juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Humanism

**Humanism** is a philosophy or a way of thinking about the world. Humanism is a set of ethics or ideas about how people should live and act. People who hold this set of ethics are called humanists. Humanists prefer critical thinking and evidence (rationalism and empiricism) over acceptance of dogma or superstition.

In modern times, humanism is close to secularism. It refers to a non-theistic approach to life, looking to science instead of religious dogma in order to understand the world. The term was made widely known by scientists in the mid-20th century. Many wanted to recognise human values, but without depending on religion as the main source of values.

Views held by many humanists include:
- Humans deserve respect. Every human should be treated with respect and allowed to have dignity. If all people act with respect for others, then people will live in peace and trust.
- People should all be able to decide how they want to live their lives. They should use reasoning to make decisions and solve problems.
- Humanists decide what choices are good by whether those choices will help make human life better and the world around them.

## History

Humanist ideas were discussed in Ancient Greece, from Thales to Anaxagoras and Protagoras. The teachings of Zarathushtra and Lao Tzu had strong elements of humanism, and there are many other examples.

The writings of the ancient Greeks were studied in the 1400s during the Renaissance. However, in this period the term "humanism" came to mean educated in the humanities, a rather different kind of idea. Petrarch is often cited as the first modern humanist, but he pointed backwards to classical authors. The modern meaning of humanism is more to do with using science to make the world a better place.
A comment by the English mathematician and philosopher Alfred North Whitehead in 1925 was
- "The prophecy of Francis Bacon has now been fulfilled; and man, who at times dreamt of himself as a little lower than the angels, has submitted to become the servant and the minister of nature. It still remains to be seen whether the same actor can play both parts".

## Related pages

- Secular humanism
The Guardian

**The Guardian** is a British newspaper. It is published every day, except on Sunday.  _The Guardian_ is edited by Katharine Viner.

## History

The newspaper was founded in 1821. It was founded by textile traders and merchants. The Guardian was seen as "an organ of the middle class", or, in the words of C.P. Scott's son Ted, "a paper that will remain bourgeois to the last". In 2005, Sir Max Hastings stated that he writes for _The Guardian_ "because it is read by the new establishment", reflecting the paper's growing influence.

Until 1959 _The Guardian_ was called _The Manchester Guardian_.

Three of the four people who wrote leaders for the _Guardian_ joined the Social Democratic Party on its foundation in 1982.  The paper supported Tony Blair when he wanted to lead the Labour Party and to become Prime Minister.

In 1999 theguardian.com started. At the time it was a website called Guardian Unlimited.

## Characteristics

_The Guardian_ describes itself as centre-left.

## Other websites

- History of the Guardian
- Founding of the _Manchester Guardian_

- Guardian Newspaper (e-paper)
Alga (Korday district)

**Alga** (; ) is a hamlet in the Korday District of Kazakhstan.  It is one of several communities in Kazakhstan with this name.  The A-2 highway from Bishkek to Almaty runs through the town.  A significant architectural feature is its mosque.
Al Ain

**Al Ain** (Arabic: **العين**) is a city in the United Arab Emirates. The city name just means "the spring" or "the eye" in Arabic. This name come from the water sources in the area. The city is in the emirate of Abu Dhabi, right next to the border with Oman. It is often called the 'Garden City of the Persian Gulf' because of the many parks, tree-lined avenues and decorative roundabouts within the city. Al Ain, Abu Dhabi and Dubai form a kind of geographic triangle in the center of the country. Each city is around 150 kilometers from the other two.

## Economy

Al Ain is the fourth largest metropolitan area by population in the Emirates, with a population of 348,000 (2003 census estimate). There are more Emirati nationals in Al Ain than other places in the country, but most who live there are people who left other countries, particularly from the Indian sub-continent. There are fewer Western people than in the larger centers of Abu Dhabi and Dubai. This gives Al Ain a more 'Arabic' look and feel, compared to the larger cities of the Emirates.

## History

People have lived in Al Ain for more than 4000 years, and the area is central to the cultural heritage of the country. There are many underground water springs in the area. This explains why people wanted to live there. Traces of its past remain, including camel racing and breeding. The ancient _falaj_ system of irrigation is still in use in some areas. The system brings underground water to people by a network of tunnels that come out into open channels. The flow of water in the channels can be controlled.

## Tourism

Al Ain is becoming a place that tourists visit, with attractions such as Jebel Hafeet, a 1249 metre high mountain that dominates the surrounding area. Many tourists like to visit the mineral springs at the base and drive to the top of this mountain for sunset. Al Ain regularly records the highest summer temperatures in the country, but the dry desert air makes it a welcome escape from the coastal humidity of the larger cities. Other attractions include the Al Ain Oasis in the city centre, and other oases around the area, cool places to escape the summer heat, a zoo, amusement park named "Fun City", many well kept parks, popular with families in the summer evenings, a heritage village, as well as malls and other modern sites. Important buildings include United Arab Emirates University, Higher Colleges of Technology, well-equipped medical facilities, including the teaching hospital at Tawam, military training areas and Al Ain International Airport.

## Sports

The city is home to the successful association football (soccer) club, Al Ain FC.
Jutland

**Jutland** (Danish: _Jylland_; German: _Jütland_) is a peninsula in northern Europe. It forms the mainland part of Denmark and a northern part of Germany. It separates the North Sea from the Baltic Sea. Its terrain is relatively flat, with low hills and peat bogs. It has an area of 29,775 km² (11,496 square miles), and a population of 2,491,852 (2004).

