Rhetoric

**Rhetoric** is the art of convincing and persuading people by language through public speaking or writing.

### Origin

The word is derived from the Greek term _ῥητορικὴ [τέχνη]_, roughly meaning "the art of speech." Merriam-Webster's dictionary defines it as "the art or science of using words effectively in speaking or writing, especially the art or science of literary composition."

The word _effectively_ in this definition is a relative matter. What is effective in a certain context can be entirely different in another. Different languages differ in their _rhetorical styles_ – that is, in the way that they use language to fulfill various purposes.

One can be trained for it. It is the art or the technique of persuasion, used by orators (public speakers), writers and media.

### Origin

Its origin was in ancient Greece of the 5th century. They made their decisions by speaking for or against proposals in a public space. Also, speeches were made when a person was accused of a serious crime before the magistrates. Because rhetoric was so important to them, the Greeks and Romans wrote about how to be a good rhetorician. This is sometimes called _secondary rhetoric_.

#### Examples

It is a technique which can be taught, and used in writing. An early example is Plato, who wrote his works in the form of dialogues. Each question raised is discussed between two characters. In the ancient world, the Romans, who were much influenced by the ancient Greeks, also used the same methods for decision-making. Cicero was one of their famous orators. In their case, the debates did not involve all citizens but merely the Roman Senate or the courts.

### Middle Ages

In medieval universities, rhetoric was taught as part of the curriculum. Rhetoric, dialectic and grammar form the trivium which, with the quadrivium, make up the seven liberal arts of Western culture. During Antiquity and the Middle Ages, rhetoric was used for persuasion in public and political arenas, and also in the courts of justice. The words _rhetoric_ or _sophism_ are often used with a negative meaning, of disinformation or propaganda.

As the art of persuasion, the rhetoric continues to be important in present-day public life. They are also used to describe a speech with doubtful or slanted arguments. Several hundred _rhetorical figures_ were recognised by classical rhetoricians. Some of these are still in use, such as metaphor, simile and paradox.

### Today

In the modern world, speeches made on television, ideas embedded in advertisements or in front of crowds are all rhetorics. They speak to people directly with the intention of persuading them. Before World War II, radio and print media were powerful tools for rhetoric. The newspapers and books persuade readers towards a particular point of view. Rhetoric does not depend only on a live audience.

## Structure

Aristotle, a rhetoric has three elements in persuasion:
- Logos: proof provided by means of speech (the actual argument)
- Pathos: putting the audience in a fit state of mind (stirs their emotions)
- Ethos: depends on the personal character of the speaker (must appear to be worthy of trust)

### Australia

A 1988 study was conducted by Söter in Australia among students who were native speakers of Arabic, Vietnamese and English. The sample, sixth and eleventh grade students were asked to write a bedtime story for a young child. Patterns were immediately evident in the different approaches used by the student's in the story writing task.

#### Vietnamese

The Vietnamese stories placed primary focus on characters and the relationships between them (manifested in a great proportion of dialog). English stories placed primary focus on the sequential forward movement of the plot. Arabic stories placed primary focus on descriptive elements of the setting.

Contrastive rhetoric says that people who share a common language might have different rhetoric styles due the influence of culture and exchanges. The discourse goes beyond the target language's native forms of discourse, organization or rhetoric.

#### United States

A paraphrasing task study was done in the USA among Chinese and Russian students. American students were easily able to paraphrase, but Chinese students found it hard, perhaps due to their academic environment influenced by Confucianism. Russian students struggled with the paraphrasing because norm in Russian academic environment was that students are only required to read and describe, and was not required to give a personal interpretation or an opinion. U.S. rhetorical style: ethnocentric sources describe it as typically direct and relatively logical.

## Quotes

Some witty remarks were made against orators and their rhetoric.

## Related pages

- Antisemitism
- Disinformation
- Public speaking
- Figure of speech

## References

- Hayakawa S.I. _Language in thought and action_. London: Allen & Unwin.

## Other websites

- Robert A. Harris. A Handbook of Rhetorical Devices. Virtualsalt, 2013.
- The Forest of Rhetoric -  silva rhetoricae, Brigham Young University.