juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Endocrine gland

**Endocrine glands** are glands that secrete their product (hormones) directly into the blood. This group contains the glands of the endocrine system.

The main endocrine glands are the pituitary gland, the pancreas, the gonads, the thyroid gland and the adrenal glands.  Other organs which are not so well known for their endocrine activity include the stomach, which produces such hormones as ghrelin.

## Reference

- Medical definition of Endocrine gland from the medicineneet website
Thyroid

The **thyroid** is one of the largest endocrine glands in the body. This gland is found in the throat. The thyroid controls how quickly the body burns energy, makes proteins, and how sensitive the body should be to other hormones.

The principal hormones it makes are thyroxine (T4) an triiodothyronine (T3), which is more active. These hormones regulate the growth of many systems in the body. T3 and T4 are synthesised from iodine and tyrosine. The thyroid also makes calcitonin, which plays a role in calcium homeostasis.

### Hyper- and hypofunction (affects about 2% of the population)

- Hypothyroidism (underactivity) - Hypothyroidism is a condition in which the thyroid gland does not make enough thyroid hormone.

- Hashimoto's thyroiditis / thyroiditis
    - Ord's thyroiditis
    - Postoperative hypothyroidism
    - Postpartum thyroiditis
    - Silent thyroiditis
    - Acute thyroiditis
    - Iatrogenic hypothyroidism
- Hyperthyroidism (overactivity)
    - Thyroid storm
    - Graves-Basedow disease
    - Toxic thyroid nodule
    - Toxic nodular struma (Plummer's disease)
    - Hashitoxicosis
    - Iatrogenic hyperthyroidism
    - De Quervain thyroiditis (inflammation starting as hyperthyroidism, can end as hypothyroidism)

### Anatomical problems

- Goitre
    - Endemic goitre
    - Diffuse goitre
    - Multinodular goitre
- Lingual thyroid
- Thyroglossal duct cyst

### Tumors

- Thyroid adenoma
- Thyroid cancer
    - Papillary
    - Follicular
    - Medullary
    - Anaplastic
- Lymphomas and metastasis from elsewhere (rare)

### Deficiencies

- Cretinism

## Related pages

- Thymus

## Other websites

- American Thyroid Association (Thyroid Information and professional organization)
- __New Management Guidelines for Patients with Thyroid Nodules and Differentiated Thyroid Cancer'' from the American Thyroid Association Taskforce.
- Thyroid Disease Manager (free online textbook)
- Thyroid Disease (Nuclear Medicine Information)
- The Thyroid Foundation of America (Education about Thyroid Disease)
Never Mind the Bollocks, Here's the Sex Pistols

***Never Mind the Bollocks: Here's the Sex Pistols*** is the only studio album by English punk band the Sex Pistols. It was released on 28 October 1977 in the UK and 11 November 1977 in the USA.

## Track listing

1. Holidays in the Sun
1. Bodies
1. No Feelings
1. Liar
1. Problems
1. God Save the Queen
1. Seventeen
1. Anarchy in the UK
1. Submission
1. Pretty Vacant
1. New York
1. E.M.I.

## Infobox (album)

- **name**: Never Mind the Bollocks, Here's the Sex Pistols
- **type**: studio
- **artist**: Sex Pistols
- **released**: *  (UK)
*  (US)
- **recorded**: October 1976; March – June 1977; August 1977
- **studio**: Wessex Sound Studios, Wessex, London
- **genre**: Punk rock
- **label**: * Virgin Records, Virgin (UK)
* Warner Records, Warner Bros. (US)
- **next title**: The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle (album), The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle
- **next year**: 1979
Pelycosaur

**Pelycosaurs** (meaning "basin lizards") were the earliest synapsids. They were not dinosaurs or reptiles. They are an informal group which were once called the "mammal-like reptiles".
The term is only used informally, if at all, in the modern scientific literature.

These tetrapods appeared during the Pennsylvanian and went extinct at the end of the Permian period. They were the dominant land animals for some 40 million years, and were almost wiped out by the P/Tr extinction event. A few survived until the lower Triassic to form the therapsids. The therapsids led to the mammals.

Because the term "Pelycosaur" does not include their descendants, it is not used much now.

The most notable of these land animals was _Dimetrodon_, the top predator of its time.

## Characteristics

Pelycosaur fossils have been found mainly in Europe and North America, although some small, late-surviving forms are known from Russia and South Africa.

At least two pelycosaur clades independently evolved a tall sail of elongated vertebral spines. In life, this would have been covered by skin, and possibly was a thermoregulatory device and/or a mating display.
Unlike lepidosaurian reptiles, pelycosaurs lacked epidermal scales.

In 1940 the group was reviewed in detail and every species known at the time described (and many illustrated) in an important monograph. Well-known pelycosaurs include the genera _Dimetrodon_, _Sphenacodon_, _Edaphosaurus_, and _Ophiacodon_.

## Possible relatives

The pelycosaurs were possibly related to the goronopsids. In the Walking with Monsters- Life Before Dinosaurs, the series showed that Dimetrodon evolved into a gorgonopsid. This told many to believe that pelycosaurs are possibly related to the gorgonopsians and the cynodonts.
Therapsid

**Therapsids**, previously known as the mammal-like reptiles, are a group of synapsids.

The clade includes the mammals, which are descended from the cynodont therapsids.

## Features

The jaws of therapsids had frontal incisors for nipping, large lateral canines for puncturing and tearing, and molars for shearing and tearing, and chopping food.

Therapsid legs were positioned more vertically beneath their bodies than were the sprawling legs of Sauropsids and Pelycosaurs.

## Evolution

The therapsids were seriously affected by the P/Tr extinction event. The successful gorgonopsians died out, and the remaining groups were much reduced.

