juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Ballerina

A **ballerina** is a name given to a female ballet dancer. Only very good female ballet dancers are called ballerinas. A ballerina is a principal dancer in a classical ballet company. The highest ranking female dancer in a company was usually called the **prima ballerina**.

Today the term 'ballerina' has gone rather out of fashion. Now they are simply called 'Principal dancers'. Dancers in a company are ranked by the company, and paid accordingly. They have to prove themselves in lesser parts before they can get promoted.

Example of the ranks in a modern dance company:

1. Corps de ballet (these do not dance named individual parts)
1. Coryphées (minor soloists)
1. Principal character artists (dance roles with significant acting)
1. Second soloists (dancers who take named solo roles)
1. First soloists (one rank up from the previous)
1. Principal dancers (if female, same as 'ballerinas'; they dance leading roles)
1. Principal guest artist (a well-known and sometimes famous dancer, usually from abroad)
Buffalo, New York

**Buffalo** is a city in the U.S. state of New York. Buffalo is the second-biggest city in New York State.

There are about 278,000 people in the city of Buffalo. There are more than a million people in the surrounding area.

Buffalo is on the east end of Lake Erie near the Niagara River. It is close to Niagara Falls, and to Canada. Buffalo was a small village when the Erie Canal connected it to the Hudson River and New York City. It became a city.

## Sports

Buffalo has an NFL team called the Buffalo Bills (who play in the suburb of Orchard Park, NY) and an NHL team called the Buffalo Sabres. There is also a Minor League Baseball team called the Buffalo Bisons. Additionally, there is a NLL team called the Buffalo Bandits.
1394

## Events

- Geoffrey Chaucer wrote the Canterbury Tales.

## Births

- November 24 – Charles, Duke of Orléans, French poet
Hertford

**Hertford** (pronounced _Hart-fud_) is a town in Hertfordshire, England. In 2011, it had a population of 26,783 people.

It is Hertfordshire's county town, but the largest town is Watford.

The town centre is 19.2 miles (30.9 km) north of Central London and 16.7 miles (27.02 km) north east of Watford.

### Rail

Hertford is served by two train stations, these are Hertford East and Hertford North.

### Road

The A414 is just south of the town centre and runs to Harlow, Essex. The A10 is just east of the town.

## Twin towns

Hertford is twinned with:
- Évron, France
- Wildeshausen, Germany
- Hartford, Connecticut, U.S.

## Infobox (uk place)

- **official name**: Hertford
- **country**: England
- **region**: East of England
- **static image name**: Hertford Town - geograph.org.uk - 1764042.jpg
- **static image caption**: Hertford town centre
- **population**: 26,783
- **population demonym**: Hertfordian
- **os grid reference**: TL325125
- **map alt**: Map of Hertfordshire, with a red dot showing the position of Hertford
- **label position**: left
- **post town**: HERTFORD
- **postcode area**: SG
- **postcode district**: SG13, SG14
- **dial code**: 01992
- **constituency westminster**: Hertford and Stortford (UK Parliament constituency), Hertford and Stortford
- **london distance**: 19.2 mi (30.9 km)
- **unitary england**: East Hertfordshire
- **lieutenancy england**: Hertfordshire
Ron Weasley

**Ronald Bilius "Ron" Weasley** (1 March 1980) is a fictional character from the _Harry Potter_ stories.

## Story

He is a red-haired child with lots of freckles. He comes from a poor background. He lives at The Burrow with his family of nine people. He is the youngest son in his family. He was a humorous and loyal boy. He wishes he had money, since he was born from the notoriously poor Weasley family. He is the sixth of seven children born to Molly Weasley (née Prewett) and Arthur Weasley, with five brothers and one sister, Ginny. He is Harry Potter's best friend. It is revealed in later books, that Ron is romantically interested in Hermione Granger. The two are hinted to be romantically involved in the Deathly Hallows.

In movies, he is played by actor Rupert Grint.  Ron marries Hermione and they have two children: Rose Weasley and Hugo Weasley. He is the manager of the joke shop Weasley's Wizard Wheezes.  He will be portrayed by Alastair Stout in the upcoming television series _Harry Potter_ for the streaming service HBO Max.

## Infobox (character)

- **series**: Harry Potter
- **name**: Ron Weasley
- **image**: Ron Weasley.jpg
- **caption**: Rupert Grint as Ron Weasley
in _Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix (film), Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix_
- **first**: _Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone_
- **last**: _Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows_
- **creator**: J. K. Rowling
- **portrayer**: Rupert Grint
 Alastair Stout
- **lbl1**: Hogwarts#Houses, House
- **data1**: Gryffindor
- **spouse**: Hermione Granger
- **children**: Rose Granger-Weasley and Hugo Granger-Weasley
Hermione Granger

**Hermione Jean Granger** (born September 19, 1979) is a character from the _Harry Potter_ series. She met Harry Potter and Ron Weasley for the first time on the Hogwarts Express. She is referred to as the smartest witch of her age. In the _Harry Potter_ movies, the character is played by Emma Watson and she will be played by Arabella Stanton in the upcoming television series _Harry Potter_ for the streaming service HBO Max.

## Character

Hermione is one of Harry Potter's best friends. She knows almost everything in the magical world. She spends a lot of time with Harry and Ron. Her parents are Muggles (not magical), but she is the smartest witch of her class. She was born on September 19, 1979. When she arrived at Hogwarts for the first time, she was almost 12. Because she was born after September 1, she has to wait another year. Her parents are dentists. She is intelligent and her special skill is the ability to remember all that she has read. Because of this, Hermione is successful in her tests. Although she is smart, she also is brave and has street smarts. She cares about house elves. She made the club S.P.E.W., the Society for the Promotion of Elfish Welfare, which Ron mockingly calls "Spew." She made scarfs and garments to free the elves from the slavery of the wizards. But none of the elves took the garments and Dobby (the old house elf of the Malfoy family) gathered them.

