juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Redruth

**Redruth** (Cornish: Resrudh) is a small town in Cornwall. The name of the town means "red ford"; the parish church of Redruth is dedicated to St Uny. The district of Camborne and Redruth was once very important for the mining of tin and copper. Until 1974, Camborne and Redruth were included in the Camborne-Redruth urban district. In 2001 there were 12,352 people living in Redruth. The two towns with the village of Pool have more people than St Austell (Cornwall's largest settlement). In 2004, about 38,500 people were living in Camborne-Redruth.
Integrated Taxonomic Information System

The **Integrated Taxonomic Information System** (**ITIS**) is an American organization. It works with several federal agencies to unify the information gathered about different taxonomy of biological species. It provides a common database for these agencies to use. ITIS was originally formed in 1996.

## Other websites

- Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS)
- Canada Interface: Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS*CA)
- Mexico Interface: Sistema Integrado de Información Taxonómica (SIIT*MX)
- Brasil Interface: Sistema Integrado de Informação Taxonômica - (SIIT*Brasil)
Yersinia pestis

***Yersinia pestis*** is a bacillus (a type of bacteria). It is the bacterium that causes bubonic plague, septicemic plague, and pneumonic plague.

These three forms of the plague have killed many people in epidemics throughout history. Historians and scientists believe they caused the Black Death. This pandemic killed one out of every three people in Europe between 1347 and 1353.

## Discovery

In 1894 a physician named Alexandre Yersin discovered the _Y. pestis_ bacillus during an epidemic of the plague in Hong Kong. Yersin worked for the Pasteur Institute at the time.

The bacillus's name was changed several times:

- 1894-1900: _Bacterium pestis_
- 1900-1923: _Bacillus pestis_
- 1923-1970: _Pasteurella pestis_ (named to honor Louis Pasteur)

Before 1970, scientists thought the bacillus belonged to the _Pasteurella_ genus of bacteria. In 1970 they reclassified it as its own genus (_Yersinia_) and named it _Yersinia pestis_ in Alexandre Yersin's honor.

Scientists have found three varieties of _Y. pestis._

## The Black Death

_See the main article: The Black Death_

Historians do not agree about _Y. pestis's_ role in the Black Death. Many believe that _Y. pestis_ was the bacterium that caused the Black Death. However, others say the Black Death spread much faster than _Y. pestis_ could.

Still, DNA from _Y. pestis_ has been found in the teeth of some exhumed Black Death victims. For this reason, _Y. pestis_ must have played a role in the epidemic, and it probably did too in other European plague epidemics.

## Other websites

- _Yersinia pestis_ . Virtual Museum of Bacteria.
- Genome information is available from the NIAID PathoSystems Resource Integration Center (PATRIC)
Leptospirosis

**Leptospirosis** (also known as **Weil's disease**, **canicola fever**, **canefield fever**, **nanukayami fever** or **seven day fever**) is a bacterial disease.

This disease is caused by spirochaetes of the genus _Leptospira_. It affects humans and many animals, including mammals, birds, amphibians, and reptiles.

Leptospirosis was first described by Adolf Weil in 1886. At the time he reported an "acute infectious disease with enlargement of spleen, jaundice and nephritis". The pathogen, _Leptospira_-genus bacteria was isolated in 1907 from a post mortem kidney slice.

Leptospirosis is a relatively rare bacterial infection in humans. The infection is commonly transmitted to humans when fresh water that has been contaminated by animal urine (often from rats) contacts the skin, eyes or the mucous membranes.

Leptospirosis usually causes heart failure, kidney failure or liver failure, and most sufferers die if they are not treated urgently. However, the disease is quite rare.

Outside of tropical areas, leptospirosis seems to occur most often in the Northern Hemisphere in August and September.
François-Joseph Gossec

**François-Joseph Gossec** (born Vergnies, 17 January 1734 — 16 February 1829) was a South Netherlands composer.  He was born in what is now Belgium, but worked in France during his long life.  People hardly ever hear his music now except for one very popular piece of dance music called Tambourin.  He was famous in France in his time and had a lot of influence on French music.

## Life and Work

Gossec’s family were small farmers.  When Gossec was young he worked as a cowherd (someone who looks after cows).  He showed a lot of talent and became a choir-boy in the Cathedral of Notre Dame in Antwerp.

In 1751, he went to Paris. The composer Jean-Philippe Rameau was very impressed by him and got him jobs playing the violin and double bass in his private orchestra. He heard a lot of music by German composers and started to write music of his own.  His symphony in D was one of the first works in France to use clarinets which had only just been invented. He composed many operas as well as instrumental works.

In 1762, Gossec became the conductor of a private theatre of the Prince of Condé at Chantilly. A lot of German and Bohemian wind players at that time went to Paris, and Gossec gave them jobs in his orchestra.

Gossec wrote a lot of music for the French Revolution. When the Paris Conservatoire was opened in 1795 he became a teacher of composition there.

Gossec composed lots of different kinds of music.  His music for instruments was very successful. He wrote operas which suited the taste of French people at the time, but he did not have a good sense of drama and the words of his operas were uninteresting. He was an important man in the history of music because he organized a lot of musical events in Paris. He was made a _chevalier_ of the Legion of Honour. A lot of composers went to his funeral.
Josiah Wedgwood

**Josiah Wedgwood** (12 July 1730  3 January 1795, born in Burslem, Stoke-on-Trent) was an English potter, who became famous for the industrialisation  of pottery. He was the grandfather of _both_ Charles Darwin and Emma Darwin, Charles' wife.

