juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Konkani language

**Konkani** is a language from India. Konkani belongs to Indo-Aryan family of languages. It is the official language of Goa, a state in India.

Some people from the part of India known as Konkan speak Konkani language. Konkan is on the west coast of India.

The name _Konkani_ means "from the Konkan". The word _Konkan_ means corner (**kona**) and piece/part of earth (**kana**). The name of the language comes from the place where it is spoken.

## Writing systems

People write Konkani in many different scripts (writing systems or alphabets). People from different regions use different scripts. Hindu Konkani people from Goa and Maharashtra use Devanagari script. Konkani people from Karnataka use Kannada script. Christains in Goa use Roman script. Konkani Muslims use Arabic script. Konkani people from Kerala use Malayalam script. Devanagari is the official script.

## Infobox (language)

- **name**: Konkani
- **nativename**: कोंकणी
- **image**: Konkanidev.jpg
- **imagesize**: 150px
- **imagecaption**: The word **Konkani** in Devanagari script

In other scripts:
Kannada script: ಕೊಂಕಣಿ ()
Malayalam script: കൊങ്കണി ()
- **pronunciation**: (standard),  (popular)
- **states**: India
- **region**: Konkan, includes the state of Goa, Coastal Karnataka, Maharashtra and some parts of Kerala
Konkani is also spoken in the United States, the United Kingdom, Kenya, Uganda, Pakistan, Persian Gulf,  Portugal
- **speakers**: 2.3 million
- **date**: 2007
- **familycolor**: Indo-European
- **fam2**: Indo-Iranian languages, Indo-Iranian
- **fam3**: Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan
- **fam4**: Southern Indo-Aryan languages, Southern Zone
- **fam5**: Konkani languages
- **iso2**: kok
- **iso3**: kok
- **lc1**: gom
- **ld1**: Goan Konkani
- **lc2**: knn
- **ld2**: Maharashtrian Konkani
- **script**: Devanagari (official), Latin script, Roman, Kannada script, Kannada, Malayalam script, Malayalam and Arabic script, Arabic
- **nation**: Goa, India
- **agency**: Various academies and the Government of Goa
- **map**: Konkanispeakers.png
- **mapcaption**: Distribution of native Konkani speakers in India
- **notice**: Indic
- **notice2**: IPA
Trench

A **trench** is a long, narrow ditch.

Trench warfare has often been used in defense. Entrenched soldiers can be somewhat safe from enemy fire.  Trench warfare made World War I longer than expected.  The trench coat got its name from there.

Several kinds of trench exist:
- _Utility trench_ has pipes, wires, or other infrastructure
- _Road trench_ carries vehicles
- _Military trench_ provides shelter for soldiers shooting at each other
- _Oceanic trench_: For example, the Mariana Trench
- _Rift valley_
- _Archaeological trench_ dug by archaeologists
Trench coat

A **trench coat** (or **trenchcoat**) is a type of outdoor clothing. Trenchcoats are long coats made from stiff material, like heavy-duty cotton. They were invented for soldiers to wear in The First World War to keep them warm. Most trench coats also protect the wearer against rain.

## As a fashion

In the 1950s, trench coats became a popular fashion item. In the 1980s and 1990s, trench coats were worn by punk rock musicians and gothic rock musicians. There have been many remodels of it.
Trumpet

A **trumpet** is a brass instrument used mainly in Classical music and jazz music. The most common type of trumpet is a B♭ trumpet, meaning that if the player plays a C, it will sound like a B♭ in  concert pitch. The trumpet is played by blowing into the mouthpiece and making a "buzzing" sound. The buzzing sound is made by the vibration of the lips blown by the player. There are three keys called valves that the player can press to change the pitch.

## History

The trumpet has been around for about 3000 years. An early example of a brass instrument like a trumpet is called a shofar, which is still used in religious ceremonies. Eventually people started making trumpet-like instruments with wood (for example, the cornetto), and later, with brass. Modern bugle<nowiki/>s are similar to early metal trumpets.

Many years ago, when the use of instrumental music was growing, trumpets became very important. Trumpets were long and without valves. This meant a player had to control the pitch of the sound with only his mouth, which was very difficult. Everyone respected trumpet players because trumpets were just so difficult to play.

The chromatic trumpet was developed in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, good valves made it easier to play notes on the trumpet. Still, trumpet is a difficult instrument to master.

## Music for trumpet

Classical music is written for solo trumpet, and trumpets are included in orchestras. Trumpets play an important part in Jazz music, and other various popular genres. Sometimes, they also play short parts to emphasize sections in rock songs.

## Trumpet players

Some famous classical trumpet players are Adolph Herseth, Sergei Nakariakov and Maurice Andre.

Some famous jazz trumpet players are Miles Davis, Louis Armstrong, Arturo Sandoval, Wynton Marsalis, Dizzy Gillespie, and Maynard Ferguson.

## Infobox (instrument)

- **name**: Trumpet
- **image**: Trumpet 1.png
- **image size**: 280px
- **image capt**: B trumpet
- **background**: brass
- **classification**: Brass
*Wind instrument, Wind
*Brass instrument, Brass
*Aerophone
- **hornbostel sachs**: 423.233
- **hornbostel sachs desc**: Valved aerophone sounded by lip movement
- **range**: Written range:
- **related**: Flugelhorn, cornet, cornett, Flumpet, Bugle (instrument), bugle, natural trumpet, bass trumpet, post horn, Roman tuba, buccina, Cornu (horn), cornu, lituus, shofar, Dord (instrument), dord, Tibetan horn, dung chen, sringa, shankha, lur, didgeridoo, Alphorn, Horn (instrument)#Russian horns, Russian horns, Serpent (instrument), serpent, ophicleide, piccolo trumpet, Horn (instrument), horn, alto horn, baritone horn, pocket trumpet
- **midi**: 056/057
Microwave

A **microwave** is a high-frequency radio wave. They are broadly defined as having a wavelength between 1 millimeter and 1 meter, or narrowly between 3 mm and 300 mm. Microwaves have many uses including radar, radio astronomy, and to heat food in a microwave oven. Unlike longer radio waves, they do not bend around land obstacles but go in line of sight. Still, they are much used for communication because they can have a high bandwidth. Almost all spacecraft communicate by microwave radio.

