juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Wade–Giles

**Wade–Giles** (), sometimes abbreviated **Wade**, is a romanization system for Chinese that is based on the form of Mandarin used in Beijing. The system was produced by Thomas Wade in the mid-19th century and was fully developed in Herbert Giles's 1892 Chinese-English dictionary.

Wade-Giles was the main transliteration system in the English-speaking world for much of the 20th century. It is used in several standard reference books and in all books about China that were published before 1979. It replaced the Nanjing-based romanization systems that was common until the late 19th century. Wade-Giles has been replaced by pinyin but remains commonly used in Taiwan, also known as the Republic of China.

One well-known feature of Wade-Giles is that it uses the apostrophe to mark aspirated consonants, or breathy consonants, as in Ancient Greek. For example, _ping_ in pinyin would be written as _p'ing_ in Wade-Giles, but _bing_ in pinyin would be written as _ping_. Sounds are written that way because Chinese, unlike English, has no voiced stop consonants, fricatives, or affricates. Chinese distinguishes only aspirated and unaspirated sounds. Therefore, an apostrophe, instead of a different letter, is used.

However, the apostrophe was not understood well by people who do not know the Wade-Giles spelling and so many people would ignore the apostrophe when reading or copying Chinese words, which led many non-Chinese people to say Chinese words incorrectly, including Tao, tai chi, and kung fu. Wade-Giles spellings that ignore the apostrophe completely are called bastardized Wade-Giles.

## Sample sentences of Wade-Giles

Here are sample sentences written in Chinese characters, pinyin, and Wade-Giles with English translations:
|**Chinese characters**|你是北京人还是上海人？|
| --- | --- |
|**Pinyin**|Nǐ shì Běijīng rén háishì Shànghǎi rén?|
|**Wade-Giles**|Ni3 shih4 Pei3ching1jên2 hai2shih4 Shang4hai3jên2?|
|**English**|Are you Pekingese or Shanghainese?|
|**Chinese characters**|唐鑫鑫很喜欢去青岛喝啤酒。|
| --- | --- |
|**Pinyin**|Táng Xīnxīn hěn xǐhuān qù Qīngdǎo hē píjiǔ.|
|**Wade-Giles**|T'ang2 Hsin1hsin1 hên3 hsi3huan1 ch‘ü4 Ch'ing1tao3 ho1 p'i2chiu3.|
|**English**|Tang Xinxin likes to go to Qingdao to drink beer.|
|**Chinese characters**|周长平要做太极,但是他不要看电影。|
| --- | --- |
|**Pinyin**|Zhōu Chángpíng yào zuò tàijí, dànshì tā bùyào kàn diànyǐng.|
|**Wade-Giles**|Chou1 Ch'ang2p'ing2 yao4 tso4 t'ai4chi2, tan4shih4 t'a1 pu4yao4 k'an4 tien4ying3.|
|**English**|Zhou Changping wants to do tai chi, but he does not want to watch movies.|

## Other websites

- Chinese Romanization Converter - Convert between Hanyu Pinyin, Wade-Giles, Gwoyeu Romatzyh and other known or (un-)common Romanization systems.
- Wade-Giles → Zhuyin → Pinyin conversion table
- Pinyin → Wade-Giles → Zhuyin conversion table
- Wade-Giles → Zhuyin → Pinyin → Word list
- A conversion table of Chinese provinces and cities from Wade-Giles to Pinyin
- Pinyin4j: Java library supporting Chinese to Wade-Giles
- Pronunciation Guide
Prince (disambiguation)

A **prince** is a member of the highest aristocracy

**Prince** may refer to:

- _The Prince_, a book written by Niccolò Machiavelli in the 16th century
- _The Little Prince_, a novel by Antoine de Saint-Exupéry
- PRINCE2, a project management method
- Prince (album), the second album by Prince
- The Prince (song), the first single by Madness
- Prince (cigarette), a brand of cigarettes
- Prince Sports, Inc., a maker of sporting goods
- Prince Motor Company, a maker of automobiles in Japan from 1952 until they joined with Nissan in 1966
- Prince XML, a software product from YesLogic
- _The Prince_ (Pournelle), a book by Jerry Pournelle and S.M. Stirling.
- Prince, a South Devon Railway 2-4-0ST steam locomotive
- Princes (company), a food manufacturing company based in the United Kingdom
- _The Prince_, song by Dimond Head, made famous by Metallica

## People

- Prince (musician), stage name of pop music artist Prince Rogers Nelson, known from 1993 to 2000 as  (or informally, "The Artist Formerly Known as Prince")
- "Prince" Naseem Hamed, British boxer
- Bonnie Prince Geoffie the reluctant, the McGillicuddy Serious Party's pretender to the throne of New Zealand
- Oldest son of Michael Jackson
- Prince Johnson, Liberian politician
- Mahesh Babu, a popular Indian movie actor from Tollywood who was given the title "Prince" by his fans after his first film
- Prince Polley a Ghanaian footballer

## Fictional characters

- The Prince from Prince of Persia
- The Prince, _Katamari Damacy_'s main character
- Eileen Prince, mother of Severus Snape in the _Harry Potter_ series
- Short name for "Demon Prince" for Beelzebub (Sand Land) in _Sand Land_
- Isambard Prince from _LEXX_

## Related pages

- Princess (disambiguation)
Democratic Progressive Party

The **Democratic Progressive Party** (DPP) (Traditional Chinese: ; Simplified Chinese: ; abbreviated to  or ; Pinyin: Mínjìndǎng) is a major political party in the  Republic of China (Taiwan). The party has been linked with the pan-green coalition and de jure Taiwan independence movement. The DPP is a member of Liberal International and a founding member of the Council of Asian Liberals and Democrats. The DPP represented Taiwan in the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organisation.

