juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Brussels-Capital Region

**Brussels-Capital Region** is one of the three regions of Belgium. Its official name in the three official languages of Belgium:

It has a population of 1,222,637  (1 January 2022) on an area of 162 km².

## Language

Brussels-Capital Region is officially bilingual: Dutch and French, but most people speak French. In earlier times, they spoke Brabantian, which is a Dutch dialect.

## History

The area of Brussels-Capital Region belonged to the Duchy of Brabant until 1795. After the French occupation it became part of the newly formed province of South Brabant during the United Kingdom of the Netherlands from 1815 until 1831. After the Belgian separation in 1831, it became part of the newly formed province of Brabant. On 1 January 1995, Brabant province was divided into the provinces of Flemish Brabant (Dutch-speaking) and Walloon Brabant (French-speaking), and into the bilingual Brussels region.

## Municipalities

Brussels-Capital Region has 19 municipalities:

|#|French name|Dutch name|Population 2022|Postal code|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|1|Anderlecht|Anderlecht|121,394|1070|
|2|Auderghem|Oudergem|34,937|1160|
|3|Berchem-Sainte-Agathe|Sint-Agatha-Berchem|25,288|1082|
|4|Bruxelles ¹|Brussel ¹|187,686|1000, 1020, 1120, 1130, 1040, 1050|
|5|Etterbeek|Etterbeek|48,223|1040|
|6|Evere|Evere|43,481|1140|
|7|Forest|Vorst|56,271|1190|
|8|Ganshoren|Ganshoren|25,202|1083|
|9|Ixelles|Elsene|86,917|1050|
|10|Jette|Jette|52,604|1090|
|11|Koekelberg|Koekelberg|21,997|1081|
|12|Molenbeek-Saint-Jean|Sint-Jans-Molenbeek|97,102|1080|
|13|Saint-Gilles|Sint-Gillis|48,498|1060|
|14|Saint-Josse-ten-Noode|Sint-Joost-ten-Node|26,809|1210|
|15|Schaerbeek|Schaarbeek|130,270|1030|
|16|Uccle|Ukkel|84,647|1180|
|17|Watermael-Boitsfort|Watermaal-Bosvoorde|25,190|1170|
|18|Woluwe-Saint-Lambert|Sint-Lambrechts-Woluwe|58,448|1200|
|19|Woluwe-Saint-Pierre|Sint-Pieters-Woluwe|42,106|1150|

¹ Capital, English name _Brussels_.

## Related pages

There are two other regions:
- Flanders (or Flemish Region) for the Dutch-speaking part of Belgium
- Wallonia (or Walloon Region) for the French-speaking part of Belgium

## Other websites

- Official website
- The Brussels-Capital Region, belgium.be
Vaishali

**Vaishali** or **Vesali** (Pali)  was a city in what is currently Vaishali District, Bihar, India. The city was the capital of the Licchavi and the Vajjian Confederacy. At the time of the Buddha, Vesali was a very large and rich city. It was crowded with people and with much food.
Licchavi

**Licchavi** (also _Lichchhavi_, _Lichavi_) was an ancient republic that existed in what is now Bihar state of India before the birth of Mahavira (born 599 BC). Its capital was Vaishali.

From about 400 to 750, a kingdom in Nepal in the Kathmandu Valley had the same name, Licchavi.

## Origins

Early Buddhist legends tell that Licchavi was a ruling family during Gautama Buddha's time in India, but links to the Nepalese kingdom are speculative.  The language of Licchavi inscriptions is Sanskrit, and the particular script used is closely related to official Gupta scripts. That means that India was a significant cultural influence. That was likely through Mithila, now the north of Bihar, India.

## Other websites

- Tamot, Kashinath and Alsop, Ian. "A Kushan-period Sculpture, The Licchavi Kings", Asianart.com
- _History of Nepal,_  Thamel.com
- "Nepal: The Early Kingdom of the Licchavis, 400-750", Library of Congress Countryreports.org (September, 1991))
- Vajrācārya, Gautamavajra, "Recently Discovered Inscriptions of Licchavi, Nepal", _Kailash - Journal of Himalayan Studies,_ Volume 1, Number 2, 1973. (pp. 117-134)
Republicanism

**Republicanism** is the ideology of governing a nation as a republic with an emphasis on liberty and the civic virtue practiced by citizens.  Republicanism always stands in opposition to aristocracy, oligarchy, monarchy, and dictatorship. More broadly, it refers to a political system that protects liberty, especially by incorporating a rule of law that cannot be arbitrarily ignored by the government.

## United States

According to John Adams, “They define a republic to be a government of laws, and not of men.” Much of the literature deals with the issue of what sort of values and behavior by the citizens is necessary if the republic is to survive and flourish; the emphasis has been on widespread citizen participation, civic virtue, and opposition to corruption.

## Commonwealth realms

Many Commonwealth realms (countries which have the British Monarch as their head of state) have political movements to become republics. For example, the Prime Minister of Jamaica said that it will become a republic by 2025. In 1999, Australia had a vote to decide whether or not to keep the monarchy. The result was a majority supporting the monarchy.

## Other websites

- Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry
- Res Publica: an international anti-monarchy Web directory
Tabriz

**Tabriz** (; )  is the largest city in north-western Iran with a population of 1.6 million. Most of them speak the Azerbaijani language. Tabriz is north of the volcanic cone of Sahand and south of the Eynali mountain. It is the capital of East Azarbaijan Province.