When something moves, it almost always has a wave pattern to its movement - this can be seen in water most easily, in ripples and ocean waves. A very common type of wave in the universe is electromagnetic waves. Light is an example of an electromagnetic wave, and so is a microwave, for example the cosmic microwave background radiation. We can only see electromagnetic radiation in the visible light spectrum (which is why it's called the visible light spectrum), so microwaves are invisible.

Microwaves were among the first radio waves discovered, in the late 19th century, by Heinrich Rudolf Hertz.

## Microwave Ovens

Microwave ovens work because microwaves make polar molecules (molecules that act like massive magnets) all face the same direction - to visualize it, imagine that the microwave oven is telling all of the molecules to face left, then right.  Heat is just the movement of molecules, so when the molecules do a great amount of moving, they are hot.

Like other heat sources, microwave radiation can cause burns. They can go through skin and muscles. If vital organs are burned, the burns can kill. This is why a microwave oven does not work with the door open.
Microwave oven

A **microwave oven** (commonly called a **microwave**) is a machine that cooks food using microwaves, a type of radio wave. The idea was invented when a scientist who was experimenting with radio waves saw his chocolate bar, which was in his pocket, had melted. He then knew that radio waves could cook food and invented the microwave oven.

## History

In 1945, the heating effect of a high-power microwave beam was accidentally discovered by Percy Spencer, an American self-taught engineer from Howland, Maine. Hired by Raytheon at the time, he noticed that microwaves from an active radar set he was working on started to melt a chocolate bar he had in his pocket. First, Spencer deliberately cooked popcorn with a microwave oven. And the second time, he cooked an egg, which exploded in the face of one of the experimenters.

To prove his finding, Spencer created a high-density electromagnetic field by feeding microwave power from a magnetron into a metal box from which it had no way to escape. When food was placed in the box with the microwave energy, the temperature of the food rose rapidly. On 8 October 1945, Raytheon filed a United States patent application for Spencer's microwave cooking process, and an oven that heated food using microwave energy from a magnetron was soon placed in a Boston restaurant for testing.

## How it works

The microwave oven uses a magnetron, which is a type of vacuum tube. This is similar to a radio transmitter. It makes very short radio waves which go into the food to a depth of about 2.5cm (one inch). This makes water molecules twist about 2.5 billion times a second. This heats up the molecules around it. As they heat up the heat goes to the inside of the food.  This process is called conduction. This also happens in a normal oven, but microwave energy goes deeper so that the food cooks much faster. In an ordinary oven, the energy stays mostly near the surface, so it takes more time.

The microwave oven also has a waveguide, turntable, and a timer switch. When we place the food inside the chamber and turn the timer switch on, it sends a signal to the magnetron to send microwaves, as well as to the turntable to start turning. The microwaves of microwave ovens can heat foods containing polar molecules, such as water, as polar molecules are prone to the vibration effect caused by the microwaves. To heat the food evenly the microwave's turntable spins the food around.

Metals will cause sparks in microwaves, instead of heating. This is because metals like to give away electrons, so when the microwaves "push" at their magnet-like electrons, instead of turning, they just give the electrons away. A bunch of electrons running off of metal is called electricity, and we see it in the form of sparks.  Dry foods like ramen will sometimes burn and start fires in microwave ovens if water is not used with the food.

## Related pages

- Frozen dinner
- Induction heating

## Other websites

- Metamaterials for microwave shielding
Cobalt

**Cobalt** (chemical symbol **Co**) is a chemical element. It has an atomic number of 27 and an atomic mass of about 59. It is a metal.

## Properties

Cobalt is a transition metal. It is shiny and conducts electricity. It is magnetic. It is a hard metal. It is moderately reactive. Iron is more reactive and copper is less reactive. It dissolves slowly in acids. This reaction makes hydrogen and a salt of cobalt. Cobalt is normally in its +2 oxidation state as an ion. Some chemical compounds contain cobalt ions in its +4 oxidation state. Cobalt(II) chloride is one of the most common cobalt compounds. Many cobalt compounds are blue or pink. One of them is black.

### Chemical compounds

Cobalt can have two oxidation states, +2 and +3. Most soluble cobalt compounds are red. They can also be green, blue, brown, and black.

- Cobalt(II) compounds
- Cobalt(II) chloride, red solid, most common cobalt compound
- Cobalt(II) fluoride, used in dentistry, red solid
- Cobalt(II) hydroxide, red or green-blue solid
- Cobalt(II) oxide, black solid
- Cobalt(II) sulfate, reddish solid, used in pigments

- Mixed oxidation state
- Cobalt(II,III) oxide, black solid, oxidizing agent

- Cobalt(III) compounds
- Cobalt(III) fluoride, brown solid, strong oxidizing agent
- Cobalt(III) oxide, black solid

## Occurrence and preparation

Cobalt is too reactive to occur as a pure element in the earth. It is found in certain minerals. It is found with copper and nickel deposits. Normally the three metals are bonded to arsenic and sulfur. The majority of cobalt mining is in central Africa.

It is found as a byproduct (left over substance) when copper and nickel are produced. It is made by reaction with the sludge from copper and nickel processing.

## Uses

Cobalt is used in some types of steel. It hardens the steel.  It is also used to make very strong tough alloys.  These alloys are known as superalloys.  Some cobalt compounds are used in the lithium-ion battery.  Cobalt compounds were used as an artificial food coloring until 1971.  It was discovered that it has harmful effects.  It is used to make glass blue.  It is also used as a catalyst, and in some medicines, and for **i**nk, pigments, dyes, and varnishes**.**

The human body needs small amounts of cobalt for certain vitamins. Cobalt compounds are used to stop cyanide from poisoning the body.

