juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Bilberry

***Vaccinium myrtillus***/The **bilberry** is the fruit of a type of shrub that grows close to the ground. It is a member of the genus _Vaccinium_.

The bilberry is native to Europe, whereas the blueberry and huckleberry are native to North America. They are closely related, and members of the same genus.

The bilberry is known by many names. It is also called blaeberry, whortleberry, whinberry, myrtle blueberry, fraughan, and probably other names in different places. In Thomas Hardy's 1878 book, _The Return of the Native,_ they were called black-hearts in 19th century southern England.

## Other websites

- Species profile: Blaeberry
- Bilberry and Herbal Medicine
Capital (economics)

**Capital** has a number of related meanings in economics, finance and  accounting.

In finance and accounting, capital generally refers to financial wealth, especially that used to start or maintain a business.

In classical economics, **capital** is one of the four factors of production. The others are land, labor and organization. Goods with the following features are capital goods as opposed to consumer goods or durable goods:
- Goods that can be used in the production of other goods (this is what makes it a factor of production).
- Goods made by humans, in contrast to "land," which refers to naturally occurring resources such as geographical locations and minerals.
- Goods not used up immediately in the process of production, unlike raw materials or intermediate goods (e.g. machinery).

The third part of the definition was not always used by classical economists. The classical economist David Ricardo would use the above definition for the term **fixed capital** while including raw materials and intermediate products are part of world life in which they can easily spend their life.

## Related pages

- Human capital
- Social capital
Felix Klein

**Felix Christian Klein** (April 25, 1849, Düsseldorf, Prussian Empire – June 22, 1925, Göttingen, Germany) was a German mathematician. He became known for his work in group theory, function theory, non-Euclidean geometry, and on the connections between geometry and group theory. His 1872 Erlangen Program, which ate geometries by their underlying symmetry groups, was a hugely influential synthesis of much of the mathematics of the day.

The Klein bottle is named after him.
Land (economics)

In economics, **land** means all natural resources that cannot be produced in a larger quantity if prices go up, such as geographical locations and mineral deposits.

In classical economics it is considered one of three factors of production, the other two being capital and labor; income that one gets because of ownership or control of natural resources is often referred to as rent.
Part (music)

In music, a **part** is a line of music which is played by one player or group of players (or sung by one or more singers).  This is the usual meaning of the word “part” when talking about musical compositions.

When a group of instruments are all playing the same notes together - like the first violins in an orchestra, they are all playing the same part.  The second violins are playing another part, the violas are playing yet another part, etc.

In a string quartet each of the four instruments plays a different part.

A group of singers who are all singing the tune together are singing in _unison_.  If they divide into soprano, alto, tenor and bass, they are singing in four parts.  The sopranos may be singing the tune and the altos, tenors and basses are providing the harmony underneath.  This is called “4 part harmony”.  If each of the four parts has its own share of the melody (or its own melody) it is polyphonic music.  Polyphonic music is always in several parts.

Sometimes music for the piano or organ may be written in a strict number of parts, e.g. a 5 part fugue for the piano could also be performed on five different instruments because there are always exactly five different lines of music (although sometimes a part will have a rest, but this is always shown by rests in the music).  Although written on two staves for the pianist (or three staves for an organist) it could be written on five staves: one stave for each part.

Another word for a musical _part_ is _voice_.  In most other European languages the word for _part_ in this musical sense is the same as the normal word for  _voice_ e.g. in German: _Stimme_ or French _voix_.

In general, the more parts there are in a musical composition the harder it is to compose because they all have to fit together to sound nice.  The 16th century composer Thomas Tallis wrote a motet called _Spem in alium_ which is in 40 parts.  A choir of at least 40 people is needed to sing it, and even then each person will be singing something different to all the others.

## Orchestral parts

A slightly different (but related) meaning of “part” can be the actual printed music that a player in an orchestra or band puts on the music stand to play from.  The oboe part, for example, will just have the notes that the oboe plays.  In contrast, the conductor has a musical score in which all the instrumental parts are written underneath one another.

## ”Part” meaning “section”

The word _part_ can also be used in its normal meaning of  _section_ (i.e. a bit of something). We can say: “the first part of the movement is played just by the woodwind instruments”.

Sometimes a large work like an oratorio will be split into two or three “Parts” (in opera these would be called “Acts”).
DVD player

A **DVD player** is a home media device that plays DVDs (also called _digital versatile discs_). The first DVD player was the Toshiba SD-3000, released in Japan in November 1996.

## Related pages

- CD player
Labour (economics)

**Labour** or **labor** is work done by people.  Labor is one of three factors of production.  The other two factors are land and capital.

People who can work are also known as human capital, referring not necessarily to what they actually do, but to their abilities.

## Related pages

- Wage, paying someone for labor.
Zach Braff

**Zachary Israel Braff** (born April 6, 1975) is an American actor, film director, producer and screenwriter. He became famous in the early 2000s playing the part of "Dr. John Dorian" on the NBC/ABC series _Scrubs_. Since then, he has written, starred in and directed the 2004 movie _Garden State_. He also has directed multiple music videos. He is the voice of Chicken Little in _Chicken Little_ and its subsequent television series. Braff is a Democrat and attended the 2012 Democratic National Convention in support of President Obama's re-election. He directed his first movie. It is called _Wish I Was Here_.

