juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Already Gone

**"Already Gone"** is a song by the recording artist Kelly Clarkson from her 2009 record _All I Ever Wanted_. This was the third single from that album to be released. The song is about the breakup of a relationship. Its release was surrounded by controversy: Clarkson said the arrangement used for the song was strongly similar to the 2008 song _Halo_ from singer Beyoncé and feared the public would say Clarkson had stolen it. Despite this, however, the song received strong praise from critics, and _Already Gone_ became one of the highlights from _All I Ever Wanted_. On the _Billboard_ Hot 100 the single peaked at #13.
De Morgan's laws

In boolean algebra, **DeMorgan's laws** are the laws of how a NOT gate affects AND and OR statements:

They can be remembered by "break the line, change the sign".

## Truth tables

The following truth tables prove DeMorgan's laws.

<div style="display: flex; flex-wrap: wrap; gap: 1em;">

<div style="display: inline-block;">
|**INPUT**|**OUTPUT 1**|**OUTPUT 2**||
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|A|B|NOT (A AND B)|(NOT A) OR (NOT B)|
|0|0|1|1|
|0|1|1|1|
|1|0|1|1|
|1|1|0|0|
</div>

<div style="display: inline-block;">
|**INPUT**|**OUTPUT 1**|**OUTPUT 2**||
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|A|B|NOT (A OR B)|(NOT A) AND (NOT B)|
|0|0|1|1|
|0|1|0|0|
|1|0|0|0|
|1|1|0|0|
</div>

</div>
Tiberius Gracchus

**Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus** (163/162 BC- 133 BC) was an important Roman Tribune of the plebs. He proposed a reform called the "Lex Sempronia Agraria". This was meant to reduce the number of poor and homeless people by allowing the rich to have only a certain amount of land. The rest of the land would be given to homeless veterans of the Roman military. But the Roman Senate did not like his plan. They convinced another tribune, named Marcus Octavius, to oppose Tiberius Gracchus. Eventually, enough tension built up that some of the Senators beat Tiberius to death with their chairs and threw his dead body into the Tiber. Tiberius' death is seen as the first death caused by political problems in the Roman government.

Tiberius' brother, Gaius Gracchus, also tried to reform the Roman government and was also killed. Together, the two are called the Gracchi. Their attempts at reform had a lasting effect on Rome, because later on the Senate used some of the ideas from their reforms in their own laws.
Constrictor knot

A **constrictor knot** is a type of knot that is tied around another rope.  It is a secure knot, but it can be difficult to untie after it is tightened.

## Related pages

- List of knots
Waiting to Exhale

***Waiting to Exhale*** is a 1995 American romance movie. It came out in December 1995. The cast for the movie includes Angela Bassett, Lela Rochon and Whitney Houston. The movie is about four women who live in Phoenix, Arizona and their relationships with men. _Waiting to Exhale_ is unusual because it has an all African-American cast.
Herbert Art Gallery and Museum

**Herbert Art Gallery and Museum** is a museum, art gallery, archive, learning centre and creative arts facility in Jordan Well, Coventry, United Kingdom.

It is named after Sir Alfred Herbert, a local business owner who gave money for the original building. Work on it began in 1939, with an interruption by the Second World War, and The Herbert opened in 1960. In 2008 it reopened after a £20 million refurbishment.

It is free to get in and the museum in run by a charity. Its only income is from donations, sales at the museum shop, and hiring out  the buildings the charity owns. In 2010, the museum had over 300,000 visitors. This makes it one of the most popular free tourist attractions in the West Midlands.

## Other websites

- Herbert Media website

## Infobox (museum)

- **name**: Herbert Art Gallery & Museum
- **image**: The Herbert extension - geograph.org.uk - 866158.jpg
- **alt**: A modern, glass and steel building with a curved roof and steps leading up to it
- **caption**: Herbert Art Gallery & Museum from Cathedral Square
- **established**: 1960
- **location**: Jordan Well, Coventry, England
- **visitors**: >1 million between 2008 and 2011
- **director**: Paul Breed
- **curator**: Martin Roberts,Ali Wells
- **publictransit**: Pool Meadow Bus Station
Zipf's law

**Zipf's law** is an empirical law, formulated using mathematical statistics, named after the linguist George Kingsley Zipf, who first proposed it. Zipf's law states that given a large sample of words used, the frequency of any word is inversely proportional to its rank in the frequency table. So _nth_ word has a frequency proportional to 1/_n_.

Thus the most frequent word will occur about twice as often as the second most frequent word, three times as often as the third most frequent word, etc. For example, in one sample of words in the English language, the most frequently occurring word, "the", accounts for nearly 7% of all the words (69,971 out of slightly over 1 million). True to Zipf's Law, the second-place word "of" accounts for slightly over 3.5% of words (36,411 occurrences), followed by "and" (28,852). Only about 135 words are needed to account for half the sample of words in a large sample.

The same relationship occurs in many other rankings, unrelated to language, such as the population ranks of cities in various countries, corporation sizes, income rankings, etc. The appearance of the distribution in rankings of cities by population was first noticed by Felix Auerbach in 1913.

It is not known why Zipf's law holds for most languages.
Steve Jones

**Stephen Philip** "**Steve**" **Jones** (born 3 September 1955) is an English rock guitarist, best known as the guitarist and founding member of the punk rock band the Sex Pistols.

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Steve Jones
- **image**: Camp Freddy - Steve Jones - 2008.jpg
- **image size**: 250px
- **caption**: Jones in 2008.
- **background**: solo_singer
- **birth name**: Stephen Philip Jones
- **birth place**: Hammersmith, London, England
- **instrument**: Guitar
- **genre**: Punk rock, heavy metal music, heavy metal
- **occupation**: Musician
- **label**: Virgin Records, Virgin, MCA, Warner Bros. Records, Warner Bros.
- **associated acts**: The Sex Pistols
The Professionals
Chequered Past
Solo career (1987–1990)
Fantasy 7
P
Neurotic Outsiders
Iggy Pop
Peter Tatsuo Doi

was a Japanese priest of the Roman Catholic Church.  He was the first Japanese person to become a Cardinal.

