juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Paasselkä devil

**Paasselkä devils** (Finnish "Päässelän pirut") are stories about balls of light at Lake Paasselkä, Finland. Local people say that bright balls sometimes move above lake Paasselkä or near the lake in the forest. This kinds of lights are said to appear around the world. They are sometimes called ghost lights or will o' the wisps. Scientists does not know what ghost lights or will o' wisps are.

People have told these stories for a long time, so it is a part of folklore there. People thought that balls of light are devils. Some still believe that balls are alive or have mind, because they seem to act like that. Ball can follow fishermans boat of go to hide if you use your torch.

Lake Paasselkä appeared when big stone dropped from the sky millions of years ago. Such lake is called crater-lake. Magnetism in the middle of the lake is not normal.

## Related pages

- Ghost lights

## Video

You can see the balls from this website

## Book

- Sulo Strömberg: Kerimäen ja Savonrannan kyliä kiertämässä. Tarinoita Paasveen piruista ja pohuista (2006)
Aurora (mythology)

- _The phenomena that can be seen in the atmosphere is at Aurora_

**Aurora** was the ancient Roman equivalent of Eos. Eos was the ancient Greek goddess of the dawn. _Aurora_ is the Latin word for dawn.

Aurora renews herself every morning at dawn and flies across the sky. She announces the morning's arrival. She has a brother and a sister. Her brother is the sun, and her sister is the moon. She also has many husbands and four sons, one for each cardinal direction: North, East, South, and West.

Aurora is comparable to Eos in Greek mythology and to Ushas in Hindu mythology.

One of her lovers was Tithonus. Aurora asked Zeus to grant immortality to Tithonus. However, she failed to ask him for eternal youth. As a result, Tithonus ended up aging eternally.

In Shakespeare's _Romeo and Juliet_ (i.i) Montague says of his lovesick son Romeo
- _But all so soon as the all-cheering sun_
- _Should in the farthest east begin to draw_
- _The shady curtains from Aurora's bed,_
- _Away from the light steals home my heavy son..._

In the poem "Tithonus" by Lord Alfred Tennyson, Aurora is described as folllows:

- _Once more the old mysterious glimmer steals_
- _From thy pure brows, and from thy shoulders pure,_
- _And bosom beating with a heart renewed._
- _Thy cheek begins to redden through the gloom,_
- _Thy sweet eyes brighten slowly close to mine,_
- _Ere yet they blind the stars, and the wild team_
- _Which love thee, yearning for thy yoke, arise,_
- _And shake the darkness from their loosened manes,_
- _And beat the twilight into flakes of fire._

The asteroid 94 Aurora was named after her.

## Other websites

- Aurora in _Encyclopædia Mythica_
Ukko

**Ukko** was the most important god in Finnish paganism, a religion that was in Finland before Christianity. Ukko was god of sky and thunder. Ukko was an old man and he lived on the sky. He had a weapon - hammer or axe called _Ukonvasara_. Lightning is from this weapon.

Finnish pagans had an image of this weapon made from metal on their necks. They believed that lightning does not hit people who have this image.

At Midsummer Finns gathered together and drank beer to honour Ukko. That was called "toast of Ukko".

Ukko is similar to Thor that was a sky god of most Scandinavians and Perun that is a Baltic sky god.
Väinämöinen

**Väinämöinen** is an important person in Finnish mythology. He was a wise man and he knew magic. He was a hero and had many adventures.

Väinämöinen was also a god. As such, he was worshipped.

Magic of Väinämöinen was in his songs. When he sings hills shake and water moves. He sings his enemy, Joukahainen, to sink in swamp.

Väinämöinen was born before Earth. He was floating in the sea. He was born a grown man. Her mother, Ilmatar got pregnant by the water and wind and carried her son for 30 years. A bird (Sotka) made a nest on Ilmatar´s knee and when the bird hatched her eggs (six of them made of iron, one pure gold), it burned Ilmatar´s knee and finally Ilmatar moved her knee and all the eggs flew into the sky and on the earth and were broken. From those pieces the Earth and sky, the stars, The sun and the moon were born.
Ilmarinen

**Ilmarinen** is an important person in Finnish mythology. He is a very good smith who made the sky. He also made the Sampo, a magical machine that makes salt, gold and food. He tried to create a new moon and a sun, but failed. Ilmarinen married one of Louhi´s daughters.

## Related pages

- Ilmari, a given name
Finnish paganism

**Finnish paganism** was a pagan religion in Finland and Karelia before the Finnish people were Christian. Finnish paganism is close to Scandinavian paganism and Baltic paganism. The Finns believed that there were many gods.

Finnish paganism was animistic. This means that people believed nature was full of small and big spirits. The biggest spirits were gods who had names, the god of the sky was Ukko, the god of the forest was Tapio and the god of water was Ahti. There were many other spirits known by specific names.

A Shaman was a wise person who could perform magic. With the help from spirits, he could heal ill people and curse enemies.

Humans had a soul that was divided. "Self" and "me" were two different parts of the soul. If one's "self"-soul left him, he was not dead, but very ill. A Shaman could go to the spirit world to bring the soul back.

The Bear was considered a holy animal. If a bear was hunted down, he or she was celebrated with a ritual called _Peijainen_, usually a big celebration involving food and drink. The purpose of the ritual was to pacify the soul of the bear. A happy soul would then be reincarnated into another bear, so that people could eat bears in the future. The swan was a holy bird and people believed that killing a swan would cause the killer to die.