The northern two thirds of the peninsula are occupied by the westernmost portion of the Kingdom of Denmark. There is no separate name for the Danish portion of the peninsula, so it is simply called the same name.

The northernmost part of Jutland became an island following a flood in 1825; the Limfjord now separates it from the mainland. This island is called _Vendsyssel-Thy or Nørrejyske Ø_ ("North Jutlandic Island") and is still commonly reckoned as part of the peninsula; it is also partly coterminous with the county and future region called North Jutland.

The southern third is made up of the German Bundesland of Schleswig-Holstein, with the duchies of Schleswig (also Sønderjylland/Southern Jutland) and Holstein. Both duchies have passed back and forth between the Danes and various German rulers. In the last border movement, Denmark regained North Schleswig (_Nordslesvig_ in Danish) by plebiscite in 1920. Southern Schleswig remained German.

The River Elbe forms the southern border of Jutland with the city of Hamburg on its shore. The Danish Wadden Sea Islands and the North Frisian Islands stretch along the southwest coast of Jutland in the German Bight.

There are two bridges which link the central part ofJutland to the island of Funen to the east. They are the Little Belt Bridge and the New Little Belt Bridge. The roads which use these bridges are part of the European road network.

## Cities

The largest cities on the Jutland Peninsula are:
1. Århus, Denmark
1. Kiel, Germany
1. Lübeck, Germany
1. Aalborg, Denmark
1. Flensburg, Germany
1. Esbjerg, Denmark
1. Randers, Denmark
1. Kolding, Denmark
1. Vejle, Denmark
1. Horsens, Denmark
Dubai

The city of **Dubai** is the largest and most populated city in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and the capital city of the emirate of Dubai, UAE. The city is sometimes called "Dubai City" to prevent it from being mixed up with the emirate.

Dubai is a city and emirate in the United Arab Emirates known for luxury shopping, ultramodern architecture and a lively nightlife scene. Burj Khalifa, an 828m-tall tower, dominates the skyscraper-filled skyline. At its foot lies Dubai Fountain, with jets and lights choreographed to music. On artificial islands just offshore is Atlantis, The Palm, a resort with water and marine-animal parks.

## History

There are records of the town of Dubai from 1799. The city was a dependent of Abu Dhabi until 1833. The town of Dubai was an important port of call for foreign tradesmen (chiefly Indians), who settled in the town. Until the 1930s, the town was known for its pearls.

## Famous places

- Burj Khalifa
- Burj al-Arab
- Dubai International Airport, in the middle of the city.
- Dubai Mall, one of the largest malls in the world
- Global Village
- Dubai park
- TakaHisa Japanese Restaurant
- IMG world of adventure
- 23 Marina
- Wild Wadi water park
- Dubai Desert Safari Experiences
- Dubai Attractions

## Climate

Dubai has a hot desert climate. Summers are extremely hot, windy, and humid. The highest recorded temperature in the UAE is 52.1 °C (126 °F), recorded in July 2002.

According to the UN, about 14 percent of the world population will face water scarcity by the year 2025. This shortage of water is expected to be worse in arid countries like the UAE. The UAE cloud seeding initiative is part of the government’s attempt to deal with the existing and future water needs of the country’s growing population.

## Specific rules

Dubai has strict rules like:

- The drinking age is 21. Drinking in public or being drunk in public are not tolerated.
- Offensive language, spitting, aggressive behavior and smoking outside designated areas are not tolerated.
- Public displays of affection such as holding hands or kissing are not tolerated.
- Men should avoid staring at local women or attempting to make eye contact.
- During Ramadan while Muslims are fasting from sunrise to sunset, non-Muslims can only eat and drink in screened-off areas.

## Other websites

- www.dubai.ae  – Dubai Government portal
- www.dm.gov.ae – Dubai Municipality website
- dubijobs.com  – Dubai Job portal
Enclave

In general use, an **enclave** can be any special area of a bigger area of land, such as a part of a city that has different taxes than the rest of the city.

In political geography, an **enclave** is a piece of land which has a different country totally around it. If another country has sovereignty over it, it is also called an _exclave_ of that other country.  It is usually landlocked, meaning it is completely encased by the surrounding country

Exclaves can also exist within a country. This is when some administrative regions have _holes_ (of other such regions) in them.

The word _enclave_ is a relatively new word in the language of diplomacy: Diplomats are used to speaking French. The word comes from late Latin _inclavatus_, which can be translated as _shut in, locked up_ (with a key, from Latin _clavis_, key). The word got in the English language in the year 1868. _exclave_ (with a similar meaning) followed 3 decades later.

Enclaves may be created for a variety of historical, political or geographical reasons. Some areas have been left as enclaves simply because a river changed its course.

Since living in an enclave can be very inconvenient and many agreements have to be found by both countries over mail addresses, power supply or passage rights, enclaves tend to be eliminated and many cases that existed before have now been removed. Sometimes it is the case, that enclaves are traded for one another.

In English Church history, subnational enclaves were known as **peculiars** (see also Royal Peculiar).

