juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Gastrolith

**Gastroliths**, or **gizzard stones**, are small rocks kept by an animal inside its stomach or at an early part of the alimentary canal. The function of these is to mash up the food so digestion takes place faster. Typically, animals which do this do not have suitable teeth for grinding, and the gastroliths are a good substitute for this.

A second function, in aquatic animals, is that gastroliths can be used for ballast to make diving easier.

## Identification

Several pieces of evidence are needed to show that a rock was used by a fossil animal to aid its digestion. First, the stone must be unlike the rock found in its geological vicinity. Secondly, it should be rounded and polished, because inside a gizzard any genuine gastrolith would grind against other stones and fibrous materials, like the action of a rock tumbler. Lastly, the stone must be found with the fossils of the animal which ingested it.

## Occurrence

Among living vertebrates, gastroliths are common among crocodiles, alligators, herbivorous birds, seals and sea lions. Domestic fowl need access to _grit_.  Stones swallowed by ostriches can exceed a length of . Amphibians such as the Axolotl ingest rocks that are presumed to be gastroliths. Apparent microgastroliths have also been found in frog tadpoles. Ingestion of silt and gravel by tadpoles of various frog species improves buoyancy control.

Sauropod dinosaurs appear to have used stones to grind tough plant matter. An example of this is the early Cretaceous theropod _Caudipteryx zoui_ from northeastern China. It was discovered with a series of small stones, in the area of its skeleton that would have corresponded with its abdominal region. Aquatic animals, such as plesiosaurs, may have used them as ballast, to help balance themselves or to decrease their buoyancy, as crocodiles do. Some fossil gastroliths are rounded and polished, many stones in living birds are not polished at all. Gastroliths associated with dinosaur fossils can weigh several kilograms.
Scute

A **scute** is a bony plate found on the shells of turtles, the skin of crocodiles and the feet of some birds.

## Properties

Like scales, scutes cover the skin of an animal to protect it. Unlike the scales of fish and snakes, which are formed from the epidermis, scutes are formed in the lower vascular layer of the skin and the epidermal element is only the top surface. Forming in the living dermis, the scutes produce a horny outer layer, which looks like that of scales.

The dermal base may contain bone and produce dermal armour. Scutes with a bony base are properly called **osteoderms**. Dermal scutes are also found in the feet of birds and tails of some mammals, and are believed to be the primitive form of dermal armour in reptiles.

The term is also used to describe the heavy armour of the armadillo and the extinct glyptodon, and is occasionally used as an alternative to scales in describing snakes or certain fish, such as sturgeon.
BepiColombo

**BepiColombo** is a joint mission of the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) to the planet Mercury.  It launched on October 20, 2018 and it is planned to arrive at Mercury On December 5, 2025.

## Infobox (spaceflight/ip)

- **type**: orbiter
- **object**: Mercury (planet), Mercury
- **component**: Mercury Planetary Orbiter
- **arrival date**: Planned: 5 December 2025
- **inclination**: 90°
- **apsis**: hermion


## Infobox (spaceflight/ip)

- **type**: orbiter
- **object**: Mercury (planet), Mercury
- **component**: Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter
- **arrival date**: Planned: 5 December 2025
- **inclination**: 90°
- **apsis**: hermion


## Infobox (spaceflight)

- **auto**: all
- **name**: _BepiColombo_
- **image**: BepiColombo spacecraft model.png
- **image caption**: Artist's depiction of the _BepiColombo_ mission, with the Mercury Planetary Orbiter (left) and Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter (right)
- **image alt**: Mercury Planetary Orbiter and Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter
- **image size**: 275px
- **mission type**: Planetary science
- **operator**: European Space Agency, ESAJAXA
- **cospar id**: 2018-080A
- **mission duration**: Cruise: 7 years (planned)
Elapsed:
- **manufacturer**: EADS AstriumInstitute of Space and Astronautical Science, ISAS
- **bol mass**: MPO:
 MMO:
- **dimensions**: MPO:
 MMO:
- **power**: MPO: 150 W
 MMO: 90 W
- **launch rocket**: Ariane 5, Ariane 5 ECA
- **launch site**: Guiana Space Centre
- **launch contractor**: Arianespace
- **insignia caption**: ESA solar system insignia for _BepiColombo_
- **insignia size**: 180x180px
- **programme**: **List of European Space Agency programs and missions#Horizon 2000+, Horizon 2000+**
- **previous mission**: _LISA Pathfinder_
Sputnik 2

**Sputnik 2** was a Soviet Union spacecraft. It was the second spacecraft in the Sputnik programme. It was the first spacecraft to carry a living animal, a dog called Laika. It was launched on 3 November 1957 at Baikonur Cosmodrome. Scientists think that Laika died several hours after launch from overheating. The spacecraft went into orbit around Earth for roughly five months. It went down into Earth's atmosphere on 14 April 1958 and burned up.

Sputnik 2 was 4 metres (13 feet) high and its base diameter was 2 metres (6.6 feet). It was a cone-shaped and it had several different places for radio transmitters, a telemetry system, a programming unit, a regeneration and temperature control system for the spacecraft, and scientific instruments. Laika was put in a special area.

## Related pages

- Sputnik programme
- Sputnik 1

## Infobox (spaceflight)

- **name**: Sputnik 2
- **image caption**: Model of Sputnik 2 at the Polytechnic Museum in Moscow
- **mission type**: Bioscience
- **operator**: OKB-1
- **harvard designation**: 1957 Beta 1
- **satcat**: 00003
- **mission duration**: 162 days
- **orbits completed**: 2570
- **manufacturer**: Korolev Design Bureau, OKB-1
- **launch mass**: (payload only)
- **launch date**:  UTC
- **launch rocket**: Sputnik (rocket), Sputnik 8K71PS
- **launch site**: Baikonur Cosmodrome, Baikonur Baikonur Cosmodrome Site 1, 1/5
- **orbit epoch**: 3 November 1957
- **orbit reference**: Geocentric orbit, Geocentric
- **orbit regime**: low Earth orbit, Low Earth
- **orbit inclination**: 65.3 degrees
- **orbit eccentricity**: 0.0990965
- **orbit period**: 103.73 minutes
- **apsis**: gee
Michal Prokop

**Michal Prokop** (* August 13, 1946, Prague, Czechoslovakia, today Czech Republic) is a Czech singer, songwriter and politician. He is member of Framus Five. In 2007 he was inducted into the Beatová síň slávy (Beat Hall of Fame).