## List of Chairpersons

1. Chiang Peng-chian (1986–1987)
1. Yao Chia-wen (1987–1988)
1. Huang Shin-cheih (1988–1992)
1. Hsu Hsin-liang (1992–1994, 1996–1998)
1. Shih Ming-teh (1994–1996)
1. Lin Yi-hsiung (1998–2000)
1. Frank Hsieh (2000)
1. Chen Shui-bian (2000–2008)
1. Tsai Ing-wen (since 2008)

## Other websites

- Official website

## Infobox (political party/seats)

- 68
- 113
- **hex**: #00AB4E


## Infobox (political party/seats)

- 2
- 5
- **hex**: #00AB4E


## Infobox (political party/seats)

- 4
- 17
- **hex**: #00AB4E


## Infobox (political party/seats)

- 291
- 906
- **hex**: #00AB4E


## Infobox (political party/seats)

- 54
- 211
- **hex**: #00AB4E


## Infobox (political party)

- **name**: Democratic Progressive Party
 <small>民主進步黨: Mínzhǔ jìnbù dǎng</small>
- **colorcode**: #00AB4E
- **logo**: The Democratic Progressive Party Logo.svg
- **leader**: Tsai Ing-wen
- **foundation**: September 28, 1986
- **ideology**: Liberalism
Social liberalism
Social democracy
Taiwan nationalism
Anti-communism
- **position**: Centre-left
- **headquarters**: Taipei, Republic of China
- **national**: Pan-Green Coalition
- **international**: Liberal International
- **seats1 title**: Legislative Yuan
- **seats2 title**: Municipal Mayoralties
- **seats3 title**: City Mayoralties and County Magistracies
- **seats4 title**: Local Councillors
- **seats5 title**: Township Chiefs
- **website**: [http://www.dpp.org.tw/ dpp.org.tw]
- **country**: the Republic of China
Anastas Mikoyan

**Anastas Hovhannesi Mikoyan** (, _Anastas Hovhannesi Mikoyan_; ;  – 21 October 1978) was an Armenian Old Bolshevik and Soviet statesman during the Stalin and Khrushchev years.

It was told that, during Khrushchev time, he was the second most powerful man in the Soviet Union.

## Infobox (politician)

- **name**: Anastas Mikoyan
- **image**: Анастас Иванович Микоян.jpg
- **birth place**: Sanahin, Yelizavetpol Governorate, Russian Empire
- **death place**: Moscow, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union
- **office**: :en:List of heads of state of the Soviet Union, President of the Soviet Union
- **term start**: 15 July 1964
- **term end**: 9 December 1965
- **successor**: Nikolai Podgorny
- **predecessor**: Leonid Brezhnev
- **office2**: :en:First Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union, First Deputy Prime Minister of the Soviet Union
- **term start2**: 28 February 1955
- **term end2**: 15 July 1964
- **successor2**: Mikhail Pervukhin
- **predecessor2**: Nikolai Bulganin
- **premier2**: Nikolai Bulganin
Nikita Khrushchev
- **office3**: Ministry of Foreign Trade (Soviet Union), Minister of Foreign Trade
- **term start3**: 24 August 1953
- **term end3**: 22 January 1955
- **successor3**: Basil Lark
- **predecessor3**: Dmitry Pavlov
- **premier3**: Georgy Malenkov
- **term start4**: 29 January 1938
- **term end4**: 4 March 1949
- **successor4**: Evgeny Chvyalev
- **predecessor4**: Mikhail Menshikov (politician), Mikhail Menshikov
- **premier4**: Vyacheslav Molotov
- **office5**: Full member of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Politburo
- **term start5**: 1 February 1935
- **term end5**: 8 April 1966
- **office6**: Candidate member of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Politburo
- **term start6**: 23 July 1926
- **term end6**: 1 February 1935
- **party**: Communist Party of the Soviet Union
- **citizenship**: Soviet people, Soviet
- **nationality**: Armenians, Armenian
- **occupation**: Civil servant, politician, statesman
- **spouse**: Ashkhen Mikoyan (née Tumanyan)
- **children**: Sergo Mikoyan, Sergo, Stepan, Vano, Vladimir<sup>1 </sup>
- **footnotes**: <sup>1 </sup> Vladimir was killed in the fighting during the Battle of Stalingrad.
- **native name lang**: am
Russians in the United Kingdom

There may be many as 300,000 **Russians in the United Kingdom**. About half of these were born in Russia. Some of the others are citizens of the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania). Since they joined the EU in 2004, they are free to live in other EU countries, including the UK. There are many Russian language schools in London and the South East. These schools were founded by immigrants from Russia to the United Kingdom. They send their children to the schools so the children can learn about their parents' culture.

## Other websites

- Russian shops in the United Kingdom
- British Russian Society
- Понаехали тут! (Ponaehali tut!) Forum
- Популярный и единственно работающий фомум в Великобритании - Русские в Лондоне
- http://www.bbc.co.uk/london/content/articles/2007/02/12/russians_feature.shtml
- http://www.guardian.co.uk/russia/article/0,2763,1190191,00.html
- Russian London
- Russians in London
- Gazeta.UK
Larry Griffin

**Larry Griffin** (September 23, 1954 – June 21, 1995) was a man accused of killing 19-year-old Quintin Moss. The alleged crime happened in Saint Louis, Missouri, on June 26, 1980 On June 21, 1995, the State of Missouri executed Griffin by lethal injection. He maintained his innocence until he was executed for the crime.

