juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Brian Johnson

**Brian Johnson** (born 5 October 1947 in Dunston, Gateshead, England) is an English singer and songwriter. He is best known as the singer for Australian hard rock band AC/DC.

## Biography

Johnson's father, Allan, was in the British Army's Light Infantry. His mother, Esther, came from Italy. Johnson has two children from his first marriage. That marriage ended in divorce just before he joined AC/DC in 1980.

### Before AC/DC

Johnson was in the Newcastle glam-rock band Geordie in 1972. The band split up in 1978 but Johnson put it back together in 1980. Just after a record contract had been signed, Johnson was asked to audition for AC/DC.

### Joining AC/DC

Johnson joined AC/DC in 1980, after the death of the band's former lead singer Bon Scott. He was the band's first choice. A fan in Cleveland, Ohio had sent a Geordie album to AC/DC after Bon Scott's death. The fan had asked them to consider Johnson. Years earlier, Bon Scott had also praised Johnson's singing and performance style.

Johnson co-wrote all of AC/DC's songs with the Young brothers for ten years.

## Other websites

- AC/DC profile page by Albert Music
- AC/DC profile page by Atlantic Records
- AC/DC profile page by Epic Records
- AC/DC Fan Page
Centipede

A **centipede** is a type of myriapod with many legs. Centipedes are predators. They hunt during the night; they are nocturnal.  Some centipedes are venomous, but none can kill a person unless they are allergic. Centipedes are in the class **Chilopoda**, and related to millipedes, which are not poisonous. As the millipedes, they are segmented. They have between 5 and 173 segments, but only one pair of legs per segment. There may be 8,000 species in the world.

The house centipede is a carnivore that feeds on cockroaches, house flies and other domestic pests. It is therefore beneficial. But because it has a scary appearance it is often exterminated.
Pomerania

**Pomerania** (_Pommern_ in German, _Pomorze_ in Polish) is a region on the Baltic Sea. It is now part of two countries, Germany and Poland.

## Prehistoric tribes

20,000 years ago, the territory of present-day Pomerania was covered with ice, which did not start to recede until the late period of the Paleolithic, or Upper Stone Age, some 10,000 years BC, when the Scandinavian glacier receded to the north. Various archaeological cultures developed in the Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze Age and Iron Age.

## Classical antiquity

Since around 500 BC and before 500 AD, Pomerania had been dominated by East Germanic tribes including several tribes of Goths, who, as per archeological evidence of the Wielbark culture and their own tradition, originated from Scandinavia. Goths and Rugians were recorded by Roman historians in the areas of Pomerania in 98 AD. The Vistula Veneti, a non-Germanic tribe, which later assimilated with Slavs, were recorded by Ptolemy and Pliny the Elder around Vistula in first century AD. By the 7th century, Slavic tribes including the Wends and Pomeranians settled the area.

## Polish conquest

Pomerania was first conquered by the Polish duke Mieszko I in the second half of the 10th century. Pagan uprisings in 1005 and 1038 resulted in independence for Western Pomerania and Pomerelia, respectively. Regained by Poland in 1116/1121, the Polish could not hold the Pomeranian duchy longer than 1135, whereas Pomerelia after the 1138 partition of Poland among the sons of Boleslaus Wrymouth became a part of the Polish _seniorat_, which was declared fief of the Holy Roman Empire in 1156. The Western part, the Duchy of Pomerania, was declared part of the Holy Roman Empire (1181). After a brief period of Danish rule (1168 / 1186–1227), it remained part of Holy Roman Empire until 1806. 1000 years of history of areas between river Elbe, Oder and Vistula.

## Related pages

- Lithuania
- Eastern Europe
- Slavic languages
- Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
900s

The **900s** was a decade that began on 1 January 900 and ended on 31 December 909. It is distinct from the decade known as the ***91st decade*** which began on January 1, 901 and ended on December 31, 910.

## Events

- Accession of Sergius III.
- Destruction of Chang'an, the capital of Tang Dynasty and the largest city in the ancient world.
- Founding of the Royal Mint in England.
- Capture of Thessalonica by Saracens.
1034

## Events

- April 11 – Empress Zoe of Byzantium marries her chamberlain and elevates him to the throne of the Eastern Roman Empire as Michael IV.
- Free County becomes subject to the Holy Roman Empire.

## Births

- September 3 – Emperor Go-Sanjō of Japan (d. 1073)

## Deaths

- November – King Malcolm II of Scotland, Scottish royal (b. 954)
- Fulbert de Falaise, Norman Tanner (weaver) and businessman (b. c. 973)
Bronllys

**Bronllys** is a village in the Powys region of Wales. A Norman castle was built there in the 11th century.

## Other websites

- CastleWales on Bronllys Castle
Natural language processing

**Natural Language Processing** (NLP) is a field in Artificial Intelligence, and is also related to linguistics. On a high level, the goal of NLP is to program computers to automatically understand human languages, and also to automatically write/speak in human languages. We say "Natural Language" to mean human language, and to indicate that we are not talking about computer (programming) languages.
Würzburg

**Würzburg** (; Main-Franconian: ) is a city in the German state of Bavaria. About 124,000 people live there. There is a university there.

Würzburg is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop.

In about 1000 BC there was a Celtic settlement in that place. In 698 AD Würzburg became Christianised. The first mention was in 704 AD. In 742 Würzburg became the seat of a bishop. From 1168 the bishops of Würzburg had the title Herzog (Duke), given by the emperor.