Some trees and stones were holy to Finns, along with some forests. These places were often used to offer gods or spirits a sacrifice sacrifice. The sacrifice was gift intended to make the spirit happy. This spirit would then help humans. For example, a happy spirit of the sea would guarantee a plentiful catch for a fisherman. At later times things that were given to spirits were small, such as: money, flowers, pieces of silver, alcohol or food.

The Finns believed that Earth was flat like a disc. Above Earth was sky-dome, a pot that was upside down. In the middle of the Earth was a pillar holding the sky, so that it did not drop. The North star was a nail in the top of this pillar. Land of the dead, Tuonela, was under Earth. The way to Tuonela was at the base of pillar that holds the sky. The rotational movement of the pillar caused a great whirl of water at the base of the pillar called Kinahmi and this could be used as access way to Tuonela.

People hoped that their dead relatives would go to Tuonela, because they did not like ghosts. However some times dead relatives were asked to help living people. Sometimes shamans went to Tuonela to ask souls for help.
Feedback

**Feedback** is a connection, a loop, between the cause and effect of a process.

## Electronic

Sometimes, output from an electronic source affects future input.  This can form what is called a "feedback loop". In some cases the output reinforces the input, making it stronger; this is called "self-reinforcing", "positive", "runaway" or "amplifying". In other cases, the output blocks or stops some of the input; this is called a negative feedback loop.

### Positive feedback

Think about a sound system with input from a microphone and output to a loudspeaker. If the sound coming out of the loudspeaker is heard by the microphone, a loop is created, from speaker, to the microphone, through the cord, and back into the speaker.  The loop is made up of sound and the electrical energy that the microphone and loudspeaker use to create that sound.  If nothing stops the sound and electricity in the loop, it will travel faster and faster, which is why feedback starts out as a low hum and turns into a high squeal very quickly

This is an example of a positive feedback loop: the output reinforces the input; it makes the input stronger.

### Negative feedback

Think about two mirrors that face each other.  The mirrors reflect each other infinitely, or forever, but in each reflection, the image in the mirror is slightly smaller than the image it reflects.  The images get smaller and smaller until they are no longer visible.  This is an example of a negative feedback loop: the output (the reflection) reduces the input; it makes the input smaller.

## The runaway global warming hypothesis

Warm temperature caused a glacier to melt. As the glacier melts, areas that were at one time covered by snow and ice are now water or land. Because snow and ice reflect heat but water and land absorb heat, this causes the glacier to melt faster as more snow and ice is melted. This type of positive feedback is an example of thermal runaway.

## Cybernetics

American mathematician Norbert Wiener made feedback loops more well known in 1948 in his book _Cybernetics_. Cybernetics is the study of feedback loops and their role in communication and control.
Phosphate

A **phosphate** is a salt of phosphoric acid. Phosphates are important in biochemistry.
Phosphates have the formula PO<sub>4</sub><sup>3-</sup> and a molar mass of 94.973 g/mol. An example of a phosphate is sodium phosphate. Three different types of phosphates are known.  They are orthophosphate, PO<sub>4</sub><sup>3-</sup>; metaphosphate, PO<sub>3</sub><sup>2-</sup>; and pyrophosphate, P<sub>2</sub>O<sub>7</sub><sup>3-</sup>. They have a combining power of 3.

## Structure

Phosphates are made of one phosphorus atom surrounded by four oxygen atoms.
Many phosphates do not dissolve in water.
Cerebrum

The **cerebrum** is the largest part of the brain. It is in the front part of the brain. It contains about 15 billion cells, and is the latest brain structure to have evolved.

## Function

The cerebrum takes in data from sight and other sense organs, and 'makes sense' of it (interprets it). It controls consciousness and action (voluntary muscular activity). It plans, thinks, judges, and organises speech and information. These are the so-called 'higher mental functions'.

## Structure

The cerebrum is divided into two _cerebral hemispheres_. These two cerebral hemispheres are connected by three bands of nerve fibres, or commissures, which connect the two halves. The outer layers of the cerebrum are made up of the grey matter, and is called the cerebral cortex. The inner layers are made up of the white matter (nerve fibres), and the basal ganglia.

In the cerebrum, there are specific regions for each kind of stimulus and its response. For example, occipital lobe is the region for visual reception, temporal lobe for auditory reception, and parietal lobe for touch, smell, temperature and conscious association. The frontal lobe takes action, based on sensory input and other factors.
Karelia

**Karelia** (Karelian and Finnish: _Karjala_, <small>Finnish pronunciation:</small> [ˈkɑrjɑlɑ]; Russian: Каре́лия, <small>tr.</small> _Karélija_, is an area in Northern Europe.

Most of Karelia belongs to Russia today. Small parts of Karelia belong to Finland. On the Russian side of Karelia is the Republic of Karelia. On the Finnish side are the provinces of North Karelia and South Karelia.