## Safety

People need cobalt compounds in small amounts, but cobalt is toxic in large quantities. Sometimes cobalt compounds were added to beer, and people that drank it were poisoned. It can cause skin irritation when touched.
Canidae

**Canidae** is a family of carnivorous and omnivorous mammals of the order Carnivora.

Animals that belong to the Dog family Canidae are **canids**. The family Canidae is divided into two tribes: Vulpini (foxes), and Canini (wolves, dogs, coyotes, and jackals). The family Canidae also includes the genus Urocyon (gray foxes and island foxes) and two extinct groups of canids: Borophaginae and Hesperocyoninae.

Canids that belong to Vulpini are "vulpines". Canids that belong to Canini are "canines". Canines are usually pack animals which hunt their prey in a group. Foxes usually hunt alone. However, almost all canids are social animals.

Canids live on every continent on Earth, except for Antarctica. Many of them reached certain areas alongside humans. One kind of canid, the dog, became a domestic animal. This made dogs the most well-known canids, and one of the most widely kept pets.

## Taxonomy

- Tribe **Vulpini**, foxes
    - Genus _Vulpes_
        - Indian fox, _Vulpes bengalensis_
        - Blanford's fox, _Vulpes cana_
        - Cape fox, _Vulpes chama_
        - Corsac fox, _Vulpes corsac_
        - Tibetan fox, _Vulpes ferrilata_
        - Pale fox, _Vulpes pallida_
        - Rüppell's fox, _Vulpes rueppelli_
        - Swift fox, _Vulpes velox_
        - Kit fox, _Vulpes macrotis_
        - Red fox, _Vulpes vulpes_
        - Fennec, _Vulpes zerda_
    - Genus _Alopex_
        - Arctic fox, _Alopex lagopus_
    - Genus _Urocyon_
        - Gray fox, _Urocyon cinereoargenteus_
        - Island fox, _Urocyon littoralis_
    - Genus _Otocyon_
        - Bat-eared fox, _Otocyon megalotis_
- Tribe **Canini**, Dogs
    - Genus _Dusicyon_
        - Falkland Island fox, _Dusicyon australis_†
    - Genus _Pseudalopex_
        - Culpeo, _Lycalopex culpaeus_
        - South American grey fox, _Lycalopex griseus_
        - Darwin's fox, _Lycalopex fulvipes_
        - Pampas fox, _Lycalopex gymnocercus_
        - Sechura fox, _Lycalopex sechurae_
        - Hoary fox, _Lycalopex vetulus_
    - Genus _Atelocynus_
        - Short-eared dog, _Atelocynus microtis_
    - Genus _Cerdocyon_
        - Crab-eating fox, _Cerdocyon thous_
    - Genus _Speothos_
        - Bush dog, _Speothos venaticus_
    - Genus _Chrysocyon_
        - Maned wolf, _Chrysocyon brachyurus_
    - Genus _Nyctereutes_
        - Raccoon Dog (Tanuki), _Nyctereutes procyonoides_
    - Genus _Cuon_
        - Dhole, _Cuon alpinus_
    - Genus _Lycaon_
        - African wild dog, _Lycaon pictus_
    - Genus _Canis_
        - Grey wolf, _Canis lupus_
            - domestic dogs, _Canis lupus familiaris_
        - Red wolf, _Canis rufus_
        - Coyote, _Canis latrans_
        - Golden jackal, _Canis aureus_
        - Black-backed jackal, _Canis mesomelas_
        - Side-striped jackal, _Canis adustus_
        - Ethiopian wolf, _Canis simensis_
        - Eastern wolf, _Canis lycaon_

## Other websites

- canids.org
Fox

A **fox** is a small mammalian carnivore. They hunt and eat live prey, mostly rabbits and rodents (squirrels and mice). They may also eat grasshoppers, birds' eggs, and even fruit and berries. Sometimes they eat carrion. Foxes are the smallest members of the dog family Canidae.

Twelve species belong to the _Vulpes_ genus of monophyletic "true foxes". There are about another 25 living or extinct species which are sometimes called foxes.

The fox has pointed ears, narrow snout, and a bushy tail.

Foxes are swift and agile runners which live in family groups. A female fox is called a _vixen_, and a male is called a _dog_. Foxes' tails are multi-purpose organs. Their bushy tail helps them keep warm while they are sleeping in cold weather. It is also part of the animal's food store for wintertime. Foxes' plump, bushy tail is easily seen, and is used for sending signals to its family members. The tail is also used for balance while running.

Foxes are found on all continents (except Antarctica), mostly living in forest, shrubland, and desert regions. They were not native to Australia, but were introduced in some way. The most common fox species is the red fox. Red foxes have reddish-brown fur, and the tail tip is white. In the United Kingdom, it was a common sport for people to hunt foxes with horses and dogs. This is now banned.

Later, foxes starts having subtypes such as Fennec, for example.

- "Most agricultural damage is caused by rabbits, and this can be considerable. Yet in lowland areas, rabbits comprise 45 to 70 per cent of the diet of foxes... One study estimated that, over its lifetime, each fox was worth between £150 and £900 in increased revenue to farmers... A strong argument against killing foxes".

## True foxes

The informal term 'true fox' refers to members of the ***Vulpes*** genus.