## Enclaved countries

Some enclaves are countries that are not part of any other country, and therefore not exclaves. Three such countries exist:
- The republic of San Marino, enclaved within Italy
- Vatican City, within the city of Rome, in Italy
- The Kingdom of Lesotho, inside South Africa
Panhandle

A **panhandle** is a word used in geography to mean a narrow strip of land that is surrounded on all sides, except one, by one or more countries or regions. The strip of land is connected to the country or region it belongs to on one side only. This looks like the handle of a frying pan.

Panhandles include:
- Florida Panhandle
- Oklahoma Panhandle
- Alaska Panhandle is the state's southeast
New town

A **new town**, **planned community**, or **planned city** is a kind of city that is designed by architects and engineers before it is built. Most cities and towns just develop over the years, without a clear plan, and urban planning is used only for later expansion.

Planned communities are designed with separate districts of the city for parks, stores, homes, and offices. Many planned communities have a transportation system for commuters.

There are many examples of capital cities being planned throughout history like Baghdad, Iraq; Washington D.C., United States; New Delhi, India; Canberra, Australia; Brasília, Brazil; and Naypyidaw, Myanmar.

## Related pages

- City
- Urban planning

## Other websites

- The International New Town Institute, a research organization
Park

A **park** is an open place in a city or town for nature.  There are often trees, benches, statues, and ponds in a park.  Some parks built in big cities are very large.  These can have fountains or picnic areas.

A park is an open area,often found with trees,benches,statues,etc.
There is also lots of nature around, such as flowers, animals, trees, and much more.
It is mostly used for recreational activities such as walking, exercising, cycling, playing,etc.
A play park can even have swings,slides and some adventurous activities.

Sometimes, countries or regions set up _national parks_. These are usually large areas of land. Those areas are made to protect the habitats of animals. Very often, a special permit is necessary to enter. Building things in the park is usually forbidden, or needs a special permit.

An example of a national park is Yellowstone National Park.

A park can also be an amusement park or water park in which the rides and shows are the main attractions.

## Related pages

- Botanical garden
- Garden
Pond

A **pond** is a body of water smaller than a lake.  Ponds support a wide range of wildlife: ducks, turtles, swans, small fish, and frogs can live in a pond. Usually, in most ponds sunlight can reach to bottom. In some cases, ponds do not last all year round. This type of pond is called a vernal pond, or ephemeral, seasonal, or temporary wetlands. These types of ponds do not have any fish. Some ponds are now getting polluted because of humans.
Unlike rivers, lakes stay in one place. They do not flow from one place to another.
Swan

A **swan** (_Cygnini_) is a kind of water bird, from the genera _Cygnus_ and _Coscoroba_. They are in the subfamily Anserinae, in the family Anatidae, which also includes geese and ducks.

Many swans live in colder places, such as northern Europe, Asia and North America. They live on water. They swim on top of the water and eat plants off the bottom of ponds, lakes, or oceans. They also eat insects and other small animals. A baby swan is called a cygnet.

Swans are tough, strong birds who will stand no nonsense from dogs or cats. They may open their wings as a warning, but from then on a person is advised to keep clear. Swans are highly protective of their nests. They will attack anything they see as a threat to their chicks, including humans.

## Description

The swans are some of the largest flying birds. They are large in size and have large feet and long necks. The males are usually bigger and heavier than females. The mute swan, trumpeter swan, and whooper swan are the largest swans. They can be over 1.5m (60 inches) long. They can weigh over 15kg (33 pounds). Their wingspans (this means the length of both wings) can be almost 3m (10 ft).

Most swans are white. They are found in the Northern Hemisphere. This means they are found in Europe, Asia and North America. However, the black swan is black with a red beak. It lives in Australia.  The black necked swan has white flight feathers, and black outer feathers. It lives in South America. They also have a small area of skin between the eyes and beak that has no feathers. This area can be different colors, such as yellow (for example, on a Bewick's swan) or orange (for example, on a mute swan).

Wild swans migrate.  They spend the cold part of the year eating and getting fat in one place and move to a warmer place to lay eggs and raise chicks, called cygnets.

The coscoroba swan is different to the other swans. Some scientists think it is more like a duck or a goose. It is the smaller than the other swans. This swan lives in South America.

## Climate change

Bewick's swans used to spend a lot of time in Ireland and Britain and the Netherlands, but scientists say they have been moving east into Germany.  They spend less time in their winter feeding grounds than they did in 1970.  Scientists say they are following the changes in temperature in Europe.  The scientists found that individual swans do not change where they like to go during their own lifetimes.  Instead, different generations of swans go to different places from their parents and grandparents.

## Taxonomy

- Genus _Cygnus_
    - Black swan (_Cygnus atratus_)
        - New Zealand swan (_Cygnus atratus sumnerensis_) †
    - Trumpeter swan (_Cygnus buccinator_)
    - Bewick's swan (_Cygnus bewickii_)
    - Whistling swan (_Cygnus columbianus_)
    - Whooper swan (_Cygnus cygnus_)
    - Black-necked swan (_Cygnus melancoryphus_)
    - Mute swan (_Cygnus olor_)
- Genus _Coscoroba_
Pupa

A **pupa** (plural: **pupae** or **pupas**) is part of becoming an adult for some insects, like some butterflies, moths, beetles, flies, and bees. The pupal stage comes after being a larva; the next stage is adulthood.

The pupa stage of a butterfly, called a chrysalis (plural "chrysalids"), is a well-known example of a pupa because they are often found in the open. The pupa stage of a moth, such as the silkworm, is called a cocoon.
Paul

**Paul** might mean:

The name Paul [ pawl ] is a Latin name derived from the Roman family name Paulus, which is derived from the Latin word "paulus" meaning "small" or "humble". It is also associated with the Latin word "paullus" meaning "little".