## Early life

Doi was born in Sendai.  He studied in Rome.

## Priest

Doi was ordained as a priest in 1921.

In 1934, he was made Secretary of the Apostolic Delegation to Japan.

## Bishop

He was named Bishop of Tokyo in 1937.

He was Apostolic Administrator of Roman Catholic Diocese of Yokohama from 1945 to 1947.

## Cardinal

In 1960, Pope John XXIII created him Cardinal of Sant'Antonio da Padova in Via Merulana.

In 1965, Doi was among those who read the closing messages of the Second Vatican Council.

## Other websites

- Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church , Doi, Peter Tatsuo
- Catholic-Hierarchy, Peter Tatsuo Cardinal Doi
- http://www.tokyo.catholic.jp/eng_frame.html ;  

## Infobox (christian leader)

- **type**: cardinal
- **name**: Peter Tatsuo Doi
- **honorific-prefix**: <small>His Eminence</small>
- **image**: Archbishop Peter Doi in 1938.jpg
- **caption**: Peter Tatsuo Doi in 1938
- **see**: Archdiocese of Tokyo
- **title**: Cardinal (Catholicism), Cardinal, Archbishop of Tokyo
- **cardinal**: 1960
- **appointed**: 1937
- **term end**: 1970
- **predecessor**: Jean-Alexis Chambon
- **successor**: Peter Shirayanagi
- **birth date**: December 22, 1892
- **birth place**: Sendai, Japan
- **death date**: February 21, 1970
Stronger (Kelly Clarkson album)

***Stronger*** is the fifth studio album by recording artist Kelly Clarkson. The album was releases on October 24, 2011, by Reprise Records and Warner Bros. RecordsThe hit single "Mr. Know It All" was released on September 5, 2011.
Henry Cooper

**Sir Henry Cooper** OBE KSG KB (3 May 1934–1 May 2011) was an English heavyweight boxer known for the power of his left hook. People called it "Enry's 'Ammer" (Henry's hammer). He knocked down Muhammad Ali early in Ali's career. Cooper held the British, Commonwealth and European heavyweight titles several times. He unsuccessfully challenged Ali for the world heavyweight championship in 1966.

After he retired from boxing, Cooper was a television and radio personality. He was popular in Britain. He was the first (and is today one of just three people) to twice win the public vote for BBC Sports Personality of the Year Award. He is the only boxer to be awarded a knighthood.  He is also named as one of the great Londoners in the "London Song" by Ray Davies on his 1998 album The Storyteller.

Cooper married an Italian Catholic woman and converted to her faith.

## Other websites

- Remembering Clay v Cooper  East Side Boxing, 14 November 2006

## Infobox (boxer)

- **name**: Sir Henry Cooper
- **image**: Henry Cooper 1969.jpg
- **nickname**: Our 'Enery
- **weight**: Heavyweight
- **nationality**: British people, English
- **birth place**: London, England
- **death place**: Oxted, Surrey, England
- **style**: Orthodox stance, Orthodox
- **total**: 55
- **wins**: 40
- **draws**: 1
- **losses**: 14
- **no contests**: 0
- **ko**: 27
Sierpinski triangle

A **Sierpinski triangle** or **Sierpinski triangle gasket** is a fractal resulting from doing the following:
- Start with an equilateral triangle.
- Remove center part.
- Do the same for the three largest equilateral triangles left in this one.
If this is done, the first few steps will look like this:

If this is done an infinite number of times, its area will be 0.

They can also be 3D:
Morquio syndrome

**Morquio syndrome** is a very rare inherited disease. It is called **mucopolysaccharidosis** because the body cannot break down mucopolysaccharides which make up mucous. It has very serious effects, but can be helped by a synthetic version of the enzyme which is not working.
My Life Would Suck Without You

"**My Life Would Suck Without You**" is a song from American singer Kelly Clarkson. It was the first single from her fourth studio album, _All I Ever Wanted_. It was her second number-one hit in Canada and the United States and her first chart-topper in the UK. This song was released on January 31, 2009.

The song has the largest jump to number one in _Billboard_ Hot 100 history.  It was also the biggest leap on the chart ever until 2019, when Taylor Swift broke this record.  "My Life Would Suck Without You" entered at #97 and moved to the top the following week.

In 2017, in a radio interview with Z100 in New York City, Clarkson discussed Dr. Luke (who was involved in a lawsuit with singer Kesha for reported assault).  She claimed:

Clarkson also said that she usually asks for writing credits if she knows she created a fair-sized portion of a song.  She says she lost "millions" of dollars in royalties by not being listed on the writing credits of the song.

## Charts

|Chart (2009)|Peak position|||
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|align=left|Bulgaria|align=center|2|

## Infobox (song)

- **name**: My Life Would Suck Without You
- **type**: single
- **artist**: Kelly Clarkson
- **album**: All I Ever Wanted (album), All I Ever Wanted
- **released**: January 31, 2009
- **length**: 3:32
- **producer**: Dr. Luke
- **prev title**: Already Gone
- **prev year**: 2008
- **next title**: I Do Not Hook Up
- **next year**: 2009
Because of You

**"Because of You"** is a pop rock single from singer Kelly Clarkson off her second studio album _Breakaway_. It was first released in 2005. The single  made Clarkson the only winner in _American Idol_ history to have a fourth song from the same album in Top 10 on the _Billboard_ Hot 100. In 2007 _Because of You_ was reprised in a duet alongside the country music artist Reba McEntire; the reprised version produced the first appearance of Clarkson in the Billboard Hot Country charts, where the single  hit Number 2.
Tawny owl

The **tawny owl** or **brown owl** (_Strix aluco_) is a stocky, medium-sized owl commonly found in woodlands across much of Eurasia.  There are eleven recognised subspecies, and some variation in the colouring.

The nest is usually in a tree hole where it can protect its eggs and young against potential predators. This owl is resident through the year, and highly territorial. Many young birds starve if they cannot find a vacant territory once parental care ceases.