## Other websites

- Tabriz Historical Buildings Virtual Library - Related to Tabriz University
- Tabriz Information
- Tabriz Culture & Information Center
- Tabriz City
- Tabriz from Encyclopaedia of the Orient
- Tabriz Municipal Office
- tabrizinfo.com
- Tabriz Municipality News Agency
- Tabriz Metro
- Hundreds of Tabriz Pictures
Saber–toothed cat

The **sabertoothed cats** or **sabre-tooth cats** are some of the best known and most popular extinct animals. They are among the most impressive carnivores that ever have lived. These cats had long canine teeth and jaws which opened wider than modern cats'. This suggests a different style of killing from modern felines.

There are none living today: they are extinct. The extinctions followed climate change, as the world cooled and grassland took over from woodland in the Pliocene and Pleistocene epochs.

## Convergent evolution

The sabre-tooth style of life evolved at least five times amongst carnivorous mammals. This is one of the best-known examples of convergent evolution.

### Creodonts

Creodonts were the earliest sabre-tooths known to exist. They lived in the Eocene, and are in a different order from the Feliformia. _Machaeroides_ and _Apataelurus_ are examples.

### Nimravids

The Nimravids were a basal group in the Feliformia, lasting from the Eocene to the later Miocene epochs. _Hoplophoneus_ is an example.

### Barbourofelidae

The Barbourofelidae is another family of Feliforms which developed the sabre-tooth lifestyle. They flourished in the Miocene. They are probably more closely related to the felids than the Nimravids.

### Sparassodonts

Sparassodonts, such as _Thylacosmilus_, were a metatherian group of mammals. They used to be called "marsupial sabre-tooths", but they belong to a sister-group to the marsupials. They existed from the Miocene to Pliocene epochs.

### Machairodontinae

The Machairodontinae is a subfamily of the Felidae, lived from the Miocene to the Pleistocene (23 million years ago to 11,000 years ago). This subfamily includes the famous _Smilodon_.

### Nimravides

_Nimravides_ is a member of the Felinae, and <u l>**not**</u> one of the Nimravids.

## Hunting behavior

The saber-tooths were ambush predators, and probably lived in open forests. This would explain their widespread occurrence in the Miocene, when much of the land was covered with woodland. Apart from the canine teeth, their adaptations included strength in the forelimbs (more so than present-day large cats). Their robust (heavy, tough) bodies speak of strength rather than speed.

Compared to modern cats, saber-toothed cats' front limbs were longer and stronger. Based on that and the differences in its teeth, scientists believe the saber-toothed cat must have attacked differently than modern cats do. An educated guess would be: they were ambush predators, which clung on round the neck of their prey, and slashed at the underside of the throat.

The fact that their teeth vary is interesting. Some have larger teeth, some had smaller dagger-like teeth, some had smooth thick teeth, others had blade-like teeth, sometimes with serrated edges. Some had flanges on the lower jaw, most did not. Ewer remarks that this must show that there were variations in killing method, and in the type of prey, but we know little about this.
Prosper Mérimée

**Prosper Mérimée** (September 28, 1803 – September 23, 1870) was a French writer. He was also a historian and an archaeologist. He is probably best known for writing the short story "Carmen". "Carmen" became the basis for the opera _Carmen_ by Georges Bizet.
Jerry Hsu

**Jerry Hsu** (born December 17, 1981) is an American professional skateboarder. He was born in, and currently lives in, San Jose, California. Hsu is a member of the San Jose Tilt Mode Army crew. He has several pro model skateboard decks with Enjoi Skateboards. Hsu was featured in the skateboard videos _Bag of Suck_ by Enjoi. He won an award for best video part by Transworld Skateboarding Magazine and a reader's choice award for his work in the video.
Wasit Governorate

**Wasit** () is a province in the east of Iraq. The capital is Al Kut. _Wasit_ is an Arabic word meaning "middle". The province is along the Tigris about midway between Baghdad and Misan.
Saladin Governorate

**Salah ad Din** () is a province in north of Iraq. The province has an area of 24,751 km². The capital is Tikrit where Saddam Hussein was born and 1,147,000 people live in the province. The majority population is Sunni. In 2011, the province declared autonomy.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **official name**: Saladin Governorate
- **image map**: Salah ad-Din in Iraq.svg
- **mapsize**: 200px
- **settlement type**: Governorates of Iraq, Governorate
- **subdivision type**: List of sovereign states, Country
- **subdivision type1**: Capital
- **subdivision name1**: Tikrit
- **subdivision type2**: Governor
- **subdivision name2**: Ammar Jabr Al-Jubouri
- **population as of**: 2018
- **population total**: 1,595,235
- **area total km2**: 24,751
- **blank name sec1**: Languages of Iraq, Official language(s)
- **blank info sec1**: Arabic language, Arabic
- **blank name sec2**: Human Development Index, HDI (2017)
- **blank info sec2**: 0.659
LATAM Airlines Brasil

**LATAM Airlines Brazil** () is Brazilian airline. LATAM was founded in 1961, but since 2000 it has grown fast. It's now the biggest airline in Brazil and all of Latin America.

## History

TAM Airlines began in 1961, with the name _Taxi Aereo Marília_ (Marília Air Taxi). In 1971, one of the airline's pilot<nowiki/>s buys 33% of the airline's shares. In 1976, the pilot founds an airline with the name _Transportes Aereos Regionais_ (Regional Air Transport).  Both _TAM_ and _TAR_ Airlines were combined in 2000.  This formed the TAM Airlines. In 2010, LAN Airlines and TAM Airlines were also combined. They formed the LATAM Airlines Group.