## Other websites

- Official website
- Zach Braff's MySpace
- Video interview on stv.tv

## Infobox (person)

- **image**: Zach Braff 2011 Shankbone.JPG
- **caption**: Braff at the 2011 Tribeca Film Festival _Vanity Fair (magazine), Vanity Fair_ party
- **birth name**: Zachary Israel Braff
- **occupation**: Actor, film director, producer, screenwriter
- **height**: 182 cm
- **yearsactive**: 1989–present
Scrubs (TV series)

***Scrubs*** is an American sitcom. It is about doctors and nurses in a hospital, and the title _Scrubs_ comes from the name of the clothes they wear to keep themselves from getting dirty.

The series, which ran for nine seasons, was well known for its creative flashbacks and fantasies.

## Season One

The first season introduces John Michael "J.D." Dorian and his best friend Christopher Turk in their first year out of medical school as interns at Sacred Heart Hospital.

## Infobox (television)

- **image**: Scrubs-logo-deutsch.svg
- **camera**: Single-camera setup, Single-camera
- **runtime**: approx. 22 minutes (per episode)
- **creator**: Bill Lawrence
- **starring**: Zach Braff
Sarah Chalke
Donald Faison
Neil Flynn
Ken Jenkins
John C. McGinley
Judy Reyes
- **country**: United States
- **language**: English language, English
- **network**: NBC, American Broadcasting Company, ABC
- **num episodes**: 181
Flashback

A **flashback** is a technique used by writers which is often used in movies, television and literature. It involves a character remembering something that happened to him in the past.  _Scrubs_ is a television show that uses _flashbacks_ often.

The term is also used colloquially, to describe lingering effects of a drug (such as LSD), or memories of a bad experience triggered by things in the present.
Widescreen

**Widescreen** is the term for any aspect ratio larger than 4:3.

Blu-Ray Discs use the aspect ratio 16:9 Full High Definition (FHD) resolution of 1920x1080p.
Marketing

**Marketing** is an activity that connects producers with customers. It may be B2B (business to business) marketing or B2C (business to consumer). It may include market research and advertising.

The term _marketing_, which is commonly known as attracting customers, incorporates knowledge gained by studying the management of exchange relationships and is the business process of identifying, anticipating and satisfying customers' needs and wants.

## Definitions

- Exchange value and building strong relationship with customer.

- Marketing-" To create, grow, develop, maintain, defend, and own markets".

- An approach to business that seeks to identify, anticipate, and satisfy customers needs.

- _Al Ries_ and _Jack Trout_ defined marketing as simply "war" between competitors.

- At a macro level, marketing is the process of raising the standard of living, by identifying the existing problems and unsatisfied needs of people and then satisfying that need with a product/service that delivers value to the customer.
Kirkkonummi

**Kirkkonummi** () is a municipality in Uusimaa, Finland. As of January 2014, almost 38,000 people lived in Kirkkonummi. It has an area of .

Most people speak Finnish, almost 80%.

Kirkkonummi is close to the capital city, Helsinki. Other neighbouring municipalies are Espoo, Vihti and Siuntio.

Kirkkonummi was established in 1330.

Buildings and structures: Finland's tallest structure is a tower that is 185 m tall.

## Other websites

- Community website
Christian Klein

**Christian Klein** is a German manager who is the current chief executive officer at SAP SE.

## Infobox (person)

- **name**: Christian Klein
- **birth place**: Mühlhausen (Kraichgau), Germany
- **nationality**: German
- **alma mater**: Baden-Württemberg_Cooperative_State_University, University of Cooperative Education in Mannheim
- **occupation**: CEO, SAP SE
Storage

**Storage** means the _act of keeping things_ and the _place_ where you keep them.

That may be:

- Furniture designed to hold small objects:
    - Bookcase, Cabinet (furniture), Chest (furniture), Cupboard, Desk, Sideboard (hutch), Refrigerator, etc.

- Small, mobile containers designed to hold food or other goods:
    - boxes, bottles, and cans
    - Food storage, containers such as Tupperware and Rubbermaid brands
    - Container (cargo), a shipping container, storage for cargo transport
    - Magazine (artillery), an item or place within which ammunition is stored

- Larger containers typically designed to store special kinds of objects or substances:
    - Reservoir (water), an artificial lake
    - Storage tank
    - Dry cask storage, storing high-level radioactive waste

- Special rooms, or parts of buildings, designed for storage:
    - Storage room, Closet, Cellar, Attic

- Special buildings, or collections of buildings, designed to hold large objects, or a great many objects of a particular type:
    - Shed, Depot, Garage (house)
    - Warehouse, a commercial building for storage of goods
    - Self storage, public storage facility
    - Ammunition dump, a military storage facility for live ammunition and explosives

- Devices designed to store and release electrical charge or energy:
    - Capacitor, stores electric charge
    - battery, a store of electricity

- Devices designed for information storage and retrieval:
    - storage medium
    - Computer storage, Hard drive, Computer memory
    - _See also_ Store and forward, relaying information through one or more intermediate stations which temporarily store the information

- Collections of stored information:
    - Archive, or archives – a collection of records
    - Books store the wisdom of the ages
    - Memory stores the record of experience

## Related pages

- Store
- Hoarding
- Storativity – a measure of _storage_
Publishing

**Publishing** is  making information available for public view. A publisher makes and sells literature or information. Publishers can pay their author<nowiki/>s, or authors who want to be published can pay the publisher. Sometimes authors are their own publishers.

