juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Pet door

**Pet doors**, also known as **cat doors**, **dog doors**, **doggie doors**, or in the United Kingdom, **cat flaps**, are small doors for pets. They are usually built in regular doors, but can also be in windows or walls. They usually have the hinge on the top, with no latch, so the animal can push their way in and out. Newer models sometimes only let the pet go outside, but not inside. Others have a latch and something that can be put on the pet that makes the latch open when the pet gets close to the door. They are most commonly used for pet cats, but can also be used for dogs, miniature pigs, or other small pets.

The pet door was developed by Isaac Newton.
Fort Knox

**Fort Knox** is an U.S. Army post in Kentucky. Named after Henry Knox, the fort is now the site of the U.S. Bullion Reservatory (where the United States keeps its gold). The fort's fortifications were built in 1862 during the American Civil War; however, after the war the camp became abandoned until 1917.

It is named for Henry Knox, a general in the American Revolutionary War.
Henry Knox

**Henry Knox** (1750–1806) was a military leader for the Americans during the American Revolutionary War. Originally from Boston, Massachusetts, he was appointed Chief Artillery Officer of the Continental Army. He is best known for transporting cannons and other artillery from Fort Ticonderoga to Boston through icy conditions using oxen. Later, George Washington named him the first Secretary of War.

Fort Knox in Kentucky & Maine are named after him.

## Infobox (us cabinet official)

- **name**: Henry Knox
- **image**: HENRY KNOX OIL.jpg
- **order**: 1st
- **title**: United States Secretary of War
- **term start**: March 8, 1785
- **term end**: December 31, 1794
- **president**: George Washington
- **predecessor**: None
- **successor**: Timothy Pickering
- **birth place**: Boston, Massachusetts, British America
- **death place**: near Thomaston, Maine, United States, U.S.
- **spouse**: Lucy Flucker
- **nationality**: British (at birth)
 American (at death)
- **profession**: Bookseller, Soldier
- **allegiance**:  United States of America
- **branch**: Continental Army
United States Army
- **serviceyears**: 1775-1784
- **rank**:  Colonel 1775-1776
 Brigadier General 1776-1781
 Major General 1781-1784
- **commands**: Chief of Artillery
- **battles**: **American Revolutionary War**
Battle of Bunker Hill
Siege of Boston
Battle of Long Island
Battle of Trenton
Battle of the Assunpink Creek
Battle of Princeton
Battle of Brandywine
Battle of Germantown
Battle of Monmouth
Siege of Yorktown
1775

## Events

- May – beginning of American Revolutionary War
- May – First Continental Congress
- June – Second Continental Congress
Continental Army

The **Continental Army** was the fighting force of the thirteen British colonies in the American Revolutionary War. It was created in 1775 by the First Continental Congress. Most of the army was disbanded in 1783 after the conclusion of the war. The army was officially closed by a resolution of Congress in 1784. A Legion of the United States partly replaced it in 1792, and the United States Army replaced it in 1796.

Congress elected George Washington as the commander-in-chief of the Continental Army when it was formed. He led the army until it was disbanded.
Cream cheese

**Cream cheese** is a soft, mild-tasting, white cheese. Sometimes, it is given extra flavor by adding additional seasonings such as puréed garlic, chopped dill, or chopped olives; as well, some cream cheese has small pieces of fruit or other sweet food blended into it. Cream cheese is different from other cheese in that it is not allowed time to mature. It is either made by cream or a mixture of milk and cream.

## Serving

Cream cheese is often spread on toasted bagels. Waffles with cream cheese and salsa is eaten in some areas of the United States.

## As an ingredient

Cream cheese is used to make cheesecake, a sweet, rich cake that is served for dessert.

## Related pages

- Fromage frais
Shrewsbury

**Shrewsbury** is the county town of Shropshire, a county of England. It is located 9 miles (14 km) east of the Welsh border and serves as the commercial centre for Shropshire and mid-Wales.

The town is very old. It was started around 700 AD. The town centre has almost the exact same medieval street plan and over 660 listed buildings. Many of these buildings have timber framing from the 15th and 16th centuries. There is also Shrewsbury Castle, which was built  in 1074, and Shrewsbury Abbey, which was built in 1083. The town centre is almost completely surrounded by the River Severn.

Charles Darwin was born in Shrewsbury and lived there for 27 years.

The population of Shrewsbury is just over 76,000, making it the second largest town in Shropshire, the biggest being Telford.

The town has a railway station and a professional football club, Shrewsbury Town, who compete in League One.

Shrewsbury is pronounced differently between different people - including the locals - many pronounce the town the town as ‘Shroosbri’ whereas other will pronounce it as ‘Shrowsbri’.

## Twinning

Shrewsbury is twinned with  Zutphen, Netherlands.

## In fiction

Shrewsbury Abbey is the setting of the Brother Cadfael Chronicles by Ellis Peters (Edith Pargeter). The books were later made into a television show.  The story is about a 12th-century monk who solves mysteries.  In 2013, the Abbey honoured Pargeter on the 100th anniversary of her birth.