The original people of Karelia are Karelians. Karelian people speak Karelian, a Finnic language very close to Finnish and Estonian. Karelians knew many old poems. Many poems of the Finnish book Kalevala are from the Karelians. Today in the Republic of Karelia, Karelians are a minority and Russians are a majority. Some people fear Karelian culture and language will die out, due to Soviet immigration to destroy the culture.
Kalevala

**Kalevala** is the Finnish national epic. This means it is a book that is very important to Finnish people.

Kalevala has many stories and folklores in it. The stories of Kalevala are poems that are very old. Long ago, people sang these poems. The poems have a unique metre that is not known outside Finnic languages. There are many themes in these stories from different times in the past. The oldest themes are from the Stone Age. Many of the poems are collected from Karelia and areas nearby.

Heroes have adventures in these stories. The most important heroes are Väinämöinen, Ilmarinen, Lemminkäinen and Kullervo. The enemies of heroes are Louhi and Joukahainen. Many stories in Kalevala are about two countries fighting each other. These countries are the land of Kalevala and land of Pohjola. The Land of Kalevala is the land of Heroes. Pohjola is the land of enemies. Pohjola is an evil and cold place somewhere far north.

Elias Lönnrot was a man who collected these poems and made a book of them. Kalevala has been translated into many languages. There is also an English Kalevala.

In 2024, Kalevala got a cultural heritage label from the European Commission.
Edred of England

King **Edred** or _Eadred_ (c. 923 – November 23 955) was King of England from 946 until his death. He was a son of King Edward the Elder and Edgiva of Kent. He was king after his brother, King Edmund I. Like both his older brothers, Edred was successful against the Vikings. Edred was a very religious man, but had very poor health (he could barely eat his food). He died on November 23 955, in Frome, Somerset, and was buried in the Old Minster at Winchester. His nephew, King Edwy, became king after him.

## Infobox (monarch)

- **name**: Eadred
- **title**: King of England
- **image**: Eadred - MS Royal 14 B V.jpg
- **succession**: King of England
- **reign**: May 26, 946 – November 23 955
- **predecessor**: Edmund I of England, Edmund I
- **successor**: Edwy of England, Edwy
- **birth date**: 923
- **birth place**: Wessex, England
- **death date**: November 23, 955
- **burial place**: Old Minster, Winchester, England. Bones now in Winchester Cathedral, England
- **father**: Edward the Elder
- **mother**: Edgiva
Plant pathology

**Plant pathology**, or **phytopathology**, is the study of plant diseases. Like animals, plants can get infected and damaged by viruses, bacteria and fungi.

It includes not only the harm done by pathogens (infectious organisms), but also harm done by environmental conditions.

Organisms which cause infectious disease include fungi, oomycetes, bacteria, plant viruses, viroids, virus-like organisms, phytoplasmas, protozoa, nematodes and parasitic plants.

Not included are ectoparasites like insects, mites, vertebrate, or other pests that affect plant health by eating plant tissues. Plant pathology involves the study of pathogen identification, disease cycles, economic impact, plant disease epidemiology, plant disease resistance, how plant diseases affect humans and animals, and how to manage plant diseases.

Plant pathology is of fundamental importance to agriculture.
Chytridiomycota

**Chytridiomycota** is a phylum of the Fungi kingdom. The name comes from **chytridium** (from the Greek _chytridion_, meaning "little pot"): the structure containing unreleased spores.

The chytrids are the most primitive of the fungi. Many chytrids are found in fresh water. There are approximately 1,000 chytrid species, in 127 genera, distributed among 5 orders.

Chytrids get their energy mostly from non-living organic matter.

Both zoospores and gametes of the chytrids are mobile by their flagella, one whiplash per individual.

Some chytrid species are known to kill amphibians in large numbers. The actual process, however, is unknown.

## Other websites

- Chytrid Fungi Online : by the University of Alabama
- Impact of chytrid fungus on frogs (Foundation for National Parks & Wildlife)
- 'Amphibian Ark' aims to save frogs from fungus. . Unresponsive 2022.
- The Aquarium Wiki on Chytrid Fungus  and how it impacts amphibians kept as domestic pets.
Saprophyte

A **saprophyte** or **saprotroph** is an organism which gets its energy from dead and decaying organic matter. This may be decaying pieces of plants or animals. This means that saprophytes are heterotrophs. They are consumers in the food chain.

This is the typical life-style of fungi. Some fungi are parasites on living organisms, but most are saprophytes. Many bacteria and protozoa are also saprophytes. Most dead organic matter is eventually broken down and used by bacteria and fungi. Slime moulds are also saprophytes, as well as consuming bacteria. Examples of saprophytes are cheese mold, and yeast. The term "saprophyte" refers specifically to fungal and bacterial saprotrophs; animal saprotrophs are known as saprozoites.

Other terms, such as 'saprotroph' or 'saprobe' may be used instead of saprophyte. Strictly speaking, -phyte means 'plant'. The problem is that no embryophytes (land plants) are true saprotrophs, and bacteria and fungi are no longer considered plants. Nevertheless, saprophyte is such a well-known term that most writers continue to use it. This processes was evolutionized by professionals therefore with more case study we will be able to know more.