## Re-opened investigation

After Griffin's execution, a 2005 post-execution investigation was sponsored by the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund. This NAACP investigation raised doubts about the conviction (the shooter's identity), and caused an investigation by the St. Louis City Circuit Attorney's Office. The St. Louis City investigation ended in a finding that "the right person was convicted".

## Other websites

- Article from NY Times
- Another article from NY Times
Nassau County, New York

**Nassau County** is a suburban county in the New York Metropolitan area east of New York City and west of Suffolk County, in the U.S. state of New York. In 2020, 1,395,774 people lived there. Nassau County is in western Long Island, and is bordered by Suffolk County to the east and by the New York City boroughs of Brooklyn and Queens to the west. Until 1899, Nassau County was part of Queens County. The county seat is Mineola. Along with Suffolk, it was named the safest county in the United States in 2005 by Forbes.

## Communities

Nassau County is split into three towns and two cities:
- Hempstead (town)
- North Hempstead (town)
- Oyster Bay (town)
- Glen Cove (city)
- Long Beach (city)

Hamlets in Nassau County include Manhasset, New York.

## Infobox (u.s. county)

- **county**: Nassau County
- **state**: New York
- **type**: List of counties in New York, County
- **ex image**: HempsteadHouseSandsPoint.jpg
- **ex image cap**: Hempstead House, part of Sands Point, New York, Sands Point Preserve, on Nassau County's Gold Coast (Nassau County), Gold Coast, home to some of the world's most expensive real estate
- **founded**: 1899
- **leader title**: Executive
- **named for**: House of Nassau
- **seat**: Mineola, New York, Mineola
- **largest city**: Hempstead, New York, Hempstead
- **city type**: town
- **area total sq mi**: 453
- **area land sq mi**: 285
- **area water sq mi**: 169
- **area percentage**: 37
- **census yr**: 2020
- **pop**: 1395774
- **density km2**: auto
- **density sq mi**: 4897.45
- **time zone**: Eastern
- **area codes**: Area codes 516 and 363, 516, 363
- **district**: 2nd
- **district2**: 3rd
- **district3**: 4th
SMAP

**SMAP** is a Japanese boy band. Their music is produced by Johnny's. SMAP was formed in April 1988. Now, the group has five members but at the beginning it had six members. They held their first concert at Nippon Budokan in January 1991. They released their first album _Can't Stop!!-LOVING_ on September 9, 1991.

SMAP is an acronym. It is a short way of writing **S**ports **M**usic **A**ssemble **P**eople.

They officially disbanded on 31 December 2016.

## Members

- Masahiro Nakai (born August 18, 1972) from Kanagawa Prefecture
- Takuya Kimura (born November 13, 1972) from Tokyo.
- Goro Inagaki (born December 8, 1973) from Tokyo.
- Tsuyoshi Kusanagi (born July 9, 1974) from Saitama.
- Shingo Katori (born January 31, 1971) from Kanagawa.

Katsuyuki Mori withdrew from the group in 1996 to be an auto racer.

## Related pages

- J-Pop
- Johnny & Associates

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **background**: group_or_band
- **name**: SMAP
- **img**: SMAP_2008_Super_Modern_Artistic_Performance_Tour.jpg
- **img capt**: SMAP on tour in 2008
- **genre**: J-Pop, Pop music, pop, bubblegum music
- **years active**: 1991–2016
- **label**: Victor Entertainment
- **url**: [http://www.johnnys-net.jp/artist/info/smap.html SMAP's profile at johnnys net]
- **current members**: Masahiro Nakai
Takuya Kimura
Tsuyoshi Kusanagi
Goro Inagaki
Shingo Katori
- **past members**: Katsuyaki Mori
Kick the Can Crew

**Kick the Can Crew** is a Japanese hip-hop group. The style is 3MC and 1DJ. The group was started by 1996 and it broke up in 2004. They started making music again in 2017.
Judy and Mary

**Judy and Mary** is a Japanese rock band. This group began in 1992. The members were YUKI, Yoshihito Onda, Kota Igarashi and TAKUYA. They were very famous, but this group ended in 2001. Their famous songs include "Sobakasu", "Lucky Pool" and "Sanpomichi". Their songs have been sung by many Japanese people at karaoke.

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Judy and Mary
- **background**: group_or_band
- **origin**: Hakodate, Hokkaido, Hakodate, Hokkaido Prefecture, Japan
- **genre**: Rock music, Rock, Pop music, pop, Punk rock, punk
- **years active**: 1992–2001
- **label**: Chainsaw Records
Epic Records, Epic/Sony Records
- **associated acts**: Masahide Sakuma (Record producer, producer)
- **url**: [http://www.sonymusic.co.jp/Music/Arch/ES/JudyAndMary/ official website]
- **past members**: Yoshihito Onda
Yuki Isoya
Kohta Igarashi
Takuya Asanuma (1993-2001)
Taiji Fujimoto (1992-1993)
Angela Aki

**Angela Aki** (born September 15, 1977) is a J-pop singer-songwriter. Her former Japanese name is Aki Kiyomi.

Aki was born in Itano of Tokushima prefecture. Her father is Japanese and her mother is Italian-American.  She is bilingual in English and Japanese. She was raised in Japan, but she moved to Hawaii when she was fifteen.

Then she went to university at George Washington University. She released an indie album in the United States in 2000, called "These Words". Now she is signed under Sony Japan.

