juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Edwy of England

**Eadwig All-Fair** or _Edwy_ (940/941 – 1 October 959) was the King of England from 955 until his death. Edwy was the eldest son of King Edmund I and Saint Elgiva. Edwy was chosen in 955 to succeed his uncle Edred as King.

His short reign as King was marked by conflict. He had problems within his family, the Thanes, and the Roman Catholic Church, under the leadership of  Saint Dunstan and Archbishop Odo. Edwy died at the age of eighteen or nineteen, and was succeeded by his rival brother, Edgar, who re-unified the kingdom.

## Infobox (monarch)

- **name**: Eadwig All-Fair
- **title**: King of England
- **image**: Eadwig.jpg
- **succession**: King of England
- **reign**: 23 November 955 — 1 October 959
- **predecessor**: Edred of England, Edred
- **successor**: Edgar of England, Edgar
- **birth date**: 940/941
- **birth place**: Wessex, England
- **death date**: 1 October 959 (aged 18/19)
- **death place**: Gloucester, England
- **burial place**: Winchester Cathedral, England
- **spouse**: Queen Elgiva (annulled)
- **father**: Edmund I of England, Edmund I
- **mother**: Saint Elgiva
Oda of Canterbury

**Saint Oda** or **Odo**, called **the Good** or **the Severe** (d. 958) was a 10th century Archbishop of Canterbury in England.
Magdalen College School, Oxford

**Magdalen College School** is an independent school for boys. It is on the edge of central Oxford, England. It was founded as part of Magdalen College, Oxford by Thomas Becket in 1480

The school was originally founded by William Waynflete to educate the sixteen boy choristers of Magdalen College, Oxford University who sang in the college's chapel. Important Old Waynfletes include William Tyndale, Sam Mendes, Alex Lennox, Tim Hunt, and Ben Goldacre.

## Other websites

- Magdalen College School website
- ISI inspection report
- A history of the choristers of Magdalen College School, Oxford
Lincolnshire

**Lincolnshire**  ( or ; abbreviated **Lincs**) is a county in the east of England. It borders Norfolk, Cambridgeshire, Rutland, Leicestershire, Nottinghamshire, South Yorkshire, the East Riding of Yorkshire, and (for just 19 metres or 20 yards, England's shortest county boundary) Northamptonshire. Its county town is the ancient city of Lincoln.

## Related pages

- Grantham
- Lincoln

## Other websites

- Lincolnshire County Council website
- Visitlincolnshire.com
- Official Lincolnshire Flag site
- Lincolnshire Life magazine
- Extremehorizon a local resource for surfing in Lincolnshire
- Lincolnshire Show official website
- History of the Royal Air Force in Lincolnshire

## Infobox (england county)

- **name**: Lincolnshire
- **image**:
Lincolnshire flag, Flag
- **motto**: Land and God
- **map**:
- **status**: Ceremonial counties of England, Ceremonial and (smaller) Metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties of England, non-metropolitan county
- **region**: East Midlands
Yorkshire and the Humber <small> (North Lincolnshire &
 North East Lincolnshire)</small>
- **arearank**: List of Ceremonial counties of England by Area, Ranked 2nd
- **area km2**: 6959
- **adminarearank**: List of Administrative shire counties of England by Area, Ranked 4th
- **adminarea km2**: 5921
- **adminhq**: Lincoln, England, Lincoln
- **iso**: GB-LIN
- **ons**: 32
- **nuts3**: UKF30
- **poprank**: List of ceremonial counties of England by population, Ranked
- **adminpoprank**: List of non-metropolitan counties of England by population, Ranked
- **ethnicity**: 98.5% White
- **council**:
Lincolnshire County Council
http://www.lincolnshire.gov.uk/
- **mps**: *<small>Nicholas Boles (Conservative Party (UK), Con)</small>
*<small>Nic Dakin (Labour Party (UK), Lab)</small>
*<small>John Henry Hayes (Conservative Party (UK), Con)</small>
*<small>Edward Leigh (Conservative Party (UK), Con)</small>
*<small>Karl McCartney (Conservative Party (UK), Con)</small>

*<small>Austin Mitchell (Labour Party (UK), Lab)</small>
*<small>Andrew Percy (Conservative Party (UK), Con)</small>
*<small>Stephen Phillips (politician), Stephen Phillips (Conservative Party (UK), Con)</small>
*<small>Mark Jonathon Mortlock Simmonds, Mark Simmonds (Conservative Party (UK), Con)</small>
*<small>Peter Tapsell (UK politician), Peter Tapsell (Conservative Party (UK), Con)</small>
*<small>Martin Vickers (Conservative Party (UK), Con)</small>
- **subdivmap**:
- **subdivs**: #Lincoln, England, Lincoln
#North Kesteven
#South Kesteven
#South Holland, England, South Holland
#Boston (borough), Boston
#East Lindsey
#West Lindsey
#North Lincolnshire (Unitary)
#North East Lincolnshire (Unitary)
- **flag image**: Lincolnshire flag.svg
Norfolk

**Norfolk** is a low-lying county in East Anglia in the east of southern England. It has borders with Lincolnshire to the west, Cambridgeshire to the west and southwest and with Suffolk to the south. Its northern and eastern boundaries are the North Sea coast, including The Wash. The county town is Norwich. Norfolk is home to the Norfolk Broads, a famous tourist and wildlife spot.

## People from Norfolk

- Horatio Nelson (1758—1805), the English naval commander, was born at Burnham Thorpe, Norfolk.
- Steve Flint (born 1961) in Thetford, at age 19 became, the first Norfolk athlete to run under four minutes for the mile. He did this at the Inter-County Championships in Birmingham on May 26 1980.