## Myco-heterotrophy

A heterotroph is a general term for an organism that needs organic material to get its carbon for growth and development. Many plants which lack chlorophyll need fungi to break down organic material for them. Traditionally, they were called saprophytes. Now the process is given a new name: myco-heterotrophy.
Pharaoh Hound

The **Pharaoh Hound** or **Tesem** is a breed of dog. It’s face was taken as a model for Anubis. Pharaoh Hounds always have a bright orange colour coat. They may have a small white spot on the front of their body. They need lots of physical exercise, and they are fast runners and can jump high. They need little brushing because their fur is very short. In the past, people used them to hunt rabbits. Now people keep them as pets.
Mycelium

The **mycelium** is the part of a fungus that is usually underground (or inside some another substance). It is composed of **hyphae**, which look like threads, or rootlets. The mat of hyphae may be very thickly woven. The fungus uses it to extract nutritients. The hyphae are usually syncytic, that is, they do not have complete cell walls. Fungal colonies composed of mycelium are found in and on soil and many other natural materials.

A mycelium may be tiny, forming a colony that is too small to see, or it may be extremely large and cover the floors of a large forest.

The part of the fungus which is most visible is the reproductive body. This is often, but not always, the stem and hat of the mushroom.
Orchestra pit

An **orchestra pit** is the space where an orchestra plays in a theatre or opera house.  The actors or singers are on the stage, and the orchestra pit is normally lower than the stage so that the audience can watch the play or opera.  Depending on where they sit, the audience may just be able to see the heads of the musicians in the orchestra pit.  It is important that singers can see the conductor so that they can watch the beat out of the corner of their eye.  Opera houses nowadays often have close-circuit television monitors at the sides so that singers can watch the conductor even when they are not facing him.

The orchestra pit in the Bayreuth Festspielhaus is unusual.  This opera house was designed by the composer Richard Wagner for the performance of his own operas.  He did not want the audience to be able to see the orchestra at all, so it is very low.  The orchestra members do not have to dress up in ties and jackets because they cannot be seen anyway.
Will o' the wisp

A **will-o'-the-wisp** or ***ignis fatuus*** (Medieval Latin: "foolish fire") is a ghostly light.  It is seen by travellers at night, especially over bogs, swamps or marshes.

Usually will o' the wisp looks like a ball of light or a small flame. UFOs and some ghost lights are different, they are usually in the sky while will o' the wisps are near ground.

It looks like a flickering lamp and is said to go farther back if approached.  This draws travellers from the safe paths. This is a folk belief in a lot of English folklore and in much of European folklore.  They are often said to be the work of fairies or elemental spirits.  Some people think will o' the wisps are souls, spirits or spaceships.

Scientists try to use a natural explanation. Some say they are a gas, like methane, that goes up from the ground and burns. Other people say they are electric things, like ball lightning. One flying ball of light was explained: it was an owl that had a bright stomach. Sometimes animals or fungus make some light - this is called bioluminescence by scientists or foxfire. Sometimes diphosphine (P<sub>2</sub>H<sub>4</sub>) is also produced over marshes, which are highly flammable. Therefore, it burns in air and causes a flickering glow.

There are many old and new stories about will o' the wisps around the world. These lights have different names in different cultures and languages. Some of the names are _jack-o'-lantern_, _hinkypunk_, _hobby lantern_ in English.

### Europe

- Ferbane in Ireland
- Hessdalen light in Norway
- Martebo lights in Sweden
- Paasselkä devil in Finland
- Virvatuluke in Estonia
- Dwaallichtjes in the Low Countries
- Corpse Candles in Wales

### North America

- Canada
- Fireship of Baie des Chaleurs in New Brunswick
- St. Louis Light in Saskatchewan

- United States
- Arbyrd/Senath Light of Missouri
- Bragg Road ghost light (Light of Saratoga) of Texas
- Brown Mountain Lights of North Carolina
- Gurdon light of Arkansas
- Hornet ghost light or Spooklight of Missouri-Oklahoma state line
- Maco light of North Carolina
- Marfa lights of Texas
- Oviedo Lights of Florida
- The Paulding Light of Michigan's Upper Peninsula
- Skinwalker Ranch lights of Utah

## Related pages

- Omphalotus olearius
Ghost light

**Ghost lights** are lights in the air that are not well understood by scientists. There are few reports of ghost light sightings. Ghost lights can be close to ground or in the sky. Ghost lights close to ground are commonly called "will o' the wisp" while ghost lights in the sky are often called UFOs. There are very different kinds of ghost lights: some resemble balls of light, others look like flame, and some look like a bright cloud. Many ghost lights move.

Different cultures have understood ghost lights differently. People believed that they are dragons, spirits or ghosts. Today some believe they are spaceships. There are many theories about what ghost lights are. Some people say they are methane gas that comes from ground and burns in the air. Others say they are electric things like ball lightning. The fact that some animals and fungus glows may explain some ghost lights.

### Australia

- Min Min lights

### Finland

- Paasselkä devil

### Norway

- Hessdalen light

### Canada

- Baie Chaleur Fireship
- St. Louis Light

### Sweden

- Martebo lights

### Thailand

- Mekong lights (Nekha lights)

### Italy

- Fuoco Fatuo

#### Arkansas

- Crossett Light
- Gurdon Light

#### North Carolina

- Brown Mountain Lights
- Maco Light

#### Georgia

- Surrency Spooklight

#### Indiana

- Moody's Light

#### Michigan (Upper Peninsula)

- The Paulding Light

#### Missouri

- Ozark Spooklight

#### Oklahoma

- Spooklight (same as Hornet Ghost Light, at the Oklahoma–Missouri line)

#### Texas

- Bragg Road Ghost Light (Light of Saratoga)
- Marfa Lights

#### Utah

- Skinwalker Ranch

#### Virginia

- Cohoke Light
Roman Giertych

**Roman Jacek Giertych** (born February 27, 1971 in Śrem) is a former Minister of Education in Poland.

## Biography

Roman Giertych comes from a family of Polish politicians, being a son of Maciej Giertych and a grandson of Jędrzej Giertych.

