juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
George Cross

The **George Cross** (**GC**) is the highest civil decoration of the United Kingdom, and many other countries of the Commonwealth of Nations. The GC is the civilian counterpart of the Victoria Cross (VC). It is the highest gallantry award for civilians. Also, it may be awarded to military personnel in actions not in the face of the enemy or for which purely military honours would not normally be granted.

## Living holders of the George Cross

The list of living holders of the George Cross is small.
- _This list is not finished; you can help Wikipedia by adding to it._
- John Bamford, GC
- James Beaton, GC, CVO
- Arthur Butson, GC
- Matt Croucher, GC
- Christopher Finney, GC
- Henry Flintoff, GC
- Anthony Gledhill, GC
- John Gregson, GC
- Kim Hughes, GC
- Barry Johnson, GC
- Derek Kinne, GC
- Alfred Lowe, GC
- Peter Norton, GC
- Michael Pratt, GC
- Margaret Purves, GC
- Awang Anak Raweng, GC
- Samuel Shephard, GC
- Henry Stevens, GC
- Carl Walker, GC
- Ernie Wooding, GC

## Related pages

- Victoria Cross
- George Medal
- Elizabeth Cross
- Flag of Malta

## References

4. George Cross Encyclopaedia, by Marion Hebblethwaite, comprehensive illustrated bibliographies of all recipients, 2021

## Infobox (military award)

- **name**: George Cross
- **image**:
- **caption**: Obverse of the cross. Ribbon: 38 mm, dark blue.
- **awarded by**: Commonwealth Realms
- **type**: Civil decoration.
- **eligibility**: Commonwealth subjects.
- **for**: _"... acts of the greatest heroism or of the most conspicuous courage in circumstances of extreme danger."_
- **status**: Currently awarded.
- **post-nominals**: GC
- **established**: 24 September 1940
- **total**: 161 (including 2 collective awards)
- **posthumous**: 86
- **recipients**: 161 (including 2 collective awards)
- **higher**: _None_
- **same**: Victoria Cross
- **lower**: George Medal
- **image2**:
- **caption2**: GC ribbon bar
Land Rover

**Land Rover** is a brand of the British Jaguar Land Rover company. The brand is used on cars (SUV's). Land Rover vehicles are supplied to the British Army. The original Land Rover car dates back to 1949, and was designed by Maurice Wilks. 1947

As of 2025, Land Rover makes
- Range Rover Evoque
- Land Rover Discovery Sport
- Range Rover Velar
- Land Rover Discovery
- Range Rover Sport, a mid-size SUV
- Land Rover Range Rover, often known as Range Rover
- Land Rover Defender, an off-road vehicle

As of 2021, the Land Rover brand is used on seven ranges of vehicle: the Defender, Discovery, Discovery Sport, Range Rover Evoque, Range Rover Sport, Range Rover, and Range Rover Velar.

## Infobox (company)

- **name**: Land Rover Limited
- **hq location city**: Coventry
- **hq location country**: UK
Croix de Guerre

The ***Croix de guerre*** (English translation: _Cross of War_) is a military medal of both France and Belgium.

It was first created in 1915 in both countries. It consists of a square-cross medal on two crossed swords, hanging from a ribbon with various degree pins. The decoration was awarded during World War I, again in World War II, and in other conflicts. The Croix de guerre was also often awarded to foreign military forces allied to France and Belgium.

The Croix de guerre may be given to a unit or to individuals who for acts of heroism involving combat with enemy forces. The medal is also awarded to those who have been "mentioned in despatches". This means a heroic deed was performed meriting a citation from an individual's headquarters unit. The unit award of the Croix de guerre was issued to military commanders who performed heroic deeds in combat and were subsequently recognized by headquarters.

## Infobox (military award)

- **name**: Croix de guerre or Oorlogskruis
- **caption**: A 1914-1918 Croix de guerre. Only the ribbon differs with other _Croix_
- **awarded by**: and
- **eligibility**: Military personnel only
- **for**: individuals who distinguish themselves by acts of heroism in combat with enemy forces.
- **campaign**: World War I
World War II
Other wars not fought on French soil
- **status**: Active
- **description**: A bronze cross with swords
- **established**: April 2, 1915
- **image2**:
- **caption2**: Croix de guerre 1914-1918 & 1939-1945 ribbons with palm
QWOP

***QWOP*** is a flash game created by Bennett Foddy and released on the Internet in 2008 to his website called "Foddy.net". Players play as an athlete named "Qwop", who is participating in a 100-meter sprint event at the Olympic Games. Using only the Q, W, O and P keys, players must control the movement of the legs to make the character move forward. When the player has successfully reached 50 meters they must jump a hurdle, and at 100 meters the player is encouraged to perform a long jump, although simply passing the finish line is sufficient to complete the game.

The game has been criticized for being too hard to get good at. In early December 2010, the game had a viral popularity outbreak after video blogger Ray William Johnson reviewed a YouTube video that annotates the game, becoming the subject of an Internet meme. Despite this, the game helped Foddy’s site reach 30 million views. After the success of the game, Foddy created another flash game called "GIRP", which was released on his site in 2011.

## Other websites

- QWOP website
- GIRP website

## Infobox (website)

- **name**: QWOP
- **caption**: Bennett Foddy, pictured on October 20, 2009, was the creator of _QWOP_.
- **url**: http://foddy.net/Athletics.html
- **commercial**: No
- **type**: Flash game
- **registration**: None
- **language**: English
- **owner**: Bennett Foddy
- **launch date**: November 2008
- **current status**: Online
Structured program theorem

The **structured program theorem** is a theorem in programming and computer science. A computer program can be split into pieces of code that do a certain task. According to the structured program theorem, these smaller tasks can be combined in only three ways to get any larger task done.