## Infobox (airline)

- **airline**: LATAM Airlines Brazil
- **logo**: Latam-logo -v (Indigo).svg
- **fleet size**: 164
- **iata**: JJ
- **icao**: TAM
- **callsign**: TAM
- **founded**: 1961
- **headquarters**: São Paulo
- **hubs**: São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Brasília
- **website**: [http://www.tam.com.br/b2c/vgn/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=97981ed526b72210VgnVCM1000003752070aRCRD]
Al-Qādisiyyah Governorate

**Al-Qādisiyyah** () is a Governorate in south of Iraq. The capital is Al Diwaniyah.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **official name**: Al-Qadisiyah Governorate
- **native name**: القادسية
- **image map**: Al-Qadisiyyah in Iraq.svg
- **mapsize**: 200px
- **settlement type**: Province
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision type1**: Capital
- **subdivision name1**: Al Diwaniyah
- **population as of**: 2014
- **population total**: 1320000
- **population note**: (10% of total)
- **area total km2**: 8153
Limb

A **limb** is a part of the body of a living creature, which extends from its trunk. Examples are the branches of a tree, and the legs of a man.

In normal human body, there are four limbs: two _upper limbs_ (arms) and two _lower limbs_ (legs). Each limb has several joints.
Australosphenida

**Australophenida** are a clade of mammals which has nearly entirely died out. Today, living specimen exist only in Australia and New Guinea with only five surviving species species, but fossils have been in Madagascar and Argentina. Species consist of the platypus and echidnas.

This grouping includes the following animals:
- Monotremata
    - Kollikodontidae (_extinct_)
        - _Kollikodon_
    - Ornithorhynchidae (platypus)
        - _Obdurodon_
    - Steropodontidae (_extinct_)
        - _Steropodon_
        - _Teinolophos_
    - Tachyglossidae (echidnas)
Steropodontidae

**Steropodontidae** was a family of monotremes that are known fossils from the Early Cretaceous in Australia.

## References

- Rich et al. 2001. Monotreme nature of the Early Cretaceous mammal Teinolophos. Acta Paleontologica Polonica. 46:113-118
Steropodon

***Steropodon galmanii*** was a prehistoric species of monotreme, or a egg-laying mammal, that lived during the Mesozoic, in the Lower Cretaceous period. It is the second-earliest known relative of the platypus: the earlist is called _Teinolophos_.

## References

- Archer M. _et al_ 1985. First Mesozoic mammal from Australia – an early Cretaceous monotreme. _Nature_ 318: 363-366.
Kollikodon

***Kollikodon ritchiei*** is a fossil monotreme species. It is known from an opalised teeth fragment, with one premolar and two molars in situ. The fossil was found al Lightning Ridge, New South Wales, Australia.

## References

- Flannery, T.F., Archer, M., Rich, T.H., Jones, R. (1995) "A new family of monotremes from the Cretaceous of Australia". _Nature_ 377: 418-420.
Teinolophos

***Teinolophos trusleri*** was a prehistoric species of monotreme, or egg-laying mammal. It is known from a lower jawbone found in Flat Rocks, Victoria, Australia. It lived during the Lower Cretaceous, about 123 million years ago (mya).
Obdurodon

***Obdurodon*** is a extinct monotreme genus. _Obdurodon_ differed from modern Platypuses in that it still had teeth (except for juveniles, the modern platypus does not have teeth).

## References

- Archer, _et al._ "Description of the skull and non-vestigial dentition of a Miocene platypus (_Obdurodon dicksoni_) from Riversleigh, Australia, and the problem of monotreme origins".
- Augee, M.L. "Platypus and Echidnas". Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales.  1992. Pages 15–27. (O. dicksoni).
- Pascual, _et al._ "First discovery of monotremes in South America". _Nature_ **356** (1992), Pages 704-706 (Monotrematum).
- Woodburne and Tedford. "The first Tertiary Monotreme from Australia." American Museum. Novitates Number 2588. 1975. Pages 1–11.  (O. insignis).
Mario (disambiguation)

**Mario** is a Nintendo video game character.  **Mario** or **Mario Son** may also mean:

## People

- Mario, a male given name
- Mario Gómez
- Mario R. Capecchi
- Mario Jeckle

## Video Games

- Mario (series), the video games with Mario in them
Curtiss P-40 Warhawk

The **Curtiss P-40** (also called the **Tomahawk, Warhawk, and Kittyhawk**) was a fighter aircraft that could also be used for attacking things on the ground. It was made by Curtiss. It first flew in 1938 and saw combat during World War II. It was not as fast high up as the German Luftwaffe fighters, but was used a lot in other places. It was used not only the United States Army Air Force, but also a mercenary air force called the "Flying Tigers." They put the mouth of a shark on their P-40s. It could fly to 360 miles per hour. In 1948, the United States Air Force stopped using it.

## Infobox (aircraft begin)

- **name**: P-40 Warhawk
Tomahawk / Kittyhawk
- **image**: File:Curtiss P-40E Warhawk 2 USAF.jpg
- **caption**: A restored Warhawk in the "Flying Tigers" paint scheme


## Infobox (aircraft type)

- **type**: Fighter aircraft
- **national origin**: United States
- **manufacturer**: Curtiss-Wright, Curtiss-Wright Corporation
- **first flight**: 14 October 1938
- **retired**: Brazilian Air Force (1958)
- **primary user**: United States Army Air Forces
- **more users**: Royal Air Force
Royal Australian Air Force
Royal Canadian Air Force
- **produced**: 1939–1944
- **number built**: 13,738
- **unit cost**: US$44,892 in 1944
- **developed from**: Curtiss P-36 Hawk
- **variants with their own articles**: Curtiss XP-46
Flying Tigers

The **Flying Tigers** were a group of American fighter pilots from the United States Army Air Force, the United States Navy, and the United States Marine Corps. The group was commanded by Claire Lee Chennault.

The Flying Tigers are well known for things. Their airplane paint had a shark face on the sides. Also, they fought hard during the war. President Franklin D. Roosevelt found them good.