She is one of the prefects of Gryffindor with Ron. She has bushy brown hair, dark brown eyes, and huge front teeth, which Draco Malfoy enlarged in her fourth year. It is also noted at the end of _Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows_ that she marries Ron, and they have two children together called Hugo Granger-Weasley and Rose Granger-Weasley. In _Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire_ she was the dance partner of Viktor Krum. She belongs to Gryffindor house, which is known for bravery. The Sorting Hat thought about putting her in Ravenclaw house, which is known for wisdom, but finally it put her in Gryffindor. Hermione has a pet cat named Crookshanks.

In the first book, Hermione had the personality of a snob and a geek, and she is not very friendly. With time she improves that. Hermione was teased as a Mudblood (a witch or wizard born with no magical parents, also known as an offensive insult to Muggle-born witch or wizard) by many Slytherins, especially Draco Malfoy. Her name refers to _The Winter's Tale_ by William Shakespeare.

## Infobox (character)

- **series**: Harry Potter
- **name**: Hermione Jean Granger
- **first**: _Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone_
- **last**: _Harry Potter and the Cursed Child_
- **creator**: J. K. Rowling
- **portrayer**: Emma Watson
 Arabella Stanton
- **lbl1**: Hogwarts#Houses, House
- **data1**: Gryffindor
- **lbl2**: Born
- **data2**: September 19, 1979
- **spouse**: Ronald Bilius Weasley
- **children**: Rose Granger-Weasley
Hugo Granger-Weasley
- **image**: Hermione Granger.jpg
Milk shake

A **milk shake**, or **milkshake**, is a cold drink made by mixing milk and sweet syrups like chocolate syrup. Usually a blender is used for the mixing. People usually drink milkshakes with a drinking straw and from a tall glass or cup.

## Comparison between smoothies and milkshakes

Milk shakes are similar to smoothies. Smoothies are a type of cold drink made with an electric blender. Smoothies are made with a liquid (either milk, fruit juice, or water), crushed ice or ice cubes, different fruits, and honey or maple syrup.

## In popular culture

Milk shakes and other cold drinks such as "ice cream floats" (a scoop of ice cream placed in a glass of cola or other carbonated soda drink) or "malts" (a milk shake with malt powder added to it) were popular among teenagers in the 1950s. Teenagers would go to ice cream parlors and order cold drinks.
Bollington

**Bollington** is a town and civil parish in Cheshire. The village is home to over twenty pubs.  Bollington was home to the biggest water wheel in England and only second in Britain to the Laxey wheel in the Isle of Man. The wheel powered huge mills for the production of cotton. Two of the huge mills were the Adelphi and Clarence.

By 1914 Bollington had a population of around 6000 people and was dominated by fine cotton spinning. The symbol of Bollington has to be White Nancy. A small white cone-like house stands alone on top of a hill overlooking all of Bollington. It was built by the Gaskell family early in the nineteenth century. It has now been sealed.

Sport has been important in the life of Bollington. Even though the village did not have a football team successful enough to rival the cricket team it was still very popular amongst the people of Bollington. The most popular team was St Johns team which was quite successful in the lower leagues. Today there are good teams competing in the amateur leagues such as Bollington United.
Cytoplasm

The **cytoplasm** (not to be confused with cytosol) is the protoplasm of a cell outside the cell nucleus. It is the jelly-like material plus the organelles outside the nucleus, and inside the cell membrane.

Many important functions of a cell take place in organelles, which are like bits of machinery for doing many jobs. The cytoplasm is highly structured: it is not liquidy, but more of a gelatinous substance, even though it is made out of 7580% water.

The cytosol contains a complex mixture of cytoskeleton filaments, including the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus. It includes dissolved molecules, and water that fills much of the cell. Due to this network of fibres, membranes and the many dissolved macromolecules such as proteins, the cytosol does not act like a simple liquid. The main function of the cytoplasm is to hold the organelles in place.
Saladin

**Salah ad-Din Yusuf ibn Ayyub** (; 25 December 1138–1193), better known as **Saladin**, was a famous Kurdish Muslim Sultan of Egypt and Syria during the Crusades. Some later British reports said he was a Turk.

A Muslim of Kurdish origin, Saladin led the Muslim opposition to the European Crusaders in the Levant. At the height of his power, his sultanate included Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia, Hejaz, Yemen and other parts of North Africa.

His father, who worked for the Seljuk governor, decided to raise him in Syria where he received his education. Another influential figure in his life was his uncle Shirkuh who was a military leader and later commanded for Saladin during the wars. The Muslim world consider him a hero for defeating the Crusaders over 20 years of battles and capturing their capital, Jerusalem. The Crusades were a series of battles between Christian Europe and Islamic Middle East over holy land in what is now known as Israel and Palestine. Saladin’s army protected Egypt from the Crusaders in 1168, though more of his fighting in Egypt was either for or against the Zengid dynasty.

The ruler of the Fatimid Caliphate of Egypt made him Vizier, meaning prime minister, even though he was not a Shia. Just before the Caliph died, Saladin was crowned Sultan of Egypt and Syria. His greatest victory was at the Horns of Hattin in July 1187 AD, after which Jerusalem fell to the Muslim army (October 1187) and was never again recovered by the Crusaders. He is also remembered for his series of battles and wins and losses against King Richard I of England. These were inconclusive and in the end resulted in a moral victory for Sultan Salah ad-Din, when Richard's Crusade failed and returned to Europe.