The dicynodonts were now a single family of large stocky herbivores, the Kannemeyeridae. The medium-sized cynodonts (including carnivorous and herbivorous forms), flourished worldwide in the early to middle Triassic. They died out across much of Pangea before the end of the Upper Triassic. Some survived for a while in the wet equatorial band and in the South.

At least three groups of eucynodonts survived. They appeared in the Upper Triassic. The extremely mammal-like family, the Tritylodonts, survived into the Lower Cretaceous. Another group, _Morganucodon_ and its relatives, were mammaliaformes. That is, their descendants became the mammals.

## Taxonomy

- **Class Synapsida**
- **ORDER THERAPSIDA** *
    - **Suborder Biarmosuchia** *
    - **Suborder Dinocephalia**
    - **Suborder Anomodontia** *
        - Superfamily Venyukoviamorpha
        - **Infraorder Dicynodonta**
    - (unranked) **Theriodontia** *
        - **Suborder Gorgonopsia**
        - **Suborder Therocephalia**
        - **Suborder Cynodontia** *
    - **(unranked) Mammaliaformes** *
- **Class Mammalia**

## References

- Kemp T.S. 2005. _The origin and evolution of mammals_. Oxford University Press
- Benton M.J. 2004. _Vertebrate Paleontology_. 3rd ed. Blackwell, Oxford.
- Carroll R.L. 1988 _Vertebrate Paleontology & Evolution_. Freeman N.Y.
- Romer A.S. 1966. _Vertebrate Paleontology_. 3rd ed, University of Chicago Press.
Toccata

**Toccata** is the title that was often given to pieces of music for solo instruments from the Renaissance onwards.  The word comes from the Italian for _to touch_, also meaning _to play a musical instrument_.  These pieces were often quite difficult, with a lot of fast notes which showed off how well the person could play.

The first toccatas were written in northern Italy by composers such as Claudio Monteverdi and Giovanni Gabrieli.  They are pieces for the keyboard (harpsichord or organ) with lots of running scales in the right hand and accompanying chords in the left hand.

Toccatas became popular in Germany with composers such as Hans Leo Hassler who had studied in Venice with Gabrieli.  Many German Baroque organ composers wrote toccatas: Sweelinck (who was Dutch), Pachelbel, Buxtehude and Johann Sebastian Bach.  Bach wrote a _Toccata and Fugue in D minor_, which is one of the most famous pieces of Baroque organ music, and perhaps the most famous toccata ever written.

After the Baroque period composers did not often write toccatas.  The toccata became popular again in the late 19th century with the French organ composers such as Charles-Marie Widor whose Toccata from his _Symphony No. 5_ is very popular today, especially at weddings.  It has lots of quick notes in the right hand (and occasionally in the left) and a big tune in the pedals.  Another famous organ toccata is by Louis Vierne.  It is the last movement of his _Symphony No. 1_ (at this time French composers wrote organ works called "symphonies").

In the 20th century several composers wrote toccatas for piano including Prokofiev, Khachaturian, Ravel (part of _Le Tombeau de Couperin_) and Claude Debussy (part of _Suite: Pour le Piano_).

## Related pages

- Fugue
- Prelude
Lockheed P-38 Lightning

The **P-38 Lightning** is a World War II fighter aircraft made by Lockheed. It was mainly used by the United States Air Force. It first flew in 1939. It was different from other fighters because it had two engines instead of one, and was twice the size of other fighters. The plane fought in the Pacific and in Europe. It could carry 4 50-caliber machine guns and a 20mm cannon. With a top speed of over 400 miles per hour the P-38 was one of the fastest fighters of its time. The P-38 is also accounted for capturing 90% of all aerial footage over Europe. By 1944, it was replaced by the faster P-51 Mustang in Europe. The P-38 was the only American fighter being built at the beginning and the end of the war. The Germans called it the "fork tailed devil."

The Lockheed P-38 Lightning was a **well equipped single-seat WWII fighter**. It had **2 powerful engines** allowing it to reach **high altitudes** and **speeds**. The **tail design** was unique compared to other aircraft of the time. The **Americans** used this aircraft in many of its **dogfights and long-range** enemy engagements. The P-38 created many **aces**, making it **favourable** over other aircraft.

## Infobox (aircraft begin)

- **image**: File:Lockheed P-38H Lightning - 1.jpg
- **caption**: P-38H of the AAF Tactical Center, Orlando Army Air Base, Florida, carrying two 1,000 lb  bombs during capability tests in March 1944


## Infobox (aircraft type)

- **type**: Heavy fighter
- **national origin**: United States
- **manufacturer**: Lockheed Corporation
- **designer**: Kelly Johnson (engineer), Clarence "Kelly" Johnson
- **first flight**: 27 January 1939
- **introduced**: July 1941
- **retired**: 1949 (United States Air Force)
1965 (Honduran Air Force)
- **primary user**: United States Army Air Forces
- **more users**: Free French Air Force
- **produced**: 1941–45
- **number built**: 10,037
- **unit cost**: US$97,147 in 1944
- **developed into**: Lockheed XP-49
Lockheed XP-58 Chain Lightning, Lockheed XP-58
Messerschmitt Bf 109

The **Messerschmitt Bf 109** was a fighter aircraft usually called the **Me 109**. It was a German World War II aircraft.

Made by Messerschmitt, it first flew in 1935, and was used by the Luftwaffe during the Spanish Civil War and throughout World War II.  It was one of the first modern fighters of the time. It had an all-metal construction, a closed cockpit, and retractable landing gear. It was powered by a liquid-cooled, inverted-V12 aero engine.

