juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Blockade

A **blockade** is a physical blockage of a port or other place. Usually used of enemy ships surrounding a port.

By extension, a blockade is any effort to make sure that supplies, troops, information or aid do not reach an opposing force. Blockades are used in nearly all military campaigns and the tool of choice for economic warfare on an opposing nation. The International Criminal Court planned to include blockades against coasts and ports in its list of acts of war in 2009.

## Historical blockades

Historical blockades include:
- The Spartan blockade of Athens following the Battle of Aegospotami, depriving Athens of the ability to import grain or communicate with its empire.
- The Dutch Republic's blockade of the Scheldt between 1585  and 1792, denying Spanish-ruled Antwerp's access to international trade and shifting much of its trade to Amsterdam.
- British blockade of France and its allies during the French Revolutionary War and Napoleonic War
- British blockade of the United States east coast during the War of 1812
- Union Blockade – the Union blockading the coasts of the Confederacy as part of the Anaconda Plan during the American Civil War
- Battle of Iquique during the War of the Pacific
- British blockade of Germany during World War I as a part of the First Battle of the Atlantic resulted in many deaths
- The Second Battle of the Atlantic during World War II
- United States blockade of Japan during World War II
- The German blockade of the Scheldt between September 1944 and November 1944, denying to allied shipping use of the port of Antwerp. (See Battle of the Scheldt).
- Soviet land blockade of West Berlin, 1948–1949, known as the Berlin Blockade.
- Egyptian blockades of the Straits of Tiran prior to the 1956 Suez War and the 1967 Arab-Israeli War.
- United States blockade of Cuba during the Cuban missile crisis in 1962
- India blockade of East Pakistan during the 1971 Bangladesh War
- NATO blockade of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia 1993–1996 during Operation Sharp Guard
- Israeli sea and land blockade of the Gaza Strip since the outbreak of the Second Intifada (2000) and up to the present.
- Israeli blockades of some or all the shores of Lebanon at various times during the Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990), the 1982 Lebanon War, and the 1982–2000 South Lebanon conflict – resumed during the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict.

## Related pages

- Siege
Bursa, Turkey

**Bursa** is a city in northwestern Turkey and the seat of Bursa Province. The population of city is about 2 million. It has a mixed humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification: _Cfa_) and a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification: _Csa_). Bursa is the fourth largest city, and also one of the most industrialized cities in the country. Sometimes the city is called "Yeşil Bursa" which means "Green Bursa" because of the large parks, forests and gardens in the urban area of the city. Bursa is home of Uludağ University. Uludağ is an important ski resort in Turkey and is a national park to protect the nature in the mountainous area.
2008 Democratic Party presidential primaries

**The Democratic Party presidential primaries of 2008** was an American political event. In various states, various Democratic candidates asked people and delegates to vote for them in primaries and caucuses. Candidates won delegates based on a percentage of votes (in primaries). There were 4,233 delegates. A candidate would have to get 2,110 delegates to win the nomination. The two front-runners of the campaign were New York Senator Hillary Clinton and Illinois Senator Barack Obama. Although Clinton led in the beginning, Obama soon gained the lead. Obama went on to become the first African-American presidential candidate in American history.

## Infobox (election)

- **election name**: 2008 Democratic Party presidential primaries
- **country**: United States
- **type**: primary
- **ongoing**: no
- **previous election**: 2004 Democratic Party presidential primaries
- **previous year**: 2004
- **election date**: January 3 – June 3, 2008
- **next election**: 2012 Democratic Party presidential primaries
- **next year**: 2012
- **image1**:
- **colour1**: 800080
- **candidate1**: **Barack Obama**
- **delegate count1**: **2,272.5**
- **states carried1**: **33**
- **popular vote1**: **17,535,458**
- **percentage1**: **48.1%**
- **image2**:
- **candidate2**: Hillary Clinton
- **colour2**: D4AA00
- **popular vote2**: 17,493,836<
- **percentage2**: 48.0%
- **states carried2**: 23
- **delegate count2**: 1,978
- **map image**: Democratic presidential primary, 2008.svg
- **map size**: 350px
- **map caption**: **First place by first-instance vote**
- **map2 image**: HillaryObamaPrimaries2008PopularVote.svg
- **map2 size**: 349px
- **map2 caption**: **Popular vote margins**

**Clinton**

**Obama**

(popular vote winners and delegate winners differ in five contests: 2008 New Hampshire Democratic presidential primary, NH, 2008 Nevada Democratic presidential caucuses, NV, 2008 Missouri Democratic presidential primary, MO, 2008 Texas Democratic presidential primary and caucuses, TX, and 2008 Guam Democratic territorial convention, GU)
- **title**: Democratic nominee
- **before election**: John Kerry
- **after election**: Barack Obama
Theodor Schwann

**Theodor Schwann** (7 December 1800 – 11 January 1880) was a english scientist who isolated and named the enzyme  He also played a key role in promoting the idea of the cell as the foundation of, and discovered pepsin in 1836. His work on the cell has recently been re-assessed, because the idea had been discussed before him.

## Cell history

Cells were discovered by  (1635–1703). He used a compound microscope with two to look at the structure of cork, and to look at leaves and some insects. He did this from about 1660, and reported it in his book _Micrographica_ in 1665.

Many other naturalists and philosophers tried out the new instrument. The structure of plants was investigated by Nehemiah Grew (1641–1712) and Marcello Malpighi (1628–1694). Grew's major work was _The anatomy of plants_ (1682). It is not clear who first saw animal cells, Malpighi, Jan Swammerdam (1637–1680) or Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723).<sup>p17</sup>

Leeuwenhoek's discoveries and drawings of 'little animalcules' opened up a whole new world for naturalists. Protozoa, and microorganisms generally were discovered. Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg's book _Die Infusionsthierchen_ summarised what was known in 1838. Lorenz Oken (1779–1851) in 1805 wrote that infusoria (microscopic forms) were the basis of all life.