Traditionally, publishing means the creation and distribution of printed works such as books and newspapers. Since the late 20th century it can also mean internet publishing.

A **publication** is the product of publishing.

Publications can be in various forms, including digital media, magazines, journals, and e-books, reaching audiences through both physical and online platforms.

## Academic publishers

- Cambridge University Press
- Elsevier
- Oxford University Press
- University of Tokyo Press

## Other websites

- Books
- Association of American Publishers
- Book-Busters: Corporate Consolidation in Book Publishing and Selling and the Decline of Diversity by William Petrocelli (1999)
- The British Library - finding information on the book publishing & retailing industry
- Piers Anthony's Internet publishing survey
- Publishers Weekly, for book publishers
- A Report to the Authors Guild which reveals a "Crisis in Midlist Publishing" : Study (PDF file)
- Society of Young Publishers
- The Young Publishers Network
- International Publishers Association
- A list of Publishers of genre fiction such as thrillers, suspense and mystery

- Miscellaneous

- Writing and Publishing Program : Online courses on writing and publishing from Simon Fraser University
- Editor and Publisher magazine and information on the newspaper industry
- Magazine Publishing Startup Resource Web Site for Publishers
Song dynasty

The **Song dynasty** ruled in China from 960–1279. It was started by Emperor Taizu of Song who forced the state of Later Zhou out of power before reuniting China. This ended the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period.

There are two periods of Song dynasty history: Northern Song and Southern Song. Northern Song lasted from 960 to 1127 and controlled most of China. Southern Song was formed after Northern Song had lost control of North China to the Jin dynasty. Southern Song's capital was in Hangzhou and lasted from 1127 to 1279. Southern Song was conquered by the Mongols.

## History

The Northern Song Dynasty ruled in China from 960 to 1127. The first emperor, Emperor Taizu of Song, set the capital in Bianliang (now we call this city Kaifeng) in northern China. The Northern Song Dynasty enjoyed the highest economic and cultural prosperity during the ancient Chinese history.

The Battle of Yamen effectively ended the Southern Song Dynasty in 1279, as the battle resulted in the death of the last emperor Zhao Bing.
Great Red Spot

The **Great Red Spot** is a hurricane on the surface of the planet Jupiter. It is so big that two or three Earths could fit inside it. It has been going on for at least 340 years.

## Formation

Scientists do not know why or how it formed, some researchers think because of the chemicals like ammonia in the upper part of the Great Red Spot. Scientists also notice that the spot is getting smaller which they also do not understand.

## Other websites

- Jupiter simulations
Sodomy

Since about the Middle Ages, **sodomy** is used for sexual acts that do not have the purpose procreation (making babies). In general, this refers to anal or oral sex. In some cases, it is also used to refer to sex with animals (which is usually called zoophilia). Depending on the time, the society and culture, there were laws that made sodomy a crime. Today, such laws have been overturned, or they are not enforced, in many countries of the world.

Countries where religion plays a large role may still have punishments for such crimes, as they are often mentioned in the scriptures of the religion which is important in the country.

Such laws, called sodomy laws, are sometimes also used to criminalize homosexuality.
CRT

**CRT** could mean:

- Cathode ray tube
- Critical race theory
The Left Party.PDS

**The Left Party.PDS** (in German: **Die Linkspartei** or **Linkspartei.PDS**) was a left-winged political party in Germany.  After joining with another political party, it became "Die Linke", or "The Left" in 2007.

## History

After the end of the GDR in 1990, the former Socialist Unity Party of Germany _Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands_ (SED) changed to the **SED-PDS** and later to the **Partei des Demokratischen Sozialismus** (PDS).
In the former GDR it was very successful in state elections and it had a small group in the federal parliament. But it always failed in Western Germany.

In the 2000s there were a lot of changes of job policy and ways of helping people in need. People that restrictions hurt the poorer and unemployed people in Germany. These reforms were made by the Social democrats SPD and the Greens, who were traditionally the left-wing parties in Germany.

Some people, who left the SPD and some people from Trade Unions founded the Electors Association for Work and Social Justice _Wahlgemeinschaft Arbeit und Soziale Gerechtigkeit_ (WASG) in Western Germany. Many students.
They - and although the PDS - realized that there was no chance to win mandates in elections as concurrents. So they decided to found a new party, Die Linkspartei.

In the last federal elections they joined the parliament; in the state of Berlin they joined the state government.

## Programme

Die Linkspartei is a left-wing party. It is the only party in the federal parliament which views jobs and people as being more important than letting companies make as much money as they want.

They want to have more people employed directly by government bodies instead of having private companies doing jobs for the government. They also want higher taxes on the rich and those who make all or most of their money from the capital market and deals using their money instead of working at actual jobs.

They are against study fees and want to have only a comprehensive school (_gesamtschule_) instead of two or three different types of further school in most German states.

Their foreign policy follows the old position of the Green Party _Bündnis 90/Die Grüne_ and are strictly against any German soldiers fighting. They are still talking about allowing German soldiers to be in the peace keeping missions of the United Nations.

In the field of civil rights they copied the position of the Greens, as well.