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **embed**: yes
- **background**: solo_singer


## Infobox (person)

- **name**: Angela Aki
- **image**: Angela Aki, 2013 (cropped).jpg
- **caption**: Aki at Join Alive rock festival in Iwamizawa, Hokkaido, 2013
- **native name**: アンジェラ・アキ
- **native name lang**: ja
- **birth name**: Kiyomi Angela Aki
- **birth place**: Itano, Tokushima, Japan
- **years active**: 1999–present
- **height**: 166 cm
Reduction

**Reduction** in a general sense means to take of a part of a whole thing or to make it smaller.

'Reduction** or **reducing** may may mean in special

- Reduction (chemistry), the reverse of oxidation, half of a redox reaction, adding of electrons  to a molecule, which means reducing the valence
- Reduction (cooking), the process of thickening a liquid mixture such as a sauce by evaporation
- Reduction (philosophy), in philosophy, the process of explaining a particular concept or phenomenon in terms of more fundamental concepts or phenomena
- Reduction (linguistics), in linguistics, the shortening of the pronunciation of a word. e.g. wanna, lemme, gimme.
- Reduction, in physiology, another name for weight loss or dieting
- Reduction (orthopedic surgery), in orthopedic surgery, a medical procedure to restore a fracture to a correct alignment
- Reduction (town), a form of Catholic mission in South America in the 17th and 18th centuries
- Purchasing reduction, in economics and in waste management, is the process of decreasing the purchase of consumer goods
- Reduction (Sweden), in 1680 a return of lands to the Crown earlier granted to the nobility.
- Waste reduction is the first and most desirable component of the waste hierarchy (reduce, reuse, recycle)

In **mathematics** and **computer science''':
- Reduction (mathematics), the process of manipulating a series of equations or matrices into a desired 'simpler' format
- Reduction property, in descriptive set theory, a pointclass allows partitioning the union of two sets in the pointclass into two disjoint sets in the same pointclass
- Reduction (complexity), in computational complexity theory, the transformation of an instance of one problem into an instance of another
- Reduce computer algebra system, a general-purpose computer algebra system geared towards applications in physics.
- Reduce (higher-order function), a family of higher-order functions that process a data structure in some order and build up a return value.
Matthew Perry

**Matthew Langford Perry** (August 19, 1969 – October 28, 2023) was a Golden Globe and Emmy nominated American and Canadian movie and television actor. He was best known for his work as Chandler Bing in the sitcom _Friends_.

## Early life and education

Matthew Perry was born in Williamstown, Massachusetts on August 19, 1969. His mother, Suzanne Jane Louise Morrison (née Langford), is a Canadian journalist. She was a press secretary to Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau. Perry's father, John Bennett Perry, is an American actor and model.  Perry was a citizen of both the United States and Canada. He was very good at speaking French.

His parents divorced (broke-up) before his 1st birthday. His mother is remarried to Keith Morrison, a broadcast journalist. Perry was raised by his mother in Ottawa. While growing up in Ontario, Matthew Perry was very interested in tennis. He soon became a top-ranked junior player. He had been good friends with professional tennis player Jennifer Capriati. By age 10, Perry started to steal money, smoke, and beat up fellow student and future Canadian prime minister Justin Trudeau. The schools he went to were Rockcliffe Park Public School, Lisgar Collegiate Institute and Ashbury College. All of them are in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

## Drug problems and recovery

In the past, Perry had problems with alcohol, and addiction to drugs. He started drinking alcohol at an early age. He also was addicted to different drugs, also legal ones, such as painkillers.

He received a Champion of Recovery award in May 2013 from the White House Office of National Drug Control Policy for opening Perry House, a rehab center in his former mansion in Malibu, California. In 2015, Perry sold the mansion and relocated its services.

## Death

Perry died on October 28, 2023 at the age of 54. He was found dead in his hot tub at his Los Angeles home. Foul play was not suspected. On December 15, 2023, Perry's death was revealed to have been "acute effects of ketamine". Other causes of death included the effects of buprenorphine, drowning, and coronary artery disease.==
On August 15, 2024, five people were charged with Perry's death. The people charged were two doctors, two drug dealers, and Perry's assistant. Three of them pleaded guilty. They were charged with the alleged involvement of distributing ketamine which caused the deaths of Perry and another person.

## Other websites

- _Variety_ announces Matthew Perry in _Studio 60_
- Matthew Perry interview

- Mathew Perry Possible Cause Of Death

## Infobox (person)

- **name**: Matthew Perry
- **image**: Matthew Perry in support of Awareness on Drug Courts and Reduced Substance Abuse.jpg
- **caption**: Perry in 2013
- **birth name**: Matthew Langford Perry
- **birth place**: Williamstown, Massachusetts, U.S.
- **death place**: Los Angeles, California, U.S.
- **death cause**: Drowning caused by accidental ketamine overdose
- **years active**: 1979–2022
- **father**: John Bennett Perry
- **signature**: Matthew Perry signature.svg
Matt LeBlanc

**Matthew Steven LeBlanc** (; born July 25, 1967)  is an American actor. He has been nominated for an Emmy and a Golden Globe Award. He is famous for his role as Joey Tribbiani on the television sitcoms _Friends_ (1994-2004) and on its spin-off series _Joey_. In 2000, he won "Editor's Choice" in TV Guide Awards (as _Friends_). In 2002, he won "TV - Choice Actor - Comedy" at the Teen Choice Awards (as _Friends_). In 2005, he won "Favorite Male Television Star" at the People's Choice Awards. He stars in _Episodes_ as a fictional version of himself. He hosted _Top Gear_ from 2016 until 2019

## Other websites

- Matt LeBlanc  at Mattleblanc.net

## Infobox (person)

- **name**: Matt  Leblanc Kember
- **image**: Matt LeBlanc, Arqiva British Academy Television Awards, 2013 (tone crop).jpg
- **caption**: LeBlanc in 2011
- **birth name**: Matthew Steven LeBlanc
- **birth place**: Newton, Massachusetts, Newton, Massachusetts, U.S.
- **years active**: 1987–present
- **known for**: _Friends_, Episodes (TV series), _Episodes_, Man with a Plan (TV series), _Man with a Plan_, Joey (TV series), _Joey_, Top Gear (2002 TV series), _Top Gear_
- **children**: 1
Tango

The **Tango** is a dance which was created in Buenos Aires, Argentina. The musical style that was created with the dance is also called 'tango'. It is danced today in two versions. Neither version is 'better' than the other; they are rather different in style.