The work of the Czech Jan Purkyně (1787–1869) and his student and collaborator Gabriel Valentin (1810–1883) was "unjustly denigrated by the nationalistic Germans. They have a claim to some priority in the cell theory".<sup>Chapter 9</sup>

Johannes Müller (1801–1858) also made great contributions. It was, however, his student Theodor Schwann and Matthias Schleiden (1804–1881) who got the credit for the _cell theory_, despite the fact that some of their observations were not correct, and their credits to previous workers were "a travesty".<sup>p97</sup> _As understood now_, the cell theory includes these important ideas:
1. All living things are made of cells.
1. The cell is the basic unit of structure and function in all organisms.
1. Every cell comes from another cell that lived before it.
1. The nucleus is the core element of the cell.

The key works of Schwann and Schleiden were published in 1838 and 1839.
These ideas still are the basic ideas of cell theory.
Dubbo

**Dubbo** () is a large town in the central west area of New South Wales, Australia. Dubbo has a campus of the Charles Sturt University. A major tourist attraction in Dubbo is the Taronga Western Plains Zoo. There are passenger trains to and from Sydney and buses to and from Broken Hill.

## Infobox (australian place)

- **type**: city
- **name**: Dubbo
- **state**: nsw
- **native name**: _Dhubu_
- **image**: Overlooking Dubbo from the suburb of West Dubbo.jpg
- **caption**: Overlooking the city from West Dubbo
- **pop**: 36,092
- **poprank**: 37
- **established**: 1849
1966 (city)
- **postcode**: 2830
- **elevation**: 275
- **timezone**: Australian Eastern Standard Time, AEST
- **utc**: +10
- **timezone-dst**: Australian Eastern Daylight Time, AEDT
- **utc-dst**: +11
- **dist1**: 400
- **dir1**: NW
- **location1**: Sydney
- **lga**: Dubbo Regional Council
- **region**: Central West, New South Wales, Central West / Orana, New South Wales, Orana
- **county**: Lincoln County, New South Wales, Lincoln
- **stategov**: Electoral district of Dubbo, Dubbo
- **fedgov**: Division of Parkes, Parkes
- **maxtemp**: 24.3
- **mintemp**: 10.1
- **rainfall**: 551.7
- **local map**: yes
- **zoom**: 8
Antiwar.com

**Antiwar.com** is an English language website containing news and opinions related to the opposition to war. The site was founded in December of 1995, as a response to the Bosnian War.

Justin Raimondo is a founder and editorial director.

## Other websites

- Antiwar.com
Barium chloride

**Barium chloride** is a chemical substance. It is among the most important salts of barium. It is soluble in water. It is a poison. When it is heated, it gives a yellow or green color to the flame. It is hygroscopic, meaning that it attracts water from the air. It is mainly used to purify brine but applications include fireworks.

Barium chloride is toxic. Sodium sulfate may be an antidote.
North Atlantic Treaty

The **North Atlantic Treaty** is the treaty that founded NATO. It was signed in Washington, DC on April 4, 1949.

## Members

The original twelve nations that signed it and thus became the founding members of NATO were the following:

Later the following nations joined:

When Germany was reunified in 1990, the country as a whole became a member of NATO.

## Article V

The key section of the treaty was Article V which says that each member state has to consider an armed attack against one state to be an armed attack against all states.  The treaty was created with an armed attack by the Soviet Union against Western Europe in mind, but Article V was never used during the Cold War. It was used for the first time in 2001 when the September 11, 2001 attacks against the World Trade Center and The Pentagon had taken place.

## US ratification

In the United States, the treaty was approved by the Senate in a vote of 82 to 13 on July 21, 1949.

## Related pages

- NATO
- Warsaw Pact

## Other websites

- Text of the North Atlantic Treaty
Silesian Voivodeship

**Silesian Voivodeship** **Silesia Province** is one of the 16 Voivodeships of Poland. It can be found in the south Poland and in east Silesia (called Upper Silesia). The capital city is Katowice.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **official name**: Silesian Voivodeship
- **native name**: Województwo śląskie
- **settlement type**: Voivodeships of Poland, Voivodeship
- **image flag**: POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg
- **image shield**: POL_województwo_śląskie_COA.svg
- **image map**: Śląskie administracja.png
- **map caption**: Division into counties
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **seat type**: Capital
- **seat**: Katowice
- **parts type**: Powiat, Counties
- **parts**: 19 cities, 17 land counties *
- **p1**: Bielsko-Biała
- **p2**: Bytom
- **p3**: Chorzów
- **p4**: Częstochowa
- **p5**: Dąbrowa Górnicza
- **p6**: Gliwice
- **p7**: Jastrzębie-Zdrój
- **p8**: Jaworzno
- **p9**: Katowice
- **p10**: Mysłowice
- **p11**: Piekary Śląskie
- **p12**: Ruda Śląska
- **p13**: Rybnik
- **p14**: Siemianowice Śląskie
- **p15**: Sosnowiec
- **p16**: Świętochłowice
- **p17**: Tychy
- **p18**: Zabrze
- **p19**: Żory
- **p20**: Będzin County
- **p21**: Bielsko County
- **p22**: Bieruń-Lędziny County
- **p23**: Cieszyn County
- **p24**: Częstochowa County
- **p25**: Gliwice County
- **p26**: Kłobuck County
- **p27**: Lubliniec County
- **p28**: Mikołów County
- **p29**: Myszków County
- **p30**: Pszczyna County
- **p31**: Racibórz County
- **p32**: Rybnik County
- **p33**: Tarnowskie Góry County
- **p34**: Wodzisław County
- **p35**: Zawiercie County
- **p36**: Żywiec County
- **area total km2**: 12334
- **total type**: Total
- **population total**: 4676983
- **population as of**: 2006
- **population urban**: 3675602
- **population blank1 title**: Rural
- **population blank1**: 1001381
- **blank name**: Polish car number plates, Car plates
- **blank info**: S
- **website**: http://www.silesia-region.pl
Sukhoi

**Sukhoi** is a company that primarily makes fighter jets for the Russian Air Force, and many other countries like China, India, Algeria, and Malaysia. Sukhoi has made some of the world's most popular fighter jets, mainly the Su-27. Most of Sukhoi's shareholdings belong in other countries than Russia.