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Michal Prokop
- **img**: Michal Prokop.jpg
- **img capt**: Michal Prokop in 2007
- **background**: solo_singer
- **birth date**: August 13, 1946
- **birth place**: Prague, Czechoslovakia
- **instrument**: Vocals
- **genre**: Rock music, blues, soul music
- **occupation**: Musician, songwriter, politician
- **years active**: 1968-present
- **associated acts**: Framus Five
- **url**: [http://www.michalprokop.cz/ www.michalprokop.cz]
Megali Idea

The **Megali Idea** was an idea in Greek nationalism since the end of the Byzantine Empire. The goal of Megali Idea was the liberation of all Greek-inhabited lands occupied by Ottoman Empire.
Paula Fernandes

**Paula Fernandes de Souza** (born August 28, 1984) is a Brazilian sertanejo and country singer.

## Other websites

- Paula Fernandes Official Website
Nodosauridae

The **Nodosauridae** is a family of ankylosaur dinosaurs, from Upper Jurassic to Upper Cretaceous strata of what are now North America, Asia, Antarctica and Europe. They are the family of ankylosaurs which do not have club-shaped tails. They often have spikes protecting their head and shoulders.

All nodosaurs, like other ankylosaurs, are medium-sized to large, heavily built quadrupedal herbivorous dinosaurs, with small denticulate teeth and rows of osteoderms (a type of armour) on the dorsolateral (top and sides) surfaces of the body.

### Taxonomy

The following taxonomy follows Thompson _et al._, 2011 unless otherwise noted.

- **Family Nodosauridae**
    - ?_Aletopelta_  (California, Western North America)
    - _Animantarx_   (Utah, Western North America)
    - _Anoplosaurus_  (England, Northwestern Europe)
    - _Antarctopelta_  (James Ross Island, Northeastern Antarctic Peninsula)
    - _Edmontonia_   (Alberta, Western North America)
    - _Gargoyleosaurus_  (Wyoming, Western North America)
    - _Gastonia_   (Utah, Western North America)
    - _Glyptodontopelta_  (New Mexico, Western North America)
    - _Hoplitosaurus_  (South Dakota, central North America)
    - _Hungarosaurus_   (Hungary, Central-Southern Europe)
    - _Hylaeosaurus_  (Sussex, Southern England)
    - _Mymoorapelta_  (Colorado, central North America)
    - _Niobrarasaurus_  (Kansas, Western North America)
    - _Nodosaurus_  (Wyoming and Kansas, Western North America)
    - _Panoplosaurus_   (Montana and Alberta, Western North America)
    - _Pawpawsaurus_    (Texas, Western North America)
    - _Peloroplites_    (Utah, Western North America)
    - _Polacanthus_  (Isle of Wight and Sussex, Southern England)
    - _Propanoplosaurus_ (Maryland, Eastern North America)
    - _Sauropelta_     (Wyoming and Montana, Western North America)
    - _Silvisaurus_   (Kansas, Western North America)
    - _Stegopelta_ (Wyoming, Western North America)
    - _Struthiosaurus_   (Central-Southern Europe)
    - _Tatankacephalus_  (Montana, Western North America)
    - _Texasetes_    (Texas, Western North America)
    - _Zhejiangosaurus_  (Zhejiang Province, Eastern China)
- **Doubtful Nodosaurids**
    - _Acanthopholis_  (United Kingdom, Western Europe)
    - _Palaeoscincus_

### Phylogeny

The clade Nodosauridae may be defined as "all ankylosaurs closer to _Panoplosaurus_ than to _Ankylosaurus_. Vickaryous _et al._  considered the most primitive member of the Nodosauridae to be _Cedarpelta_. A cladogram from a 2011 analysis is shown by Richard S. Thompson and colleagues.
French grammar

**French grammar** is the rules about how to speak and write the French language. It is similar to the grammar of other Romance languages.

French is moderately inflected. This means that some words change their form in different situations.

## Verb

In French, verbs are conjugated to show information. That means they change endings.

### Person

Verbs are conjugated to match with grammatical person.

### Irregular Verbs

Most French verbs are regular, which means that the someone can guess how to conjugate a verb based on what letters a verb ends with. However, some verbs are irregular. Irregular verbs do not follow the normal pattern of conjugation. Instead, the forms must be learned differently. An example of an irregular verb in French is _être_ (to be).

### Gender

Every French noun has a gender. A noun can be either masculine or feminine.

### Number

The plural of a noun usually ends with -_s_. For example, dog (_chien_) becomes dogs (_chiens_). However, if a noun ends in -_au_, -_eu_, or -_ou_, it can have -_x_ at the end as a plural. For example, game (_jeu_) becomes games (_jeux_). If a noun already ends with -_s_, -_x_, or -_z_, it does not change in the plural.

## Adjectives

In French, adjectives change in order to agree with the gender and number of the noun it describes.

## Word order

The word order in French is subject-verb-object. In the sentence _Je mange le gâteau_ (I eat the cake), _je_ (I) is the subject and _le gâteau_ (the cake) is the object. However, if the object is a pronoun, it goes before the verb. If _le gâteau_ is replaced by _le_ (it), the sentence becomes _Je le mange_ (I eat it).
Stem (linguistics)

The **stem** of a verb is the main part of the verb to which the endings are added.