A program gets a large task done by splitting it into many smaller tasks that the computer can do easily. These smaller tasks are called _subprograms_ in computer science. According to the structured program theorem, the three ways subprograms can be combined are:
1. _In sequence._ Executing (running) one subprogram, and then executing another subprogram.
1. _By selection._ Executing a subprogram based on a certain condition.
1. _In repetition._ Executing the same subprogram over and over again.
The theorem was first published in 1966 by Corrado Böhm and Guiseppe Jacopini. It comes from the 1946 description of the von Neumann architecture and the normal form theorem developed by Stephen Kleene.
Lower Triassic

The **Lower Triassic** is the first of three epochs of the Triassic period. It lasted from about 252.2 million years ago (mya) to ~247.2 mya. The Lower Triassic is the oldest epoch of the Mesozoic era. These rocks were laid down just after the great Permian–Triassic extinction event.

The Lower Triassic was called the Scythian stage, which can be found in older literature. In Europe, most of the Lower Triassic is composed of sandstone.  It is a lithostratigraphic unit of continental red beds.  They were formed on land under desert conditions.

## Fauna

The massive extinctions that ended the Paleozoic era caused extreme hardship for the surviving species. Many types of corals, brachiopods, molluscs, echinoderms, and other invertebrates had completely disappeared. The most common hard-shelled marine invertebrates were bivalves, gastropods, ammonites, echinoids, and a few articulate brachiopods. The most common land animal was the herbivorous synapsid _Lystrosaurus_.

The earliest Triassic faunas lacked biodiversity and were like that throughout the epoch. Recovery on land took 30 million years.

The first ichthyosaurs evolved in this epoch. The largest ichthyosaurs known come from the Triassic.

The climate during the Lower Triassic (especially in the interior of the supercontinent Pangaea) was generally dry. Deserts were widespread. The poles had a temperate climate. The relatively hot climate of the epoch may have been caused by widespread volcanic eruptions.

On land, the plants included the lycophytes, the dominant cycadophytes, ginkgophyta (represented in modern times by _Ginkgo biloba_), ferns, horsetails and glossopteris.
Middle Triassic

The **Middle Triassic** is the second of three epochs of the Triassic period. It lasted from about 247.2 million years ago (mya) to ~237 mya.

Once the middle series in the Triassic was known as the Muschelkalk. This name is now only used for a unit of rock strata of Middle Triassic age, found in western Europe.

## Fauna

Archosaurs were initially rarer than the therapsids which had dominated Permian terrestrial ecosystems, but they began to displace therapsids in the Middle Triassic. This 'Triassic takeover' may have contributed to the evolution of mammals. It forced the surviving therapsids and their mammalian successors to live as small, mainly nocturnal insectivores. Nocturnal life probably forced the proto-mammals to develop fur and higher metabolic rates. In their burrows, keeping warm, looking after the young and feeding them with milk were keys to their later success.

The ancestors of crocodiles, and the ancestors of pterosaurs and dinosaurs, were the most important archosaurs of this epoch.

In the Tethys Ocean, the first sauropterygia were present, the nothosaurs and early plesiosaurs. Ichthyosaurs had arrived in the Lower Triassic.
Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi

**Shahāb al-Dīn Yahya ibn Habash as-Suhrawardī** (, also known as **Sohrevardi**) was a 12th-century persian philosopher of kurdish stock   He was poet, philosopher and Sufi. He was the founder of the Illuminationist philosophy or "Oriental Theosophy", or the Suhrawardi Order of Sufism. He is sometimes also called _Sheikh al Maqtul_ (The Murdered Master/Sage) as he was executed for his beliefs and practices by orthodox Islamic authorities.
Adduction

**Adduction** is a form of movement in animal biology which brings a part of the anatomy closer to the sagittal plane of the body. The opposite of adduction is abduction.

### Upper limb

- of arm at shoulder (lowering arm)
    - Subscapularis
    - Teres major
    - Pectoralis major
    - Infraspinatus
    - Triceps brachii (caput longum)
    - Latissimus dorsi
    - Coracobrachialis

- of hand at wrist
    - Flexor carpi ulnaris
    - Extensor carpi ulnaris

- of fingers
    - Palmar interossei

- of thumb
    - Adductor pollicis

### Lower limb

- of thigh at hip
    - medial compartment of thigh/adductor muscles of the hip
        - Adductor longus
        - Adductor brevis
        - Adductor magnus
        - Pectineus
        - Gracilis

- of toes (S2-S3)
    - Adductor hallucis
    - Plantar interossei

### Other

- vocal folds
    - Lateral cricoarytenoid muscle

- eyeball
    - Superior rectus muscle
    - Inferior rectus muscle
    - Medial rectus muscle

## Adduction in Scallops

Scallops have a central adductor muscle. It lets them open and close their shells. It is quite large and developed compared to other bivalves because they swim a lot.
2011–12 FC Barcelona season

The **2011–12 season** is **Futbol Club Barcelona's** 118th in the Spanish league.

Barcelona signing a £125m deal with the Qatar Foundation.