The name Paul is a popular name in many countries around the world, including the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, England, Scotland, Ireland, Germany, France, Italy, Spain, Portugal, and many more. This name was ranked #257 on the US Popular Names in 2021.

The name Paul is often associated with the Biblical figure Saint Paul, who was an important figure in the early Christian Church. He was a missionary, theologian, and author of several books of the New Testament.
- Paul the Apostle
- Paul of Russia, a Russian Tsar
- Prince Paul of Yugoslavia ("Pavle"), a prince of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in the 1930s
- Paul Hunter, English snooker player
- Paul Vallas, American politician and school administrator
- Paul McCartney, British rock musician, former member of The Beatles and Wings
- Paul Drisger, A brittish fellow comedian from the south part of Romania.

## Other

- _Paul_ (movie), a 2011 movie
- Paul, Idaho, a city in the U.S. state of Idaho
- Paul the Octopus, an octopus who seemed able to say who would win football matches
Goose

**Goose** (plural **geese**, family **Anatidae**) are birds.  There are three species groups of geese: the genus _Anser_, the genus _Branta_, and the genus _Chen_.

This family also includes the swans, which are mostly larger than geese, and the ducks, which are smaller and have short necks.

Geese are famously gregarious: they like to stick together. They can be moved in large herds because of this feature of their behaviour. Both as chicks and as adults, geese show collective animal behaviour. Geese migrate in groups in the spring and fall, flying together in a V-shape.

A male goose is called a "gander" and a baby goose is called a "gosling". A group of geese is called a "gaggle".

## Related pages

- Bar-headed goose
- Canada goose
- Magellan goose
- Barnacle goose
- Pink-footed goose
- Swan goose
- Chinese goose
Ovary

**Ovaries** (singular: **Ovary**) are organs found in female organisms. Ovaries are part of the reproductive system needed to reproduce sexually.

Most vertebrate animals have two ovaries. Birds usually have only one working ovary; snakes have one ovary in front of the other. The ovaries are similar to testicles in male organisms.

## Anatomy

Ovaries are shaped like ovals. They are around 3 cm by 1.5 cm by 1.5 cm. The ovaries are found in the side walls of the pelvis.

Each ovary is attached to a fallopian tube, each of which is attached to the uterus. Usually each ovary takes turns releasing eggs every month.

## Uses

Ovaries have two purposes. They produce female sex hormones that help puberty take place. Ovaries also produce ova (also called "egg cells"), which are the female reproductive cells.

### In menstruation

During menstruation, an ovum is released from the ovary and enters one of the fallopian tubes. There, the ovum can be fertilised. Ovaries have a certain number of eggs in them; when eggs stop being released, this is the start of the menopause. During this time, female hormones stop being produced.

## Related pages

- Cervix
- Female reproductive system
- Vagina

## Other websites

- Merck Online Medical Library: Female Reproductive System

## Infobox (anatomy)

- **name**: Ovary
- **latin**: ovarium
- **image**: File:Ovary nih.jpg
- **caption**: The ovaries form part of the female reproductive system, and attach to the fallopian tubes
- **image2**: Gray589.png
- **caption2**: Blood supply of the Human female reproductive system, human female reproductive organs. The left ovary is the oval shaped structure visible above the label "ovarian arteries".
- **system**: Female reproductive system
- **artery**: ovarian artery, uterine artery
- **vein**: ovarian vein
- **nerve**: ovarian plexus
- **lymph**: Paraaortic lymph node
Axe

An **axe** (or **ax**) is an ancient tool. It is used to shape, split and cut wood.

The hand axe was probably the first tool in the Stone Age. It did not have a handle.

In the past, axes were used as weapons by soldiers. Today, axes are usually related to woodcutters and firemen.

Axes are simple machines. They are in the category of wedges. They are usually made of some sort of metal, mainly steel or iron. They can have a metal or wooden handle.
Rhinoceros

A **rhinoceros** (**rhino** for short) is any animal in the family **Rhinocerotidae**. They are in the order Perissodactyla, or odd-toed ungulates. There are five living species. Two of these species are native to Africa.  Three of these species are also native to Southern parts of Asia.

## Taxonomy

- Family **Rhinocerotidae**
    - Black rhinoceros, _Diceros bicornis_
    - White rhinoceros, or square-lipped rhinoceros _Ceratotherium simum_
    - Javan rhinoceros, _Rhinoceros sondaicus_
    - Indian rhinoceros, _Rhinoceros unicornis_
    - Sumatran rhinoceros, _Dicerorhinus sumatrensis_

## Habitat

All five rhinoceros species are native to Africa or Asia. The two species in Africa are the White rhinoceros and the Black rhinoceros. The three species in Asia (including islands of Indonesia) are the Javan rhinoceros, Sumatran rhinoceros, and Indian rhinoceros.

## Life

The rhinoceros is a herbivore. Its favourite food is plants, branches and bushes (if it is a browser species), or grass (if it is a grazer species).

Rhinoceroses have a large horn on the nose. Their horns are not like those of other horned mammals: the rhinoceros' horn is made of keratin packed together very tightly.

The rhinoceroses can weigh up to  and be up to  tall.