There are 12 species of _Vulpus_. They are:
- Bengal fox, _Vulpes bengalensis_
- Blanford's fox, _Vulpes cana_
- Cape fox, _Vulpes chama_
- Corsac fox, _Vulpes corsac_
- Tibetan sand fox, _Vulpes ferrilata_
- Arctic fox, _Vulpes lagopus_
- Kit fox, _Vulpes macrotis_
- Pale fox, _Vulpes pallida_
- Rüppell's fox, _Vulpes rueppellii_
- Swift fox, _Vulpes velox_
- Red fox, _Vulpes vulpes_ (includes silver fox)
- Fennec fox, _Vulpes zerda_

The arctic fox is included in this genus as _Vulpes lagopus_. There is genetic evidence that shows it is probably a true fox.

Some species of true fox are extinct. Fossils have been found of:
- _Vulpes hassini_
- _Vulpes praeglacialis_ Kormos
- _Vulpes riffautae_

## Related pages

- _The Fox and the Grapes_
Food pyramid

A **food pyramid** is a chart that can be used to see how many servings of each food should be eaten each day. It is for having good health.

Grains give carbohydrates and some vitamins and minerals. Vegetables and fruits give a lot of vitamins, some minerals, and few fats, but fruits often have more calories and sugar. Dairy products (like milk, cheese, yogurt, etc.) have protein, some fat, and a lot of calcium, an element that helps build strong bones. Meat have protein, some fat, and B vitamins. Fats, oils, and sweets give calories, fats, and sugars but not a lot of nutrition.

## Criticisms

The food pyramid has been criticized for recommending huge amounts of grains as that is a lot of carbohydrates.

## Related pages

- Healthy diet
Torso

The **torso** also known as the trunk, is the part of the human body where the limbs are attached.  It is made of chest, back, and abdomen.

## Related pages

- Bodybuilding
- Trapezius muscle
Trunk

**Trunk** may be:
- The nose of an elephant.
- Trunk (botany), the main part of a tree.
- Torso, a term for the human body without the head and limbs.
- Trunk (luggage), a large case.
- Trunk (automobile), a compartment on a car used for storage in American English, called a _boot_ in British English.
- Trunk (motorcycle), a case mounted above and behind a motorcycle seat, or the space under the seat
- Trunk (telecommunications) has a number of closely related meanings.
- Trunk (software)
- Trunk build, the section for current development of software using version control
Age of Mythology

***Age of Mythology*** is a real-time strategy computer game made by Ensemble Studios. The game has an expansion to it named _Age of Mythology: The Titans_. _Age of Mythology_ is a spinoff of the _Age of Empires_ game series.

## Other websites

- Official Site
- Age of Mythology at HeavenGames.com

## Infobox (video game)

- **developer**: Ensemble Studios
- **publisher**: Microsoft Game Studios
- **genre**: Real-time strategy
- **modes**: Single player, Multiplayer
- **platforms**: Microsoft Windows, Apple Macintosh
Cambridge, Massachusetts

**Cambridge** is a city in the U.S. state of Massachusetts, just outside of Boston.

It is the home of Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).

## Wikimania

The second Wikimania was hosted in this city in 2006.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Cambridge, Massachusetts
- **settlement type**: List of municipalities in Massachusetts, City
- **image skyline**: Harvard square 2009j.JPG
- **image caption**: Harvard Square
- **image flag**: Flag of Cambridge, Massachusetts.svg
- **image seal**: Seal of Cambridge, Massachusetts.svg
- **motto**: "
- **image map**: Middlesex County Massachusetts incorporated and unincorporated areas Cambridge highlighted.svg
- **mapsize**: 250px
- **map caption**: Location of Cambridge in Middlesex County, Massachusetts
- **pushpin map**: Massachusetts#USA
- **pushpin map caption**: Location in Massachusetts##Location in the United States
- **pushpin relief**: yes
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision name**: United States
- **subdivision type1**: U.S. state, State
- **subdivision name1**: Massachusetts
- **subdivision type2**: List of counties in Massachusetts, County
- **subdivision name2**: Middlesex County, Massachusetts, Middlesex
- **established title**: Settled
- **established date**: 1630
- **established title2**: Incorporated
- **established date2**: 1636
- **established title3**: City
- **established date3**: 1846
- **government type**: Council–manager
- **leader title**: Mayor
- **leader title1**: Vice mayor
- **leader title2**: City manager
- **unit pref**: Imperial
- **area total km2**: 18.40
- **area total sq mi**: 7.10
- **area land km2**: 16.57
- **area land sq mi**: 6.40
- **area water km2**: 1.83
- **area water sq mi**: 0.71
- **elevation m**: 12
- **elevation ft**: 40
- **population total**: 118403
- **population as of**: 2020 United States census, 2020
- **population density km2**: 7147.01
- **population density sq mi**: 18512.04
- **population blank2 title**: Demonym
- **population blank2**: Cantabrigian
- **timezone**: Eastern Time Zone, Eastern
- **utc offset**: −5
- **timezone dst**: Eastern Time Zone, Eastern
- **utc offset dst**: −4
- **postal code type**: ZIP Code
- **postal code**: 02138-02142
- **area code**: Area code 617, 617 / Area code 857, 857
- **blank name**: Federal Information Processing Standard, FIPS code
- **blank info**: 25-11000
- **blank1 name**: Geographic Names Information System, GNIS feature ID
- **blank1 info**: 0617365
- **subdivision type3**: List of regions in the United States, Region
- **subdivision name3**: New England
- **named for**: University of Cambridge
1280s

The **1280s** was a decade that began on 1 January 1280 and ended on 31 December 1289. It is distinct from the decade known as the ***129th decade*** which began on January 1, 1281 and ended on December 31, 1290.