## References

eo:Radiko#Lingvo
Qinhuangdao

**Qinhuangdao** (秦皇岛) is a city in the north of China. It is in Hebei Province.

It is about  east of Beijing, on the Bohai Sea. The city had 2,987,605 people as of 2010. Qinhuangdao is one of fourteen coastal open cities, which are important foreign trade ports in north China. It was approved as a national grade tourist city by the State Council. Famous scenic spots include Shanhaiguan and Beidaihe. Qinhuangdao City is a state-level economic and technological development zone of Qinhuangdao.

The name in Chinese means "island of the Qin Emperor" or "Emperor Qin's island", since it was where Emperor Qin Shi Huang sent men to search for immortals, or living beings who cannot die or grow old, across the sea.

## Geography

Qinhuangdao City, Hebei Province, is in the northeast of China , north latitude 39 ° 24 '~ 40 ° 37', longitude 118 ° 33 '~ 119 ° 51'.  Qinhuangdao's climate is a humid, temperate, monsoon climate, influenced by the ocean.

## Transportation

Qinhuangdao's train station serves the Beijing-Harbin Railway, Daqin Railway and Tsuyama railway. China's first express passenger line between Qinhuangdao and Shenyang Passenger starts here. The line became the official carrier on October 12, 2013.

Qinhuangdao Shanhaiguan Airport has flights from Shijiazhuang, Wuhan and Shanghai.

Qinhuangdao's Port is one of China's bigger energy output ports. It is one of the major ports where China's Shanxi Coal can go to other countries. It is a natural, ice-free harbor.

## Industry

The very important industries are glass, ship making, Metallurgy (making gold),  and auto parts.

## Education

Yanshan University and the Hebei Institute of International Business and Economics (HIIBE) is in Qinhuangdao.

## Other websites

- How to Pronounce Qinhuangdao. PronounceNames.com
Penghu

The **Penghu Islands**, also known as **Pescadores** (from Portuguese: "fishermen") are an archipelago off the western coast of Taiwan. They are in the Taiwan Strait. The Archipelago is made up of 90 small islands and islets. It covers an area of .

The whole archipelago forms Penghu County under Taiwan Province in the Republic of China. The archipelago and the island of Taiwan together formed the former Japanese territory of Formosa.
Yanshan University

**Yanshan University** is a university in Qinhuangdao, Hebei, China.

## Other websites

- Yan Shan University  official website
Insertion device

In physics, an **insertion device** is a group of magnets that can be placed on a straight segment of a particle accelerator to be a synchrotron light source.  They are called an "insertion devices" because they replace pipe that otherwise would hold the vacuum needed to maintain the particle beam path. Many times, insertion devices are used on the circular path of a synchrotron or a storage ring.

There are two types of insertion devices. Undulators make electromagnetic radiation that is tuned to a narrow frequency range.  Wigglers make a wide range of electromagnetic radiation frequencies.
Conférence des directeurs des écoles françaises d'ingénieurs

The **Conférence des directeurs des écoles françaises d'ingénieurs** (**CDEFI**) is a French association, established in 1976, of Grandes Écoles of engineering. The CDEFI represents the administration of all the engineering institutions.
Fred Burton

**Fred Burton** (born January 2, 1958) is STATFOR's vice president for intelligence. STRATFOR is a global intelligence company. Burton is thought to be "one of the world's foremost experts on security, terrorists and terrorist organizations." This basically means that he is thought to be one of the world's best intelligence workers.

He was a special agent with the U.S. Diplomatic Security Service.

Washington asked Burton to help the investigation of the assassination of Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin. He used to be the deputy chief of the counter-terrorism part of the U.S. State Department's Diplomatic Security Service. He also investigated the killing of Rabbi Meir Kahane, the al Qaeda New York City bombing plots before the September 11 attacks and the Libyan-backed terrorist attacks against diplomats in Sana'a and Khartoum. He helped in the arrest of Ramzi Yousef, the mastermind of the first World Trade Center bombing in 1993.

Burton is the author of a memoir called _Ghost: Confessions of a Counterterrorism Agent_. It was published by Random House in 2008. Another memoir is _Chasing Shadows: A Special Agent's Lifelong Hunt to Bring a Cold War Assassin to Justice_, published by Palgrave Macmillan in 2011.

Burton was moved to the Texas Border Security Council on September 11, 2007 by Governor Rick Perry.

In August 2009 he was hired as the Texas Department of Public Safety's Assistant Director for Intelligence and Counter-Terrorism but left after 2 months. This was because he wanted to work on his writing and speaking career.

## Other websites

- STRATFOR website
Collimated light

**Collimated light** is light whose rays are parallel. This light spreads slowly as it travels. The word _collimated_ is related to _collinear_, because all the rays in collimated light line up with each other.

Perfectly collimated light would not spread out with distance at all. No real light is perfectly collimated. Real light will spread a little as it travels. Diffraction prevents anyone from creating a perfectly collimated beam.

Light can be roughly collimated by using a _collimator_ – a device which narrows a beam of particles or waves.

## Etymology

The word "collimate" comes from the Latin verb _collimare_, which originated in a misreading of _collineare_, "to direct in a straight line".

### Lasers

Laser light from crystal and some gas lasers is highly collimated because it is formed in an optical cavity between two parallel mirrors, in addition to being coherent. The divergence of high-quality laser beams is commonly less than 1 milliradian, and can be much less for large-diameter beams. Laser diodes emit less collimated light due to their short cavity, and therefore higher collimation requires a collimating lens.

### Synchrotron light

Synchrotron light is very collimated. It is produced by bending relativistic electrons around a circular track.

### Distant sources

The light from stars (other than the Sun) can be considered collimated for almost any purpose, because they are so far away they have almost no angular size.