## History

In 1937, Claire Lee Chennault retired from the American military and became the military advisor to China. He looked at the Chinese Air Force and saw that it was too bad to not fight its enemy, Japan. In 1938, Chennault was going to make the Flying Tigers. In late 1941, after the attack on Pearl Harbor, the Flying Tigers started fighting Japan.

The airplane that they used was the Curtiss P-40 Warhawk. There were about 100 of those fighter aircraft. They could not turn with the Japanese fighters, such as the A6M Zero, the Ki-43 Oscar, and the Ki-27 Nate. However, the P-40 was tough, had more guns, and was faster in a dive.

## List of flying aces

The following are flying aces from the Flying Tigers, with their air-to-air victory credits in alphabetical order:

- Percy Bartelt (5.0)
- William Bartling (5.0)
- Charles Bond (7.0)
- George Burgard (10.0)
- Robert Hedman (6.0)
- David Lee "Tex" Hill (10.25)
- Frank Lawlor (7.0)
- Robert Little (10.0)
- William McGarry (8.0)
- Robert Neale (13.0)
- John Newkirk (7.0)
- Charles Older (10.0)
- Edmund Overend (5.0)
- Robert Prescott (5.5)
- Joseph Camille Rosbert (6.0)
- Richard Rossi (6.0)
- Robert Sandell (5.0)
- Robert H. Smith (5.0)
- Robert T. Smith (8.9 kills)

## Related pages

- World War II
- Second Sino-Japanese War
Shusha

**Shusha** is a city in Azerbaijan. The city is a major centre of Azerbaijani culture and music.

## History

Shusha was founded in 1750-1752 by Panah-Ali khan Javanshir (r. 1748-1763), the founder and the first ruler of the Karabakh Khanate (Qarabağ xanlığı - in Azerbaijani). The first capital of the Karabakh khanate was the castle of Bayat, built in 1748 in the district of Kebirli. However, soon afterwards Panah Ali khan realized that in order to secure himself and his newly established khanate from external threats, he needed to build a new more reliable castle. Shusha was turned into the capital of the Karabakh khanate.

Shusha was a popular mountainous-climatic recreation resort in Azerbaijan.

On May 8, 1992, the city was captured by the Armenian forces and all of the city's predominantly Azerbaijani population was either expelled or killed. It was recaptured by Azerbaijan on 8 November, 2020 during the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war, with the city's Armenian population fleeing beforehand.

## Other websites

- Shusha: from A to Z
- Shusha by Travel-images.com
- Shusha – the town of the dead. Photo-report.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **settlement type**: Town
- **official name**: Shusha
- **native name**: Şuşa
- **image skyline**: Road leading to Shushi.JPG
- **image caption**: Nature around the town
- **pushpin mapsize**: 300
- **map caption**: Location of Shusha within Azerbaijan
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision type1**: Rayon
- **subdivision name1**: Shusha (rayon), Shusha Rayon<sup>2</sup>
- **subdivision type2**: Province
- **population as of**: 2005
- **population total**: 3191
- **elevation max m**: 1800
- **elevation min m**: 1400
- **footnotes**: <sup>2</sup>According to Azerbaijan administrative division
Doritos

**Doritos** (), is a brand of flavored corn (maize) tortilla chip snack. They have been made by the American food company Frito-Lay since 1966. They come in different flavors, including Nacho Cheese and Cool Ranch. They may be eaten with a dip such as salsa. They are made with a few different vegetables and are not fruit products.

## In popular culture

- Disneyland made Doritos popular in the 60's selling their products

## Other websites

- Doritos America

- Doritos Canada

- Doritos China

- Pepsico France

- Doritos Australia

- Doritos Scotland

- Doritos Germany

- Nutrition facts

## Infobox (brand)

- **name**: Doritos
- **image**:
- **type**: Tortilla chip
- **currentowner**: PepsiCo (via Frito-Lay)
- **origin**: United States
- **website**: https://www.doritos.com
Mount Silverthrone

**Mount Silverthrone** is a 20 km wide, deeply dissected caldera complex in southwestern British Columbia, Canada. Most of its eruptions occurred during the last ice age. The products have since been heavily eroded. It is the highest peak in the Ha-Iltzuk Icefield, the largest icefield in the Coast Mountains south of the Alaska Panhandle.

## Infobox (mountain)

- **name**: Mount Silverthrone
- **photo**: Mount Silverthrone.jpg
- **photo caption**: Northeast face of Mount Silverthrone
- **elevation m**: 2864
- **prominence m**: 975
- **listing**: List of volcanoes in CanadaList of Cascade volcanoes
- **location**: British Columbia, Canada
- **range**: Pacific Ranges
- **topo**: National Topographic System, NTS 92M/09
- **type**: Lava dome
- **volcanic arc/belt**: Canadian Cascade ArcPemberton Volcanic Belt, Pemberton/Garibaldi Volcanic Belt, Garibaldi Belt
- **first ascent**: 1936 Don Munday, Phyllis Munday, H. Hall, Hans Fuhrer
AIM-9 Sidewinder

The **AIM-9 Sidewinder** is a short-range air-to-air missile, which means it is shot from an aircraft to hit another aircraft.  It is a heat seeking infrared missile, which locks on to something that gives out a large heat signature. It first flew in 1953, and went into air forces in 1956. It was used during the Vietnam War along with the AIM-7 Sparrow. The AIM-9 of that time was made for shooting at an enemy from behind and homing in on the engine. In Vietnam it hit only 10-20% of the time, and could be fooled. Sometimes it could lock on to the sun or other bogus heat source and not an enemy airplane.