## Events

- 1282 – March – Dafydd ap Gruffydd, brother to Prince of Wales Llywelyn the Last, attacks an English castle; his brother feels compelled to support him despite poor preparation for war, quickly leading to the final English conquest of Wales by King Edward I of England.
- 1286 – Prussians settled in exile in Serbia stage a famous uprising.
- 1288 – June 5 – John I of Brabant defeats the duchy of Guelders in the Battle of Worringen — one of the largest battles in Europe of the Middle Ages — thus winning possession of the duchy of Limburg. The battle also liberates the city of Cologne from rule by the Archbishopric of Cologne; it had previously been one of the major ecclesiastical principalities of the Holy Roman Empire.
- 1288 – August 8 – Pope Nicholas IV proclaims a crusade against King Ladislaus IV of Hungary, who had lost credibility by favoring his semi-pagan Cuman subjects and in general refusing to conform to the social standards of western Europe.
1087

## Events

- May 9 – The remains of Saint Nicholas were brought to Bari.
- September 9 – William II becomes king of England
- End of the formal reign of Emperor Shirakawa, but not of his cloistered rule
- Emperor Horikawa ascends to the throne of Japan
1672

## Events

- March 15 – Charles II of England issues the Royal Declaration of Indulgence.
- May 2 – John Maitland becomes Duke of Lauderdale and Earl of March.
- June 12 – French forces under king Louis XIV cross the Rhine to Netherlands
- June 28 – William III of Orange appointed Stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland and Utrecht.
- August 20 – Johan de Witt, Grand Pensionary of Holland is slaughtered by a mob in The Hague.
- England, France, Münster and Cologne invade the United Provinces, therefore this name is known as ´het rampjaar´ (the disaster year) in the Netherlands.

## Births

- May 1 – Joseph Addison, writer and essayist
1684

## Events

- July 24 – René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle sails from France, again, with a large expedition designed to establish a French colony on the Gulf of Mexico, at the mouth of the Mississippi River.
- October 7 – Japanese Chief Minister Hotta Masatoshi is assassinated, leaving Shogun Tsunayoshi without any adequate advisors, leading him to issue impractical edicts and create hardships for the Japanese people.
- December 10 – Isaac Newton's derivation of Kepler's laws from his theory of gravity, contained in the paper _De motu corporum in gyrum_, is read to the Royal Society by Edmund Halley.

### Undated

- France under Louis XIV makes Truce of Ratisbon separately with the Holy Roman Empire (Habsburg) and Spain.
- Pope Innocent XI forms a Holy League with the Habsburg Empire, Venice and Poland to liberate Europe from the Ottoman Turkish rule.
- The Japanese poet Saikaku composes 23,500 verses in 24 hours at the Sumiyoshi Shrine at Osaka; the scribes cannot keep pace with his dictation and just _count_ the verses.
- The British East India Company receives Chinese permission to build a trading station at Canton. Tea sells in Europe for less than a shilling a pound, but the import duty of 5 shillings makes it too expensive for most English people to afford.
- Smuggled tea is drunk much more than legally imported tea.
- England has its coldest winter in living memory; the River Thames and the sea as far as 2 miles out from land freezes over.
- John Bunyan writes The Pilgrim's Progress Part 2.
- The Chipperfield's Circus dynasty begins when James Chipperfield introduces performing animals to England at the River Thames frost fairs on the Thames in London.

## Births

- January 1 – Arnold Drakenborch, Dutch classical scholar (died 1748)
- January 14 – Jean-Baptiste van Loo, French painter (died 1745)
- February 24 – Matthias Braun, Czech sculptor (died 1738)
- March 15 – Francesco Durante, Italian composer (died 1755)
- March 19 – Jean Astruc, French physician and scholar (died 1766)
- April 15 – Catherine I of Russia (died 1727)
- June 22 – Francesco Manfredini, Italian composer (died 1762)
- September 18 – Johann Gottfried Walther, German music theorist, organist, and composer (died 1748)
- October 10 – Antoine Watteau, French painter (died 1721)
- October 26 – Kurt Christoph Graf von Schwerin, Prussian field marshal (died 1757)
- December 3 – Ludvig Holberg, Norwegian historian and writer (died 1754)

## Deaths

- April 1 – Roger Williams, English theologian and colonist (born 1603)
- April 5 – Lord William Brouncker, English mathematician (born 1602)
- May 4 – John Nevison, English highwayman (born 1639)
- May 12 – Edme Mariotte, French physicist and priest (born c.1620)
- July 2 – John Rogers, American President of Harvard University (born 1630)
- July 6 – Peter Gunning, English royalist churchman (born 1614)
- August 8 – George Booth, 1st Baron Delamer (born 1622)
- October 1 – Pierre Corneille, French playwright (born 1606)
- October 11 – James Tuchet, 3rd Earl of Castlehaven (born 1617)
1713

## Events

- First Orrery built by George Graham

## Births

- May 25 - John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1792)
- September 23 - King Ferdinand VI of Spain (d. 1759)
- October 13 - Allan Ramsay, Scottish painter (d. 1784)
- November 24 - Junipero Serra, Spanish Franciscan missionary (d. 1784)

## Deaths

- January 8 - Arcangelo Corelli, Italian composer (b. 1653)
- February 25 - King Friedrich I of Prussia (b. 1657)
- August 9 - Ferdinando de' Medici, Grand Prince of Tuscany
1743

## Events

- February 14 – Henry Pelham becomes British Prime Minister
- February 21 – The premiere in London of George Frideric Handel's oratorio, _Samson_.
- September 13 – Treaty of Worms (1743) – a treaty between Great Britain, Austria and Sardinia
- Battle of Dettingen
Coyote

The **coyote** (_Canis latrans_) is a canid wild dog from North America. It is also called the prairie wolf, brush wolf or American jackal.

The word "coyote" comes from the Náhuatl (Aztec) word ***cóyotl***.

## Appearance

Coyotes are smaller than wolves. The color of the coyote's fur is a grayish brown to yellowish gray on the upper parts, while the throat and underside are a more white color. The forelegs, sides of the head, muzzle and feet are reddish brown. The ears of the coyote are long and pointed.

## Range

Coyotes live mostly in North America and some areas of Central America but they are very adaptable and can live in almost any environment. They live in prairies, but also in cities, swamps, grasslands, forests and mountains. They normally live in dens about 6 feet wide and four feet tall.

