juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Qajar Iran

The **Qajar dynasty** (Azerbaijani: Qacarlar) (Persian: سلسله قاجار), was an Turkic dynasty that originated from the Qajar tribe. It ruled Iran from 1789 to 1925.

They are known for the unification of Iran but were not able to create a powerful centralized state which eventually led them lose power to the British-backed Cossacks in 1925, and were succeeded by the Pahlavi dynasty. They came to power after a period of instability following the collapse of the Safavid dynasty.

## Qajar Shahs of Iran

|colspan="2"|Name|Portrait|Title|Reign years|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar||Shah, Khan|1789–1797||
|Fath-Ali Shah Qajar||Shahanshah, Khaqan|1797–1834||
|Mohammad Shah Qajar||Shahanshah, Ghazi, Khaqan son of Khaqan|1834–1848||
|Naser al-Din Shah Qajar||Shah, Zell'ollah, Qebleh-ye 'ālam, Islampanah|1848–1896||
|Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar||Shahanshah, Sultan|1896–1907||
|Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar||Shah|1907– 1909||
|Ahmad Shah Qajar||Shah|1909–1925||

## Infobox (country)

- **conventional long name**: Sublime State of Iran
- **image flag**: File:State flag of Persia (1907–1933).svg
- **flag border**: Yes
- **flag caption**: Flag
(1907–1925)
- **image coat**: File:Imperial Emblem of the Qajar Dynasty (Lion and Sun).svg
- **symbol type**: Imperial Coat of Arms
(1907–1925)
- **national anthem**: (1873–1909)
_Salâm-e Shâh_
_(Royal salute)_<hr>(1909–1925)
_Salâmati-ye Dowlat-e 'Aliyye-ye Irân_
_(Salute of the Sublime State of Iran)_
- **image map**: File:Map Iran 1900-en.png
- **map caption**: Map of Sublime State of Iran in the 19th century.
- **capital**: Astarabad (1779–1789)
Tehran (1789–1925)
- **government type**: Absolute monarchy
- **year end**: 1925
- **year start**: 1789
- **flag size**: 160px
- **image map caption**: Qajar Iran at its greatest extent (c. 1797)
- **title leader**: Shah
- **year leader1**: 1789–1797 (first)
- **leader1**: Mohammad Khan Qajar
- **year leader2**: 1909–1925 (last)
- **leader2**: Ahmad Shah Qajar
- **p1**: Afsharid dynasty
- **s1**: Pahlavi dynasty
- **flag p1**: Afsharid Imperial Standard (3 Stripes).svg
- **flag p2**: Zand Dynasty flag.svg
- **p2**: Zand dynasty
- **flag s1**: State flag of the Imperial State of Iran (with standardized lion and sun).svg
Thermodynamic equilibrium

In thermodynamics, a thermodynamic system is said to be in **thermodynamic equilibrium** when it is in thermal equilibrium, mechanical equilibrium, radiative equilibrium, and chemical equilibrium. The local state of a system at thermodynamic equilibrium is determined by the values of its intensive parameters, as pressure, temperature, etc.  Specifically, thermodynamic equilibrium is characterized by the minimum of a thermodynamic potential.

## Other websites

- Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium
Thermodynamic potential

In thermodynamics, **thermodynamic potentials** are parameters associated with a thermodynamic system and have the dimensions of energy. They are called "potentials" because in a sense, they describe the amount of potential energy in a thermodynamic system when it is subjected to certain constraints. The different potentials correspond to different constraints to which the system may be subjected. The four most common thermodynamic potentials are:
|**Name**|**Formula**|**Natural variables**||
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Internal energy||align="center"||
|Helmholtz free energy||align="center"||
|Enthalpy||align="center"||
|Gibbs free energy||align="center"||
where _T_ = temperature, _S_ = entropy, _p_ = pressure, _V_ = volume. The Helmholtz free energy is often denoted by the symbol _F_, but the use of _A_ is preferred by IUPAC (See Alberty, 2001).  is the number of particles of type _i_ in the system. For the sake of completeness, the set of all  are also included as natural variables, although they are sometimes ignored.

## Description and interpretation

Thermodynamic potentials are very useful when calculating the equilibrium results of a chemical reaction, or when measuring the properties of materials in a chemical reaction. The chemical reactions usually take place under some simple constraints such as constant pressure and temperature, or constant entropy and volume, and when this is true, there is a corresponding thermodynamic potential which comes into play. Just as in mechanics, the system will tend towards lower values of potential and at equilibrium, under these constraints, the potential will take on an unchanging minimum value. The thermodynamic potentials can also be used to estimate the total amount of energy available from a thermodynamic system under the appropriate constraint.