Later versions are better. They can see the enemy aircraft from all directions, not just from behind. They have a good hitting rate and can hit from 11 miles. Sidewinders are carried on many different aircraft around the world.
X-intercept

The **x-intercept** of a line on a graph is where the line touches (intercepts) the x-axis.

## Related pages

- y-intercept
- Algebra
Liberty

**Liberty** means the condition in which an individual has the ability to act following his or her own will and alternatively, achieve their potential, within the context of other words like political freedom.  It is a term that has contested meanings.

Communism and socialism claim to have something defined as liberty for them because of their social equality ideals. Libertarians and classical liberals think communism is against Liberty because communism is most of the times against the individual basic rights (life, freedom and property).

Classical liberalism conceptions of liberty conceive mainly of the freedom of the individual from outside compulsion in terms of freedom from restraint and social liberalist perspective, on the other hand, highlights the need for social and economic equality, as in the power and resources to fulfill one's potential.  As such, a social connects liberty (i.e. freedom) to the equal distribution of political power (i.e. democracy) in the sense of positive liberty. They argue that liberty without equality means the domination of the most powerful. Thus, freedom and democracy are seen as connected and ultimately, antagonistic.

John Stuart Mill, in his work, _On Liberty_, was the first to recognize the difference between liberty as the freedom to act and liberty as not being forced to do something.  Mill also sought to define the "nature and limits of the power which can be legitimately exercised by society over the individual” and as such, he describes an inherent and continuous antagonism between liberty and authority and thus, the prevailing question becomes "how to make the fitting adjustment between individual independence and social control".

## Types of freedom

There are mainly ten types of Freedom. They are:

- Freedom of association
- Freedom of belief

- Freedom of the press

- Freedom of religion
- Freedom from bondage and slavery
- Freedom of movement
- Freedom of education
- Freedom of marriage
- Freedom of rebellion
- The civil constitutions of each country have different definitions of the freedoms allowed to the citizens. It has been argued that any law and any government limits freedom, since it sets limits on what people may do.

## Related pages

- Human rights
- Justice
- Constitutional economics
- Universal Declaration of Human Rights
- European Convention on Human Rights
Dignity

**Dignity** in humans involves the earning or the expectation of personal respect or esteem.

"All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood".
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights

It is easy to show that many societies do not agree with this in practice. The civilised Greeks and Romans regarded other races as barbarians. A shocking example was Aristotle's advice to Alexander to be 'a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants'.<sup>p58</sup> Many societies based on religion have treated persons of other religions harshly, with little dignity. And sometimes political movements have deliberately and openly talked about and treated some groups as not having human dignity. Nazi treatment of the Jews came after a long period of propaganda against their humanity and dignity.

## Related pages

- Human rights
- Pride
- Self-esteem

## Other websites

- Dignity , article from Parenting For Everyone
- Respect at Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
- Emotional Competency Entry describing Dignity.
Dignity (disambiguation)

**Dignity** in humans involves the earning or the expectation of personal respect or of esteem.

**Dignity** could also mean:

In **music**:
- "Dignity" (Deacon Blue song), a song by Deacon Blue on their 1987 album _Raintown_
- "Dignity" (Bob Dylan song), a song by Bob Dylan on his 1994 album _Bob Dylan's Greatest Hits Volume 3_
- _Dignity_ (album), a 2007 album by Hilary Duff
    - "Dignity" (Hilary Duff song), a song by Hilary Duff on the album
- _The Dignity of Labour_, a 1979 album by The Human League
- _Dignity and Shame_, a 2005 album by Crooked Fingers

**Concepts**:
- Dignitas, an ancient Roman political idea to do with the influence of a citizen
- Dignitatis Humanae, the Second Vatican Council's Declaration on religious freedom
- Four Dignities of Shambhala Buddhism

Relating to **non-governmental organisations**:
- Dignitas International, a medical humanitarian organisation that aims to increase access to life-saving treatment and prevention in areas overwhelmed by HIV/AIDS
- Dignité (Centrale des Syndicats Libres de Côte d'Ivoire), a trade union centre in the Côte d'Ivoire, Africa
- DignityUSA, an organisation that works for 'respect and justice' for LGBT people in the Catholic Church in the USA. It is an organization of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender Catholics
- Dignity Village, a collective of homeless people that have created a shanty town near Oregon, USA

**Political Parties**:
- Dignity for Disabled, a minor South Australian political party
- Dignity, Democracy, Motherland, a minor Armenian political party
- Dignity (Ar-Namys) Party, a major political party of Kyrgyzstan

**Dignity** may also refer to:
- Dignity Battalions, paramilitary combatants under the Manuel Noriega Regime in Panama in the 1980s
- Dignity plc, a major UK funeral company formed by a management buyout of the UK interests of Service Corporation International
Association

**Association** can mean:
- Voluntary association, a group of individuals who voluntarily enter into an agreement to accomplish a purpose
- 501(c) non-profit organization
- Association (statistics), comes from two variables that are related
- Association (psychology), something linked in memory or imagination with a thing or person
- The Association, a pop band
- Archaeological association, in archaeology, the relationship between objects found together
- HMS _Association_, a Royal Navy ship which sank in 1707
- Association (object-oriented programming), in object-oriented programming, a relationship between classes
- Association (ecology), a set of organisms which appear together and cover areas in a roughly uniform way
- Association (astronomy), combined or co-added group of astronomical exposures
- Professional association
- Alumni association, an association of former students of a college or university
- An industry trade group is also known as a trade association
- L'Association, a French comic book publisher

## Related pages

- Interpersonal relationship
Voluntary association

A **voluntary association** or **union** is a group of individuals who voluntarily enter into an agreement to form a body (or organization) to work together for a purpose.