## Other websites

- Norfolk County Council
- BBC Norfolk
- NorfolkBroads.com
- Guide to Norfolk businesses
- Norfolk Guide
- Norfolk And Norwich Online
- Long Stratton Community Forum
- Wymondham YFC
- Norfolk Federation of Young Farmers Clubs
- An online guided tour of Norfolk in pictures
- http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/3159813.stm
- Norfolk Photos
- Norfolk Watermills & Windmills

## Infobox (english county)

- **official name**: Norfolk
- **locator map**:
- **region**: East of England
- **established date**: Anglo-Saxon period
- **lord lieutenant office**: Lord Lieutenant of Norfolk
- **lord lieutenant name**: The Lady Dannatt
- **high sheriff office**: High Sheriff of Norfolk
- **high sheriff name**: Georgina Roberts (Lady Roberts of Swaffham) (2020–21)
- **area total rank**: 5th
- **ethnicity**: 96.5% white
- **county council**: Norfolk County Council
- **executive**: Labour
- **admin hq**: Norwich
- **area council km2**: 5372
- **iso code**: GB-NFK
- **gss code**: E10000020
- **nuts code**: TLH13
- **districts map**:
- **districts list**: #Norwich
#South Norfolk
#Great Yarmouth (borough), Great Yarmouth
#Broadland
#North Norfolk
#King's Lynn and West Norfolk
#Breckland District, Breckland
- **mps**: List of parliamentary constituencies in Norfolk, 10 MPs
- **police**: Norfolk Constabulary
- **image caption**: **Clockwise from top**: Cley next the Sea and its Cley Windmill, windmill; Norwich Cathedral; and the King's Lynn Guildhall, Guildhall, King's Lynn, showing Norfolk flint flushwork
Leicestershire

**Leicestershire** (abbreviated **Leics**) is a county in central England. It takes its name from the heavily populated City of Leicester, its traditional administrative centre, although the City of Leicester is today administered separately from the rest of Leicestershire. The county borders onto Lincolnshire, Rutland, Northamptonshire, Warwickshire, Staffordshire, Derbyshire, and Nottinghamshire.

Leicestershire was recorded in the Domesday Book.

## Other websites

- Leicester Mercury
- Wartime Leicestershire
- Official tourism website for Leicester & Leicestershire
- The Jitty, an information site for young people in Leicestershire
- Leicestershire Bands website

## Infobox (english county)

- **official name**: Leicestershire
- **image caption**: Loughborough Carillon; the National Space Centre (England), National Space Centre, Leicester; and Belvoir Castle
- **locator map**: Leicestershire UK locator map 2010.svg
- **map caption**: Leicestershire within England
- **region**: East Midlands
- **established date**: Historic counties of England, Historic
- **lord lieutenant office**: Lord Lieutenant of Leicestershire
- **lord lieutenant name**: Mike Kapur
- **high sheriff office**: High Sheriff of Leicestershire
- **high sheriff name**: Henrietta Chubb (2023–24)
- **county town**: Leicester
- **largest city**: Leicester
- **county council**: Leicestershire County Council
- **admin hq**: County Hall, Glenfield
- **area council km2**: 2083
- **iso code**: GB-LEC
- **gss code**: E10000018
- **nuts code**: TLF22
- **districts map**:
- **districts key**: Unitary  County council area
- **districts list**: # North West Leicestershire
# Leicester
- **mps**: List of parliamentary constituencies in Leicestershire and Rutland, 10 MPs
Earl

An **Earl** (or **Jarl**) was a title for nobility used by Anglo-Saxons and Scandinavians. It originally meant "chieftain" and it referred especially to chieftains set to rule a territory in a king's stead. In Scandinavia, it stopped being used in the Middle Ages, whereas, in Britain, it became synonymous with the continental count.
In Anglo-Saxon times the title was similar to that of Ealdorman.

Today, an earl is a member of the British peerage, and is below a Marquess, but above a Viscount. A British Earl is the same as a continental Count. Since there is no feminine form of **Earl**, the wife of an Earl has the rank of Countess (the continental equivalent).
Spiny lobster

**Spiny lobsters**, also known as **rock lobsters** are a family (**Palinuridae**) of about 45 species of   crustaceans, in the Decapoda Reptantia. Spiny lobsters are also called _crayfish_, _sea crayfish_ or _crawfish_.

Although they superficially resemble true lobsters in terms of overall shape, and that they also have a hard carapace and exoskeleton, the two groups are not closely related. Spiny lobsters can be easily distinguished from true lobsters by their very long, thick, spiny antennae, and by their complete lack of claws (_chelae_); true lobsters have much smaller antennae and claws on the first three pairs of legs, with the first being particularly enlarged. Like true lobsters, however, spiny lobsters are edible and are an economically significant food source; they are the biggest food export of the Bahamas .

Spiny lobsters are found in almost all warm seas, including the Caribbean and the Mediterranean Sea, but are particularly common in Australasia, where they are referred to commonly as crayfish or sea crayfish (_Jasus novaehollandiae_ and _Jasus edwardsii_), and South Africa (_Jasus lalandii_). A new species, _Palinurus barbarae_ was described in 2006.

The largest spiny lobster on record was over 1 m (3 ft) long and weighed over 11.8 kg (26 lb).

Spiny lobsters tend to live in crevices of rocks and coral reefs, only occasionally venturing out at night to seek snails, clams, crabs, sea urchins or carrion to eat. Sometimes, they migrate _en masse_, in long files of lobsters across the sea floor. Potential predators may be deterred from eating spiny lobsters by a loud screech made by the antennae of the spiny lobsters rubbing against a smooth part of the exoskeleton . Spiny lobsters usually exhibit social habit by being together. However recent studies indicate that healthy lobsters move away from infected ones and leaving the diseased lobsters to fend for itself .