## Infobox (uk place)

- **official name**: Shrewsbury
- **country**: England
- **region**: West Midlands
- **static image name**: English_Bridge_Shrewsbury.jpg
- **static image caption**: English Bridge, Shrewsbury
- **static image alt**: English Bridge, Shrewsbury
- **static image 2 name**:
Flag of Shrewsbury

- **static image 2 width**: 90px
- **static image 2 caption**: Coat of arms of Shrewsbury
- **population**: 76,782
- **population demonym**: Salopian
- **map alt**: Map of Shropshire, with a red dot showing the position of Shrewsbury
- **label position**: bottom
- **post town**: SHREWSBURY
- **postcode area**: SY
- **postcode district**: SY1, SY2, SY3
- **dial code**: 01743
- **constituency westminster**: Shrewsbury and Atcham (UK Parliament constituency), Shrewsbury and Atcham
- **unitary england**: Shropshire
- **lieutenancy england**: Shropshire
Telford

**Telford** is a large town in the county of Shropshire, England. It is in the borough of Telford and Wrekin.

It is a new town and building began in the 1960s. It is known for its large shopping centre in the town centre. It also has an ice rink and a large park.

The population of Telford is just over 140,000. It is the largest town in Shropshire, however the county town is Shrewsbury.

The town has a railway station, Telford Central. The town also has a football club, A.F.C. Telford United.

## Infobox (uk place)

- **country**: England
- **official name**: Telford
- **population**: 142,723
- **population ref**: (2011 census)
- **population demonym**: Telfordian
- **unitary england**: Telford and Wrekin
- **lieutenancy england**: Shropshire
- **region**: West Midlands
- **constituency westminster**: Telford (UK Parliament constituency), Telford
The Wrekin (UK Parliament constituency), The Wrekin
- **post town**: TELFORD
- **postcode district**: TF1, TF2, TF3, TF4, TF5, TF7
- **postcode area**: TF
- **dial code**: 01952
- **static image**: Darby_House,_Telford_-_geograph.org.uk_-_864342.jpg
- **static image caption**: Darby House, Telford
Ludlow

**Ludlow** is a town in Shropshire, a county of England. The town is very old and dates back to around 800 AD. There is a large castle and many other historic buildings.

There are just over 10,000 people living in the town.

It is the largest town in the South Shropshire area.

The town, though not large, is important in its area, which includes the Welsh Marches, Wales and South Shropshire. Its parish church, St Laurence's, is the largest in the county.

### Road

The A49, A4117, B4361 and B4365 roads pass through or go near Ludlow.

### Rail

Ludlow has a train station.

## Infobox (uk place)

- **official name**: Ludlow
- **country**: England
- **region**: West Midlands
- **static image name**: Ludlow_Castle_from_the_hills.JPG
- **static image caption**: Ludlow viewed from the Whitcliffe
- **static image alt**: Ludlow viewed from the Whitcliffe
- **static image 2 name**: File:Coat_of_arms_of_Ludlow.png
- **static image 2 width**: 100px
- **static image 2 caption**: Coat of arms of Ludlow
- **static image 2 alt**: The Coat of Arms of Ludlow, Shropshire
- **population**: 10,266
- **os grid reference**: SO512746
- **map alt**: Map of Shropshire, with a red dot showing the position of Ludlow
- **label position**: right
- **post town**: LUDLOW
- **postcode district**: SY8
- **postcode area**: SY
- **dial code**: 01584
- **civil parish**: Ludlow
- **constituency westminster**: Ludlow (UK Parliament constituency), Ludlow
- **london distance**: 154 miles (248 km)
- **unitary england**: Shropshire
- **lieutenancy england**: Shropshire
South Shropshire

**South Shropshire** is an area of Shropshire in England.

It is very hilly and has few people living there. The only large town is Ludlow.

The area has many castles and other ancient features, such as stone circles.
1189

## Events

- January 21 – Philip II of France and Richard I of England begin to assemble troops to wage the Third Crusade
- September 3– Richard I of England is crowned as king of England.
- August 29– Ban Kulin wrote "The Charter of Kulin", which become a symbolic "birth certificate" of Bosnian statehood
- This year was fixed as the start of time immemorial in English law in 1276.
- Beginning of the Siege of Acre.
- The Crusader castles of Montreal and Kerak are captured by Saladin.

## Births

- Yuri II, grand prince of Vladimir (d. 1238)

## Deaths

- July 6 — King Henry II of England (b. 1133)
Horatio Gates

**Horatio Gates** (1726 - 1806) was an American general during the American Revolutionary War. He fought for the Continental Army and is credited with the decisive American victory at the Battle of Saratoga in 1777.

During the earlier French and Indian War, he fought along with George Washington against the French as an officer in the British Army.

However, Gates also lost to British General Charles Cornwallis at the Battle of Camden in 1780. He had a child named Robert. He led the Americans at the battle of Saratoga
1276

## Events

- February – The court of the Southern Song Dynasty of China and hundreds of thousands of its citizens move from Hangzhou to Fujian and then Guangdong to get away from an invasion by the Mongol Empire.
- March 9 – Augsburg becomes an Imperial Free City. Ravensburg also does in the same year.
- June – King Rudolph I of Germany starts a war with King Otakar II of Bohemia; by November, Otakar II has to give him four important pieces of land. (The diet of Nuremberg already decided this in 1274.)
- Four different men are pope in this year, as Popes Gregory X, Innocent V, and Adrian V all die in a short time.
- King Otakar II of Bohemia lays the foundation stone of the Minorite Church in Vienna.
- Mamluk sultan Baibars takes Al-Maris, which was part of Makuria, and goes through it into Egypt.
- A 23-year drought begins to change the Grand Canyon area. In the end, the agriculture-dependent Anasazi culture has to migrate out of the region.