In most of the cases no formalities are necessary to start an association. But in some jurisdictions, there is a minimum for the number of persons starting an association, in others the association must register with the police or other official body to inform the public of the association's existence. This is not necessarily a tool of political control but much more a way of protecting the economy from fraud.

## Legal status

An unincorporated association has been defined as existing:

- "...where two or more persons are bound together for one or more common purposes by mutual undertakings, each having mutual duties and obligations, in an organisation which has rules identifying in whom control of the organisation and its funds is vested, and which can be joined or left at will."

In most countries, an unincorporated association does not have separate legal personality, and nor do members of the association usually enjoy limited liability.  However, in some countries they are treated as having separate legal personality for tax purposes.

Associations that are organized for profit or financial gain are usually called partnerships.  A special kind of partnership is a co-operative which is usually founded on one man–one vote principle and distributes its profits according to the amount of goods produced or bought by the member. Associations may take the form of a non-profit organization or they may be not-for-profit corporations; this does not mean that the association cannot make benefits from its activity, but all the benefits must be reinvested. Most associations have some kind of document or documents that regulate the way in which the body meets and operates. Such an instrument is often called the organization's bylaws, regulations, or agreement of association.

## Freedom of association

The freedom of association stands in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:
- Article 20
- (1) Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association.
- (2) No one may be compelled to belong to an association.

## Related pages

- Society

## Other websites

- Law relating to unincorporated associations
- French Association of Epargne and Retraite
Pausanias (geographer)

**Pausanias** (Greek: ) was a Greek traveller and geographer of the 2nd century A.D., who lived in the times of Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius. He is famous for his _Description of Greece_ (), a lengthy work that describes ancient Greece from firsthand observations. He is a crucial link between classical literature and modern archaeology.

## Biography

Pausanias was probably a native of Lydia; he was certainly familiar with the western coast of Asia Minor, but his travels extended far beyond the limits of Ionia. Before visiting Greece he had been to Antioch, Joppa and Jerusalem, and to the banks of the River Jordan. In Egypt he had seen the Pyramids, while at the temple of Ammon he had been shown the hymn once sent to that shrine by Pindar. In Macedonia he had almost certainly viewed the traditional tomb of Orpheus. Crossing over to Italy, he had seen something of the cities of Campania and of the wonders of Rome. He was one of the first to write of seeing the ruins of Troy, Alexandria Troas, and Mycenae.

## Work

Pausanias' _Description of Greece_ takes the form of a tour in Ionia on the coast of Asia Minor and in the Peloponnese and part of northern Greece. He constantly describes ceremonial rites or superstitious customs. He frequently introduces narratives from the domain of history and of legend and folklore, and it is only rarely that he allows the reader to see something of the scenery.

### Other websites

- Description of Greece, tr. W.H.S. Jones and H.A. Ormerod (1918)
- Description of Greece, Jones translation at Theoi Project
- Bibliography (in French)

### Further reading

- Hutton, William 2005, _Describing Greece: Landscape and Literature in the Periegesis of Pausanias_ (Cambridge). .
- Levi, Peter (tr.) 1984a, 1984b, _Pausanias: Guide to Greece_, 2 vols. (Penguin). Vol. 1 _Central Greece_ ; vol. 2 _Southern Greece_ .
- Pretzler, Maria. "Turning Travel into Text: Pausanias at work", _Greece & Rome_, Vol. 51, Issue 2 (2004), pp. 199–216.
Dignitas

In Ancient Rome, ***Dignitas*** was regarded as the sum of the personal influence that a male citizen acquired throughout his life. It included personal reputation, moral standing, and ethical worth and the man's entitlement to respect and proper treatment as well.

The word does not have a direct connotation or translation in English. Some interpretations include dignity (merely a derivation) and prestige. The Oxford Latin Dictionary defines the expression as fitness, suitability, worthiness, visual impressiveness or distinction, dignity of style and gesture, rank, status, position, standing, esteem, importance, and honor.

## Origins

Authors who had used _dignitas_ extensively in their writings and oratories include M. Tullius Cicero, Julius Caesar, Cornelius Tacitus, and T. Livius (Livy). The most prolific user was Cicero, who initially related it to the established term auctoritas. These two words were highly associated, auctoritas was thought to be the expression of a man’s _dignitas_.

## The changing definition of dignitas

Over the course of Ancient Roman history, _dignitas_ took on different meanings over time, adjusting for the gradually changing viewpoints of society, politicians, and the various authors.

Years after Caesar's death, his heir Augustus rejected the contemporary meaning of _dignitas_. Augustus found the related term _auctoritas_ to be a suitable alternative.

## References

- Balsdon, J.p.v.d. "Auctoritas, Dignitas, Otium." The Classical Quarterly ns 10 (1960): 43-50.
- Cicero, Ad Familiares 4.14
- Cicero, Epistulae Ad Familiares. J. Paul Leonard Library, San Fransisco. Cicero, Epistulae ad familiares. San Francisco State University. 18 May 2007
- Radin, Max. "Roman Concepts of Equality." Political Science Quarterly 38 (1923): 262-289.
- Ridler, Vivian. "Dignitas." Oxford Latin Dictionary. 1 vols. London: Oxford UP, 1968.
Tacitus

**Publius** (or **Gaius**) **Cornelius Tacitus** (ca. 56 – ca. 117) was a senator and a historian of the Roman Empire. The surviving parts of his two major works—the _Annals_ and the _Histories_—report about the reigns of the Roman Emperors Tiberius, Claudius, Nero, Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian.