Wedgwood was the first to use modern marketing: direct mail, money-back guarantees, salesmen, self-service, free delivery, buy one get one free, and illustrated catalogues.

### Early life

When he was a child, Josiah had smallpox, but he survived (did not die). The smallpox injured his knee, so he could not easily work as a potter. Instead, he worked hard to design pottery. Working as an apprentice, Wedgwood learned many techniques for making pottery. He used his skills to make one of the first pottery factories, Ivy Works, in Burslem, now part of Stoke-on-Trent.  Later his right leg was cut off below the knee. There are no pictures of him showing this he was very famous for his pottery.

## Work

Wedgwood was very interested in science and technology, and used new ideas to make good quality pottery. He became famous for making pottery for royalty, and became very rich. He spent money on civic works, things that would help businessmen and people in the city, for example canals. He formed a partnership with Thomas Bentley in 1768 which eventually became the business which in 1895 was incorporated as **Josiah Wedgwood and Sons Ltd.**  He became friends with Erasmus Darwin, an important scientist and inventor. In 1780, Wedgwood and Darwin became business partners. Wedgwood's son married Darwin's daughter, who gave birth to Charles Darwin. Wedgwood and Darwin were also members of the 'Lunar Society', a group of important scientists, philosophers and businessmen.

By 1763, he was receiving orders from the highest levels of the British nobility, including Queen Charlotte. Wedgwood convinced her to let him name the line of pottery she had purchased "Queen's Ware", and trumpeted the royal association in his paperwork and stationery. In 1773, Empress Catherine of Russia ordered the Green Frog Service from Wedgwood; it can still be seen in the Hermitage Museum. An even earlier commission from Catherine was the Husk Service (1770), now on exhibit in Peterhof.

In the latter part of his life, Wedgwood's obsession was to duplicate the Portland Vase, a dark blue and white glass vase from the first century BC. For three years he worked on the project, eventually producing what he considered a satisfactory copy in 1789.

## Abolition of slavery

Together with his friends in the Lunar Society, Wedgwood worked for the abolition (ending) of slavery. Wedgwood produced medallions asking for the end of slavery. These medallions became very popular. Wedgwood died in Etruria, Stoke-on-Trent, in 1795. Selling slaves became illegal (against the law) in 1807 in Britain, and having slaves became illegal in 1833.

## References

- _Wedgwood: the first tycoon_, Brian Dolan, Viking Adult, 416 pp. 2004.

## Other websites

- Wedgwood collection at the Lady Lever Art Gallery
- Revolutionary Players website
- Wedgwood Museum
Tambourin

A **tambourin** (pronounced the French way) is a piece of music which was popular in France in the 18th century.  It is based on a folkdance from the Provence.  The music is made to sound like the kind of drum which is called "tambourin" in French.  Jean-Philippe Rameau wrote several Tambourins in his operas.  Other composers who wrote Tambourins include François-Joseph Gossec and Maurice Duruflé.

**Tambourin** also means a special kind of drum from the Provence.  It has a long, cylindrical shape and is played with one drumstick.  It is found in orchestral music such as Georges Bizet's _L'Arlésienne Suite no. 2_
Thomas Wedgwood III

**Thomas Wedgwood III** (1685-1739) was an English potter. He was a member of the Wedgwood family, who were very successful potters.  He was the son of Thomas Wedgwood II and Mary Leigh. Maternal Great-grandfather of naturalist Charles Robert Darwin.

Thomas Wedgwood was married to Mary Stringer.  Their children were:

- Anne Wedgwood (1712–1782)
- Mary Wedgwood (1714–1716)
- Thomas Wedgwood IV (1716–1773)
- Samuel Wedgwood (1718–1719)
- Margaret Wedgwood (1720–1777)
- John Wedgwood (1721–1767)
- Aaron Wedgwood (1722–1774)
- Abner Wedgwood (1723–1726)
- Richard Wedgwood (1725–1778)
- Catherine Wedgwood (1726–1804)
- Jane Wedgwood (1728–1739)

- Josiah Wedgwood (1730–1795)
Thomas Wedgwood IV

**Thomas Wedgwood** (1716-1773) was an English potter. He was a member of the Wedgwood family, who were very successful potters. He was the son of Thomas Wedgwood III and Mary Stringer and brother of Josiah Wedgwood.

Thomas Wedgwood was married firstly to Isabell Beech. Their children were:
- Thomas Wedgwood V
Maria Barbara Bach

**Maria Barbara Bach** (20 October 1684 – buried 7 July 1720) was the wife of the German composer Johann Sebastian Bach.  She was also the mother of the composers Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach and Wilhelm Friedemann Bach.
Ligue 1

**Ligue 1**, officially known as **Ligue 1 McDonald's** for sponsorship reasons, is a professional association football league in France and the highest level of French football. The League is contested by 18 clubs and operates on a system of promotion and relegation from and to Ligue 2.

