juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Contact

**Contact** means to touch physically or to communicate with.

**Contact** could also mean:

## General uses

- Contact lens, a corrective, cosmetic, or therapeutic lens
- Contact process, a method for producing sulfuric acid on an industrial scale
- Contact network, a type of social network
- Contact (law), in Family Law, deals with the right of parents or other significant persons to meet with and relate to a child
- Active component of electric switch or electrical connector
- vCard or hCard, in address books, a contact is the name, address, phone number, and other pertinent information
- Contact paper, in photography, used to print negatives without enlargement
- Contact (mathematics), a mathematical concept, the idea of curves (for example) touching
- Optical contacting, a process in which two highly polished surfaces are permanently or temporarily joined without use of any adhesive
- Contact Energy, an energy company in New Zealand
- The initial fighting with an enemy unit, in a military context
- Contact Conference, an annual interdisciplinary scientific conference
- Contact (social), a person renowned for performing special and often illegal favors for individuals in return for goods or services.
- First contact (anthropology) between different cultures.
- Radar contact, the display of a single radar return from an object as a result of one radar sweep
- CONTACT USA, a crisis hotline.
- Amateur radio contact, an exchange of information between two amateur radio operators
- Contact massage, massage that is done by hands or special electronic aids

## In music

- Contact (musical), a dance musical

### Albums

- _Contact (Fantastic Plastic Machine album)_, an album by Fantastic Plastic Machine
- _Contact!_, an album by Eiffel 65
- _Contact_ (Silver Apples album), an album by Silver Apples
- _Contact_, an album by The Benjamin Gate
- _Contact (Thirteen Senses album)_, an album by Thirteen Senses.
- _Contact (Indo G album)_, an album by Indo G
- _Contact (Minori Chihara album)_, an album by Minori Chihara.

### Songs

- "Contact", a song by Thirteen senses from the above album.
- "Contact", a song from the broadway version of the rock opera, "Rent".
- "Contact", a song by The Police from their 1979 album _Reggatta de Blanc_
- "Contact (song)", by the French rock band Kyo.
- "Contact" (Phish song), an early Phish song

## Other media

- _Contact_ (novel), a science fiction novel by Carl Sagan
- _Contact_ (movie), a movie based on the book
- _Contact_ (video game), a Nintendo DS game
- Contact (Dance), a dance production by Paul Mercurio
- Contact (The Culture), in novels by Iain M. Banks, the Exploration (and sometimes military) corp of the Culture
- Contact (game), a word-guessing game.
- Contact is English for Contacto, a publication of the British Interlingua Society.
Mac OS X Tiger

**Mac OS X Tiger** (version 10.4) is the fifth major release of Apple's Mac OS X. It was released on April 29, 2005.

## Other websites

- Ars Technica Mac OS X 10.4 Review and Overview
- Mac OS X Tiger 'Developer' Overview

## Infobox (os version)

- **name**: Mac OS X v10.4 "Tiger"
- **family**: Mac OS X
- **logo**: Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger Logo.png
- **screenshot**: Firefox 3.0.3 running on Mac Tiger.png
- thumb
- right
- Mac OS X Tiger running Firefox
- **caption**: Screenshot of Mac OS X Tiger
- **developer**: Apple Inc.
- **source model**: Closed source (with open source components)
- **license**: Apple Public Source License, APSL and Apple EULA
- **kernel type**: Hybrid kernel
- **updatemodel**: Apple Software Update
- **supported platforms**: IA-32, x86-64, PowerPC
- **release version**: 10.4.11
- **release date**: 14 November 2007
- **release url**: http://www.macrumors.com/2007/11/14/apple-releases-mac-os-x-10-4-11-update/
- **first release date**: 29 April 2005
- **first release url**: https://www.apple.com/pr/library/2005/apr/28tiger.html
- **preceded by**: Mac OS X Panther, Mac OS X v10.3 "Panther"
- **succeeded by**: Mac OS X Leopard, Mac OS X v10.5 "Leopard"
- **support status**: Unsupported
- **date**: January 2009
Notre-Dame de Paris

**Notre Dame** is a very old cathedral in Paris, France. It is one of France's most famous landmarks and many people visit it each year. The cathedral is on a small island on the River Seine. It is the cathedral of the Catholic Archdiocese of Paris, one of 23 archdioceses in France. The cathedral was built during two centuries in Paris. It is a very good example of Gothic Architecture in France. At the time it was finished, the cathedral was the biggest such building in Western Europe. Between 1844 and 1864, the building was renovated under the direction of Eugène Viollet-le-Duc, who incorporated elements into the design that the medieval building had not possessed before. The two rose windows which ornate the transept are among the biggest in Europe: each has a diameter of 13m.

The bronze plate in the parvis before the cathedral is the origin of all road distances in France calculated from Paris. The national geographic institute in France uses the building as a benchmark. The coordinates and altitude for this point are known precisely.

Victor Hugo wrote a famous story called 'Notre-Dame de Paris'.  The story takes place around the cathedral.  The English title is 'The Hunchback of Notre Dame', and it has also been made into movies.

Tradition has it that Notre-Dame’s first stone was laid in 1163 in the presence of Pope Alexander III.

On May 21, 2013 French historian Dominique Venner committed suicide at Notre Dame de Paris because of his beliefs for gay rights. About 1,500 people were evacuated from the cathedral.

## 2019 fire

On 15 April 2019, smoke and flames were sighted and the Cathedral was declared to be on fire. The fire burnt for over half a day and caused massive damage of the structure. Most works of art in the cathedral could be saved in a few years. The French government announced that the damage would be repaired and the cathedral would be rebuilt.