## Births

- October 19 – Prince Hisaaki, Japanese shogun (died 1328)
- Christopher II of Denmark (died 1332)
- Vakhtang III of Georgia (died 1308)
- Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford (died 1322)
- Yesün Temür Khan of the Mongol Empire (died 1328)
- Louis d'Évreux, son of King Philip III of France
1274

## Events

- May 7 – The Second Council of Lyons, held by the leadership of the Roman Catholic Church convenes to consider the conquest of the Holy Land via Crusades and address the East-West Schism with the Byzantine church. The Council eventually approves a tithe to support efforts to conquer the Holy Land from Muslims, and reaches apparent resolution of the schism which ultimately proves unsuccessful.
- November – The diet at Nuremberg orders that all crown estates seized since the death of Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor be restored to Rudolph I of Germany; almost all European rulers agree, with the notable exception of King Otakar II of Bohemia, who had benefited greatly by conquering or otherwise coming into possession of many of those lands.
- Pope Gregory X decrees that conclaves (meetings during which the electors have no contact with the outside) should be used for papal elections, reforming the electoral process which had taken over three years to elect him.
1198

## Events

- End of the reign of Emperor Go-Toba, emperor of Japan
- Emperor Tsuchimikado ascends to the throne of Japan
- January 8 – Pope Innocent III ascends Papal Throne
- Frederick II, infant son of German King Henry VI, crowned King of Sicily

## Births

- August 24 — King Alexander II of Scotland (d. 1249)
- Ertugrul, Turkish leader, father of Osman I (d. 1281)
- Ferdinand III of Castile (d. 1252)
- Sybilla of Lusignan, wife of Leo II of Armenia (d. c. 1230)

## Deaths

- January 8 — Pope Celestine III (b. c. 1106)
- March 11 — Marie de Champagne, daughter of Louis VII of France (b. 1145)
- April 16 — Duke Frederick I of Austria (b. c. 1175)
- September 1 — Dulce Berenguer, Queen of Portugal, spouse of King Sancho I of Portugal (b. 1160)
- November 27 — Queen Constance of Sicily, wife of Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1154)
- December 10 — Averroes, Arab philosopher and physician (b. 1126)
- Ruaidri mac Tairrdelbach Ua Conchobair, High King of Ireland
- Alix of France, daughter of Louis VII of France (b. 1150)
- William III of Sicily (b. 1190)
- June 2 — Lord Ygo III of Galama, Frisian knight and nobleman (b. 1139)
- William of Newburgh, English historian (b. 1135)
1433

## Events

- Winter: Much of the English town of Alnwick in Northumbria burnt by Scottish a raiding party.
- The Ming dynasty in China disbands their navy, altering the balance of power in the Indian Ocean, making it easier for Portugal and other Western naval powers to gain dominance over the seas.
1435

## Events

- September 21 – Peace of Arras between Charles VII of France and Philip III of Burgundy, ending the English-Burgundian alliance.
- Francis of Paola founds the Order of the Minims in Italy.
Heinrich-Heine-University

**Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf** (**HHU**) () is the university of Düsseldorf, Germany, named after the most famous son of Düsseldorf, the poet Heinrich Heine.

## History

In the era of Napoleon Bonaparte there was the first university in Düsseldorf, which ended after Napoleon surrendered.
So in the further 19th century there was only a Medical Academy and the famous Arts School of Düsseldorf and a Teacher Academy (Special University only for studying to became a teacher) until the 1970s, but no regular university, in Düsseldorf. In the 1960s the state government of North Rhine-Westphalia decided to have a regular university in the state's capital. The university started about 1970.
It got its name only in the 1980s, because the medicine faculty wanted to have a physician's name, because of the tradition as Medical Academy.

## Current situation

Currently the Heinrich-Heine-University is a university with about 20,000 students, which is middle-class in Germany.
It has a lot of subjects in sciences, arts, economics, and so on. The deep points are on biological-medicinal research in sciences and some deep points in arts, economics, political sciences, and philosophy.

## Subjects

Like most German universities it has many subjects:

## Other websites

- http://www.uni-duesseldorf.de
1239

## Events

- September 21 – Peace of Arras between Charles VII of France and Philip III of Burgundy, ending the English-Burgundian alliance.
- Francis of Paola founds the Order of the Minims in Italy.

## Births

- June 17 – King Edward I of England (died 1307)
- December 17 – Kujo Yoritsugu, Japanese shogun (died 1256)
- Peter III of Aragon (died 1285)
- John II, Duke of Brittany (died 1305)
- Ippen, Japanese monk (died 1289)
1455

## Other calendars

- Buddhist calendar: 1997 - 1998
- Hebrew calendar: 5215 - 5216
- Islamic calendar: 859 - 860

## Events

- February 9 – Wars of the Roses: Richard, Duke of York dismissed as Protector
- February 23 – Johannes Gutenberg prints the first Bible on a printing press
- May 22 – Wars of the Roses: First Battle of St Albans – Richard, Duke of York and his ally, Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick defeat the Lancastrians under Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset, who is killed. York captures King Henry VI of England and has himself appointed Constable of England.
- May 25 – Victorious Yorkish lords ritually renew the monarchy of Henry VI in St. Paul's Cathedral.
Cassette

**Cassette** may mean:

Some of kinds of cassettes are:
- Audio cassettes, a kind of cassette which can store music and sounds. It is used with a "cassette player" or "cassette recorder".
- Videotape cassettes, which can store video and sounds
- Cassette single, a recording of a single song sold on a compact audio cassette
- Digital Compact Cassette, a format of magnetic tape, developed to replace the compact cassette
1694