The **Messerschmitt Bf-109**, was a powerful **single-propeller** aircraft, used by the Germans as **support** aircraft. The Bf-109 was a **worthy competito**r as Germany’s greatest aircraft, though the **Fw-190 proved more significant** for **some** enemy engagements. The camouflaged aircraft fought in the heat of the 1940 **Battle of Britain,** going head to head with the **English Spitfires**.

There were many variations designed for special purposes. Overall, the Me 109 was the most produced fighter aircraft in history, with a total of 33,984 airframes produced from 1936 up to April 1945.

The design of the plane caused some problems on the ground, and with take-off and landing. At least 10% of all Bf 109s were lost in takeoff and landing accidents, 1,500 of which occurred between 1939 and 1941. A new fixed tailwheel helped correct the problem.

Bf 109 was used by Luftwaffe together with FW 190. The Messerschmitt had two machine guns and one cannon while FW 190 had two machine guns and four cannons. Bf 109 was much lighter than FW 190, by 1500 kg. Despite that Bf 109 was almost as fast as FW 190 (Fw 190 A-8 was only 16kph faster than Bf 109 G-6) and climbed at 17 m/s, 2 m/s faster than FW 190.

## Related pages

- P-51 Mustang
- Fw 190
- Hawker Hurricane
- Supermarine Spitfire

## Infobox (aircraft begin)

- **name**: Bf 109
- **image**: File:Me109 G-6 D-FMBB 1.jpg
- **long caption**: A Hispano Aviación HA-1112, a license-built Messerschmitt Bf 109 G-2, rebuilt by the EADS/Messerschmitt Foundation, Germany with a Daimler-Benz DB 605 engine as a G-6. The paint scheme is missing the Swastika, due to German law.


## Infobox (aircraft type)

- **type**: Fighter aircraft, Fighter
- **manufacturer**: Messerschmitt, Bayerische Flugzeugwerke (BFW)
Messerschmitt AG
- **designer**: Willy Messerschmitt, Robert Lusser
- **first flight**: 29 May 1935
- **introduced**: February 1937
- **retired**: 9 May 1945, Luftwaffe
27 December 1965, Spanish Air Force
- **primary user**: _Luftwaffe_
- **more users**: Hungarian Air Force
_Aeronautica Nazionale Repubblicana_
Royal Romanian Air Force
- **number built**: 33,984
+239 Hispano Aviacion Ha 1112, HA-1112
+603 Avia S-199
- **variants with their own articles**: Avia S-199, Avia S-99/S-199
Hispano Aviacion Ha 1112
Messerschmitt Me 262

The **Me 262** is a German fighter aircraft flown during late World War II. It was the first jet to be used in war. It began test flights in 1942, but was not used in combat by the German air force, the Luftwaffe, until 1944. Very few were built because Germany's enemies were bombing factories. It saw little action because the war was nearly over. The jet engines of the new machine often caused problems, that's why a lot of machines had deathly accidents.

Nicknamed Schwalbe (Swallow), the Messerschmidt Me 262 surpassed the performance of every other World War II fighter. Faster than the North American P-51 Mustang by 190 km/h (120 mph), the Schwalbe restored to the faltering German Luftwaffe. The Me-262 has two ʽJumo 004 B turbine enginesʼ with a top speed of 869.4 km/h (540 mph). It's armament includes two ʽMK 103 30 mm cannonsʼ, two ʽ108 30 mm cannonsʼ, and a pair of ʽMG 151/20 20 mm cannonsʼ.

## Related pages

- Jet aircraft

## Infobox (aircraft begin)

- **name**: Me 262 _Schwalbe_(Swallow)
- **image**: File:Messerschmitt Me 262A at the National Museum of the USAF.jpgborder
- **caption**: Messerschmitt Me 262 A-1a late production model


## Infobox (aircraft type)

- **type**: Fighter aircraft, fighter-bomber and ʽJet aircraftʼ
- **manufacturer**: Messerschmitt
- **first flight**: 18 April 1941 with (Junkers Jumo 004 B turbine engines)
18 July 1942 with jet engines
- **introduction**: April 1944
- **retired**: 1945, Germany
1951, Czechoslovakia
- **primary user**: Luftwaffe
- **more users**: Czechoslovak Air Force (S-92)
- **number built**: 1,430
Osmosis

**Osmosis** (/ɒzˈmoʊ.sɪs/) is the movement of solvent (liquid) molecules through a membrane, from one solution to another, which happens without an outside force.

Solvent will move to the side that has a _higher concentration_ of _solutes_, or dissolved particles — and thus a _lower concentration_ of _solvent_. This happens because the membrane is selectively permeable:  the solvent can pass through, but the solute cannot. Solvent molecules move randomly, and so the concentrations on both sides become more equal.

Osmosis can be made to do work. **Osmotic pressure** is the external pressure that must be applied so that there is no net movement of solvent across the membrane. Osmotic pressure depends on the molar concentration of the solute.

Osmosis is important in biological (living) systems, as biological membranes are semipermeable. In general, these membranes are impermeable to large  molecules such as ions, proteins, and polysaccharides. They are  permeable to non-polar or hydrophobic molecules like lipids and small molecules like oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and nitric oxide. Permeability depends on solubility, charge, or chemistry, as well as solute size. Water molecules travel through the plasma membrane, vacuole, or protoplast by diffusing across the phospholipid bilayer.

Osmosis provides the main way water is gets in and out of cells. The turgor pressure of a cell is largely maintained by osmosis across the cell membrane between the cell interior and its environment.

## Hypotonic, isotonic, and hypertonic

Solutions may have more or less solute per unit of solvent. The one with less is called _hypotonic._ When the two solutions have equal concentration, they are _isotonic._ The one with more is _hypertonic_. When the hypotonic solution is outside the cell, and hypertonic solution inside, the cell becomes swollen and distorted.