He founded the Ayyubid Sultanate of Egypt, Syria, Yemen (except for the Northern Mountains), Iraq, Mecca Hejaz and Diyarbakır. Salah ad-Din is a title which translates to _The Righteousness of the Faith_ from Arabic.

Saladin was very famous among Christians. After the more successful wars of Al-Malik al-Zahir Rukn al-Din Baybars al-Bunduqdari he got less attention among Muslims. Baybars not only defeated the Seventh Crusade of King Louis IX of France; he also defeated the Mongol forces of Hulagu Khan who invaded Syria. However, in the 20th century Saladin became as famous as he was among Westerners.
1889

Football clubs such as Sheffield United FC were founded in the year **1889.**

## Events

- Brazil becomes a republic
- 100th anniversary of the French Revolution. Paris Exhibition, where the Eiffel tower was first open to the public
- June 14 – the Treaty of Berlin (1889) is signed

## Births

- April 9 – Efrem Zimbalist, Russian violinist
- September 14 – Maria Esther de Capovilla, Worlds oldest woman (d. 2006)
- Alfonso Reyes
- April 20 – Adolf Hitler
- December 3 - Kshudiram Bose - Indian patriot against British Raj (d. 1908)
1877

## Events

- Asaph Hall discovers the two moons of Mars.

## Births

- October 29 – Wilfred Rhodes, English cricketer
- November 9 – Muhammad Iqbal, national poet of Pakistan (d. 1938)
- Khan Sahib Abdul Majid Khan Tarin, OBE, British Indian judge, legislator and philanthropist (d. 1939)
- November 24 – Alben W. Barkley, 35th Vice President of the United States (d. 1956)

## Deaths

- October 29 – Nathan Bedford Forrest, American Confederate general and founder of the Ku Klux Klan
1860

## Events

- October 6 – The Introduction of the so-called Section 377 of the British Indian penal code (Law) was enacted on the 6th of October, in **British India** respectively.

## Births

- January 29 – Anton Chekhov, Russian writer (d. 1904)
- May 29 – Isaac Albéniz, Spanish composer (d. 1909)
- August 13 – Annie Oakley, American sharpshooter (d. 1926)
- December 7 – Joseph Cook, 6th Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1947)
Niagara Falls

**Niagara Falls** is the collective, name of three big waterfalls on the Niagara River in eastern North America, on the border between the United States and Canada. The three waterfalls are: the Horseshoe Falls, sometimes called the Canadian Falls, the American Falls, and the smaller Bridal Veil Falls. The American Falls and the Horseshoe Falls are separated with Goat Island, and the Bridal Veil Falls separated from the other waterfalls with Luna Island. Niagara falls is very well known for both its beauty and hydroelectric power. It has been a tourist attraction, commercial site and hydroelectricity source since the 19th century.

It is located near Niagara Falls, New York in the United States and Niagara Falls, Ontario in Canada.The volume of water approaching the falls during peak flow season may sometimes be as much as 225,000 cubic feet (6,400 m3) per second. The cities of Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada, and Niagara Falls, New York, United States, are connected by two international bridges.

Niagara Falls were formed when glaciers receded at the end of the Wisconsin glaciation (the last ice age). Water from the newly formed Great Lakes carved a path through the Niagara Escarpment en route from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario and the Atlantic Ocean. The Escarpment has hard limestone on top and soft shale below.

Although not very high, Niagara Falls is very wide, and is probably the most popular waterfall in the world. The Horseshoe Falls are the largest out of the three falls. It is named the Horseshoe Falls because it looks like a horse shoe.

Niagara Falls is a very popular tourist destination and many people visit it on holiday in Canada.

## Related pages

- Iguaçu Falls

## Infobox (waterfall)

- **name**: Niagara Falls
- **image**: 3Falls_Niagara.jpg
- **location**: Border of Ontario, Canada, and New York (state), New York, United States
- **watercourse**: Niagara River
- **type**: Cataract
- **number drops**: 3
1831

## Events

- June 13 – James Clerk Maxwell born in Edinburgh
- October 30 – In Southampton County, Virginia, escaped slave Nat Turner is captured and arrested for leading the bloodiest slave revolt in United States history.
Births

November 19 - James A. Garfield, twentieth President of the United States (b. 1831)

Deaths

July 4 - James Monroe, 73, fifth President of the United States, tuberculosis (b. 1758)
1842

## Art, music, theatre, literature

- March 26 - August Bournonville's _Napoli_ is first performed in Copenhagen by the Royal Danish Ballet

## Births

- January 11 – William James, American philosopher and psychologist
- September 21 – Abdul Hamid II, 34th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire

## Deaths

- October 30 – Allan Cunningham, Scottish poet and writer.
Custard

**Custard** is a kind of food prepared with milk and eggs. Custard can be the dessert or its sauce.

Custard is an important part of dessert recipes from many countries, including the United Kingdom, France, Portugal, Spain, Italy, Australia,  and Malaysia.
Huckleberry

**Huckleberry** is a name used in North America for several plants in two closely related genera in the family _Ericaceae_: _Gaylussacia_ and _Vaccinium_. The huckleberry is the state fruit of Idaho.

Some _Vaccinium_ species, such as the red huckleberry, are always called huckleberries. Other species may be called blueberries or huckleberries in different locations.

There is much confusion in naming of berries in American English. The 'garden huckleberry' (_Solanum melanocerasum_) is not a true huckleberry but a member of the nightshade family.