### In

|Pos.|Name|From|Fee|
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|FW|Alexis Sanchez|Udinese|€26 million|
|MF|Cesc Fàbregas|Arsenal|€39 million|

### Out

|Pos.|Name|To|Fee|
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|FW|Bojan Krkić|Roma|€12 m|
|FW|Jeffrén Suárez|Sporting Lisbon|€3.75 m|

### Released

|Pos.|Name|
| --- | --- |
|DF|Gabriel Milito|

### New deal

|Pos.|Name|
| --- | --- |
|FW|Pedro|

## Squad

|colspan=2|Goalkeepers|||
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|{| class="wikitable"||||
|1|Víctor Valdés|||
|13|José Manuel Pinto|}|{| class="wikitable"|
|2|Daniel Alves|||
|3|Gerard Piqué|||
|5|Carles Puyol|||
|19|Maxwell|||
|21|Adriano|||
|22|Éric Abidal|}|{| class="wikitable"|
|4|Cesc Fàbregas|||
|6|Xavi|||
|8|Andrés Iniesta|||
|11|Thiago Alcántara|||
|14|Javier Mascherano|||
|15|Seydou Keita|||
|16|Sergio Busquets|}|{| class="wikitable"|
|7|David Villa|||
|9|Alexis Sánchez|||
|10|Lionel Messi|||
|17|Pedro|||
|20|Ibrahim Afellay|}||

## Champions League

- FC Barcelona advanced to the Round of 16.

|width="175"|Team|width="20"||width="20"||width="20"||width="20"||width="20"||width="20"||width="20"||width="20"||
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|align=left|** FC Barcelona**|**6**|**5**|**1**|**0**|**20**|**4**|**+16**|**16**|||||||||
|align=left|AC Milan|6|2|3|1|11|8|+3|9|||||||||
|align=left|FC Viktoria Plzeň|6|1|2|3|4|11|-7|5|||||||||
|align=left|FC BATE Borisov|6|0|2|4|2|14|-12|2|||||||||

## Infobox (football club season)

- **club**: FC Barcelona
- **season**: 2011–12
- **manager**: Josep Guardiola
- **chairman**: Sandro Rosell
- **chrtitle**: Chairmen
- **stadium**: Camp Nou
- **pattern la1**: _thinblackborder
- **pattern b1**: _fcbarcelona1112h
- **pattern ra1**: _thinblackborder
- **pattern sh1**: _fcbarcelona1112h
- **pattern so1**: _fcbarcelona1112h
- **leftarm1**: 0000BF
- **body1**: 0000BF
- **rightarm1**: 0000BF
- **shorts1**: 0000BF
- **socks1**: 0000BF
- **pattern la2**: _thinblackborder
- **pattern b2**: _fcbarcelona1112a
- **pattern ra2**: _thinblackborder
- **pattern sh2**: _fcbarcelona1112a
- **pattern so2**: _fcbarcelona1112a
- **leftarm2**: 000000
- **body2**: 000000
- **rightarm2**: 000000
- **shorts2**: 000000
- **socks2**: 000000
- **prevseason**: FC Barcelona in 2010-11, 2010–11
Strength Through Joy

**Strength Through Joy** was a large state controlled program of rest and play in Nazi Germany. It made the tourism industry richer after a long time of no tourists. Many cruise ships were created specifically for this program, such as the MV Wilhelm Gustloff. Strength Through Joy was paused during the Second World War, and never restarted.
Hospital ship

A **Hospital ship** is a big boat which is built to cure patients. Most are operated by militaries, or by governments. Attacking one is a war crime, but Hospital ships are not allowed to carry any weapons, and enemy navies (if the owner of the Hospital ship is at war) are allowed to inspect them.　And hospital ship is due to be protected by Second Geneva Convention.
Volkswagen Beetle

The **Volkswagen Beetle** is a car manufactured by the Volkswagen company.  It was designed by Dr. Ferdinand Porsche.  When it was introduced, it had gone through over a million miles of testing - more than any other car at the time.

The history of the car is the history of the Volkswagen company - the company was created to make that car.  Other than some military vehicles during WWII, it was the only car the company made at first.

The car was made from 1949 to 2003, over 23 million of them.  For many years, it held the record as the most-sold car ever.  It took the record from the Model T Ford in 1971, and held it until 2000 when the Toyota Corolla took it away.

The basic shape and design of the car did not change.  It was also powered by an engine in the rear, had a small trunk up front, and was air-cooled (no radiator).

More recently, the company made the New Beetle, which looked similar, followed by the present-day Beetle from 2012.  These are completely different cars however, since they have a water-cooled engine in the front, and are very similar underneath to the Volkswagen Golf.

There are many Volkswagen clubs around the world, the members restore or modify the original air-cooled Volkswagens.

Disney made a series of films about a Beetle called Herbie.
Ferdinand Porsche

**Ferdinand Porsche** (3 September 1875 – 30 January 1951) was born in Austria.  He was a talented and well-known car designer, especially of race cars.  But he always wanted to make a small car useful for a family.  Finally Adolf Hitler gave him the opportunity to make the Volkswagen Beetle in 1936. But by the time the car started production, war broke out, and the company started making army vehicles instead.  After World War II he was put in a French jail for almost 2 years but never convicted of a crime.  He was released, but his health had been damaged and he died not long afterwards.  He lived long enough to see his beloved small car being successfully produced by the Volkswagen company, but not to see the great success it eventually became.

He started the Porsche company in 1931.  At first it made designs and prototypes for others (including the Volkswagen Beetle).  Later, under his son Ferry Porsche's leadership, it started making high-end cars.  It continues to produce high power cars to this day.

## Further reading

- Barber, Chris (2003). _Birth of the Beetle: The Development of the Volkswagen by Ferdinand Porsche_. Haynes Publishing. .
- Ludvigsen, Karl E. (2008). _Porsche: Excellence Was Expected – The Comprehensive History of the Company, Its Cars and Its Racing Heritage._ Brooklands Books.
- Hans Mommsen; Manfred Grieger: _Das Volkswagenwerk und seine Arbeiter im Dritten Reich_, ECON Verlag, Düsseldorf 1996,
- Peter Müller: _Ferdinand Porsche. Der Vater des Volkswagens_, 4. Aufl., 1998
- Martin Pfundner: _Austro Daimler und Steyr. Rivalen bis zur Fusion. Die frühen Jahre des Ferdinand Porsche_. Böhlau, Wien 2007.