### Lenses and mirrors

A perfect parabolic mirror will bring parallel rays to a focus at a single point. Conversely, a point source at the focus of a parabolic mirror will produce a beam of collimated light. Since the source needs to be small, such an optical system cannot produce much optical power. Spherical mirrors are easier to make than parabolic mirrors and they are often used to produce approximately collimated light. Many types of lenses can also produce collimated light from point-like sources.

## References

- Pfister, J. & Kneedler, J.A. (s.d.). A guide to lasers in the OR.
Hispanic

**Hispanic** (Spanish: _Hispano_, _hispánico_) is a word that originally meant a relationship to Hispania. This is the Iberian Peninsula and includes Portugal, Andorra, Gibraltar and Spain. Now the word is used with a more limited meaning.

In the United States, Hispanic and Latino are different ethnic categories. **Hispanic** simply means a person who comes from a country where Spanish is the official language, this includes Puerto Rico of the United States whereas **Latino** means a person who comes from a country in Latin America (which includes only Mexico of North America, the Caribbean, Central America, and South America).

- A person who has roots from Mexico, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Guatemala, Nicaragua, El Salvador, Ecuador, Bolivia, Peru, Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Paraguay, Honduras, Venezuela, Costa Rica, Uruguay, and Panama is both Hispanic and Latino.

- A person who has roots from Spain, Equatorial Guinea, and Western Sahara is Hispanic, but not Latino.
- A person who has roots from Brazil, French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Haiti, Saint Barthélemy, and Saint Martin is Latino, but not Hispanic.

Spanish names, the Spanish language, and Spanish customs can also be found in other areas that were part of the Spanish Empire, such as in Equatorial Guinea or in the Philippines.
Muryeong of Baekje

**Muryeong of Baekje** (462–523, r. 501–23), also known as **Sama**, was a 6th-century Korean king.   He was the 25th king of Baekje, which was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea in ancient times.  The name Muryong means "military peace".  It is a name he got after death.

## Events of Muryeong's reign

During Muryeong’s reign, the southwestern kingdom of Baekje was allied with its eastern rival Silla against the northern kingdom of Goguryeo.

The king is known for expanding contacts with China and Japan.

## After his death

Muryeong's tomb is located in Gongju in South Chungcheong Province.  It has been studied by archeologists and historians.  This the only ancient tomb that has been positively identified among those of this period.

## Legacy

In 2001, Japan's Emperor Akihito acknowledged a distant relationship with Muryeong.  He explained, "I, on my part, feel a certain kinship with Korea, given the fact that it is recorded in the _Chronicles of Japan_ that the mother of Emperor Kammu was of the line of King Muryong of Baekje."

## More Reading

- Kim, Won-Yong. “The Tomb of King Muryong of the Paekche Dynasty.” _Asian Pacific Quarterly of Cultural and Social Affairs_ (Seoul) 3:3 (Winter 1971): 34-46.
- Paik, Seung-gil. "Excavation of the Tomb of Paekche King Muryong." _Korea Journal_ 11:8 (August 1971): 48-51.

## Other websites

- http://www.myj7000.jp-biz.net/clan/03/03013.htm#003

## Infobox (korean name)

- **hangul**: 무령왕, 무녕왕, 무영왕
- **hanja**: 武寧王
- **rr**: Muryeong-wang, Munyeong-wang, Muyeong-wang
- **mr**: Muryǒng-wang, Munyǒng-wang, Muyǒng-wang
- **hangulborn**: 사마, 여융
- **hanjaborn**: 斯摩, 餘隆
- **rrborn**: Sama, Yeoyung
- **mrborn**: Sama, Yŏyung
Arena rock

**Event Centre rock** (also known as **arena rock**, **corporate rock**, **industry rock**,or **stadium rock**) is a word to describe a form of rock music which is played, or intended to be played, in large venues, such as event centres, arenas, stadia, and open-air concert spaces. In such a way, genres which traditionally fall within the categories of event centre rock tend to be (yet not always) loud and anthemic; event centre rock is most traditionally associated with heavy metal, progressive rock, hard rock, glam metal or pop rock genres. Often, yet not always, event centre rock is categorised as being more mass-scale, commercially appealing, and radio-oriented music. Due to the often commercial nature of event centre rock, it is occasionally called **corporate rock**.

Event centre rock is generally associated with the grand shows that artists and groups within the style would hold. At these performances, large sound systems, and often elaborate lighting, additional effects and fireworks, would be included. The 1970s and 80s were a major period in event centre rock.

Whilst event centre rock has seen large popularity over the years, especially from the 1960s to the 1980s, it has also been criticised for its often commercial and extravagant nature, especially with regards to the shows and concert tours that event centre rock bands and artists would have. To some extent, genres such as pub rock, punk rock, indie rock and alternative rock grew as a reaction against the nature and aesthetic of event centre rock, opting for a less commercial and over-the-top style.

Famous bands associated with event centre rock include Kiss, Queen, Aerosmith, Journey, and Styx, amongst several others.

## Notable musicians

- AC/DC
- Aerosmith
- Blue Öyster Cult
- Boston
- Def Leppard
- The Eagles
- Elton John
- Foreigner
- Journey
- Bon Jovi
- Judas Priest
- Kansas
- Kiss
- Meat Loaf
- Peter Frampton
- Queen
- REO Speedwagon
- Styx
- Toto
- Van Halen

## Infobox (music genre)

- **bgcolor**: crimson
- **color**: white
- **name**: Arena rock music
- **cultural origins**: The Early 1960s and the Middle 1970s in United States, the United States of America
Christmas 2011 Nigeria attacks

On 25 December, 2011, there were a number of attacks on Christmas Day during church services in northern Nigeria. There were bombings and shootings at churches in Madalla (near the capital, Abuja), Jos, Gadaka and Damaturu. At least 39 people were killed. The attacks were claimed by the Islamist group Boko Haram.

