion reverberated around the globe seven times.

The eruption destroyed two-thirds of what was then the island of Krakatoa. New eruptions at the volcano since 1927 have built a new island, called _Anak Krakatau_ (child of Krakatoa).

## Related pages

- List of volcanos
- Dormant volcano
- Extinct volcano

## Other websites

- Cascades Volcano Observatory Krakatoa page
- More information, including map showing location of Krakatoa in Indonesia

## Infobox (mountain)

- **name**: Krakatoa
- **photo**: Krakatoa eruption lithograph.jpg
- **photo caption**: An 1888 lithograph of the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa.
- **map**: Indonesia
- **map caption**: Location within Indonesia
- **location**: Indonesia
- **map relief**: 1
- **prominence m**: 813
- **type**: Caldera
- **last eruption**: February 3, 2022
Premature ejaculation

**Premature ejaculation** (also known as **PE**) is a condition affecting many men. It is when during sexual intercourse (sex) the male cannot stop himself from ejaculating after starting sex.  The usual time from starting sex until ejaculation is about 4 to 8 minutes.

## Treatment exercises

The condition is usually curable, or at least treatable with exercises. (There are more exercises than these, however, these are the most common.)

### Stimulation treatment

One exercise is to create an erection and begin to lose it, then stimulate it again. This exercise is best done alone at first and then with a partner. Thrusting should not be used with a partner until very near the end of treatment. This treatment may take several weeks to fully cure the problem if it is used properly.

### Muscular treatment

Another treatment involves using the muscle which stops urine. To locate the muscle, simply begin urinating and stop quickly before emptying the bladder. Doing that will demonstrate how to use the muscle. Then whenever convenient use the muscle. You do not need to be urinating to use the muscle and it is suggested you are not. After a few weeks of both these treatments, the PE will become more like traditional ejaculation and after about one and a half to two and a half months, it should be absolutely normal.
1210s

The **1220s** decade ran from January 1, 1210, to December 31, 1219. It is distinct from the decade known as the ***122th decade*** which began on January 1, 1211 and ended on December 31, 1220.

## Events and trends

- 1210
    - Emperor Tsuchimikado ends his reign as Emperor of Japan
    - Emperor Juntoku begins to rule Japan
- 1212 Battle of Navas de Tolosa.
- 1214 July – Battle of Bouvines; Philip II of France defeats Otto IV of Germany
- 1215
    - Fourth Council of the Lateran
    - Otto IV deposed as King of Germany, replaced by Frederick II
    - Magna Carta adopted
    - Beijing captured by Mongols; the Yuan Dynasty in China begins this way.
West Bank

The **West Bank** is a territory in the Middle East. The State of Palestine claims the West Bank, including East Jerusalem. However, Israel and some other nations disagree and claim the West Bank is an Israeli territory.

The West Bank, known as Judea and Samaria by Israelis, has been under Israeli sovereignty since 1967. Since 1990, the Israeli government and the Palestinians have had many talks about what will happen in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip in the future.

Most people in the West Bank are Palestinians, but there are also many Jewish settlers in settlements. The international community considers Israeli settlements in the West Bank to be illegal under international law. Palestinians living in the West Bank, despite living under occupation by Israel are not allowed to vote in Israeli elections.

## Geography

The West Bank borders Israel to the west and Jordan to the east. It touches the Dead Sea and the River Jordan.

Hills or desert make up most of its landscape. Summers are hot and dry, while winters are cooler and rainy.

## Regions

The West Bank is divided into 165 Palestinian enclaves that are under partial Palestinian rule. The rest of the West Bank, including 200 Israeli settlements, is under full Israeli control.

## Laws

Israeli settlers and civilians living in the West Bank (or traveling through it) are subject to Israeli law, and are represented in the Knesset. On the other hand, Palestinian civilians (who are mostly stuck in or confined to scattered enclaves), are subject to martial law and are not permitted to vote in Israel's national elections.

## Names

The occupied West Bank is called _"Judea and Samaria"_ by some right-wing Israeli settlers.