## Other websites

- West Ham's Cedes Stoll Trolleybus  Porsche design
- Porsche facts website
- Website of the Society of Automotive Historians about him
- Hybrid-Vehicle.org: The Lohner-Porsche .
- Hybrid-Vehicle.org: The Landwehr and C-train

## Infobox (person)

- **image**: Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-2005-1017-525,_Dr._Ferdinand_Porsche.jpg
- **name**: Ferdinand Porsche
- **citizenship**: Austria-Hungary (birth–1918), First Czechoslovak Republic, Czechoslovakia (1918–1934), Germany (1934–death)
- **birth place**: Vratislavice nad Nisou, Maffersdorf, Kingdom of Bohemia, Bohemia, Austro-Hungarian Empire
(current Vratislavice nad Nisou, Czech Republic)
- **death place**: Stuttgart, West Germany
- **children**: Ferry Porsche and Louise Piëch, Louisa Porsche
- **known for**: starting Porsche, Volkswagen
George Balanchine

**George Balanchine** (Saint Petersburg, January 22, 1904 – New York, April 30, 1983) was a ballet dancer and choreographer. His father was Georgian, his mother Russian.

He was one of the 20th century's most famous choreographers. He developed over 200 ballets, mostly in the United States. He was the co-founder and balletmaster of the New York City Ballet. He was a choreographer known for his musicality. He often with Igor Stravinsky: 39 of his ballets were choreographed to music by Stravinsky.

## Career

Balanchine was trained at the Imperial Ballet School in St Petersburg. After the Revolution he joined what is now the Mariinsky Ballet. He escaped when the company toured Germany. He was picked up by Sergei Diaghilev to be a dancer and choreographer for the Ballets Russes.

After Diaghilev's death, Balanchine stayed in Europe until 1933. Then he was taken to New York by a wealthy patron, Lincoln Kirstein. Together they formed the American Ballet School. Later they formed the American Ballet Company. This company became the 'house' dance group of the New York Metropolitan Opera. Later, in 1938, Balanchine moved the company to Hollywood.

In 1948 he moved back to New York. This was to head the New York City Ballet at the New York State Theater. He designed this theater. From 1946 to 1982 he choreographed many dances for this company. Balanchine died in 1983 of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease.

## Marriages

In 1922 18 year old Balanchine married 15 year old Tamara Geva. After his divorce from Geva, Balanchine was with Alexandra Danilova from 1926 through 1933. He married and divorced three more times, all to women who were his dancers. There was Vera Zorina (December 1938–1946), Maria Tallchief (1946–1952), and Tanaquil Le Clercq (1952–1969). He did not have any children.

## Infobox (person)

- **name**: George Balanchine
- **image**: G. Balanchine (young).jpg
- **birth name**: Giorgi Balanchivadze
- **birth place**: Saint Petersburg, St. Petersburg, Russia
- **death place**: New York City
- **occupation**: choreographer, actor, director
- **years active**: 1929–1983
- **spouse**: Tamara Geva (1921–1926)
Vera Zorina (1938–1946)
Maria Tallchief (1946–1952)
Tanaquil LeClercq (1952–1969)
- **awards**: Légion d'honneur (1975) Presidential Medal of Freedom (1983)
Tamara Karsavina

**Tamara Platonovna Karsavina** (10 March 1885 – 26 May 1978) was a Russian ballerina. She began her career in the Imperial Russian Ballet and later danced with the Diaghilev's Ballets Russes.

Karsavina created the title role in _The Firebird_, the Ballerina in _Petrushka_, and The Young Girl in _Le Spectre de la Rose_. After she settled in Hampstead, London, she began teaching ballet professionally. She assisted in setting up The Royal Ballet, and was a founding member of the Royal Academy of Dance. Her pupils included Dame Alicia Markova and Dame Margot Fonteyn. She wrote two books: the autobiography _Theatre Street_ (1930) and the dance textbook _Classical Ballet: the flow of movement_ (1962).

## Other websites

- Karsavina: A website with complete information about Karsavina's birth and death.

## Infobox (person)

- **name**: Tamara Karsavina
- **image**: Tamara Karsavina as Armide in Pavillon d Armide 1911.jpg
- **caption**: Tamara Karsavina (c. 1912)
- **birth name**: Tamara Platonovna Karsavina
- **birth place**: St. Petersburg, Russia, St. Petersburg, Russia
- **death place**: Beaconsfield, Buckinghamshire, Britain
- **occupation**: Ballet dancer
KrioRus

**KrioRus** is a cryonics company that freezes dead people or animals. People do that in hope that, in the future when medicine becomes better, they can have life again, solve their health problems and have eternal life.

KrioRus is in Russia but can freeze people from every part of the world, specially from Europe and Asia.

## Related pages

- Cryonics

## Other websites

- Publications about KrioRus

## Infobox (company)

- **company name**: KrioRus
- **company type**: Limited liability partnership
- **foundation**:
()
- **founder**: Danila Medvedev
Valerya Pride
- **location city**: Moscow
- **location country**: Russian Federation
- **area served**: Global
- **key people**: Valerya Pride, General Director
Danila Medvedev, Chairman
- **industry**: Cryonics
Cryopreservation
- **products**: Cryopreservation of Humans and pets
 Cryopreservation of DNA
- **revenue**: Service fees and donations
Butler, Alabama

**Butler** is a city in Choctaw County, Alabama, United States. At the 2020 census the population was 1,871. The city is the county seat of Choctaw County.

## History

When Choctaw County was formed in 1847, Butler was created as the county seat. The town was located and settled in 1848. It is named in honor of Colonel Pierce Butler, a soldier killed in the Mexican-American War.

## Education

Public education is provided by the Choctaw County School District.  Choctaw County High School has grades 7 through 12. Choctaw County Elementary School has grades K through 6. Patrician Academy is a private school (grades pre-K through 12) located in Butler.