## Life

The coyote is an omnivore and eats fruits, grasses, vegetables, rabbits, mice, shrews and voles. They also eat insects, worms, rats, fish, birds, deer, snakes, and lizards. In the city, coyotes find food easily. They dig up plants in gardens and eat food out of garbage cans.

Sometimes, they join small packs (groups), but normally hunt alone. Coyotes live in dens. They dig a tunnel under the ground and then dig out a larger area at the end of the tunnel where they sleep and have their babies or pups. They can have six pups at a time. Often a coyote den will have two entrances, with one that is hidden. Sometimes they dig more than one den, so they can move if an enemy finds the den.

Coyotes have a few enemies. Their predators are wolves, bears and, cougars, but there are not many wolves left in North America compared to the number of coyotes. The biggest enemies of the coyote are humans. Coyotes rarely attack people, but sometimes eat small pets such as cats.

## Mythology

The coyote is a character of many myths from Native American peoples. The coyote is often portrayed as a joker, and stories are told to explain things he does. The Pima regard him as the offspring of the moon. Coyote is always male with an overwhelming reference to his large penis which requires a pack to carry it in. He is a lustful creature with desire for Changing Bear Maiden and by attempting to have sex with women by becoming a baby. Coyote also has incestuous relations with his mother-in-law and daughter. He is credited for removing the teeth of _vagina dentata_ or by moving the genitals to the correct location on the body in order to make sex pleasurable. Coyote has an appetite for menstrual blood and relates to Lakota girls' puberty rite.

Coyote is often responsible for the finality of death and introduces work and suffering. The Apache believe he created Europeans. The Zuni believe he created pubic hair. The Pomo say he stole the sun and made the world dark.

Coyote is curious and goes along with the crowd. He is a trickster, culture hero, and a feared shape-shifter.
Vole

A **vole** is a small mouse-like mammal. It is a rodent from a subfamily called the **Arvicolinae**. They live in woodlands and grasslands.

There are about 155 species of voles. There are species in Europe, Asia, North Africa and North America. The closest relatives of voles are the lemmings and muskrats, which are in the same subfamily.

Adult voles, depending on the species, are 7.5 to 17.5 centimetres (three to seven inches) long. They eat seeds, grass or other plants, and insects.

Many animals hunt voles, for example owls, hawks, coyotes, foxes, weasels, cats and snakes.

The average life of the smaller vole species is three to six months. These voles rarely live longer than 12 months. Larger species, such as the European water vole _Arvicola_, live longer. They usually die during their second winter. As many as 88% of voles die during the first month of life.
Isthmus

An **isthmus** is a narrow strip of land, with water on either side, that connects two bigger landmasses. For example, the Isthmus of Panama connects the continents of The Americas. Separating two water bodies and joining two land bodies, an isthmus is the opposite of a strait.
Rodent

**Rodents** (from Latin **rodere**, "to gnaw"), are mammals of the order **Rodentia**, which are characterized by a single pair of continuously growing incisors in each of the upper and lower jaws.

## Description

Rodents comprise about 40% of all mammal species. They are native to all major land masses except for New Zealand, Antarctica, and several oceanic islands, though they have subsequently been introduced to most of these land masses by human activity.

## Rodent species

Rodent is the naming term of all members of Rodentia order of mammals and can be identified by their teeth. Their incisors (upper and lower) grow throughout their lives. Gnawing on hard material keeps the teeth worn down and sharp. Lagomorphs such as rabbits and hares are often mistaken for rodents. These animals have an additional pair of upper incisors that rodents lack, a very successful number of mammals that form the order Rodentia.

They have no more than 2 incisors. These keep growing, and must be kept worn down by gnawing (eroding teeth by grinding them on something hard); this is the origin of the name, from the Latin _rodere_, "to gnaw", and _dent_, "tooth".

Most rodents are small. Examples of commonly known rodents are mice, rats, chipmunks, and squirrels. Some other small rodents sometimes kept as pets are Guinea pigs, hamsters, and gerbils.
Examples of larger rodents are porcupines, beavers, and the largest living rodent, the capybara, which can grow to between 105 and 135 cm (40-55 in) in length, and weigh 35 to 65 kg (75-140 lbs).

Almost half of all mammal species are rodents. More examples of rodents are voles, prairie dogs, groundhogs, and chinchillas.

Rabbits, hares, and pikas are sometimes called rodents, because they also have teeth that keep growing. But in 1912 biologists decided to put them in a new, separate order, Lagomorpha, because they have two extra incisors in their upper jaw.

Shrews are sometimes called rodents, because they look like mice, but that is not correct. They are in the order Insectivora.

## Taxonomy

There are more families than these. The list includes the more common families.

- Order **Rodentia**
    - Suborder Anumaluromorpha
        - Family Anomaluridae
        - Family Pedetidae
    - Suborder Castorimorpha
        - Family Castoridae (_Beavers_)
        - Family Geomyoidea (_Pocket gophers_, _Kangaroo rats and mice_)
    - Suborder Hystricomorpha
        - Family Ctenodactylidae
        - Family Hystricidae
        - Family Myocastoridae
        - Family Caviidae
        - Family Chinchillidae
        - Family Cuniculidae
    - Suborder Sciuromorpha
        - Family Aplodontiidae: mountain beaver
        - Family Gliridae (also Myoxidae, Muscardinidae): dormice
        - Family Sciuridae: squirrels, including chipmunks, prairie dogs, & marmots
    - Suborder Myomorpha
        - Superfamily Muroidea
        - Superfamily Dipodoidea
            - Family Dipodidae

## Related pages

- _Josephoartigasia_

## Other websites

- UCMP Berkeley: Introduction to the Rodentia
- https://www.utep.edu/leb/pleistnm/taxaMamm/lagomorpha.htm
Computer number format