## Related pages

- Human rights in West Bank
- LGBT rights in West Bank
- Israeli occupation of the West Bank

## Other websites

- IMEMC
- Jerusalem Post

## Infobox (territory)

- **name**: West Bank
- **native name lang**: ar
- **image map**: File:West_Bank_in_Palestine_(%2Bclaimed).svg
- **map caption**: Location of the West Bank within the claimed territory of the State of Palestine
- **population total**: 2,949,246
- **area total km2**: 5655
- **blank2 name**: Languages
- **blank2 info**: Palestinian Arabic, Arabic, Modern Hebrew, Hebrew
- **blank3 name**: Religion
- **blank3 info**: Islam, Judaism, Christianity, Samaritanism
- **blank4 name**: Currency
- **blank4 info**: Israeli new shekel, Israeli shekel (ILS)
Jordanian dinar (JOD)
- **subdivision type**: Country
Jan Hus

**Jan Hus**, or **John Huss** ( 1370 - 6 July 1415) was born in Husinec, Bohemia (now Czech Republic). He was a Bohemian religious thinker and reformer who started a religious movement that was strongly influenced by the beliefs of the English scholar John Wycliffe.

Hus studied at the University of Prague. Around 1400, he became a Catholic priest and soon accepted a position of preaching in Czech, the language that is spoken in Bohemia. While preaching, he studied Wycliffe’s writings and came to agree with them, especially because of how real they were.

In 1403, Hus asked the church to undo the ban on Wycliffe's writings, and he translated them into Czech. The church, led by Archbishop Zbynek Zajíc, refused. In 1410, Zajíc ordered for Hus's writings be burned and foe Hus and his followers, the **Hussites**, to be forced out of the church. Hus was excommunicated in 1411, condemned by the Council of Constance, and burned at the stake on 6 July 1415 in Konstanz, Germany.

When Hus was killed, his followers revolted and fought against the Catholics but were defeated in 1431.

## Hus' teachings

- The (Catholic) Church is made of all those meant to be saved (_ecclesia est universitas praedestinatorum_). It is not made of the hierarchy of priests.
- Christ is the head of the Church, not the Pope. It is therefore not necessary to obey the pope to be saved.

Many of his teachings were later taken up by Martin Luther.

## Infobox (philosopher)

- **region**: Western philosophy
- **era**: Renaissance philosophy
- **image**: Stimmer Jan Hus.jpg
- **caption**: Woodcut of Jan Hus,  1587
- **name**: Jan Hus
- **other names**: John Hus, John Huss
- **birth place**: Husinec (Prachatice District), Husinec, Kingdom of Bohemia, Holy Roman Empire
(now Czech Republic)
- **death place**: Konstanz, Bishopric of Constance, Holy Roman Empire
(now Germany)
- **death cause**: Death by burning, Execution by burning
- **alma mater**: Charles University in Prague, University of Prague
- **school tradition**: Hussite
- **main interests**: Theology
- **influences**: John Wycliffe
- **influenced**: John Wesley, Jerome of Prague, Savonarola, Martin Luther, Henry VIII, Petr Chelčický, John Calvin
Konstanz

**Konstanz** (English often **Constance**) is a university town with a population of around 80,000. It is on the shore of Lake Constance, in the south-west corner of Germany, near Switzerland.

The history of the city goes back to Ancient Rome. In the 15th century, the Council of Constance was held there and ended the Western Schism. Jan Hus was burned as a heretic at the council.

## Infobox (german location)

- **type**: Stadt
- **image photo**: Rheintorturm in Konstanz.jpg
- **image caption**: _Rheintorturm_, a section of the former city wall of Konstanz at Lake Constance
- **image flag**: Flagge Konstanz.svg
- **image coa**: Wappen Konstanz.svg
- **image plan**: Konstanz in KN.svg
- **state**: Baden-Württemberg
- **region**: Freiburg
- **district**: Konstanz
- **elevation**: 405
- **area**: 55.65
- **population**: 81692
- **stand**: 2014-12-31
- **postal code**: 78462–78467
- **area code**: 07531, 07533
- **licence**: KN
- **gemeindeschlüssel**: 08 3 35 043
- **divisions**: 15
- **mayor**: Ulrich Burchardt
- **bürgermeistertitel**: Oberbürgermeister
- **party**: Christian Democratic Union of Germany, CDU
Panther

**Panther** can mean
- A **black panther** or **white panther**, which is a name for a leopard or jaguar with black or white fur.
- Any animal which belongs to the genus **Panthera** (e.g. lion) or the subfamily **Pantherinae**.
- In different regions different felines are also called _panther_: the leopard in Asia and Africa, the jaguar in South America, and the puma in North America (especially the ones that live in Florida, USA). All these animals belong to the Felidae family.