In 1402 Würzburg got a university. It later closed and then reopened in 1582. In 1631 Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden conquered Würzburg in the 30-year war. In 1803 the Duchy of Würzburg became part of Bavaria, in 1938 the city had more than 100,000 inhabitants for the first time. In 1945 the city was nearly completely destroyed.

Its football team is Würzburger Kickers.

## Infobox (german location)

- **type**: City
- **image photo**: Würzburg-Blick-von-Festung.jpg
- **image caption**: City view from Fortress Marienberg
- **wappen**: DEU Würzburg COA.svg
- **image flag**: Flagge Würzburg.svg
- **bundesland**: Bavaria
- **regierungsbezirk**: Lower Franconia
- **landkreis**: urban
- **gemeindeschlüssel**: 09663000
- **höhe**: 177
- **fläche**: 87.63
- **einwohner**: 124577
- **stand**: 2012-12-31
- **plz**: 97018 – 97084
- **vorwahl**: 0931
- **kfz**: WÜ
- **bürgermeister**: Christian Schuchardt
- **partei**: CSU
Conscientious objector

A **conscientious objector** (**CO**) is a person who decides not to be a combatant in military forces under conscription.

There are many reasons for this decision such as nonviolent or religious beliefs, ethical and moral beliefs to not kill human beings or pacifism.

Countries treat COs in various ways. They have also been treated differently throughout history. COs have been arrested or had to pay a fine. Some countries punished them by killing them. After World War II, many Western countries created alternative non-military services (civil service) as alternative form for pacifists. Often there were commissions to decide if someone really did not want to do armed service because of his beliefs or because of fear of war.

European Court of Human Rights has judged the denial of COs is violation of freedom of religion and thought in 2013, as well European Union recognized the right of conscientious objector as one of fundamental rights.

## Related pages

- Tax resistance

## Other websites

- Alternative Service in the Second World War: Conscientious Objectors in Canada 1939-1945.  http://www.alternativeservice.ca/
- Conscientious objectors in a volunteer army (Chicago Tribune article by Anthony DeBartolo) http://www.hydeparkmedia.com/CO.html
- The National Registry for Conscientious Objection
- Conscience - the peace tax campaign
- "Thoughts for Young Men ..." a one-page leaflet
- Manifesto against conscription and the military system , with online signature, official website
- International Conscientious Objectors' Day (War Resisters' International)
- "Making a Choice: Conscientious Objection or Refusing to Register" (Resisters.info)
- The European Bureau for Conscientious Objection
- GI Rights Hotline
- The Central Committee for Conscientious Objectors (US)
- Mennonite Central Committee's listing of resources for CO's (US)
- Christadelphian Position And Experience Of Conscientious Objection
Anus language

The **Anus language** is a tribal language spoken in the Irian Jaya province of Indonesia. It is an Austronesian language.

As of 2005, there are almost 70 speakers of the language all of whom are members of a tribal group living on an island in the Sarmi-Jayapura Bay in West Papua.

## Infobox (language)

- **name**: Anus
- **nativename**: Korur
- **states**: Indonesia
- **region**: Papua (province), Papua
- **speakers**: 320
- **date**: 2005
- **ref**: e18
- **familycolor**: Austronesian
- **fam2**: Malayo-Polynesian languages, Malayo-Polynesian
- **fam3**: Oceanic languages, Oceanic
- **fam4**: Western Oceanic languages, Western Oceanic
- **fam5**: North New Guinea languages, North New Guinea
- **fam6**: Sarmi – Jayapura Bay languages, Sarmi – Jayapura Bay
- **fam7**: Sarmi languages, Sarmi
- **iso3**: auq
- **glotto**: anus1237
- **glottorefname**: Anus
Rule of law

**Rule of law** is a legal maxim that suggests that no one is above the law and governmental decisions must be made only by applying known legal and moral principles. The Rule of Law limits the powers of Government by judicial defense of laws and the Constitution which is based on recognized basic legal values, established in international law. The Rule of Law is meant to prevent dictatorship and to protect the rights of the people.

The rule of law is especially important as an influence on the economic development in developing and transitional countries. Constitutional economics is the study of  government spending, which, in many transitional and developing countries, is completely controlled by the executive. The standards of constitutional economics can be used during annual budget process. The availability of an effective court system, to be used by the civil society in courts in situations of unfair governmental distribution of national money is a key element for the success of the rule-of-law in developing countries.

To date, the term “rule of law” has been used primarily in the English-speaking countries.  The originally German doctrine of Rechtsstaat is similar, and has been translated into other languages of continental Europe as _État de droit_ (Fr.), _Estado de derecho_ (Sp.), _Stato di diritto_ (It.), and _Правовое государство_ (Ru.).  Rechsstaat can be translated into English as “legal state” or "constitutional state".

Rule of law is also a main purpose of Council of Europe for solidarity and international peace.

## Related pages

- Constitution
- Constitutionalism
- Constitutional economics
- International human rights law
- Political economy
- Right to a fair trial
- Vienna Declaration
- Council of Europe

## Other websites

- What is the Rule of Law?  University of Iowa Center for International Finance and Development
- Centre for Public Law  has an audio and written analysis of the Rule of Law by Lord Bingham of Cornhill (the senior Lord of Appeal in Ordinary of the United Kingdom supreme court)

la:Regnum legis
Electorate

The **Electorate** are the people or citizens of a state who elect representatives to represent them in a democracy. They're also known as voters. Voters are people who normally votes in an election and they vote for their favorite person that if he/she wins, he/she will lead the people to a more favourable country voting.
Chord

A **chord** in music is when two or more notes are played together (some textbooks say that it is when _three_ or more notes are played).