## Argentine tango

The first tango dances and music was called _tango criollo,_ or simply _tango_. Today, there are various tango dance styles, including Argentine tango, Uruguayan tango, and vintage tangos. The Argentine tango is probably closer to that originally danced in Argentina and Uruguay, though no details survive of its original form.

## International tango

The tango is a standard dance in international ballroom dancing. This version was developed in England before WWII, mainly as a result of the work of Monsieur Pierre, a French dance teacher who lived in London.

The Tango is now danced in international competitions to a style first set out in English ballroom texts and regulations.

## Other sources

- Thompson, Robert Farris 2005. _Tango: the art history of love_. Knopf, New York. .
- Thomson is Professor of Art at Yale University. He started his career with an article on Afro-Cuban dance and music published in 1958, and has devoted his life to the art history of the Afro-Atlantic world.

- Collier, Simon and Artemis Cooper 2007. _Â ¡Tango!: the dance, the song, the story_. Thames & Hudson, London.
- Denniston, Christine  2007. _The meaning of tango: the story of the Argentinian dance_. Anova.

## Other websites

- Argentine Tango Radio. https://www.argentinetangoradio.com
- Basic figures in the International version of the tango. The demonstrators are Marcus and Karen Hilton, nine times World Professional Ballroom Champions. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jDJM1gGW0zM
- Basic tango demo by Mirko and Alessia. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_N1MWv9bW6Q
- Basic tango hold and style, by Andy & Wendy, The Grand Ballroon, Richmond, British Columbia. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7GUHarvXgnE
Ethane

**Ethane** is an organic chemical compound with chemical formula C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>6</sub>.

At standard temperature and pressure, ethane is a colourless, odorless gas. It is isolated from natural gas, and as a byproduct of petroleum refining.

Its main use is in the chemical industry, to make ethylene by steam cracking.

At room temperature, the gas is flammable, and it explodes when mixed with air. When ethane is liquid, touching it causes a very serious frostbite.
Cracking (chemistry)

In chemistry terms, **cracking** is a process in which complicated organic molecules (such as kerogens or heavy hydrocarbons) are broken down into simpler molecules (e.g. light hydrocarbons) by breaking their carbon-carbon bonds. How fast the cracking process is and how long it takes for the end products to form are very dependent on the temperature and any existing catalysts. Cracking, also referred to as pyrolysis, is the breakdown of a large alkane into smaller, more useful alkanes and an alkene.

Cracking is used in petroleum to form "light" products such as LPG and gasoline.

It usually produces a short chain alkane and a long chain alkene.
Hydrocarbons are compounds that only contain carbon and hydrogen atoms.
Phosphine

**Phosphine** is a chemical compound. Its chemical name is **phosphorus hydride**. Its chemical formula is PH<sub>3</sub>. It is also called **phosphane** and **phosphamine**. It contains phosphide and hydrogen ions.

## Properties

It is a colorless, flammable gas. It is highly toxic; it can easily kill, even when concentration levels are low. It smells like fish. It can ignite without a spark. When it burns, it makes a white cloud of phosphorus(V) oxide, which is irritating.

## Preparation

It is made when hypophosphites and phosphites are heated. It is also made when white phosphorus reacts with warm alkali.

## Uses

The gas is used for pest control. It is also used in making semiconductors.

## Related pages

- Ammonia
Planetary ring

A **planetary ring** is a ring made of dust and other particles orbiting around a planet in a flat-disc shaped region. The gas giants Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are the only planets known to have rings, with the rings of Saturn being the most spectacular system of rings.

The rings sometimes have "shepherd satellites". These moons orbit either in between ring gaps or the outside edge of a ring. The moons' gravity maintain the ring's current shape with a well-defined edge. Any material that drifts closer to a Moon's orbit, it can either move back into the body of the ring, deflect out into space, or is added onto the Moon's surface.

The rings can be made of silica or water ice. It is not known how any of the rings were formed. They are usually inside the Roche limit where large satellites cannot form.
Castile

**Castile** or **Castilia** can mean:

- Kingdom of Castile, the historical kingdom from the 9th to the 13th century
- Crown of Castile, the historical Kingdom formed in 1230 from the union of the Kingdom of Castile and Kingdom of León
- Castile-La Mancha, an autonomous community of Spain formed in 1982, composed of five provinces: Albacete, Ciudad Real, Cuenca, Guadalajara and Toledo
- Castile and León, an autonomous community of Spain formed on February 25, 1983, composed of 9 provinces, six Castilian and three Leonese: León, Zamora, Salamanca, Ávila, Burgos, Palencia, Segovia, Soria and Valladolid
- Old Castile, the political name of the region formed by Santander, Burgos, Logroño, Soria, Segovia, Ávila, Valladolid and Palencia. It had some territorial changes in its History, and had this name from 18th century to 1983. It no longer exists
- New Castile, the political name of the region formed by  Ciudad Real, Cuenca, Guadalajara, Madrid, Toledo and part of Albacete. It took this name in the 18th century and disappeared with democracy. It no longer exists

- Other
- Real Madrid Castilla, a Spanish football team. It is the reserve team of Real Madrid
- Castile soap, a name used in English-speaking countries for soap made exclusively from vegetable oil
- _Castilia (butterfly)_, a butterfly genus
- Castella, a kind of sponge cake popular in Japan. The name comes from the Portuguese phrase _pão de Castella_, meaning "bread from Castile"
Kingdom of Castile

The **Kingdom of Castile** was one of the medieval kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula. It began in the 9th century: it was called _County of Castile_ and was a vassalage depending from the Kingdom of León. It was one of the kingdoms that existed before the Kingdom of Spain.