The furry lobsters (_e.g._ _Palinurellus_) are sometimes separated into a family of their own, the Synaxidae, but are usually considered members of the Palinuridae. The slipper lobsters (Scyllaridae) are their next closest relatives, and these two or three families make up the Achelata. Genera of spiny lobsters include _Palinurus_ and a number of anagrams thereof: _Panulirus_, _Linuparus_, _etc._ (Palinurus was also a helmsman in Virgil's Æneid.)

## Related pages

- American lobster
Bromeliad

**Bromeliads** are a family of tropical plants which includes the pineapple and several colourful houseplants. They are nearly all from Latin America and the Caribbean islands, except for Spanish moss from the southern United States, and a single kind from Africa.

## Well-known kinds of bromeliad

**Pineapples** (Latin name: _Ananas_). See Pineapple.

**Air plants** (Latin name: _Tillandsia_) are very curious because they do not need any roots to stay alive. Instead they soak up moisture from the air around them through tiny, silvery scales on their leaves. They have so many of these scales that the whole plant can look grey. In the wild they grow on tree banches in rainy and misty areas. In the Caribbean there is a kind that grows on telephone wires!

**Urn plants** (Latin name: _Aechmea_) are easy to keep. They grow to about 60 cm across, but because the stiff, green-and-grey leaves have spiny edges, they need to be out of the way. Urn plants got their name because they have a hole in the middle made by the ring-shaped arrangement of their leaves. This central urn fills up with rainwater in the wild and is often home to insects and frogs. Its flowers are held high on a single stem, and protected by a globe of small, pink leaves which lasts for several months.

**Vriesias** (Latin names: _Vriesia_ and _Guzmania_) are like urn plants, but they have no spines and their leaves are softer. They are often sold in flower shops (and sometimes in supermarkets) and are very easy to look after. Their flowers grow on a single stem, protected by flattened, colourful leaves. It is better not to fill the central space with water, as these soft-leaved plants might rot. instead their soil should be watered.

### Spanish moss

**Spanish moss** (Latin name: _Tillandsia usneoides_) is a grey plant found hanging from trees in the swamps of the southern United States, especially in Louisiana but as far east as coastal Virginia. To the south it spreads as far as Chile and Argentina. It gained its current name from Spanish and French colonisers in the Gulf of Mexico. The French called it _Barbe Espagnole_ ("Spanish beard") to insult their rivals, and the Spanish in turn called it _Cabello francés_ ("French hair"). Today "Spanish moss" survives as a mild version of the French taunt, although some call the plant "Graybeard".

## Other kinds of bromeliads

***Bromelia***, the plant which gives its name to the family, is the only other bromeliad with edible fruit. Its berries taste a bit like pineapple, but are less tasty, and there are not very many on each plant.

***Fascicularia*** is the only bromeliad that can be grown in frosty areas. It is not killed by frost if it is kept dry in the winter.

***Pitcairnia*** is the only wild bromeliad outside the Americas. One species, _Pitcairnia feliciana_,  was discoved living in West Africa. It is probably descended from seeds carried by migrating birds.

***Puya*** is the largest bromeliad. It can grow up to nine metres tall. It lives in the Andes mountains, and is sometimes eaten by bears for its nectar. In Chile the young leaves of some puyas are eaten in salads.
Cell theory

**Cell theory** is the historic scientific theory, now accepted by everyone, that living organisms are made up of cells. Cells are the basic unit of structure in all organisms and the basic unit of reproduction.

## History

With many improvements made to microscopes over time, magnification technology advanced enough to discover cells in the 17th century. This discovery was made by Robert Hooke and began cell biology, the scientific study of cells. Cell theory was eventually made in 1838. This is usually credited to Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann.
Silicone

**Silicones** () are polymers that include any inert, synthetic compound made up of repeating units of siloxane. This is a functional group of two silicon atoms and one oxygen atom frequently combined with carbon and/ or hydrogen.  They are typically heat-resistant and rubber-like. Silicones are used in sealants, adhesives, lubricants, medicine, cooking utensils, and thermal and electrical insulation. Some common forms include silicone oil, silicone grease, silicone rubber, silicone resin, and silicone caulk. Silicone is also used for cosmetics. Silicones are compounds containing the element silicon (), but have very different properties from the pure element.
Notostraca

The order **Notostraca** has just two living genera in it. _Triops_ and _Lepidura_. The two genera are considered 'living fossils', as they have not changed in outward form since the Triassic.

Notostracans, or **tadpole shrimps**, are omnivores living on the bottom of temporary pools and shallow lakes. They live in pools of water on every continent except Antarctica. They grow very quickly, and can reach adulthood in a week. _Triops_ only live for a short time; a record-breaking female only lived to be 100 _days_. When their pools dry up,adult tadpole shrimp die. Their eggs, however, stop developing for a time. When they are in water again, they come to life, and new _Triops_ are hatched. This is because of a state known as diapause, where eggs can lie dormant for up to twenty years before hatching again.

## Evolution and fossil record

The fossil record of Notostraca is extensive. They occur in a wide range of geological deposits, reaching back to the Carboniferous. The lack of major morphological change since 250 million years ago has led to Notostraca being described as living fossils.

The Notostraca abandoned filter feeding in open water, and took up a benthic lifestyle in muddy waters, taking up food from particles of sediment and preying on small animals.

Notostracans keep the ancient condition of having two separate compound eyes. These touch but do not become united, as does happens in other groups of Branchiopods.
Diatom

**Diatoms** are a type of algae (tiny plant-like living things often found in water). Most are single cells, but some form chains or simple colonies. They usually live in the ocean, but are also found in some soils and waterways.

### Cell walls

Diatom cells have unique cell walls made of silica (SiO<sub>2</sub>). These walls (called "frustules") take many forms, some quite beautiful and ornate.