## Works

Experts believe Tacitus wrote these five works that have survived. The dates are approximate:

- (98) _De vita Iulii Agricolae_ (_The Life of Julius Agricola_)
- (98) _De origine et situ Germanorum_ (_The Germania_)
- (102) _Dialogus de oratoribus_ (_Dialogue on Oratory_)
- (105) _Historiae_ (_Histories_)
- (117) _Ab excessu divi Augusti_ (_Annals_)

## References

- Haynes, Holly. _The History of Make-Believe: Tacitus on imperial Rome_ (Berkeley, Calif.; London: University of California Press, 2003)
- Syme, Ronald. _Tacitus_, Volumes 1 and 2. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1958) (reprinted in 1985 by the same publisher, with the ) is the definitive study of his life and works.
- Syme, Ronald. _Ten Studies in Tacitus_. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1970)
- Talbert, R.J.A. "Tacitus and the Senatus Consultum de Cn. Pisone patre". _The American Journal of Philology_, Vol. 120, No. 1 (1999), pp. 89–97.
- Woodman, Anthony John. _Tacitus Reviewed_ (Oxford: Oxford University Press,  1998)

## Other websites

- Bibliography on Tacitus  (from Rutgers University Classics Department)
- **Texts by Tacitus**:
    - Works by Tacitus) at the Internet Archive
    - At Perseus Project: Works by Tacitus in English and/or Latin
    - At "The Online Books Page": Online e-texts of Tacitus' works
    - At "Romansonline" (Latin text can be displayed side by side to translation): Works by Tacitus
    - At "The Internet Sacred Text Archive": Parallel English and Latin text of the complete works of Tacitus
    - Works by Tacitus: text, concordances and frequency list
    - About Tacitus' Agrippina on QueenDido.org

## Infobox (writer)

- **name**: Tacitus
- **image**: Gaius Cornelius Tacitus.jpg
- **imagesize**: 180px
- **caption**: Tacitus
- **birth date**: Circa 56
- **death date**: Circa 117
- **occupation**: Senator, Roman consul, consul, Roman governor, governor, historian
- **genre**: History
- **subject**: History, biography, oratory
- **movement**: Classical Latin, Silver Age of Latin
Tacitus (disambiguation)

**Tacitus** was a Roman historian. Other people and things named _Tacitus_ include:

- Marcus Claudius Tacitus, emperor of Rome 275–276
- Asteroid 3097 Tacitus, named after the historian.
- Tacitus, a fictional data matrix from the Command & Conquer series of computer games.
Connotation

**Connotation** is a meaning that is suggested or implied, as opposed to a denotation, or literal definition.

## Usage

Today the word has different meanings, but it is always used for the contrast of a word or phrase with its primary, literal meaning (known as a denotation). That can be an implied value judgement or feelings.

- A stubborn person may be described as being either _strong-willed_ or _pig-headed_. Although these have the same literal meaning (i.e. _stubborn_), _strong-willed_ connotes admiration for the level of someone's will, while _pig-headed_ **connotes** frustration in dealing with someone. Likewise, _used car_ and _previously owned car_ have the same literal meaning, but many dealerships prefer the latter, since it is thought to have fewer _negative_ _connotations_.
- It is often useful to avoid words with strong connotations (especially negative ones) when striving to achieve a neutral point of view. A desire for more positive connotations, or fewer negative ones, is one of the main reasons for using euphemisms.

## Other websites

- Connotations of problem solving
Margrave

A **Margrave** () is a German nobleman.

Originally the Holy Roman Emperor would give a Markgraf an area of the borders (the Marches or ) to look after.  The Margrave would have to protect the people in the area from invaders, and at the same time protect the empire.

A Markgraf ranked higher than a graf, but lower than a duke.  The Margraves of Brandenburg were in control of such an important area that they were made Electors of the Holy Roman Empire, which was the highest honour in the Imperial Parliament.  There were no Kings in the Empire, so when the Margraves of Brandenburg took control of some territory outside the empire as well, they could call themselves King in Prussia.

As the Middle Ages ended and Europe and the Holy Roman Empire became more secure the military importance of the Margraves became less.  At the end of the German Empire in 1918, there were no Markgrafs left.  All had been given higher title, but may have kept the Markgraf title as an extra.  The Kings of Prussia, for example, always kept the lower title Margraves of Brandenburg.
Meppel

**Meppel** is a city and a municipality in the north east of the Netherlands (in the province Drenthe). On January 1, 2007 it had about 31,063 inhabitants. It has a density of 558/km² (1,445.2/sq mi). The timezone in Meppel is CET.

## History

Meppel received city rights in 1644. It is the oldest town of Drenthe.

In the World War II almost all the Jews of Meppel were killed. 232 of the 250 were killed, so 18 survived it. Now there is a monument in Meppel for all those who died.

## Municipality

These are the cities in the municipality of Meppel.

|City|Population of 1 January 2004|
| --- | --- |
|Meppel|26.380|
|Nijeveen|2660|
|Kolderveen|250|
|Kolderveense Bovenboer|140|
|Rogat|130|
|Nijeveense Bovenboer|120|

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Meppel
- **settlement type**: List of municipalities of the Netherlands, Municipality
- **imagesize**: 265px
- **image flag**: Flag of Meppel.svg
- **image seal**: Coat of arms of Meppel.svg
- **pushpin map**: Netherlands
- **pushpin mapsize**: 265px
- **pushpin relief**: yes
- **subdivision type**: List of sovereign states, Country
- **subdivision type1**: Provinces of the Netherlands, Province
- **leader title**: Mayor
- **leader name**: Richard Korteland
- **area total km2**: 55.53
- **population total**: 30,037
- **population as of**: January 1, 2001
- **population density km2**: 540.9
- **timezone1**: Central European Time, CET
- **utc offset1**: +01:00
- **postal code type**: Postal code
- **postal code**: 7940–7945, 7947–7949,
7965–7969
- **area code type**: Area code
- **area code**: 0522
- **blank name sec2**: ISO 3166-2:NL, ISO 3166 code
- **blank1 name sec2**: Address
Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar

- _For the Spanish painter, see Diego Velázquez._

**Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar** (1465 - 1524) was a Spanish soldier and colonial administrator (a _Conquistador_).He conquered and governed Cuba for Spain. He is often called _Diego de Velázquez_ by Dominican historians (that is the name used in the Appleton's Cyclopedia ).