### 9th to 11th centuries: The beginnings

The first Count of Castile was Rodrigo in 850, under Ordoño I of Asturias and Alfonso III of Asturias. In 931 the county was unified by count Fernán González, who made his lands subject to a hereditary succession, independent of the kings of León.

### 11th and 12th centuries: Expansion and union to the Kingdom of León

In 1028 Sancho III the Great, of Navarre, married the sister of count García Sánchez and inherited title to the County of Castile after his brother-in-law's death. In 1035 he left the county to his son Fernando. Fernando I was married to Sancha, sister of Bermudo III of León. Fernando I began a war with León and in the battle of Tamarón against a coalition of Castile and Navarre the king of León was killed, leaving no offspring. His brother-in-law Fernando took the crown of León for himself and their three sons took the kingdoms of León (Alfonso VI), Galicia (García) and Castile, Sancho, becoming king and borning the Kingdom of Castile.

## Infobox (former country)

- **native name**: _Reino de Castilla_
- **conventional long name**: Kingdom of Castile
- **common name**: Kingdom of Castile
- **continent**: Europe
- **region**: Mediterranean
- **country**: Spain
- **era**: Middle Ages
- **government type**: Monarchy
- **year start**: 850
- **year end**: 1833
- **event start**: Rodrigo becomes the first Count of Castile
- **event end**: Castile and Aragon form Spain
- **event1**: The County of Castile is unified by count Fernán González
- **date event1**: 931
- **event2**: Castile becomes a kingdom
- **date event2**: 1035
- **p1**: Kingdom of León
- **flag p1**: Leon Arms.svg
- **p2**: Al-Andalus
- **s2**: Spain
- **flag s2**: Flag of New Spain.svg
- **image coat**: Castile Arms.svg
- **image flag**: Estandarte del Reino de Castilla.svg
- **image map**: Crown of Castile - Map.gif
- **image map caption**: Kingdom of Castile in the 15th century.
- **capital**: Burgos, Toledo, Spain, Toledo
- **religion**: Roman Catholic Church, Roman Catholicism (Islam, Judaism)
- **common languages**: Spanish language, Castilian, Basque language, Basque, Galician language, Galician, Leonese language, Leonese
Luigi Galvani

**Luigi Galvani** (September 9, 1737 – December 4, 1798) was an Italian physician who lived and died in Bologna (Italy). In 1771, he found out that the muscles of dead frogs twitched when hit by a spark. He was a pioneer in modern obstetrics, and discovered that muscle and nerve cells produce electricity. He is well known as the inventor of chemical cells.

Galvani invented batteries which is probably the most important thing which he has made. He also discovered that nerves and muscles produce electricity, and he was a very intelligent man in many different other ways.

This also links to the story of Frankenstein this story is based on a scientist giving life to a body made from different people's limbs by using the same procedure as Luigi Galvani, by sending an electrical current from lightening.

## Related pages

- Galvanic isolation
- Galvanizing
- Galvanometer
Lorem ipsum

**Lorem ipsum** is a dummy text used to replace text in some areas just for the purpose of an example. It can be used in publishing and graphic design. It is used to demonstrate the graphics elements of a document, such as font, typography, and layout.

## Background

The lorem ipsum text is usually a section of a Latin text by Cicero with words altered, added and removed to make it nonsensical. Lorem ipsum text is used in mock-ups of visual design projects before the actual words are put into the finished product. This is often called **greeking**. The text is derived from Cicero's _De finibus bonorum et malorum_ (_On the Ends of Goods and Evils_, sometimes the title is translated as _[About] The Purposes of Good and Evil_ ). The words "Lorem ipsum..." make no sense.

The text was frequently used in desktop publishing templates. To experiment with the text, it can be copy-pasted into the desktop publishing software, and the typeface and its setting can be tried out. The distribution of letters in Lorem Ipsum is close to that in English language. This way, you can see what your own text would look like in that graphic format.

## Text

There are many Lorem ipsum text generators available, including free versions and online sites.  The algorithm and source files for some versions are in the public domain.  Most generators will start the first paragraph with "L_orem ipsum dolor sit amet,_ " and then words selected from its word list according to model sentence and paragraph structure rules, so as to approximate the distribution of English word, sentence and paragraph lengths.

## Related pages

- List of Latin phrases

## Other websites

- The original _De finibus bonorum et malorum_ (Book 1) from Cicero, on Latin WikiSource.
Planetary core

The **planetary core** is the innermost layer or layers in a planet. The terrestrial planets (planets with a rocky surface) have a core mainly made of iron and could be a solid or a liquid layer. The Earth's core is partially liquid, while the cores of Mars and Venus are thought to be completely solid, because the cores do not make a magnetic field.

The gas giants also have a core made of iron. Their cores are very small, in proportion to their large size. However, the gas giants are so large that their cores can still be larger than the Earth's core. Jupiter's core is estimated to be 12 times the mass of the Earth's.

A core's size can vary from each planet or other object. The moon's core is 20% of its radius, but Mercury's core is 75% of its radius.
Redox

**Redox** (shorthand for **reduction/oxidation**) describes all chemical reactions in which atoms have an increase or decrease in oxidation number (oxidation state).