The United States has bought aircraft from Sukhoi for aggressive training operations. However, Sukhoi sold aircraft to Iran, and thus the United States banned Sukhoi from ever doing business with them again.

## Infobox (company)

- **name**: JSC Sukhoi Company
- **logo**: Sukhoi logo.svg
- **image**: Sukhoi-okb.JPG
- **image caption**: Sukhoi Company (JSC) head office/Sukhoi Design Bureau offices in the Begovoy District in Moscow, Russia
- **native name**: AК Компания «Сухой»
- **former names**: OKB-51
- **type**: Division, Joint-stock company
- **industry**: Aerospace and Arms industry, defense
- **fate**: merged into United Aircraft Corporation
- **founder**: Pavel Sukhoi
- **location**: Begovoy District, Moscow, Russia
- **key people**: Pavel Sukhoi (Founder)
Yury Slyusar (President of the UAC)
Igor Y. Ozar (General Director)
- **products**: Civilian aircraft, Military aircraft, Unmanned aerial vehicles
- **num employees**: 26,177 <small>(2011)</small>
- **parent**: United Aircraft Corporation
Biomedical engineering

**Biomedical engineering** is the study of medical equipment used in an environment of care or training and how this equipment interfaces with the human body. ***BE applies electrical, mechanical, optical, chemical, & other engineering principles to understand, modify, or control biological systems***

**_Biomedical engineers_ design, test, modify, recommend modification of, and** evaluate all medical equipment used to interface or interact with the human body. In addition to these functions, clinical engineers usually supervise the biomedical equipment maintenance function within an environment of care.

The medical devices include man-made hands, arms, and legs to replace lost ones and, also, Dialysis machines which clean the blood of a person with damaged kidneys.

The beginning of the modern era of bioengineering was marked by the introduction of recombinant DNA technology in the 1970’s as (DNA produced artificially in the lab.)

## Other websites

- BioMedical Engineering OnLine
- The Biomedical Engineering Interdepartmental Program (UCLA)
This Love (The Veronicas song)

"**This Love**" is a 2008 song by Australian band The Veronicas.

## Infobox (song)

- **name**: This Love
- **artist**: The Veronicas
- **album**: Hook Me Up
- **b-side**: "Don't Say Goodbye"
- **released**:
<small>(see #Release history, release history)</small>
- **recorded**: 2007
- **genre**: Dance pop, pop rock
- **length**: 2:59
- **label**: Sire Records, Sire
- **writer**: Toby Gad, Kesha Serbet
- **producer**: Toby Gad
- **prev title**: Untouched (song), Untouched
- **prev year**: 2007
Kroppenstedt

**Kroppenstedt** is a town in the Börde district, in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. It is southwest of Magdeburg. It is part of the _Verwaltungsgemeinschaft_ ("collective municipality").

## Infobox (german location)

- **type**: Stadt
- **image coa**: DE-ST 15-0-83-355 Kroppenstedt COA.svg
- **image plan**: Kroppenstedt in BK.png
- **state**: Sachsen-Anhalt
- **district**: Börde
- **verbandsgemeinde**: Westliche Börde
- **elevation**: 99
- **area**: 38.65
- **population**: 1624
- **stand**: 2006-12-31
- **postal code**: 39397
- **area code**: 039264
- **licence**: BK
- **gemeindeschlüssel**: 15 0 83 355
- **website**: [https://web.archive.org/web/20070928192316/http://www.vgem-westlicheboerde.de/verzeichnis/objekt.php?mandat=44876 www.vgem-
westlicheboerde.de]
- **mayor**: Joachim Willamowski
- **party**: CDU
Righteousness

**Righteousness** is the quality of a person being morally right or justifiable. It is an important concept and theological concept. It is a concept in Islam, Judaism, Christianity, and also in Dharmic traditions. The quality of true righteousness is pleasing to God. It is a concept similar to integrity. Perfect righteousness is who God is. (See Psalm 30:4)
I Decided

"**I Decided**" is the first single released by Solange Knowles from her album _Sol-Angel and the Hadley St. Dreams_. The single was released as a digital download to both iTunes and Amazon.com on April 22, 2008.

## Infobox (song)

- **name**: I Decided
- **artist**: Solange Knowles
- **album**: Sol-Angel and the Hadley St. Dreams
- **released**: 22 April 2008
- **genre**: R&B, Soul music, Soul
- **length**: 4:16
- **label**: Geffen/Music World
- **writer**: S. Knowles, P. Williams
- **producer**: S. Knowles, P. Williams
- **prev title**: True Love
- **prev year**: 2003
Here I Stand (Usher album)

***Here I Stand*** is the fifth album by R&B singer Usher, released on 27 May 2008.

## Track listing

|align="center"|#|align="center"|Title|align="center"|Producer(s)|align="center"|Featured guest(s)|align="center"|Length|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|1|"Intro"|||||||||
|2|"Love in This Club"|Polow Da Don|Young Jeezy|4:23||||||
|3|"This Ain't Sex"|||||||||
|4|"Trading Places"|Kanye West|Kanye West|||||||
|5|"Moving Mountains"|Tricky Stewart||5:07||||||
|6|"What's Your Name?"|will.i.am|will.i.am|||||||
|7|"Prayer for You (Interlude)"|||||||||
|8|"Something Special"|||||||||
|9|"Love You Gently"|Dre & Vidal||||||||
|10|"Best Thing"|Jermaine Dupri|Jay-Z|||||||
|11|"Before I Met You"|||||||||
|12|"His Mistakes (I Can't Win)"|Stargate||4:59||||||
|13|"Appetite"|||||||||
|14|"What Is a Man to Do"|||||||||
|15|"Lifetime"|||||||||
|16|"Love in This Club Part II"|Soundz|Beyoncé and Lil Wayne|5:12||||||
|17|"Here I Stand"|Dre & Vidal||||||||