His brother (holding a Ph.D. himself) said he was a young bookworm who made dozens of books, especially on history. He improved in history throughout his school years while his grades in other subjects remained normal.

He graduated from Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań with a master's degrees in both law and history. In 1989, he reactivated the far-right "All-Polish Youth" (Młodzież Wszechpolska) organization, becoming its chairman; he remains honorary chairman to this day. For several years he was a member of the National-Democratic Party (Stronnictwo Narodowo-Demokratyczne) and the National Party (Stronnictwo Narodowe), which went with several other organizations to form the League of Polish Families (Liga Polskich Rodzin, LPR) in 2001.

## Other websites

- Roman Giertych - sejm page  (in Polish)
- The page of opponents Giertych (Polish)
Smoothie

**Smoothies** are a type of cold drink made from a liquid (either milk, fruit juice, or water), crushed ice or ice cubes, different fruits (such as banana, strawberries, or pineapple). Sometimes other foods are added to smoothies, such as yogurt, honey, maple syrup or ice cream. Smoothies are blended with an electric blender until the fruit and ice is puréed (made smooth).

People usually drink smoothies from a tall glass or cup, and use a plastic drinking straw to suck it into their mouth. Some dieticians think that drinking smoothies is not as good as eating the original fruit, because the smoothie has less fibre, and does not provide exercise for the jaw and other digestive processes which eating the fruit would give.

Smoothies are similar to milk shakes. Milk shakes are also a cold drink made with an electric blender. Milk shakes are usually made with milk, ice cream, and sweet syrups, such as chocolate syrup.

## Related pages

- Milk shake
Groove

**Groove** could mean:
- Groove (engineering), a slot cut into hard material
- Groove (joinery), a slot cut parallel to the grain
- Groove (music)
- _Groove_ (film)
- Microsoft Office Groove
- Groove metal, a subgenre of heavy metal music
- The Groove, a US radio station.
- The Groove (band), an Australian rock/pop band of the 1960s.

## Related pages

- Groovy
Sheave (mechanical)

A **sheave** (pronounced "sheev" or "shiv") is a wheel or roller with a groove along its edge for holding a belt, rope or cable.  When hung between two supports with a belt, rope or cable, one or more sheaves make up a pulley.  The words _sheave_ and _pulley_ are sometimes used interchangeably.
Unidentified flying object

A **UFO** (**Unidentified Flying Object**) is an object in the sky which cannot be identified.

## Identified flying objects (IFOs)

Studies estimate that 50-90% of all reported UFO sightings are identified later. Most are natural or man-made objects that looked strange. 80-90% of UFOs are identified as one of three things:
1. astronomical causes (for example: planets, stars, or meteors)
1. aircraft
1. balloons (including weather balloons)

## New term

Since the 2020s, people have come up with the following terminology:
- Unidentified Aerial Phenomena
- Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena
Therefore, it is common to hear "UFO" and "UAP" while listening to people talk about this topic.

## References

- Allan Hendry, _The UFO Handbook: A Guide to Investigating, Evaluating, and Reporting UFO Sightings_, 1979, Doubleday & Co.,

## Other websites

- Wikinews - UFO Archive
- CIA educational summary on UFO  (working link or what? Maybe it should be used this link  instead?)
- NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts
- BBC article on Mexican Air-force videotape
- NASA UFO Hacker Video Interview
- Popularmechanics Article - When UFOs Arrive: February 2004 Cover Story
Second War of Scottish Independence

The **Second War of Scottish Independence** began in 1333, when Edward III of England no longer accepted the 1328 Treaty of Northampton under which the Kingdom of England recognised the legitimacy of the dynasty of the Kingdom of Scotland that was established by Robert Bruce. Edward was determined to support the claim of Edward Balliol, the son of the former king, John Balliol, over David II, Bruce's son and heir. Edward had ruled in Scotland for a short time in the autumn of 1332, but was thrown out of the country later in the year. The war itself lasted until 1357, when David II was released from English captivity. English involvement in Scotland was also one of the factors that led to the outbreak of the Hundred Years' War with France in 1337.

## Related pages

- Wars of Scottish Independence
- First War of Scottish Independence

### Primary sources

- _Anonimalle Chronicle, 1333-81_, ed. V. H. Galbraith, 1927.
- Bower, Walter, _Scotichronicon,_ ed. D. E. R. Watt, 1987-96.
- _Brut, or the Chronicles of England_, ed. F. W. D. Brie, 1906.
- Capgrave, John, _The Book of the Illustrious Henries_, ed. F. Hingeston, 1858.
- C_alendar of Documents Relating to Scotland_, ed. J. Bain, 1857.
- Fordun, John, _Chronicles of the Scottish Nation_, ed. W. F. Skene, 1872.
- Gray, Thomas, _Scalicronica_, ed. H. Maxwell, 1913.
- _The Lanercost Chronicle_, ed. H. Maxwell, 1913.
- Wyntoun, Andrew, _The Original Chronicle of Scotland_, ed. F. J. Amours, 1907.