A chord which is built up of the 1st, 3rd and 5th notes of a scale is called a "tonic triad". If it is made from a major scale, it is a major chord. If it is made from a minor scale it is a minor chord. However, any combination of notes played simultaneously is considered a chord.

When only two notes are played together, it’s more often called “double stops” (referring to the different banks of pipes on a pipe organ, controlled by valves called “stops”).

Chords can be played on instruments such as piano, keyboard, organ, harp, guitar, harmonica, ukulele and xylophone. Chords with two notes can be played on string instruments by bowing on two strings together. By bowing on two strings and then quickly on the other two strings, a violinist can make it sound as if a four-part chord is being played. Some players of wind instruments are able to make chords by playing two or more harmonics together.

## Related pages

- Arpeggio
- Consonance and dissonance
- Harmony
- Interval (music)
Irish dance

**Irish dancing** is an _ancient_ art of dancing from Ireland. There are two main forms of dancing, the social dances where everyone can join in, and the dances performed for an audience. There are five main types of steps in Irish dancing. These are reels, jigs, slip jigs, hornpipes, and treble jigs. Irish dancing is a fun art and sport. There are two versions of dances; hardshoe and softshoe.

Irish dancing, popularized in 1994 by the world famous show Riverdance, is notable for its rapid leg and foot movements, arms stationary at the dancers' sides.

The hardshoe makes a noise when you step and softshoe is like Ballet.
Grill (cooking)

A **grill** is an object used for cooking food. With a grill, food is usually roasted. Some grills use charcoal or wood, and other grills use propane gas to cook the food.

Using wood or charcoal makes smoke and changes the flavor of the food. Using gas does not. Some people only like one type, and some people like both kinds of grilling.

The heat may be added underneath the food, or above, or both. A barbecue is a typical machine for outdoor cooking using coke or other fuel for providing heat from underneath. Overhead grilling is more usual indoors, especially in professional kitchens.

In Canada, there are cook-off grills, which are competitions. The most common meats used are steak, burgers and hot dogs.  Grilling food is very common for holidays or celebrations like the 4th of July (United States Independence Day).  Most people use a grill more outdoors in the summer time.

Grills can have fire touching the food. This might cause a burnt taste and could possibly be a carcinogen.

## Related pages

- Asado
- Barbecue
Order of operations

The **order of operations** is a mathematical and algebraic set of rules. It is used to evaluate (solve) and simplify expressions and equations. The order of operations is the order that different mathematical operations are done. The standard mathematical operations are addition (**+**), subtraction (**−**), multiplication (*****, **×**, **·** or **n**), division (**/**, **÷**, **:** or ****), grouping/parenthesizing/bracketing (**()**, **[]** or **{}**) and exponentiation (**^** or **ⁿ**), which includes root extraction (**√**).

Mathematicians have agreed on a correct order to use operations, and it is very important that they know these rules. When people are solving a problem with more than one operation, they will need to know the correct order to solve the problem correctly. Otherwise, the answer will be wrong.

## Rules

Follow all the rules in this order **from left to right** in the equation.

### Brackets and parentheses

Use operations inside brackets and solve any indices. You should always solve brackets first when solving an equation.

**Example**:
- 2 * 4 + (9 - 8) + 3
- 2 * 4 + **(9 - 8)** + 3
- 2 * 4 + 1 + 3
- **2 * 4** + 1 + 3
- 8 + 1 + 3
- **8 + 1** + 3
- 9 + 3
- **9 + 3**
- 12

### Exponents

When seeing an exponent, solve it first after solving the brackets. (5<sup>3</sup> = 5 * 5 * 5 = 125)

**Example**:
- 5<sup>3</sup> * 7 + 4
- **5<sup>3</sup>** * 7 + 4
- 125 * 7 + 4
- **125 * 7** + 4
- 875 + 4
- **875 + 4**
- 879

### Multiplication and division

Solve any multiplication and division in the problem. Note that multiplication does not precede division; this is a common mistake. Both are solved from left to right as they occur.

**Example**:
- 5 * 4 - 9 / 3
- **5 * 4** - 9 / 3
- 20 - 9 / 3
- 20 - **9 / 3**
- 20 - 3
- **20 - 3**
- 17

### Addition and subtraction

Lastly, solve any addition or subtraction. It always goes from left to right.

**Example**:
- 10 - 9 + 4
- **10 - 9** + 4
- 1 + 4
- **1 + 4**
- 5

#### Example one

- (1 + 8) * (4 - 1) + 16 / 2<sup>3</sup>
- **(1 + 8)** * (4 - 1) + 16 / 2<sup>3</sup>
- 9 * **(4 - 1)** + 16 / 2<sup>3</sup>
- 9 * 3 + 16 / **2<sup>3</sup>**
- 9 * 3 + 16 / 8
- **9 * 3** + 16 / 8
- 27 + **16 / 8**
- 27 + 2
- **27 + 2**
- **29**

#### Example one

- 34 * 3 + 4^2 =
- 34 * 3 + **4^2** =
- 34 * 3 + 16 =
- **34 * 3** + 16 =
- 102 + 16 =
- **102 + 16 =**
- 118

## Acronyms

The acronym for the order of standard operations is GEMDAS/PEMDAS/BOMDAS/BIMDAS, which stands for Grouping/Parenthesization/Bracketing, Exponentation, Multiplication, Division, Addition and Subtraction.