The fruit of most species of huckleberry can be eaten. The berries are small and round. They are usually less than 5 mm in diameter and contain 10 seeds. Berries range in color from bright red, through dark purple, and into the blues. In taste the berries range from tart to sweet. They have a flavor similar to that of a blueberry. Huckleberries are well liked by many mammals such as bears and humans.
Cheesecake

A **cheesecake** is a dessert cake made of cheese (usually cream cheese but sometimes ricotta), eggs, and sugar. It often has a graham cracker crumb crust, sometimes held together by melted butter. The filling has a very heavy, smooth texture. It sometimes has sour cream to make it easier to shape and may have fruit flavoring such as strawberry, blueberry, or lemon. It is often topped with fresh fruit or chocolate.

## History

Cheesecake is now often thought to be part of American cooking, but it has a long history. Cheese making began around 2000, and scientists who study people in the past have found cheese molds almost as old.

Cheesecakes are known to go back to at least Greece. In the 100sAnno Domini, the writer Athenaeus's _Dinner-Table Philosophers_ mentioned the poet Callimachus (around the 200s) used to have a book by an "Aegimius" about the art of making cheesecakes (, _Plakountopoukón Sýngramma_). Cheesecake may have been given to the sportspeople during the Olympic Games, which started in 776.

Even before the Romans took over Greece, they had begun making cheesecakes as well. M. Porcius Cato's _Book on Farming_ (written around 160) mentions three kinds of cakes**', **', and __for use as offerings to the gods. Placenta cakes were the closest to today's cheesecakes, since its crust and filling are made separately.

Europeans stopped using yeast and started adding beaten eggs to their cheesecakes around the 1700s. This made it taste more like a dessert than a cheesebread.

Cheesecake recipes were brought to the United States as people moved there from Europe. Most of today's kinds of cheesecake ("New York-style cheesecake") come from the kind created by William Lawrence of Chester, New York, in 1872. He was trying to make something like the soft French Neufchâtel cheese and ended up with a heavy, creamy "unripened cheese".

## Types

There is an all-garlic restaurant in Stockholm where they offer a garlic cheesecake.

## Other

Sonya Thomas holds the world record for eating the most cheesecakes in a given time. She ate 11 pounds of cheesecake in nine minutes.

Chef Raffaele Ronca of the USA created the world's most expensive cheesecake, selling for an astonishing $4,592.42 at Ristorante Rafele in New York on October 30, 2017. This luxurious dessert boasted premium ingredients.
Rhubarb

**Rhubarb** is one of about 60 plants in the genus ***Rheum***, family Polygonaceae. The vegetable rhubarb is _Rheum rhabarbarum_ (or _Rheum x hybridum_). The leaves are somewhat toxic because they have oxalic acid, but the red stalks are baked in pies, with sugar to soften their tart flavor.

There are many varieties grown for eating. The drug _rheum_ is prepared from the rhizomes and roots of another species, _R. officinale_ or medicinal rhubarb.
Civilization

**Civilization** (or civilisation) comes from the Latin word _civis_ meaning someone who lives in a city. The Romans usually wanted conquered people to live in towns. When people are civilized, they have learned from the wisdom, skill, and knowledge gained over centuries of human progress. The opposite of civilization is sometimes said to be entropy, barbarity, rudeness, or animal-like behavior.

A civilization is generally an advanced stage of organization. That means it has laws, culture, and a regular way of getting food and protecting the people. Most civilizations have agriculture and a system of government like monarchs or elections. They speak a common language and usually have a religion of some kind. They teach their young the knowledge they need. All civilizations since the Sumerians and the Greeks have had some kind of writing. This is because writing lets people store and build up knowledge. Civilizations also have large cities, large and unique architecture, and complex labor divisions.

## Examples

Past societies that would be called more primitive compared to today, are still often referred to as civilizations for their time. The Roman Empire is an example of a past large civilization. It was governed by Rome. This empire once stretched from the Scottish borders to North Africa and the eastern Mediterranean. Their language was Latin.

Latin remained the preferred way of communication among educated people, long after their civilization had vanished. Some scientists, scholars, and others in Western civilization still use Latin in the course of everyday work, even though the Western Roman civilization fell apart more than 1,500 years ago. The Roman civilization lasted almost 1000 years.

Other examples of civilizations are the Incas and Aztecs. They had large territories with complex cities and social structures. The empires were made of city-states. They had advanced agriculture that could feed many people. They also had complex architecture.

One way a civilization ends is to become part of another civilization. For example, Ancient Egypt was conquered by foreigners who changed the country. It became part  of Persian, Greek, Roman, and Islamic civilization. Another way is to go back to an earlier, simpler way of life. For example, Roman civilization collapsed in the Dark Ages. When people became more civilized again, it was the Medieval civilization.
Mail

**Mail** is part of the **postal system**. The postal system is a system where written documents and small to medium packages are sent (delivered) to places around the world. Anything sent through the postal system is called mail or **post**.

A postal service can be private or public.  Governments often make rules about private postal delivery systems. Since the early 19th century, most national postal systems have been controlled entirely by governments.  The governments make people pay a fee to send something.  This fee is usually in the form of stamps.  Some governments only let private postal services deliver parcel (non-mail) packages.

Postal systems often do things other than sending letters. In some countries, the postal system is also in charge of telephone and telegraph systems. The postal systems in other countries can help people apply for government papers such as passports and driver's licenses. Many places the post offices also work like banks. This is so that people can take out money or pay bills at a nearby post office, instead of travelling to a big bank in the nearest town.