### List (2025–26 season)

|Club|Location|Venue|Capacity||
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
||Angers||align="center"|18,752|
||Auxerre||align="center"|21,379|
||Brest||align="center"|15,931|
||Le Havre||align="center"|25,178|
||Lens||align="center"|37,705|
||Villeneuve-d'Ascq|Stade Pierre-Mauroy|align="center"|50,186|
||Lorient||align="center"|18,890|
||Lyon|Groupama Stadium|align="center"|59,186|
||Marseille|Stade Vélodrome|align="center"|67,394|
||||align="center"|28,786|
||||align="center"|18,523|
||Nantes||align="center"|35,322|
||Nice||align="center"|35,624|
||Paris||align="center"|20,000|
||Paris|Parc des Princes|align="center"|47,926|
||Rennes||align="center"|29,778|
||Strasbourg||align="center"|29,230|
||Toulouse||align="center"|33,150|

## Champions

|Club|Titles|Last win|||
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Paris Saint-Germain|style="text-align:center;"|13|style="text-align:center;"||
|Saint-Étienne|style="text-align:center;"|10|style="text-align:center;"||
|Marseille|style="text-align:center;"|9|style="text-align:center;"||
|Monaco|style="text-align:center;"|8|style="text-align:center;"||
|Nantes|style="text-align:center;"|8|style="text-align:center;"||
|Lyon|style="text-align:center;"|7|style="text-align:center;"||
|Bordeaux|style="text-align:center;"|6|style="text-align:center;"||
|Reims|style="text-align:center;"|6|style="text-align:center;"||
|Lille|style="text-align:center;"|4|style="text-align:center;"|2020–21|
|Nice|style="text-align:center;"|4|style="text-align:center;"||
|Sochaux|style="text-align:center;"|2|style="text-align:center;"||
|Sète|style="text-align:center;"|2|style="text-align:center;"||
|Lens|style="text-align:center;"|1|style="text-align:center;"||
|RC Paris|style="text-align:center;"|1|style="text-align:center;"||
|Olympique Lillois|style="text-align:center;"|1|style="text-align:center;"||
|Strasbourg|style="text-align:center;"|1|style="text-align:center;"||
|Roubaix-Tourcoing|style="text-align:center;"|1|style="text-align:center;"||
|Auxerre|style="text-align:center;"|1|style="text-align:center;"||
|Montpellier|style="text-align:center;"|1|style="text-align:center;"||

## Related pages

- Ligue 2
- Championnat National

## Infobox (football league)

- **name**: Ligue 1
- **organiser**: (LFP)
- **country**: (17 teams)
- **other countries**: (1 team)
- **confed**: UEFA
- **teams**: 18
- **relegation**: Ligue 2
- **level**: 1
- **domest cup**: Coupe de France

- **confed cup**: UEFA Champions League
UEFA Europa League
UEFA Conference League
- **champions**: Paris Saint-Germain FC, Paris Saint-Germain (13th title)
- **most successful club**: Paris Saint-Germain FC, Paris Saint-Germain (13 titles)
Oath

An **oath** (from Anglo-Saxon _āð_) is a promise. An oath is spoken out loud in front of other people who can see and hear what is done and said. They are witnesses to the oath. A person who cannot speak can make a sign that they are "taking an oath".  Another way of saying that a person is "taking an oath" is to say that they are "swearing an oath".

A person can say "I promise that I will do this..." or "I swear that I will do this..."

When a person swears an oath they often show that the oath is very important to them by calling God to see and remember the promise, and to show that the promise is true, and cannot be taken back later. When a person takes an oath they sometimes raise their right hand, or put their hand on their heart, on the Bible or on another holy book.

Oaths are used in many situations when a person needs to be true to what they say:
- A person often swears an oath when they get married that they will love, care for and be true to their partner.
- A person is often asked to take an "oath" that they will tell the truth in court.
- A person who has an important position like mayor or governor swears an oath that they will serve their people and country.
- When a person becomes a citizen of a country where they were not born, they take an "oath of allegiance" and promise that they will be a good and true citizen of their new country.

## Other meanings

The word "oath" is often used to mean any angry expression which includes religious or other strong language and promises that the person will do something horrible.

## Related pages

- Confirmation
- Society
- Institution
- Contract
- Law
- Government

## Other websites

- Courtroom oaths  from the North Dakota Supreme Court adding social workers to oath for their state it’s there responsibility website (jury oath, witness oath and so on)
- Australasian Police Multicultural Advisory Bureau  has several publications for Australia dealing with multi-faith issues and _A Practical Reference to Religious Diversity for Operational Police and Emergency Services_  covers oaths as well as many other topics (in review as of 12/2/2006) but the 2nd Edition is available.
- North Carolina faith leaders supporting Quran oath
- for comments about _John Quincy Adams' Oath of Office_.
Return to Oz

***Return to Oz*** is a 1985 Disney movie. It is considered to be a sequel of _The Wizard of Oz_.

## Infobox (film)

- **name**: Return to Oz
- **director**: Walter Murch
- **producer**: Paul Maslansky
- **writer**: Gill Dennis
Walter Murch
- **starring**: Nicol Williamson
Jean Marsh
Piper Laurie
Matt Clark (actor), Matt Clark
Fairuza Balk
- **music**: David Shire
- **cinematography**: David Watkin (cinematographer), David Watkin
Freddie Francis
- **editing**: Leslie Hodgson
- **studio**: Walt Disney Pictures
- **distributor**: Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures, Buena Vista Distribution
- **runtime**: 113 minutes
- **country**: United Kingdom
United States
- **language**: English
- **budget**: $28 million
- **gross**: $11,137,801 (USA)
Mordred

**Mordred** is a character from Arthurian legend. In some of the legends, he betrayed King Arthur and killed him. He is said to be Arthur's son by his half-sister Morgause. Mordred was also said to have been killed by Arthur after he stole Excalibur from him. He was killed while Arthur was fatally wounded. His name comes from old Welsh. He was a knight of the Round Table.