When solving 8 - 7 + 5, some people say that 7 + 5 must take precedence, but this is incorrect. Instead, one should look from left to right to find the correct answer. This rule also applies to multiplication and division.

## Related pages

- Associativity
- Commutativity
Crystal

A **crystal** is a solid whose atoms (or molecules) are arranged in a repeating pattern.

Crystals are made from fluids by Crystallization, which is a kind of phase change. Usually the fluid is a liquid, but crystals can form from a gas too. For example, snow is water crystals (ice) formed from air that contains water vapor (evaporated water). Crystallization can be by freezing from a simple fluid or from a solution. Sometimes heat and pressure needs to be applied to a substance for crystals to form. Diamond is a carbon crystal formed under heat and pressure. Crystals are found naturally or can be made artificially.

The surface of crystals often have regions that are flat, called facets. Facets occur naturally as crystals form, because flat layers of atoms are usually the most stable. The atoms in a facet are arranged in a regular pattern, such as the pattern of a chess board or a honeycomb. There facets reflect light to give crystals their shiny or sparky appearance. Artificial facets can be made in any shape by cutting or grinding a crystal, which is how some gemstones for jewelry are made.

Different substances form different types of crystals, and some can form more than one type. The study of the arrangement of atoms in crystals is crystallography. Well-known substances that form crystals are table salt (whose crystals are cubes), diamond, and quartz.

## Related pages

- Crystallization
- Crystallography
- Liquid crystal
- Crystal structure

## Other websites

- Crystal  – Citizendium
Indirect democracy

**Indirect democracy**, or representative democracy, is when citizens elect representatives to make laws for them. This is what most modern countries have today.

In a democracy the ultimate power to decide significant electoral system reforms lies with the people. The key question that democrats will tend to ask of any proposed change in electoral law or the voting mechanism is: “Will it actually increase the capacity of the electorate to get rid of unsatisfactory rulers and replace them with others?” Democrats regard that basic capacity as the best protection against bad government and the abuse of power.

Systems of government which do not permit electors to change the government are not democratic, and usually are dictatorships or one-party states.

The people have the ultimate power in a democracy to decide on substantial voting system improvements. The primary question that democrats will ask of every proposed change in election legislation or voting mechanism is, "Will it genuinely strengthen the electorate's power to replace unhappy rulers with others?" Democrats believe that fundamental capability is the strongest safeguard against bad governance and abuse of power.

Government systems that do not allow electors to alter the government are not democratic and are generally dictatorships or one-party nations.

## Related pages

- Direct democracy

## Other websites

- Electoral Reform Society
Direct democracy

**Direct democracy**, which is also called **pure democracy**, is a democracy in which the decisions are not taken by representatives. All decisions are voted on by the people.
When a budget or law needs to be passed, then the idea goes to the people. Governments of modern countries rarely make laws this way.

## Costs and benefits of direct democracy

Interest groups would have to change the minds of all people, not just a few representatives. Taxes could not be raised without the permission of the people. The few would not rule the many and the government would not pay representatives salaries. In indirect, or representative democracy, citizens elect representatives to make laws on their behalf. This is what most modern countries have today.
Direct democracy makes decisions by majority rule. Representative democracy was made with the idea that representatives would be responsible for the majority's interests while protecting minority rights. People like James Madison believed that direct democracy was bad for minority groups.

## History

Classical Athens was a direct democracy. All citizens voted on major decisions of government. But, to be a citizen, you had to be a free, land-owning, native-born man.

Switzerland has aspects of direct democracy. "Evidence suggests that attendance at assemblies... has always been limited to roughly twenty per cent of the citizenry". The practice is only used in two cantons,  Appenzell Innerrhoden and Glarus.

The Federal government of the United States does not use direct democracy but the individual states sometimes make laws by referendum. Some New England town<nowiki/>s govern themselves by a town meeting.

## Related pages

- Democracy
- Participatory democracy
- Representative democracy
Revolution

A **revolution** is a very sharp change made to something. The word comes from Latin and is related to the word _revolutio_ (which means turnaround).

Revolutions are usually political in their nature. Some people feel unhappy with their lives, and others are not happy with whole systems. They might join together, share their ideas, and make something change. Often, revolutions include fighting and civil unrest, but there are also revolutions that happen without fighting.

The Soviet Union was started by the Russian Revolution, which killed millions, and the country later fell apart in another revolution without much fighting. However, in the French Revolution (1789), there was much bloodshed, which included the Reign of Terror.

Other events often called "revolutions" include:
- Neolithic revolution
- Industrial Revolution, a shift from an agrarian society to an industrial one(1750).
- Second Industrial Revolution, a shift from horse and wood to electricity and steel
- Green Revolution of scientific agriculture
- Green Industrial Revolution, a shift from consuming fossil fuels to clean energy (Boris Johnson, June 2021, at a G7 meeting)
- The shift from an industrial society to a post-industrial one:
    - Cybernetic Revolution (1960- present)
- American Revolution
- Shift from a Communist society to a capitalist one: perestroika in the former Soviet Union (1991-2000).

The opposing idea in politics is called gradualism.

## Related pages

- Coup d'état
- Reformism
Western Digital

**Western Digital** is an American technology company. It is based in the U.S. state of California.  The company make hard drives. Hard drives are used by computers to store data.