## Cell membranes

The plasma membrane of a cell is semi-permeable, which means it allows the entry of certain molecules in or out. It lets small molecules pass through, but blocks larger molecules. The membrane also has ports or gateways which get certain macromolecules through. This is active transport, which uses energy and is selective. It is the outermost covering of the animal cell, made of proteins and lipids. Example: exchange of gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide.

## Related pages

- Reverse osmosis
- Osmoregulation
Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17

The **MiG-17 Fresco** is a fighter aircraft made by Mikoyan, a Russian company. It first flew in 1950, and was supposed to replace the MiG-15 in the Korean War, but it did not arrive fast enough. It was used by the North Vietnamese in the Vietnam War. It carried 3 guns on it, and later versions carried missiles. Today, it is used as a trainer in other air forces.

## Related pages

- F-8 Crusader
- F-4 Phantom II
- MiG-21
Mikoyan

**Mikoyan** is a Russian company that designs fighter airplanes. The company was first formed in December 1939 as a design office called Mikoyan-Gurevich or MiG, this was because its designers were Artem Mikoyan and Mikhail Gurevich. Mikoyan will join other Russian airplane companies in a new company called United Aircraft Corporation.

## History

In 1939 Russia was part of the Soviet Union and was communist. In the Soviet communist system there were two types of airplane companies, companies that designed aircraft known as design offices or OKB, and companies that made airplanes called zavods. Artom Mikoyan and Mikhail Gurevich had been designers in another design office helping a designer called Nikolai Polikarpov. One airplane design that Artem Mikoyan and Mikhail Gurevich worked on at Polikarpov was called the I-200. When Nikolai Polikarpov lost the trust of the Soviet leader Stalin, Artem Mikoyan and Mikhail Gurevich were given the I-200 design to finish. This airplane was given a new name and was called the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-1. As it was being made, ways to make the MiG-1 into a better airplane were found and airplanes with these changes became known as the MiG-3 and later the MiG-7. However even with changes the MiG fighter airplanes were not as good as the fighter airplanes designed by the design offices of Lavochkin or Yakovlev.

After World War II Mikoyan-Gurevich designed jet aircraft. In the Soviet system the airplane designs of the design offices would compete to see which was the best.  When the best design had been found the design would be built by the airplane manufacturing company.  Even though Mikoyan-Gurevich airplanes in World War II had not been as good as airplanes by Lavochkin or Yakovlev. Mikoyan-Gurevich jet aircraft won more of the competitions to be sent to the zavods and in the time of the Cold War Mikoyan-Gurevich, together with another design office called Sukhoi, became one of the two most important design offices of fighter planes in the Soviet Union.

In the Soviet system decisions were made to protect the government from its own soldiers. In many countries there is only one airforce, the Soviet Union had five airforces. Two of these airforces were the main users of Soviet fighter airplanes. One airforce was called _PVO Strany_, this airforce was used to defend the cities and land of the Soviet Union. One airforce was called _Frontal Aviation_, this airforce was used to defend the Soviet Union's ground soldiers against enemy fighter airplanes, and to attack enemy ground forces. Mikoyan-Gurevich became the main designer of aircraft for _Frontal Aviation_.

## Aircraft made

Mikoyan has designed the following airplanes:

- Mikoyan MiG-1
- Mikoyan MiG-3 (also called MiG-7)
- MiG DIS
- MiG-9 Fargo
- MiG-15 Fagot
- MiG-17 Fresco
- MiG-19 Farmer
- MiG-21 Fishbed
- MiG-23 Flogger
- MiG-25 Foxbat
- MiG-27 Flogger
- MiG-29 Fulcrum
- MiG-31 Foxhound
Juno

**Juno** could mean:

- Juno (mythology), a major Roman goddess
- June, the month named after Juno
- 3 Juno, one of the largest main belt asteroids

## Music

- Juno (band), an American indie rock band
- _Juno_ (musical), a Broadway musical with score by Marc Blitzstein based on Sean O'Casey's play _Juno and the Paycock_
- Juno Reactor, a trance music project of Ben Watkins
- Juno Mak, a Cantopop artist
- Juno Award, a Canadian music award
- Roland Juno-60, Roland Juno-106 or Roland Juno-D (1983?-Present), synthesizers by Roland
- "Juno", a song by Funeral for a Friend, from their debut EP _Between Order & Model_. Later re-recorded for debut LP _Casually Dressed and Deep in Conversation_ and released as a single under the name _Juneau_
- Juno Records, an online music store

## Vehicles

- _Juno_ (spacecraft), a planned NASA mission to Jupiter
- HMS _Juno_, the name of seven vessels of Royal Navy
- Jupiter-C (rocket), also known as Juno or Juno I
- Jupiter (missile) also known as Juno II
- Juno (1864 – 1884), one of the eight South Devon Railway Dido class steam locomotives
- Juno, a Great Western Railway Banking Class 0-6-0ST steam locomotive.
- Juno, a Spanish ship sank in 1802. After its 1997 discovery in Assateague coast (Virginia) the Spanish government claimed ownership of the wreck.