## Events

- February 6 – The colony Quilombo dos Palmares is destroyed.
- July 27 – A Royal Charter is granted to the Bank of England.
- December 22 – The Triennial Bill became law.
- December 28 – Queen Mary II of England dies; King William III of England, Scotland and Ireland is now sole ruler after his co-ruler's death.
- Much of the town of Warwick, England destroyed by fire.
- The Lao empire of Lan Xang unofficially ends.
1290

## Events

- March 1 – The University of Coimbra is founded in Lisbon, Portugal by King Denis of Portugal; it moves to Coimbra in 1308.
- July 18 – King Edward I of England banishes all Jews (numbering about 16,000) from Britain; Jews traditionally hold that this event occurs on Tisha B'Av, a sorrowful Jewish holiday.
- August 1 – The country of Wallachia is founded (traditional date).
- December – The twelve Eleanor crosses are erected between Lincolnshire and London in England as King Edward I mourns the death of his queen consort Eleanor of Castile.
- Construction of Llandaff Cathedral is completed in Cardiff, Wales, 170 years after it was begun.
- The Mongol Empire invades the Bessarabia region of Moldavia.
- The second of the Statutes of Mortmain are passed under king Edward I of England, which prevents land from passing into possession of the church. The statute Quia Emptores is also passed, reforming the feudal system of land leases and allowing the sale of fee simple estates.
- King Denis of Portugal decrees that Portuguese be the official language of Portugal, replacing classical Latin in that capacity.
- Construction on the Akershus Fortress of Oslo, Norway is begun.
Fight Club

***Fight Club*** is a 1999 American drama movie. It stars Edward Norton, Brad Pitt, and Helena Bonham Carter. The movie was directed by David Fincher. It is based on a novel of the same name by Chuck Palahniuk.

The story is about an unnamed character's path during a dark form of personal enlightenment (or eternal happiness) which is achieved primarily through fighting. The story is dark and, in both the book and the movie, contains strong depictions of violence. There are a large number of metaphors which are revealed in its complex and twisted storyline. Some would think that the morals and life guidelines taught in the story would be an extreme form of Buddhism, such as the idea of detachment from material possessions (things). The central character has dissociative identity disorder.

## Cast

- Brad Pitt as Tyler Durden
- Edward Norton as the Narrator
- Helena Bonham Carter as Marla Singer
- Meat Loaf as Robert Paulson
- Jared Leto as Angel Face

## Other websites

- Fight club wallpapers
Top of the Pops

***Top of the Pops*** is a British music show, which featured popular artists performing their songs. It started in 1964 and ended in 2006 because not enough people were watching it any more. It was hosted by many presenters over the years, most notably by Jimmy Savile, who opened the very first show on New Year's Day 1964 on BBC1.

TOTP2 (Top of the Pops 2) is a variant of the show. However, it featured a collection of archive performances by artists spanning the past four decades.

The show was regularly hosted by Steve Wright, up until 2009, when Mark Radcliffe replaced him. A new episode of the programme is shown on 25 December each year.

## Infobox (television)

- **creator**: Johnnie Stewart
- **presenter**: Fearne Cotton
Clara Amfo
List of Top of the Pops presenters, (see full list)
- **country**: United Kingdom
- **num episodes**: 2,263 (508 missing)
- **executive producer**: Johnnie Stewart (1964–73)
Robin Nash (1973–80)
Michael Hurll (1980–88)
Paul Ciani (1988–91)
Stanley Appel (1991–94)
Ric Blaxill (1994–97)
Chris Cowey (1997–2003)
Andi Peters (2003–05)
Mark Cooper (2005–)
- **producer**: Neville Wortman
Stanley Dorfman
Colin Charman
Mel Cornish
Brian Whitehouse
Phil Bishop
Mark Wells
Jeff Simpson
Barrie Kelly
Dominic Smith
Sally Wood
Stephanie McWhinnie
- **runtime**: 25–60 minutes
- **network**: BBC One (1964–2005, 2006–present)
BBC Two (2005–06)
- **last aired**: present
- **related**: _Top of the Pops 2_
_Top Gear of the Pops_
_Top of the Pops Reloaded_
_TOTP@Play_
1795

## Events

- Frankfort becomes capital of Kentucky.
Births

November 2 - James K. Polk, eleventh President of the United States (d. 1849)
Oder-Neisse line

The **Oder-Neisse line** (named after the Oder and Neisse rivers) is the border between Germany and Poland since the end of the Second World War. As a result of the defeat Germany lost a part of its territory to Poland. Previously, the German Empire had to cede the former Prussian provinces of Posen and Westpreußen, as well as parts of upper Silesia, to the newly founded Polish state after the First World War in 1919.  In earlier centuries these territories were part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.  They were annexed to the Kingdom of Prussia, as a result of the tripartite partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth by the Kingdom Prussia, the Holy Roman Empire and the Russian Empire.

Most of the ethnically-German part of the population of these provinces, alongside most of the German minority population in what was Poland before the Second World War (741,000 people), either fled before the Red Army to central and western Germany or were forcibly resettled later. It should be noted here that German citizens of Polish descent and ethically-Polish residents of these regions and other parts of Germany faced systematic discrimination, internment in concentration camps, property-confiscations, forced-resettlement and expulsion under the Nazi administration.
Jimmy Wales

**Jimmy Donal "Jimbo" Wales** (; born August 8, 1966) is an American-born British Internet entrepreneur. He is one of the people who started Wikipedia and Fandom (previously Wikia).