## Infobox (civilian attack)

- **title**: Christmas 2011 Nigeria attacks
- **partof**: the Boko Haram insurgency
- **location**: Madalla, Jos, Gadaka and Damaturu, Nigeria
- **target**: Nigerian Christians
- **date**: 25 December 2011
- **timezone**: UTC+01:00
- **type**: Suicide bombing, Bombings and Shootings
- **fatalities**: 39+
- **injuries**: 52+
- **perp**: Boko Haram (Claimed)
- **weapon**: *Grenades and other Artifacts
- **numparts**: Unknown
Albert Leo Schlageter

**Albert Leo Schlageter** (12 August 1894 — 26 May 1923) was a member of the German Freikorps. His activities sabotaging French occupying troops after World War I led to his arrest and eventual execution by French forces. His death created an image of martyrdom around him, which was cultivated by German nationalist groups, in particular the National Socialist German Workers Party. During the Third Reich, he was widely commemorated as a national hero.
Triglav

**Triglav** is a mountain in the Alps. It is the highest mountain in Slovenia. It is also the highest peak of the Julian Alps, in the southeastern part of the Alps.

Its name means "three-headed" in Slovene. While this can describe the mountain, it is more likely the mountain was named for the Old Slovene god, Triglav. The mountain is shown on the Flag of Slovenia.

This mountain is in a national park.

## Infobox (mountain)

- **name**: Triglav
- **photo**: Triglav.jpg
- **photo caption**: Triglav viewed from the east
- **map**: Slovenia
- **map caption**: Slovenia
- **label position**: right
- **listing**: List of countries by highest point, Country high point
Ultra prominent peak, Ultra
- **translation**: three peaks
- **location**: Slovene Littoral, Littoral, Upper Carniola, Slovenia
- **range**: Julian Alps
- **first ascent**: 1778
- **easiest route**: scramble / via ferrata
Climbing route

A **climbing route** is a trail that a mountain climber uses to go up a mountain.
It is often simply called a _climb_.

Examples : D1 on The Diamond and The Nose on El Capitan are climbing routes.

The difficulties and lengths of climbing routes (as well as descriptions and photographies) can be found in books called climbing guides. For instance, :en:Fifty Classic Climbs of North America is a climbing guide that describes climbing routes of North America.
Chillán

**Chillán** is a city and commune of the central south of Chile. It has a population of 161.953 people (2002 census). the city was founded in 1580 as _San Bartolomé de Chillán_. It is the capital of the Ñuble Region.

## Other websites

- Chillán's official website

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Chillán
- **settlement type**: List of cities in Chile, City and Communes of Chile, Commune
- **image skyline**: Ciudad de Chillán.png
- **image caption**: Panorama of Chillán
- **image shield**: Escudo de Chillán.svg
- **image map**: Comuna de Chillán.svg
- **mapsize**: 175px
- **map caption**: Location of the Chillán commune in the Ñuble Region
- **map alt**: Location of the Chillán commune in the Ñuble Region
- **pushpin map**: Chile
- **subdivision type**: List of sovereign states, Country
- **subdivision name**: Chile
- **subdivision type1**: Regions of Chile, Region
- **subdivision name1**: Ñuble Region, Ñuble
- **subdivision type2**: Provinces of Chile, Province
- **subdivision name2**: Diguillín Province, Diguillín
- **government type**: Municipality
- **leader title**: Alcalde
- **leader party**: ILE
- **leader name**: Sergio Zarzar Andonie
- **established title**: _San Bartolomé de Chillán_
- **established date**: 1580
- **founder**: Martín Ruiz de Gamboa
- **unit pref**: Metric
- **area total km2**: 511.2
- **population total**: 161953
- **population as of**: 2002 Census
- **population density km2**: auto
- **population demonym**: _Chillanejo_ or _Chillanense_
- **population blank1 title**: Urban area, Urban
- **population blank1**: 148015
- **population blank2 title**: Rural area, Rural
- **population blank2**: 13938
- **demographics type1**: Sex
- **demographics1 title1**: Men
- **demographics1 info1**: 77,007
- **demographics1 title2**: Women
- **demographics1 info2**: 84,946
- **timezone**: Time in Chile, CLT
- **utc offset**: −4
- **timezone dst**: Time in Chile, CLST
- **utc offset dst**: −3
- **area code**: _country_ + _city_ = 56 + 42
- **website**: [http://www.municipalidadchillan.cl/ Municipality of Chillán]
Summit

The **summit** is the top of a mountain or hill. In geography, the elevation is measured, which is the difference in height between sea level and the top of the mountain or hill. A **peak** is a usually a pointed mountain.
Femoral artery

The **femoral artery** is the large artery that takes oxygen rich blood to a human's legs. Coming from the heart the blood flows along the iliac artery which then divides into the two (bifurcates) femoral arteries, to supply blood to each leg. The artery is very close to the surface where it passes through the groin.

## Infobox (artery)

- **image**: File:Gray1245.png
- **caption**: Picture showing the location of the femoral artery
Enterotype

An **enterotype** is a classification of gut flora. It is based on the ecosystem in the human intestinal system. The classification is done by identifying the bacteria and protists which live there. This is called the "human gut biome".

Research shows there are three distinct ecosystems in the guts of people. People can be classified into one of three groups based on the bacteria in their intestines. The enterotype of each person is set while the person is an infant.

The enterotype affects how well a person can digest food or absorb drugs. Chimpanzees have enterotypes that look similar to human enterotypes.

Type 1 has high levels of _Bacteroides_. _Prevotella_ are common in Type 2. Type 3 has high levels of _Ruminococcus_.
Emperor Kōnin

was the 49th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.  Kōnin's reign started in 770 and ended in 781.