He was born in Cuéllar, near Segovia, Spain. He came to America in the second voyage of Christopher Columbus in 1493. He spent 17 years in the Hispaniola, living most of the time in the southwestern region of the island.

He worked together with the Spanish governor Nicolás de Ovando in the fight against the Taíno Indians of the region. He founded and governed several towns: Azua de Compostela (1504), San Juan de la Maguana (1503), Bánica (1504), Salvatierra de la Sabana (1504, now Les Cayes, Haiti), Santa María de la Verapaz (near the present Port-au-Prince, Haiti), Villanueva de Yáquimo (now Jacmel, Haiti).

In 1511, he left from Salvatierra de la Sabana with 300 men and three or four ships to the island of Cuba to conquer that island. He was the first governor of the island and he founded several cities, Nuestra Señora de la Asunción de Baracoa (the first European city in Cuba and its first capital) in 1511, San Salvador del Bayamo (1513), Santiago de Cuba in 1514 and Havana in 1515.

In 1517 he sent Juan de Grijalva to explore the coast of Mexico and in 1518 he sent Francisco Hernández de Córdoba to explore the coast of Yucatán. Then in 1519 he sent his secretary, Hernán Cortés, to conquer Mexico with about 450 soldiers but when Cortés got to México (in Veracruz), he broke all relations with Velázquez.

Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar died in Santiago de Cuba in 1524.

## Other websites

- Enciclopedia Libre Universal
- Biography , with a bibliography
- Short biography
- Encarta
Denotation

- _For the opposite of Denotation see Connotation._

- In logic, linguistics and semiotics, a **denotation** of a word or phrase is a part of its meaning.

## Examples

In order to understand fully the difference between denotation and connotation in the media studies and semiotics uses it is necessary to become familiar with some examples:
|The denotation of this example is a red rose with a green stem. The connotation is that it is a **symbol** of passion and love - this is what the rose represents.|
| --- |
|The denotation is a brown cross. The connotation is a **symbol** of religion, according to the media connotation. However, to be more specific this is a **symbol** of Christianity.|
|The denotation is a representation of a cartoon heart. The connotation is a **symbol** of love and affection, not in the way of a rose, but a symbol of true love.|

## Different aspects of meaning

Several parts of meaning may be called denotation. That depends on the contrast being drawn.
    - _Connotation and denotation_ are either
        - in basic semantics and literary theory, the _figurative_ and _literal_ meanings of a word, or
        - in philosophy, logic and parts of linguistics, the intension and extension of a word
    - _Denotation_ can be synonymous with **reference** in the sense and reference in philosophy of language.

- In Computer science, denotational semantics is contrasted with operational semantics.

- In Semiotics, denotation also has its own meaning.

- In media-studies terminology, **denotation** is the first level of analysis: what the audience can visually see on a page. Denotation often refers to something literal, and avoids being a metaphor. Here it is usually coupled with connotation which is the second level of analysis, being what the denotation represents

In logic and semantics, denotational always attracts the extension meaning "in the pair", but the other element genuinely varies. See intension for some more discussion.

A denotation is the strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word, devoid of any emotion, attitude, or colour.

Denotation often links with symbolism, as the denotation of a particular media text often represents something further; a hidden meaning (or an Engima Code) is often encoded into a media text (such as the images below).

## Other websites

- Semiotics for Beginners
- VirtuaLit Elements of Poetry
Victoria Silvstedt

** Victoria Silvstedt** (born September 19, 1974 in Skellefteå, Sweden) is a Swedish fashion model and actress. She is also a former winner of Playmate of the Year, which is chosen by Hugh Hefner.
Doner kebab

**Doner kebab** (also spelled **döner kebab**) (, ;  or  ) is a fast food dish. A Doner can be made from bread, salad, lamb, chicken or beef. It is cooked on a vertical rotisserie then thinly sliced. When bought from kebab shops it usually comes with salad or french fries.

Doners are often eaten as take-away food on the way home after a night out. There are several common ways in which doner kebabs are served.

- Wrapped in pita bread (the most common)
- On pita bread
- Served as a dish of "doner meat" (and maybe chips), typically including salad
- Often preferred to be garnished with a range of sauces such as tomato ketchup, mayonnaise, chili sauce, mint or garlic sauce.

It is a very popular Turkish fast food. The Döner was introduced to the Germans in the 1970s.

## In the UK

Kebabs are very much part of the Friday and Saturday night culture in the UK rather than breakfast or lunchtime food. UK _doner kebab_ often uses a different mixture of spices, because immigrants from Cyprus run many of the shops. They may offer doner, shish (lamb and chicken) and kofte kebabs, with a 'special' including some of each with bread and chips.
Meredith Monroe

**Meredith Monroe** (born December 30, 1968) is an American actress. She is best known for her role as Andie McPhee on _Dawson's Creek_ from 1998 to 2000. She's currently part of the CBS program _NCIS_.

Monroe was a series regular in Seasons 2–3, appearing in several episodes at the beginning and end of season 4, and was a special guest star in the final series episode in Season 6, though these scenes were cut from the televised episode.

## Infobox (actor)

- **name**: Meredith Monroe
- **occupation**: Actress