Mordred in one legend was known to be the thief of king Arthur's second sword Clarent, which was known as Arthur's sword of peace. This being the reason why it is not as well known as Excalibur, which was Arthur's sword of war that was used to protect of Camelot. Clarent was a sword that would be present whenever Arthur would make a covenant of peace. The exception to the usually peaceful status of Clarent being the legend in which Mordred stole it and later used it to mortally wound Arthur just before being cut down in turn by Arthur.
Firewall (networking)

In terms of computer security, a **firewall** is a piece of  software. This software monitors the network traffic between the inside and outside. The firewall is placed between the network that is to be protected (trusted) and the outside network (less trusted) aka WAN or Internet. A firewall has a set of rules which are applied to each packet. The rules decide if a packet can pass, or whether it is discarded. When a large network needs to be protected, the firewall software often runs on a computer that does nothing else.

A firewall protects one part of the network against unauthorized access.

### Packet filtering / Network Layer

Data travels on the internet in small pieces; these are called packets. Each packet has certain metadata attached, like where it is coming from, and where it should be sent to. The easiest thing to do is to look at the metadata. Based on rules, certain packets are then dropped or rejected. It is done at the network layer.

### Stateful packet inspection

In addition to the simple packet filtering (above), this kind of firewall also keeps track of connections. A packet can be the start of a new connection, or it can be part of an existing connection. If it is neither of the two, it is probably useless and can be dropped.

### Application-layer firewalls

Application-layer firewalls do not just look at the metadata; they also look at the actual data transported. They know how certain protocols work, for example  FTP or HTTP. They can then look if the data that is in the packet is valid (for that protocol). If it is not, it can be dropped.

### Tunneling

Firewalls can provide a secure connection between two networks. This is called _tunnellng_. The data may be encrypted. It is decrypted at the other end. Since the firewalls are doing this, the rest of the network is unaware of it. An alternative is to provide a secure access (to the corporate network).

## Network Address Translation (NAT)

Very often, firewalls can translate IP addresses. That way, many computers can share a few public IP addresses. The firewall translates between the public and the private IP addresses.

## Types of firewalls

In general, there are two types of firewalls:
- Software-based firewalls: these are often run as additional programs on computers that are used for other things. They are often known as _personal firewalls_ which can be updates on personal computers.

Prominent Brands include OPNsense, pfsense, comodo etc.

- Hardware-based firewalls: Hardware based firewalls run on a dedicated computer (or appliance). Often, these offer a better performance than software firewalls, but they are also more money.

Prominent Brands include PaloAlto, WiJungle, Checkpoint, Cisco, Versa etc.

## What firewalls cannot protect against

Firewalls can protect against some problems (viruses and attacks) that come from the internet. They cannot protect against viruses, that come from infected media (like an infected office document on an USB flash drive).
The Cask of Amontillado

"**The Cask of Amontillado**" (sometimes spelled "The Casque of Amontillado") is a short story by Edgar Allan Poe. It was first published in _Godey's Lady's Book_ in November 1846.

## Story

The narrator [Montresor] talks to a priest about his sin. Montresor wants to take revenge on Fortunato for an insult.

During a masquerade (ball where people wear masks) in the city. Fortunato is dressed in a jester's costume. Montresor tells Fortunato he has bought a wine called amontillado. He wants Fortunato to test it to be sure it is real. Montresor leads Fortunato into his underground  catacombs/wine cellar to test the wine. When there, Montressor chains Fortunato and then walls him up alive in a niche.

Fortunato cries out "For the love of God, Montresor!" to which Montresor replies, "Yes, for the love of God!" He twice calls out for a reply but hears nothing. Before placing the last stone, he drops a burning torch through the gap, but hears only the jester's bells ringing.

The crime took place 50 years before... Montressor expresses no regrets except for remarking about Fortunato: In pace requiescat! ("May he rest in peace!").

## Other websites

- "The Cask of Amontillado" - Full text of the first printing, from _Godey's Lady's Book_, 1846
- _The Cask of Amontillado_ , found online at Ye Olde Library
- _The Cask of Amontillado_  at American Literature
- Full text on PoeStories.com with hyperlinked vocabulary words.
- Free-to-download MP3 dramatisation of the story  (Yuri Rasovsky)

## Infobox (short story)

- **name**: The Cask of Amontillado
- **image**: CaskofAmontillado-Clarke.jpg
- **caption**: Illustration by Harry Clarke, 1919
- **author**: Edgar Allan Poe
- **country**: United States
- **language**: English
- **genre**: Horror
- **published in**: _Godey's Lady's Book_
- **media type**: Print
- **pub date**: November 1846
Osei Bonsu

**Osei Bonsu** (died January 21, 1824) was the Asantehene (King of the Ashanti). He ruled from 1804 to 1824. He died in Kumasi, and was succeeded by Osei Yaw Akoto.
Uther Pendragon

**Uther Pendragon** is the father of King Arthur in the Arthurian legend. His name, _Pendragon_, means the "Chief-Dragon", which means he is the "foremost leader" or "chief of warriors". He is mentioned briefly in Old Welsh poems, but his biography was first written down by Geoffrey of Monmouth in his _Historia Regum Britanniae_ (_History of the Kings of Britain_). Geoffrey's description of him has been used in most later stories.