## Infobox (political party)

- **country**: Germany
- **logo**:
- **leader**: Lothar Bisky
- **ideology**: Democratic socialism
- **international**: none
- **european**: Party of the European Left
- **europarl**: European United Left – Nordic Green Left, GUE/NGL
- **colours**: Red
- **headquarters**: Karl-Liebknecht-Haus
Kleine Alexanderstraße 28
D-10178 Berlin
- **website**: [http://www.sozialisten.de www.sozialisten.de]
Notebook

- _This article is talking about the **notebook** made of paper. If you are looking for the hand-carry computer, see Laptop._

A **notebook** is a collection of sheets of paper, bound as a book or leaflet. It can be used to make notes and to draw things. Some notebooks also have a printed calendar.
InuYasha

- _This article is about the series InuYasha. For the character Inuyasha from the series see: List of InuYasha characters._

**Inuyasha** is a manga and anime series created by Rumiko Takahashi.

## Plot

Fifty years ago, a priestess named Kikyo had a relationship with a half–demon named Inuyasha. When they oppose each other, Inuyasha becomes unconscious and Kikyo dies from her injury while keeping the Shikon Jewel (Shikon no Tama), she leaves her sister (Kaede) alive. Kagome is a teenage student, who discovers a well in her house and ends up traveling to the past. She meets and rescues Inuyasha, who slept in a sacred tree for fifty years. Kagome learns that she is Kikyo's reincarnation and had the jewel inside her body, which the demon extracted it. The magical necklace allows Inuyasha to control his behaviour. Kagome inadvertently shatters the jewel into pieces, which Naraku uses one of them to summon the army of incarnations. Inuyasha recruits a few allies on his journey. As Kikyo dies again, Inuyasha defeats Naraku, making the jewel vanished from the world and Kagome is sent back to the present day. Three years later, Miroku and Sango have three children, Rin lives with Kaede, and Kagome returns to the feudal era after graduating from high school.

## Infobox (animanga/header)

- **name**: Inuyasha
- **image**: Logo de InuYasha en kanji.png
- **caption**: Inuyasha written in kanji
- **ja romaji**: Sengoku Otogizōshi Inuyasha
- **ja kanji**: 戦国お伽草子–犬夜叉
- **genre**: Adventure fiction, Adventure, fantasy, Romance fiction, romance


## Infobox (animanga/print)

- **type**: manga
- **author**: Rumiko Takahashi
- **publisher**: Shogakukan
- **demographic**: _Shōnen manga, Shōnen_
- **magazine**: Weekly Shōnen Sunday
- **first**: November 13, 1996
- **last**: June 18, 2008
- **volumes**: 56
- **volume list**: List of Inuyasha volumes


## Infobox (animanga/video)

- **type**: tv series
- **director**: Masashi Ikeda <small>(1-44)</small>
Yasunao Aoki <small>(45-167)</small>
- **producer**: Michihiko Suwa
Hideyuki Tomioka
- **writer**: Katsuyuki Sumisawa
- **music**: Kaoru Wada
- **studio**: Sunrise (company), Sunrise
- **network**: Nippon Television Network System, NNS (Yomiuri Telecasting Corporation, ytv)
- **first**: October 16, 2000
- **last**: September 13, 2004
- **episodes**: 167
- **episode list**: List of Inuyasha episodes


## Infobox (animanga/video)

- **type**: tv series
- **title**: Inuyasha: The Final Act
- **director**: Yasunao Aoki
- **producer**: Tomoyuki Saito
Mitomu Asai
Naohiro Ogata
- **writer**: Katsuyuki Sumisawa
- **music**: Kaoru Wada
- **studio**: Sunrise
- **network**: NNS (ytv)
- **first**: October 3, 2009
- **last**: March 29, 2010
- **episodes**: 26
- **episode list**: List of Inuyasha: The Final Act episodes


## Infobox (animanga/other)

- **title**: Feature films
- **content**: # _InuYasha the Movie: Affections Touching Across Time_
# _Inuyasha the Movie: Fire on the Mystic Island_


## Infobox (animanga/footer)
Kurt Schumacher

**Kurt Schumacher** (born 13 October 1895 in Kulm, West Prussia (now Chełmno in Poland) - died 20 August 1952 in Bonn) was a German politician. He was leader of the SPD from 1946 to 1952 and speaker of the SPD in the Bundestag 1949-1952.

Schumacher was the son of a salesman. When World War I started, he left school to join the German army. In December 1914, he was badly hurt. His arm had to be removed. After this, he went back to school in Berlin to study Law and politics. While there, he became a socialist. In 1924, he was elected to the legislature in Württemberg. He became the SPD leader for Württemberg in 1928. In 1930, he was elected to the national legislature, the Reichstag.

After the Nazis took control of Germany, Schumacher was arrested. He was beaten badly in prison. He was put into concentration camps for the next ten years. In 1943, Schumacher was set free because of his bad health. He was arrested again in 1944 and stayed in the concentration camps until the British set them free in April 1945.

After the World War II, Schumacher put the SPD back together. He was first chief of the Social democrats in West Germany after the WWII. He was also their first speaker in the federal parliament (Bundestag) and first leader of opposition in the Bundestag.

In 1952, Schumacher died in Bonn.
Christian Social Union of Bavaria

The **Christian Social Union of Bavaria** or **Christlich Soziale Union** (short **CSU**) is a conservative political party in the German state of Bavaria.

In the federal parliament of Germany (Bundestag) the CSU and the CDU join together in a political alliance to form the main centre-right group in Germany.

Its chief is Horst Seehofer.