### Radio

- WMLV 93.5 FM (Hot Adult Contemporary)

## Notable natives

- Ty Herndon - Country music singer
- Johnny Ruffin - Major League Baseball pitcher

## Infobox (settlement)

- **official name**: Butler, Alabama
- **settlement type**: Town
- **image skyline**: Choctaw County Alabama Courthouse.jpg
- **image caption**: Choctaw County Courthouse and Confederate monument in Butler
- **image map**: File:Choctaw County Alabama Incorporated and Unincorporated areas Butler Highlighted 0111032.svg
- **map caption**: Location of Butler in Choctaw County, Alabama.
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision type1**: State
- **subdivision type2**: List of counties in Alabama, County
- **subdivision name**: United States
- **subdivision name1**: Alabama
- **subdivision name2**: Choctaw County, Alabama, Choctaw
- **area total sq mi**: 6.75
- **area land sq mi**: 6.75
- **area water sq mi**: 0.00
- **elevation ft**: 151
- **population as of**: 2020 United States Census, 2020
- **population total**: 1871
- **population density sq mi**: 277.14
- **timezone**: Central Time Zone (North America), Central (CST)
- **utc offset**: -6
- **timezone dst**: CDT
- **utc offset dst**: -5
- **postal code type**: ZIP code
- **postal code**: 36904
- **area code**: Area codes 205 and 659, 205, 659
- **blank name**: Federal Information Processing Standard, FIPS code
- **blank info**: 01-11032
- **blank1 name**: Geographic Names Information System, GNIS feature ID
- **blank1 info**: 2405351
- **unit pref**: Imperial
- **area total km2**: 17.48
- **area land km2**: 17.48
- **area water km2**: 0.00
- **population density km2**: 107.01
Aerial warfare

**Aerial warfare** is fighting a war in the air. This is usually done by using helicopters and airplanes. Bombers and attack aircraft fight enemies on the ground or bomb strategic targets in air raids. Fighter planes fight other airplanes. Transport aircraft carry infantry troops into battle or drop them as paratrooper<nowiki/>s.

## History

Eight years after aircraft were  invented by the Wright brothers they were used in combat. Planes were mostly used for reconnaissance and as spotters for artillery before they were armed. At first enemy pilots threw bricks, rope or other objects at enemy pilots. Later they used small arms like pistols and rifles to try to shoot the enemy pilots. In 1914 machine guns were mounted on many planes and this has continued to modern day. Biplanes were mostly replaced by monoplanes in World War II. By then, the concepts of bombers, fighters and fighter-bombers had been developed. This was the first war where aerial warfare played a major role. A famous aerial battle in WWII was the Battle of Britain.

After the war propeller aircraft were replaced with jet aircraft and fighters started carrying air to air missiles. This was when fighter aircraft were very optimized for speed and only carried air to air missiles. This was because the dogfight<nowiki/>ing of previous wars was considered impractical with jet aircraft. This was wrong and soon jets were armed with guns and made more maneuverable again.
United States Military Academy

The **United States Military Academy at West Point** (also known as West Point, USMA, Army (athletic teams)) is a university that teaches students to become officers in the US Army.  Students are called "cadets" and are subject to military rules while studying subjects like engineering and military science for four years.  For many years, West Point only taught men, but in 1976 West Point admitted its first female cadets. Women currently comprise approximately 15% of entering new cadets.

Military officers compose 75% of the faculty. Civilian professors make up the remaining 25% of faculty positions.

Congress formally authorized and funded West Point on 16 March 1802. West Point was so successful, that military academies were added later for the Navy, Coast Guard and Air Force.

West Point was originally a Fort. The Continental Army used it to guard the Hudson River. General Benedict Arnold tried to betray it.

## Sports

West Point has a very broad sports program. All of its students are required to compete in at least one sport, either at the intramural (i.e., within the school) or intercollegiate (i.e., against other schools) level, in every semester.

The Army intercollegiate sports teams are nicknamed "Black Knights". Most Army teams play in the Patriot League. The football team plays at the highest level, known as Division I FBS, in the American Athletic Conference. The men's ice hockey team plays in Atlantic Hockey America.

## Other websites

- The Academy's official site
- Army Black Knights official site

## Infobox (nrhp)

- **name**: United States Military Academy
- **nrhp type**: nhl
- **embed**: yes
- **locmapin**: New York
- **map width**: 235
- **added**: 1966
- **designated nrhp type**: 19 December 1960
- **refnum**: 66000562


## Infobox (university)

- **name**: United States Military Academy
- **image**: U.S. Military Academy Coat of Arms.svg
- **motto**: Duty • Honor • Country
- **type**: United States Service Academies, U.S. Service Academy
- **established**: 16 March 1802
- **superintendent**: LTG Darryl A. Williams
USMA Class of 1983
- **dean**: BG Cindy Jebb
USMA Class of 1982
- **head label**: Commandant
- **head**: BG Steven Gilland
USMA Class of 1990
- **faculty**: 580
- **students**: 4,294 cadets
- **city**: West Point, New York, West Point
- **state**:
New York (state), New York
- **country**: U.S.
- **campus**: Rural –
- **free label**: Fight song
- **free**: _On Brave Old Army Team_
- **colors**: Black and Gold
- **nickname**: Army Black Knights, Black Knights
- **sporting affiliations**: NCAA Division I – Patriot League, PL
American Athletic Conference, The American, Atlantic Hockey America, AHA, Collegiate Sprint Football League, CSFL, Eastern Intercollegiate Gymnastics League, EIGL, Eastern Intercollegiate Wrestling Association, EIWA
- **mascot**: Mule
- **logo**: United States Military Academy wordmark.svg
- **logo size**: 200px
Barebacking

**Barebacking** is when people have sexual intercourse without using a condom. The term originated in the gay community, and was used to refer to unprotected anal sex. The word is related to _bareback_, which means riding a horse without a saddle. Barebacking refers to a deliberate decision to not use a condom, forgetting to use a condom is not barebacking.