Wales was born in Huntsville, Alabama, United States. There, he went to Randolph School. He then earned bachelor’s and master’s degrees in finance. In 1996, he and two partners started Bomis. Bomis was an Internet portal with entertainment and adult content. The company gave money for Nupedia (2000–2003) and, after that, Wikipedia.

## Personal life

Wales has been married three times. He also has three children. When he was 20, Wales married Pam. Pam was a worker at a store in Alabama. He met his second wife, Christine Rohan, through a friend in Chicago. They had a daughter before their marriage ended. Wales moved to San Diego in 1998.

In 2002, he moved again to Florida. In 2007, he still lived there. As of 2012 he lives in London, England. In 2012, Wales married Kate Garvey, a government worker for Tony Blair. Wales has three daughters: one with Rohan and two with Garvey.

Wales says that he follows the ideas of Objectivism. He also says that he is a libertarian to some extent, meaning that he thinks people should be allowed to do whatever they want so long as they do not hurt others.

## Career

On January 15, 2001, with Larry Sanger and others, Wales started  Wikipedia. Wikipedia is a free, open content encyclopedia. It grew and became popular very quickly. As Wikipedia became known to the public, he became the project’s promoter and spokesperson. He is often called a co-founder of Wikipedia, though he has argued against the "co-" part. He said he was the only founder.

Wales is on the Board of Trustees of the Wikimedia Foundation. In 2004, he co-founded Wikia, a wiki-hosting service which tries to make money. In 2015, Wales started the Jimmy Wales Foundation for freedom of expression, to try to help bloggers or internet activists who are in prison.

## Infobox (person)

- **name**: Jimmy Wales
- **image**: Jimmy Wales visited the Youth Affairs Agency. Photo portrait 2024 (cropped 2).jpg
- **caption**: Wales in November 2024
- **birth name**: Jimmy Donal Wales
- **birth place**: Huntsville, Alabama, Huntsville, Alabama, USA
- **other names**: Jimbo (screen name)
- **occupation**: Internet entrepreneur, webmaster, financial trader (formerly)
- **net worth**: ≈ (2014)
- **successor**: Florence Devouard (as Chair of Wikimedia Foundation)
- **party**: Libertarian
- **spouse**:

- **children**: 3 daughters
- **awards**: _#Distinctions, See below_
- **signature**: File:Jimmy Wales signature.svg
1738

**1738** (MDCCXXXVIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday in the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Sunday in the Julian calendar.

## Events

- November 13 – Treaty of Vienna

## Births

- Ethan Allen – January 21
- Lord Charles Cornwallis – December 31

## Deaths

- Charles Townshend – June 21
Battle of Princeton

The **Battle of Princeton** was a battle during the American Revolution. It was fought in January of 1777 near Princeton, New Jersey. The battle came a week after the Battle of Trenton, where General George Washington had led the Continental Army to a surprise victory over the British.

The Continental Army, led by Washington, advanced to Princeton after their victory at Trenton. The army defeated a small British force. A larger British force, led by Charles Cornwallis, was alerted and gave chase. However, the Continental Army burned the bridges behind them and sniped at the British army before escaping to Morristown, New Jersey.

The battle resulted in about 200 casualties (deaths) for the British along with another 300 injured or captured, while the Americans suffered minimal losses. The battle boosted American morale.
Fork

A **fork** is a tool for eating solid food. It has a handle, and at the end has points called _tines_. Most forks have three or four tines. Some cooking-forks have two tines. The tines help to hold food in place for cutting with a knife, or to pick it up and lift to the mouth. Most forks today are made of metal. Some are made of plastic or wood. Thousands of years ago, some forks were made of bone.

The word "fork" is also used to describe a two choices of course. A fork in the road is a split in the road leading in two (or more) directions. A forked tongue would have two parts or tips.

Forks were long used for cooking. In Western culture they became common for eating around 1000 AD. Many countries do not use forks, but instead have their own ways, such as chopsticks.

## Related pages

- Garden fork
- Spork
Backgammon

**Backgammon** is a game played by two players. Each player moves pieces around a board. Players roll two dice to find out how far their pieces can move in one turn. The winner of one game is the first to get all pieces all the way around, and off, the board.

The game is laid-out asymmetrically. White's direction of travel is counter-clockwise, whereas black's direction of travel is clockwise. In other words, they both move in the same direction. There is no advantage to either side.

White moves from white's far right to white's home area on white's close right, in the shape of a right-hand "C" from white's point of view. Black moves along the same "C", beginning from black's far left and ending at black's home area on black's close left. The "C" is the same for both sides - the "C" points to the right for white and points to the left for black.

As shown in the image, some pieces (for each side) begin already in the home quadrant, and some pieces must make their way all the way around. Pieces can be sent backwards to their starting position during play.

The roll of two dice introduces a random component in the game, but Backgammon is basically a game of strategy.

Usual playing time is around 15–30 minutes for a single game. This can be thought of as something like one particular long "hand" of a card game. An overall championship or round of backgammon involves a number of ongoing single games, with the involvement of points, a "doubling cube," and other complications.

The game has a long history. Games that resemble it have been played for thousands of years. Archaeologists doing excavations at a place called _Burnt City_ in modern-day Iran have found parts of a game that resembled backgammon. They have found 60 pieces to play with, and two dice. They could show that the game utensils date from around 3000 BC. These pieces around 100–200 years older than another set, found in Ur, in Mesopotamia.