## Infobox (historic site)

- **embed**: yes
- **designation1**: WHS
- **designation1 date**: 1991
- **designation1 partof**: Paris, Banks of the Seine
- **designation1 number**: [http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/600 600]
- **designation1 criteria**: i, ii, iii
- **designation2**: Monument historique
- **designation2 offname**: Cathédrale Notre-Dame de Paris
- **designation2 type**: Cathédrale
- **designation2 date**: 1862
- **designation2 number**: PA00086250


## Infobox (church)

- **denomination**: Roman Catholic
- **location**: Parvis Notre-Dame – place Jean-Paul-II, Paris
- **status**: Notre-Dame de Paris fire, Damaged by fire
- **style**: French Gothic architecture, French Gothic
- **years built**: 1163–1345
- **completed date**: 1345
- **tower quantity**: 2
- **spire quantity**: 1 (destroyed by fire)
- **spire height**: (formerly)
- **bells**: List of bells in Notre-Dame de Paris, 10
- **archdiocese**: Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Paris, Paris
- **archbishop**: Michel Aupetit
- **rector**: Patrick Jacquin
- **dean**: Patrick Chauvet
- **director**: Sylvain Dieudonné
- **fullname**: Notre-Dame de Paris
Stand Up for Love

|align="center" bgcolor="khaki" colspan="3"|Stand Up for Love|||||
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|align="center" colspan="3"|Cover|||||
|colspan="2" valign="top"|September 27, 2005 <small>(7")</small> December 12, 2005 <small>(remixes)</small>|||||
|colspan="2" valign="top"|Pop|||||
|colspan="2" valign="top"|4:46|||||
|colspan="2" valign="top"|Columbia Records|||||
|colspan="2" valign="top"|David Foster, Amy Foster-Fillies, Beyoncé Knowles, Kelly Rowland|||||
|colspan="2" valign="top"|Beyoncé, David Foster, Kelly Rowland|||||
|align="center" valign="top"|<small>Cater 2 U (2005r.)</small>|align="center" valign="top"|<small>Stand Up for Love </small>|align="center" valign="top"|<small> </small>|
|align="center" valign="top"|<small> </small>|align="center" valign="top"|<small>Stand Up for Love (1)</small>|align="center" valign="top"|<small>Independent Women Part I (2)</small>|
"**Stand Up for Love**" was the first single from Destiny's Child's greatest hits album, _1's_. Released in 2005, the single became Destiny's Child's first single to fail to chart in the United States. The song was the final Destiny's Child single, although another new song from the album, "Check on It" (a solo Beyoncé Knowles song) was released.

## Formats and remixes

- "Stand Up for Love" (Single Edit)
- "Stand Up for Love" (Instrumental)
- "Stand Up for Love" (Acapella)
- "Stand Up for Love" (Junior's Roxy Remix)
- "Stand Up for Love" (Junior Vasquez Roxy Anthem Remix)
- "Stand Up for Love" (Junior Vasquez Roxy Dub Mix)
- "Stand Up for Love" (Maurice Joshua Nu Anthem Mix)
- "Stand Up for Love" (Maurice Joshua Nu Soul Mix)
Survivor (song)

|align="center" bgcolor="khaki" colspan="3"|Survivor|||||
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|align="center" colspan="3"||||||
|colspan="2" valign="top"|February 13, 2001|||||
|colspan="2" valign="top"|Pop/R&B|||||
|colspan="2" valign="top"|4:14|||||
|colspan="2" valign="top"|Columbia Records|||||
|colspan="2" valign="top"|Beyoncé Knowles Anthony Dent Mathew Knowles|||||
|colspan="2" valign="top"|Beyoncé Knowles Anthony Dent|||||
|align="center" valign="top"|<small>Independent Women Part I (2000r.)</small>|align="center" valign="top"|<small>Survivor </small>|align="center" valign="top"|<small>Bootylicious (2001r.)</small>|
|align="center" valign="top"|<small>Independent Women Part I (1)</small>|align="center" valign="top"|<small>Survivor (2)</small>|align="center" valign="top"|<small>Bootylicious (3)</small>|
|align="center" valign="top"|<small>Independent Women Part I (2)</small>|align="center" valign="top"|<small>Survivor (3)</small>|align="center" valign="top"|<small>Soldier (4)</small>|
"**Survivor**," Destiny's Child's signature song, is an R&B song written by American singer-songwriter Beyoncé Knowles, Anthony Dent, and Mathew Knowles for Destiny's Child's third studio album _Survivor_ (2001). It was produced by Beyoncé and Dent, and was released as the album's first single in early 2001. The song reached number one in Ireland, Norway, and the United Kingdom, and entered the top 10 of the majority of the charts it appeared on, making it one of Destiny's Child most successful single releases. The song also won a Grammy Award for Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals.
Notre Dame

**Notre Dame** in French is the name give to a number of religious buildings, consecrated to the Virgin Mary. it was burned in the 2019 Notre Dame fire

## Churches and cathedrals in France

- Notre Dame de Paris, probably the most famous
- Bayeux Cathedral, called Notre-Dame de Bayeux
- Notre-Dame de Chartres
- Notre-Dame de la Garde in Marseille
- Notre-Dame de Reims
- Notre Dame du Haut in Ronchamp
- Strasbourg Cathedral, called Notre-Dame de Strasbourg

## Other

- University of Notre Dame in the U.S. state of Indiana
- Notre Dame College, Dhaka in Bangladesh
- _Notre Dame de Paris_, the original French title of a novel by Victor Hugo published in 1831. In English, this novel is commonly called _The Hunchback of Notre Dame_.
Contact lens

A **contact lens** is a type of lens that are put directly onto the eye in order to help people see better. They are a different option instead of glasses. They have to be prescribed by an eye doctor. Some contact lenses can be used many times, while other types are disposable products used only once and then thrown away.

## Other websites

- Consumer Guide to Contact Lenses  (Articles)
- British Contact Lens Association
- Contact Lens History
Chara (singer)

**Chara** (born as  Miwa Watabiki, on January 13, 1968) is a Japanese singer, songwriter, musician and actress. She began performing in 1991. "Swallowtail Butterfly - あいのうた" is one of her popular songs.