## Traditional narrative

Before he became the monarch, this prince's personal name (_imina_) was

Kōnin had five wives and seven Imperial sons and daughters.

## Events of Kōnin's life

- **8 September 769** (_Jingo-keiun 3, 4th day of the 8th month_): In the 5th year of Shōtoku's reign, she died; and Prince Shirakabe was her heir.
- **28 August 770** (_Jingo-keiun 4, 4th day of the 8th month_):   The succession (_senso_) was received by Prince Shirakabe, who was the 62-year-old grandson of Emperor Tenji.
- **23 October 770** (_Jingo-keiun 4, 1st day of the 10th month_): Emperor Kōnin was said to have acceded to the throne (_sokui_) in a formal ceremony.  The era name was changed to Hōki 1.
- **781** (_Ten'ō 1, 4th month_): In the 11th year of Kōnin's reign, he abdicated in favor of his son who became known as Emperor Kammu.
- **781** (_Ten'ō 1, 12th month_) : Kōnin died at the age of 73.

### After his death

Emperor Kōnin is traditionally venerated at his tomb, the Imperial Household Agency<nowiki/>designates _Tahara no Higashi no Misasagi_ in Nara as the location of Kōnin's mausoleum.

## Eras of Kōnin's reign

The years of Kōnin's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name (_nengō_).
- _Hōki_ (770–781)
- _Ten'ō_ (781–782)

## Related pages

- Emperor of Japan
- List of emperors of Japan
- Japanese imperial family tree

## Infobox (monarch)

- **name**: Kōnin
- **title**: Emperor of Japan
- **reign**: 770–781
- **predecessor**: Empress Shōtoku, Shōtoku
- **successor**: Emperor Kammu, Kammu
- **birth date**: 18 November 709
- **death date**: 11 January 782
- **burial place**: _Tahara no higashi no misasagi_ (Nara)
Monroe, Louisiana

**Monroe** is the eighth most populous city in the U.S. state of Louisiana. It is the parish seat of Ouachita Parish. In 2020, 47,702 people lived there.

## Transportation

- - I-20

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Monroe, Louisiana
- **official name**: City of Monroe
- **settlement type**: List of municipalities in Louisiana, City
- **image skyline**: Monroe, Louisiana skyline in 2021.png
- **image caption**: Downtown skyline
- **nickname**: Twin Cities of Northeast Louisiana
- **motto**: "One City, One Future"
- **map caption**: Interactive map of Monroe
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision type1**: U.S. state, State
- **subdivision type2**: List of parishes in Louisiana, Parish
- **subdivision name2**: Ouachita Parish, Louisiana, Ouachita
- **established title**: Incorporated (town)
- **established title1**: Incorporated (city)
- **named for**: James Monroe
- **leader party**: Independent politician, I
- **leader title**: Mayor
- **leader name**: Friday Ellis
- **leader title1**: City Council
- **unit pref**: Imperial
- **elevation ft**: 72
- **population total**: 47,702
- **population as of**: 2020 United States Census, 2020
- **population urban**: 119,964
- **population metro**: 227,147
- **population density sq mi**: 1,608.57
- **population demonym**: Monroyan
- **timezone1**: North American Central Time Zone, CST
- **utc offset1**: −6
- **timezone1 dst**: North American Central Time Zone, CST
- **utc offset1 dst**: −5
- **postal code type**: ZIP Codes
- **postal code**: 71201, 71202, 71203, 71207, 71208, 71209, 71210, 71211, 71212, 71213
- **area code type**: Area Code
- **area code**: 318
- **website**: [http://ci.monroe.la.us City of Monroe]
- **population density km2**: 621.08
- **blank name**: Federal Information Processing Standards, FIPS code
- **blank info**: 22-51410
- **area total km2**: 85.23
- **area total sq mi**: 32.91
- **area land km2**: 76.80
- **area water km2**: 8.42
- **area land sq mi**: 29.66
- **area water sq mi**: 3.25
Henry (unit)

In physics, and electronics, the **henry** (symbol **H**) is the SI unit of inductance. It is named after Joseph Henry (1797–1878), the American scientist who discovered electromagnetic induction. (In England,  Michael Faraday (1791–1867) discovered the same thing independently. They discovered it at about the same time.) The magnetic permeability of a complete vacuum is 4π×10<sup>−7</sup> H/m (henry per meter).

The National Institute of Standards and Technology provides guidance for American users of SI to write the plural as henries. People do not capitalize unit names.

## Definition

If the rate of change of current in a circuit is one ampere per second and the resulting electromotive force is one volt, then the inductance of the circuit is one henry. Other equivalent combinations of SI units are as follows:

where

A = ampere

C = coulomb

F = farad

J = joule

kg = kilogram

m = meter

s = second

Wb = weber

T = tesla

V = volt

Ω = ohm

## Related pages

- Electrical impedance
- Inductor
- weber (unit)
Ceiling balloon

A **ceiling balloon** is used by meteorologists to determine the height of the base of clouds above ground level during daylight hours. The principle behind the ceiling balloon is a balloon with a known ascent rate (how fast it climbs) and determining how long the balloon rises until it disappears into the cloud. Ascent rates yield the ceiling height.
ASTech Paris Région

**ASTech Paris Région** is a French group of aerospace engineering companies and research centres. It is in the region of Île-de-France in the middle of France and is mainly concentrated in and around the city of Paris.

There are over 500 companies, including Dassault Aviation, Airbus and Air France Industries. About 100.000 people work there in the aviation and space flight industries.

The headquarters of ASTech is in Paris–Le Bourget Airport. The chairman of the group is Sébastien Courrech.

## Other websites

- Website of ASTech Paris Région
Shantungosaurus

***Shantungosaurus*** was a huge  hadrosaur found in the Upper Cretaceous Wangshi Formation of the Shandong Peninsula in China. It was the largest known hadrosaur.