An oxidation number is a number assigned to an element in chemical combination that represents the number of electrons lost (or gained, if the number is negative), by an atom of that element in the compound.

The term _redox_ comes from the two concepts of **red**uction and **ox**idation. It can be explained in simple terms:
- ***Oxidation*** describes the ***loss*** of electrons by a molecule, atom or ion
- ***Reduction*** describes the ***gain*** of electrons by a molecule, atom or ion

Whether an electron is gained or lost can be easily memorised by the abbreviation OIL RIG, which stands for, "Oxidation Is Loss," or losing electrons, and "Reduction Is Gain," or gaining electrons. Redox reactions can also happen by sharing electrons to form a product by covalent bonding. The term is called redox as neither oxidation or reduction may occur without the other occuring.

In an oxidation reduction reaction, the cation gives an electron to the anion because both ions will have a different charge to attract each other with. In an oxidation reduction reaction, the oxidizing reagent pulls an electron from the other atom to have a net positive charge. The reducing reagent gives an electron to have a net negative charge. However, there are exceptions.

## Chemical process

Redox is a chemical process. It can be described in chemical formula<nowiki/>s. This example describes the process that occurs in a blast furnace, where iron (Fe) reacts with carbon (C):

- <small>Now elementary iron has been processed.</small>

## Related pages

- Electrochemistry

## Other websites

- Redox reactions calculator
- Redox reactions at Chemguide
- Online redox reaction equation balancer, balances equations of any half-cell and full reactions
Defense of Van (1915)

The **Siege of Van**, **Resistance at Van**, ( _Vani Herosamart_, ) or **Van Rebellion**, **Van Revolt** (), **Armenian Revolution at Van** () was a resistance during the World War I against Ottoman Empire.

## Related pages

- Armenian Genocide

## Infobox (military conflict)

- **conflict**: Van Resistance
Van Uprising/**Van Ayaklanması**
Van Resistance/**Վանի Հերոսամարտ**
- **partof**: the Caucasus Campaign of World War I
- **image**: File:Leavening the Levant (1916) (14586438289) restored.jpg
- **caption**: Armenian troops holding a defense line against Ottoman forces in the walled city of Van in May 1915.
- **date**: 19 April – 17 May 1915
- **place**: Van, Turkey, Van, Ottoman Empire
- **result**: Russo-Armenian-Assyrian victory
- **combatant2**:  Armenian fedayi
 Russian Empire
 Assyrian Volunteers
- **commander1**: Djevdet Bey
Halil Kut
- Halil Bey
Köprülü Kâzım Bey
Rafael de Nogales Méndez
- Rafael de Nogales
- **commander2**: Nikolai Yudenich
Pyotr Oganovsky
Aram Manukian
Armenak Yekarian
Vana Ishkhan
- **strength1**: 5,000
- **strength2**: 1,300–6,000
- **casualties1**: Unknown but heavy
2,000 captured, 30 guns
- **casualties2**: Unknown
- **casualties3**: 55,000 Armenian civilians massacred
100 (number)

**100** (also written as **one hundred** or simply **hundred**) is the natural number after 99 and before 101. It is the first three-digit number above zero. The number 100 is an abundant number. The letter C is the old Roman numeral for 100.

## Usage

- It is used as hecto- in metric systems.
- In binary and bcd -code, 100 means number four.

## Infobox (number)
1021

## Events

- The Moorish _taifa_ (state) of Valencia (in modern Spain) becomes independent, after being ruled by Slavic soldiers for about ten years.
- Senekerim-Hovhannes Artsruni, king of Vaspurakan (Greater Armenia), surrenders his kingdom to the Byzantine Empire. He receives in return Sebasteia and becomes governor of Cappadocia.
1332

## Events

- February 18 – Amda Seyon I, Emperor of Ethiopia begins his campaigns in the southern Muslim provinces (possibly in 1329).
- August 10-11 – Battle of Dupplin Moor in Scotland
- November 7 – Lucerne joins the Swiss Confederation with Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden.
- December 16 – Battle of Annan in Scotland.
- The city of Târgu Mureş (Romania) was first documented in the papal registry under the name Novum Forum Siculorum.
Wasabi

**Wasabi** is a spice traditionally prepared from a plant from the cabbage family. Its root is used as a spice and has a very strong flavor. The root is smashed up into paste and used as a condiment. Its hotness is more like hot mustard or horseradish than chili pepper, because it irritates the nose more than the tongue. Eating too much wasabi can cause a very painful feeling in the nose. The plant grows naturally in Japan. It is often eaten with sushi.

Wasabi needs clean water and a cool climate. It is difficult to grow wasabi. There are two ways to grow wasabi. One way is to grow wasabi in water. The other way is to grow wasabi in a field.

Major sources of wasabi are Shizuoka, Nagano, Shimane, Yamanashi, and Iwate prefectures in Japan. Other source of wasabi include China, New Zealand, Taiwan.

Because the wasabi plant is so hard to grow, real wasabi is very rare and expensive, most wasabi is a green paste that is really made from horseradish, mustard and food coloring.

Wasabi is also known for how spicy, or hot it is.
Prion disease

A **prion disease** (also called **transmissible spongiform encephalopathy**) is a disease which is caused by prions. Prions are structurally altered versions of small proteins that are normally expressed in cells.  Unlike diseases that are caused by gene mutations resulting in the expression of a mutant protein, prions are able to replicate and transmit diseases through physical contact with normal proteins. This causes a protein's structure to change from the normal state to the prion state.

Unlike bacteria, prions are not considered to be alive because they do not have their own metabolism, they do not possess genes and cannot naturally reproduce outside a host cell.  Prion diseases are very rare, and no treatment is available for most of them. There is no cure for prion diseases, and they will always result in death.