## Other uses

- _Juno_ (movie) a 2007 comedy-drama movie directed by Jason Reitman
- Juno (Dune), a Titan in the fictional Dune universe
- Juno Beach, one of five beaches used as landing zones in the Battle of Normandy in World War II
- 3 Juno, the third asteroid to be discovered
    - Juno clump, a probable asteroid family near 3 Juno
- Juno Online Services, an internet service provider in the United States
- Project Juno, a British commercial venture that sent Helen Sharman to space
- Juno, protagonist of the video game _Jet Force Gemini_
- MegaMan Juno, a villain in the video game _Mega Man Legends_
- Juno Skinner, a villain in the 1994 film _True Lies_
- Juno Lighting, a company that specializes in commercial and residential lighting
- Juno creator of Star Cross'd Destiny
- Juno the game by Mountain King Studios
- Juno, a powerful Denial of Service attack program, written in the C Programming Language
- Juno, a German cigarette brand produced by Reemtsma
- Juno Temple, an English actress
Neptune (mythology)

**Neptune** (Latin: _Neptūnus_) is the god of water and the sea in ancient Roman religion and mythology. His Greek equivalent is the god Poseidon. The Roman conception of Neptune was mainly influenced by the Etruscan god Nethuns. Neptune was associated with fresh water as well as the sea, while Oceanus was the god of the world-ocean. Like his Greek equivalent, Neptune was also worshipped by the Romans as the god of horses, and, under the name _Neptune Equester_, he was a patron god of horse-racing.

The planet Neptune is named after this Roman god.

## References

- Poseidon -- Greek version of Neptune
Fortuna

**Fortuna** is a municipality in the Region of Murcia, in Spain.

It has an area of 149.3 km² and a population of 10,665 people.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Fortuna
- **settlement type**: Municipalities of Spain, Municipality
- **imagesize**: 265px
- **image seal**: Escudo de Fortuna (Murcia).svg
- **pushpin map**: Spain
- **pushpin mapsize**: 265px
- **pushpin relief**: yes
- **subdivision type**: List of sovereign states, Country
- **subdivision type1**: Autonomous communities of Spain, A. community
- **subdivision type2**: Provinces of Spain, Province
- **leader title**: Mayor
- **leader name**: Catalina Herrero
- **area total km2**: 149.3
- **population total**: 10,665
- **population as of**: January 1, 2021
- **population density km2**: 71.43
- **utc offset**: +01:00
- **postal code type**: Postal code
- **postal code**: 30620
- **blank name sec2**: Community Identification Number, MCN
- **blank info sec2**: 30020
Fortuna (disambiguation)

**Fortuna** (_Latin and Spanish: "fortune"_) can mean:

- Fortuna, the Roman goddess of luck (from the Greek Tyche)

**Geographical**
- 19 Fortuna, an asteroid
- Fortuna, California, a town on the north coast of California
- Fortuna, North Dakota, a town in the northwest of North Dakota, near the Canadian border.
- Fortuna (SEPTA station)
- Fortuna, Murcia, a town in the province of Murcia in Spain

**People**
- Fortuna (Brazilian singer), a female singer and composer from Brazil of Jewish origin
- Wojciech Fortuna, a former ski jumper and Olympic gold medallist

**Sports**
- Fortuna Düsseldorf
- Fortuna Köln
- Fortuna Sittard

**Other**
- Fortuna (philosophy), Philosophy of the Fellowship of Fortuna Movement
- Fortuna (PRNG), a cryptographically secure pseudo-random number generator design by Niels Ferguson and Bruce Schneier
- Fortuna, a fictional planet from the _Star Fox_ series of video games
- Fortuna (cigarette), a cigarette brand owned by Altadis
- "O Fortuna", widely recognizable opening movement of Carl Orff's _Carmina Burana_
- Fortuna Saga, an original sprite-based webcomic set in the world of _Final Fantasy VI_.
- A name for bagatelle, a game developed from billiard
Sol Invictus

- _For the folk music band, see Sol Invictus (band)._

**Sol Invictus** ("the Unconquered Sun") or, more fully, **Deus Sol Invictus** ("the Unconquered Sun God") was a religious title applied to at least three distinct deities during the later Roman Empire: El Gabal, Mithras, and Sol.

The earlier cult of Sol Indiges ("the native sun" or "the invoked sun") was agrarian. The title _Deus Sol Invictus_ was formed similar to the imperial titulature _pius felix invictus_ ("dutiful, fortunate, unconquered").

The Romans held a festival on December 25 called _Dies Natalis Solis Invicti_, "the birthday of the unconquered sun." The use of the title **Sol Invictus** allowed several solar deities to be worshipped together, including Elah-Gabal, a Syrian sun god; Sol, the patron god of Emperor Aurelian (AD 270-274); and Mithras, a soldiers' god of Persian origin. Emperor Elagabalus (218-222) introduced the festival, and it reached the height of its popularity under Aurelian, who promoted it as an empire-wide holiday that was a possible inspiration of Christmas.

## Further reading

- Halsberghe, L. 1972. _The Cult of Sol Invictus_ (Leiden)

## Other websites

- Encyclopedia Britannica Online: Sol
- Probus and Sol, includes images of coins
- Roman-Emperors: Aurelian
- Gibbon's Decline and Fall: Triumph of Aurelian
- Gibbon's references for Aurelian's Temple of Sol Invictus
- Clement A. Miles, _Christmas in Ritual and Tradition, Christian and Pagan_ (1912): December 25 and the Natalis Invicti
- Catholic Encyclopedia (1908): Christmas
- Ancient sources
Optical printer

An **optical printer** is a machine. It can be used to copy rolls of movies. It is made of one or more movie projectors, which are linked to a movie camera. It allows filmmakers to re-photograph one or more strips of movie. The optical printer is used for making special effects for motion pictures or for copying and restoring old movie material.

Common optical effects include fade outs and fade ins, dissolves, slow motion, fast motion, and matte work. More complicated work needs dozens of elements, all combined into a single scene. Ideally, the audience in a theater should not be able to notice any optical printer work, but this is not always the case. For economical reasons, especially in the 1950s, and later in TV series produced on movie, printer work was limited to only the actual parts of a scene needing the effect, so there is a clear change in the image quality when the transition occurs.