The skeleton of a medium-sized individual mounted at the Geological Institute of China in Beijing is  in length, and the type skull is  long. The weight of this genus is estimated at up to . With a composite mounted skeleton 17 meters long (55.7 ft) it is the largest known ornithischian and the largest non-sauropod dinosaur.

It had an unusually long tail, presumably to counterbalance the great weight of the body at the animal's hips.

Like all hadrosaurs its beak was toothless, but its jaws were packed with around 1,500 tiny chewing teeth. A large hole near its nostrils may have been covered by a loose flap, which could be inflated to make sounds.

First described in 1973, _Shantungosaurus_ is known from  five incomplete skeletons.
Tera Patrick

**Tera Patrick** (born July 25, 1976) is a former American pornographic actress and adult model. Her real name is **Linda Ann Hopkins**. She has also used the aliases Tara Patrick, Sadie Jordan, Brooke Thomas and Tera Hopkins. Tera Patrick was born in Great Falls, Montana. She acted in about 120 adult movies.

Patrick has been in _Playboy_ and _Penthouse_.  In _Penthouse_ she was the "Pet of the Month" for February 2000.

## Other websites

- Official website
- Official film website
- Movies with Tera Patrick

## Infobox (model)

- **name**: Tera Patrick
- **image**:
- **caption**: Patrick in 2010
- **birth place**: Great Falls, Montana
- **birth name**: Linda Ann Hopkins
- **eye color**: Brown
- **hair color**: Black
- **alias**: Tara Patrick
Sadie Jordan
Brooke Thomas
Tera Hopkins
Rhabdodontidae

**Rhabdodontids** were herbivorous ornithopod dinosaurs from the Cretaceous. They were similar to large, robust hypsilophodonts, with deep skulls and jaws. The family were defined as "the most recent common ancestor of _Zalmoxes robustus_ and _Rhabdodon priscus_ and all the descendants of this common ancestor". In 2005, Paul Sereno defined the family as "the most inclusive clade containing _Rhabdodon priscus_ but not _Parasaurolophus walkeri_".  The Rhabdodontidae includes the type genus _Rhabdodon_, _Zalmoxes_, _Mochlodon_, and possibly _Muttaburrasaurus_. Rhabdodontid fossils have been found in Europe and Australia in formations from 100 to 65 million years ago.
Citizens' Councils

The **White Citizens' Council** was an American group of people who believed that white people were better than black people (white supremacy). It began on July 11, 1954.  After 1956, it was called the **Citizens' Councils of America**.  With about 60,000 members, mostly in the South, many people knew the group because it opposed racial integration during the 1950s and 1960s. It responded to integration efforts with economic boycotts and other intimidation against black activists, including depriving them of jobs.  The WCC was a part of the "massive resistance" in the South against court decisions that required racial integration.

Federal civil rights legislation passed in the mid-1960s over the opposition of the WCC. By the 1970s, the federal government was working hard to enforce those laws. So, the influence of the WCC dropped very much. People in the WCC went on to found the Council of Conservative Citizens in the 1985.

## Further reading

- Geary, Daniel and Sutton, Jennifer. "Resisting the Wind of Change: The Citizens' Councils and European Decolonization," in Cornelius A. van Minnen and Manfred Berg, eds., _The U.S. South and Europe,_ University of Kentucky Press, 2013.

## Other websites

- _The Citizens' Council_  - Historical resource website by Edward Sebesta, with digitized copies of the full run of _The Citizens Council_ newspaper, 1955–1961. Originally a publication of the Mississippi Citizens' Council, the monthly publication became the official paper of the Citizens' Councils of America in October 1956.
    - Available in PDF from Internet Archive.
- "Civil Rights Documentation Project" , University of Southern Mississippi
- Dr. John Dittmer, "'Barbour is an Unreconstructed Southerner': Prof. John Dittmer on Mississippi Governor’s Praise of White Citizens’ Councils", 22 December 2010 video report by _Democracy Now!_
- "Schwerner, Chaney, and Goodman: The Struggle for Justice" , American Bar Association

## Infobox (organization)

- **name**: White Citizens' Council
- **abbreviation**: WCC
- **successor**: Council of Conservative Citizens
- **membership**: 60,000 (1955)
- **leader title**: Founder
- **leader name**: Robert Patterson
Weber (unit)

In physics, the **weber** (symbol: Wb; , , or ) is the SI unit of magnetic flux. A _flux density_ of one Wb/m<sup>2</sup> (one weber per square meter) is one tesla.

The weber is named for the German physicist Wilhelm Eduard Weber (1804–1891).

## Definition

The weber may be defined in terms of Faraday's law, which relates a changing magnetic flux through a loop to the electric field around the loop. A change in flux of one weber per second will induce an electromotive force of one volt (produce an electric potential difference of one volt across two open-circuited terminals).

Officially,
> Weber (unit of magnetic flux) — The weber is the magnetic flux which, linking a circuit of one turn, would produce in it an electromotive force of 1 volt if it were reduced to zero at a uniform rate in 1 second.

In SI base units, the dimensions of the weber are (kg·m<sup>2</sup>)/(s<sup>2</sup>·A).  Many times, the weber is expressed in terms of other derived units as the Tesla-square meter (T·m<sup>2</sup>), volt-seconds (V·s), or joules per ampere (J/A).