## Infobox (company)

- **company name**: Western Digital Corporation
- **company logo**: Western Digital logo (2022).svg
- **company type**: Public company, Public (New York Stock Exchange, NYSE: [https://www.nyse.com/about/listed/lcddata.html?ticker=WDC WDC])
- **foundation**: April 23, 1970
- **location city**: Lake Forest, California, Lake Forest, Orange County, California
- **location country**: United States
- **key people**: John F. Coyne <small>(CEO)</small>
Joseph R. Carrillo <small>(Vice President/Controller/Chief accounting officer, CAO)</small>
Hossein Moghadam <small>(Chief technology officer, CTO, SVP)</small>
Thomas E. Pardun <small>(Chairman)</small>
Timothy M. Leyden <small>(Executive Vice President#Vice presidents in business, EVP, CFO)</small>
- **industry**: Computer hardware
- **products**: Hard disk drives
- **revenue**: $4.34 billion United States dollar, USD (2006)
- **net income**: $395 million United States dollar, USD (2006)
- **num employees**: 65,200 (2021)
- **subsid**: ION Media Networks
- **homepage**: [http://www.wdc.com/ www.wdc.com]
Speech

- _For 'speech', meaning a _talk_, see Public speaking_

**Speech** is when spoken language is used to communicate. Only humans have language. Animals do not have speech, but some (birds are a good example) can communicate with each other by using sounds and gestures.

Speech is made by sounds vibrating the vocal folds. Sounds through the voice box is shaped by the jaw, tongue, teeth, palate, lips, and nose.

To make speech a person has to be able to:
1. choose speech sounds
1. put them into a sequence
1. produce sound in the voice box
1. use the lips, tongue, teeth, nose and palate to shape the sounds

Difficulties can happen at any stage of this four-stage process. A speech and language therapist can help work out the stage of the sequence that has difficulties and give therapy.

Effective speech includes the following elements – fluency, flexibility, accuracy, and comprehensibility.

- **Fluency** is the ability to communicate an intended message, or affect the listener in the way that is intended by the speaker.

- **Flexibility** is the ability to adjust the message according to the responses of the listener. It also involves choosing words and expressions which will be understood by the listener(s). Compare with Cross-cultural communication.

- **Accuracy** is the use of proper grammar in spoken language.

- **Comprehensibility** is the ability to be understood by others. There are three components of sound which influence one’s comprehensibility:
    - _Pronunciation_: saying the sounds of words correctly;
    - _Intonation_: applying proper stress and rhythm while speaking; and
    - _Enunciation_: speaking clearly at an appropriate pace and volume.
Stage

**Stage** or **Stages** can mean one of the following:

### Acting

- Stage (theatre), a platform on which actors in a theatre perform
- Theatre, a branch of the performing arts, often referred to as "the stage"
- _The Stage_, a weekly British theatre newspaper

### Songs

- "Stages" (song), by ZZ Top, 1986

## Science

- Stage (geology), a period of time, shorter than an epoch

## Other uses

- Stagecoach, a vehicle pulled by horses
- A step of development, or one particular event in a chain of events, or one particular step in a number of steps
Stage (theatre)

The **stage** in a theatre is the area where the actors perform. In classical theatres, this used to be separated from where the  audience is sitting.

## Related pages

- Upstaging
Gesture

A **gesture** is a form of nonverbal communication. Unlike verbal communication, which uses words, gestures use movements of the body.

Gestures are _deliberate acts with a purpose_, not just any movements. They are handled in the human brain by the same centres which handle language. In the neocortex, Broca's and Wernicke's areas, are used by speech and sign language.

Other movements of the body have meaning, but are not gestures. They may be done by actors deliberately, but normally they are automatic, unconscious signals which express various feelings or states of mind. Many animals communicate extensively using such behaviours. The dog, a companion to humans for a long time, is good at reading both gestures and behaviours. Multi-touch computers have been made to read gestures.

Gestures have a cultural significance (meaning). The same gesture can mean different things in different cultures and different parts of the world.

## Examples

- High five – a greeting or sign of happiness
- Facepalm – showing frustration
- Sign of the cross – religious gesture
- V sign – victory or peace sign

## Anti-examples

These are not gestures, because they are not voluntary, deliberate actions. They are inherited automatic reactions or reflexes.
- Screaming out in great pain or terror.
- Baring our teeth in anger
- Cowering, turning the face away and running in terror.
- Many behaviours of babies, such as suckling on nipples.
Humans can modify these reactions to some extent with training and practice, but they are fundamentally caused by hormones and brain centres which are very ancient.

## Related pages

- Non-verbal communication
- Unconscious mind
- Acting
- Paul Watzlawick
Palpatine

**Sheev Palpatine**, also known as **Darth Sidious** or simply **the Emperor**, is a fictional character and the main antagonist of the _Star Wars_ franchise. The character is played by actor Ian McDiarmid.

## Character history

Palpatine is the main villain in each film trilogy of the Skywalker Saga. His story begins in the prequel trilogy. He is shown to be a politician and powerful Dark Lord of the Sith. Palpatine secretly tells the Trade Federation to take over his home planet Naboo. He uses the crisis to get elected as Supreme Chancellor of the Galactic Republic. He then leads the Republic into the Clone Wars. Palpatine uses the war to kill the Jedi and turns the Republic into the Empire. He makes himself emperor and turns Jedi Knight Anakin Skywalker into his apprentice, Darth Vader.