## Related pages

- Felines
- Jaguars
- Canidae
- Mammals
- Oligocene
AOL

**AOL Inc.** (previously **America Online**) is a U.S.-based online service provider and Internet service provider. It has been in business since 1985. Important services in the early years were online chat and online game<nowiki/>s. Most connections were dial-up. In 2001 AOL bought Time Warner. In 2009 after a spin-off from Time Warner they changed their name to **AOL Inc.** It was announced in May 2015 that Verizon Communications purchased AOL.

AOL Instant Messenger was a service which allowed users to communicate with any user currently online. AIM had millions of users worldwide. There were also other computer programs that could be used to talk with your AIM account, for example Trillian, Pidgin, Digsby, and AIM+. AIM was shut down on December 15, 2017.

Other AOL products are AOL Spyware Protection, AOL Safety and Security Center, ICQ, AOl Computer Check-Up, AOL Explorer, AOL TopSpeed, AOL Dialer, AOL One-Click Fixes and AOL Openride.

## Other websites

- AOL US and headquarters
- AOL in other countries

## Infobox (company)

- **name**: AOL Inc.
- **logo**: AOL logo.svg
- **logo caption**: AOL Inc. logo
- **type**: Subsidiary
- **foundation**: (as Control Video Corporation)
  (as Quantum Computer Services)
  (as America Online)
  (as AOL Inc.)
- **location**: 770 Broadway New York City, New York 10003
- **area served**: Worldwide
- **key people**: Tim Armstrong (executive), Tim Armstrong
<small>(Chairman and CEO)</small>
Bob Lord
<small>(President)</small>
Holly Hess
<small>(CFO)</small>
- **industry**: Mass media, Media
Web search engine
Computer software
Technology
- **services**: Online services
- **homepage**:

- **revenue**: $2.3 billion <small>(FY 2013)</small>
- **operating income**: $190.3 million <small>(FY 2013)</small>
- **net income**: $92.4 million <small>(FY 2013)</small>
- **assets**: $2.797 billion <small>(FY 2013)</small>
- **equity**: $2.137 billion <small>(FY 2013)</small>
- **num employees**: 5,600
- **parent**: Independent
 Time Warner
 Verizon Communications
Mailman

A **mailman** or **mail carrier** or **postman** is a person who brings people their postal mail. Normally he works for the post office of the respective country. Of course, there are also women doing this job. They are called **mailwomen**. For a layman, this occupation is called "letter carriers".

Fictional mailmen are traditionally shown as acting afraid of dogs, even to the point of shock.

## Related pages

- Despatch rider
- Persian couriers
Chinese postman problem

The **Chinese postman problem** is a mathematical problem of graph theory. It is also known as **route inspection problem**. Suppose there is a mailman who needs to deliver mail to a certain neighbourhood. The mailman is unwilling to walk far, so he wants to find the shortest route through the neighbourhood, that meets the following criteria:

- It is a closed circuit (it ends at the same point it starts).
- He needs to go through every street at least once.

If the graph travelled has an Eulerian path, this circuit is the ideal solution.

Alan Goldman of the U.S. National Bureau of Standards first coined the name 'Chinese Postman Problem' for this problem, as it was originally studied by the Chinese mathematician Mei-Ku Kuan or Meigu Guan   in 1962.

## Other websites

- Chinese postman problem (at MathWorld)
Theorem

A **theorem** is a proven idea in mathematics. Theorems are proved using logic and other theorems that have already been proved. A minor theorem that one must prove to prove a major theorem is called a lemma. Theorems are made of two parts: hypotheses and conclusions.