## Rhinoceros and humans

Only the white rhinoceros is not in critical danger of becoming extinct.  They are protected, but hunted mainly by poachers, for their horns.  The horns are used in Asian medicine, similar to elephants and tigers, and for dagger handles in Yemen and Oman.  Loss of habitat is also a danger to rhinos.  Governments have made logging their habitat and poaching illegal.

## Related pages

- _Elasmotherium_, a large extinct rhinoceros.

## Other websites

- Rhinoceros information from the International Rhino Foundation
Acetobacter

***Acetobacter*** is a kind of bacteria. These bacteria are
known by their ability to change alcohol to acetic acid in the presence of air. There are several species within this genus, and there are other bacteria that can form acetic acid under different conditions; but all of the _Acetobacter_ are known by this ability.

## Why Acetobacter is important

_Acetobacter_ are important to people, because:
- they are used to make vinegar (intentionally converting the ethanol in the wine to acetic acid)
- they can destroy wine which it infects by producing big amounts of acetic acid or ethyl acetate.

Sometimes, _Acetobacter_ is not wanted. It can be killed by adding preservatives like Sulfur dioxides, or by getting rid of the air when the wine is stored.
Archbishop of Canterbury

The **Archbishop of Canterbury** is the spiritual leader of the Church of England and in the Anglican Communion the leader of its mother church. They are the head of the Church, and live in the English city of Canterbury. The Archbishop is chosen by the English monarch (the church's "supreme governor"), under guidance from senior bishops, acting in cooperation with the prime minister of the UK.

The office has been vacant since 7 January 2025 following the resignation of Justin Welby, the 105th archbishop. On 3 October 2025 it was announced that Sarah Mullally, currently the bishop of London, will succeed him in January 2026.

## Background

The office of Archbishop of Canterbury was founded in the year 597. In that year, Saint Augustine came to England, to the area called Kent. He had been sent by the Pope to convince the local people to become Christians. The people accepted him and Christianity when their King (Ethelbert of Kent) became a Christian. Augustine became the first bishop in the kingdom of Kent and was later recognised as archbishop when a second diocese was created. Since then, there has been an Archbishop at Canterbury in Kent.

The Archbishop of Canterbury used to be head of the Roman Catholic Church in England, but in the early 16th century the English church broke away from the Roman church. The new church called itself the Church of England, and now the Archbishop is the leader of that church.

The archbishop oversees the Province of Canterbury that is all the Church of England dioceses in the south and midlands of England. The dioceses of Wales were also within the Province of Canterbury until 1920 when the Church in Wales became independent. In the north of England another archbishop has the Diocese of York and other northern dioceses (including the diocese of Sodor and Man) to oversee. Both archbishops are members of the House of Lords and rank very high in the official English order of precedence. When a new monarch is crowned the placing of the crown on his head is done by the Archbishop of Canterbury. The principal home of the archbishops is at Lambeth Palace in the south of London rather than at Canterbury itself. Within the Diocese of Canterbury (which consists of eastern Kent and a small enclave in Surrey) the archbishop has at least two assistant bishops.

## Other websites

- Official web site

## Infobox (diocese)

- **archbishopric**: Canterbury
- **border**: Anglican
- **coat**: File:Arms ArchbishopOfCanterbury.svg
- **coat size**: 200px
- **coat caption**: Arms of the diocese of Canterbury: _Azure, an crosier, episcopal staff in pale or surmounted by a Pall (heraldry), pall proper edged and fringed of the second charged with four crosses pattée fitchée Sable (heraldry), sable_
- **incumbent**: Vacant
since 7 January 2025
Sarah Mullally (designate)
- **style**: The Most Reverend and Right Honourable (otherwise Her Grace)
- **province**: Province of Canterbury, Canterbury
- **cathedral**: Canterbury Cathedral
- **first incumbent**: Augustine of Canterbury
- **diocese**: Diocese of Canterbury, Canterbury
- **denomination**: Anglican
Ethanol

**Ethanol**, also known as **ethyl alcohol**, **grain alcohol** or just **alcohol**, is a flammable, colorless chemical compound whose chemical formula is C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>OH, also written as C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>6</sub>O. It is the active part of alcoholic drinks, which are drunk in most cultures worldwide. Ethanol is also used as a solvent because it can dissolve many other chemicals and is not very toxic. Yeast makes most of the ethanol that people use.

## Ethanol fuel

**Ethanol fuel** can be used instead of gasoline in cars and other engines. Engines can use pure ethanol or ethanol mixed with gasoline.

In Brazil, ethanol fuel made from sugar cane provides 18% of the fuel for cars. Therefore, the country does not have to buy petroleum from other countries.To do so, much of the rainforest has been cut down to grow more sugarcane, which is then fermented into ethanol.

Most cars in the United States can run on fuels that have of up to 10% ethanol in them. Carmakers like Ford, DaimlerChrysler, and GM also make vehicles specifically designed to run on higher ethanol blends. Some of their engines can run on up to 85% ethanol (E85). By mid-2006, there were about six million E85-compatible vehicles on the country's roads, which can run on fuel wth 85% ethanol.

## Other websites

- US E85 refueling map
- International Chemical Safety Card 0044
- Molview from bluerhinos.co.uk  See Ethanol in 3D (may take over a minute to load using a dial-up connection)
Boiling point

The **boiling point** of a substance is the temperature at which the substance boils, or enters a state of rapid evaporation.  For pure water this is 100° Celsius or 212° Fahrenheit, at standard pressure.  Standard pressure is 1.0 Atmosphere (unit).