The prequel trilogy also shows Palpatine as the master of Darth Maul and Count Dooku. Palpatine's master was Darth Plagueis, who could create life and save people from death. In the final film of the original trilogy, Palpatine is killed by Darth Vader with the help of Luke Skywalker. His Empire is also defeated. Later, Palpatine returns from death and plots revenge. He creates Snoke to lead the First Order against the New Republic. He also turns Luke's nephew, Ben Solo, into Kylo Ren.

In the final film of the sequel trilogy, Palpatine is weak and in hiding on the Sith planet Exegol. He begins the Final Order to take back control of the galaxy. His plan is stopped by his granddaughter, the young Jedi Rey. Fearing her power, Palpatine tried to find Rey when she was a child, but she was hidden by her parents on the planet Jakku. He tries to get Rey to kill him, in anger, so that his spirit can possess her body. Rey refuses and destroys Palpatine with the help of the spirits of past Jedi.

## Pop culture

Since the initial theatrical run of _Return of the Jedi_, Sidious has become a widely recognized symbol of evil in popular culture, and since the prequel movies, also one of sinister deception and the subversion of democracy. The _Star Wars_ Databank describes him as "the supreme ruler of the most powerful tyrannical regime the galaxy had ever witnessed". Aside from the movies, Palpatine appears in various canon and non-canon _Star Wars_ media, including _Clone Wars_ (2003–5), _The Clone Wars_ (2008–14, 2020), _Rebels_ (2014–18), _The Bad Batch_ (2021–), _Obi-Wan Kenobi_ (2022) and _Tales of the Jedi_ (2022–), all set before the original trilogy.
Heteronym

A **heteronym** is a word, or rather several words, with different meanings. However, the words are spelt the same way. Usually they are pronounced differently.
840s

The **840s** started on 1 January 840 and ended on 31 December 849. It is distinct from the decade known as the **85th _decade**_ which began on January 1, 841 and ended on December 31, 850.

## Events

- After the death of Louis the Pious, his sons Charles the Bald, Louis the German and Lothair II of Lotharingia fight about the division of the empire until the treaty of Verdun (843).
- Viking raid of Western Francia (France) (845).
- Vikings conquer Frisia, the present Netherlands and the German North Sea coastline.
- Beginning of Arab domination on Taranto, which will last until 880.

## Important people

- Charles the Bald
- Louis the German
- Lothair I
- Kenneth I of Scotland
- Ragnar Lodbrok
880s

The **880s** Decade began on 1 January 880 and ended on 31 December 889. It is distinct from the decade known as the **89_th decade**_ which began on January 1, 881 and ended on December 31, 890.

## Events

- 885: Vikings lay siege to Paris
- 886: Alfred the Great of Wessex captures London

## Important people

- Charles the Fat
- Alfred the Great
- Basil I
1415

## Births

- Han Myeong-hoe (died 1487), Korean politician

## Deaths

- Jan Hus (born c. 1369), Bohemian religious thinker and reformer
1382

## Events

- Khan Tokhtamysh of the Golden Horde, overruns Moscow as punishment for Grand Prince Dmitri Donskoi's resistance to Khan Mamai of the Blue Horde in the 1370s. Dmitri Donskoi pledges his loyalty to Tokhtamysh and is allowed to remain as ruler of Moscow & Vladimir.
- John Wyclif's teachings are condemned by the Synod of London.
- The Ottomans take Sofia from the Bulgarians.
- August: The iconic painting The Black Madonna of Czestochowa is brought from Jerusalem to the Jasna Góra monastery in Poland.
- September, 30: The inhabitants of Trieste (now in northern Italy) donate their city to Duke Leopold III of Austria
- After a five-year revolt, Berkuk deposes Hajji II as Mamluk Sultan of Egypt, marking the end of the Bahri dynasty and the start of the Burji dynasty.
- Death of Louis I of Hungary and Poland.
    - Louis' daughter Mary becomes Queen of Hungary.
    - The Poles, who did not wish to be ruled by Mary's fiancée, the future Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund, choose Mary's younger sister, Jadwiga, to become ruler of Poland. After two years of negotiations, Jadwiga is eventually crowned "King" in 1384.
- Charles of Durazzo executes the imprisoned Joan I of Naples and succeeds her as Charles III of Naples.
- Ibrahim I is selected to succeed Husheng as Shah of Shirvan (now Azerbaijan).
- Kęstutis, the Grand Duke of Lithuania, is taken prisoner by former Grand Duke Jogaila whilst meeting him to hold negotiations. Kęstutis is subsequently murdered and Jogaila regains rule of Lithuania.
- Ahmad deposes his brother, Husain, as ruler of the Jalayirid dynasty in western Persia.
- James I succeeds his nephew, Peter II, as King of Cyprus.
- Rana Lakha succeeds Rana Kshetra Singh as ruler of Mewar (now part of western India).
- Konrad III Zöllner von Rotenstein succeeds Winrich von Kniprode as Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights.
- Balša II of Zeta (now Montenegro) conquers Albania.
- Dawit I succeeds his brother, Newaya Maryam, as Emperor of Ethiopia.
- Winchester College is founded in England.