### Secondary sources

- Balfour-Melville, E. W. M, _Edward III and David II_, 1954.
- Campbell, T., _England, Scotland and the Hundred Years War_, in _Europe in the Late Middle Ages,_ ed. J. Hale _et al._, 1970.
- Duncan, A. A. M., _Honi soit qui mal y pense: David II and Edward III_, in the Scottish Historical Review, vol. 67, 1988.
- Nicholson, R., _Edward III and the Scots_, 1965.
- Nicholson, R., _Scotland: the Later Middle Ages_, 1974.
- Brown, C.K., "The Second Scottish War of Independence", 2001
- Paterson, R. C., _Edward Balliol_, in Military History, April 2003.
- Reid, R. C., _Edward de Balliol_, in _Transactions of the Dumfriesshire and Galloway Antiquarian and Natural History Society_, vol. 35 1956-7.
U.S. postal abbreviations

This is a **list of postal code abbreviations used by the United States Postal Service**. They are used to help the postal service process mail.  In other contexts, such as newspaper articles, the traditional abbreviations for the states are used.

## States

In alphabetical order by postal abbreviation (not by state):

|State Abbreviation|State Name||
| --- | --- | --- |
|style="vertical-align:top"|{| class=wikitable||
|AK|Alaska||
|AL|Alabama||
|AR|Arkansas||
|AZ|Arizona||
|CA|California||
|CO|Colorado||
|CT|Connecticut||
|DE|Delaware||
|FL|Florida||
|GA|Georgia||
|HI|Hawaii||
|IA|Iowa||
|ID|Idaho||
|IL|Illinois||
|IN|Indiana||
|KS|Kansas||
|KY|Kentucky||
|LA|Louisiana||
|MA|Massachusetts||
|MD|Maryland||
|ME|Maine||
|MI|Michigan||
|MN|Minnesota||
|MO|Missouri||
|MS|Mississippi||
|MT|Montana||
|NC|North Carolina||
|ND|North Dakota||
|NE|Nebraska||
|NH|New Hampshire||
|NJ|New Jersey||
|NM|New Mexico||
|NV|Nevada||
|NY|New York||
|OH|Ohio||
|OK|Oklahoma||
|OR|Oregon||
|PA|Pennsylvania||
|RI|Rhode Island||
|SC|South Carolina||
|SD|South Dakota||
|TN|Tennessee||
|TX|Texas||
|UT|Utah||
|VA|Virginia||
|VT|Vermont||
|WA|Washington||
|WI|Wisconsin||
|WV|West Virginia||
|WY|Wyoming|}|

### Federal districts

|Abbreviation|Location|
| --- | --- |
|DC|District of Columbia|

### Territories

|Abbreviation|Location|
| --- | --- |
|AS|American Samoa|
|GU|Guam|
|MP|Northern Mariana Islands|
|PR|Puerto Rico|
|VI|U.S. Virgin Islands|

### Freely associated states

|Abbreviation|Location|
| --- | --- |
|FM|Federated States of Micronesia|
|MH|Marshall Islands|
|PW|Palau|

### Armed Forces

|Abbreviation|Location|
| --- | --- |
|AA|Armed Forces Americas (except Canada)|
|AE|Armed Forces Europe (covers all USARAEUR) Armed Forces Canada Armed Forces Middle East Armed Forces Africa|
|AP|Armed Forces Pacific|

### Codes that are no longer used

|Abbreviation|Location|
| --- | --- |
|CZ|Canal Zone|
|TT|Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands|
|PI|Philippines|
Booing

**Booing** means shouting "BOO!" several times. When people do this, it means that they do not like it. It is the opposite of applause (clapping to show that the performance was good).

If people shout "boo" after a performance (for example, a concert, play or opera) they are showing that they did not like it.

Booing and hissing used to be very common, especially at the opera. In the early days of opera (from the 17th to the early 19th century) opera audiences often behaved badly. They went to the opera to chat with their friends, but booing has recently become less common in Western culture except at sports events because people think it is rude.

## Related pages

- Applause
- Claque
Applause

**Applause** is the sound made by an audience who are clapping their hands (**applauding**) to thank someone for a performance.  People at a concert usually applaud when the performers come onto the stage.  This is a way of welcoming them.  At the end of a performance people applaud again to thank the performers.

People may applaud after someone makes a speech or at a sporting match.  They will applaud after a play in the theatre or at the end of an opera.  The length of applause (how long they applaud for) may depend on how much they liked the performance.  If they liked it very much they may also shout "BRAVO!".  When an audience applauds with really wild excitement it is called an "ovation".  Very occasionally (in English-speaking cultures) an audience might all stand up as well.  This is called a "standing ovation".

## Related pages

- Booing
- Bowing
- Claque
- Encore
498a

**Section 498-A** is a section under the Indian Penal Code, 1860, which was brought in 1983 to stop cruelty towards married women because of dowry. This often led to their deaths. It makes it a crime to be cruel to your wife or to your relative's wife. The law explains that "cruelty" means anything that is done on purpose, and either causes harm to the woman or makes the woman want to kill herself. It also makes the laws against dowry or payment made by the bride's family to the husband's family stronger. It makes it a crime to harass a woman to try to make her family pay a dowry.

If someone breaks this law he can be put in prison for up to 3 years with fine.