Boiling points can be changed in several ways. The addition of solutes or other substances usually changes the boiling point. Additionally, changing the pressure on a liquid changes its boiling point.

The boiling point of a liquid depends on the pressure of the surrounding air. An increase in air pressure raises the boiling point; a decrease in air pressure lowers the boiling point. In the low pressure environment at the top of Mt Everest for example, water boils at only 69 °C (156.2 °F). Aquanauts find that water in their habitat only boils at high pressure.

Boiling point can also be defined in terms of vapour pressure as the temperature at which vapour pressure of liquid becomes equal to atmospheric pressure.

Sugar, salt or other non-volatile solutes in water will usually make the boiling point higher. Alcohol, in contrast, is a volatile chemical that lowers the boiling point of water. Even a large amount of matter dissolved in water will usually make only small changes in the boiling point.
Platonic solid

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A **Platonic solid** is a kind of polyhedron (a three-dimensional shape). It has the following traits:

- Each of their faces is built from the same type of polygons.
- All the edges are the same, and all of them join two faces at the same angle.
- There are the same polygons meeting at every corner of the shape.
- The shape is convex, meaning the faces do not go through each other (intersecting), or span the same range (coplanar).

## The Platonic solids

The following Platonic solids exist; there are only 5:

- Triangular pyramid, or _Tetrahedron_, has 4 sides, is made of triangles, and is the simplest kind of polyhedron.
- Cube, or _Hexahedron_, has 6 sides, and is made of squares. It is a kind of prism.
- Octahedron, has 8 sides, and is made of triangles. It is a kind of antiprism.
- Dodecahedron, has 12 sides, and is made of pentagons. It has the most vertices.
- Icosahedron, has 20 sides, and is made of triangles. It has the most faces.

## Uses

There are a lot of uses for Platonic solids, but some of the main reasons are:the shapes are often used to make dice, because dice of these shapes can be made fair. 6-sided dice are very common, but the other numbers are commonly used in role-playing games. Such dice are commonly referred to as D followed by the number of faces (d8, d20 etc.).

The tetrahedron (4 sided), cube (6 sided), and octahedron (8 sided), are found naturally in crystal structures. The dodecahedron (12 sides) is combinatorially identical to the pyritohedron (in that both have twelve pentagonal faces), which is one of the possible crystal structures of pyrite. However, the pyritohedron is not a regular dodecahedron, but rather has the same symmetry as the cube.

In meteorology and climatology, global numerical models of atmospheric flow are of increasing interest which use grids that are based on an icosahedron (20 sides,refined by triangulation) instead of the more commonly used longitude/latitude grid. This has the advantage of better spatial resolution without singularities (i.e. the poles) at the expense of somewhat greater numerical difficulty.

Geometry of space frames is often based on Platonic solids.

## Other websites

- Stella: Polyhedron Navigator Tool for exploring polyhedra
- Paper Models of Polyhedra Many links
- The Uniform Polyhedra
- Virtual Reality Polyhedra The Encyclopedia o  Polyhedra
- London South Bank University  Water structure and behavior
- Book XIII of Euclid's _Elements_.
- Interactive 3D Polyhedra  in Java
Euclidean algorithm

The **Euclidean algorithm** is an algorithm. It can be used to find the biggest number that divides two other numbers (the greatest common divisor of two numbers).

## What the algorithm looks like in words

Euclid solved the problem graphically. He said
- _If you have two distances, AB and CD, and you always take away the smaller from the bigger, you will end up with a distance that measures both of them_.

## The algorithm as an enumerated list

Start out with two positive integers _m_ and _n_.
1. If the value of _m_ is less than the value of _n_, switch the values of _m_ and _n_
1. Find a number _r_ equal to _m_ modulo _n_
1. Let _m_ have the same value as _n_
1. Let _n_ have the same value as _r_
1. If _n_ does not have the value of 0, go to step 2
1. The wanted value is in _m_.

## The algorithm in pseudocode

**Note:** This pseudocode uses modular arithmetic instead of subtraction. It does the same thing as above, but gets the answer faster.

Precondition: two positive integers _m_ and _n_

Postcondition: the greatest common integer divisor of _m_ and _n_
<pre>
if m < n, swap(m,n)
while n does not equal 0
   r = m mod n
   m = n
   n = r
endwhile
output m
</pre>

## C/C++ source code

**Iterative (Non-recursive):**
<pre class="de1">
int euclid_gcd(int m, int n)
{
	int temp = 0;
	if(m < n)
	{
		temp = m;
		m = n;
		n = temp;
	}
	while(n != 0)
	{
		temp = m % n;
		m = n;
		n = temp;
	}
	return m;
}
</pre>

**Recursive:**
<pre class="de1">
int euclid_gcd_recur(int m, int n)
{
	if(n == 0)
		return m;

return euclid_gcd_recur(n, m % n);
}
</pre>
Unicellular organism

**Unicellular organisms** are organisms that have one  cell. They are divided into two quite different types, from  different classification kingdoms.

- The prokaryotes, bacteria and archaea, have cells with no nucleus and a simple cell structure.
- Eukaryotes have a nucleus, and a more complex cell structure.

The differences between the prokaryota and eukaryota are significant. Eukaryotes possess a nucleus and various subcellular organs called organelles, and prokaryotes do not.