This nocturnal bird of prey hunts mainly rodents, usually by dropping from a perch to seize its prey, which it swallows whole; in towns its diet includes a higher proportion of birds. Vision and hearing adaptations and  silent flight aid its night hunting. The Tawny is capable of catching smaller owls, but is itself vulnerable to the Eagle owl or Northern Goshawk. Red foxes are an important cause of mortality in newly fledged young.

Although many people believe this owl has exceptional night vision, its retina is no more sensitive than a human's. Rather, it is its asymmetrically placed ears that are key to its hunting. They give the Tawny owl excellent directional hearing. Like most owls, it hunts at night. It has a rather strange, but easily imitated, call.
Wheeling, West Virginia

**Wheeling** is a city in the U.S. state of West Virginia. It is in both Ohio County and Marshall County. It is the county seat of Ohio County. Wheeling is the main city of the Wheeling Metropolitan Statistical Area. The city had 27,052 people as of the 2020 census. It was previously home to the Wheeling Stogies minor league baseball team.

## Other websites

- City of Wheeling, West Virginia Official Site
- Wheeling Convention and Visitor's Bureau

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Wheeling, West Virginia
- **settlement type**: City
- **nickname**: The Friendly City
- **image skyline**: Wheeling West Virginia.jpg
- **imagesize**: 300px
- **image caption**: Downtown Wheeling and the Ohio River as viewed from Wheeling Island in 2006
- **image flag**: Flag of Wheeling, West Virginia.svg
- **map caption**: Interactive map of Wheeling
- **pushpin map**: West Virginia#USA
- **pushpin relief**: yes
- **pushpin label**: Wheeling
- **subdivision type**: List of sovereign states, Country
- **subdivision type1**: U.S. state, State
- **subdivision type2**: List of counties in West Virginia, County
- **subdivision name2**: Ohio County, West Virginia, Ohio, Marshall County, West Virginia, Marshall
- **leader title**: Mayor
- **leader title1**: City Manager
- **leader title2**: Police Chief
- **leader title3**: Fire Chief
- **established title**: Settled
- **established date**: 1769
- **established title2**: Established
- **established date2**: 1806
- **established title3**: Incorporated
- **established date3**: 1836
- **area total km2**: 41.43
- **area total sq mi**: 16.00
- **area land km2**: 35.68
- **area land sq mi**: 13.78
- **area water km2**: 5.76
- **area water sq mi**: 2.22
- **area water percent**: 13.87
- **population as of**: 2020 United States Census, 2020
- **population total**: 27052
- **population density km2**: auto
- **population density sq mi**: su
- **population urban**: 57,695 (US: List of United States urban areas, 463rd)
- **population metro**: 139,513 (US: List of Metropolitan Statistical Areas, 299th)
- **timezone**: Eastern Time Zone, EST
- **utc offset**: −5
- **timezone dst**: EDT
- **utc offset dst**: −4
- **elevation m**: 209–396
- **elevation ft**: 687–1300
- **postal code type**: ZIP Code
- **postal code**: 26003
- **area code**: Area code 304, 304
- **blank name**: Federal Information Processing Standard, FIPS code
- **blank info**: 54-86452
- **blank1 name**: Geographic Names Information System, GNIS feature ID
- **blank1 info**: 1548994
- **website**: [http://www.wheelingwv.gov/ www.wheelingwv.gov]
- **unit pref**: Imperial
Ocean acidification

**Ocean acidification** is the decrease in the pH (scale of acidity and alkalinity) and increase in acidity of the Earth's oceans. It is caused by the increase of carbon dioxide (CO2) that humans have put into the atmosphere. More than 30% of the carbon dioxide in the air goes into the oceans. Therefore, when carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases, the carbon dioxide in the ocean increases, too.

When carbon dioxide enters the oceans, it makes it more acidic.

## Problems

The skeletons and shells of many sea animals need what is known as calcium carbonate minerals. Due to ocean acidification, there are fewer of these minerals and there are species that could no longer produce or keep their shells. With more carbon dioxide in the ocean, this problem becomes worse and many species will be at risk. As a result, if humans continue to emit greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, ocean life will be in severe danger. Also, coral is at risk, as it is being eroded by the acid in the ocean.

Between 1751 CE and 1994 CE the ocean's pH on the surface went from 8.25 to 8.1.

## Other websites

- The Climate Change Guide easy-to-understand information on the effects of climate change
William Wallace Barron

**William Wallace "Wally" Barron** (December 8, 1911 – November 12, 2002) was a Democratic politician in West Virginia. He was the state's 26th Governor from 1961 to 1965. He later went to jail for corruption.

Barron's governorship was corrupt. Many officials were convicted of criminal charges including bribery, making false records, conspiracy and tax evasion. In 1971 Barron was convicted of jury tampering in an earlier trial. Barron was sentenced to 5 years in prison.

He died on November 12, 2002 in Charlotte, North Carolina.

## Other websites

- Biography of William W. Barron
- Inaugural Address of William W. Barron

## Infobox (governor)

- **name**: William W. Barron
- **image**: William Wallace Barron.jpg
- **order**: 26th
- **office**: Governor of West Virginia
- **term start**: 1961
- **term end**: 1965
- **predecessor**: Cecil H. Underwood
- **successor**: Hulett C. Smith
- **office2**: List of West Virginia Attorneys General, Attorney General of West Virginia
- **term start2**: 1957
- **term end2**: 1961
- **governor2**: Cecil H. Underwood
- **predecessor2**: John G. Fox
- **successor2**: C. Donald Robertson
- **birth place**: Elkins, West Virginia
- **death place**: Charlotte, North Carolina
- **spouse**: Opal Wilcox Barron
- **profession**: Politician
- **party**: Democratic Party (United States), Democratic
Turk Telekom Arena

**Ali Sami Yen Spor Kompleksi - Türk Telekom Arena** is a new multi-purpose stadium in the Şişli district of Istanbul, Turkey. It became the new home ground for Galatasaray S.K. in 2011, replacing the old Ali Sami Yen Stadium. The stadium has an all seated  capacity of 52,652.