## History

In 1945, two local CSU groups were founded. One in Würzburg and the other in Munich.

In January 1946 the CSU was founded for the whole of Bavaria.

All state elections of Bavaria were won by the CSU. Sometimes the CSU had to make some coalitions with the Bayernpartei (Bavarian Party), the FDP or the SPD.

In the federal government the CSU always joins with the CDU.

The CSU is more conservative than the CDU.

One very famous leader of the CSU was Franz Josef Strauß. Sometimes he was well known for the good that he did. Other times because of scandals.

## Programme

The CSU is a very conservative party according to the people of Bavaria, who mainly live in the countryside and smaller towns and villages.

Traditionally it tried to make a compromise between conservative tradition and social welfare.

Currently it leans to more free market beliefs instead of social care.

## Infobox (political party)

- **country**: Germany
- **name**: Christian Social Union of Bavaria
- **native name**: Christlich-Soziale Union in Bayern
- **logo**:
- **leader**: Markus Söder (Minister President of Bavaria)
- **foundation**: 1945
- **ideology**: Christian democracy
 Conservatism
- **position**: Centre-right
- **international**: Christian Democrat International and International Democrat Union
- **european**: European People's Party
- **europarl**: European People's Party - European Democrats
- **colours**: Blue (campaign colour)
- **headquarters**: Franz Josef Strauß-Haus
Nymphenburger Str. 64
80335 München
- **website**: [http://www.csu.de http://www.csu.de]
Christian Democratic Union of Germany

The **Christian Democratic Union of Germany** or _Christlich Demokratische Union Deutschlands (CDU)_ is one of the two main right of centre political parties in Germany. It describes itself as a Christian democratic and conservative party.

In November 2005 the Federal leader of the CDU Angela Merkel became the Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany; she left office in December 2021. It is currently led by General Secretary Carsten Linnemann, who was given his position in July 2023. The party's president is Friedrich Merz.

## History

The CDU was founded after World War II. The first German Chancellor was Konrad Adenauer, a member of the CDU. He ruled from 1949 to 1963. During the Government of Helmut Kohl (1982-1998), Germany was reunited.

The CDU was the Government Party for most of the younger German history, only from 1969 to 1982 and from 1998 to 2005 there have been Chancellors from different parties.

## Members

The CDU has more than 400,000 members. It has 255 of 631 Members of Parliament in the German Parliament (Deutscher Bundestag) and 34 of 99 Members of European Parliament of Germany.

## Infobox (political party)

- **country**: Germany
- **name**: Christian Democratic Union of Germany
- **native name**: Christlich Demokratische Union Deutschlands
- **abbreviation**: CDU
- **logo**: CDU Logo 2023.svg
- **leader**: Friedrich Merz
- **foundation**: 1870 (Centre Party)
1945 (CDU)
- **ideology**: Christian democracy, Conservatism
- **position**: Centre-right
- **international**: Christian Democrat International and International Democrat Union
- **european**: European People's Party
- **europarl**: European People's Party - European Democrats
- **colours**: Black, Orange
- **headquarters**: Klingelhöferstraße 8
10785 Berlin
- **website**: [http://www.cdu.de http://www.cdu.de]
Income

**Income** is the money that someone gets for business activities. For individuals income usually means their wages or salary before any tax and other deductions have been made by their employer. Overall it is the amount you earn after all outstanding deductions have been made. **Gross income** is the income from all sources including wages or salary.

For business, there is a difference between the US, where it most often means the amount of money that a company earns after paying for all its costs, and the world outside the U.S., where the term is usually profit or earnings.

## Related pages

- Per capita income
- Household income in the United States
- Income tax

## Other websites

- Markets & Stocks: Investor Research Center - Earnings Warnings
- http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/DATASTATISTICS/
- CBSalary—Careerbuilder's Free Salary Calculator
- US Corporate Earnings Calendar
Theory of computation

The **theory of computation** is a branch of mathematics. Generally it is seen as belonging to computer science. The field of study of this subject is to see if a certain problem can be solved by a computer. If this is the case, then the question is to know if it can be solved in an efficient way.

There are two major branches in it. The first is computability theory. It looks to see if a certain problem can be solved by a computer. Since this is a theoretical field of study, no real computers are used. They are replaced by a system called the Turing machine.

Once it is known if such a solution exists, computer scientists want to know if it can be found, and perhaps how it can be improved. This field of study is covered by the complexity theory. That theory has developed concepts to compare different methods of solving a problem to one another. Such methods are usually called algorithms. This is similar to comparing cooking recipes and seeing which of two recipes is easier to do.
Wilhelm Hauff

**Wilhelm Hauff** (29 November 1802 – 18 November 1827) was a German poet and novelist.

Some of his works are very popular in German speaking countries to this day, such as Der kleine Muck, Kalif Storch and Die Geschichte von dem Gespensterschiff — all set in the Orient and Der Zwerg Nase, Das kalte Herz and Das Wirtshaus im Spessart, the three are set in Germany.