## Other websites

- Thermodynamic Potentials - Georgia State University
- Chemical Potential Energy: The 'Characteristic' vs the Concentration-Dependent Kind
Thermodynamic state

A **thermodynamic state** is the macroscopic condition of a thermodynamic system as described by its particular thermodynamic parameters. The state of any thermodynamic system can be described by a set of thermodynamic parameters, such as temperature, pressure, density, composition,  independently of its surroundings or history.

The parameters required to specify the state depend on the characteristics of the system. There is an optimal ensemble of parameters that uniquely specify the state, and all other parameters can be derived from these.  The _state postulate_ says that the state of a simple compressible system is completely specified by two independent, intensive properties.

## Related pages

- Thermodynamic system
- Thermodynamics

## References

- Black W. & Hartley, J. (1996). _Thermodynamics, 3rd Ed._ (textbook). New York: Harper Collins.
- Cengel, Yunus, A. (2002). _Thermodynamics – an Engineering Approach, 4th Ed._ (textbook). New York: McGraw Hill.
- Perrot, Pierre. (1998). _A to Z of Thermodynamics_ (dictionary). New York: Oxford University Press.
Thermal physics

**Thermal physics** is the combined study of thermodynamics, statistical mechanics, and kinetic theory.  This umbrella-subject is typically designed for physics students. It gives a general introduction to each of the three core heat-related subjects.  Some people define thermal physics loosely as only thermodynamics and statistical mechanics.

## Overview

Thermal physics  is the study of the statistical nature of physical systems from an energy perspective.  Starting with heat and temperature, thermal physics analyzes the first law of thermodynamics and second law of thermodynamics from the statistical perspective, in terms of the number of microstates corresponding to a given macrostate.  In addition, the concept of entropy is studied via quantum theory.

A central topic in thermal physics is the canonical probability distribution.  The electromagnetic nature of photons and phonons are studied which show that the oscillations of electromagnetic fields and of crystal lattices have much in common.  Waves form a basis for both, provided one incorporates quantum theory.

Other topics studied in thermal physics include: chemical potential, the quantum nature of an ideal gas, i.e. in terms of fermions and bosons, Bose-Einstein condensation, Gibbs free energy, Helmholtz free energy, chemical equilibrium, phase equilibrium, the equipartition theorem, entropy at absolute zero, and transport processes as mean free path, viscosity, and conduction.

## Thermodynamic instruments

There are two types of thermodynamic instruments, the meter and the reservoir. A thermodynamic meter is any device which measures any parameter of a thermodynamic system. In some cases, the thermodynamic parameter is  defined in terms of an idealized measuring instrument. The zeroth law states that if two bodies are in thermodynamic equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermodynamic equilibrium with each other. This principle, as noted by James Maxwell in 1872, asserts that it is possible to measure temperature. An idealized thermometer is a sample of an ideal gas at constant pressure.

A thermodynamic reservoir is a system which is so large that it does not appreciably alter its state parameters when brought into contact with the test system.

It is important that these two types of instruments are distinct. A meter does not perform its task accurately if it behaves like a reservoir of the state variable it is trying to measure. If, for example, a thermometer, were to act as a temperature reservoir it would alter the temperature of the system being measured, and the reading would be incorrect. Ideal meters have no effect on the state variables of the system they are measuring.

## Related pages

- Thermodynamics

## Other websites

- Thermal Physics Links on the Web
Statistical mechanics

**Statistical mechanics** is the application of probability theory, which includes mathematical tools for dealing with large populations, to the field of mechanics, which is concerned with the motion of particles or objects when subjected to a force.

It provides a framework for relating the microscopic properties of individual atoms and molecules to the macroscopic or bulk properties of materials that can be observed in everyday life, therefore explaining thermodynamics as a natural result of statistics and mechanics (classical and quantum) at the microscopic level.  In particular, it can be used to calculate the thermodynamic properties of bulk materials from the spectroscopic data of individual molecules.

This ability to make macroscopic predictions based on microscopic properties is the main asset of statistical mechanics over thermodynamics. Both theories are governed by the second law of thermodynamics through the medium of entropy. However, entropy in thermodynamics can only be known empirically, whereas in statistical mechanics, it is a function of the distribution of the system on its micro-states.

## Other websites

- Philosophy of Statistical Mechanics article by Lawrence Sklar for the _Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy_.
Kinetic theory of gases

**Kinetic theory** or _kinetic theory of gases_ attempts to explain overall properties of gases, such as pressure, temperature, or volume, by considering their molecular composition and motion. The theory basically states that pressure is not caused by molecules pushing each other away, like earlier scientists thought. Instead, pressure is caused by the molecules colliding with each other and their container. Kinetic theory is also known as _kinetic-molecular theory_ or _collision theory_.