## Other websites

- http://www.backgammon-fr.com

## References

-
Friction

**Friction** is a force that acts to stop the movement of two touching things. The energy lost to friction is turned into sound and heat. Two kinds of friction are static and kinetic. Static friction is when the friction is strong enough to stop movement between two objects. Kinetic friction is used when the frictional force is not strong enough to stop all motion. An effect of kinetic friction is heat production.

Many everyday mechanisms that use friction include car brakes, suitcases, and shoes. Even a person sliding across the floor uses a form of friction.

Some facts about friction are:

- Friction can be thought to be caused by bumps on two touching surfaces. These bumps are called asperities. As these two rough surfaces move against each other they get stuck and prevent motion until the asperities are broken or slid over. Even the smoothest materials have these asperities.

- As the force that is pushing on an object increases, the static friction increases too. However, if the force gets bigger than the maximum static friction, it makes the object accelerate. The object will begin to accelerate as soon as the static friction is less than the force pushing on it. After that point kinetic friction will act on the object.

- The coefficient of friction is the ratio between the force slowing something down and the force pushing them together. The larger it is the stronger friction is (and the more the object is slowed down). For example, a person's skates on ice have a small coefficient of friction, but rubber on concrete has a big one.

- Internal friction in a fluid is called viscosity. Viscosity is how hard it is for the fluid to move or flow. For example, honey is more "viscous" than water.

- Friction is caused by electromagnetism. When the atoms that make the objects come close they are drawn to each other and may connect. Effort is needed to break this connection in objects that are not moving and effort is needed to keep an object moving against this attraction. Things with high friction have many points of contact or have atoms that strongly attract others. There are 4 types of friction. Static, sliding, rolling**,** and fluid friction.

## Related pages

- Laminar flow
- Force
- Movement
Cleaner

A **cleaner** (or **janitor**) is someone who takes away garbage and cleans surfaces. Cleaners sometimes  repair things, and maintain their equipment in good working order, as well as dusting, washing, waxing and polishing.

Heavy duty cleaners often move furniture, large containers of recycled materials and waste, and other objects, and operate large buffers and other weighty equipment. "Light" duty cleaners clean chalk boards, windows, shelves, desks, light fixtures, and ledges. Some duties, like using a vacuum cleaner, can be done by either "light" or "heavy" duty cleaners. Cleaners can clean offices, staircases, kitchens, bathrooms, hallways, sidewalks, elevators, escalators, and other areas. Cleaners can specialize in washing windows, or in cleaning carpets, hospitals, food processing plants, or construction sites. Cleaners who discover seriously damaged surfaces and equipment on their sites can notify specialists, like plumbers and carpenters, about the need for professional repairs.

Cleaners are also alert for security problems, like vandalism, signs of theft (forced windows or doors, missing computers or stock), blocked fire escape routes, lights or fire alarms not working, or trespassers. When these occur, the cleaners promptly notify their sites' Security Officers and Site Supervisors. Janitors know how to keep themselves and their sites safe, by immediately removing hazards like broken class, spilled fluids, and waste from kitchens and bathrooms, and by checking hand rails, floor mats, stairs, automated doors, escalators, elevators, intercoms, and plumbing.
Bovinae

**Bovinae** is a subfamily of the even-toed ungulate family Bovidae. About 26 species of ***bovines*** belong to this subfamily.

Bovines are herbivores, and they mostly eat grass.

## Taxonomy

- Subfamily **Bovinae**
    - Tribe **Boselaphini**
        - Genus _Tetracerus_
            - Four-horned Antelope (_Tetracerus quadricornis_)
        - Genus _Boselaphus_
            - Nilgai, _Boselaphus tragocamelus_
    - Tribe **Bovini**
        - Genus _Bubalus_
            - Water Buffalo (_Bubalus bubalis_)
            - Tamaraw (_Bubalus mindorensis_)
            - Lowland Anoa (_Bubalus depressicornis_)
            - Mountain Anoa (_Bubalus quarlesi_)
        - Genus _Syncerus_
            - African Buffalo (_Syncerus caffer_)
        - Genus _Bos_
            - Zebu Cattle (_Bos indicus_)
            - Kouprey (_Bos sauveli_)
            - Banteng (_Bos javanicus_)
            - Gaur (_Bos frontalis_ or _Bos gaurus_)
            - Yak (_Bos grunniens_)
            - Aurochs or urus (_Bos primigenius_) †
            - Domestic Cattle (_Bos taurus_)
        - Genus _Pseudoryx_
            - Saola (_Pseudoryx nghetinhensis_)
        - Genus _Bison_
            - American Bison (_Bison bison_)
            - Wisent (_Bison bonasus_)
    - Tribe **Strepsicerotini**
        - Genus _Tragelaphus_
            - Sitatunga, _Tragelaphus spekeii_
            - Nyala, _Tragelaphus angasii_
            - Bushbuck, _Tragelaphus scriptus_
            - Mountain Nyala, _Tragelaphus buxtoni_
            - Lesser Kudu, _Tragelaphus imberbis_
            - Greater Kudu, _Tragelaphus strepsiceros_
            - Bongo (antelope), _Tragelaphus eurycerus_
        - Genus _Taurotragus_
            - Common Eland, _Taurotragus oryx_
            - Giant Eland, _Taurotragus derbianus_

The four genera _Tetracerus_, _Boselaphus_, _Tragelaphus_ and _Taurotragus_ are sometimes put into their own subfamily _Tragelaphinae_, and sometimes with the bovines.
Fourier transform

The **Fourier transform** is a mathematical function that can be used to find the base frequencies that a wave is made of. Imagine playing a chord on a piano. When played, the sounds of the notes of the chord mix together and form a sound wave. This works because each of the different note's waves interfere with each other by adding together or canceling out at different points in the wave. A Fourier transform takes this complex wave and is able to find the frequencies that made it, meaning it can find the notes that a chord is made from.