## Other websites

- Collection of links with commentary (German)
- Sound samples to download
- Many fairy tales (Märchen) available (German)

- Poems
- Steh ich in finstrer Mitternacht
- Reiters Morgenlied

- Links to Hauff's Work by Projekt Gutenberg-DE:
- Overview of Hauff with many of his texts online (German)
Link (unit)

A **link**, also called a **Gunter’s link**, was a unit of length in the imperial and US customary systems. Links were commonly used in measuring land in the English-speaking world before the twentieth century, but are never used. _Link_ is abbreviated as _ln_. It was invented by Edmund Gunter, a professor of astronomy at Gresham College, London, the same man who made the chain. He made the link as a low-technology piece of equipment that could survey small areas of land very accurately, whereas the chain could measure towns and large areas of land.

|1 link|=  chain|
| --- | --- |
||= / 7.92 inches|
||= 201.168 millimetres=20.12 centimetres|
Algebraic structure

In mathematics an **algebraic structure** is a set with one, two, or more binary operations on it. The binary operation takes two elements of the set as inputs, and gives one element of the set as an output.

The basic algebraic structures with **one binary operation** are the following:
- Magma (mathematics)
    - A set with a binary operation.
- Semigroup
    - A set with an operation which is associative
- Monoid
    - A semigroup with an identity element
- Group
    - A monoid where each element has a corresponding inverse element
- Commutative group
    - A group with a commutative operation

The basic algebraic structures with **two binary operations** are the following:
- Ring
    - A set with two operations, often called addition and multiplication. The set with the operation of addition forms a commutative group, and with the operation of multiplication it forms a semigroup (many people define a ring so that the set with multiplication is actually a monoid). Addition and multiplication in a ring satisfy the distributive property
- Commutative ring
    - A ring whose multiplication is commutative
- Field
    - A commutative ring where the set with multiplication is a group.

Examples are

- The whole numbers (natural numbers together with zero) with addition (or multiplication) is a monoid, but is not a group

- The integers with addition is a commutative group, but with multiplication is just a monoid

- The integers with addition and multiplication is a commutative ring, but not a field

- The rational numbers, the real numbers and the complex numbers with the ordinary addition and ordinary multiplication are fields.

## Related pages

- Abstract algebra
- Data structure
Rod (unit)

A **rod**, a **perch** or a **pole** is a unit of length in the imperial and US systems.

|1 rod|=  feet|
| --- | --- |
||=  yards|
||=  chain|
||= 5.0292 metres|

In medieval times English ploughmen used a wooden stick with a pointed tip to spur or guide their oxen.  The rod was the length of this stick.  In use from the 6th century, its modern value was standardized in the 12th century with Composito Ulnarum et Perticarum.

The rod is still in use as a unit of measure in certain specialised fields.  In recreational canoeing, overland paths where canoes must be carried are measured in rods. This is probably because the length of a typical canoe is about one rod.

## Popular culture and trivia

In the episode of _The Simpsons_ entitled _A Star is Burns_, Grampa Simpson said "My car gets forty rods to the hogshead, and that's the way I likes it!" That's about 1 litres per 447 metres, 2,112 feet per imperial gallon or 1,760 feet per U.S. gallon.

## Related pages

- acre
- furlong

## Notes

1. A perch is also a unit of area of land = 1 square rod, and a unit of cubic measure of stonework, usually = 16.5 feet by 1 foot by 1.5 feet = 24.75 cubic feet.
Chain (unit)

The **chain** (symbol: **ch**) is a unit of length. It is part of the imperial and United States customary systems. It was used for measuring land. The short way of writing chains is **ch**.

There are a number of different definitions of the chain, from 50 to 100 feet long. In the imperial system, one chain is equal to 66 feet or 20.1168 metres. This is also called a _Gunter's chain_, _surveyor's chain_ or _land chain_.

## History and usage

The chain was originally called an "acre's breadth", because it was the width of a acre, while a furlong was the length.

Edmund Gunter, a clergyman and mathematician, invented a measuring device called a chain. The chain was  long. It was divided by 100 in small metal links. The links were made of thick wire with a loop at each end. The links were connected to each other by three rings. There were brass handles at each end. People folded the chain up, link by link, and carried it in their hand. The name _chain_ comes from these devices.

The unit was once important in everyday life in the United Kingdom and its colonies and in the United States. People used it when they made maps and planned out cities and towns. Land was surveyed and measured using these chains. Even after more accurate ways of measuring land were invented, many people continued to use the chain as a unit because land had already been surveyed in this method for so long.

In England, it is still used in old railways, along with miles. The length of a cricket pitch is one chain.

## Gunter's chain

The Gunter's chain is the standard unit.

|International|Foot|Yard|Chain|Furlong|Mile|Metres|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Chain|66|22|1|||20.1168|
|International|Link|Rod|Chain|Metres|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Chain|100|4|1|20.1168|

## Other websites

- Math Words
- How Many? A Dictionary of Units of Measurement
- How to make a Gunter's Chain
Furlong

The **furlong** is a unit for measuring distance. It is part of the imperial and US customary systems. It is equal to . There are eight furlongs in a mile.

## History

The unit was first used in the ninth century at the latest. The word "furlong" comes from Old English words _furh_ ("furrow") and _lang_ ("long"). Originally it was the length of the furrow in one acre of a ploughed field. An acre is an area that is one furlong long and one chain wide. For this reason, the furlong was once also called an _acre's length_. Around the year 1300, England standardized the furlong as 40 rods or 660 feet.

The length of the furlong was standardized between South Africa, Australia, United Kingdom, Canada , New Zealand and the United States in the International Pound and Yard Agreement.

The furlong was abolished for official use in the UK in 1985. It is still occasionally seen on road signs in Myanmar.