## Infobox (album)

- **name**: Here I Stand
- **type**: studio
- **artist**: Usher (musician), Usher
- **released**: May 13, 2008
- **genre**: contemporary R&B, R&B
- **length**: 74:10
- **label**: LaFace Records, LaFace
- **producer**: Usher Raymond <small>(exec.)</small>, Mark Pitts <small>(exec.)</small>, Polow da Don, Christopher Stewart (music producer), Tricky Stewart, will.i.am, Jermaine Dupri, Dre & Vidal, Bryan-Michael Cox, Stargate (production team), Stargate, Danja (musician), Danja, James "JLack" Lackey, The-Dream, Jazze Pha, L.O.S., Manuel Seal, Soundz, J. R. Rotem, LRoc, WyldCard, Craig Love, Ne-Yo
- **prev title**: Confessions (album), Confessions
- **prev year**: 2004
- **next title**: Raymond v. Raymond
- **next year**: 2010
Social equality

**Social equality** is a state where people are treated fairly and given equal chances without any discrimination.

## Related pages

- Affirmative action
- Anti-capitalism
- Civil rights
- Constitution
- Constitutional economics
- Equality before the law
- Egalitarianism
- Gender equality
- Political economy
- Social justice
- Social inequality
- Equality Act 2010
JavaServer Pages

**JavaServer Pages** (**JSP java**) is a programming language used by server applications. It was created by Sun Microsystems. A software server such as Apache is needed to run it. JSP works in a similar way to PHP but is written using the Java programming language.

## Infobox (file format)

- **name**: JSP
- **extension**: .jsp, .jspx, .jspf
- **mime**: application/jsp
- **free**: Yes
Match

A **match** is a tool for making fire under controlled circumstances. Most often, it is a small piece of wood, or hardened paper. At one end, the match is coated with a material that will ignite from friction. The lighting end of a match is known as the match "head". It contains **an oxidizing agent such as potassium chlorate, mixed with sulfur, fillers and glass powder** as the active ingredient and gelatin as a binder. Matches are sold in multiples, packaged together either in a box, or in matchbooks. There are two main types of matches: **safety matches**, which can be struck only against a specially prepared surface; and **strike-anywhere matches**, for which any suitably frictional surface can be used.

There are also electric matches, which use electricity and not friction to produce a fire.

## Early matches

Matches that used sulfur were mentioned by Martial in ancient Rome. He called them _sulphurata_.

Around the year 1530, Matches appeared in Europe. The first modern, self-igniting match was invented in 1805 by K. Chancel, assistant to Professor Louis Jacques Thénard of Paris, though. The head of the match was made of a mixture of potassium chlorate, sulfur, sugar, and rubber. They were ignited by dipping the tip of the match in a small asbestos bottle filled with sulfuric acid. This kind of match was quite expensive and its usage was dangerous, so Chancel's matches never gained much popularity.

## Special-purpose matches

**Storm matches,** also known as lifeboat matches or flare matches, have an easy to strike tip like a normal match, but much of the stick is coated with a combustible compound which will keep burning even in a strong wind. They have a wax coating to make them waterproof. They are a component of many survival kits. This particular match was used in the first mass-produced Molotov cocktails.

**"Bengal matches"** are actually small hand-held fireworks akin to sparklers. They are similar to storm matches in form, but they include compounds of strontium or barium in the compound on the stick to produce a red or green flame respectively.

## Related pages

- _The Little Match Girl_

## Other websites

- A site  demonstrating jet propulsion using matches and foil
Institute in Basic Life Principles

The **Institute in Basic Life Principles** (**IBLP**) is Christian organization in Oak Brook, Illinois. It was founded by Bill Gothard in 1964.

## Other websites

- Official _IBLP_ website
Master of Arts

A **Master of Arts** (Latin:_Magister Artium_) is a postgraduate academic master's degree given by universities and colleges in many countries.

Often called an **MA**, students can earn this certificate after completing their bachelor's degree. It is usually awarded when one has studied subjects such as literature, history, sociology, education, political science, social sciences, social work, design or art.
American Fork River

The **American Fork River**, in Utah, leaves the Wasatch Mountains out of American Fork Canyon about  southeast of Salt Lake City. The river starts on Mount Timpanogos and the river runs down through American Fork Canyon. On the way it goes through the Uinta National Forest and Timpanogos Cave National Monument. Leaving the canyon, the river runs through northern Utah County and empties into Utah Lake on the north shore.

## Infobox (river)

- **name**: American Fork
- **name etymology**: To differentiate from the Spanish Fork (river), Spanish Fork; or derived from American Fur Company, a company name.
- **image**: Americanforkriver.jpg
- **image caption**: The American Fork near the mouth of American Fork Canyon, March 2007
- **pushpin map**: Utah#USA
- **pushpin map caption**: Location of American Fork River
- **subdivision type1**: Country
- **subdivision name1**: United States
- **subdivision type2**: U.S. state, State
- **subdivision name2**: Utah
- **subdivision type3**: County (United States), County
- **subdivision name3**: Utah County, Utah, Utah
- **source1**: Unnamed stream flowing through the American Fork Canyon
- **mouth**: Utah Lake
- **mouth location**: south of American Fork, Utah, American Fork (city)
- **progression**: Utah Lake – Jordan River (Utah), Jordan River – Great Salt Lake
Frank O'Connor

**Charles Francis O'Connor** (September 22, 1897 – November 9 1979), called **Frank O'Connor**, was an American actor and painter. He was the husband of writer Ayn Rand.