According to the stories, Arthur is the son of Uther Prendragon and the Lady Igraine.
Chocolate milk

**Chocolate milk**, also known as **cocoa milk** or **syruped chocolate milkshake**, is a kind of cold, sweetened milk drink. Chocolate milk may be made by mixing cold milk with chocolate syrup or cocoa powder and sugar.

## Similar beverages

A mixture of hot milk and melted chocolate (or cocoa powder and sugar) is called hot chocolate. A mixture of ice cream, cold milk, and chocolate syrup is called a milkshake.

## Related pages

- Milk
- Chocolate

## Other websites

- How To Make Chocolate Milk
Chocolate syrup

**Chocolate syrup** is a thick, sweet, chocolate-flavored liquid. It is made from sugar and cocoa (or chocolate). Chocolate syrup is used to sweeten and flavor hot and cold drinks such as hot chocolate, chocolate milk, chocolate milk shakes, and poured on desserts.

## Used in drinks

Chocolate syrup is used in many different types of drinks. Coffee shops add chocolate syrup and other flavored syrups  to coffee drinks. Ice cream parlors add chocolate syrup to milk shakes.

## Used for desserts

Chocolate syrup is also used in many desserts. Ice cream parlors pour chocolate syrup on bowls of ice cream.
Wetsuit

A **wetsuit** is a garment used by scuba divers, snorkelers, windsurfers, and surfers to keep themselves warm when they are in cold ocean water.

## Overview

Wetsuits act as insulation invented by Jack O'Neill, and help the body to retain its heat. Wetsuits are made of plastic or rubber materials such as neoprene. Wetsuits include torso coverings, leggings, head coverings, and hand and feet coverings.

## Partial wetsuits

When people are doing diving or water sports in areas where the water is not very cold, they may only wear some parts of a wetsuit, such as a torso covering or leggings.

Wet suits are garments that oceangoers wear!
It's very vital when going to the ocean and dive because it serves as a life and system protector.

## Full wetsuits

Deepwater divers often wear full wetsuits that include torso coverings, leggings, head coverings, and hand and feet coverings. In very cold water, a scuba diver may need to wear a dry suit.
- Dry suit - a type of protective clothing for scuba divers that keeps the diver dry. Dry suits do not allow water to touch the diver's body. This means that dry suits can be worn for scuba diving in very cold ocean water, such as the Arctic Ocean.

## Sailing boots

**Sailing boots** are boots that provide protection, grip, and waterproofing for sailors in different marine conditions. They are made from rubber, neoprene, or Gore-Tex, these boots keep feet dry in wet environments.
Touch rugby

**Touch rugby**, also named touch or touch football, is a sport that is derived from Rugby League. It minimizes body contact so that rugby players practice over the preseason and improve their handling skills without any risk of injuries. It also eliminates body contact to allow inclusion of both genders and people from all ages.

## History

Touch rugby was started in South Sydney in the late 1960s and was pursued as a non-contact off season sport and as a fitness program for Rugby League players. The game was introduced in Europe in the 1980s, and the first touch league began in Ireland in 2005.

### Size of field

Touch rugbyis played on fields or pitches of 70 meters long by 50 meters, wide with sidelines, a half-way line and In goal areas.

### Numbers

According to touch rugby's official rules, each team may have up to 14 players, with 6 players per team in the field at one time. Therefore, a total of 12 players get to play on a field. The team may interchange players as often as it wants.

### Start of game

Tossing a coin decides the starting team, and an attacking team has six chances, called touches, to score.

### Scoring

Players score by grounding the ball in goal areas. Ggrounding is holding a ball and letting it touch the ground.

### Turn over

If the attacking team drops a ball, its possession is changed to the other team, and the game starts over with rollball by using the hands or the feet to roll the ball slightly backward.

#### Forward pass

The team that has possession may pass a ball to teammates who are sideways or backwards. If it is passed forward, it is a penalty, and the team loses possession. The game starts over by a tap kick, which is kicking the ball by using the foot.

#### Touch and pass

If a player is touched but still passes the ball, a penalty occurs for forward pass.

#### Off the mark

Players must start over with rollball or a penalty at the same mark that the rollball or a penalty was given.

### How to touch?

In touch rugby, tackle from traditional rugby is replaced by touch, which uses a hand. Any part of body may be touched but with minimum force.

## Purpose

Touch rugby encourages many people to join the rugby world, whoever or whatever age they are. It is used as a tool to promote rugby to new players such as youth players or girls and women.
Coven

**Coven** is a word that first meant any type of meeting or gathering.  It is used today to mean a group of witches.
First Geneva Convention

The **First Geneva Convention** is one of several Geneva Conventions. It is more formally known as the **Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded in Armies in the Field, 1864**. It covers the treatment of battlefield injuries and was made in 1864 as part of the making of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement.
Second Geneva Convention

The **Second Geneva Convention** of 1906 is one of the Geneva Conventions. Its full title is  **Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded in Armies in the Field**. It was made in Geneva, on 6 July 1906. It extended the principles from the First Geneva Convention of 1864 on the treatment of battlefield casualties and hospital ship. The Convention of 1906 should not be confused with "Convention (II) for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea" (Geneva, 12 August 1949).

As of 27 June 2006, when Nauru adopted the convention, it has been ratified by 194 countries.