People drop letters in a post box to be collected and delivered by the post office.

## Related pages

- Clapper Post
- Electronic mail
- Envelope
- Letter (paper)
- Letter box
- Postcard
- Telegram
The Righteous Brothers

The **Righteous Brothers** were an American pop group consisting of two men named Bill Medley and Bobby Hatfield. They formed in California in 1962. Some of their hits include "You've Lost That Lovin' Feelin'" and "Unchained Melody".  Phil Spector produced those songs.

## Albums

- Right Now (1963)
- Some Blue-Eyed Soul (1964)
- This is New (1965)
- You've Lost That Lovin' Feelin' (1965)
- Just Once in My Life… (1965)
- Back to Back (1965)
- Soul & Inspiration (1966)
- Go Ahead an Cry (1966)
- Sayin' Somethin' (1967)
- Souled Out (1967)
- One for the Road (1968)
- Re-Birth (1969)
- Give it to the People (1974)
- Sons of Mrs Righteous (1975)
- The Righteous Brothers (2016)

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: The Righteous Brothers
- **img**: TheRighteousBrothersperformingKBF.jpg
- **img capt**: The Righteous Brothers performing at Knott's Berry Farm
- **landscape**: Yes
- **background**: group_or_band
- **origin**: Los Angeles, California
- **genre**: Pop music, Pop, blue-eyed soul
- **years active**: 1962–1968
1974–2003
- **label**: Moonglow Records, Moonglow
Philles, Philles Records
Verve Records, Verve
Haven Records
Rhino Records (for reissues only)
Curb
- **associated acts**: Barry Mann
Cynthia Weil
Phil Spector
- **past members**: Bill Medley
Bobby Hatfield (deceased)
Gene Pitney

**Gene Francis Alan Pitney** (17 February 1940 – 5 April 2006) was an American rock singer and songwriter. He was born in Hartford, Connecticut. Some of his most well-known songs are "Town Without Pity", "The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance" and "Twenty Four Hours From Tulsa". He died of a heart attack in Cardiff in 2006 while on tour in the UK.
1596

## Births

- March 31 – René Descartes, French philosopher and physicist
- June 29 – Emperor Go-Mizunoo of Japan
- Micheal I of Russia, Russian Tsar

## Deaths

- January 28 – Sir Francis Drake, English explorer

## Events

- Warsaw becomes the capital of Poland.
- The Cudel War starts in Finland
Nothofagus

***Nothofagus*** is a kind of plant, also called **southern beech**. It is a tree which can reach 35 m tall. _Nothofagus_ is found in South America, New Zealand, Australia and New Guinea.
There are 34 species, considering pollen morphology four sections are recognized, i.e. Brassospora, Fuscospora, Lophozonia, and Nothofagus.
    - Nothofagus, Southamerican species;
- Nothofagus Antarctica
- Nothofagus betuloides
- Nothofagus dombeyi
- Nothofagus nitida
- Nothofagus pumilio
    - Brassospora, New Guinea and New Caledonia species;
- Nothofagus aequilateralis
- Nothofagus balansae
- Nothofagus baumanniae
- Nothofagus brassii
- Nothofagus carrii
- Nothofagus codonandra
- Nothofagus crenata
- Nothofagus discoidea
- Nothofagus flaviramea
- Nothofagus grandis
- Nothofagus nuda
- Nothofagus perryi
- Nothofagus pseudoresinosa
- Nothofagus pullei
- Nothofagus resinosa
- Nothofagus rubra
- Nothofagus starkenborghii
- Nothofagus stylosa
- Nothofagus womersleyi
    - Fuscospora, Southamerican, Australian and in some Oceania Island;
- Nothofagus alessandri
- Nothofagus fusca
- Nothofagus gunnii
- Nothofagus solandri
- Nothofagus truncata

- Lophozonia, in places of Southamerica and Oceania.
- Nothofagus alpina
- Nothofagus cunninghamii
- Nothofagus glauca
- Nothofagus macrocarpa
- Nothofagus menziesii
- Nothofagus moorei
- Nothofagus obliqua
Ancient Greek

**Ancient Greek** was an Indo-European language spoken in Ancient Greece from about 1500 BC to about 300 BC. Ancient Greek and Latin are very important languages. Although they are no longer spoken, they influenced almost all modern European languages.

Greek had many different dialects. Attic Greek was spoken in Athens, the largest city, and in the rest of the region of Attica. It was thought to be the purest form of Greek. Later, in the educated Roman world, children were taught Greek as a second language just as many people now learn English as their second language. **Koine Greek** was the common language of Greeks. It was Attic Greek mixed with several other dialects.

Homer spoke and wrote in an old dialect that was somewhat different from Attic Greek. The _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ are long poems that tell exciting stories about warfare, travel and the Greek gods. In the 5th century BC, some great plays were written by Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides. The Golden Age of Ancient Greece inspired literature that has been read for centuries.

## Attic Greek

**Attic Greek** was the dialect that was spoken in Athens, the largest city, and in the rest of the region of Attica. It was the dialect that was most similar to later forms of Greek since it was the standard form of the language. It is studied in Ancient-Greek courses because it was the most common dialect.

## Changes

All languages change with time, and Greek has changed a great deal over 2500 years. Modern Greek is often said to have started in 1453 AD; until then, Medieval Greek was spoken.

Unlike Latin, Ancient Greek did not split into many languages, but it is still considered to be a separate language from Modern Greek. The pronunciation has changed; for instance, the letter beta was pronounced "b" in Ancient Greek but it is pronounced "v" and is called "vita" in Modern Greek. The spelling has not changed much, which gives the appearance of less change than actually happened. Also, many different vowels and diphthongs merged into "i", the vowel sound in the English word "ski". The tonal system of Ancient Greek has disappeared, but Modern Greek has only recently changed its spelling to match that change.