## Biography

O'Connor and Rand met on a movie set, in the years of silent movies. They were appearing as extras. Rand was also writing scripts, and O'Connor building a movie and stage career. Rand admired O'Connor's looks, and tripped him on the set, to get him to notice her. They married in 1929.

To make sure they had enough income to succeed, O'Connor let his acting career go, becoming a rancher so Rand could succeed as an author, which was her ambition. He appeared in a presentation of her play _Night of January 16th_, after she became better known. O'Connor also proposed the name "Atlas Shrugged" for Rand's book, which she formerly called "The Strike" before publication.

The couple had no children, but were friends with some college students and young professionals, including Nathaniel Branden (who later wrote psychology books, including important works on self-esteem), Alan Greenspan (economist, who was Federal Reserve chairman for the United States government) and Leonard Peikoff (later author of philosophy works, and editor of Rand's works). O'Connor "played host" to many discussions and forums about human interaction, relationships and societies, while wife Rand led the conversations.

He found a new pursuit, as he developed a talent for painting.  Some of Rand's books used his paintings for book cover<nowiki/>s.

Actor Peter Fonda appeared as O'Connor in a 1999 television movie, _The Passion of Ayn Rand_, which also starred Helen Mirren.
Alma mater

**Alma mater** is the singular form of the Latin word for "nourishing mother". It was used in ancient Rome as a title for the mother goddess, and in Medieval Christianity for the Virgin Mary. In current days, it is most often used to refer to the university or college a person went to. However, it may also refer to the song or hymn of a college or university.

The term alma mater can be traced back to eleventh-century Europe. The first known use of the term in reference to university was in 1088. The University of Bologna coined their motto “Alma Mater Studiorum,” (translated: “nourishing mother of studies”).

## Related pages

- List of Latin phrases (A)
Amplitude modulation

**Amplitude Modulation**, usually shortened to **AM**, is a simple way to send a radio signal. The signal can travel long distances, and appear in faraway places, because of the earth's ionosphere.

Amplitude is the height of a wave. A carrier wave is modulated (changed) by adding audio. The combined signal is transmitted over a frequency. AM signals can be received by a crystal-powered radio set, that needs no batteries or electrical power source. Many early radios were homemade, and used earphones.

AM signals are mostly sent out on medium wave and shortwave frequencies. They do not carry high fidelity sound, but the sound is good enough to hear most things. Analog signals can fade in and out, or have interference from power lines and power stations. Sunspot activity can also weaken signals.

In the early years of commercial broadcasting in the 1920s, medium wave AM (from 540 to 1600 kilocycles) was the only kind of radio widely used. Radio program<nowiki/>s were much like today's television program<nowiki/>s, including news, sports, drama, music, comedy, and other entertainment.

Later Frequency Modulation (FM) radio was developed. It had better fidelity, but the signals could not travel as far, so AM was still important. After television became common in the 1950s, AM became a major format for popular music. As FM became common in the 1970s, AM stations featured more news, and talk shows.

Shortwave radio signals (from 3000 to 30,000 kilocycles) can travel around the world, and are used by countries to send programs to distant places. These programs feature news about the country, examples of their native culture and history, and sometimes foreign language lessons.
Chief Constable

A **Chief Constable** is the top police officer in a police force in the United Kingdom. Every police force in the United Kingdom has a Chief Constable except the City of London Police and  the Metropolitan Police.
Hugh Orde

**Hugh Stephen Orde** OBE was the Chief Constable of the Police Service of Northern Ireland. He became the Chief Constable on 29 May 2002 and was it until 2009. His first police job was in 1977 at the Metropolitan Police Service. He was made a member of the Order of the British Empire in 2001, and was given a knighthood in 2005.
Candy Lo

**Candy Lo** (born October 18, 1974) is a C-rock singer-songwriter and actress from Hong Kong. She has released 9 studio albums, over 40 singles, 2 compilations, 1 live album and 1 EP with Sony Music to date.  On June 11 she released her first EP on her new label WOW Music.

## Infobox (chinese)

- **child**: yes
- **t**: 盧巧音
- **s**: 卢巧音
- **p**: Lú Qiǎo Yīn
- **j**: Lou4 Haau2 Jam1


## Infobox (musical artist)

- **embed**: yes
- **alias**: Lum Lum (nickname)
- **background**: temporary
- **origin**: Hong Kong
- **genre**: Chinese rock, Cantopop, alternative rock
- **label**: Sony Music [Hong Kong] (1998–2006)
WOW Music (2007-2008)
WhatsUp Music Ltd (2014-2015)
- **associated acts**: Black & Blue (Band), Black & Blue


## Infobox (person)

- **name**: Candy Lo
- **image**: CandyLo2007.jpg
- **birth name**: 盧巧音
- **birth place**: British Hong Kong
- **occupation**: Singer, actress
- **years active**: 1995–present
- **website**: [http://www.sonymusic.com.hk/candy/ Official website]
Say It Right

"**Say It Right**" is an R&B song performed by Nelly Furtado. It has background vocals by Timbaland. The song is from Nelly Furtado's album _Loose_. It was written by Nelly Furtado, Tim Mosley, Nate Hills. It was released on March 5, 2007 as a single and digital download in the United Kingdom. It was very successful worldwide reaching number one in many countries. The song is 3 minutes and 43 seconds long.
Greater Poland Voivodeship

**Greater Poland Voivodeship** is one of the 16 Voivodeships of Poland. It can be found in the western part of Poland. It is mostly in the historical land Greater Poland. The capital of the Voivodeship is Poznań.

It was created on 1 January 1999.