Theorems use deduction, in contrast to theories which are empirical.

Some theorems are trivial, since they directly follow from the propositions. Other theorems are called "deep", because their proof is long and difficult. Sometimes, such proofs involve other areas of mathematics or show connections between different areas. A theorem might be simple to state and yet be deep. An excellent example is Fermat's Last Theorem, and there are many other examples of simple yet deep theorems in number theory and combinatorics (among other areas).

There are other theorems for which a proof is known, but cannot be easily written down. Among the best examples are the four color theorem and the Kepler conjecture. Both of these theorems are only known to be true by reducing them to a computational search which is then verified by a computer program. At first, many mathematicians did not accept this form of proof, but it has become more widely accepted over the years. The mathematician Doron Zeilberger has even gone so far as to claim that these are possibly the only nontrivial results that mathematicians have ever proved. Many mathematical theorems can be reduced to simpler computations, including polynomial identities, trigonometric identities and hypergeometric identities.

## Related pages

- Proposition
Border

The **border** between two regions is a line, where one region is next to the other. If the regions are countries, the border can only be crossed at certain points. To cross the border, a passport or a visa might be necessary; such as the Wagah border between Pakistan and the Republic of India.
Genus

A **genus** is a rank in the biological classification (or taxonomy). It is above species, and below families. A genus can include more than one species. When biologists talk about a genus, they mean one or more species of animals or plants that are closely related to each other.

As with other taxa, the plural is different from other English words because it is a Latin word. 'Genus' is the singular, and 'genera' is the plural form of the word.

When printing the scientific name of an organism, the name is _always in italic_. A name of species has two parts, with the genus first. For example, in "_Felis silvestris_", _Felis_ is the genus. The genus name always begins with a capital letter. In "_Felis silvestris catus_", the third word is the subspecies, which is not often used.

## As a common word

In writing, genus names in Latin may be 'anglicised' to form a common name. For example, the genus _Pseudomonas_ is "pseudomonad" (plural: "pseudomonads"). In practice, most really common animals and plants already have a common name. So instead of saying 'felids', or 'felines', one says 'cats' both for the family pet, and for all the cat family (Felidae).
Cretaceous

The **Cretaceous** period is the ninth and longest period in the Phanerozoic eon, lasting 80 million years from 145 to 65 million years ago (mya). It followed the Jurassic period, and is the third and last period of the Mesozoic era. After it came the Cainozoic era.
The Cretaceous period has just two very long epochs:
- Upper Cretaceous 100.5 million years ago (mya) to 65 mya
- Lower Cretaceous 145.5 mya to 100.5 mya.
The Lower Cretaceous at ~45 million years, is the longest epoch in the Phanerozoic eon.

Though famous for its land fauna, the Cretaceous sea level rose much higher than today. North America was partly covered by an epicontinental inland sea, and half of Britain was under water. One account goes as follows: "During the Late Cretaceous (94–64 mya) sea level was up to 650 metres higher than at the start of the Albian, when it was perhaps about the same as it is today... The peak transgressions (sea levels) can be seen world-wide. There were rises of sea level of about 10–90 metres per m.y."

In the Upper Cretaceous, chalk, a type of limestone, was laid down in warm shallow seas. Chalk is 95% to 99% made up of coccoliths, the calcium carbonate (CaCO3) plates which tiny single-celled algae (coccolithophorids) produce.
At its end came the famous meteorite strike which, with the volcanic flood basalts spewed out in the Deccan Plateau (India), ended so many of the dominant life-forms: see K/T extinction event.
Textbook

A **textbook** is a book used for the study of a subject. People use a textbook to learn facts and methods about a certain subject. Textbooks sometimes have questions to test the knowledge and understanding of the learner.

A workbook is a type of textbook that has only practice questions and exercises. Workbooks are designed not to teach but to provide practice and to highlight areas which need more learning. A revision guide is a type of textbook that is used to remind the learner about the subject and give him/her extra practice, especially before an examination.

A textbook is usually lent to students by a school to accompany a course the school is teaching. Sometimes, especially at university, students have to buy the textbooks they need themselves or borrow them from a library.