## Related pages

- Geneva Conventions
- First Geneva Convention of 1864 on the treatment of battlefield casualties
- Third Geneva Convention of 1929 on the treatment of prisoners of war
- Fourth Geneva Convention of 1949 on the treatment of civilians during wartime
- Protocol I, 1977 Geneva Convention amendment about the protection of victims in international conflicts
- Protocol II, 1977 Geneva Convention amendment about the protection of victims in non-international armed conflicts
- Protocol III, 2005 Geneva Convention amendment about the adoption of the Red Crystal emblem

## Other websites

- International Committee of the Red Cross: Full text of Convention (II) with commentaries
- List of countries that have ratified Convention (II)
- Final Act of the Second Peace Conference, The Hague, 18 October 1907
Padniewko

**Padniewko** is a village in Poland in Kuyavia-Pomerania voivodship. It has about 400 inhabitants and 4.95 km<sup>2</sup>.
Sierra Nevada (US)

- _For the mountain range in Spain see Sierra Nevada (Spain)_

The **Sierra Nevada** (Spanish for "Snowy Range") is a mountain range that is almost entirely in the eastern part of California.

The range started to uplift less than five million years ago.

The Sierra Nevada stretches 400 miles (650 km), from North to South. It is bounded on the West by California's Central Valley, and on the East by the Great Basin.

Uplift continues, and ground slips make spectacular fault escarpments along the eastern edge of the southern Sierra. The Sierra Nevada is part of the American Cordillera, an almost continuous chain of mountain ranges which make up the western "backbone" of the Americas.

The Sierra Nevada has played an important role in the history of California and the United States. The California Gold Rush occurred in the western foothills from 1848 through 1855.

## Other websites

- List of Sierra Peaks at climber.org
- _The Mountains of California_
- Geological Time Line for the Sierra Nevada, National Park Service
Flurbereinigung

**Flurbereinigung** (pronounce: FLOOER-be-rye-nee-gung) is a word used in Germany to refer to the rearranging of fields in agriculture. During the second half of the 20th century, Flurbereinigung led to major changes in the landscape in the German countryside.

## History

Many German farmers used to have several small fields which were not together but were in different places, some of them maybe two or three miles away from where they lived. This was particularly a problem in the area to the left of the Rhine which had been ruled by Napoleon, because in the 19th century, when a farmer and his wife had died, their land was shared between all their children, so it got divided into smaller pieces. In other parts of Germany only the eldest son inherited the land.

Since the 1960s, people understood that it would be much easier for a farmer to have all his fields together so that he did not have to keep making journeys between lots of small fields. Larger fields are easier to manage and more economical. The German government encouraged farmers to swap some of their fields among themselves so that each farmer had his land all in one place.

In the last few years the government have realized that the way the changes have been made are not always good. Nature often suffers when hedgerows are taken away to make fields bigger. Flurbereinigung today tries to keep some of the hedgerows and small groups of trees which sometimes stand in the middle of fields. They are good places for birds to nest and other animals like to live there, too.

Winegrowers do not always find it a good thing to have all their land together. This is because the soil in one field may be slightly different from the soil in a field just farther up the road, and this gives the wine a slightly different taste. Also, if all their land is on one hillside and a storm hits that hillside and ruins the crops, then they have lost everything. If they have several pieces of land in different places they are less likely to lose all their crops because of one disaster.
Live 8

**Live 8** was a rock concert organized by activist Bob Geldof. The concert took place in nine places at once on July 2, 2005. Like Bob's Live Aid concert, Live 8 was made for helping out African citizens who were not getting enough food and medicine. However, this concert was not for charity. Instead, it was held to make people aware of the famine in Africa. Bob wanted to make the political group named the G8 give more to Africa. The concerts featured singers like Paul McCartney, Juan Diego Flórez and U2.

In November 2005, the concerts were released on DVD. The money used to buy the DVD sets was also used to help Africans.

## Infobox (concert)

- **concert name**: Live 8
- **date**: July 2 and 6, 2005
Rigveda

**Rigveda (ऋग्वेद)** is an ancient Hindu religious book. It is counted as one of the four sacred Hindu writings, which are called Vedas. It is one of the oldest writings in Sanskrit language. Rigveda is very important to Hindus, Its words are said during prayers and religious gatherings.

Rig Veda mainly contains various hymns for praying to Vedic Gods such as Agni (Fire God), Indra (The lord of Heavens), Mitra, Varuna (Water God), Surya (Sun God) etc. These hymns are called Riks. Hence the Veda is called Rik-Veda or RigVeda. This writing consists of 10 writings. The Rigveda has 1,028 hymns and 10,600 verses.

## Other websites

- A Simple Translation of Hymns from Rig Veda
Amorphous solid

An **amorphous solid** does not have a definite geometric or crystalline shape. It is a solid in which there is no long-term order in the positions of the atoms.  Most classes of solid materials can be found or prepared in an amorphous form. For instance, common window glass is an amorphous ceramic, many polymers are amorphous, and even foods such as cotton candy and cotton are amorphous solids.

An amorphous solid is any noncrystalline solid in which the atoms and molecules are not organized in a definite lattice pattern. Such solids include glass, plastic, and gel.

Solids and liquids are both forms of condensed matter; both are composed of atoms in close proximity to each other. But their properties are, of course, enormously different. While a solid material has both a well-defined volume and a well-defined shape, a liquid has a well-defined volume but a shape that depends on the shape of the container. Stated differently, a solid exhibits resistance to shear stress while a liquid does not. Externally applied forces can twist or bend or distort a solid’s shape, but (provided the forces have not exceeded the solid’s elastic limit) it “springs back” to its original shape when the forces are removed. A liquid flows under the action of an external force; it does not hold its shape. These macroscopic characteristics constitute the essential distinctions: a liquid flows, lacks a definite shape (though its volume is definite), and cannot withstand a shear stress; a solid does not flow, has a definite shape, and exhibits elastic stiffness against shear stress.