## Observations

Almost all unicellular organisms are microorganisms but you can observe eukaryotes and many prokaryotes by using a compound microscope. Bacteria just appear as dark dots. To gather unicellular organisms for observation, one can place a cover slip on the surface of pond water, and leave it overnight. By the next morning, numerous unicellular organisms will have grown entire colonies on the bottom of the slip. They multiply fast: colonies can double their size in between 30 minutes and a few hours.

Unicellular organisms can be found everywhere. The oldest forms of life existed 3.8 billion years ago, if not longer. They use a variety of strategies for survival: photosynthesis (cyanobacteria), chemotrophy (many archaea), and heterotrophy (amoeba). Some unicellular organisms have flagella, little tails they use for locomotion, or lobopods, extensions of the cellular skeleton (cytoskeleton), which appear as bloblike arms. The flagella of our unicellular ancestors occurs all the way up into the animals, where it makes an appearance as flagellated sperm.

Of all the six eukaryote supergroups, four are exclusively composed of unicellular organisms. Unicellular organisms vary in size, with the smallest bacteria measuring only a third of a micron (300 nanometers) across, ranging up to the titanic plasmodial slime molds, which can grow to 20 cm (8 in) across. The largest unicellular organisms may have millions of nuclei scattered throughout the cellular envelope. To observe some of the smallest unicellular organisms requires an electron microscope, while the very largest can be seen with a microscope or anything that enhances images.

## Related pages

- Life timeline
- Multicellular organisms
- Microorganism

## Other websites

- About the kingdom Protista
Multicellular organism

**Multi-cellular organisms** are  organisms with more than one cell. This is the case for animals, plants and most fungi. In such organisms, cells are usually specialised. All the cells with the same function work together. Such a group of cells is then called a tissue.

Multi-cellular organisms have a set of cells that specialize in reproduction. Reproduction in such organisms is usually sexual, but for some, asexual reproduction is usual. The sex cells are either sperm or ovum (also named "egg") cells. If they are sperm cells, the organism is male, if they are egg cells it is female. If both are present, the organism is a hermaphrodite.

## Evolutionary history

We know, from their cell structure, that multicellularity has evolved independently many times in Earth history, for example in plants and animals.
The earliest forms of life in the fossil record are cyanobacteria from the Archaean era at 3.5 billion years ago. They grew as single cells but lived in colonies as stromatolites.

The first multicellular fossils have been found in 2.1 billion years old Palaeoproterozoic rocks from the Gabon in Africa. These are eukaryotic cells which live colonially. The fossils are visible to the naked eye, and hence much larger than bacteria. The authors comment that one advantage of  multicellularity is larger size, and that an adequate level of oxygen is required to support this kind of life.

## Consequences of multicellularity

To reproduce, multicellular organisms must solve the problem of regenerating a whole organism from germ cells (i.e. sperm and egg cells), an issue that is studied in developmental biology.

Multicellular organisms, especially long-living animals, also face the challenge of cancer, which occurs when cells fail to regulate their growth within the normal program of development.

## Related pages

- Life timeline
- Metazoa
- Unicellular organism

## Other websites

- Multicellular organism -Citizendium
Hexahedron

A **hexahedron** (plural: hexahedra) is any polyhedron with six faces. A cube, for example, is a regular hexahedron with all its faces square, and three squares around each vertex.

There are seven topologically distinct _convex_ hexahedra, one of which exists in two mirror image forms. (Two polyhedra are "topologically distinct" if they have intrinsically different arrangements of faces and vertices, such that it is impossible to distort one into the other simply by changing the lengths of edges or the angles between edges or faces.)

|colspan=7|Quadrilaterally-faced hexahedron (Cuboid) 6 faces, 12 edges, 8 vertices||||||
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Cube (square)|Rectangular cuboid (three pairs of rectangles)|Trigonal trapezohedron (congruent rhombi)|Trigonal trapezohedron (congruent quadrilaterals)|Quadrilateral frustum (apex-truncated square pyramid)|Parallelepiped (three pairs of parallelograms)|(three pairs of rhombi)|

There are three further topologically distinct hexahedra that can only be realised as _concave_ figures:

|colspan = 3|Concave||
| --- | --- | --- |
|4.4.3.3.3.3 Faces 10 E, 6 V|5.5.3.3.3.3 Faces 11 E, 7 V|6.6.3.3.3.3 Faces 12 E, 8 V|

## Related pages

- Prismatoid

## Other websites

- Polyhedra with 4-7 Faces  by Steven Dutch
Kazan State University

**Kazan (Volga region) Federal University** (, _Kazanskiy (Privolzhskiy) federalnyy universitet_; ) is a university in Kazan, Tatarstan, Russia. It was founded in 1804. The famous Russian mathematician Lobachevsky was its headmaster from 1827 till 1846. The post is now being held by Myakzyum Salakhov (Mäğzüm Säläxev).

Kazan University is also known as "the birthplace of organic chemistry" because of the works of Aleksandr Butlerov, Vladimir Markovnikov, Aleksandr Arbuzov, and others.