Most textbooks are only published in printed format. However, some are now available online as electronic books.
Axiom

An **axiom** is a concept in logic. It is a statement which is assumed to be true without question, and which does not require proof. It is also known as a postulate (as in the parallel postulate). The axiom is to be used as the premise or starting point for further reasoning or arguments, usually in logic or in mathematics.

This means it cannot be proved within the discussion of a problem. So inside some discussion, it is thought to be true. There are many reasons why it has no proof. For example,
1. The statement might be obvious. This means most people think it is clearly true. An example of an obvious axiom is the principle of contradiction. It says that a statement and its opposite cannot both be true at the same time and place.
1. The statement is based on physical laws and can easily be observed. An example is Newton's laws of motion. They are easily observed in the physical world.
1. The statement is a proposition. Here, an axiom is any mathematical statement that serves as a starting point from which other statements are logically derived. This means the emphasis is on what _happens_ if the axiom is true. Whether the proposition is empirically true is not the goal of logic. This is a more modern definition of an axiom.

Logic can be used to find theorems from the axioms. Then those theorems can be used to make more theorems. This is often how math works. Axioms are important because logical arguments start with them.

## Euclid's axioms

Euclid of Alexandria was a Greek mathematician. Around the year 300 BC, he made the earliest list of axioms which we know of. The following are just a few of them:
1. Two numbers that are both the same as a third number are the same number.
1. If A and B are two numbers that are the same, and C and D are also the same, A+C is the same as B+D.
1. If A and B are two numbers that are the same, and C and D are also the same, A-C is the same as B-D.
1. Two shapes that fill exactly the same space are the same shape.
1. If you divide a number by anything more than 1, the quotient (result) will be less than the original number.

## Related pages

- Axiom of choice, an axiom in set theory
1190s

The **1190s** was a decade that began on 1 January 1190 and ended on 31 December 1199. It is distinct from the decade known as the ***120th decade*** which began on January 1, 1191 and ended on December 31, 1200.

## Events and trends

- 1192 – Minamoto no Yoritomo granted title of shogun, thereby officially establishing Kamakura shogunate, the first shogunate in the history of Japan.
- May 27, 1199 Friday – John Lackland (1167–1216) became King of England upon the death of his older brother Richard the Lion Hearted. His coronation took place in Westminster Abbey. Lackland was so called, because his inheritance of the Angevin Empire did not have land for him; he was the youngest son of Henry II, so this event could not happen..
Structure

In science, **structure** is a fundamental concept. It means the arrangement of parts. Examples are the organs in a body, or  crystals in a substance like granite.

A structure may refer to buildings, machines and similar things made by people as well as to a rock or a mineral, atoms or sentences. It always reflects the hierarchy of its parts.

## Related pages

- Data structure
- Social structure
- Structural engineering
- For structuralism, see Claude Lévi-Strauss
Demo

**Demo** may mean one of the following:
- Demo (software), a demonstration version of a software program
- Demo (music), the first version of a song or album in music
Piero Gobetti

**Piero Gobetti** (; June 19, 1901, Turin – February 15, 1926, Neuilly-sur-Seine) was a young journalist, intellectual, and radical liberal person. He was a very  active critic during the years of crisis in Italy after the First World War and during the early years of Fascist rule. He had to leave Italy and settled down in Paris, where he soon died. He died because his health was bad, after the Fascists had terrorized him.
Manama

**Manama** is the capital city of Bahrain. It is also the largest city in Bahrain, having almost 150,000 residents.

## History

Manama has been a city since at least the 1300s, when it was mentioned in Islamic books. It was owned by Portugal from 1521 to 1602, by Persia from 1602 to 1783, and by the Al-Khalifa family for a long time after that. In 1971, Manama became the capital city of Bahrain.

## Areas of Manama

The city is divided into a few parts:
- The **Diplomatic Area** has most of the banks and government offices. This area is very important, because most of Bahrain's economy is connected to banks.
- **Gudabiya** is the oldest area of the city, and it has the building where the parliament meets.
- **Hoora** is where most visitors go. There are many parties in the clubs here at night.