The name "diatom" comes from the ancient Greek word _diátomos_, which means 'cut through.' Diatom cell walls are usually split (or 'cut through') into two sides.

### Function

Living diatoms comprise about 20 to 50 percent of the oxygen produced annually. They take in over 6.7 billion metric tons of silicon each year from the waters in which they live.

### Similar organisms

Diatoms and coccoliths are the two great groups of single-celled organisms in the sea. They do not grow in the same places, because diatoms are silica and coccoliths are made of calcium carbonate. T.H. Huxley first discovered this on his voyage on _HMS Rattlesnake_ in 18461850.

## Evolution

Archeologists have found diatom fossils from as far back as the Lower Jurassic period, around 185 million years ago. However, molecular clock evidence suggests that they developed even earlier.

Scientists have analyzed the entire genomes of two diatom species. The analysis revealed both species had hundreds of genes that came from bacteria.

Diatoms probably evolved some of their structure from red algae.

## Uses

Diatoms have some practical uses. Scientists can study it to determine water quality, monitor environmental conditions like pollution, and understand what past environments were like.

Diatom communities are also of interest to nanotechnology.
Decapitation

**Decapitation** or **beheading** is the act of cutting off the head from the rest of the body of a living thing. _Beheading_ usually means that the removal of the head is deliberate. It is generally done during an execution with an axe, sword, or guillotine. If the removal of the head is an accident or unintentional, it is called _decapitation_. It can happen because of an auto accident, explosion, factory accident, a mistake during a hanging or some other violent accident.

Decapitation is always fatal, that is, the result is always death. This is because it causes all other organs to stop receiving nervous signals from the brain that are needed to function, while the supply of blood, and therefore oxygen, to the brain itself is also cut off.

Decapitation can also describe the removal of a head from a body that is already dead. In these situations, the head is usually a trophy or a public display of warning.

Beheading was the usual means of death penalty in Scandinavian countries in the past. Noblemen were beheaded with a sword, commoners with an axe. The last execution by beheading in Finland occurred in 1822, when a farmhand Tahvo Putkonen was beheaded for murder. The last beheading in Sweden occurred in 1910, when Johan Andersson-Ander was guillotined for murder. Also Germany, France and Belgium favoured beheading in the past. In those countries was carried out by guillotine.

Last beheading in Europe occurred 1977, when a Tunisian murderer Hamida Djandoubi was guillotined in France.

Some countries, especially Arab countries or former French colonies, still use beheading as the means of execution. In Saudi Arabia, the convicts are beheaded with a sword.

The executioner who performs beheadings is called a **headsman**.

## History

The kingdom of Saudi Arabia has had centuries of public beheadings, but in 2013 is considering firing squads as an alternative means of execution.

### Biblical

- Goliath
- John the Baptist in the Gospels
- Holofernes in the Book of Judith
- Apostle James, traditionally
- Apostle Paul, traditionally

### China

- Guan Yu

### England

- Anne Boleyn (1536)
- Catherine Howard (1542)
- Lady Jane Grey (1554)
- Mary, Queen of Scots (1587)
- Sir Walter Raleigh (1618)
- Charles I, King of England and Scotland (1649)
- Blackbeard (1718)

### The Colonial Americas

- Panama: Vasco Núñez de Balboa (1519)

### Frisia

- Wijerd Jelckama

### French Revolution

- Marie Antoinette
- Louis XVI of France
- Madame du Barry
- Maximilien Robespierre

### Iraq

- Shosei Koda
- Kim Sun-il
- Kenneth Bigley
- Nick Berg
- Eugene Armstrong
- Jack Hensley
- Maher Kemal
- Barzan Ibrahim al-Tikriti

### Switzerland

- Wildhans von Breitenlandenberg and 61 companions following the siege of Greifensee during the Old Zürich War (1444).

### Saudi Arabia

- Paul Marshall Johnson, Jr.

## Related pages

- Execution
- Guillotine
Angevin Empire

The **Angevin Empire** was a collection of states ruled by the Angevin Plantagenet dynasty. The Plantagenets, Henry II of England, Richard I of England, and John of England, ruled over an area from the Pyrenees to Ireland during the 12th and early 13th centuries. Their empire was roughly half of medieval France as well as all of England and Ireland. The name _Angevin_ came from the French region and town of Anjou which was the home of the Plantagenet family.
Spine

The **spine** is a column of vertebrae in the back part of the torso (upper body). It is also called the **backbone** or **vertebral column**. There is a spinal canal that runs through the length of the spine. Inside this canal is the spinal cord. Animals that have a spine are called vertebrates, and animals that do not have one are called invertebrates. Humans have a spine, so we are vertebrates. Many vertebrates, including mammals, have intervertebral discs separating the vertebrae.

## Regions

The vertebral column has five _regions_. These regions from top to bottom are:
- Cervical - Shown in red, this region supports the head. It is made up of 7 vertebrae. The first two, called the atlas and axis, connect the spine to the skull.
- Thoracic - Shown in blue, this region supports the ribs. It is made up of 12 vertebrae.
- Lumbar - Shown in yellow, this region is located in the lower back. It is made up of 5 vertebrae.
- Sacral - Shown in green. It is made up of 5 vertebrae that are fused together.
- Coccygeal - Shown in purple. It is made up of 3 to 5 vertebrae.

## Spinal canal

The spinal column has an opening called spinal canal and this opening is used for nerves. The part of the central nervous system in the spinal column is called spinal cord.