The first, simple optical printers were constructed in the early 1920s. Linwood G. Dunn developed the idea in the 1930s. The development continued well into the 1980s, when the printers were controlled with minicomputers.

Since the late 1980s, digital compositing began to replace optical effects. Since the mid nineties the conversion to digital effects has been almost total. Optical printing today is used most widely by artists working exclusively with movie. As a technique, it proves particularly useful for making copies of hand painted or physically manipulated movies.
Lares

**Lares** (pl.) were ancient Roman deities who protected the house and the family - household gods.  See also Genius, Larvae, Di Penates, Manes.

Lares are presumed sons of Mercury and Lara, and deeply venerated by ancient Romans through small statues, usually put in higher places of the house, far from the floor, or even on the roof.
In the early Roman times, in every house there was at least one little statue. Later, a sort of confusion connected their figure with those of Manes, deities of Hades (and the most virtuous dead persons of the family). Finally the confusion included the Penates (other minor deities) as well.

## Related pages

- Turan, the Etruscan love goddess
Charter trustees

**Charter trustees** are the English district councillors for an area that used to be a city.

They are allowed by the _Charter Trustees Act 1985_, so that some of the privileges and dignities of former city can be carried on.

## References

Charter Trustees Acts 1985 c45
Quirinus

In Roman mythology, **Quirinus** was an early god of the Roman state. In Augustan Rome, Quirinus was also a name of Janus, as _Janus Quirinus_.

## History

Quirinus was originally most likely a Sabine god. The Sabines had a settlement near the site of what was to become Rome, and erected an altar to Quirinus on the _Collis Quirinalis_, the _Quirinal Hill_, one of the _Seven Hills of Rome_.  When the Romans settled there, they absorbed the cult of Quirinus into their early belief system — previous to direct Greek influence — and he was said to be the deified Romulus.

In later times, however, Quirinus became far less important, losing his place to (Juno and Minerva and Mars' place).
Kreisfreie stadt

The name **kreisfreie Stadt** (plural: _kreisfreie Städte_) is used for German towns that have their own government. This town government is independent of the government of the next-higher level of authority, the _Landkreis_. Today, most of the cities that have this statute, are big cities, with 100.000 people living there, or more. The concept grew historically. That means that there are big cities, with more than 100.000 people that do not have the statute. There are also some cities who have only taken a part of the responsibilities of a Landkreis (or Kreis). The smallest city with the statute is Zweibrücken. About 35.000 people live there. The biggest of these cities is Munich, with about 1.3 million people. Hamburg and Berlin are bigger. They are city states, though. The city state of Bremen (state) is made of two _kreisfreie Städte_, the city of Bremen, and the city of Bremerhaven, about 60 km to the north. About half a million people live in Bremen (1.5 million in the agglomeration), about 117.000 people live in Bremerhaven.

But not every big city with more than 100.000 inhabitants is a _kreisfreie Stadt_. Some of them, for example Recklinghausen or Göttingen (both more 120.000 inhabitants) are part of a _Landkreis_.

There are very few cities, who only took part of the paperwork from the Landkreis. Some of these are called _Große selbständige Stadt_ (Translates to _Big sovereign city_). They only seem to exist in Lower Saxony. They are:
Celle, Cuxhaven, Goslar, Hameln, Hildesheim, Lingen, and Lüneburg. Things like hunting permits cannot be delegated to the cities. Other things, like what to do with the trash have sometimes been delegated.

Similar concepts to that of the _kreisfreie Stadt_ are Unitary authorities in the United Kingdom, or that of _independent city_ in the United States.
Jet aircraft

**Jet aircraft** are aircraft with jet engines. Unlike propeller-powered aircraft, jet aircraft normally fly at altitudes as high as 100 to 1,5 meters, about 33 to .  At these altitudes, jet engines can achieve maximum efficiency over long distances.   The engines in propeller powered aircraft achieve their maximum efficiency at much lower altitudes.
Downtown

**Downtown** (called a **city centre** in British English) is a word used in North America which refers to the main part of a city. It is usually the central business district where most commercial and office areas are; many of them being in skyscrapers. Tourism also concentrates there.
IEEE 802.11

**IEEE 802.11** is a series of protocols for wireless networking. Often these are called **Wireless LAN**, _WLAN_, or **Wi-Fi**. Such a protocol allows computers that have the needed radio parts to communicate with each other, without a cable. There are many types of Wi-Fi standards, known as 802.11 a, b, g, n, and recently ac & ad. These specifications are different in terms of speed and how far away you can use them.

## Later standards

The first Wi-Fi standard was made in 1997.  It is called IEEE 802.11.  It allows communication with 1-2 MBit per second.  Today it is outdated, and rare.  Later standards add a letter to the name.  They are labelled IEEE  802.11a to IEEE 802.11g.  There are plans for ones labeled h, i, j, n, p and s.  They are all compatible with each other.

Newer standards have a Bit rate of 54 MBit/s.  About 40-50% of this is usable in real-life situations.  As of 2007, the standards most widely used are IEEE 802.11g, and IEEE 802.11b.

## Frequency bands

Data communication is done in the 2.4 GHz band and the 5 GHz band.  The 2.4 GHz band is a general use band.  Microwave ovens and Bluetooth are among the things that emit radio waves in this band. The 2.4 GHz band has the problem that there are only very few channels that can be used at the same time, without the signals interfering. There are three usable channels there. When more than three networks operate in the same place, signals still get to the user correctly, but interference slows them.