## Related pages

- Glass
- Crystalline

## Other websites

- Vogel-Tammann-Fulcher Equation Parameters
- Fragility thy name is glass
Climate commitment studies

**Climate commitment** describes the fact that climate reacts slowly to factors ("climate forcings") such as greenhouse gases. **Climate commitment studies** attempt to measure the amount of future warming that is "committed" under the assumption of some constant level of forcings.
Plane

**Plane** or **planes** may refer to:

- Fixed-wing aircraft
    - Airplane, a is a powered fixed-wing aircraft
    - Airliner, a large fixed-wing aircraft for transporting passengers and cargo

- _Platanus_, the plane tree.
- Plane (tool), a woodworking tool to smooth surfaces
- Plane (mathematics), a term in geometry
- _Planes_, two Disney movies that are a spin-off of _Cars_
    - _Planes_, the 2013 movie
    - _Planes: Fire & Rescue_, the 2014 movie
Archie Moore

**Archie Moore** (born **Archibald Lee Wright**; December 13, 1913 – December 9, 1998) was an American boxer. He held the light heavyweight championship between 1952 and 1962. Moore won the title from Joey Maxim by unanimous decision in November 1952. He later lost the belt because he did not defend the title enough times. Moore also fought for the heavyweight championship twice. He lost to Rocky Marciano on September 22, 1955, and to Floyd Patterson on November 30, 1956, in both of those attempts. One of his last fights was with Cassius Clay, later known as Muhammad Ali. Afterwards, Moore trained Ali for a few short months.

## Infobox (boxer)

- **name**: Archie Moore
- **image**: Archie Moore 1955.jpg
- **caption**: Archie Moore in 1955
- **realname**: Archibald Lee Wright
- **nickname**: The (Old) Mongoose
Ancient Archie
- **weight**: Middleweight
Light heavyweight
Heavyweight
- **birth place**: Benoit, Mississippi, U.S.
- **death place**: San Diego, California, U.S.
Joe Frazier

**Joseph William Frazier** (January 12, 1944 – November 7, 2011) was an American boxer. He held the world heavyweight championship from 1968 to 1973. Frazier also won a gold medal in boxing at the 1964 Summer Olympics.

Frazier was born in Beaufort, South Carolina. He moved to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He learned to box in Philadelphia.

Frazier won the vacant world heavyweight title by beating Buster Mathis. He lost the title to George Foreman whom had knocked out Frazier in a 3 punch combo, breaking his eye socket, jaw, and collar bone. Frazier's most famous fights were rematches with Muhammad Ali. He beat Ali in their first fight in 1971 but lost the other two. The third fight was known as the "Thrilla in Manila".

Frazier died in Philadelphia on November 7, 2011 from liver cancer, aged 67.

## Other websites

- Official website
Hodgkin lymphoma

**Hodgkin lymphoma**, also known as **Hodgkin's disease**, is a type of lymphoma. It was first discovered by Thomas Hodgkin in 1832. It is one of many kinds of cancers of the lymphatic system. Most of the time, the cancer grows in a lymph node before it spreads to the rest of the body.

The symptoms of Hodgkin's lymphoma change as the disease progresses. At the first stage of the disease, the person may feel a lump on the affected lymph node that does not hurt when touched. The person may have fevers, sweat at night, and itchy skin. In the later stages of the disease, the person may feel very tired and their spleen may grow larger.

## Infobox (disease)

- **name**: Hodgkin lymphoma
- **icdo**: 9650/3-9667/3
- **image**: Hodgkin_lymphoma_cytology_large.jpg
- **caption**: Micrograph showing Hodgkin's lymphoma (Field stain)
- **medlineplus**: 000580
- **emedicinesubj**: med
- **emedicinetopic**: 1022
- **diseasesdb**: 5973
- **meshid**: D006689
Marvelous Marvin Hagler

**Marvelous Marvin Hagler** (born **Marvin Nathaniel Hagler**; May 23, 1954 – March 13, 2021) was an American professional boxer and film actor who competed in boxing from 1973 to 1987. He reigned as undisputed middleweight champion from 1980 to 1987. He was the world middleweight champion from 1980 to 1987. Hagler fought out of Brockton, Massachusetts. He won the championship from Alan Minter, in London, and successfully defended it eleven times before losing in a controversial fight with Sugar Ray Leonard. Hagler retired after that fight to live and work in Italy.

On March 13, 2021, Hagler's wife Kay announced that Hagler had died unexpectedly at his home in Bartlett, New Hampshire, at the age of 66. A wave of reports came out on Twitter, with thousands of people mourning the loss of Hagler.