## Dimensions

- Stadium: 195,000 m² - 228m x 190m x 70m
- Playing level: 120 m x 83 m
- Gross grass area: 111 m x 72 m
- Playing field: 105 m x 68 m

## Construction

- Total concrete used during stadium construction: 190,000 m³
- Total steel used during stadium construction: 35,000 tonnes
- Total steel used for the roof: 5,500 tonnes

## Infobox (stadium)

- **stadium name**: Türk Telekom Arena
- **nickname**: Ali Sami Yen Spor Kompleksi (during UEFA-organised games)
- **image**:
- **caption**: Interior view
- **fullname**: Ali Sami Yen Spor Kompleksi
 Türk Telekom Arena
- **tenants**: Galatasaray S.K.
- **location**: Şişli, Istanbul, Turkey
- **broke ground**: 13 December 2007
- **opened**: 15 January 2011
- **surface**: Grass
- **owner**: Galatasaray S.K.
- **operator**: AEG Worldwide, Anschutz Entertainment Group
- **construction cost**: dollar, $ 250 million
- **architect**: 'asp' architekten Stuttgart
- **general contractor**: Varyap-Uzunlar
- **seating capacity**: 52,652 (all seater)
 70,000 (concerts)
- **dimensions**: 105m x 68m
- **suites**: 213
 (157 built)
 (29 u/c)
 (27 proposed)
Imperial

**Imperial** may mean:

1. The things associated with a country led by a powerful leader (an empire) or with that leader (Emperor) as a person.

2. A system of weights and measures (Imperial units) formerly used by the old British Empire, and in places it controlled or affected, including inches, feet, ounces, pounds, and other measurements which are frequently used by English-speaking people, as opposed the International System based on meters and liters.
Emperor Junnin

was the 47th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.  His reign started in 758 and ended in 764.

## Traditional narrative

Before he became the monarch, this prince's personal name (_imina_) was Ōi_-shinnō_ (Ōi-no-ō).  The posthumous name of Emperor Junnin was given by Emperor Meiji.

He was the seventh son of Prince Toneri, a son of Emperor Temmu. His father died when he was at the age of three, and he was given no rank nor office of the court.

In the older Japanese documents, he was often referred as the .

### Events of Junnin's life

His fate was changed in 757 when Empress Kōken named him as her heir (crown prince).

- **7 September 758** (_Tenpyō-shōhō 2, 1st day of the 8th month_): In the 10th year of Kōken's reign, the empress abdicated. The succession (_senso_) was received by her adopted son.  Then Emperor Jimmu is said to have acceded to the throne (_sokui_).  This was confirmed in ceremonies.
- **760** (_Tenpyō-hōji 4_): New coins were minted.
- **764** (_Tenpyō-hōji 8_): Junnnin was sent in exile to Awaji.
- **10 November 765** (_Tenpyō-jingo 1, 23rd Day of the 10th Month_):  Former Emperor Junnin died in exile.

Junnin caused grain storage centers (_Jōheisō_) to be established in the provinces.  The government stored rice from the years of good harvests.  This rice was used to control higher prices when harvests of rice were not good.  The _Jōheisō_ were abolished during the Kamakura period.

### After his death

The actual site of Junnin's grave is known.  This emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (_misasagi_) at Awaji.

The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Junnin's mausoleum.  It is formally named _Awaji no misasagi_.

In 1870, Emperor Meiji conferred the posthumous name and title by which he is now known.

## Era of Junnin's reign

The years of Junnin's reign are identified by a single era name.
- _Tenpyō-hōji_  (758-765)

## Related pages

- Emperor of Japan
- List of emperors of Japan
- Japanese imperial family tree

## Infobox (monarch)

- **name**: Junnin
- **title**: Emperor of Japan
- **reign**: 758–764
- **predecessor**: Empress Kōken, Kōken
- **successor**: Empress Shōtoku, Shōtoku
- **birth date**: 733
- **death date**: 10 November 765
- **death place**: Awaji Island (Hyōgo)
- **burial place**: _Awaji no misasagi_ (Hyōgo)
Macaroni

**Macaroni** is a pasta food which is made of wheat and flour. It is from Italy. It is in the shape of a small tube.  It can either be straight or curved. The curved type is called elbow macaroni.

Macaroni is almost never eaten by itself. It is usually eaten with another food or covered in a sauce. A very popular type of macaroni is "Macaroni and cheese", which is macaroni covered in melted cheese.

In Libya, macaroni is called Macroona Imbakbaka. Libya has Italian food because it used to be an Italian colony.
Fried chicken

**Fried chicken** are pieces of chicken that have been either battered or floured and then pan fried, pressure fried or deep fried. The breading adds a crisper crust to chickens' exterior. The chicken is cut at the joints with the bones and skin being left. Some fast food restaurant chains serve fried chicken, most notably Kentucky Fried Chicken, Popeyes, Dave's Hot Chicken, Wingstop and Chick-fil-A.

Scottish people were the first European people who were frying chicken, they added battering and seasoned it with herbs an cayenne pepper.  People in West Africa later added different seasonings. However, the first dish which was deep fried was fritters. Fritters were popular during the Middle Ages.

Some fried chicken is marinated in buttermilk and pickle juice before battering.

There is a racial stereotype that black people like eating fried chicken. There have been a number of public controversies about remarks that people have made about fried chicken and black people that have been considered racist.
Marine (military)

A **marine** is a member of a military force. Marines specialize in military actions in other countries, such as amphibious warfare.  Marines usually have strong links with the country's navy.  The commander in the field is usually the commander of the fleet.  Support for the marines such as medical, legal, and supplies come from the navy. The anchor is often used as a symbol for the marines. The word _marine_ is from the English word _marine_, meaning _of the sea_, from the French _marin(e)_, _of the sea_ which was from the Latin _marinus_ ("maritime"). The name _marine_ means "navy" in French, Dutch, and German. Marine forces are usually part of the navy, but they can be part of the army or act on their own.
Pope Paul I

**Pope Paul I** (; 700 – 28 June 767) was an Italian priest of the Roman Catholic Church and the 94th Pope from May 29, 757 to June 28, 767.