Barebacking is dangerous, because there is a high risk of infection with sexually transmitted diseases, such as Syphilis, or HIV. Even if both partners are HIV positive, there is a risk of infection with other strains of HIV. This may mean that the disease becomes more difficult to treat, or that certain drugs stop working.
Conscription

**Conscription**, also called **draft**, is when a government forces people to enlist in the army or other military service. Usually, only men are conscripted, but in some countries such as Israel, Norway and Sweden, women are as well. A soldier who has been drafted to serve in the army is called a _conscript_.

Conscription may or may not be compulsory. If compulsory, it may be resisted. Usually, exceptions are allowed. Since men in their late teens and twenties are the main objective, conscription clashes with higher education, and exceptions may be allowed.

The first large, modern conscript army was the French Grand Army after the French Revolution.  Conscription soon became a common way of making up the armies. Almost all of the powerful armies in the world except United Kingdom were conscript armies, but during the World War<nowiki/>s, even the British Army used mostly conscripts.

Conscription was introduced in August 1916 in New Zealand during the First World War  because the number of men needed to be recruited had not been met.

## Problems

Conscription armies are large, but they are often poorly equipped and trained and have poor morale. In combat they usually suffer many casualties. Usually conscripts serve with little pay. Conscription may be considered as a type of forced labour. In some countries, young men who refuse to join the army are sentenced to prison.  Many people "dodged" or illegally avoided conscription during the Vietnam War in the United States.

There are arguments for conscription. Some see it as fair since everyone shares the burden of service. A small country with few people can make up a large enough army by conscription. If a country is in the middleof hostile neighbours and war can break up at any time, or if the country is a _buffer state_ (between two military powers), training all available young people as soldiers can be a good idea.

The alternatives for conscription are militia or universal conscription systems, as in Switzerland, or a professional army made up from volunteers. The United States gave up conscription during the Cold War. The Vietnam War proved so unpopular that the US Army no longer wanted conscripts, but volunteers, who have better motivation to serve. Most other Western countries followed the American example and gave up conscription. Some countries now have an all-volunteer army, and in Europe, universal conscription remains only in some countries like Finland, Russia and Turkey.

In Germany, conscription for the Bundeswehr was removed in July 2011 after a long discussion in the German Bundestag.

People who oppose conscription because of pacifism idea are called conscientious objectors. Some countries draft conscientious objectors but give them jobs in which they will not have to fight.
Lalian

**Lalian** is a capital city of Lalian Tehsil in Punjab, Pakistan. It is on the Sargodha road from Chiniot.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **official name**: Lalian
- **settlement type**: Tehsil
- **imagesize**: 270px
- **nickname**: Lalian
- **mapsize**: 250x200px
- **pushpin map**: Pakistan
- **pushpin map caption**: Location in the Pakistan
- **subdivision type**: List of countries, Country
- **subdivision name**: Pakistan
- **subdivision type1**: Provinces of Pakistan, Province
- **subdivision name1**: Punjab, Pakistan, Punjab
- **subdivision type2**: Districts of Pakistan, District
- **subdivision name2**: Chiniot
- **established title**: Established
- **established date**: 2 February 2009
- **government type**: Tehsil
- **leader party**: N-League
- **leader title1**: City Council
- **elevation m**: 171
- **elevation ft**: 564
- **population footnotes**: (Approximately)
- **population as of**: 2009
- **population total**: 1,50,000
- **population urban**: 80,000
- **population density sq mi**: auto
- **timezone**: Pakistan Standard Time, PST
- **utc offset**: +5
- **timezone dst**: Pakistan Standard Time, PDT
- **utc offset dst**: +6
- **postal code type**: Postal codes in Pakistan, Postal code
- **area code type**: Dialling codes in Pakistan, Dialling code
- **area code**: 047
Strangler fig

A **strangler fig** is one of a number of tropical and subtropical plant species. There are some banyans and unrelated vines, and many other species:

- _Ficus altissima_
- _Ficus aurea_, also known as the Florida strangler fig
- _Ficus benghalensis_
- _Ficus burtt-davyi_
- _Ficus citrifolia_
- _Ficus craterostoma_
- _Ficus tinctoria_
- _Ficus macrophylla_
- _Ficus obliqua_
- _Ficus virens_
- _Ficus watkinsiana_
- _Ficus henneana_

All these vines have a strangling habit which is very common in tropical forests. This is an adaptation for growing in dark forests where the competition for light is intense. Strangler figs suck up the nutrients from its victims, causing them to die eventually.

One usually thinks that seeds start on or in the ground and grow upwards. Figs do it the other way round. Birds drop their seeds into the tops of trees, and the parasitic fig plant grows downwards, eventually round the whole tree. If not already at the top, they also grow upward to reach into the sunlight zone above the canopy.
Dawn (spacecraft)

**Dawn** is an unmanned NASA space probe. It has orbited and studied the asteroid Vesta, and it is currently orbiting the dwarf planet Ceres. Both Vesta and Ceres are in the asteroid belt. Dawn is the first spacecraft to visit Ceres and the first to visit Vesta. It also is the first spacecraft to orbit two extraterrestrial bodies.

Dawn was launched on September 27, 2007 at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station aboard a Delta 7925-H rocket. It then travelled to Mars for a gravity assist, making its closest approach to Mars in February 2009.

Next, Dawn set off for Vesta. It went into orbit in July, 2011. On September 5, 2012, Dawn left Vesta and headed for Ceres. It began to orbit Ceres on March 6, 2015.