- 1 Wb = 1 V·s = 1 T·m<sup>2</sup> = 1 J/A = 10<sup>8</sup> Mx (maxwells).
Iguanodont

The **iguanodonts** are members of the proposed group (superfamily) **Iguanodontia**. This is a group of ornithopod families which some palaeontologists think are closely related:
- Iguanodontidae
- Camptosauridae
- Dryosauridae
- Hadrosauridae
- Rhabdodontidae

That is all the ornithopods except for the small, fast-running _Hypsilophodon_. This is placed in the family Hypsilophodontidae. However, the important reference work _Vertebrate Paleontology_ is not yet in support of this trend, and lists the families separately as Ornithopods. The proposal is therefore still under discussion.
Warka

**Warka** is a small city in Poland in Masovian Voivodeship. The Pilica river runs through the city. 11,435 people live there.
Dark adaptor goggles

**Dark adaptor goggles** are used in the field of meteorology. They are used for either adapting the eyes to the dark before an observation at night or to help with the identification of clouds during bright sunshine or glare from snow. The goggles are made with red-tinted plastic lenses. The goggles are designed to be worn inside but some people find walking, especially up and down stairs, to be hard.

## References

- Environment Canada - Atmospheric Environment Services, Manual of Surface Weather Observations (MANOBS), 7th Edition, January 1977.
Digital Visual Interface

The **Digital Visual Interface** (or **DVI**) is a video interface standard. It is used to send video between a source (such as a personal computer) and a display (such as a monitor). This interface cannot be used to transmit audio unless it is connected to a High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI) converter. HDMI and DVI use the same protocol for signalling, named Transition-minimized differential signaling.

The DVI standard has is widely used in the personal computer industry. Many desktop personal computers and monitors can use it. Most desktop personal computers and liquid crystal display (LCD) monitors sold in stores today have more than one video interface, including DVI. Many other devices (such as projectors and televisions) can use DVI as part of HDMI.

HDMI is a newer video interface standard. Many laptops still have an old-fashioned VGA connector. Many models in the 2010s have HDMI ports. Fewer laptops have DVI.

DVI was created by the Digital Display Working Group (DDWG). It was created to replace the "legacy analog technology" VGA connector standard.  DVI is designed to carry uncompressed digital video data to a display. It works very well with the HDMI standard in digital mode (DVI-D), and VGA in analog mode (DVI-A). It is also found in some television sets even though it has been widely replaced by HDMI.
Daidō

was a  after _Enryaku_ and before _Kōnin._  This period started in May 806 and ended in September 810. During this time, the emperors were  and .

## Events of the _Daidō_ era

- **806** (_Daidō 1_): , also known as , returned to Japan from China; and he settled at Miyajima where he established .
- **9 April 806** (_Daidō 1, 17th day of the 3rd month_): In the 25th year of Emperor Kammu's reign, he died; and the succession (_senso_) was received by a his son.  Soon after, Emperor Heizei accepted the monarch's role and duties and powers (_sokui_).  This was confirmed in ceremonies.
- **18 May 809** (_Daidō 4, 1st day of the 4th month_): In the 4th year of Emperor Heizei's reign, he abdicated.  Heizei's successor was his second son who became known as Emperor Saga.

## Related pages

- Heian period

## Other websites

- National Diet Library, "The Japanese Calendar" -- historical overview plus illustrative images from library's collection

|Daidō|1st|2nd|3rd|4th|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
||806|807|808|809|
Kōnin (era)

was a  after _Daidō_ and before _Tenchō._  This period started in September 810  and ended in January 824. During this time, the emperors were  and .

## Events of the _Kōnin_ era

- **812** (_Kōnin 3_):  Official commentary on the _Nihongi_ was written.
- **820** (_Kōnin 3_):  Legal code was re-written in 50 volumes, including all laws since 701.
- **822** (_Kōnin 13_): Death of the monk Saichō, who was the founder of the  sect of Buddhism in Japan
- **30 May 823** (_Kōnin 14, 17th day of the 4th month_): In the 14th year of Emperor Saga's reign, he abdicated.  The succession (_senso_) was received by a his younger brother.  Soon after, Emperor Junna accepted the monarch's role and duties and powers (_sokui_).  This was confirmed in ceremonies.

This era is part of _Kōnin-jōgan_, which is a historical period from 810 to 877.  The importance of Buddhism and the arts was notable during this time.

## Related pages

- Heian period

## Other websites

- National Diet Library, "The Japanese Calendar" -- historical overview plus illustrative images from library's collection

|Kōnin|1st|2nd|3rd|4th|5th|6th|7th|8th|9th|10th|11th|12th|13th|14th|15th|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
||810|811|812|813|814|815|816|817|818|819|820|821|822|823|824|
Hessian (soldier)

The **Hessians** were German soldiers who were hired to fight for the British Empire during the American Revolutionary War.

Some princes in Germany agreed to give Great Britain men to fight in return for money and were made rich by their soldiers' services.

There is controversy on whether or not the Hessians were mercenaries or auxiliaries. However, because they fought alongside other soldiers and had been sent by their princes, they are typically referred to as auxiliaries.
Tenchō

was a  after _Kōnin_ and before _Jōwa._  This period started in January 824 and ended in January 834.  The reigning emperors were  and .

## Events of the _Tenchō_ era

- **824** (_Tenchō 1_): This summer was entirely dry; and prayers for rain were offered by the Buddhist priest Kūkai (also known as Kōbō-Daishi).  Those prayers seemed to be answered when it did rain.
- **824** (_Tenchō 1, 7th month_): The former-Emperor Heizei died at age 51.
- **825** (_Tenchō 2, 11th month_): The former-Emperor Saga celebrated his 40th birthday.
- **826** (_Tenchō 3, 11th month_): Kūkai advises the emperor to build a pagoda near To-ji in Kyoto.

This era is part of _Kōnin-jōgan_, which is a historical period from 810 to 877.  The importance of Buddhism and the arts was notable during this time.

## Related pages

- Heian period

## Other websites

- National Diet Library, "The Japanese Calendar" -- historical overview plus illustrative images from library's collection

|Tenchō|1st|2nd|3rd|4th|5th|6th|7th|8th|9th|10th|11th|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
||824|825|826|827|828|829|830|831|832|833|834|