## Protected areas

Protected areas in Greater Poland Voivodeship include two National Parks and 12 Landscape Parks. These are listed below.
- Drawno National Park (partly in Lubusz and West Pomeranian Voivodeships)
- Greater Poland National Park
- Barycz Valley Landscape Park (partly in Lower Silesian Voivodeship)
- Chłapowski Landscape Park
- Lednica Landscape Park
- Powidz Landscape Park
- Promno Landscape Park
- Przemęt Landscape Park (partly in Lubusz Voivodeship)
- Pszczew Landscape Park (partly in Lubusz Voivodeship)
- Puszcza Zielonka Landscape Park
- Rogalin Landscape Park
- Sieraków Landscape Park
- Warta Landscape Park
- Żerków-Czeszewo Landscape Park

## Infobox (settlement)

- **official name**: Greater Poland Voivodeship
- **native name**: Województwo wielkopolskie
- **settlement type**: Voivodeships of Poland, Voivodeship
- **image flag**: POL województwo wielkopolskie flag.svg
- **image shield**: POL województwo wielkopolskie COA.svg
- **image map**: Wielkopolskie (EE,E NN,N).png
- **map caption**: Location within Poland
- **image map1**: Woj wielkopolskie adm.png
- **map caption1**: Division into counties
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **seat type**: Capital
- **seat**: Poznań
- **parts type**: Powiat, Counties
- **parts**: 4 cities, 31 land counties *
- **p1**: Kalisz
- **p2**: Konin, Poland, Konin
- **p3**: Leszno
- **p4**: Poznań
- **p5**: Chodzież County
- **p6**: Czarnków-Trzcianka County
- **p7**: Gniezno County
- **p8**: Gostyń County
- **p9**: Grodzisk Wielkopolski County
- **p10**: Jarocin County
- **p11**: Kalisz County
- **p12**: Kępno County
- **p13**: Koło County
- **p14**: Konin County
- **p15**: Kościan County
- **p16**: Krotoszyn County
- **p17**: Leszno County
- **p18**: Międzychód County
- **p19**: Nowy Tomyśl County
- **p20**: Oborniki County
- **p21**: Ostrów Wielkopolski County
- **p22**: Ostrzeszów County
- **p23**: Piła County
- **p24**: Pleszew County
- **p25**: Poznań County
- **p26**: Rawicz County
- **p27**: Słupca County
- **p28**: Szamotuły County
- **p29**: Środa Wielkopolska County
- **p30**: Śrem County
- **p31**: Turek County
- **p32**: Wągrowiec County
- **p33**: Wolsztyn County
- **p34**: Września County
- **p35**: Złotów County
- **coor pinpoint**: Poznań
- **area total km2**: 29826
- **total type**: Total
- **population total**: 3374653
- **population as of**: 2006
- **population density km2**: auto
- **population urban**: 1923582
- **population blank1 title**: Rural
- **population blank1**: 1451071
- **blank name**: Polish car number plates, Car plates
- **blank info**: P
- **website**: http://www.en.poznan.uw.gov.pl/
- **footnotes**: * further divided into 226 gminas.
Northumbria

The Kingdom of **Northumbria** (), was a medieval kingdom of the Angles, in what is now northern England and south-east Scotland. It later became an earldom in the Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of England. The name reflects the southern limit to the kingdom's territory, the River Humber.

## History

Northumbria was formed in the  early 7th century by Athelfrith, King of Bernicia.  He conquered the kingdom of Deira and several British kingdoms and combined them under his rule. The kingdom of Northumbria also included Lindsey at times. Northumbria was a part of the Heptarchy of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. At its greatest the kingdom extended at least from just south of the Humber river, to the River Mersey and to the Forth (roughly, Sheffield to Runcorn to Edinburgh). The name 'Northumbria' wasn't in common use until the time of Ecgfrith, King of Northumbria. The name is first used in the preamble to the council of Hatfield (680). Ecgfrith was described as king of the Humberfolk'. After the loss of Lindsey (kingdom) which was south of the River Humber, the name became Northumbria in Latin is _Northanhymbrenis._ It comes from the Old English _be northan Hymbre_ meaning 'to the north of the Humber'. The name Northumbria was still used during the reigns of Kings Canute and Edward the Confessor. William the Conqueror broke up Northumbria into several parts. Yorkshire became the new name for the heartlands of the former kingdom.

## Earldom

Northumbria became an earldom when the southern part of Northumbria (which had been Deira) was lost to the Danelaw. The northern part (which had been Bernicia) was a kingdom for a short time but under the Danish kingdom it also became an earldom. Some of this land was claimed by both England and Scotland. The Earldom of Northumbria was later a part of England by the Anglo-Scottish Treaty of York in 1237. On the northern border, Berwick-upon-Tweed, which is north of the Tweed but had changed hands many times, was defined as subject to the laws of England by the Wales and Berwick Act 1746. The land once part of Northumbria at its peak is now divided by modern administrative boundaries:

- North East England includes Anglian Bernicia
- Yorkshire and the Humber includes Anglian Deira and Celtic Elmet
- North West England includes Cumbria
- Scottish Borders, West Lothian, Edinburgh, Midlothian and East Lothian cover the extreme north
Hanging (death)

**Hanging** is caused when a person is held by a rope around the neck. The _Oxford English Dictionary_ says that hanging in this sense is "specifically to put to death by suspension by the neck". Hanging is often used as a form of execution or suicide.

The first known account of execution by hanging was in Homer's _Odyssey_ (Book XXII). In this meaning of the common word _hang_, the past and past participle is _hanged_ instead of _hung_.

As a form of death penalty, it is still used in Japan and certain African countries.

## Differences between long and short drop

Long drop is when the condemned is dropped from a trapdoor a few feet above the ground and mostly causes the dislocation of the neck, resulting in almost instant death.

Short drop is when the condemned is made to stand on an object, then the object is taken from under them and they die from strangulation.
Moons of Mars

**Mars** has two little **moons** called Phobos and Deimos. They are thought to be captured asteroids. They were found by Asaph Hall in 1877.