## Other websites

- North American Spine Society is a multidisciplinary medical organization that advances quality spine care through education, research and advocacy.
- Spinal anatomy and back pain
- Spine anatomy illustrations
- Spine anatomy
- Vertebral column basics
Pyrenees

The **Pyrenees** (; , ; ; ; ) are a range of mountains in southwest Europe that form a natural border between France and Spain. They separate the _Iberian Peninsula_ from France, and extend for about 430 km (267 mi) from the Atlantic Ocean (Bay of Biscay) to the Mediterranean Sea (Cap de Creus).

## Other websites

- Great Routes: Pirineos , from a website of the Instituto de Turismo de España
- Official website  of _France's Pyrenees National Park_
- Cycling the French High Pyrenees and Ariege Pyrenees photos and video by steephill.tv bike travelogue
- The Aude and Pyrénées-Orientales  Online resource for the Aude & Pyrénées-Orientales departments of the Languedoc-Roussillon.

## Infobox (mountain)

- **name**: The Pyrenees Mountains
- **other name**:

- **etymology**: Named for Pyrene (mythology), Pyrene
- **photo**: Central pyrenees.jpg
- **photo caption**: Central Pyrenees seen from the summit of the Pic du Midi de Bigorre
- **country type**: Countries
- **length km**: 491
- **highest**: Aneto
- **elevation m**: 3404
- **map image**: Pyrenees topographic map-en.svg
- **map caption**: Topographic map
Dartmoor

**Dartmoor** is a national park in Devon, a county in England. Its highest point is High Willhays, 621 metres high. This is the highest point in the south of England. It has a large area of moorland, and is very hilly. There is much woodland on its lower slopes.

Dartmoor is famous for its tors—outcrops of rock on top of many of its hills. These are the remains of volcanic activity in the Carboniferous period.

Animal life on Dartmoor includes birds such as the ring ouzel and dunlin, and the endangered marsh fritillary butterfly. Its bogs are home to many unusual plants such as the sundew - false information

On 2 August 2023, the Royal Marines reported that they lost a standard-issue SA80 rifle during a training exercise. It has not been found.

## Other websites

- Dartmoor National Park Authority
- Ten Tors Official Website
Cirencester

**Cirencester** is a town in Gloucestershire in England. People first moved there in Roman times. It currently has a population of 19,076. It is 93 miles west of London, and is between Swindon, Cheltenham and Gloucester.

The town is home to the Church of St. John the Baptist built in the 12th century.
Seppuku

**Seppuku** is a old Japanese ritual suicide where a samurai kills himself by cutting into his belly. After one had done so, a second person would cut off his head. It was thought that seppuku was an honorable way to die. Sometimes, it is called **hara-kiri**, which is translated from Japanese as _belly-cutting_.

Seppuku first developed in the 12th century as a means for samurai to achieve an honorable death. Swordsmen performed the ritual to avoid capture following battlefield defeats, but it also functioned as a means of protest and a way of expressing grief over the death of a revered leader. Beginning in the 1400s, seppuku evolved into a common form of capital punishment for samurai who had committed crimes. In each case, it was considered an act of extreme bravery and self-sacrifice that embodied Bushido, the ancient warrior code of the samurai.

There was even a female version of seppuku called “jigai,” which involved cutting the throat using a special knife known as a “tanto.”

## Overview

Seppuku was a key part of bushido, the honor code of the samurai warriors. It was used by warriors so that they would not fall into enemy hands and be shamed. It was possible also that a samurai received an order from his master to commit seppuku.

Because seppuku was an honorable act, a warrior who was caught by the enemy was sometimes given the choice between seppuku and being executed. If he chose seppuku, he could protect his honor. Samurai women had to ask for permission to commit seppuku.

This act could be performed either with a ritual, or quietly on the battlefield while other warriors fight the enemy.

The main weapon used was the samurai's knife called tantō or the short sword, called wakizashi. A samurai who wants to commit seppuku would take the weapon, open his kimono and stab the blade into his belly. He would make a deep cut from right to left. An assistant of the warrior committing seppuku (called _kaishakunin_) would immediately cut off his head.

Seppuku fell out of favor with the decline of the samurai in the late-19th century, but the practice did not disappear entirely. Japanese General Nogi Maresuke disemboweled himself in 1912 out of loyalty to the deceased Meiji Emperor, and many troops later chose the sword over surrender during World War II. Perhaps the most famous case in recent history concerns Yukio Mishima, a renowned novelist and Nobel Prize nominee who committed ritual seppuku in 1970 after leading a failed coup against the Japanese government.<sup>(Citations need)</sup>
Sow bug

A **sow bug** or **woodlouse** is a small land arthropod (jointed-legged animal). They are often confused with centipedes, millipedes or insects, but are actually crustaceans. They have fourteen legs and breathe through gills. Because of the gills, woodlice need water in the air around them. They mostly eat dead plants, and are considered helpful, because they act as "garbage collectors." Some species can roll up into a ball when in danger. In such position, their hard shell faces out, protecting the softer parts of the body.

Sow bugs do not look like shrimps or crabs, although they are closely related.
Lou Pearlman

**Louis Jay Pearlman** (June 19, 1954 - August 19, 2016) was an American record producer and fraudster. He was born in Flushing, Queens, New York City. He was a first cousin of the musician Art Garfunkel. He used to live in Orlando, Florida.  He was the person behind many successful 1990s boy bands, having formed and funded the Backstreet Boys. After their massive success, he then developed NSYNC.

In 2006, he was accused of running one of the largest and longest-running Ponzi schemes in United States history, leaving more than $300 million in debts. After attempting to evade capture, Pearlman was caught in Bali, Indonesia in June 2007. He pled guilty to conspiracy, money laundering, and making false statements during a bankruptcy proceedings.

In 2008, Pearlman was convicted and sentenced to up to 25 years in prison. He died of a stroke in prison in Texarkana, Texas.

## Other reading

- Cited as Henderson 2006.
- Cited as Pearlman 2002.