The 5 GHz band can solve some of these problems, but it introduces others. That band has 19 usable channels. Overall the band is less used. However there are more regulations. Most devices need to be able to choose their channel to minimize interference. Some channels require that those participating can do Transmitter Power Control. This means they adapt the strength of the signal to what is actually needed. This helps reduce the amount of interference between different networks.
Wireless LAN

In computing, **Wireless LAN (WLAN)** or **Wireless local area network** is a term to refer to a Local Area Network that does not need cables to connect the different devices. Instead, radio waves and  IEEE 802.11 are used to communicate.

## Benefits of Wireless LANs

- People can access the network from where they want; they are no longer limited by the length of the cable.
- Some places and vehicles have a Wireless LAN hotspot. This lets people access the internet even outside their normal work environment, for example in a restaurant or train.
- Setting up a wireless LAN can be done with one box called wireless access point or wireless router. This box can handle many connections at the same time. Wired networks require cables to be laid. This can be difficult for certain places.
- Access points can serve a varying number of computers.

## Disadvantages of Wireless LANs

- Wireless LANs use radio waves to communicate. Special care needs to be taken to encrypt information.
- The signal is noisier than on wires, and more bandwidth needs to be spent on error correction.
- A typical IEEE 802.11 access point has A _range_ of meters from where devices can connect. To extend the range more access points are needed.
- There are many reliability problems, especially those connected to interference from other devices.
- Wireless LANs are much slower than wired ones; this may not matter for most users though, because the bottleneck in a home network is usually the speed of the ADSL line or other Internet connection.

## Technologies used

Today, most  technologies used for WLANs use Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing. This means that several frequencies are used at the same time. Signals that are close to each other, but that belong to different channels do not disturb each other, as they use different coding schemes. Depending on the material used, it is possible to cover between 30 metres and 100 metres indoors; outdoors, the range is about 100-300m, if there are no obstacles.
Bluetooth

**Bluetooth** is a protocol for wireless communication over short distances. It was developed in the 1990s, to reduce the number of cables.  Devices such as mobile phones, laptops, PCs, printers, digital cameras and video game consoles can connect to each other, and exchange information. This is done using radio waves. It can be done securely. Bluetooth is usually only used for relatively short distances, like a few metres. Some signals can be up to 100 metres.

There are different standards. Data rates vary. Currently, they are at 1-3 MBit per second. Typical Bluetooth applications are to connect a headset to a mobile phone, or to connect a computer mouse, keyboard or printer.

Bluetooth devices use the ISM Band around 2.4 GHz. This can be used worldwide, without the need to pay license fees, but many other devices, like DECT telephones (wireless phones), smart tags with RFID, baby phones use it too. Bluetooth uses the same bands as some WLANs, but the modulation technique is different. Bluetooth uses Frequency-hopping spread spectrum.

## Comparing Bluetooth to Wireless LAN

There are many situations today where either Bluetooth or Wireless LANs can be used. Examples include setting up networks, printing or transferring files and data from a PDA to a computer. Both are versions of unlicensed wireless technology. WLANs can span bigger distances and offer higher throughput. Bluetooth does not require expensive hardware. It also needs less power to operate.

Both use the same radio frequency range, but their modulation techniques are different. Both have been developed to replace cabling. Bluetooth wanted to get rid of the peripheral equipment cables, WLANs wanted to get rid of the cables needed to set up a LAN.

### Bluetooth devices

Bluetooth exists in many products, such as telephones, the Wii or PlayStation 3. It has recently been built into some electronic watches, modems and headsets. The technology is useful when transferring information between two or more devices that are near each other in low-bandwidth situations. Bluetooth is commonly used to transfer sound data with telephones (i.e. with a Bluetooth headset) or byte data with hand-held computers (transferring files).

Bluetooth uses protocols that make it easy to discover devices that are nearby, and to set up a connection between these devices. Bluetooth devices can advertise all the services they offer. Using services becomes easier; a lot of the setup related to security, networking or permissions is automatic.

### Wireless LAN

WLANs are more like traditional LANs. More configuration is needed to set up the network, and to make resources accessible by other devices in the network. WLAN devices also consume more power than Bluetooth ones.
Sometimes WLANs are called wireless Ethernet. WLAN needs more resources to be set up, but it also offers faster transfer speeds. The security is also better than that offered by Bluetooth.
Noraduz

**Noraduz** (or Noratus) is a site in the region of Gegharkunik in Armenia near Lake Sevan. It was formed a church dedicated to Sainte-mère-de-Dieu (built in the ninth century), and an exceptional site of medieval tombs. The tombstones are called Khachkars. Noraduz is the most important place for Khachkars in Armenia.

## Related pages

- Noraduz cemetery
- Khachkar

## Other websites

- Noraduz - Khachkars Field
- Noraduz Village
1921 New York Yankees season

The **New York Yankees** during 1921 (the 1921 season) was the 19th season for the Yankees in New York, and overall it was their 21st season. The season ended in the team having a record (the number of wins and losses) of 98-55 (98 wins, 55 losses). This was the first pennant won in Yankees history. They won the American League game pennant, replacing the previous winners, Cleveland Indians. The manager of their team was Miller Huggins. The Yankees home games were played on the Polo Grounds.