## Early life

Chara grew up in Kawaguchi, Saitama. She started learning the piano from age four, and starting composing songs in elementary school.

## Other websites

- Official Site - CharaWeb

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Chara
- **img**: Chara-live-countdownjapan2011.jpg
- **img capt**: Chara in 2011
- **background**: solo_singer
- **birth name**: Miwa Watabiki
- **birth date**: January 13, 1968
- **genre**: J-pop, Japanese Pop
- **occupation**: Singer
- **years active**: 1991-present
Notre-Dame de Reims

**Notre Dame de Reims** is a cathedral in Reims. It was built in the 13th century. It is not as old as Notre-Dame de Paris or Notre-Dame de Chartres. The building process started in 1211. Most of the works were done in 1275. It was built before the Cathedrals of Strasbourg, Amiens and Beauvais, which are also called Notre Dame.

The cathedral is one of the best examples of Gothic architecture. It has been a World Heritage Site since 1991. In 2006, about 1.5 million people visited it.

The Kings of France were crowned in this cathedral. The last coronation ceremony was that of Charles X of France in 1825.
Bayeux Cathedral

**Bayeux Cathedral**, also called the **Cathedral of Our Lady of Bayeux** (), is a cathedral. It is in Bayeux, in Normandy. The current cathedral was consecrated on July 14, 1077. It is part of a larger complex, a bishop's palace. It was built as a replacement for an earlier church which dated from the Merovingian era. It was here that Harold Godwinson swore an oath that later led to the Norman Conquest.

## Other websites

- Les Amis de Cathedrale de Bayeux
1131

## Events

- May 9 — Tintern Abbey is founded.
- Ramon Berenguer IV becomes Count of Barcelona.
- Alberich becomes Archdeacon of Reims.
- Fulk of Anjou and Melisende become King and Queen of Jerusalem.
- Construction begins on the Beisi Pagoda in China (completed in 1162).

## Births

- King Valdemar I of Denmark (d. 1182)

## Deaths

- March 1 — King Stephen II of Hungary (b. 1101)
- April 30 — Saint Adjutor
- August 21 — King Baldwin II of Jerusalem
- December 4 — Omar Khayyám, Persian poet, astronomer, mathematician, and philosopher (b. 1048)
- Alger of Liège, French monk at Cluny (b. 1055)
- Bohemund II of Antioch (b. 1108)
- Gaston IV of Béarn
- Joscelin I, Count of Edessa
- Peter the Hermit, French priest and crusader
- Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona (b. 1082)
1107

## Events

- William Warelwast becomes Bishop of Exeter.
- Emperor Toba ascends the throne of Japan.
- Chinese money printed in 3 colours to stymie counterfeiting.
- Alexander I inherits the Scottish crown with the death of Edgar of Scotland.
- The highly cultivated emperor of China, Emperor Huizong of Song, writes his _Treatise on Tea_.

## Births

- June 12 — Emperor Gaozong of Song of China (d. 1187)
- Henry II of Austria (d. 1177)

## Deaths

- January 8 — King Edgar of Scotland (b. 1074)
- August 9 — Emperor Horikawa of Japan (b. 1079)
- Robert Fitzhamon, Lord of Gloucester
- Kilij Arslan I, Sultan of Rüm
- Roger Bigod, 1st Earl of Norfolk
- Cheng Yi, Song Dynasty Chinese Neo-Confucian philosopher (b. 1033)
- Mi Fu, Chinese poet, painter, and calligrapher (born 1051)
1086

## Events

- The Domesday Book is completed in England.
- Emperor Shirakawa of Japan starts his cloistered rule.
- The Imam Ali Mosque is rebuilt by the Seljuk Malik Shah I after being destroyed by fire.
- May 24 — Pope Victor III succeeds Pope Gregory VII as the 158th pope, though he does not accept election until May 9, 1087.
- October 23 – Battle of az-Zallaqah: Alfonso VI of León and Castile is defeated by the Almoravids, who had been called into Spain by Abbad III of Sevilla.

## Deaths

- May 21 — Richilde, Countess of Mons and Hainaut
- May 21 — Wang Anshi, Chinese statesman, economist and poet (b. 1021)
- July 17 — King Canute IV of Denmark (b. 1043)
- September 25 — William VIII, Duke of Aquitaine (b. 1025)
- Sima Guang, Chinese historian and statesman (b. 1019)
1039

## Events

- June 4 — Henry III becomes King of Germany.
- The Abbey of Bec is founded.
- Bretislav I of Bohemia invades Poland.

## Deaths

- 10 March — Eudes of Aquitaine, Duke of Gascony
- June 4 — Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor
- Iago ab Idwal ap Meurig, Prince of Gwynedd
- Unsuri, Persian poet
1030

### Europe

- July 29 — Battle of Stiklestad (Norway): Olav Haraldsson loses to the people he ruled and is killed in the fight. The people he lost to were called "_pagan_" because they were not Christian. Later on, Olav is made a saint and is called the patron saint of Norway and _Rex perpetuum Norvegiae_ ('the eternal king of Norway', or 'King of Norway forever').
- The city of Kaunas in Lithuania is founded.
- The city of Tartu in Estonia is founded.
- Thalwil, Switzerland, is talked about for the first time
- Henry I of France fights against his father Robert.

### Asia

- The Song Dynasty Chinese historian and scholar Ouyang Xiu earned his _jinshi_ degree at the age of 22 by passing the highest level tests in the country. This was his third time to take the test. This degree let him work for the government as a scholar-official.
- Byzantine Emperor Romanus III attacks Syria.
- Masud begins to rule the Ghaznavid Empire after the death of his father Mahmud.