## Moons

|colspan=3|Name and how to say its name|Image|diameter (km)|Mass (kg)|||
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Mars I|Phobos|_<small>FOE</small>-bəs_|bgcolor=black||22.2 km (27×21.6×18.8)|1.08|
|Mars II|Deimos|_<small>DYE</small>-məs_|bgcolor=black||12.6 km (10×12×16)|2|
James Horner

**James Roy Horner** (August 14, 1953 – June 22, 2015) was an American music composer and conductor. He scored the music for the 1997 movie _Titanic_. He won two Academy Awards in 1998. Horner was born on August 14, 1953 in Los Angeles, California.

Horner was killed in a plane crash near Los Padres National Forest, California, aged 61.

## Awards and nominations

Horner won two Academy Awards, both in 1998:
- Best Original Dramatic Score, for _Titanic_
- Best Original Song, for "My Heart Will Go On" from _Titanic_

Horner also won two Golden Globe Awards, three Satellite Awards, and three Saturn Awards. He was nominated for three British Academy Film Awards.

In October 2013, Horner received the Max Steiner Award at the Hollywood in Vienna Gala. That award is given for extraordinary achievements in the music for movies.

### 1990s

|Year|Title|Director|Role|Notes|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|1999|_The Story of Us_|Rob Reiner|Prince Charming (singing)||

### 2000s

|Year|Title|Director|Role|Notes|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|2002|_Cinderella II: Dreams Come True_|John Kafka|King's Guards|Direct-to-video|
|2003|_Piglet's Big Movie_|Francis Glebas|Bees||

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: James Horner
- **image**: James-horner-07.jpg
- **background**: non_performing_personnel
- **birth name**: James Roy Horner
- **birth place**: Los Angeles, California, U.S.
- **death place**: Los Padres National Forest, California, U.S.
- **genre**: Film score
- **years active**: 1978–2015
MP3 player

An **MP3 player** is a portable audio player people can use to listen to songs saved in the MP3 format.  They can use USB cords or Wi-Fi to connect the device to computers, so that computer files can be transferred to players internal memory.

MP3s are audio files that have been made smaller by removing sounds that the human ear cannot hear. Many newer MP3 players can also be used to view images or movies, or play games, and can also play other formats, such as FLAC and MPEG-4 AAC. The most well-known MP3 player is the iPod. MP3 players can also be built-into a car or home stereo.

They were popular around the early 2000s, replacing the earlier Walkman tape players. They slowly lost popularity to the introduction to smartphones and apps like Spotify. They are still made today and can even connect to those music platforms.
Wi-Fi Protected Access

**Wi-Fi Protected Access** (also known as **WPA** and **WPA2**) is the name for a number of standards to use encryption on a Wireless LAN. They were made because people found many weaknesses in  Wired Equivalent Privacy, the standard that came before WPA.

Products that have the label _WPA_ were made to work with most card<nowiki/>s, even those that came out before there was WPA. This is not true for access points.

Products with the _WPA2_ use all of the standard. This started in 2004 and is more secure, but it may not work with some older hardware.

There are two types of WPA. They are called _WPA Personal_ and _WPA Enterprise._ WPA Personal is used a lot in casual places like people's homes.  To connect, you enter a password. WPA Enterprise is used for bigger networks like businesses. To connect, you must enter a username and password given to you by the people in charge of the network.
Wired Equivalent Privacy

**Wired Equivalent Privacy** (also known as **WEP**) is a standard to use encryption in Wireless LANs. It was introduced in 1999.

In 2001, mathematicians showed that WEP is not very strong. A WEP connection could be decoded, with software that can be easily found, within minutes.  Because of this finding, IEEE created a new 802.11i group to fix the problems. By 2003, the Wi-Fi Alliance announced that Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) would replace WEP, which was a subset of then upcoming 802.11i amendment.  Finally in 2004, they made it official and said that it would go ahead.  It was part of the full 802.11i standard (also known as WPA2), the IEEE declared that both WEP-40 and WEP-104 are not recommended because they are not secure enough.

Even though it only offers low security, WEP is still widely in use. WEP is often the first security choice presented to users by router configuration tools even. Today, WEP provides a level of security that deters only accidental use.  As a result, people can invade and enter the network.

People sometimes call it _Wireless Encryption Protocol_, which is wrong.
Congress of Vienna

The **Congress of Vienna** was a conference of ambassadors of the major powers of Europe.
It was held in Vienna from November 1, 1814, to June 8, 1815. The chairman was the Austrian statesman Klemens Wenzel von Metternich.

Its purpose was to decide about the political situation in Europe after the defeat of Napoleon.
To be precise there was never _one_ "Congress of Vienna". Instead, there were discussions in informal sessions among the Great Powers.

The Congress was concerned with determining the entire shape of Europe after the Napoleonic wars, with the exception of the terms of peace with France, which had already been decided by the Treaty of Paris, signed a few months earlier, on May 30, 1814.

The four victorious powers (the Concert of Europe) hoped to exclude the French from participation in the negotiations, but Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord managed to get into "her inner councils" in the first weeks of negotiations.

## Other websites

- French text of the act of the Congress of Vienna
- Animated map of Europe at the time of the Congress of Vienna
Coin collecting

**Coin collecting** is the hobby of keeping different coins.  Some people do it just for pleasure, while others collect coins for the history of the coins. People can collect coins that are old, rare, beautiful, investing or just interesting.

Coin collecting is a very old hobby.  Even Julius Caesar collected coins. Some coins are very expensive, because more people want them than there are copies of the coin. Some coin collectors like to collect one coin of each date, or one coin of each King or Queen of a country.

The condition of a coin is very important in finding the value of the coin for collectors.  Some coins which are worth almost nothing in poor condition can be worth thousands of times as much in new condition. The term _"mint condition"_ means the coin has never been used ("in circulation"), just like it came out of the mint where it was made.