The output of a Fourier transform is sometimes called a frequency spectrum or distribution because it displays a distribution of possible frequencies of the input. This function has many uses in cryptography, oceanography, machine learning, radiology, quantum physics as well as sound design and visualization.

The Fourier transform of a function , sometimes written as , is given by

where:

- is a frequency.
- is the Fourier transform function and returns a value representing how prevalent frequency  is in the original signal.
- represents wrapping the input wave function  around the origin of the complex plane at some frequency .

The **inverse Fourier transform** is given by

A Fourier transform shows what frequencies are in a signal. For example, consider a sound wave which contains three different musical notes: A, B, and C. Making a graph of the Fourier transform of this sound wave (with the frequency on the _x_-axis and the intensity on the _y_-axis) will show a peak at each frequency which corresponds with one of the musical notes.

Many signals can be created by adding cosines and sines together with varying amplitudes and frequencies. The Fourier transform plots the amplitudes and phases of these cosines and sines against their respective frequencies.

Fourier transforms are important, because many signals make more sense when their frequencies are separated. In the audio example above, looking at the signal with respect to time does not make it obvious that the notes A, B, and C are in the signal. Many systems do different things to different frequencies, so these kinds of systems can be described by what they do to each frequency. An example of this is a filter which blocks high frequencies.

Calculating a Fourier transform requires understanding of integration and imaginary numbers. Computers are usually used to calculate Fourier transforms of anything but the simplest signals.  The Fast Fourier Transform is a method computers use to quickly calculate a Fourier transform.

## Related pages

- Fourier analysis
- Fourier inversion theorem
- Fourier series
- Laplace transform
1671

## Events

- April – Battle of Saraighat. The Ahom general Lachit Borphukan defeated the Mughal forces on the outskirts of present-day Guwahati of then sovereign Assam.
- May 9 –  Thomas Blood, disguised as a clergyman, attempts to steal the Crown Jewels from the Tower of London. He is immediately caught because he is too drunk to run with the loot. He would later be condemned to death and then mysteriously pardoned and exiled by King Charles II.
- June 22 – Ottoman Empire declares war on Poland

## Births

- April 21 - John Law, Scottish economist
- May 24 - Gian Gastone de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany

## Deaths

- June 11 - Yun Seon-do, Korean politician
1679

## Events

- January 24 – King Charles II of England disbands Parliament
- June 22 – the Duke of Monmouth subdues an insurrection of Scottish Covenanters at Birthwell Bridge
- August 7 – The brigantine _Le Griffon_, which was commissioned by René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, is towed to the southern end of the Niagara River, to become the first ship to sail the upper Great Lakes.
- December 24 – Domenico Sarro, a composer from Italy, was born.
- Battle of Bothwell Bridge
- Habeas Corpus Act 1679 passed in England.
- European explorers discover Niagara Falls.
1691

## Events

- March 5 – French troops under Marshal Louis-Francois de Boufflers besiege the Spanish-held town of Mons
- March 20 – Leisler's Rebellion – New governor arrives in New York – Jacob Leisler surrenders after standoff of several hours
- March 29 – Siege of Mons ends to the city’s surrender
- May 6 – Spanish inquisition condemns and forcibly baptizes 219 Jews in Palma Majorca. When 37 try to escape the island, they are burned alive at the stake
- May 16 – Jacob Leisler is hanged for treason
- October 3 – Treaty of Limerick which guaranteed civil rights to Catholics was signed. _(it was broken "before the ink was dry")_
- Change of emperor of the Ottoman Empire from Suleiman II (1687-1691) to Ahmed II (1691-1695).
- Michel Rolle invents Rolle's theorem, an essential theorem of mathematics.
- In New England the two separate Colonies of Massachusetts Bay Colony and Plymouth Colony are united into a single entity by an act of the King and Queen of England.

## Births

- February 27 - Edward Cave, English publisher

## Deaths

- January 13 - George Fox, one of the founders of the Quakers
- December 31 - Robert Boyle, Irish scientist
1719

## Events

- January 23 – The Principality of Liechtenstein is created within the Holy Roman Empire
- April 25 –  Daniel Defoe publishes _Robinson Crusoe_
- June 10 – Battle of Glen Shiel
- Prussia conducts Europe's first systematic census
- Miners in Falun, Sweden find an apparently petrified body of Fet-Mats Israelsson in an unused part of the copper mine.
- France declares war on Spain

## Deaths

- Christoph Ludwig Agricola
1753

## Events

- January 1 – Britain and its colonies adopt the idea that 1 January should be New Year's Day, following adoption of the Gregorian calendar in September 1752. The concept was first conceived in 1582, but suffered from slow public adoption.
- January 13 – Sentenced conspirators of the Tavora affair are executed
- January 29 – After a month's absence, Elizabeth Canning returns to her mother's home in London and claims that she was abducted. Following criminal trial causes uproar.
- April 5 – Founding charter of the British Museum