A **computer number format** refers to the way computers and calculators represent numbers. Most computers use the binary system, which consists of ones and zeros. Other systems in use include the octal (0–7) and hexadecimal (0–9, A–F) systems. These formats allow computers to interpret and process numbers in ways that are not always directly understandable by humans.
1550

## Events

- January 6 – Spanish Captain Hernando de Santana founds the city of Valledupar in what is now Colombian territory.
- February 7 – Julius III becomes Pope.
- The first book in Slovenian, _Abecedarium_, written by Protestant reformer Primoz Trubar, is printed in Tübingen, Germany.
- Nostradamus' first almanac is written.
- Helsinki, the capital of Finland, is founded by Gustav Vasa.
Columbus, Georgia

**Columbus** is the second largest city, in the U.S. state of Georgia. Coca-Cola and RC Cola (Royal Crown Cola) were first made here. It is south of Atlanta. It is about one hour and thirty minutes to two hours away from Atlanta.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Columbus, Georgia
- **settlement type**: Consolidated city-county
- **nicknames**: The Fountain City _or_ The Lowell, Massachusetts, Lowell of the South
- **motto**: We Do Amazing
- **named for**: Christopher Columbus
- **image skyline**: Downtown Columbus, Georgia skyline.jpg
- **imagesize**: 300px
- **image caption**: Downtown Columbus, Georgia, Downtown skyline on the banks of the Chattahoochee River
- **image flag**: Columbus Georgia flag.png
- **image seal**: Original Columbus GA seal.png
- **seal size**: 100px
- **blank emblem size**: 120px
- **image map**: Map of Georgia highlighting Muscogee County.svg
- **map caption**: Location within Georgia
- **pushpin map**: USA Georgia#USA
- **pushpin map caption**: Location within the state of Georgia##Location within the USA
- **pushpin label**: Columbus
- **subdivision type**: List of sovereign states, Country
- **subdivision type1**: U.S. state, State
- **subdivision type2**: List of counties in Georgia, County
- **subdivision name2**: Muscogee County, Georgia, Muscogee
- **established title2**: Founded
- **established date2**: 1828
- **unit pref**: Imperial
- **area total sq mi**: 221.01
- **area total km2**: 572.42
- **area land sq mi**: 216.50
- **area land km2**: 560.73
- **area water sq mi**: 4.51
- **area water km2**: 11.68
- **population total**: 206922
- **population as of**: 2020 United States Census, 2020
- **population rank**: List of United States cities by population, 112th in the United States
List of municipalities in Georgia (U.S. state), 2nd in Georgia
- **population density sq mi**: 955.76
- **population density km2**: 369.02
- **population metro**: 328883 (List of metropolitan statistical areas, US: 161st)
- **population urban**: 267,746 (List of United States urban areas, US: 153rd)
- **population density urban sq mi**: 1,874.2
- **population demonym**: Columbusite
- **timezone**: Eastern Time Zone (North America), EST
- **utc offset**: −5
- **timezone dst**: Eastern Time Zone (North America), EDT
- **utc offset dst**: −4
- **elevation m**: 74
- **elevation ft**: 243
- **postal code type**: ZIP codes
- **postal code**: 31820, 31829, 31900–09, 31914, 31917, 31993–94, 31997–99
- **area code**: Area codes 706 and 762, 706, Area codes 706 and 762, 762
- **blank name**: Federal Information Processing Standard, FIPS code
- **blank info**: 13-19007
- **blank1 name**: Geographic Names Information System, GNIS feature ID
- **blank1 info**: 0331158
- **blank2 name**: Airport
- **blank2 info**: Columbus Airport (Georgia), Columbus Airport (CSG)
Carthage

**Carthage** was an ancient city-state in what is now Tunisia. It began as a Phoenician colony. At the height of its power, Carthage was the most important power in the Mediterranean and the wider Western world and controlled parts of Spain, as well as Sicily, North Africa, and Sardinia.

The Roman Republic destroyed Carthage during the Punic Wars of the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC. In later centuries, Rome started a colony in the same place that became an important city of Africa Province. Eventually, the Vandals conquered the city and used it to attack Rome.

## Punic Wars

Carthage was a rival in the western Mediterranean for the Roman Republic, which wanted to take over the whole region. Carthage was a large obstacle and so in 264 BC, the Romans responded to a plea for help by some rebels in Messina and landed an army in Sicily. That started the First Punic War. The Romans then invaded the Carthaginian areas in Sicily, and the Carthaginian generals could not stop them. Even at sea, the Romans copied the Carthaginian bireme ships, with two oars on each side, and won several major victories on the sea. However, the Romans had not been a sea power, which the Carthaginians had been.

Finally, a general, Hamilcar Barca, took up to defend the Carthaginians and replaced of the older and less energetic Hanno. Hamilcar immediately realized the futility of meeting the superior Roman army in open battle and so he decided to use hit-and-run raids to wear down the Romans. That tactic was slightly more effective against the slow heavily-armored roman troops. Eventually, however, the Romans took Lilybaeum, the Carthaginians' main stronghold in Sicily. That ended Carthage's power in Sicily and ended the First Punic War.

During the Second Punic War, Hannibal Barca led the Carthaginian Army through Spain, southern Gaul and across the Alps into Italy in 218 BC. There, he clashed with and stunningly defeated the Romans in three major battles: the Battle of the River Trebia, the Battle of Lake Trasmine, and the Battle of Cannae. He failed, however, to take Rome and eventually in 203 after nearly 15 years had to retreat to Carthage, where he was defeated by Scipio Africanis at the Battle of Zama.