## Notable graduates

- Aleksandr Arbuzov
- Mily Balakirev
- Aleksandr Butlerov
- Vladimir Lenin (expelled)
- Nikolay Lobachevski
- Vladimir Markovnikov
- Leo Tolstoy
- Nikolay Beketov
- Afanasy Shchapov
- Vladimir Galkin
- Michael Minsky (Spirin)

## Other websites

- Kazan State Medical University (KSMU) Kazan

- List of Kazan State University's rectors
- Kazan State University Official Site

## Infobox (university)

- **name**: Kazan (Volga region) [https://dreammedicine.in/david-tvildiani-medical-university Federal University]
- **native name**: Казанский (Приволжский) федеральный университет
- **image**: Kazan University, 1832.jpg
- **caption**: Kazan University in the early 1830s.
- **established**: 5 (new style: 17) November 1804
- **type**: Public university, Public/Federal university
- **rector**: Ilshat Ghafurov
- **city**: Kazan
- **state**: Tatarstan
- **country**: Russia
- **campus**: Both urban area, urban and suburban
- **colours**: Blue and grey
- **website**: [http://[https://dreammedicine.in/david-tvildiani-medical-university www.kpfu.ru/main_page?p_sub=16 eng.kpfu.ru]
- **address**: 18 Ulitsa Kremlevskaya, Kazan 420008, Tatarstan, Russia
- **academic staff**: ~ 4026
- **students**: ~ 43700
- **former names**: Vladimir Ulyanov-Lenin Kazan State University,
Kazan Imperial University
- **language**: Russian, English
New World

The **New World** is a name used for the western hemisphere. It specifically refers to the Americas. It can also refer to certain Atlantic and Pacific islands (like Bermuda) and sometimes Oceania. The name started in the early 16th century, shortly after America was colonized. The people of the European Middle Ages thought the world was only Africa, Asia, and Europe. These continents are called the Old World. The Americas were also referred to as the "fourth part of the world".

The continent (North America and South America) was named America after Amerigo Vespucci.

## Related pages

- Americas
- Colonization
- Old World
- Western hemisphere
Rabbit

**Rabbits** and **bunnies** are mammals of the order Lagomorpha. There are about fifty different species of rabbits and hares. The order Lagomorpha is made of rabbits, pikas and hares. Rabbits can be found in many parts of the world. They live in families and eat vegetables and hay. In the wild, rabbits live in burrows, that they dig themselves. A group of rabbits living together in a burrow is called a warren. Rabbits are famous for hopping and eating carrots.

A male rabbit is called a **buck**, and a female is called a **doe**. A baby rabbit is called a **kit**, which is short for kitten. Rabbits have a gestation period of around 31 days. The female can have up to 12-13 kits, very rarely litters as big as 18 and as small as one. When the doe gives birth her babies are collectively referred to as a litter. Some people have rabbits as pets.  Rabbits are also raised for their meat. Rabbits are of a different biological classification than hares.

Since rabbits are prey animals, they are careful in open spaces. If they sense danger, they freeze and watch. Rabbit vision has a very wide field, including overhead scanning. Their predators are foxes, wolves, coyotes, cougars, lynxes, cats, dogs, bears, raccoons, skunks, weasels, badgers, snakes, and birds of prey. People are also known to shoot rabbits, because they eat crops. Their escape method is to run for their burrow, where they are usually safe.

Rabbits have a complex social structure and, like dogs, they have a hierarchy. Rabbit ears probably have several functions. The main function is to give warning of predators, but they may be used for signalling, and temperature regulation.

## Rabbits as pets

In the wild, rabbits have plenty to keep them occupied, from foraging to reproduction to territorial defence. Captive rabbits, on the other hand, often lack stimulation. This can lead to behavioural problems and poor health. Pet rabbits often live eight to twelve years.
Louis Pasteur

**Louis Pasteur** (December 27, 1822 – September 28, 1895) was a French microbiologist and chemist.
He and his wife, Marie, are best known for their experiments supporting the germ theory of disease, and he is also known for his vaccinations, most notably the first vaccine against rabies and anthrax.

## Career

He made many discoveries in the field of chemistry, including the asymmetry (different shapes) of crystals. He is also well known for his way of keeping milk and wine from going sour for longer periods of time. That process is called pasteurization. It is when the milk and or wine is put under about 161 Fahrenheit (72 Celsius) for fifteen seconds.

Pasteur's later work on diseases included work on chicken cholera. During this work, Pasteur noticed how a culture of the responsible bacteria had spoiled, and it failed to induce the disease in some chickens, which he was infecting, with the disease.

## Personal life

Louis Pasteur was born on December 27, 1822 in Dole in the Jura region of France, into the family of a poor tanner. Louis grew up in the town of Arbois. He gained degrees in Letters and in Mathematical Sciences before entering the École Normale Supérieure, an elite college, as well as the Conservatoire national des arts et métiers.

After serving briefly as professor of physics at Dijon Lycée in 1848, he became professor of chemistry at the University of Strasbourg, where he met and courted Marie Laurent, daughter of the university's rector, in 1849.

Louis Pasteur and Marie were married on May 29, 1849, and together had five children. Only two survived to adulthood; his other three children had died of typhoid fever. These personal tragedies inspired Pasteur to try to find cures for diseases, such as typhoid.

## Death

In 1895 at Marnes-la-Coquette, a commune in Paris, Pasteur died after several strokes.

## Related pages

- Stereochemistry

## Infobox (scientist)

- **name**: Louis Pasteur
- **caption**: Louis Pasteur by Albert Edelfelt, 1885
- **image**: Albert Edelfelt - Louis Pasteur - 1885.jpg
- **known for**: First vaccine against rabies
- **birth date**: 27 December 1822