The law is criticized. The critics of the law say it allows a woman to ask the police to arrest her husband without any evidence or investigation, and that women have abused the law in domestic disputes. Others say it gives important support to women who are vulnerable from abusive husbands. The Supreme Court of India expressed its concerns over the misuse of section 498-A and termed it "_**Legal Terrorism**_".

These are the some relevant judgements:

1. SC on 498a - preeti gupta vs state of Jharkhand
1. SC on 498a - Ruchi Agrawal vs. Amit kumar Agrawal
1. SC on 498a - Geeta Malhotra vs. State of UP
1. SC on 498a - Ramesh vs. State of Tamilnadu
1. SC on 498a - BS Joshi vs. State of Hariyana
Caesar cipher

In cryptography, a **Caesar cipher** is an ancient form of substitution cipher. It is named in the honor of the Roman emperor, Julius Caesar.

## Method

To encrypt a message with a Caesar cipher, each letter in the message is changed using a simple rule: shift by three. Each letter is replaced by the letter three letters later in the alphabet. A becomes D, B becomes E, and so on. For the last letters, we can think of the alphabet as a circle and "wrap around". W becomes Z, X becomes A, Y becomes B, and Z becomes C. To change a message back, each letter is replaced by the one three before it.

## Weakness

However, it is very easy to break a Caesar cipher, even if you change the "key number" to a different number. Using a more modern form of encryption would be better.

Changing by three is the rule that the well known Julius Caesar used, but the same idea works for any number. ROT13 can be seen as a modern version of the Caesar cipher, with the same weaknesses.

The Caesar cipher is a _substitution cipher_: each letter is replaced by another. No substitution cipher is safe for sensitive information.
Social engineering (security)

**Social engineering** is a type of confidence trick to influence people with the goal to illegally obtain sensitive data (i.e. passwords, credit card information). Social engineers observe the personal environment of their victims and use fake identities to gain secret information or free services. In most cases, social engineering is used to infiltrate third party computer systems to spy on sensitive data.

### The beginning

An early way of social engineering first occurred in the 1980s and was named phreaking. Phreakers called phone companies and claimed to be system administrators and asked for passwords which they used to connect illegally and free of charge to the Internet.

### Nowadays

A more modern form of social engineering is called phishing (derived from “fishing”), which is an attempt to get access to Internet user's data via faked WWW-addresses. The most common way of phishing is fraud mailing (also known as scam mailing), where the victim is being sent a fake e-mail i.e. of a bank. In most scam mails, the letter includes a link that is redirecting to a fake website which is logging the login ID and the appropriate password of the victim. The hackers are often using DNS-spoofing to fake the sender's e-mail address.

### How it works

The main model of social engineering shows up with faked phone calls: the social engineer calls employees of a company and impersonates a technician who needs sensitive data to complete important technical operations. In advance the attacker has gathered information about work routines of the target company from public sources or former raid attempts, that gives him advantage in further social engineering trials.
The invader tries to confuse his victims and to seem trustful, using trade language and involving the victims in small talk. Further the assaulter pretends authority to frighten his victims. Under circumstances the employee actually requested technical support and is expecting such a phone call.

### Protection

The prevention of social engineering is difficult. By influencing the victim subconsciously, the invader abuses typical human behavior like helpfulness in emergency situations or to respond with help to the seemingly helpful attacker.
General mistrust would disturb the efficient and trustful team work of an organization. The most effective way to avoid social engineering is to assure the identity of the caller. This can already be done by asking for the caller's name and phone number and to politely ask for patience, even if the caller's issue seems to be very urgent. Even if one could verify the caller's identity, one should only hand out the absolutely necessary information.

## Famous social engineers

Social engineering became generally known through people such as Kevin Mitnick, who became one of the most wanted persons in the United States because of successfully invading government systems such as the Pentagon and the NSA. Further well known social engineers are the check scammer Frank Abagnale.

## References

- _DATA PROTECTION ESSENTIALS_  Knowledge about SE, Information about Kevin Mitnick
Crop rotation

**Crop rotation ** is a practice used in farming. It involves the planting of different seeds on the same land in different years or seasons, using a set pattern of two, three, or sometimes four different crops. This technique helps replace the nutrients in the soil for the plants. It also reduces plant-specific pests on the land.
A Hard Day's Night

***A Hard Day’s Night*** was a 1964 album by The Beatles, released on 10 July of that year. It was the soundtrack to the movie of the same name, starring the Beatles and directed by Richard Lester. It was their third album. It is said that the title was accidentally said by Ringo Starr during the filming of the movie.

The movie was made because United Artists, a movie company, wanted to sell a soundtrack album. Many movies that included rock and roll were not good movies. The Beatles did not want to star in a movie unless it was well made, with a good plot. United Artists agreed, and a playwright, Alun Owen, was hired.

Alun Owen travelled with the Beatles on a concert tour. He was to write a fictional story at first, based on how the band interacted with other people, but Owen decided the best story to tell was real, based on what he saw. The "grandfather" character (played by Wilfrid Brambell) was added to appeal to older viewers. Brambell was a popular television actor, who starred in _Steptoe and Son_ (a forerunner of _Sanford and Son_) as a "dirty old" junk dealer.

Even with a script, the Beatles improvised (made up) some of their own dialogue in the movie. They also acted out ideas from the director, Richard Lester.