## Early life

He was the brother of Pope Stephen II.

## Deacon

Paul was ordained as a Roman deacon.

## Pope

After Pope Stephen's death, Paul was elected in 757.

Paul's papacy was troubled by disputes with the Lombards.  He had good relations with Pepin, who was king of the Franks.

## Related pages

- List of popes

## Other websites

- Catholic Hierarchy, Popes in sequence
- Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church , Paolo

## Infobox (christian leader)

- **type**: pope
- **name**: Paul I
- **image**: Paul I.jpg
- **term start**: 29 May 757
- **term end**: 28 June 767
- **birth date**: 700
- **birth place**: Rome
- **predecessor**: Pope Stephen II
- **successor**: Pope Stephen III
- **other**: Paul
Rick Santorum

**Richard John "Rick" Santorum** (born May 10, 1958) is an American lawyer and politician. He served as the United States senator of Pennsylvania from 1995 to 2007. He ran for President of the United States in 2012 and in 2016.

## Early life

Santorum was born in Winchester, Virginia. He is of Italian American descent.  He was raised in West Virginia, Butler, Pennsylvania, and Illinois.  He went to college and to law school at Penn State University.  Soon after, he became a lawyer in Pittsburgh.

## U.S. senate (1995-2007)

Santorum served in the House of Representatives from 1991 to 1995.  With the 1994 elections that elected many Republicans, he was elected to the United States Senate.  He served in the Senate for two terms, from 1995 to 2007.  In the Senate, Santorum was known for having very conservative views about abortion and gay marriage.  Santorum lost in the 2006 election for a third term as a Senator to State Treasurer Bob Casey, Jr and C. Richard Semple II.  After being in the Senate, he worked in a think tank and for Fox News.

## 2012 presidential campaign

In 2011 and 2012, Santorum ran for President of the United States in the Republican primaries. He based his campaign on social issues. He dropped out of the race in 2012. Today, Santorum writes a political column for the conservative news website World Net Daily.

## 2016 presidential campaign

Santorum announced his candidacy for the 2016 presidential election on May 27, 2015. He dropped out of the race on February 3, 2016 after poor polling numbers and loosing the Iowa caucuses. He later announced his endorsement for Marco Rubio.

## Personal life

Santorum married Karen Garver in 1990. Together, they have seven children.

## Other websites

- Rick Santorum for President
- Column archives at _Townhall.com_

## Infobox (officeholder)

- **name**: Rick Santorum
- **image**: Rick Santorum by Gage Skidmore 12.jpg
- **office**: Chair of the United States Senate Republican Conference, Senate Republican Conference
- **leader**: Trent Lott
Bill Frist
- **term start**: January 3, 2001
- **term end**: January 3, 2007
- **predecessor**: Connie Mack III
- **successor**: Jon Kyl
- **jr/sr1**: United States Senator
- **state1**: Pennsylvania
- **term start1**: January 3, 1995
- **term end1**: January 3, 2007
- **predecessor1**: Harris Wofford
- **successor1**: Bob Casey Jr.
- **state2**: Pennsylvania
- **term start2**: January 3, 1991
- **term end2**: January 3, 1995
- **predecessor2**: Doug Walgren
- **successor2**: Mike Doyle (American politician), Mike Doyle
- **birth name**: Richard John Santorum
- **birth place**: Winchester, Virginia, U.S.
- **party**: Republican Party (United States), Republican
- **children**: 8
- **education**: Pennsylvania State University, Pennsylvania State University, University Park (Bachelor of Arts, BA)
University of Pittsburgh (Master of Business Administration, MBA)
Pennsylvania State University - Dickinson Law, Dickinson School of Law (Juris Doctor, JD)
- **signature**: Rick Santorum signature.png
Pope Paul II

**Pope Paul II** (;  23 February 1417 – 26 July 1471), born **Pietro Barbo**,  was an Italian priest of the Roman Catholic Church and the 212th Pope from 1464 until his death in 1471.

## Early life

Pietro Barbo was born in Venice.  He was a nephew of Pope Eugene IV.

## Cardinal

Barbo became a cardinal in 1440.  He was sometimes called the Venetian cardinal.

## Pope

Barbo was elected Pope on 30 August 1464; and he chose to be called Paul II.

Pope Paul was involved in Italian and European political disputes.

The Cardinals' right to wear the red biretta was granted by Paul II.

### After his death

The accounts of histories written soon after his death were unfavorable.

## Related pages

- List of popes

## More reading

- Pastor, Ludwig. (1894). _The History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages,_ Vol. IV, Chapter I.  London, J. Hodges. OCLC 64083707

## Other websites

- Catholic Hierarchy, Pope Paul II
- Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church , Cardinal Barbo ; "The election of Pope Paul II (1464)"

## Infobox (christian leader)

- **type**: pope
- **name**: Paul II
- **image**: pietrobarbo.jpg
- **birth name**: Pietro Barbo
- **term start**: 30 August 1464
- **term end**: 26 July 1471
- **birth place**: Venice
- **death place**: Rome
- **predecessor**: Pope Pius II
- **successor**: Pope Sixtus IV
- **other**: Paul
Rechtsstaat

**Rechtsstaat** is an idea in continental European thought. It is that in a country, the state's power is limited by the laws. This might either be the laws agreed upon, or natural law.  It is similar to the idea of the rule of law.
Chatbot

A **chatbot** (or **chatterbot**) is a computer program that responds to input in a natural language. An example is ELIZA. This was one of the first chatbots. Every year, there is a contest for chatbots called the Loebner prize.
Loebner prize

The **Loebner prize** is an award given out every year to a chatterbot.  The winner is chosen by a Turing test: Each judge talks (text-based) to a chatterbot and to a human.  The judge guesses which is which.  The contest started in 1990 by Hugh Loebner.  The first winner was "Whimsical Conversation".
Tetration

**Tetration** is the hyperoperation which comes after exponentiation. <big></big> means y exponentiated by itself, (x-1) times. List of first 4 natural number hyperoperations, the inverse operations of tetration are the super root and the super logarithm.
1. Addition
        - copies of 1 added to .
1. Multiplication
        - **' copies of **' combined by addition.
1. Exponentiation
        - **' copies of **' combined by multiplication.
1. Tetration
    - **' copies of **' combined by exponentiation, right-to-left.