The Romans destroyed Carthage in 146 BC during the Third Punic War. The Carthaginians who survived, numbering about 50,000, were mostly sold into slavery.
1102

**1102** (MCII) was a common year starting on Wednesday in the Julian calendar.

## Events

- Valencia is captured by the Almoravids.
- Henry I of England orders the tomb of Edward the Confessor opened; the body is found undecayed.
- Henry I of England takes possession of Arundel Castle.
- The Hohenbaden castle is built in Baden-Baden, Germany.
- Boleslav III becomes king of Poland.
- coronation of Coloman of Hungary in the town of Biograd, adding the Croatian duchies of Slavonia and Dalmatia to the crown of Hungary.
- Crusaders capture Caesarea Palaestina.
- Crusaders defeat an Egyptian invasion of the Kingdom of Jerusalem near Ascalon.
- Dagobert of Pisa is briefly deposed as Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem (and restored later in the year).
- Raymond IV of Toulouse begins to besiege Tripoli, and takes the nominal title of count of Tripoli.
- Raymond IV of Toulouse is imprisoned by Tancred, regent of the Principality of Antioch.
1569

**1569** (MDLXIX) was a common year starting on Saturday in the Julian calendar and a common year starting on Wednesday in the proleptic Gregorian calendar.

## Events

- January 11-May 6 – First recorded lottery in England performed nonstop at the west door of the St. Paul's Cathedral. Each share costs 10 shillings and proceeds are used to repair the harbors and for other public works
- March 13 – Battle of Jarnac – Royalist troops under Marshal Gaspard de Tavannes surprise and defeat the Huguenots under the Prince of Condé, who is captured and murdered. A substantial proportion of the Huguenot army manages to escape under Gaspard de Coligny.
- June 10 – German Protestant troops reinforce Coligny near Limoges
- July – September – Huguenot forces under Coligny and 15 year-old Prince Henry of Navarre besiege Poitiers
- August 24 – Battle of Orthez – Huguenot forces under Gabriel de Montgomery defeat Royalist forces under General Terride in French Navarre. Catholics surrender under the condition that their lives would be spared. Huguenots agreed, but then massacred the Catholics anyway.
- September – A Royalist army under the Duc d'Anjou and Marshal Tavannes forces Coligny to abandon the siege of Poitiers
- October 3 – Battle of Moncountour – The Royalist forces of Tavannaes and Anjou defeat Coligny's Huguenots.
- Gerardus Mercator devises the Mercator projection
- Assemblies of 3 Lithuanian provinces, Volhynia, Ukraine and Podlasie vote to be incorporated into Poland.
- Poland and Lithuania are united in the Union of Lublin. They form Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
1302

## Events

- June 12 – beginning of Rakvere town, Estonia
- July 11 – Battle of the Golden Spurs (_Guldensporenslag_ in Dutch), major victory of Flanders over the French.
- September 24 – Charles II of Naples makes peace with Frederick III of Sicily under the Treaty of Caltabellotta – the War of Sicilian Vespers ends

- Roger de Flor starts the Catalan Company with soldiers (Almogavars) jobless after the Treaty of Caltabellotta
- Spain occupies the harbor of Algiers
- Jicin, Bohemia is chartered as a city
- Pope Boniface VIII stops the activities of the Franciscans
- Boniface VIII publishes the bull _Unam Sanctam_
- First meeting of the French States-General
- Dante Alighieri is sent away (exiled) from Florence by the Black Guelphs, as is Petrarch's father (see Guelphs and Ghibellines)
- Robert I of Scotland makes peace with Edward I of England
Brockton, Massachusetts

**Brockton** is a town in Plymouth County in the U.S. state of Massachusetts. It and the town of Plymouth are the county seats of Plymouth County.

Brockton is also called 'the city of champions' because world boxing champions Rocky Marciano and Marvin Hagler came from there. It is also home to a large number of Haitians who speak Haitian Creole.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **official name**: Brockton, Massachusetts
- **settlement type**: City
- **image skyline**: BrocktonCityHall.jpg
- **imagesize**: 250px
- **image caption**: City Hall
- **image seal**: Seal of Brockton, Massachusetts.svg
- **nickname**: The City of Champions
- **motto**: "Education, Industry, Progress"
- **image map**: Plymouth County Massachusetts incorporated and unincorporated areas Brockton highlighted.svg
- **mapsize**: 250px
- **map caption**: Location in Plymouth County in Massachusetts
- **pushpin map**: Massachusetts#USA
- **pushpin map caption**: Location within Massachusetts##Location within the United States
- **pushpin relief**: 1
- **pushpin label**: Brockton
- **subdivision type**: List of sovereign states, Country
- **subdivision type1**: U.S. state, State
- **subdivision type2**: List of counties in Massachusetts, County
- **subdivision name2**: Plymouth County, Massachusetts, Plymouth
- **established title**: Settled
- **established date**: 1700
- **established title2**: Incorporation (municipal government), Incorporated (town)
- **established date2**: 1821
- **established title3**: Incorporated (city)
- **established date3**: 1881
- **government type**: Mayor–council government, Strong mayor/council
- **leader title**: Mayor
- **unit pref**: Imperial
- **area total km2**: 55.73
- **area total sq mi**: 21.52
- **area land km2**: 55.25
- **area land sq mi**: 21.33
- **area water km2**: 0.48
- **area water sq mi**: 0.18
- **elevation m**: 34
- **elevation ft**: 112
- **population total**: 105643
- **population as of**: 2020 United States Census, 2020
- **population density km2**: 1912.05
- **population density sq mi**: 4952.09
- **postal code type**: ZIP Codes
- **postal code**: 02301–02305
- **area code**: Area code 508, 508/Area code 774, 774
- **timezone**: Eastern Standard Time Zone, Eastern
- **utc offset**: −5
- **timezone dst**: Eastern Standard Time Zone, Eastern
- **utc offset dst**: −4
- **blank name**: Federal Information Processing Standard, FIPS code
- **blank info**: 25-09000
- **blank1 name**: Geographic Names Information System, GNIS feature ID
- **blank1 info**: 0617571