## Births

- July 26 — Stanislaus of Szczepanów, Saint Stanislaw (died 1079)
- Baldwin VI, Count of Flanders (died 1070)
- Roger I de Montgomery, Norman nobleman, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury (died 1093)
- Vsevolod I of Kiev (died 1093)

## Deaths

- April 30 — Mahmud of Ghazni
- July 19 — Adalberon, bishop of Laon
- July 29 — King Olaf II of Norway (born 995)
- September 30 — William V, Duke of Aquitaine (born 969)
1448

## Events of 1448

- January 5/ 6 – Christopher of Bavaria, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden dies with no designated heir, leaving all three kingdoms with vacant thrones. Brothers Bengt Jönsson Oxenstierna and Nils Jönsson Oxenstierna are selected to serve as co-regents of Sweden.
- June 20 – The Regency period of Sweden ends with the election of Karl Knutsson Bonde as King Charles VIII of Sweden.
- June 28 – Charles VIII of Sweden is publicly hailed as king at Mora Stones.
- September 28 – Christian of Oldenburg, betrothed to Queen Dowager Dorothea of Brandenburg, becomes King Christian I of Denmark.
- October 17 – Battle of Kosovo – Hungarian forces under John Hunyadi are defeated by the Turks due to the treachery of Prince Dan of Wallachia and George Brankovic of Serbia.
- Queens' College, Cambridge founded by Margaret of Anjou.
- Vatican Library founded by Pope Nicholas V.
- Vlad III the Impaler becomes reigning Prince of Wallachia for two months before being deposed by Vladislav II.
- After a long episode of drought, flood, locust infestation, and famine in Ming Dynasty China since the year 1434, these natural afflicitions finally wane and agriculture and commerce return to a state of normalcy.

## Births

- November 4 – King Alphonso II of Naples (died 1495)
- _date unknown_
    - Baeda Maryam of Ethiopia (died 1478)
    - Nicholas I, Duke of Lorraine (died 1473)

## Deaths

- January 6 – Christopher of Bavaria, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden (born 1418)
- September 23 – Adolph I, Duke of Cleves (born 1373)
- October 31 – John VIII Palaeologus, Byzantine Emperor (born 1390)
- _date unknown_ – Zhu Quan, Prince of Ning, Chinese general (born 1391)
1449

## Events

- January 6 – Constantine XI is crowned Byzantine Emperor, at Mistra. He was the last in a line of rulers that can be traced to the founding of Rome.
- April 7 – The last Antipope, Felix V abdicates.
- April 19 – Pope Nicholas V elected by the Council of Basel
- April 25 – The Council of Basel dissolves itself.
- August 13 – Brandenburg Margrave Albrecht Achilles takes the Lichtenau fortress from Nuremberg in the First Margrave War.
- September 8 – Battle of Tumu Fortress – the Oirat Mongols defeat the  Ming Dynasty army and capture the Zhengtong Emperor of China; the latter is officially deposed while his brother ascends as the Jingtai Emperor the next year in 1450.
- October 29 – French recapture Rouen from the English

## Births

- January 1 – Lorenzo de' Medici, Italian statesman (died 1492)
- October 21 – George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence, brother of Edward IV of England and Richard III of England (died 1478)
- _date unknown_ – Domenico Ghirlandaio, Italian artist (died 1494)
- _probable_ – Ilham Ghali khan of Kazan Khanate, (died 1490)

## Deaths

- May 20 – Infante Pedro, Duke of Coimbra (born 1392)
- October 27 – Ulugh Beg, Timurid ruler and astronomer (born 1394)
- _date unknown_
    - Anne Beauchamp, 15th Countess of Warwick (born 1443)
    - Alexander of Islay, Earl of Ross, Lord of the Isles
1277

## Events

- Burma's Pagan empire begins to disintegrate after being defeated by Kublai Khan at the Battle of Ngasaunggyan, at Yunnan near the Chinese border.
- Some 50,000 leaders and citizens of the Southern Song Dynasty of China become the first recorded inhabitants of Macau, as they seek refuge from the invading Mongol Empire. They also stayed for a short period in Kowloon. Some hundred years later the place where they stayed became Sung Wong Toi.
- Mamluk sultan Baibars invades Anatolia and captures the emirates which once composed the Sultanate of Rüm.
- Llywelyn ap Gruffyd is subdued by King Edward I of England in the First Welsh War.
- St George's cross is first used as the flag of England.
- The philosophical doctrine Averroism is banned from Paris at a condemnation at the University of Paris.
- In Japan, a 20 kilometer stone wall defending the coast of Hakata Bay in Fukuoka is completed; it is built in response to the attempted invasion by the Mongol Empire in 1274.
- November 25 – Pope Nicholas III succeeds Pope John XXI as the 188th pope.
- Third Mongol Golden Horde raid against Lithuania.

## Births

- Sempad of Armenia (died c. 1310)
- Isabella of Mar, first wife of Robert Bruce (approximate date; died 1296)

## Deaths

- May 1 – Stefan Uros I of Serbia
- May 20 – Pope John XXI (born 1215)
- July 1 – Baibars, Mameluk sultan of Egypt (born 1223)
- October 27 – Walter de Merton, Lord Chancellor of England and founder of Merton College, Oxford
- Folke Johansson Ängel, Archbishop of Uppsala
1269

### Europe

- June 19 – King Louis IX of France orders all Jews found in public without an identifying yellow badge to be fined ten livres of silver.
- Pélerin de Maricourt first describes magnetic poles and remarks on the nonexistence of isolated magnetic poles.
- King Otakar II of Bohemia inherits Carinthia and part of Carniola, making him the most powerful prince within the Holy Roman Empire; the empire lacking an emperor during the ongoing _great interregnum_, Otakar II was one of the most powerful men in Europe.
- The construction of Blair Castle in Scotland is begun by John Comyn.

### Africa

- The Almohad dynasty of caliphs (not universally accepted) that once ruled most of North Africa and Al-Andalus (Moorish Spain) is extinguished when Idris II is murdered in the dynasty's last remaining possession, Marrakesh.
- The Berber Marinid completes the conquest of Morocco, replacing the Almohad dynasty which it defeated in Marrakesh.