The above example is read as "the nth tetration of a".

## Examples

- {| class="wikitable"
!
!
!
!
!
|- align=right
| 1
| 1 (1<sup>1</sup>)
| 1 (1<sup>1</sup>)
| 1 (1<sup>1</sup>)
|  (1<sup>1</sup>) (Absolute infinity and Infinity)
|- align=right
| 2
| 4 (2<sup>2</sup>)
| 16 (2<sup>4</sup>)
| 65,536 (2<sup>16</sup>)
|
|- align=right
| 3
| 27 (3<sup>3</sup>)
| 7,625,597,484,987 (3<sup>27</sup>)
| 1.258015 × 10<sup>3,638,334,640,024</sup>
|
|- align=right
| 4
| 256 (4<sup>4</sup>)
| 1.34078 ×10<sup>154</sup> (4<sup>256</sup>)
|  (8.1 × 10<sup>153</sup> digits)
|
|- align=right
| 5
| 3,125 (5<sup>5</sup>)
| 1.91101 × 10<sup>2,184</sup> (5<sup>3,125</sup>)
|  (1.3 × 10<sup>2,184</sup> digits)
|
|- align=right
| 6
| 46,656 (6<sup>6</sup>)
| 2.65912 × 10<sup>36,305</sup> (6<sup>46,656</sup>)
|  (2.1 × 10<sup>36,305</sup> digits)
|
|- align=right
| 7
| 823,543 (7<sup>7</sup>)
| 3.75982 × 10<sup>695,974</sup> (7<sup>823,543</sup>)
|  (3.2 × 10<sup>695,974</sup> digits)
|
|- align=right
| 8
| 16,777,216 (8<sup>8</sup>)
| 6.01452 × 10<sup>15,151,335</sup>
|  (5.4 × 10<sup>15,151,335</sup> digits)
|
|- align=right
| 9
| 387,420,489 (9<sup>9</sup>)
| 4.28125 × 10<sup>369,693,099</sup>
|  (4.1 × 10<sup>369,693,099</sup> digits)
|
|- align=right
| 10
| 10,000,000,000 (10<sup>10</sup>)
| 10<sup>10,000,000,000</sup>
|  (10<sup>10,000,000,000</sup> digits)
|
|- align=right
| ∞
| ∞<sup>∞</sup>
|  (∞<sup>∞<sup>∞</sup></sup>)
|
|
|}
Who Knew

**"Who Knew"** is a single from American pop rock singer Pink, off her fourth album _I'm Not Dead_. It's about losing a friend due to abusing drugs. The song was released in 2006, although it was not until 2007 that the single became a hit after being released again following success of Pink's other song _U + Ur Hand_
Pope Paul IV

**Pope Paul IV** (; 28 June 1476 – 18 August 1559), born **Giovanni Pietro Carafa**, was an Italian priest of the Roman Catholic Church and the 221st Pope from 23 May 1555 until his death.

## Early life

Giovanni Pietro Carafa was born in Capriglia Irpina in a noble family of Naples.

### Bishop

Pope Leo X sent Carafa as ambassador to England and then as papal nuncio in Spain.

In 1524, Pope Clement VII allowed Carafa to retire from diplomacy to head a monastery.

Pope Paul III recalled him to Rome.

### Cardinal

In 1536, Carafa was made Cardinal and Archbishop of Naples.

He reorganized the Roman Inquisition.

### Pope

Cardinal Carafa was elected popein 1555; and he chose to be called Paul IV.

Pope Paul was involved in Italian and European political disputes.

Pope Paul IV quarrelled with Philip II. of Spain, who sent the Duke of Alba with an army from Naples to invade the Papal States. At the gates of Rome, a peace was concluded in 1557.

In the context of the Counter-Reformation, this pope supported the Inquisition in Italy.

### After his death

He was buried in St. Peter's Basilica but was later transferred to Santa Maria sopra Minerva.

## Related pages

- List of popes

## Other websites

- Catholic Hierarchy, Pope Paul IV
- Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church , Cardinal Carafa

## Infobox (christian leader)

- **type**: pope
- **name**: Paul IV
- **image**: Pope Paul IV.PNG
- **birth name**: Giovanni Pietro Carafa
- **birth date**: 28 June 1476
- **birth place**: Capriglia Irpina, Kingdom of Naples
- **death date**: 18 August 1559
- **death place**: Rome, Papal States
- **term start**: 23 May 1555
- **term end**: 18 August 1559
- **predecessor**: Pope Clement VII
- **successor**: Pope Julius III
- **other**: Paul
Hyperoperation

A **hyperoperation** is a generalization of addition, multiplication, exponentiation, tetration, etc.  They are often written using Knuth's up-arrow notation.  Natural number level hyperoperations can be defined recursively as a piecewise function:

This is used to express really large numbers while being able to write them.
Marry the Night

"**Marry the Night**" is the fifth and final single off Lady Gaga's second studio album _Born This Way_. It was written and produced by Gaga. "Marry the Night" is a dance-pop song influenced by house and electropop. It additionally combines elements of disco and rock, with a funk rock-inspired breakdown. The song's lyrics are an homage to New York City and to the city's nightlife.  The song reached number 29 on the _Billboard_ Hot 100, number 11 on the Canadian Hot 100, and number 16 on the UK Singles Chart.  On March 27, 2012, the Recording Industry Association of America certified the song Gold for sales and shipments of over 500,000 copies in the US.

## Music video

The music video for the song has autobiographical elements, showing Gaga after she was dropped from Def Jam Records. The video starts off in a hospital, and shows scenes of the singer dancing on top of a car and with a dance troupe.