Almost all of the known prion diseases are neurologic diseases. There are two common signs which are seen in typical prion diseases:
- Ataxia or disequilibrium, is when a patient cannot stand or walk well because they cannot maintain their equilibrium or balance. This is usually because of a disease or damage in the cerebellum.
- Dementia or loss of mentality, is a progressive loss of cognitive functions.

## Prion diseases

Few types of prion diseases are known. The most important ones are:
- **Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease** - A person can get the disease by eating beef infected with BSE (bovine spongiform encephalopathy), having a blood tranfusion from a person with the disease, injection of Human Growth Hormone extracted from bodies with the disease, or through infected surgical instruments. Patients suffer from ataxia and dementia and usually die after one year.
- **Kuru disease** - This disease is seen in people living in New Guinea who eat the brains of dead people. Patients present with ataxia, dementia and inability in moving their eyes. Patients will usually die within two years.
- **Gerstmann-Straussler-Scheinker syndrome** - This is a very rare syndrome which presents with ataxia and dementia. The patients usually die after one year.
- **Fatal familial insomnia** is a very rare syndrome. It is 100% fatal. Victims will suffer from a severe case of insomnia before eventual death.

Prion diseases are very rare. Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease makes up about 85% of the cases, but there are about 1 to 1.5 cases per one million people per year.

## Related pages

- Prion
- Encephalopathy
Please Please Me

***Please Please Me*** is the first studio album by the English band The Beatles. It was produced by George Martin and was released in the United Kingdom on 22 March 1963 on EMI's Parlophone record label. Eight of the fourteen songs were written by Lennon–McCartney. _Please Please Me_ was voted 39th on _Rolling Stone_s list of the "500 Greatest Albums of All Time" in 2012.

## Infobox (album)

- **name**: Please Please Me
- **type**: studio album
- **artist**: the Beatles
- **recorded**: 11 September 1962;
 26 November 1962;
 11 February 1963;
 20 February 1963
- **studio**: Abbey Road Studios, EMI, London
- **label**: Parlophone
- **producer**: George Martin
- **chronology**: The Beatles
- **prev title**: My Bonnie
- **prev year**: 1962
- **next title**: With the Beatles
- **next year**: 1963
Maritime, Fluvial and Harbor Museum of Rouen

The **Musée Maritime, Fluvial et Portuaire de Rouen** (English: **Maritime, Fluvial and Harbor Museum of Rouen**) is a museum in France. It is about the history of the port of Rouen, which is one the greatest ports of France. The main themes are:
- the history of the port with photos
- the infrastructures of the port
- the greatest sail ships of Rouen
- the merchant navy
- river navigation
- ship building
- whale hunting
- the history of the submarines, with a reproduction of the interior of the Nautilus from Robert Fulton

It is possible to see a 38 meter long barge which can be visited, trawler and barge motors and a whale skeleton.

The museum is in a former hangar of the port, not far from the new bridge.

## Other websites

- _'Musée Maritime, Fluvial et Portuaire de Rouen_  Official site.
Echternach

**Echternach** () is a commune in eastern Luxembourg, capital of the Echternach canton.  It is the oldest town with city rights in Luxembourg.

## History

The town grew around the walls of the Abbey of Echternach, which was founded in  698  by St. Willibrord, an English monk from Ripon, Northumbria (in present-day North Yorkshire, England), who became the first bishop of Utrecht and worked to Christianize the Frisians.

The abbey were closed during the French revolution in 1797. Echternach was given city rights in the year 1236.

## Geography

Echternach is in the east of the country near the border with Germany, on the banks of the Saar River.

The _commune_ has an area of . The altitude is  high. At the city hall, the altitude  is  high.

Echternach is surrounded by four _communes_ of Luxembourg: Rosport to the east and south, Bech to the southwest, and Berdorf and Consdorf to the west. To the north, the _commune_ borders the Echternacherbrück municipality of the  Bitburg-Prüm district in the German state of Rhineland-Palatinate; and to the northwest the Bollendorf municipality, also in the Bitburg-Prüm district of the Rhineland-Palatinate.

## Population

There were 5,530 persons living in the _commune_ in 2017, for a population density of  inhabitants/km².

**Evolution of the population in Echternach**

## Related pages

- Cantons of Luxembourg
- Communes of Luxembourg
- List of cities in Luxembourg

## Other websites

- Official website
- Tourist attractions in Echternach
- Surroundings of Echternach
- Harmonie Municipale Echternach
- Intramuros asbl. - For the development of the historical center of Echternach
- Everything about Echternach

## Infobox (settlement)

- **official name**: Echternach
- **other name**: Iechternach
- **image skyline**: EchternachFromAboveLookingEast.jpg
- **image caption**: Looking east across Echternach.
- **image shield**: Argent an eagle sable.svg
- **shield size**: 90px
- **image map**: Map Echternach.PNG
- **map caption**: Map showing, in orange, the Echternach _commune_
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision type1**: Cantons of Luxembourg, Canton
- **subdivision name1**: Echternach (canton), Echternach
- **subdivision type2**: Communes of Luxembourg, Commune
- **subdivision name2**: Echternach
- **leader title**: Mayor
- **leader name**: Yves Wengler
- **area total km2**: 20.5
- **population as of**: 2017
- **population total**: 5530
- **population density km2**: auto
- **timezone**: Central European Time, CET
- **utc offset**: +1
- **timezone dst**: Central European Summer Time, CEST
- **utc offset dst**: +2
- **elevation max m**: 393
- **elevation min m**: 154
- **blank name**: Local administrative unit, LAU2
- **blank info**: LU00006005
- **website**: [http://www.echternach.lu/ Official website]