### Asia

- The Eastern Orthodox Patriarchy of Antioch returns to Antioch after a 171-year exile, during which it had been replaced by the Latin Patriarch of Antioch.

## Births

- Philip of Artois
- Huang Gongwang, Chinese painter (died 1354)
- Vedantadesika, Hindu poet and philosopher

## Deaths

- John de Balliol, father of John Balliol, King of Scotland
- Svarn, King of Galicia
1266

### Europe

- February 26 – In the Battle of Benevento, an army led by Charles, Count of Anjou, defeats a combined German and Sicilian force led by King Manfred of Sicily. Manfred is killed in the battle and Pope Clement IV invests Charles as king of Sicily and Naples.
- July – Mary de Ferrers ordered to surrender land and Liverpool Castle to Edmund, second son of Henry III.
- October – In England, the Second Barons' War winds down as supporters of the slain rebel leader Simon de Montfort make an offer of peace to the king in the Dictum of Kenilworth; after slight modifications to the peace settlement, it is agreed to the following year.
- The war between Scotland and Norway ends as King Alexander III of Scotland and King Magnus VI of Norway agree to the Treaty of Perth, which cedes the Western Isles and Isle of Man to Scotland in exchange for a large monetary payment.
- In France, the gold écu and silver grosh coins are minted for the first time.

### Asia

- Niccolo and Maffeo Polo, brother and uncle of Marco Polo reach Kublai Khan's capital Khanbaliq (now Beijing) in China, setting the stage for Marco's famous expedition starting five years later. Kublai Khan sends the Polos back with a message requesting the pope dispatch western scholars to teach in the Mongol Empire; however, this request is largely ignored.
- The Mamluk sultan Baibars expands his domain, capturing the city of Byblos (in present-day Lebanon) and the important castle of Toron from crusader states, and defeating the Armenians at Cilicia.

## Births

- Hethum II of Armenia (died 1307)
- Beatrice Portinari, Dante Alighieri's beloved and guide through Heaven in The Divine Comedy (died 1290)

## Deaths

- February 26 – King Manfred of Sicily
- October 21 – Birger jarl, Swedish regent and founder of Stockholm (born about 1210)
- Berke, khan of the Golden Horde
- Hugh Bigod, Justiciar of England
- Ariq Boke, regent of the Mongol Empire
- Eudes of Burgundy, Count of Nevers (born 1230)
- John of Ibelin, jurist of the Kingdom of Jerusalem (born 1215)
- Duke Świętopełk II of Pomerania
- Marie de Saint-Clair, grand master of the Priory of Sion
- May 7 — Farid-ud-din Ganj Shakar
Coelurosauria

**Coelurosauria** is the clade containing all theropod dinosaurs more closely related to birds than to carnosaurs.

This is a varied group that includes tyrannosaurs, ornithomimosaurs, compsognathids and maniraptors; Maniraptora includes birds, the only descendents of coelurosaurs alive today.

All Paraves discovered so far have been coelurosaurs. It is probable that all coelurosaurs were feathered.

Some diagnostic characteristics of coelurosaurs include elongated arms and well-developed hinge-like ankles (possible rotation of the ankle is reduced, which is helpful during locomotion). These features may be lost or modified by later coelurosaurs (birds, for example).

An increase in the proportion of the brain occupied by the cerebrum seems to have occurred in the Coelurosauria and "continued throughout the evolution of maniraptorans and early birds".

## Fossil history

A few fossil traces of the Coelurosauria date back as far as the Upper Triassic. A possible, but not confirmed, example would be the archosaur _Protoavis_. What has been found between then and the start of the late Jurassic is fragmentary.

Many nearly complete fossil coelurosaurians are known from the late Jurassic. _Archaeopteryx_ is known from Solnhofen limestone at 155-150 million years ago (mya). _Ornitholestes_, the troodontid WDC DML 110, _Coelurus fragilis_ and _Tanycolagreus topwilsoni_ are all known from the Morrison Formation in Wyoming at about 150 mya. _Epidendrosaurus_ and _Pedopenna_ are known from the Daohugou Beds in China, whose age is still being debated, but may be about 160 Ma or 145 mya.

The wide range of fossils in the late Jurassic and morphological evidence suggests that coelurosaurian differentiation was virtually complete before the end of the Jurassic.

In the early Cretaceous, a superb range of coelurosaurian fossils (including avians) are known from the Yixian Formation in Liaoning. All known theropod dinosaurs from the Yixian Formation are coelurosaurs. Many of the coelurosaurian lineages survived to the end of the Cretaceous period (about 65 Ma) and fossils of some lineages, such as the Tyrannosauroidea, are best known from the late Cretaceous. Most coelurosaur groups became extinct in the K/T extinction event. Only the Neornithes (modern birds) survived, and continued to diversify into the numerous forms found today.

There is scientific consensus among paleontologists that birds are the descendants of coelurosaurs. Birds are classified by most paleontologists as belonging to the subgroup Maniraptora.

## Related pages

- Origin of birds
Maniraptora

**Maniraptors** ("hand snatchers") is a clade of coelurosaurian dinosaurs starting in the Jurassic period.

Many paleontologists believe birds evolved from them some 150 or so million years ago. Hence, according to phylogenetic taxonomy, birds are by definition maniraptors, and the other maniraptors are their closest relatives. It is now known, from the Jehol biota, that many or all of this clade had feathers. They are often called dinobirds.

The most primitive (basal) member of the group may be _Ornitholestes_, and the most advanced (derived) of the non-bird maniraptors is _Velociraptor_ and _Deinonychus_.
IEEE 802.1X

**IEEE 802.1** is the name for a number of high-level protocols  for computer networks. In this context, **IEEE 802.1X** helps secure such a network. It defines methods to authenticate devices and to authorise the access to certain resources. A dedicated server checks information received from a "supplicant". Depending on the result of the check, access to the given resource is granted or denied.