## Births

- Duke Frederick IV of Austria (died 1439)
- Eric of Pomerania, King of Norway, Sweden and Denmark (died 1459)
- Richard de Beauchamp, 13th Earl of Warwick (died 1439)
- Lope de Barrientos, a powerful bishop in Castile

## Deaths

- April 5 – Janusz Suchywilk, Polish nobleman
- May 12 – Queen Joan I of Naples (born 1327)
- August 3 – Kestutis, Grand Duke of Lithuania (born 1297)
- August 13 – Eleanor of Aragon, queen of John I of Castile (born 1358)
- October 13 – King Peter II of Cyprus
- Philip van Artevelde, Flemish patriot (born 1340)
- King Louis I of Hungary (born 1326)
- Nicole Oresme, French philosopher (born 1325)
Mulberry

**Mulberry** (_Morus_) is a genus of 10–16 species of trees. They are native to warm regions of Asia, Africa, and the Americas, with most of the species native to Asia.

Mulberries are fast-growing when young but soon become slow-growing and rarely grow over 10-15 meters tall. The leaves are simple, often lobed, and ridged. The fruit grows in bunches, 2-3 centimeters long, is red to dark purple in color, edible, and sweet with a good flavor in several species.

The fruit is used in pies, tarts, and wines. The fruit of the black mulberry, native to southwest Asia, and the red mulberry, native to eastern North America, have the strongest flavor. The fruit of the white mulberry, an east Asian species, has a very weak flavor.

Mulberries can be grown from seeds, which is the best idea as seedling-grown trees are generally healthier. However, they are often planted from large pieces cut from other mulberry trees, which easily take root.

## White mulberry

Mulberry leaves, particularly those of the white mulberry, _Morus alba_, are important as the food of the silkworm, the cocoon of which is used to make silk. _Morus alba_ is also notable for the rapid release of its pollen, which is launched at over half the speed of sound. "This is the fastest motion yet observed in biology, and approaches the theoretical physical limits for movements in plants".
Procaine

**Procaine** is a analgesic drug. It is used primarily to reduce the pain of getting certain shots, and is also used by dentists. The drug is usually sold under the name **Novocaine**, or **Novacaine**.

Procaine was first made in 1905, and was the first man-made pain-killer that could be taken as a shot. It was created by the German scientist Alfred Einhorn (1857-1917) who gave the chemical the name Novacaine, from the Latin word _novus_ (which means new) and caine, as in "cocaine."

Procaine is not often used today because other safer and better working pain-killing drugs now exist. Prior to the discovery of procaine, cocaine was the most commonly used pain-killer. Procaine (like cocaine) has the advantage of reducing bleeding, unlike other pain-killers and without the dangerous qualities of cocaine.
Leizu

**Leizu** was a legendary Chinese queen. According to tradition, she discovered silk and invented the silk loom in the 28th century BC.

Leizu discovered silkworms while on a walk near the king's mulberry trees. However, there are different stories of exactly how she discovered that silkworms make silk.

One story says that she used her finger to touch a worm, causing a strand of silk to come out. As the silk continued to come out, she wrapped it around her finger. When the silk ran out, she saw a small cocoon, and realized that this cocoon was the source of the silk.

Another story says that she found silkworms eating the mulberry leaves and spinning cocoons. She collected some cocoons, and then sat down to have some tea. While she was sipping a cup of tea, she dropped a cocoon into the steaming water. A fine thread started to separate itself from the cocoon. Leizu found that she could unwind this soft and lovely thread around her finger.

She asked her husband to give her a grove of mulberry trees, where she could keep the worms that made these cocoons. She is credited with inventing the silk reel, which joins thin silk threads into a thicker thread strong enough for weaving. She is also credited with inventing the first silk loom. It is not known how much, if any, of this story is true, but historians do know that silk was first made in China. Leizu shared what she found out with others and the knowledge became common.
Reforesting

**Reforesting** is the process of replacing plants in an area where they have been cut down or destroyed. It usually refers to trees, but could include other types of plant life.

Reforestation is often needed after deforestation, when trees are cut down to make lumber.

Reforestation also regains back the homes of animals.

## Related pages

- Conservation biology
- Environmentalism
Cocoon

A **cocoon** is a shell made of silk by most kinds of moth caterpillars and other insect larvae. Some butterfly larvae (in the family Hesperiidae and subfamilies Parnassiinae and Satyrinae) do spin cocoons. However, most butterfly pupae are called chrysalids. Some caterpillars attach small twigs or pieces of vegetation to the outside of their cocoon to hide it from predators. Others spin their cocoon in a hidden place. Examples would be on the underside of a leaf, in a crevice, or down near the base of a tree trunk.

Silkworm cocoons are processed and used to produce natural silk for clothing.
Proctor Silex

**Proctor Silex Co.** was created in 1960 with the merger of Proctor Electric and Silex Corporation.  The company made household appliances such as toasters, irons, and coffee makers. In 1990 Proctor Silex merged with Hamilton Beach.

## Other websites

- History of Proctor-Silex, 1788 to 1972
Idiot

**Idiot** is a word used to describe someone who is not very smart.

## Modern usage

Today "idiot" is often used to show that someone has done something which was not very clever:
- "You _idiot_, look at what you just did!" (using the word as a noun)
- "I think that idea is perfectly _idiotic_." (using the word as an adjective)

## In literature and folklore

The word "fool" is similar to "idiot", but it is not as strong. In the history of drama a "fool" was a jester: someone who made people laugh. Kings often had jesters in real life. A court jester had the job of making the king feel happy when he was sad. Jesters often pretended to be stupid, but were actually very clever. There are jesters and fools in a lot of Shakespeare’s plays.