- Sweden adopts Gregorian calendar
- British parliament extends citizenship to Jews
- Publication of _Species Plantarum_ by Linnaeus on 1 May, adopted by the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature as the formal start date of the scientific classification of plants
- James Lind writes _A Treatise of the Scurvy_
- Tobias Smollett writes _Ferdinand Count Fathom_
- Robert Wallace writes _On the Numbers of Man_
Fetishism

**Fetishism** can be one of the following:
- The belief that certain natural or man-made things/objects, have supernatural/magical powers. This thing is called a **fetish**.
- Sexual fetishism, sexual attraction to objects that do not move on their own.
Cabbage

**Cabbage** (_Brassica oleracea_ Capitata Group) is an edible plant. It is a lot like broccoli, cauliflower or Brussels sprouts. Cabbage is eaten in many ways around the world. Coleslaw and sauerkraut are popular foods that use cabbage. It is also used to make kimchi and borscht, and can also be used in salads. Red cabbage juice can be used as a pH indicator. Cabbages are usually green, but they can also be red.

## Types of cabbage

Cabbages can come in many different types, such as the previously mentioned red and green cabbages, but they can also be in other types. These include white cabbage, also known as Dutch cabbage, and Savoy cabbage.
Pool

The word **pool** refers to many different things:

- A pool is a body of water. It is also called a pond. It can also mean a body of water that people have made. This is called a swimming pool.
- Pool is also a game. It is a form of billiards. The object is to use a cue ball to knock other balls into pockets around the edge of the table.
- People also use the word "pool" to mean something many people have contributed to. People can pool their money to buy something, or to make a bet. Sometimes it can mean cooperation, people working together to get something done.
Rupee

The **rupee (रुपया)** is the name of a currency denomination of money in various countries.

It is used in the Republic of India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Mauritius, and the Seychelles, Indonesia, and the Maldives. It was also used in British India, the former East Pakistan until 1971. In past times, rupees were also the name of the money used in Burma and in the German and British colonies in East Africa. The name comes from a Sanskrit word meaning silver.

## Related pages

- Indian rupee
- Pakistani rupee
500

It is one of only seven years to use just one Roman numeral. The seven are 1 AD (I), 5 AD (V), 10 AD (X), 50 AD (L), 100 AD (C), **500 AD** (D), and 1000 AD (M).

## Events

- Possible date for the Battle of Mons Badonicus: Romano-British and Celts defeat an Anglo-Saxon army that may have been led by the bretwalda Aelle of Sussex (approximate date; suggested dates range from 490 to 510) Note: This battle may have influenced the legend of King Arthur
- Possible date at which Fergus I of Dalriada begins his reign
- Approximate beginning of the Heptarchy period in the history of England
- Approximate year of the founding of the Kingdom of Essex
- Emperor Xuanwu of Northern Wei China becomes sovereign of the Northern Wei Dynasty
- Uxmal founded (approximate date)
- Traders from southern Arabia settle in northern Ethiopia
1555

**1555** (MDLV) was a common year starting on Tuesday in the Julian calendar.

## Events

- Russia breaks 60 year old truce with Sweden by attacking Finland
- February 2 – Diet of Augsburg begins
- February 4 – John Rogers becomes first Protestant martyr in England
- February 9 – Bishop of Gloucester John Hooper is burned at the stake
- May 23 – Paul IV becomes Pope.
- September 25 – Peace of Augsburg is signed.
Diesel fuel

**Diesel oil** or **diesel fuel** is a type of fuel for cars, trucks, trains, etc, using a diesel engine.

It is also an oil used for an energy source.  It is made from petroleum and from various other sources.

It is named after Rudolf Diesel who in 1892 invented the diesel engine.

## Related pages

- Biodiesel
Sauna

A **sauna** is a small room or building that is made hot. The heat of a sauna is calming and makes the person using it sweat. This is believed to help people be more healthy though it causes stress on the body by overheating. Today many countries and groups of people have different ways of heating and using a sauna. The temperature is often 80°C in Finnish saunas. The heat can be more than 100°C. Finnish and Swedish saunas have lower humidity (the air is less wet) to make this high heat comfortable.

The Turkish hammam has a high humidity (the air is more wet) and a lower temperature.

Today saunas can often be found at hotels and places for sports and exercise. In Finland, they are more common and are also often in private apartments and office
buildings.

In almost every house in Finland they have a sauna.

## Common rules for public saunas

In some cultures, swimsuits must be worn in a sauna. In other cultures swimsuits are not be worn. Swimsuits are more often worn when men and women use a sauna together. Some saunas are only for men, or only for women. Some places have fixed times when each gender can use a sauna. Private saunas may have their own rules.

- Areas where the sauna is used while nude
- Germany
- Austria
- North-eastern Italy
- Finland
- Russia
- Slovenia
- Sweden
- Croatia
- Japan
- Netherlands
- Flanders
- Estonia
- Lithuania
- Latvia

- Areas where the sauna is used in a swimsuit or covered by a towel
- France
- United Kingdom
- United States
- Hungary
- South America
- Africa
- Wallonia

- Area where men and women do not sauna together
- Russia
- Japan

- Areas where sitting on a towel is required
- Germany
- Austria
- North-eastern Italy
- Netherlands
- Flanders

## Related pages

- Onsen
- Sentō
- Jjimjilbang
- Banya