## Other websites

- IEEE page on 802.1X
- IEEE standard can be retrieved at no charge through the GetIEEE802 program: http://standards.ieee.org/getieee802/download/802.1X-2001.pdf
- Using 802.1x port authentication to control who can connect to your network
- Configure RADIUS for secure 802.1x wireless LAN
- How to self-sign a RADIUS server for secure 802.1x PEAP or EAP-TTLS authentication
- Configuring  FreeRADIUS for 802.1x
- WIRE1x
- Deployment of IEEE 802.1X for Wired Networks Using Microsoft Windows
- Steve Riley's article on the 802.1x vulnerabilities
Software Development Kit

A **software development kit** (**SDK** or "**devkit**") is usually a set of development tools that allows a software developer to create applications for a certain software package, software framework, hardware platform, computer system, video game console, operating system, or similar platform.

SDKs vary greatly between a simple application programming interface to hardware used to simulate a system.
Tagged Image File Format

**Tagged Image File Format** (also known as **TIFF**) is a container format for storing images, including photographs and line art. It is now under the control of Adobe. Originally created by the company Aldus for use with what was then called "desktop publishing," TIFF is a popular format for color and black and white images. The TIFF format is widely supported by image-manipulation applications, by publishing and page layout applications, by scanning, faxing, word processing, optical character recognition and other applications.  Adobe Systems, which acquired Aldus, now holds the copyright to the TIFF specification. TIFF has not had a major update since 1992, though several Aldus/Adobe technical notes have been published with minor extensions to the format, and several specifications, including TIFF/EP, have been based on the TIFF 6.0 specification.

## References

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</div>

## Other websites

- Adobe TIFF Resources page : Adobe links to the specification and main TIFF resources
- LibTIFF Home Page : Widely used library used for reading and writing TIFF files as well as TIFF file processing command line tools
- TIFF File Format FAQ and TIFF Tag Reference : Everything you always wanted to know about the TIFF File Format but were afraid to ask
- The BigTIFF File Format Proposal : Breaking the 4 gigabyte boundary
- TIFF description at Digital Preservation (The Library of Congress)
- TIFF Revision 4.0: Specification for revision 4.0, in HTML (warning: for historical purposes only, the TIFF 6.0 spec contains the full 4.0 revision)
- TIFF Revision 5.0: Specification for revision 5.0, in HTML (warning: for historical purposes only, the TIFF 6.0 spec contains the full 5.0 revision)
- TIFF Revision 6.0: Specification for revision 6.0, in PDF (warning: there is an outdated and flawed section (jpeg compression), corrected in supplements, and there are additions to this PDF too – for the full specification, see link to Adobe TIFF Resources)
- TIFF Central  More TIFF links and information.

## Infobox (file format)

- **name**: Tagged Image File Format
- **extension**: ,
- **mime**: image/tiff, image/tiff-fx
- **type code**: TIFF
- **uniform type**: public.tiff
- **owner**: Aldus, now Adobe Systems
- **genre**: Image file formats
- **extended to**: Exchangeable image file format, Exif, Design rule for Camera File system, DCF, Tag Image File Format / Electronic Photography, TIFF/EP
Ounce

The **ounce** (abbreviated: **oz**, the old Italian word _onza_, now spelled _oncia_) is a unit of mass or of weight in a number of different systems, including various systems of mass that form part of the imperial and United States customary systems. Its size can vary from system to system. The most commonly used ounces used today are the international avoirdupois ounce of about 28.35 grams, and the international troy ounce of about 31.1 grams.

## Related pages

- Fluid ounce

## Other websites

- Dictionary of Units: Ounce
Camino (web browser)

**Camino** was a free, open source web browser, that was designed for the Mac OS X operating system.  It was developed by the Camin0 Project, a community organization. It was based on Mozilla's Gecko rendering engine.

## Version history

|0.1|
| --- |
|February 13, 2002|
|April 6, 2002|
|July 24, 2002|
|September 9, 2002|
|November 5, 2002|
|March 6, 2003|
|June 25, 2004|
|February 14, 2006|
|June 5, 2007|
Pixels per inch

**Pixels per inch** (**PPI**) or **pixel density** is a measurement of the resolution of a computer display, related to the size of the display in inches and the total number of pixels in the horizontal and vertical directions. This measurement is often referred to as dots per inch, though that measurement more accurately refers to the resolution of a computer printer. PPI may also be used to describe the resolution of an image scanner or digital camera; in this context, it is synonymous with samples per inch.

## Other websites

- All About Photo Printing - The Differences between DPI and PPI
ARM

An arm is an upper limb of the body.

**Arm** (or **arms**) can also mean:

- Coat of arms
- Armenia, via its country code
    - Armenian language, via its language code
- ARM architecture for computers
Safari (web browser)

**Safari** is a web browser developed by Apple Inc. which can be downloaded free of charge.  It also comes with a Mac computer.  It is based on the WebKit engine, which is a fork of KDE's KHTML engine.

## History

Apple Inc. replaced the previous default web browser, Internet Explorer, with their Safari many years ago. Steve Jobs, the founder of Apple, said that it would be released in Jan 2003. Since then, 15 types of Safari have been made. The newest one was made in Sep 2023 for iOS, iPadOS, and macOS.