## Infobox (spaceflight/ip)

- **type**: flyby
- **object**: Mars
- **arrival date**: February 18, 2009, 00:27:58 UTC


## Infobox (spaceflight/ip)

- **type**: orbiter
- **object**: 4 Vesta
- **arrival date**: July 16, 2011, 04:47 UTC
- **departure date**: September 5, 2012, 06:26 UTC


## Infobox (spaceflight/ip)

- **type**: orbiter
- **object**: Ceres (dwarf planet), 1 Ceres
- **arrival date**: March 6, 2015, 12:29 UTC


## Infobox (spaceflight/instruments)

- **acronym1**: FC
- **name1**: Framing Camera
- **acronym2**: VIR
- **name2**: Visible and Infrared Spectrometer
- **acronym3**: GRaND
- **name3**: Gamma Ray and Neutron Detector


## Infobox (spaceflight)

- **auto**: all
- **name**: _Dawn_
- **image**: Dawn spacecraft model.png
- **image caption**: Illustration of the _Dawn_ spacecraft
- **image size**: 300px
- **mission type**: Multi-target orbiter
- **operator**: NASAJet Propulsion Laboratory, JPL
- **cospar id**: 2007-043A
- **satcat**: 32249
- **website**: http://dawn.jpl.nasa.gov/
- **mission duration**: Planned: 9 years
 Final: 11 years, 1 month, 5 days
- **manufacturer**: Orbital Sciences Corporation, Orbital SciencesJet Propulsion Laboratory, JPLUniversity of California, Los Angeles, UCLA
- **power**: 10,000 watts at 1 AU
 1,300 watts at 3 AU
- **launch date**:  UTC
- **launch rocket**: Delta II 7925H
- **launch site**: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Cape Canaveral Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Space Launch Complex 17, SLC-17B
- **launch contractor**: United Launch Alliance
- **disposal type**: Uncontrolled/stable orbit
- **last contact**: 30 October 2018
- **programme**: Discovery program
- **previous mission**: _Deep Impact (spacecraft), Deep Impact_
- **next mission**: _Kepler (spacecraft), Kepler_
- **insignia**: Dawn logo.png
- **insignia caption**: _Dawn_ mission patch
- **insignia size**: 160px
2001–02 Asian Club Championship

The **2001-02 Asian Cup Championship** was 21st and the last Asian Cup Championships. The AFC Champions League was created after this tournament. The champions were Suwon Samsung Bluewings, defeating Anyang LG Cheetahs 0[4] -0[2]. The tournament final was played in Azadi Stadium, Tehran.

Suwon Samsung Bluewings won their second title on this tournament.

## Infobox (international football competition)

- **year**: 2001-02
- **country**: Iran
- **num teams**: 27
- **confederations**: 1
- **venues**: 1
- **cities**: 1
- **champion other**: Suwon Samsung Bluewings, Suwon
- **count**: 2
- **second other**: Anyang LG Cheetahs
- **third other**: Esteghlal F.C., Esteghlal
- **fourth other**: Nasaf Qarshi
- **matches**: 33
- **goals**: 185
- **prevseason**: 2000–01 Asian Club Championship, 2000-01
- **nextseason**: 2002–03 AFC Champions League, 2002-03
2009–10 UEFA Champions League

The **2009–10 UEFA Champions League** was the 55th UEFA Champions League. The champions were Internazionale with their third title. They defeated Bayern Munich 2-0. No third place game was played, but Lyon and FC Barcelona were defeated in the semifinals.

## Infobox (international football competition)

- **tourney name**: UEFA Champions League
- **year**: 2009–10
- **dates**: 15 September 2009 – 22 May 2010
- **num teams**: 32 (group stage)
76 (total)
- **associations**: 52
- **champion other**: F.C. Internazionale Milano, Internazionale
- **count**: 3
- **second other**: FC Bayern Munich, Bayern Munich
- **matches**: 125
- **goals**: 318
- **attendance**: 5193947
- **top scorer**: Lionel Messi
<small>(8 goals)</small>
- **player**: Diego Milito
- **prevseason**: 2008–09 UEFA Champions League, 2008–09
- **nextseason**: 2010–11 UEFA Champions League, 2010–11
Phillips Exeter Academy

**Phillips Exeter Academy** (also called **Exeter,** **Phillips Exeter,** or **PEA**) is a high school for boys and girls in Exeter, New Hampshire. It is a boarding school, and 80% of the students live there. The school has 1.3 billion dollars, which is the most any school in New England has, and as much as many colleges do.

Phillips Exeter Academy is one of the oldest private boarding school in the United States, and was founded in 1781, during the American Revolution, by John Phillips, as a school for only boys. The school opened to girls also in 1970. The school is known for its special teaching method, the Harkness method, where students discuss concepts instead of being lectured. The school has many important buildings, like the Class of 45 Library and the Exeter Inn. It has an art museum, called the Lamont Gallery.

Its rival school, Phillips Academy, was founded three years before in Andover, Massachusetts by John Phillips' nephew, Samuel Phillips Jr. with the help of the older Phillips. Their football teams have played against each other almost every year since 1878. This makes their rivalry one of the oldest high school rivalries in the country.

Many politicians, writers, and other leaders have graduated from this school. An American president, Franklin Pierce, went there, as did the children of three other American presidents: Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S. Grant, and Grover Cleveland. The inventor of Facebook, Mark Zuckerberg, also did. The school has three mottos: _Non Sibi_, which means "Not For Oneself", _Finis Origine Pendet_, which means "The End Depends On The Beginning", and _Χάριτι Θεοῦ_, which means "By the Grace of God".
Emblem

An **emblem** is a pictorial image either abstract or representational. It represents a Armorial of sovereign states concept — for example, a moral truth, or an allegory — or a person, such as a king or saint. For example, the scallop shell is the traditional emblem of James, son of Zebedee. Pilgrims wore it on their hat or clothes to show that they were travelling to the shrine at Santiago de Compostela.