## Infobox (song)

- **name**: Marry the Night
- **artist**: Lady Gaga
- **album**: Born This Way
- **released**: November 15, 2011
- **length**: 4:25
4:02 (radio edit)
- **prev title**: You and I (Lady Gaga song), Yoü and I
- **prev year**: 2011
- **next title**: Applause (Lady Gaga song), Applause
- **next year**: 2013
Joe Strummer

**John Graham Mellor** (21 August 1952 – 22 December 2002), better known by his stage name, **Joe Strummer**, was the co-founder, lyricist, rhythm guitarist and lead vocalist of the British punk rock band The Clash.

He was also member of The 101ers, Latino Rockabilly War, The Mescaleros and The Pogues, in addition to his own solo music career. Strummer's work included acting, creating film scores, songwriting, radio broadcasting, and a position as a radio host. He is one of the most iconic figures of the British punk movement.

He died of heart disease at his home in Broomfield, Somerset, England.

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Joe Strummer
- **image**: 01scenestrummer08 copy.jpg
- **background**: solo_singer
- **birth name**: John Graham Mellor
- **birth place**: Ankara, Turkey
- **death place**: Broomfield, Somerset, England
- **instrument**: Singing, Vocals, guitar, piano, Bass guitar, bass
- **genre**: Punk rock
- **occupation**: Musician, songwriter, radio host, actor
- **years active**: 1973–2002
- **label**: CBS, Sony, Hellcat, Mercury
- **associated acts**: The 101ers, The Clash, The Latino Rockabilly War, The Pogues, The Mescaleros
Premise

A **premise** is a statement which an argument claims will justify a conclusion. The proof of a conclusion depends on both the truth of the premises and the validity of the argument.

## Aristotelian logic

Aristotle held that any logical argument could be reduced to three premises and a conclusion. Premises are sometimes left unstated in which case they are called missing premises, for example:

- Socrates is mortal, since all men are mortal.

It is understood that Socrates is a man.  The fully expressed reasoning is thus:

- Since all men are mortal and Socrates is a man, Socrates is mortal.

In this example, the first two independent clauses before the comma (namely, "all men are mortal" and "Socrates is a man") are the premises, while "Socrates is mortal" is the conclusion.

## Mathematical logic

In logic, an argument requires a set of two declarative sentences (or "propositions") known as the premises, with another declarative sentence (or "proposition") known as the conclusion. This structure of two premises and one conclusion forms the basic argumentative structure.

More complex arguments can use a series of rules to connect several premises to one conclusion, or to derive a number of conclusions from the original premises. An example of this is the use of the rules of inference found within symbolic logic.

## Related pages

- Apples and oranges
- False dilemma
- Falsifiability
Arturo Vidal

**Arturo Erasmo Vidal Pardo** (born 22 May 1987) is a Chilean footballer who plays as a Midfielder for Athletico Paranaense and the Chile national team.
Simone Pepe

**Simone Pepe** (born 30 August 1983) is an Italian footballer who plays for Serie A club Juventus.
Quill

A **quill pen** is a tool used for writing, made from a flight feather of a large bird. Quills were used for writing with ink before other pens were invented. They are still used in calligraphy sometimes. Today, most paper is made from wood plulp. Such papers use the quill rather rapidly.  The hollow shaft of the feather (the _calamus_) acts as an ink reservoir and ink flows to the tip by capillary action.
Flag of Kentucky

The **flag of Kentucky** was first used on March 26, 1918. It has a blue background, with Kentucky's seal in the middle. The seal shows a picture of two men hugging each other. Legend says that the two men were Daniel Boone and Henry Clay. Above their heads says "United We Stand". By their toes says "Divided We Fall". The phrase "United We Stand, Divided We Fall" is Kentucky's motto.

## Other websites

- Kentucky's State Flag

## Infobox (flag)

- **name**: Kentucky
- **image**: Flag of Kentucky.svg
- **nickname**: the bluegrass state
- **use**: 110000
- **proportion**: 2:3
- **adoption**: March 26, 1918
- **design**: Seal of Kentucky on a field of azure
- **designer**: Jesse Cox
- **type**: State
Illustrissimi

***Illustrissimi*** (_To the Illustrious Ones_) is a book written by Pope John Paul I when he was Patriarch of Venice.

The book is a collection of letters which were first published in the Italian Christian paper _Messaggero di S. Antonio_ between 1972 and 1975.  They were reprinted in book form in Italy in 1976.

The work was first published in English in 1978 when Cardinal Luciani was elected Pope, but it only reached the public after the death of John Paul I.

## The letters

The 40 letters in all are addressed to people in Italian history and fiction, including

- _Charles Dickens_
- _Mark Twain_
- _G. K. Chesterton_
- _Maria Theresa of Austria_
- _Charles Peguy_
- _Trilussa_
- _St Bernard of Clairvaux_
- _Johann Wolfgang von Goethe_
- _King David_
- _Penelope_
- _Figaro_
- _The Pickwick Club_
- _Pinocchio_
- _Paolo Diacono_
- _Gonzalo Fernandez de Cordova_
- _St Bernardino of Siena_
- _St Francis de Sales_
- _St Romedio's Bear_
- _P.I. Chichikov_
- _King Lemuel_
- _Sir Walter Scott_
- The Unknown Painter at the Castle
- _Hippocrates_
- _St Thérèse de Lisieux_
- _Alessandro Manzoni_
- _Casella_
- _Luigi Cornaro_
- _St Bonaventure_
- _Christopher Marlowe_
- _St Luke_
- _Quintilian_
- _Guglielmo Marconi_
- _Giuseppe Gioacchino Belli_
- _Félix Dupanloup_
- _Petrarch_
- _St Theresa of Avila_
- _Carlo Goldoni_
- _Andreas Hofer_
- _Jesus_
Self-similarity

Something is **self-similar** if it is similar (or very close) to a part of itself.  For example, the Mandelbrot set is self-similar as it contains an infinite number of almost exact copies of itself.
Space Launch System

The **Space Launch System** (**SLS**) is a NASA rocket. It is a super heavy-lift launch vehicle. It is the second most powerful rocket ever built, less powerful than Starship. The SLS is a replacement for the retired Space Shuttle.  Many parts are modified versions of parts designed for the Space Shuttle. Others are new designs.