## Other websites

- officialloupearlman.com

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **embed**: yes
- **background**: non_performing_personnel
- **genre**: Dance-pop
- **occupation**: Record producer, manager
- **years active**: 1993–2006


## Infobox (person)

- **name**: Lou Pearlman
- **image**: Lou-pearlman-mugshot.jpg
- **caption**: 2007 arrest mugshot
- **birth name**: Louis Jay Pearlman
- **birth place**: Flushing, New York, Flushing, New York (state), New York, United States, U.S.
- **death place**: Miami, Florida, U.S.
- **resting place**: New Montefiore Cemetery
- **criminal charge**: * conspiracy (crime), conspiracy
* money laundering
* making false statements
- **criminal penalty**: 25 years in prison
- **criminal status**: Deceased
Jamestown

**Jamestown** may refer to:

### Australia

- Jamestown, South Australia

### Barbados

- Holetown, Saint James, Barbados; sometimes called its founding name, Jamestown

### Canada

- Mount Olive-Silverstone-Jamestown, a neighbourhood of Toronto, Ontario

### Ghana

- Jamestown, Ghana, a district of the city of Accra

### Ireland

- Jamestown, County Laois
- Jamestown, County Leitrim

### New Zealand

- Jamestown, New Zealand

### Saint Kitts and Nevis

- Jamestown, the name of a former town on the edge of Morton Bay on Nevis in the late 17th century

### South Africa

- Jamestown, South Africa

### United Kingdom

- Jamestown, Rossshire, Scotland
- Jamestown, West Dunbartonshire, Scotland
- Jamestown, Fife, Scotland

#### Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha

- Jamestown, Saint Helena, a harbour and the capital of Saint Helena

### United States

- Jamestown, California
- Jamestown, Colorado
- Jamestown, Indiana, in Boone County
- Jamestown, Elkhart County, Indiana
- Jamestown, Kansas
- Jamestown, Kentucky
- Jamestown, Louisiana
- Jamestown, Missouri
- Jamestown, New York, the largest American city bearing the name
- Jamestown, North Carolina
- Jamestown, North Dakota, the second largest city bearing the name
- Jamestown, Ohio
- Jamestown, Oklahoma
- Jamestown, Pennsylvania
- Jamestown, Rhode Island
- Jamestown, South Carolina
- Jamestown, Tennessee
- Jamestown, Virginia, the first permanent English settlement in what is now the United States
    - Jamestown Settlement, the living history museum reconstruction of the town
    - Historic Jamestowne, the archaeological site of the original town
- Jamestown S'Klallam Indian Reservation, Washington
- Jamestown, West Virginia
- Jamestown, Wisconsin
- James Town, Wyoming
- Jamestown Township, Steuben County, Indiana
- Jamestown Charter Township, Michigan
- Jamestown Township, Blue Earth County, Minnesota
- Jamestown Dam, a dam in North Dakota

## Other uses

- Jamestown (horse), American Champion racehorse
- The Indian massacre of 1622, often referred to as the Jamestown Massacre, in the Virginian town of Jamestown
- Jamestown (video game), a video game developed and published by Final Form Games.
Stillbirth

A **stillbirth** happens when a fetus (unborn baby) dies while still inside the mother or dies during delivery (childbirth). It is said that the delivered baby is _stillborn_. Stillbirth is different from a miscarriage because a stillbirth happens after the baby has been living inside its mother 20 to 24 weeks (depending on the country). It is called a miscarriage if the baby lived inside the mother for less time.

## Causes

The causes of many stillbirths are unknown, even when special tests are done to learn the cause.
- nicotine, alcohol, or drugs taken by the mother during pregnancy
- physical trauma
- radiation poisoning
- Rh disease
- umbilical cord problems

## Occurrence

The number of stillbirths in the United States is about 1 in 115 births, which is about 26,000 a year, or one every 20 minutes. In developing countries, where medical care is not as advanced or good, the number of stillbirths is higher.

In Australia, England, Wales, and Northern Ireland, the rate is about 1 in 200 babies.

## After stillbirth

The death of the baby is usually treated like the death of an older baby.  The family may have a funeral. The body of the dead baby can be buried or cremated (burned).  In some places, there are special places for putting the bodies or the ashes of stillborn babies.

The mother may be ill.  Her body may be hurt from having the baby.

### United Kingdom

In the UK, any baby that leaves its mother's body after 24 weeks and does not show any signs of life is called a _stillbirth_. The mother or father must tell the government about the baby. A Stillbirth Certificate is given to the family.

### Australia

In Australia, any stillborn fetus that weighs more than 400 grams and lived in the mother for more than 20 weeks must be reported to the government.

### United States

The United States does not have a formal definition of _stillborn_ babies.  All pregnancies are legally called either: _live birth_, _fetal death_, or _induced termination of pregnancy_ (abortion). The law does not have a difference between a stillbirth and a miscarriage. However, it is recommended to register infants who weighed over 350 grams or who lived over 19 weeks inside the mother before dying.