## Related pages

- Coat of arms
- Crest
- Emblem book
- Meme
- Mission patch
- National emblem
- Saint symbology
- Seal (emblem)
- Symbol
- Badge

## Further reading

- Emblematica Online. The University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign Libraries. 1,388 facsimiles of emblem books.
- Moseley, Charles, _A Century of Emblems: An Introduction to the Renaissance Emblem_ (Aldershot: Scholar Press, 1989)
Tasman Bay

**Tasman Bay** is a large bay at the north of New Zealand's South Island. It is in the shape of a _V_. It is in the middle of the island's northern coast. It is 120 km long and 70 km wide. It is a part of the coast of the Tasman Sea, on the western side of the Cook Strait.
At the western side of the bay, the land around has dense vegetation. The separation point between the Tasman Bay and the next bay, Golden Bay, is in the west. It is a part of the Abel Tasman National Park. On the east side, the bay is bounded by valleys of the Marlborough Sounds.

A few rivers enter the sea at this point. Some of them are Waimea River, Riwaka, the Motueka and Serpentine River. Tasman Bay contains the rare rock formation known as the Boulder Bank.

The land around the centre of the bay is cultivated. It is well known for its crops like apples, kiwifruit, olives, grapes and hops. Tasman bay produced Tobacco there in the middle of the twentieth century. Now there is a Tobacco museum in Motueka. This is also the most populated part of the South Island's north coast. Several towns and the city of Nelson are there. Other large towns are Motueka, Riwaka and Richmond.
Royal Forest and Bird Protection Society of New Zealand

The **Royal Forest and Bird Protection Society of New Zealand Inc.** (**Forest & Bird**) is an environmental organisation. It specialises in conservation of indigenous plant and animal life in and around New Zealand.
- The Society has over 45 active branches. They are located in urban and rural centres in New Zealand.
- Branches are very engaged in conservation projects on a community and regional basis.
- Society offices and staff are in Auckland, Christchurch and Wellington.
- The society publishes a journal four times a year: _Forest & Bird_.

## Infobox (organization)

- **name**: Royal Forest and Bird Protection Society of New Zealand
- **alt**: Forest and Bird logo
- **caption**: The Forest and Bird logo adopted in 2009
- **formation**: 1923
- **type**: NGO
- **purpose**: Conservation (ethic), Conservation
- **headquarters**: Wellington, New Zealand
- **website**: [http://www.forestandbird.org.nz/ forestandbird.org.nz/]
Fishing dredge

A **fishing dredge**, also known as a **scallop dredge** or an **oyster dredge**, is a kind of fishing net. It is pulled along the bottom of the sea by a fishing boat to collect scallops, oysters and other kind of clams, crabs, and sea cucumber. Fishermen then lift the dredge into the boat and empty it.

In Europe, dredges used to have "teeth" at the bottom, called **tynes**. These teeth raked or ploughed the sand and mud. This dug up buried clams. The New Bedford (USA) dredge does not have teeth.

Dredge nets have a gross mesh in order to let organisms smaller than the target organisms through. The net catches the larger organisms: in the case of scallop dredging that includes the scallops' predators, such as whelks, starfish and octopus.

Sometimes three or four dredges are attached to a wheeled stiff axle. A number of these dredges can be towed from a heavy spreading bar. Usually there is one on each side of the ship. The length of the bar and the number of dredges towed is dependent on the power of the ship and the room on the side of the boat for working the dredges. There could be 3 on each side on a small 10 metre boat. There could be up to 20 on each side for a 30-metre ship with 1500 hp. The weight and strength of this can dig up the ground. It overturns rocks and can crush animals and plants in its path.

Scallops often contain sand when fishermen use dredges. It can also damage the seabed if they use dredges carelessly. These days scallop dredging is sometimes replaced by scuba diving. However inventors are trying to invent a better dredge.

## Related pages

- Scallop
- Levee#Dredging: the alternative approach

## Other websites

- photo of scallop dredge
- drawing of scallop dredge
Way of St. James

The **Way of St. James** or **St. James' Way** (, , , ) is the pilgrimage route to the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela in Galicia in northwestern Spain. Tradition says that the remains of the apostle Saint James are buried there.

## Other websites

- "Looking For Infinity: El Camino" (2017) follows the ancient pilgrimage path of St James's Way. Described by the Blue Mountains Australia Supporters of the Camino as “A beautiful, sincere and gentle work for those who want to savour life and slow down to see it, Working on many different levels, the film provides insight into what attracts many people to undertake a Camino and what the words “freedom” and “simplicity” mean to them when coupled with “giving” to others and always receiving more than you gave."
- Camino de Santiago Community dedicated to help pilgrims plan their trip
- Comeon.ws , detailed and accurate information about The Caminos and Albergues (GPS tracks, POIs, maps)
- Virtual Visit  Cathedral Santiago de Compostela
- Camino de Santiago Backpacking Journals Follow hikers as they walk the Way of Saint James
- The Art of medieval Spain, A.D. 500-1200, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Way of St. James (p. 175-183)
- Free Guide for Hikers on the Way of St. James
- Walk the Camino de Santiago de Compostela  First hand pilgrim advice for various European St. James pilgrimage walking routes
- App Mi Camino  for Android SmartPhones
- Free Android app and maps for navigation to Camino de Santiago for Android SmartPhones

## Infobox (unesco world heritage site)

- **child**: yes
- **official name**: Routes of Santiago de Compostela: _Camino Francés_ and Routes of Northern Spain
- **id**: 669bis
- **year**: 1993
- **extension**: 2015


## Infobox (unesco world heritage site)

- **child**: yes
- **official name**: Routes of Santiago de Compostela in France
- **id**: 868
- **year**: 1998


## Infobox (unesco world heritage site)

- **image**: Ways of St. James in Europe.png
- **image upright**: 1.2
- **caption**: Map of the Way of St. James in Europe
- **criteria**: (ii)(iv)(vi)