## Features

Safari has several features. Some are specific to certain operating systems or platforms.
Here is a list of some of Safari's features:
- Email webpage (macOS only)
- Save webpage
- Topsites (pages most visited)
- Support for HTML5
- Development features
- Extension support
- Profiles
- Opening webpage with another browser
- Changing user agent
- Web Inspector
- Error console
- Disable CSS

## Infobox (web browser)

- **name**: Safari
- **logo**: Safari browser logo.svg
- **screenshot**: Safari Acid3 test result.png
- **developer**: Apple Inc., Apple
- **ver layout**: stacked
- **latest release version**: iOS: Safari 17.0

MacOS: Safari 17.0

Windows: Safari 5.1.7
- **latest preview version**: MacOS: Safari 17.1

iOS: Safari 17.1
- **status**: Active
- **programming language**: C++, Objective-C and Swift
- **operating system**: macOS
iOS
Windows (discontinued, last version: 5.1.7 on May 9, 2012)
- **engines**: WebKit, JavaScriptCore, Nitro
- **genre**: Web browser
- **license**: Freeware; some components GNU Lesser General Public License, GNU LGPL
Netscape Navigator

**Netscape Navigator** (or just **Netscape**) was a closed source web browser between 1994 to 1998. In 1999, they made it open source. It was first released in 1994. It was very popular during the 1990s until Internet Explorer gained more market share due to Microsoft bundling Internet Explorer with Windows 98. Netscape Communications Navigator Version 0.9B (Mosaic Netscape Navigator 0.9b) was released June 13, 1994 (at dejavu.org/1994win.htm ). It was no longer supported on 1 March 2008.

## Versions

The last version of Netscape Navigator was version 9.0.

## Other websites

- browser.netscape.com
- Netscape Navigator -Citizendium

## Infobox (software)

- **name**: Netscape Navigator
- **logo**: Netscape icon.svg
- **developer**: Netscape
- **discontinued**: yes
- **website**: hide
- **genre**: Web browser
29 Amphitrite

**29 Amphitrite** is one of the biggest S-type asteroids, probably third in diameter after Eunomia and Juno, although Iris and Herculina are similar in size.

It is probably not a fully solid body, since its density is too low for a solid silicate object and much lower than Eunomia or Juno. Its orbit is less eccentric and inclined than those of its bigger cousins - being indeed the most circular of any asteroid found up to that point - and as a consequence it never becomes as bright as Iris or Hebe, especially as it is much farther from the Sun than those asteroids. It can reach magnitudes of around +8.6 at a favorable opposition, but more usually is around the binocular limit of +9.5.

Amphitrite was found by Albert Marth on March 1, 1854. It was the only asteroid he found. It is named after Amphitrite, a sea goddess in Greek mythology.

A moon is suspected based on the lightcurve data.

## Other websites

- Orbital simulation from JPL (Java) / Ephemeris

## Infobox (planet)

- **bgcolour**: #FFFFC0
- **name**: 29 Amphitrite
- **discoverer**: Albert Marth, A. Marth
- **discovered**: March 1, 1854
- **alt names**: A899 NG
- **mp category**: Main belt
- **epoch**: June 14, 2006 (Julian day, JD 2453900.5)
- **semimajor**: 382.103 Giga, Gmetre, m (2.554 Astronomical unit, AU)
- **perihelion**: 354.398 Gm (2.369 AU)
- **aphelion**: 409.809 Gm (2.739 AU)
- **eccentricity**: 0.073
- **period**: 1491.013 day, d (4.08 Julian year (astronomy), a)
- **inclination**: 6.096degree (angle), °
- **asc node**: 356.501°
- **arg peri**: 63.433°
- **mean anomaly**: 229.662°
- **avg speed**: 18.61 km/second, s
- **dimensions**: 212.2 km
- **mass**: 1.0 kilogram, kg
- **density**: 2.0 g/cubic centimetre, cm³
- **surface grav**: 0.0593 m/s²
- **escape velocity**: 0.1122 km/s
- **rotation**: 0.2246 d (5.390 h)
- **spectral type**: S-type asteroid, S
- **magnitude**: 8.58  to 11.38
- **abs magnitude**: 5.85
- **albedo**: 0.1793 (geometric albedo, geometric) 
- **angular size**: 0.21"  to 0.078"
- **single temperature**: ~170 kelvin, K
31 Euphrosyne

**31 Euphrosyne** is one of the biggest main belt asteroids, found by James Ferguson on September 1, 1854. It was the first asteroid found from North America. It is named after Euphrosyne, one of the Charites in Greek mythology.

It is the eighth biggest main belt asteroid and contains around 1% of the mass of the entire asteroid belt, but is a very dark body near the belt's farther edge. Because of that, Euphrosyne is never visible with binoculars, having a maximum magnitude at the best possible opposition of around +10.2, which is actually fainter than any of the thirty asteroids previously found.

It has not been studied a lot despite being one of the biggest asteroids. It is a normal C-type asteroid with a primitive surface. Its orbit, however, is quite unusual. It's orbit is similar to that of 2 Pallas in its high inclination and eccentricity. Whereas Pallas and Eris - the only bigger bodies with comparably tilted orbits - have nodes near perihelion and aphelion, Euphrosyne's perihelion lies at the northernmost point of its orbit. During a rare perihelic opposition Euphrosyne is very high in the sky from northern latitudes, but invisible from such countries as New Zealand and Chile.

Its apparently low density suggests that, unlike 10 Hygiea, 704 Interamnia and 52 Europa, Euphrosyne is a loosely-packed rubble pile (an asteroid that has been broken apart by a collision with all the pieces pulled together by gravity). Its rotation period is very common for big asteroids, but nothing is known of its axial tilt.