## Related pages

- Fetus
- Childbirth
- Abortion

## Footnotes and references

- Pregnancy Institute  founded by Dr. Jason H. Collins, OB/GYN specializes in umbilical cord research
- March of Dimes: Quick reference and fact sheet
- Investigating perinatal death: a review of the options when autopsy consent is refused.
- Stillbirth at h2g2 - written by a bereaved mother

## Other websites

- The Wisconsin Stillbirth Service Program (WiSSP), a branch of the University of Wisconsin-Madison's Clinical Genetics Center.  One of the foremost authorities on the causes of stillbirth and responsible for many stillbirth evaluation protocols, including the widespread use of the Kleihauer-Betke test in deciding whether Rh disease is to blame for a stillbirth.
- First-person story of one woman's journey through stillbirth
Arizona Cardinals

The **Arizona Cardinals** are a professional American football team in the National Football League (NFL). They are based in the Phoenix suburb of Glendale, Arizona. They are the oldest continuous professional American football club in the United States, founded in 1899 in Chicago, Illinois. They moved to St. Louis, Missouri in 1960 before moving to Phoenix in 1988. The head coach of the team is Mike LaFleur. As of 2019, their starting quarterback is Kyler Murray. Drew Stanton is currently the number 2 quarterback. Arizona Cardinals play their home games at State Farm Stadium. The Arizona Cardinals played in Super Bowl XLIII, but lost to the Pittsburgh Steelers. The Cardinals have had notable players play for the franchise including Kurt Warner and Larry Fitzgerald.

## Other websites

- Official Site

## Infobox (nfl team)

- **name**: Arizona Cardinals
- **hist yr**: 1994
- **no playoff appearances**: 10
- **playoff appearances**: * **NFL:** 1947 NFL Championship Game, 1947, 1948 NFL Championship Game, 1948, , , , , , , ,
- **div champs**: * **NFL Western:** 1947 NFL season, 1947, 1948 NFL season, 1948
* **NFC East:** 1974 NFL season, 1974, 1975 NFL season, 1975
* **NFC West:** 2008 NFL season, 2008, 2009 NFL season, 2009, 2015 NFL season, 2015
- **league champs**: * **List of NFL champions (1920–1969), NFL Championships (pre-1970 AFL–NFL merger) (2)**
1925 NFL Championship controversy, 1925, 1947 NFL Championship Game, 1947
- **no div champs**: 7
- **conf champs**: ***NFC:** 2008–09 NFL playoffs, 2008
- **no conf champs**: 1
- **no sb champs**: 1
- **no league champs**: 2
- **division hist**: * Western Division (1933–1949)
* American Conference (1950–1952)
* Eastern Conference (1953–1969)
** Century Division (1967–1969)
* **National Football Conference (1970–present)**
** NFC East (1970–2001)
** **NFC West (2002–present)**
- **nfl start yr**: 1920
- **hist misc**: :_Since 1920:_
* History of the Chicago Cardinals, Racine Cardinals (1920–1921)
* History of the Chicago Cardinals, Chicago Cardinals (1922–1943, 1945–1959)
* Card-Pitt (1944)
* History of the St. Louis Cardinals (NFL), St. Louis Cardinals (1960–1987)
* Phoenix Cardinals (1988–1993)
- **nicknames**: * The Cards
* The Redbirds
* The Big Red
- **current**: 2020 Arizona Cardinals season
- **mascot**: Big Red (Cardinals mascot), Big Red
- **president**: Michael Bidwill
- **chairman**: Michael Bidwill
- **owner**: Michael Bidwill
- **general manager**: Monti Ossenfort
- **coach**: Mike LaFleur
- **colors**: Cardinal red, white, black

- **uniform**: File:Ariz Cardinals uniforms.png
- **misc**: _Headquartered_ in Tempe, Arizona
- **city**: State Farm Stadium
Glendale, Arizona
- **wordmark**: Arizona Cardinals wordmark.svg
- **stadium years**: :_Since 1920:_
* Normal Park (1920–1921, 1926–1928)
* Comiskey Park (1922–1925, 1929–1930, 1939–1958)
* Wrigley Field (1931–1938)
* Forbes Field (1944)
* Soldier Field (1959, 4 games)
* Metropolitan Stadium (1959, 2 games)
* Sportsman's Park (1960–1965)
* Busch Memorial Stadium (1966–1987)
* Sun Devil Stadium (1988–2005)
* **State Farm Stadium (2006–present)**
Totnes

**Totnes** is a town in South Devon, South West England. 7,800 people live there. It has many old buildings dating back to Tudor times, and it has the remains of a Norman castle. The town stands on the River Dart, at the highest point reached by the tide.

Totnes is well known in Britain for its large New Age community, although some of these people are moving away from the town. The town has many interesting shops selling health food and books, and there are also many art and craft shops.

A local legend says that Totnes was begun by Brutus of Troy after the Trojan war. There is a stone in the high street called the Brutus Stone. This is where people say he first stepped on British soil.

## Other websites

- Tourist information
- Totnes Museum
- Totnes Community Magazine
Chiffon cake

A **chiffon cake** is a type of sponge cake. It is a cake that is made using vegetable oil instead of butter. This gives the cake a foam-like texture. Because there is no butter in the cakes, they are more healthy but have less flavor. Chiffon cakes are usually served by soaking the cake layer in a cake syrup (which is nothing more than 2 parts water to 1 part sugar) to provide it with moisture since it's dry in nature.

## History

The chiffon cake was invented in 1927 by Harry Baker, a California insurance salesman turned caterer. Baker kept the recipe secret for 20 years until he sold it to General Mills. At this point the name was changed to "chiffon cake" and a set of 14 recipes and variations was released to the public in a Betty Crocker pamphlet published in 1948.
Three Character Classic

The **Three Character Classic**, **Trimetric Classic** or **San Zi Jing** (三字經, 三字经) is a written work from China. Many people believe that Wang Yinglin wrote it during the Song Dynasty. It is named Three Character Classic because each line has three Chinese words, which are called "characters." It is often used to teach children how to say words.

## Other websites

- Song dynasty Chinese text with English translation.
- The Three Character Classic in Chinese with the Herbert Giles English Translation.
- Another English translation.
Palm OS

**Palm OS** is an operating system that is made to work on small computerdevices, mostly Personal Digital Assistants. Palm OS was first released in 1996, when the Palm 1000 was released.
Ural Mountains

The **Ural Mountains** (), also known simply as the **Urals**, is a mountain range that runs roughly north and south through western Russia.