Despite those changes, much of the language has remarkably survived intact through the centuries. A community near Trabzon, Turkey, speaks a dialect that is closer to Ancient Greek than to Standard Modern Greek.

## Related pages

- Greek alphabet
- Greek language

## Infobox (language)

- **name**: Ancient Greek
- **image**: Account of the construction of Athena Parthenos by Phidias.jpg
- **imagecaption**: Inscription about the construction of the statue of Athena Parthenos in the Parthenon, 440/439 BC
- **region**: eastern Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean
- **era**: 9th century BC to the 4th century AD
- **familycolor**: Indo-European
- **fam2**: Hellenic languages, Hellenic
- **script**: Greek alphabet
- **map**: Homeric Greece-en.svg
- **iso2**: grc
- **iso3**: grc
- **iso3comment**: (includes all pre-modern stages)
- **glotto**: anci1242
- **glottorefname**: Ancient Greek (to 1453)
- **notice**: IPAs
Arnold Schoenberg

**Arnold Schoenberg** (originally written 'Schönberg') (13 September 1874 – 13 July 1951) was an Austrian-born composer. He was known for his twelve-tone system of writing music.

## History

Schoenberg came from a strict Jewish family who had moved to Austria from Hungary. They were quite poor and Schoenberg taught himself about music. When he was grown up he had to do a lot of teaching to try and earn enough money to live. In later life he went to live in the United States. It took a long time before he was recognized world-wide as a great composer. His two most famous pupils were Alban Berg (1885-1935) and Anton Webern (1883-1945). He taught them how to write twelve-tone music and they became famous composers.

When Arnold Schoenberg was a young man he was living in the late 19th century. If you look at the way composers wrote music at this time you will find that their compositions became more and more chromatic. This means that more and more sharps and flats were used during the piece, and the music went from one key to another (modulated) very quickly. Richard Wagner wrote very chromatic music, especially in his opera _Tristan and Isolde_.

### Religion

In 1898 Schoenberg converted to Christianity in the Lutheran church. According to MacDonald, this was partly to connect with Western European cultural traditions, and partly as a means of self-defence "in a time of resurgent anti-Semitism".

In 1933, after long thought, he returned to Judaism, convert by because he realised that "his racial and religious heritage was inescapable", and to take up an unmistakable position on the side opposing Nazism. He would self-identify as a member of the Jewish religion later in life.

### Early work

Schoenberg’s early works are mostly Late Romantic. His piece _Verklärte Nacht_ (which can be played by six string instruments or by a whole orchestra) has very beautiful harmonies which go quickly from one key to another. Gradually Schoenberg’s music changed. It became so chromatic that it was no longer in any key at all. Music like this (called “atonal”) is much harder to understand. His _Five Orchestral Pieces_ were played by the conductor Sir Henry Wood at a Promenade Concert in 1912. The audience did not like it at first and took some time to get used to the sound.

### Twelve-tone system

In 1923 Schoenberg developed the twelve-tone system for which he is famous. This is music which is based on a particular row of notes. Twelve-tone music is atonal because there is no feeling of being in any key, because of the equal use of every pitch.
War of the Roses

**War of the Roses** may refer to:

- Wars of the Roses, a civil war in England between the House of York and the House of Lancaster
- _The War of the Roses_ (movie), a 1989 movie
Full Metal Jacket

***Full Metal Jacket*** is a 1987 British-American war drama movie  directed by Stanley Kubrick. It is based on the Gustav Hasford book _The Short-Timers_. The name of the movie comes from the full-metal jacketed bullets used in the military. The movie follows soldiers who are drafted to fight in the Vietnam War. The story is set in the late 1960s and follows the characters from their time in recruit training and them fighting in the war.

## Other websites

- _Full Metal Jacket_ at the Internet Movie Database (IMDb)
- _Full Metal Jacket_ screenplay

## Infobox (movie)

- **name**: Full Metal Jacket
- **director**: Stanley Kubrick
- **producer**: Stanley Kubrick
- **screenplay**: Stanley Kubrick
Michael Herr
Gustav Hasford
- **based on**: _The Short-Timers_ by Gustav Hasford
- **starring**: Matthew Modine
Adam Baldwin
Vincent D'Onofrio
R. Lee Ermey
Dorlan Harewood
Arliss Howard
Kevyn Major Howard
Ed O'Ross
- **music**: Abigail Mead
- **cinematography**: Douglas Milsome
- **editing**: Martin Hunter
- **studio**: Natant
 Harrier Films
- **distributor**: Warner Bros.
- **released**: June 26, 1987 (USA)
 September 11, 1987 (UK)
- **runtime**: 116 minutes
- **country**: United States
United Kingdom
- **language**: English language, English
- **budget**: United States dollar, $16.5-30 million
- **gross**: $120 million
Cambridgeshire

**Cambridgeshire** is a county in England. It is located in the East part of the country. The counties around Cambridgeshire are Lincolnshire to the north, Norfolk to the northeast, Suffolk to the east, Essex and Hertfordshire to the south, and Bedfordshire and Northamptonshire to the west. The county town is Cambridge.