The word simple can also be similar to "idiot". Someone who is simple is a person who is not very clever or "streetwise". They are naïve and can easily be made to believe things because they are kind and expect everyone else to be kind as well. Such people are often called simpletons.

Idiots or simpletons are commonly used in literature. In German literature (and in Wagner’s opera), Parsifal is described as "perfect fool" because he does not understand the evil ways of the world and is therefore completely good. That is why he can break the magic spell cast by Klingsor. The idiot often appears in Russian literature. Because the idiot is so simple he (it is always a male) is often able to express the truth which other people cannot see. Dostoevsky wrote a novel called _The Idiot_. It is about a man who is simple and trusting. At the end of the opera _Boris Godunov_ by Mussorgsky the crowd of poor people gather round the simpleton who is the last person to sing in the whole opera. His moans express the fact that Russia will continue to be ruled by cruel dictators and the people will remain poor.

## In humorous parlance

The word "idiot" refers to a genetically incompetent human who is mentally inert on exposure to others - may have dampened senses and mental acuity when applied to any relatively simple task from long periods spent in a dark cave: the idiot's "natural habitat". Idiots tend to be ignorant of any metal and physical deficiency within themselves, simply because they do not want to believe it exists (even though it does, and they are aware of it). Mental deficiencies of others however, are overtly proclaimed by the idiots in order for them to separate themselves from habitual human tendencies, though they succumb to them more than they intend. They make no effort to rectify these though, as they view themselves in the best possible light.
Developmental psychology

**Developmental psychology**, also called human development, is the emotional study of how a person changes psychologically (mind and behavior) as they get older. Developmental psychologists first studied infants and children, and later they also studied teenagers (or adolescents) and adults. Developmental psychology studies human change in a lot of areas, including motor skills (and other processes that are both physical and psychological), problem solving abilities, understanding of concepts, learning language, moral understanding, and identity.

## Related pages

- Jean Piaget
Lip

The **lips** are a body part around the mouth. There is a (usually larger) lower lip, and a smaller upper lip. They help us to eat, touch and speak.

Lips also show emotions.
Allergy

An **allergy** is something which triggers an **allergic reaction**. This is the immune system defending the body against attack by bacteria and viruses.

Having an allergy is when a thing (called an allergen) cannot enter the body without them getting sick. Sometimes the system goes wrong, and is triggered by some normal food, or flares up when the family pet comes into the room. This is what the ordinary person calls an 'allergy'.

## 'Allergic reactions'

When people come in contact with something they are allergic to, there can be many different reactions.

These reactions include the face and skin: itchy eyes, drippy or stuffy noses, swollen face, and develop a rash called hives.

It can affect the respiratory tract: sneezing, and coughing. If it is a food allergy, the person may get an upset stomach.

Sometimes a person's oesophagus (throat), may swell up so much that the person can no longer breathe. This is called anaphylaxis. When this happens, a doctor must give the person a medicine called epinephrine to make the swelling go down. Some people with allergies to very common things, like bee stings or fish or nuts, carry this medicine with them so it can be used quickly in an emergency.

The device used to treat allergies and inject the medicine is called an epinephrine autoinjector.

## Common allergies

Some common food allergies are:
- Nuts, especially peanuts
- Fish or shellfish
- Dairy products
- Eggs
- Products of soy
- Wheat
- Fruits (kiwis and bananas, avocado)

Some common environmental allergies are:

- Latex - these allergies can overlap with fruit allergies, or develop through exposure to latex
- Pollen
- Ragweed
- Mold
- Furry pets, fluffy housing decorations, or bedsheets and pillows etc.
- Bee or wasp stings
- Dust mites
- Tobacco smoke
- Pollution

## Related pages

- Histamine
- corticosteroids
Alfred Dreyfus

**Alfred Dreyfus** (9 October 1859 – 12 July 1935) was a French officer of Jewish descent.

He was wrongly accused of treason against the French military. This scandal was known as the Dreyfus affair.

He was imprisoned on Devil's Island in French Guiana.

His highest rank was lieutenant colonel.

Dreyfus was born in Mulhouse and died in Paris.
Nucleic acid

**Nucleic acids** are large molecules where genetic information is stored. There are two types of nucleic acids: deoxyribonucleic acid, better known as **DNA** and ribonucleic acid, better known as **RNA**.

The nucleic acids are made of nucleotides. A nucleotide is made of a nitrogenous base, sugar with five carbon atoms and a phosphate group.

Nucleic acids allow organisms to transfer genetic information from one generation to the next. When a cell divides, its DNA is copied and passed from one cell generation to the next generation.

DNA is organized into chromosomes and found within the nucleus of our cells. Its function in any cell is to carry the sequence of bases which will be transcribed into RNA. The function of RNA is much more difficult to explain. One well-known function is for messenger RNA to be translated into proteins, mainly enzymes. But there are other types of RNA, and these are called non-coding RNAs.
Adam Elliot

**Adam Elliot** (born January 2, 1972) is an Australian animator. He is from Melbourne, Australia. His short movie called _Harvey Krumpet_ won the 2003 Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film. He uses claymation and has won five Australian Film Institute Awards because of his work.

## Early life

Elliot was brought up on a prawn farm run by his father who had once been a circus clown, and his mother who had been a hairdresser. The family later moved to Melbourne, where Elliot made money selling hand painted T-shirts at local markets. After finishing school he went to the Victorian College of the Arts to study animation.

## Other websites

- Adam Elliot's website