## Movie overview

In the movie's storyline, the Beatles go to London to perform in a television program. Paul's family send along his grandfather, so he and Paul can keep each other company. The grandfather is a "mixer", and likes to cause trouble between people. (He is also noticed often as being "very clean"; a play on Brambell's "dirty" television role.)

The Beatles enjoy breaking rules and expectations, and playing jokes. Their manager Norm and road manager "Shake" try to make things run smoothly, but have a busy time keeping up with both the Beatles and Paul's grandfather, and making sure the television show goes as planned. (Norm and Shake were based loosely on road managers Neil Aspinall and Mal Evans.)

## Songs on the album

This is the only Beatles album on which all songs are by John Lennon and Paul McCartney, and their first to only have only songs written by the Beatles.

1. A Hard Day’s Night
1. I Should Have Known Better
1. If I Fell
1. I’m Happy Just To Dance With You
1. And I Love Her
1. Tell Me Why
1. Can’t Buy Me Love
1. Any Time At All
1. I’ll Cry Instead
1. Things We Said Today
1. When I Get Home
1. You Can't Do That
1. I'll Be Back

The first seven songs were used in the movie.

## Infobox (album)

- **name**: A Hard Day's Night
- **type**: studio
- **artist**: The Beatles
- **released**: 10 July 1964
- **recorded**: 29 January – 3 June 1964, Abbey Road Studios and Pathé Marconi Studios
- **length**: 30:45
- **language**: English language, English
- **label**: Parlophone
- **producer**: George Martin
- **prev title**: With The Beatles
(1963)
- **next title**: Beatles for Sale
(1964)
Changeling

In stories (folklore), a **changeling** is the child of a troll, elf, or fairy that has been left in the place of a human child. The stolen human child then lives with the troll family. A changeling is like a human baby but ugly, always hungry, and with a bad temper. Sometimes the changelings are much wiser than a human baby would be.

It is thought that changeling stories came from actual events. A family who had a handicapped or sick child may have traded their sick child for a healthier, better-looking child.

Folklore says that it might be possible for parents to figure out that their child has been replaced with a changeling. If they discovered the changeling quickly enough, they could get their human child back. One way to get the child back was to put the changeling in an oven. Another way was to put the changeling in a forest so that the troll could take its child back. Sometimes children died in the oven or forest.
Bomb

A **bomb** is an explosive object that makes and lets out its energy very quickly. This detonation makes a big shock wave. Bombs have been used for centuries. Some bombs also throw out dangerous metal fragments, and some are firebombs.

Most bombs do not contain more energy than ordinary fuel, except in the case of a nuclear weapon. However, they release their energy more quickly, thus are more powerful.

A bomb is usually some kind of container filled with explosive material that is designed to destroy things.  The word bomb comes from the Greek word _βόμβος_ (bombas), an onomatopoeic term with almost the same meaning as "boom" in English.

Air forces send bombers to destroy enemy targets. Terrorists use bombs in suicide attacks. Explosive materials used in mining work the same way, but are usually not called bombs.

## Related pages

- Explosion protection
- Nuclear weapon
Dieter Bohlen

**Dieter Gunther Bohlen** is a German musician, born on 7 February 1954. He was born in Berne, Lower Saxony. He was a member of Modern Talking, but now appears in the TV programme "Germany Searches for a Superstar" , which is the German version of Pop Idol and American Idol.
SWOT Analysis

**SWOT Analysis** is a tool to find out the **S**trengths, **W**eaknesses, **O**pportunities, and **T**hreats that are to be expected in a project or in a business venture or in something similar. It means that the situation (internal and external to the organization or individual) is looked at. It is one of the best tools to conduct the internal and external analysis for any company.

## Internal and external factors

Internal factors may include employment, finance, manufacturing opportunities, and all of the marketing mix's 4Ps.

External factors include macroeconomics, technological change, legislation, and sociocultural changes, as well as changes in the marketplace.

## Use

SWOT analysis can be used in any decision-making situation. SWOT analysis can be used:

- to build organizational or personal strategy;
- for matching and converting;
- allow organizations to achieve their goals;
- as a basis for the analysis of business and environmental factors;
- in marketing — analyzing competitors.

## In community organizations

The SWOT analysis has been used in community work as a tool to identify positive and negative factors within organizations.

Although SWOT analysis is a part of the planning, it will not provide a strategic plan if used by itself, but a SWOT list can becomes a series of recommendations.

**Strengths and weaknesses** (_internal factors within an organization_):

- Human resources — staff, volunteers, board members, target population;
- Physical resources — your location, building, equipment;
- Financial — grants, funding agencies, other sources of income;
- Activities and processes — programs you run, systems you employ;
- Past experiences — building blocks for learning and success, your reputation in the community.

**Opportunities and threats** (_external factors from community or societal forces_):

- Future trends in your field or the culture;
- The economy — local, national, or international;
- Funding sources — foundations, donors, legislatures;
- Demographics — changes in the age, race, gender, culture of those you serve or in your area;
- The physical environment — is your building in a growing part of town? Is the bus company cutting routes?;
- Legislation — do new federal requirements make your job harder...or easier?;
- Local, national, or international events.
Scottsdale

The place name **Scottsdale** can refer to:

- Scottsdale, Tasmania, in Australia
- Scottsdale, Arizona, in the United States