## Other websites

- Marvin Hagler's amateur boxing record

## Infobox (boxer)

- **image**: Hagler elgrafico.jpg
- **image size**: 200px
- **caption**: Hagler as he appeared on the cover
 of _El Gráfico_, March 1984
- **name**: Marvelous Marvin Hagler
- **weight**: Middleweight
- **height**: 5 ft 9+1/2 in
- **reach**: 75 in
- **nationality**: American
- **birth name**: Marvin Nathaniel Hagler
- **birth place**: Newark, New Jersey, U.S.
- **death place**: Bartlett, New Hampshire, U.S.
- **style**: Southpaw stance, Southpaw
- **total**: 67
- **wins**: 62
- **ko**: 52
- **losses**: 3
- **draws**: 2
Sierra Nevada (Spain)

The **Sierra Nevada**, meaning "snowy range" in Spanish, is a mountain range in the region of Andalusia in Spain. It contains the highest point of continental Spain, Mulhacén at 3,479 m.

It is a popular tourist destination, as its high peaks make skiing possible in Europe's most southern ski resort after Ski Centre on the island of Crete in an area along the Mediterranean Sea predominantly known for its warm temperatures and abundant sunshine. At its foothills is found the city of Granada and, a little farther, Málaga and Almería.

## Other websites

- Google Maps Satellite Photo
- Maps of the Sierra Nevada
- XVII sport week -Old Pictures -
- Sierra Nevada Official Website (In Spanish)
- Sierra Nevada Piste Map

## Bibliography

- Francisco Pérez Raya, Joaquín Molero Mesa, Francisco Valle Tendero, 1992: "Parque Natural de Sierra Nevada. Paisaje, fauna, flora, itinerarios". Ed. Rueda. Madrid.
- "Flora de la Tundra de Sierra Nevada". Pablo Prieto Fernández, Ed. Universidad de Granada.
- "Sierra Nevada: Guía de Montaña". Aurelio del Castillo y Antonio del Castillo. Ed. Penibética, 2003.

## Infobox (mountain range)

- **name**: Sierra Nevada
- **photo**: Sierra Nevada (Spain).jpg
- **photo caption**: View of the Sierra Nevada
- **highest**: Mulhacén
- **elevation m**: 3479
- **parent**: Penibaetic System
- **country**: Spain
- **location**: Provinces of Spain, Provinces of province of Granada, Granada, province of Almería, Almería and province of Málaga, Málaga
- **range**: Penibaetic System
- **map**: Spain
- **map caption**: Location in Spain
- **region**: Andalucia
- **type**: Alpine Orogeny, Alpine
- **age**: Tertiary
Airline

An **airline** is a company that transports people and items using airliners. An airline may have as few as one airplane or a fleet of hundreds.

Most airlines offer regular flights between a group of airports. Ocean liner<nowiki/>s formerly carried many people across oceans, but during the 20th century airliners came to carry more.

An airline has many costs to establish and maintain air services: labor, fuel, airplanes, engines, spares and parts, IT services and networks, airport equipment, airport handling services, booking commissions, advertising, catering, training, aviation insurance and other costs.

## Related pages

- Air travel
- List of airlines

## Other websites

- Simple Flying
.
Wax

**Wax** is an organic chemical substance.  It is a type of lipid. Waxes are soft, and easy to shape at room temperature. They are hydrophobic (meaning they repel water and are repelled by water), and they cannot be dissolved in water. The melting point of waxes is above 45°C.

Some waxes, like beeswax, vegetable wax, and paraffin (a petroleum wax) occur naturally. Another such wax is earwax, which occurs in the ear. Other waxes are manufactured. People use waxes for various purposes, including waxing, waxed paper, and wax tablets.
Polyethylene terephtalate

|colspan="2" align=center bgcolor="#cccccc"|**PET**|
| --- | --- |
|Density|1370 kg/m<sup>3</sup>|
|Young modulus(E)|2800–3100 MPa|
|Tensile strength(σ<sub>t</sub>)|55–75 MPa|
|Elongation @ break|50–150%|
|notch test|3.6 kJ/m<sup>2</sup>|
|Glass temperature|75 °C|
|melting point|260 °C|
|Vicat B|170 °C|
|Thermal conductivity|0.24 W/m.K|
|linear expansion coefficient (α)|7×10<sup>−5</sup>/K|
|Specific heat (c)|1.0 kJ/kg.K|
|Water absorption (ASTM)|0.16|
|Price|0.5–1.25 €/kg|

**Polyethylene terephthalate** (aka **PET**, **PETE** or the obsolete PETP or PET-P) is a thermoplastic polymer resin of the polyester family. The chemical industry makes it. It is used in synthetic fibers; beverage, food, and other liquid containers; thermoforming applications; and engineering resins often in combination with glass fiber. It is one of the most important raw materials used in man-made fibers. It is also used as the dielectric in multi-purpose capacitors (K73-16 series).

Depending on its processing and thermal history, it may exist both as an amorphous (transparent) and as a semi-crystalline (opaque and white) material. Its monomer can be synthesized by the esterification reaction between terephthalic acid and ethylene glycol with water as a byproduct or the transesterification reaction between ethylene glycol and dimethyl terephthalate with methanol as a byproduct. Polymerization is through a polycondensation reaction of the monomers (done immediately after esterification/transesterification) with ethylene glycol as the byproduct (the ethylene glycol is recycled in production).

The majority of the world's PET production is for man-made fibers (in excess of 60%) with bottle-making accounting for around 30% of global demand. In discussing cloth uses, PET is generally referred to as simply "polyester" while "PET" is used most often to refer to packaging applications.
Nuclear energy

**Nuclear energy** may refer to:
- Nuclear power, the use of sustained nuclear fission or nuclear fusion to generate heat and electricity
- Nuclear binding energy, the energy required to split a nucleus of an atom
- Nuclear potential energy, the potential energy of the particles inside an atomic nucleus