Distances for horse racing in the UK, Ireland, and Canada are still given in miles and furlongs. The unit is not used otherwise. It is considered to be an _archaic_ unit.

The proverb _one furlong per fortnight_ means to express something in as obscure and little-used units as possible. (A fortnight is two weeks, or fourteen days). The proverb itself means speed, and is the same as 0.000166309524 m/s or 0.17 mm/s.

## Length

|Feet|Yard|Chain|Furlong|Mile|Metres|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|660|220|10|1||201.168|

## Infobox (unit)

- **image**: 036175 5 furlong.jpg
- **caption**: The  post on Epsom Downs
- **standard**: imperial units, imperial/US customary units, US customary units
- **quantity**: length
- **units1**: imperial/US units
- **inunits1**: 220 yard (unit), yd
- **units2**: metric system, metric (SI) units
Stefan Zweig

**Stefan Zweig** (; November 28, 1881 – February 22, 1942) was an Austrian writer of Jewish descent. He was born in Vienna. He volunteered to be a soldier in the First World War, and got the post as a military commentator. This made him an enemy of war. The Nazis gained power in Germany in 1933, and their influence could be felt in Austria as well. 1934, Stefan Zweig emigrated, first to London, then to South America. That way he lost much of his audience. He committed suicide (together with his second wife) by barbiturate overdose in Petropolis, Rio de Janeiro in 1942.

He has written many books and poems. One of his best-known works is called _'Schachnovelle_ (_The Royal Game_, in English. In it, he describes a Chess player, that is forced to play against himself (while imprisoned). He explores the theme of madness. This book inspired the movie Geri's Game, made by Pixar in 1997.

## Further reading

- Elizabeth Allday, _Stefan Zweig: A Critical Biography_, J. Philip O'Hara, Inc., Chicago, 1972
- Alberto Dines, _Morte no Paraíso, a Tragédia de Stefan Zweig_, Editora Nova Fronteira 1981, (rev. ed.) Editora Rocco 2004
- Alberto Dines, _Tod im Paradies. Die Tragödie des Stefan Zweig_, Edition Büchergilde, 2006
- Randolph J. Klawiter, _Stefan Zweig. An International Bibliography_, Ariadne Press, Riverside, 1991
- Donald A. Prater, _European of Yesterday: A Biography of Stefan Zweig_, Holes and Meier Publ., (rev. ed.) 2003
- George Prochnik, _The Impossible Exile: Stefan Zweig at the End of the World_, Random House, 2014,
- Marion Sonnenfeld (editor), _The World of Yesterday's Humanist Today. Proceedings of the Stafan Zweig Symposium_, texts by Alberto Dines, Randolph J. Klawiter, Leo Spitzer and Harry Zohn, State University of New York Press, 1983
- Friderike Zweig, _Stefan Zweig_, Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1946 (An account of his life by his first wife)
- Martin Mauthner, German Writers in French Exile, 1933-1940, Vallentine Mitchell, London 2007,

## Other websites

- Zweig Music Collection at the British Library
- Stefan Zweig Collection at the Daniel A. Reed Library, State University of New York at Fredonia, Fredonia, NY
- Stefan Zweig Centre Salzburg
- _Beware of Pity_, review by Joan Acocella in _The New York Review of Books_, July 13, 2006
- Stefan Zweig at Project Gutenberg
- Zweig's foreword to _The World of Yesterday_

## Infobox (person)

- **name**: Stefan Zweig
- **image**: Stefan Zweig2.png
- **birth place**: Vienna, Austria-Hungary
- **death place**: Petrópolis, Rio de Janeiro (state), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- **occupation**: Novelist, playwright, journalist and biographer
- **spouse**: Friderike Maria von Winternitz (born Burger) (1920–1938; divorced)
Lotte Altmann (1939–1942; his death)
- **parents**: Moritz Zweig (1845–1926)
Ida Brettauer (1854–1938)
- **relatives**: Alfred Zweig (1879–1977)
 (brother)
- **signature**: Stefan Zweig Signature 1927.svg
Leeward Islands (Society Islands)

The **Leeward Islands** are parts of the Society Islands in French Polynesia.
Binary operation

In mathematics, a **binary operation**, often shown as *, on a set is a way of combining a pair of elements in that set that results in another element of the set. For example, if we take a pair of natural numbers and let the operation * be addition, then their sum is also a natural number, and is the result of applying this particular binary operation. Another example of an operation on the natural numbers is multiplication. For instance, take the natural numbers 2 and 3. When multiplied together they give 6, another natural number.

Others: The sum between matrices. The composition of functions. The union and the intersection of sets are also two different binary operations on the set of all sets, or on subsets in a power set.
Kubuntu

**Kubuntu** is a version of the free Linux distribution Ubuntu. It uses the desktop environment KDE instead of GNOME. Most of the software used in Kubuntu, is part of the KDE project, but all other software used in Ubuntu can also be used.

Because the only difference of Kubuntu and Ubuntu is the default software, an Ubuntu system can turn into a Kubuntu system, or a Kubuntu system into an Ubuntu system, only by installing some software.