## Geography

The Urals stretch 2,500 km from the Kazakh steppes along the northern border of Kazakhstan to the coast of the Arctic Ocean. The island of Novaya Zemlya forms a further continuation of the chain. Geographically this range marks the northern part of the border between Asian and European sections of the Eurasian continent. Its highest peak is Mount Narodnaya (Poznurr, 1895 m).

## Other websites

- Five parts of the Ural Mountains
Ishmael

**Ishmael** (,  ʾIsmāʿīl) was the first son of Abraham and Hagar, an Egyptian servant.

He was a son of Abraham, descendant of Arpachshad, son of Shem, son of Noah, grandson of Methuselah and coming from line of Seth, son of Adam and Eve, first human.

## In the Book of Genesis

When Abraham (then called Abram) was married to Sarai for ten years without having any children, Sarai told Abram to marry her Egyptian servant Hagar and he did. After getting pregnant, Hagar became arrogant so Sarai treated her badly and she ran away. Then an Angel convinced Hagar to go back and said her son would be called Ishmael. Hagar gave birth to a son and Abram named him Ishmael.

When Abram was circumcised, G-d changed his name to Abraham. And Ishmael was also circumcised and was thirteen years old at the time. One year later, Sarai whose name was now Sarah gave birth to a son while she was 90 years old and Abraham was 100. Abraham circumcised the boy eight days later and named him Isaac. When Sarah saw how Ishmael played with his half-brother Isaac, she told Abraham “cast out this slave woman and her son from before me” but Abraham didn’t want to do that so G-d told Abraham to listen to Sarah. So Abraham sent Ishmael and Hagar away with water. Then Ishmael got sick so Hagar gave him all the water and then looked for more so an Angel showed her a well. Hagar gave Ishmael water and he got better. Ishmael went to Egypt, married an Egyptian woman and became the father of twelve sons and one daughter.

## Death of Abraham

After Abraham died, Isaac and Ishmael buried him in the Cave of Machpelah in Hebron next to his wife Sarah

## Basemath

After Ishmael died, his daughter Basemath married Esau, who was one of Isaac’s sons.

## Sale of Joseph

When Judah and his brothers sold Joseph into slavery, they sold him to the Ishmaelites, who were Ishmael’s grandchildren.

## Islam

In Islam, Ishmael is believed to be the ancestor of the Arabs, while Isaac is the ancestor of the Jews.

## _Moby-Dick_

In _Moby-Dick_ by Harman Melville, the narrator Ishmael is named after the Hebrew Bible.
Steppe

In physical geography, a **steppe** is a plain without trees (apart from those near rivers and lakes). The term comes from “flat grassy plain” in Russian. It is similar to a short-grass prairie, although a prairie is generally considered as North America, and the steppe is in eastern Europe and central Asia. Sometimes the short-grass prairie in North America is also called a steppe. Similar places in Africa are called savanna. The world's largest steppe, sometimes called The Great Steppe, is in Russia.

The Mongolian Steppe, also known as the Eastern Steppe, is located in northern Mongolia. It is between the Altai Mountains in the west and the Greater Khingan Region in the east.

## Climate and Landscape

It may be semi-desert, or covered with grass or shrubs or both, depending on the season and latitude. It is the sort of climate that is in regions too dry for a forest, but not so dry that there are only deserts. The soil is too moist for a desert, but too dry for normal forest life. Steppes receive slightly more rain than deserts do. The climates in steppes are usually temperate. They are pretty dry because there is very minimal rain.

## Culture

This is an open area, and often there were long distances between places with good water. People who lived in this type of area were often nomads, often traveling by horses. Genghis Khan was a great warrior from Mongolia who lived on the steppe. The majority of people in the steppe are nomads. Families in Mongolia live in "gers" which is a large portable tent. Mongolians are also master horse riders so many families own many horses that roam the steppe. The people in the steppe interact with the steppe with using the animals there for there food and drink. They also have a very prominent musical culture with a wide variety of traditional Mongolian songs.

In the United States, the cowboy herded cattle in the steppe, moving from place to place by horse. During the Dust Bowl in the 1930s in North America, farmers who had recently settled on the land and started farms suddenly found themselves without food. Many of them left. Eventually they learned to plow differently and plant crops that survived a drought better, and to plant trees in rows called windbreaks.

## Related pages

- Eurasian Steppe
Plain

In geography, a **plain** is a large area of land with no hills or mountains. Plains mostly are more suitable for farming than plateaus or mountains.

List of famous plains:
- Canterbury Plains, New Zealand
- Gangetic Plains of India, Bangladesh, North India,Nepal
- Great Plains, United States
- Indus Valley Plain, Pakistan
- Kantō Plain, Japan
- Nullarbor Plain, Australia
- Khuzestan Plain, Iran
- Mazandaran Plain, Iran
- Pannonian Plain, Central Europe
- Salisbury Plain, England

## Related pages

- Landform
- Floodplain
- Grassland
- Meadow
- Pasture
- Plateau
- Prairie
- Rangeland
- Savanna
- Steppe
Mint

**Mint** can mean different things:
- Mentha, a genus of plants called _mint_
- Mint (candy), a sweet food made with the flavor of _mentha_
- Mint (money), a factory that makes currency
Champagne

**Champagne** can mean a number of things:
- Champagne (wine), a sparkling wine
- Champagne (wine region), the area where the wine is made
- Champagne (province), a historical region in France, ruled in the past by the Counts of Champagne
- Champagne-Ardenne, a modern administrative region of France
- _Champagne_ (movie), a 1928 movie by Alfred Hitchcock

In Switzerland:
- Champagne, Switzerland

In the US:
- Champaign, Illinois
- Champaign County, Illinois