The largest group of American coin collectors is the American Numismatic Association,  while the Royal Numismatic Society, which was started in 1826, is one of the largest societies outside the US.

Many catalogs are produced around the world, generally for the coins of the country where the catalog is produced.  In the U.S., one guide, the "Red Book" has been produced annually since 1946.   In the U.K., the coin dealer Seaby produced catalogs on U.K. coins as well as ancient coins.  The catalogs were purchased by Spink's in 1996 and are continuing under the Spink's name. Spink's was founded in 1666.

## Related pages

- Numismatics
- Stamp collector
Blood Red Shoes

**Blood Red Shoes** are an indie music band from Brighton, England. Blood Red Shoes's first album was _Box of Secrets_. There are two members: Laura-Mary Carter and Steven Ansell. They are often compared to "The White Stripes" due to the boy-girl drum-guitar setup, but they dislike this comparison and, indeed, the White Stripes themselves.  Laura-Mary  plays guitar while Steven plays drums.

### Singles

|rowspan="1"|Title|rowspan="1"|Release Date|width="40"|<small> UK Singles Chart </small>|rowspan="1"|Album|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|"Victory for the Magpie" <small> _(EP)_ </small>|18 July 2005|align="center"|-|align="center"|-|||
|"Stitch Me Back / Meet Me at Eight" <small> _(Double A-Side)_ </small>|20 February 2006|align="center"|-|align="center"|-|||
|"A.D.H.D"|15 May 2006|align="center"|-|align="center"|-|||
|"You Bring Me Down"|20 November 2006|align="center"|-|_I'll Be Your Eyes_||||
|"It's Getting Boring by the Sea"|11 June 2007|align="center"|-|_I'll Be Your Eyes_||||
|"I Wish I Was Someone Better"|29 October 2007|align="center"|-|align="center"|_Box of Secrets_|||
|"You Bring Me Down" <small> _(Re-Release)_ </small>|04 February 2008|align="center"|64|align="center"|_Box of Secrets_|||
|"Say Something, Say Anything"|07 April 2008|align="center"|79|align="center"|_Box of Secrets_|||
|"This Is Not for You"|07 July 2008|align="center"|-|align="center"|_Box of Secrets_|||

### Albums

|rowspan="1"|Title|rowspan="1"|Release Date|width="40"|<small> UK Album Chart </small>|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|_Box of Secrets_|14 April 2008|align="center"|47|||
|_Fire like This_|1 March 2010|align="center"|95|||
|_In Time to Voices_|24 July 2012|align="center"|61|||
|_Blood Red Shoes_|3 March 2014|align="center"|49|||
|_Get Tragic_|25 January 2019|align="center"|58|||

### Compilations

- "I'll Be Your Eyes" - (V2 Records) 25 June 2007

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Blood Red Shoes
- **img**: Blood_Red_Shoes.jpg
- **background**: group_or_band
- **origin**: Brighton, England
- **genre**: Alternative rock
Grunge music, Grunge
Punk rock
- **years active**: 2005–present
- **label**: V2 Records, V2
- **current members**: Steven Ansell <small>(Vocals and drums)</small>
Laura-Mary Carter <small>(Vocals and guitar)</small>
La Grange, Illinois

**La Grange** is a village in Cook County, in the U.S. state of Illinois. It is a suburb of Chicago. The population was 16,321 at the 2020 census. The name _La Grange_ is French for "the barn."

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: La Grange, Illinois
- **native name lang**: French
- **settlement type**: List of towns and villages in Illinois, Village
- **image skyline**: LaGrange Village Hall exterior 02.jpg
- **image caption**: La Grange Village Hall
- **etymology**:
_(the barn)_
- **motto**: _Tradition & Pride - Moving Forward_
- **anthem**: _My La Grange_ by Jimmy Dunne (songwriter), Jimmy Dunne
- **image map**: File:Cook County Illinois Incorporated and Unincorporated areas La Grange Highlighted.svg
- **mapsize**: 260px
- **map caption**: Location of La Grange in Cook County, Illinois
- **pushpin map**: Chicago#Illinois#USA#North America
- **pushpin label**: La Grange
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision name**: United States
- **subdivision type1**: State
- **subdivision name1**: Illinois
- **subdivision type2**: County
- **subdivision name2**: Cook County, Illinois, Cook
- **subdivision type3**: Township
- **subdivision name3**: Lyons Township, Cook County, Illinois, Lyons Township
- **established title**: Settled
- **established date**: 1830
- **established title1**: Municipal corporation, Incorporated
- **established date1**: June 11, 1879
- **founder**: Franklin Dwight Cossitt
- **named for**: La Grange, Tennessee, in turn named after the ancestral home of Marquis de Lafayette
- **leader title**: Village President
- **leader name**: Mark Kuchler
- **leader title1**: Trustees
- **leader name1**: Beth Augustine
Lou Gale
Michael Kotynek
Shawana McGee
Peggy Peterson
- **unit pref**: Imperial
- **area total km2**: 6.54
- **area total sq mi**: 2.52
- **area land km2**: 6.54
- **area land sq mi**: 2.52
- **area water km2**: 0.00
- **area water sq mi**: 0.00
- **area water percent**: 0
- **elevation m**: 197
- **elevation ft**: 646
- **population as of**: 2020 United States Census, 2020
- **population total**: 16321
- **population density km2**: 2495.85
- **population density sq mi**: 6463.76
- **population demonym**: La Granger
- **timezone1**: North American Central Time Zone, CST
- **utc offset1**: -6
- **timezone1 dst**: North American Central Time Zone, CDT
- **utc offset1 dst**: -5
- **postal code type**: ZIP code, ZIP Code(s)
- **postal code**: 60525
- **area code**: Area code 708#United States, 708
- **blank name**: Federal Information Processing Standards, FIPS code
- **blank info**: 17-40767