The first flight with astronauts will be no earlier than 2026. The planned flight is Artemis 2.

## Types

The Space Launch System comes in many different types meant to launch different kinds of missions.

### Block 1

The least powerful kind of the SLS is the Block 1. The core stage will use the parts of the Space Shuttle External Tank. It will also use four Space Shuttle Main Engines. The rocket boosters are connected to the sides are the 5-segment Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters. The top stage will use is the Interim Cryogenic Propulsion Stage (ICPS).

### Block 1B

Block 1B is similar to the Block 1. The top stage will change with Exploration Upper Stage (EUS). A crew version and a cargo version will be made.

### Block 2

Block 2 is similar to Block 1B. The 5-segment SRBs will be changed with advanced boosters.

## Related pages

- Artemis program
- NASA
- Orion (spacecraft)
Knuth's up-arrow notation

**Knuth's up-arrow notation** is a way of expressing very big numbers.  It was made by Donald Knuth in 1976.  It is related to the hyperoperation sequence.  The notation is used in Graham's number.

One arrow represents exponentiation, 2 arrows represent tetration, 3 for pentation, etc.:
1. Exponentiation
        - _a_ multiplied by itself, _b_ times.
1. Tetration
        - _a_ exponentiated by itself, _b_ times.
1. Third level
1. etc.

This notation is used to describe the incredibly large Graham's Number.
Bernie Madoff

**Bernard Lawrence "Bernie" Madoff** (; April 29, 1938 – April 14, 2021) was an American former investor, former stockbroker and former non-executive chairman for NASDAQ Stock Market. He was the admitted operator of a Ponzi scheme which is the largest financial fraud in United States history.

## Ponzi scheme

In March 2009, Madoff pleaded guilty to 11 federal felonies and admitted to turning his wealth management business into a massive Ponzi scheme. Thousands of investors lost billions of dollars. Madoff said he began the Ponzi scheme in the early 1990s. However, federal investigators believe the fraud began as early as the 1970s. The people who are hunting for the missing money believe the investment operation may never have been legitimate. The amount missing from client accounts, including fabricated gains, was almost $65 billion. The court-appointed trustee estimated actual losses to investors of $18 billion. On June 29, 2009, he was sentenced to 150 years in prison, the maximum allowed.

## Personal life

Madoff was of Jewish descent. He was married to Ruth. The elder of their two sons committed suicide by hanging in 2010. The younger son died of lymphoma in 2014.

## Health

In December 2013, Madoff suffered from a heart attack. In January 2014, he said he had stage 4 kidney cancer.

## Death

Madoff died on April 14, 2021 at a prison medical center in Butner, North Carolina after suffering from kidney disease for many years, at the age of 82. His cause of death was hypertension caused by heart and kidney disease.

## Other websites

- Criminal complaint, transcripts of hearings and other documents from the United States Department of Justice
- Archive of the Bernard L. Madoff Investment Securities website
- Madoff's current location within the Bureau of Prisons system
- The Independent: Madoff reveals his suffering

## Infobox (person)

- **name**: Bernie Madoff
- **image**: BernardMadoff.jpg
- **image size**: 220px
- **caption**: US Department of Justice photograph (2009)
- **birth name**: Bernard Lawrence Madoff
- **birth place**: Queens, New York City, United States, U.S.
- **death place**: Butner, North Carolina, U.S.
- **death cause**: Hypertension caused by heart disease, heart and kidney disease
- **resting place**: Cremation
- **education**: Hofstra University (1960)
- **employer**: Bernard L. Madoff Investment Securities
- **known for**: Ponzi scheme, Chairman of NASDAQ (prior)
- **nationality**: American nationality law, American
- **occupation**: Former non-executive chairman of the NASDAQ
- **children**: Mark <small>(1964–2010)</small >
Andrew <small>(1966–2014)</small>
- **parents**: Ralph Madoff
Sylvia Muntner
- **criminal charge**: Securities fraud, investment advisor fraud, mail fraud, wire fraud, money laundering, false statements, perjury, making false filings with the SEC, theft from an employee benefit plan
- **criminal penalty**: 150 years imprisonment and forfeiture of US$17.179 billion
Duckboards

**Duckboards** are wooden walkways. They are usually put over muddy ground. Doing this means that people can walk on the dry duckboards instead of the muddy ground.

## Hiking

Duckboards are used to allow hikers to walk over wet and/or muddy ground, like a swamp or shores of a lake. Very wide duckboards are used sometimes so that wheelchair users can use them. Duckboards can be nailed into logs with wooden stakes.

## World War I

During World War I, duckboards were put along the ground of trenches on the Western Front. This is because the trenches usually flooded. Mud and water would stay in the trenches for months. The boards helped to keep the soldiers' feet dry. It also helped stop soldiers get a disease called trench foot. Trench foot is caused by standing on wet, muddy ground for a long time. They also helped soldiers move along the trenches faster. Sometimes, falling from duckboards could be deadly. Some unlucky soldiers drowned in mud because of their heavy equipment.
Twenty Questions

**20Q** is a game where somebody thinks of an object and the goal is to figure out what it is in 20 questions or fewer.  It is available as a handheld game, a website, and a game show.  It usually starts out by asking whether the object is an "animal, vegetable, mineral, or other".

## Related pages

- Akinator

## Other websites

20Q website
Jingle Bells

"**Jingle Bells**" is a popular American winter song about riding through the snow in a sleigh. It was written by James Lord Pierpont (1822–1893) of Medford, Massachusetts. It was published under the title "One Horse Open Sleigh" in the autumn of 1857. It was written to be sung for Thanksgiving. It is also sung at Christmas. It is sung at Christmas so much that most people believe it is a Christmas song, but it is not.