Some examples of changes in software:
- Adept is used instead of Synaptic
- Konqueror is used instead of Firefox
- Kopete is used instead of Gaim
- KTorrent is used instead of Transmission

## Related pages

- List of Linux distributions

## Other websites

- Official site

## Infobox (os)

- **name**: Kubuntu
- **screenshot**: Kubuntu 20.10 2880p 31 12 2020 16 00 23.png
- **caption**: Kubuntu 20.10 "Groovy Gorilla"
- **website**: http://www.kubuntu.org/
- **developer**: Canonical Ltd and community contributors
- **family**: Linux
- **source model**: Open source
- **latest release version**: 20.10
- **latest release date**: October, 2020
- **kernel type**: Monolithic kernel
- **license**: Free software licenses
(mainly GPL)
- **ui**: KDE
- **working state**: Current
Xubuntu

**Xubuntu** is a free Linux distribution based on Ubuntu. It uses the Xfce desktop environment.

## Related pages

List of Linux distributions

## Other websites

- Xubuntu Official Website
- Xubuntu Community Website (Unofficial)
- Xubuntu at the Ubuntu Wiki
- Xubuntu Tips & Tricks Blog

## Infobox (os)

- **name**: Xubuntu
- **logo**: Xubuntu logo and wordmark.svg
- **screenshot**: File:Xubuntu 24.10 default desktop - English.png
- **caption**: Xubuntu 24.10 "Oracular Oriole"
- **developer**: Community
- **family**: Linux (Unix-like)
- **source model**: Open-source software, Open source
- **latest release version**: 24.10
- **language**: Multilingual
- **kernel type**: Monolithic kernel, Monolithic (Linux kernel, Linux)
- **userland**: GNU Core Utilities, GNU
- **ui**: Xfce
- **update model**: Advanced Packaging Tool, APT (Software Updater, Ubuntu Software Center)
- **package manager**: dpkg
- **license**: Free software licenses
(mainly GPL)
- **working state**: Current
Edubuntu

**Edubuntu** is the version of Linux distribution Ubuntu. It is used for education. It uses GNOME and is designed for use in classrooms.

Edubuntu has been created in collaboration with teachers and technologists in multiple nations. Edubuntu is built on top of the Ubuntu base, and incorporates education-specific applications, designed for the 6–18 years age group.

## Characteristics

Included with Edubuntu is the Linux Terminal Server Project, a large number of educational applications including GCompris, KDE Edutainment Suite, The first Edubuntu release coincided with the release of Ubuntu 5.10, which was called _Breezy Badger_ on 2005. Edubuntu CDs can be ordered for free through the official website service.

## Project goals

The principal design goals of Edubuntu are easier configuration, users and processes, together with ways for working together in classrooms. Equally important is the gathering together of the best available free software and digital materials for education.

## Related pages

- List of Linux distributions

## Other websites

- Official website

## Infobox (os version)

- **date**: July 2013
- **name**: Edubuntu
- **family**: Ubuntu Linux
- **developer**: Canonical
- **website**: [http://www.edubuntu.org/ http://www.edubuntu.org/]
- **first release date**: October 25 2001
- **release version**: 14.04.5 LTS (Trusty Tahr)
- **release date**: 4 August 2016
- **release url**: http://www.edubuntu.org/news/13.04-release
- **source model**: Open source
- **license**: MS-EULA
- **kernel type**: Hybrid kernel
- **support status**: Supported
Zucchini

**Zucchini** (British English: **courgette**) are a type of squash. Usually, they are served cooked. They can also be used as an ingredient in a sweet bread. They look similar to cucumbers.

## Naming and Etymology

The plant has three names in English, all of them meaning 'small marrow': _zucchini_ (an Italian loanword), _courgette_ (a French loanword), and _baby marrow_ (South African English). _Zucchini_ and _courgette_ are doublets, both descending from the Latin .

Zoodles refer to spiraled Zucchini "noodles" used as an alternative to pasta.

### Baby marrow

The name _baby marrow_ is used in South Africa to name a zucchini harvested when extremely young, as small as a finger.

### Maarroo

Maarroo is used in Urdu, Pushtu and Punjabi for _Zucchini_ in Pakistan. It is probably a distorted form of Marrow or baby marrow.
Civil service

A **civil servant** or **public servant** is an employee who works in the civilian career public sector for a government department or agency. Many consider the study of civil service to be a part of the field of public administration. Who is a civil servant and who is not is different in different countries.

Workers in non-departmental public bodies, (called Quangos in some countries) may also be called civil servants in context with statistics. All people that may be called civil servants together form a nation's **Civil Service** or **Public Service**.

## References

- Bodde, D.  _Chinese Ideas in the West_
- Brownlow, Louis, Charles E. Merriam, and Luther Gulick, _Report of the President's Committee on Administrative Management._ (1937) U.S. Government Printing Office.
- P. N. Mathur. _The Civil Service of India, 1731-1894: a study of the history, evolution and demand for reform_ (1977)
- Kevin Theakston. _The Civil Service Since 1945_ (Institute of Contemporary British History, 1995)
- Ari Hoogenboom. _Outlawing the Spoils: A History of the Civil Service Reform Movement, 1865-1883._ (1961)
- Schiesl, Martin. _The Politics of Efficiency: Municipal Administration and Reform in America, 1880-1920._ (1977)
- Van Riper, Paul. _History of the United States Civil Service_ (1958).
- White, Leonard D., _Introduction to the Study of Public Administration._ (1955)
- Leonard D. White, Charles H. Bland, Walter R. Sharp, and Fritz Morstein Marx; _Civil Service Abroad, Great Britain, Canada, France, Germany_ (1935) online