## References

- Orbital simulation

## Infobox (planet)

- **bgcolour**: #FFFFC0
- **name**: 31 Euphrosyne
- **discoverer**: James Ferguson (astronomer), J. Ferguson
- **discovered**: September 1, 1854
- **alt names**: A907 GP; A918 GB
- **mp category**: Main belt
- **epoch**: December 31, 2006 (Julian day, JD 2454100.5)
- **semimajor**: 471.163 Giga, Gmetre, m (3.150 Astronomical unit, AU)
- **perihelion**: 364.755 Gm (2.438 AU)
- **aphelion**: 577.571 Gm (3.861 AU)
- **eccentricity**: 0.226
- **period**: 2041.585 day, d (5.59 Julian year (astronomy), a)
- **inclination**: 26.316degree (angle), °
- **asc node**: 31.238°
- **arg peri**: 61.996°
- **mean anomaly**: 14.500°
- **avg speed**: 16.57 km/second, s
- **dimensions**: 255.9 km
- **mass**: ~1.69 kilogram, kg
- **density**: ~1.9 g/cubic centimetre, cm³
- **surface grav**: ~0.0679 m/s²
- **escape velocity**: ~0.1319 km/s
- **rotation**: 0.2305 d (5.531 h)
- **spectral type**: C-type asteroid, C
- **abs magnitude**: 6.74
- **albedo**: 0.0543
- **single temperature**: ~159 kelvin, K
Misia (Japanese singer)

**MISIA** (born July 7, 1978 in Fukuoka, Fukuoka Kyūshū, Japan) is a Japanese singer who is most popular in Japan. One of her most famous songs is called "Everything". She served as an honorary ambassador on the 10th Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (COP10) and the TICAD V (5th Conference on African Development).

In 2001, Misia signed with Avex and formed her label, Rhythmedia Tribe. Her album "Kiss in the Sky" topped the charts. She later returned to BMG Japan, then joined Sony Music Entertainment Japan's subsidiary. Misia has released thirteen studio albums and sold over 20 million records. She's known for her philanthropy, supporting humanitarian and biodiversity causes.

Misia was born Misaki Ito to doctor parents who loved music. She grew up in Nagasaki and moved to Fukuoka for better music opportunities. She began her music journey at a young age, eventually leaving university to pursue her singing career.

Misia's career took off with hits like "Everything" and collaborations with Dreams Come True. She toured major stadiums in Japan, gaining widespread popularity. She returned to BMG Japan, releasing successful singles and albums. Misia continues to make music and contribute to charitable causes, including supporting earthquake and tsunami victims and promoting biodiversity awareness.

## Other websites

- Rhythmedia Misia Web Official site (in Japanese)
- Rhythmedia  Official site (in Japanese)
- Rhythmedia Tribe  Label Site (in Japanese)
- Wiki.theppn page on Misia

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Misia
- **img**: MISIA - Washington DC.jpg
- **background**: solo_singer
- **origin**: Fukuoka, Fukuoka Kyūshū, Japan
- **genre**: J-pop, Japanese Pop, Rhythm and blues, R&B
- **occupation**: Singer
- **years active**: 1998 — Present
- **label**: BMG Japan
<small>1998 — 2002</small>
Rhythmedia Tribe
<small>2002 — 2007</small>
BMG Japan
<small>2007 — Present</small>
- **url**: [http://www.rhythmedia.co.jp/misia/ Rhythmedia Misia Web]
Pikaia

***Pikaia*** is an extinct genus of prehistoric lancelet. It is regarded as the earliest known primitive chordate from the Middle Cambrian fossil found near Mount Pika in the Burgess Shale of British Columbia. It was discovered by Charles Walcott in 1911. Walcott classified it as a polychaete worm.
It was about 40 mm in length and swam above the sea-floor. _Pikaia_ may have filtered particles from the water as it swam along. Only 60 specimens have been found to date.
Wiwaxia

***Wiwaxia corrugata*** is an extinct species of animal known only from fossils found in Canada's Burgess Shale deposits.

Wiwaxia somewhat resembles a very small porcupine (about 30 mm in diameter) with its quills pulled out. The body is covered by both spines and scales. The spines are believed to have been used for defence purposes. Wiwaxia probably grazed or scavenged by walking or crawling along the sediment. One hundred and forty specimens are known from the Burgess Shale. Similar scales and spines have turned up in similarly aged sediments from elsewhere around the world suggesting that Wiwaxia was widespread during the Cambrian.
Cambrian

The **Cambrian** is the first geological period of the Palaeozoic era and the Phanerozoic eon. It lasted from 541 million years ago to 485.4 million years ago. Before it came the Ediacaran, and after it the Ordovician.

Biologists have learnt quite a lot about the soft parts of Cambrian animals. This is because places have been found where soft parts of organisms are preserved as well as their more resistant shells. This means our understanding of the Cambrian biota is better than that of some later periods.

Life on Earth changed greatly during the Cambrian period. Before the Cambrian, life was mostly small and simple. Complex organisms (metazoa) evolved during the Proterozoic era. But during the Cambrian period, some organisms used carbonate minerals for shells, so they had hard parts which could become fossils. There were many different kinds of life during the Cambrian period. This increase in the diversity of lifeforms was relatively rapid, and is called the Cambrian explosion. This adaptive radiation produced the first members of the main groups of animals, called phyla.

Almost all of this new life was in the oceans. There was little life on land except a layer of microbes. There were shallow seas near several continents, because a supercontinent called Pannotia had broken into smaller pieces. The seas were warm, and there was no ice at the North and South Pole. Many animals with hard shells appeared for the first time during the beginning of the Cambrian.

## Change in the sea floor

At the start of the Cambrian, the earlier animals (the Ediacaran biota) may have become extinct. It seems these older life forms were affected by new types which burrowed into the sea floor. This changed the conditions of life for the older types. The burrowing must have disturbed the mat of bacteria and algae which covered the sea-floor. About this time we find the first examples of many phyla. There are also some fossil traces on what was land at the time, so perhaps a few Cambrian organisms did leave the water.

## Fossils

Fossils from the Cambrian period sometimes show what the soft parts were like, unlike most fossils where the soft parts disappear. Fossils from the Burgess Shale in Ontario, Canada are examples of fossils with soft parts. Here are some life forms that first appeared in the Cambrian period, with the oldest ones first:
- First Cnidaria, and probable annelids, about 580 million years ago, in the Ediacaran period.
- Small shelly fossils (SSF), including first molluscs and brachiopods, about 537 million years ago.
- First trilobites, about 526 million years ago.
- First echinoderms, about 522 million years ago.
- First crustaceans, about 510 million years ago.

It is not always clear which phylum a fossil should be put into. So there are some fossils which are still being discussed, years after they were discovered.