## Infobox (english county)

- **official name**: Cambridgeshire
- **image caption**: **Clockwise from top**: Ely Cathedral from the Fens; the Peterborough Guildhall, Guildhall in Peterborough; and the King's College Chapel,
chapel of King's College, Cambridge, King's College, part of the University of Cambridge
- **region**: East of England
- **established date**: 1 April 1974
- **established by**: Local Government Act 1972
- **origin**: Historic counties of England, Ancient
- **mps**: Parliamentary constituencies in Cambridgeshire, 8 MPs
- **police**: Cambridgeshire Constabulary
- **county town**: Cambridge
- **largest city**: Peterborough
- **lord lieutenant office**: Lord Lieutenant of Cambridgeshire
- **lord lieutenant name**: Julie Spence
- **high sheriff office**: High Sheriff of Cambridgeshire
- **high sheriff name**: Frances Stanley (2025–26)
- **county council**: Cambridgeshire County Council
- **unitary council1**: Peterborough City Council
- **admin hq**: New Shire Hall, Alconbury Weald
- **iso code**: GB-CAM
- **gss code**: E10000003
- **nuts code**: UKH12
- **districts map**:
- **districts key**: Unitary  County council area
- **districts list**: # City of Peterborough
# Cambridge, City of Cambridge
1468

## Births

- February 29 – Pope Paul III (d. 1549)

## Deaths

- February 3 – Johann Gutenberg
English Channel

The **English Channel** is a body of water that separates the island of Great Britain from the rest of Europe. People who live in the UK and want to visit Europe, or people from Europe who want to visit the UK, can take a ferry across or ride a train under the channel in a special tunnel called the Channel Tunnel (nicknamed the _Chunnel_). Both the ferries and trains carry cars. It is 563 km long, 246 km wide, and its narrowest part (34 km) is the Strait of Dover. On a clear day, it is possible to see the cliffs of Dover from Calais on the French side.

In 1875, Matthew Webb became the first known person to swim the English Channel, crossing it in just under 22 hours. The first woman to do this was Gertrude Ederle. In 2004, over 600 people were recorded making the crossing. The fastest time was achieved by Bulgarian swimmer Peter Stoychev in 2007, who managed it in 7 hours. Recently, officials have outlawed swimming in the **English Channel**.

In France, it is known as _La manche_ (The Sleeve).
Upminster

**Upminster** is a suburb in the east London Borough of Havering, England, located 16.5 miles (26.6 km) northeast of Charing Cross.

It is the eastern end of the London Underground system, on the District line. It is also a station on the c2c railway line, but Oyster cards are valid beyond Upminster station on the Grays via Ockendon route. Nearby places include Hornchurch and Cranham.

Saint Laurence Church in Upminster is where William Derham measured the speed of sound.
Colin Baker

**Colin Baker** (born 8 June 1943) is an English actor. He is most famous as the Sixth Doctor on _Doctor Who_ from 1984 to 1986. He has no relation to Tom Baker, who played the fourth incarnation of the Doctor. He also played Paul Merroney in _The Brothers_.
Boxing

**Boxing** is one of the world's oldest combat sports. It is held in a ring and played by two boxers (people who fight in boxing fights). They wear padded gloves and try to hit one another.

There are different ways to win in boxing. One is by way of a knockout, which is when a fighter is punched and falls to the ground and cannot get back up within ten seconds. Another way is by a technical knockout, which is when the fighter cannot continue fighting thus the referee stops the fight. Technical knockout wins and losses are also knockout wins or losses for a boxer. Another possibility is winning on points, which a boxer gets by outboxing his or her opponent by hitting the opponent more often, harder, and more accurately.

Boxing may end in a "draw", which is like a "tie" in other sports. A referee can announce a technical draw due to an accidental cut or an accidental wound like a headbutt. Generally, it is considered a "no contest" (NC), in which case the fight is considered as not having taken place at all and not counting as a fight. However, after the fourth round, if the scorecards for both fighters are equal, the fight could be called a draw.

Each round lasts 3 minutes for men and 2 minutes for women.

## Famous boxers

- Nicolino Locche
- Muhammad Ali
- Mike Tyson
- Rubin "Hurricane" Carter
- Nonito Donaire
- Jack Dempsey
- George Foreman
- Joe Frazier
- Evander Holyfield
- Lennox Lewis
- Joe Louis
- Rocky Marciano
- Manny Pacquiao
- Willie Pep
- Sugar Ray Robinson
- Max Schmeling
- Floyd Mayweather, Jr.
- Wilfredo Gómez
- Wilfred Benitez
- Sugar Ray Leonard
- Roberto Duran
- Oleksandr Usyk
- Vasiliy Lomachenko
- Tejash Halai

## Related pages

- Punching bag
1900s

The **1900s** began on January 1, 1900 and ended on December 31, 1909. It is distinct from the decade known as the  which began on January 1, 1901 and ended on December 31, 1910.

## Events

- 1900-1901 – Boxer Rebellion.
- 1901 – Independence of Australia.
- 1903 – Orville Wright of the Wright brothers flies an airplane at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, in the United States.
- 1904-1905 – Russo-Japanese War.
- 1905 – First Russian Revolution.

## World leaders

- Prime Minister Edmund Barton (Australia)
- Prime Minister Alfred Deakin (Australia)
- Prime Minister Chris Watson (Australia)
- Prime Minister Sir George Reid (Australia)
- President William McKinley (United States)
- President Theodore Roosevelt (United States)
- President William Howard Taft (United States)

- Shahs of Persia (Qajar dynasty)
1. Mozzafar-al-Din Shah, 1896–1907
1. Mohammad Ali Shah, 1907–1909
1. Ahmad Shah Qajar, 1909–1925
Tux Racer

**Tux Racer** is an open-source winter sports racing video game made by Sunspire Studios. The player moves Tux, the Linux Penguin. In the game, Tux goes down a hill on his belly and collects fish. There are many things that slow Tux down. There are also things that may be hard for Tux to get past.