## World Series

|Game|Date|Road Team|Score|Home Team|Score|Record (NYG-NYY)|Attendance||||||||
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|align = center|1|October 5|align = center|**New York Yankees**|align = center|3|align = center|New York Giants|align = center|0|align = center|0-1|align = center|30,202|
|align = center|2|October 6|align = center|New York Giants|align = center|0|align = center|**New York Yankees**|align = center|3|align = center|0-2|align = center|34,939|
|align = center|3|October 7|align = center|New York Yankees|align = center|5|align = center|**New York Giants**|align = center|**13**|align = center|1-2|align = center|36,509|
|align = center|4|October 9|align = center|**New York Giants**|align = center|**4**|align = center|New York Yankees|align = center|2|align = center|2-2|align = center|36,372|
|align = center|5|October 10|align = center|**New York Yankees**|align = center|**3**|align = center|New York Giants|align = center|1|align = center|2-3|align = center|35,758|
|align = center|6|October 11|align = center|**New York Giants**|align = center|**8**|align = center|New York Yankees|align = center|5|align = center|3-3|align = center|34,238|
|align = center|7|October 12|align = center|New York Yankees|align = center|1|align = center|**New York Giants**|align = center|**2**|align = center|4-3|align = center|36,503|
|align = center|8|October 13|align = center|**New York Giants**|align = center|**1**|align = center|New York Yankees|align = center|0|align = center|5-3|align = center|25,410|

## References

- 1921 New York Yankees team page at www.baseball-almanac.com

## Other websites

- Yankees game log courtesy baseball-almanac.com
- 1921 New York Yankees
Hominidae

The **hominids** are members of the biological family **Hominidae** (the **great apes**). This family includes humans, chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans. "Great ape" is a common name rather than a taxonomic label, and people use it in different ways. Sometimes people mean to include humans in the category of “great apes,” and sometimes they mean non-human apes. _Homo sapiens_ is definitely a hominid, as judged by all modern reference works.

Hominids range in weight from 48 kg to 270 kg. Males are larger than females. Hominids are primates with no tails, strong bodies, and well-developed forearms. Their thumbs (and big toes, except in humans) oppose the fingers, and form a grip. All digits have flattened nails.

At present, the family Hominidae includes four genera and eight species. However, if fossil hominids were included, all of the Australopithecines and the genus _Homo_ would be members of the Hominidae family. Today, nonhuman great apes live only in the rainforests of equatorial Africa, Sumatra and Borneo.

The first hominid fossils are from the Miocene period. Archaeologists found these in Asia and Europe. Also in Asia, they found fossils of a huge version of the orangutan called _Gigantopithecus_, which is now extinct. Fossils also show that Neanderthals were in Europe and western Asia for at least half a million years before modern humans appeared.

## Classification

Scholars do not agree on exactly how to classify the family Hominidae.

### Past versions

In the past, the family Hominidae have been classified this way:
- Family **Hominidae**: Great apes
    - Subfamily Ponginae
        - Genus _Pongo_  orangutans
    - Subfamily Homininae
        - Genus _Gorilla_ – gorillas
        - Genus _Pan_ – chimpanzees
        - _Australopithecus_† and other extinct relatives
        - Genus _Homo_ – humans

### Modern version

A more recent classification shows humans and the Australopithecines as distinct from the rainforest apes. Two major reference works have supported this approach.

Superfamily Hominoidea
- Family Hylobatidae
        - Genus _Hylobates_
- Family **Hominidae**
    - Subfamily Ponginae
        - Genus _Pongo_
    - Subfamily Gorillinae
        - Genus _Gorilla_
    - Subfamily Homininae
        - Tribe Panini
            - Genus _Pan_
        - Tribe Hominini
            - Subtribe Australopithecina/Hominina
                - Genus _Ardipithecus_
                - Genus _Australopithecus_
                - Genus _Kenyanthropus_
                - Genus _Sahelanthropus_
                - Genus _Orrorin_
                - Genus _Paranthropus_
                - Genus _Homo_

## Related pages

- Human timeline
- Human evolution
Acropolis of Athens

The **Acropolis of Athens** is  the most famous acropolis. It is a large hill, in the center of Athens, on which the Parthenon and other Greek buildings were built. It is often known as _The_ Acropolis.
- The Acropolis is a group of ancient temples that were built on a high, rocky hill in Athens, Greece. The word acropolis even means 'high city' in Greek. Other cities have an acropolis, too, but the one in Athens is the most well-known.

- The Acropolis of Athens is the most striking and complete ancient Greek monumental complex still existing in our times. It is situated on a hill of average height (156m) that rises in the basin of Athens. Its overall dimensions are approximately 170 by 350m.
- The buildings were a citadel where people could escape to if the city was attacked. The Acropolis was mostly destroyed by 580 B.C. The people of Athens weren't going to rebuild it. However, a hundred years later, Themistocles and Pericles persuaded them to build it again.
    - Over the centuries, the Acropolis was many things: a home to kings, a citadel, a mythical home of the gods, a religious center and a tourist attraction. It has withstood bombardment, massive earthquakes and vandalism yet still stands as a reminder of the rich history of Greece.
Canadian Hurricane Centre

The **Canadian Hurricane Centre** (CHC) is a Canadian agency that is responsible for monitoring and tracking tropical cyclones that come near or affects Canadian territory. The agency warns people about on-coming tropical cyclones and makes hurricane advisories when needed. Its headquarters are in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia.

CHC usually works together with its United States counterpart, the National Hurricane Center in Miami, to coordinate the tracks and positions of all storms that show a possible threat to Canada.

While Atlantic hurricanes are normally uncommon in Canada, they do approach or strike from time to time. Among recent events are Hurricane Bob, which struck New Brunswick, in 1991, Hurricane Luis which struck Newfoundland in September 1995, Hurricane Hortense which struck Nova Scotia in September 1996, Hurricane Michael which struck Newfoundland in October 2000, and Hurricane Juan, which struck Nova Scotia in September 2003.

## Other websites

- CHC website
- Official Canadian Weather Warnings
- Hurricane Bulletins for your wireless device
V-type asteroid

**V-type asteroids** or **Vestoids** are asteroids that are similar to 4 Vesta. It is the largest asteroid in this class. This is where the name "V-type" comes from.