## Controls

- Turning: Left and Right buttons
- Paddling (makes Tux go faster): Up button
- Braking (makes Tux slow down): Down button
- Jumping: Hold down the "E" button, then let go
- Hard Turn (makes Tux turn when he is moving fast or when you want him to turn a lot): Down and Right or Left buttons at the same time
- Reset (makes Tux Get out when he is stuck): Backspace Button
- Quit (exits the game): "Q" Button

## Updated version

The developers of Tux Racer have long abandoned making and programing the game. But some programmers took the source code and they call their new version Extreme Tux Racer, it is much newer and has many improvements over the old Tux Racer.

## Other websites

- Official website

## Infobox (video game)

- **title**: Tux Racer
- **state**: expanded
- **image**: TuxRacerScreenshot.jpg
- **developer**: Sunspire Studios
- **publisher**: Sunspire Studios
- **director**: Jasmin Patry
- **composer**: George Sanger (musician), George Sanger
Joseph Toscano
- **released**: **Linux:**

**Windows:**

**Macintosh:**

- **genre**: Racing video game, Racing
- **modes**: Single-player video game, Single-player
- **platforms**: Linux, Microsoft Windows, Windows, Mac (computer), Mac
Northwest Territories

The **Northwest Territories** is a territory in Northern Canada. 45,848 people live there as of 2025. It is 1,171,918 square kilometers.

The capital of the Northwest Territories is Yellowknife. Yellowknife was the capital since 1967. The Northwest Territories have many geographical features, like the Great Bear Lake, the Mackenzie River and Nahanni River, which is a national park and a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The Northwest Territories entered the Canadian Confederation in 1870. The Hudson's Bay Company gave the land to the Dominion of Canada. The Northwest Territories have one person in the House of Commons and the Canadian Senate. A lot of parts of the Northwest Territories were given to other provinces, including British Columbia, Alberta, Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec. In 1999, the eastern part of the Northwest Territories became the territory of Nunavut.

## Infobox (province or territory of canada)

- **name**: Northwest Territories
- **settlement type**: Provinces and territories of Canada, Territory
- **image flag**: Flag of the Northwest Territories.svg
- **image shield**: Coat_of_arms_of_Northwest_Territories.svg
- **image map**: Northwest Territories in Canada 2.svg
- **label map**: yes
- **capital**: Yellowknife
- **largest city**: Yellowknife
- **largest metro**: Yellowknife
- **premier**: R. J. Simpson
- **premierparty**: consensus government
- **government type**: Parliamentary system, with Consensus government in Canada, consensus government
- **viceroy**: Gerald Kisoun
- **viceroytype**: Commissioner
- **legislature**: Legislative Assembly of the Northwest Territories
- **area rank**: 3rd
- **area total km2**: 1346106
- **area land km2**: 1183085
- **area water km2**: 163021
- **percentwater**: 13.5
- **population demonym**: Northwest Territorian
Canadian French, FR:
- **population rank**: 11th
- **population total**: 41070
- **population as of**: 2021 Canadian census, 2021
- **population est**: 45848
- **pop est as of**: 2025 Q4
- **densityrank**: 12th
- **density km2**: 0.035
- **gdp year**: 2017
- **gdp total**: C$4.856 billion
- **gdp rank**: 11th
- **gdp per capita**: C$108,065
- **gdp per capita rank**: 1st
- **hdi year**: 2021
- **hdi**: 0.930—<span style="color:#090">Very high</span>
- **hdi rank**: 4th
- **former**: British Arctic Territories, North-Western Territory, Rupert's Land
- **admittanceorder**: 5th, with Manitoba
- **admittancedate**: July 15, 1870
- **houseseats**: 1
- **senateseats**: 1
- **utc offset1**: −07:00
- **utc offset1 dst**: −06:00
- **postalabbreviation**: NT
- **postalcodeprefix**: List of X postal codes of Canada, X0, X1 (Yellowknife)
- **iso code**: CA-NT
- **flower**: Dryas octopetala, Mountain avens
- **tree**: Larix laricina, Tamarack larch
- **bird**: Gyrfalcon
Straight

The word **straight** means something that goes in one direction without turns, bends, or curves.

Lines can bend in a curve. If lines do not bend, they are **straight**. For example, the edge of a circle is not straight. The edge of a circle bends in a curve.

Light bends in a curve in air and water, but travels in a straight line away from the earth or other bodies in outer space where there is no air.
The word "straight" is also a slang term for "heterosexual"
SS Richard Montgomery

The **SS _Richard Montgomery**_ was an American ship built during World War II. _Montgomery_ was wrecked off the coast of Sheerness, near Kent, England in 1944 with around 1,400 tonnes of explosives on board, which continue to be a hazard to the area.

## Controversy

_Montgomery_ sank in the Thames estuary on August 20, 1944. It was loaded with 15,000 tons of explosive munitions. The Admiralty decided to leave the wreck and its dangerous cargo untouched. The wreck lies just a few hundred yards offshore between an oil refinery and the several towns. Southend-on-Sea is just a couple of miles away on the other side of the Thames estuary. Rumors about the ship and its cargo have spread in these towns ever since. Denials have been issued by ministers in the House of Commons in response to MPs questions about the fact biological, chemical and gas warheads are on board. Nevertheless, rumors continue that the real reason the wreck was not made safe was because of the fact of "dirty weapons" being on board.

## Other websites

- Information on the SS _Richard Montgomery_