There are three main components to kinetic theory:

- No energy is gained or lost when molecules collide
- The molecules in a gas take up a negligible (able to be ignored) amount of space in relation to the container they occupy
- The molecules are in constant, linear motion.

## References

- The Mathematical Theory of Non-uniform Gases : An Account of the Kinetic Theory of Viscosity, Thermal Conduction and Diffusion in Gases, Sydney Chapman, T. G. Cowling
The main postulate of this theory are--
1.The particles attract each other with a force. This force is called      cohesive force if the particles are of same kind and adhesive force when particles are of different kinds.
2. All matter is composed of small particles called molecules. (Atoms or ions as the situation demands).
3. The particles are in a state of unending motion (continuous motion) and as such have kinetic energy.
4. with the supply of heat energy (thermal energy) to matter, the kinetic energy of a particle increase, i.e., they start moving more vigorously. Reverse happens if the matter is cooled.i.e., heat energy is taken out of it.
5. The force of attraction between the particles decreases, if the distance between them increases and vice versa.

Last updated Sat,16 May 2020
9:00 pm
By Rachit Vishwakarma
..................................

## Other websites

- Early Theories of Gases
- Thermodynamics  - a chapter from an online textbook
- _Temperature and Pressure of an Ideal Gas: The Equation of State_ on National Center for Biotechnology Information.
- Introduction  to the kinetic molecular theory of gases, from The Upper Canada District School Board
- Java animation  illustrating the kinetic theory from University of Arkansas
- Flowchart linking together kinetic theory concepts, from HyperPhysics
- Interactive Java Applets  allowing high school students to experiment and discover how various factors affect rates of chemical reactions.
Frik

**Frik** was an Armenian poet who lived in the 13th and 14th centuries, at the time of Mongolian control over Armenia.
Mongolian

**Mongolian** might mean:

- Anything related to Mongolia
- Mongolian language
- Mongolian people
- Mongolian Empire
Yeghishe Charents

**Yeghishe Charents** (born Yeghishe Soghomonian, ) (13 March 1897, Kars - 29 November 1937, Yerevan) was an Armenian poet killed in Stalin's purges.

From 1904 to 1912 Yeghishe Soghomonian he was at school in Kars. Amid the upheavals of the First World War and the Armenian Genocide in the Ottoman Empire, he volunteered in 1915 for the Caucasian Front. In 1917-1918 he was in Karin Erzurum during the bitter fighting. Some of his experiences would later appear in his poetry.

Yeghishe Charents (Soghomonian), one of the nation's favourite poets - a famous philanderer who apparently sought the USSR Kremlin's favours - produced a now famous poem called "The Message". Its praise of Uncle Joe might grind the average set of teeth down to the gum; it included the following: "A new light shone on the world... It is only this sunlight/Which for centuries will stay alive." And more of the same.

Undiscovered by the USSR Kremlin's censors for many months, however, Charents (1897 - 1937) had used the first letter of each line to frame a quite different "message", which read: "O Armenian people, your only salvation is in the power of your unity." Whoops! Like the distant Mount Ararat, it was a brave, hopeless symbol, as doomed as it was impressive. Yeghishe Charents was "disappeared" by the NKVD (KGB) in 1937 after being denounced by the architect Alexsandr Tamanyan - now hard at work building Yerevan's new Stalinist opera house - the moment Yeghishe Charents' schoolboy prank was spotted. Then Alexsandr Tamanyan fell from the roof of his still unfinished opera house, and even today Armenians - with their Arab-like desire to believe in "заговор" the plot - ask the obvious questions.

## Works

"Three songs to the sad and pale girl", poems (1914)
"Blue-eyed Homeland", poem (1915)
"Soma", poem (1918) Yerevan
"Charents-Name", poem (1922)
"Uncle Lenin", poem (1924)
"Country of Nayiri" (Yerkir Nayiri) (1926)
"Epical Sunrise", poems (1930)
"Book of the Way", poems (1934)

## Film

- 1987: Charents - Known and Unknown Sides (Yeghishe Charents)Armenfilm,35mm, script by Levon Mkrtchyan, narration by Sos Sargsyan, director Levon Mkrtchyan

## Related pages

- Armenian Genocide
Kars

**Kars** (, ) is a city in northeast Turkey and is the capital of the Kars Province, before at the head of a sanjak in the Turkish vilayet of Erzurum. Population: 8,672 (1878); 20,891 (1897); 54,000 (1970); 142,145 (1990); 130,361 (2000).

## History

The early history of Kars is little known, beyond that it had its own dynasty of Armenian rulers and was the capital of a region known as Vanand. At some point in the 9th century (at least by 888) it became part of the territory of the Armenian Bagratids. From 928 to 961 Kars became the capital of their kingdom. It was during this period that the cathedral, later known as the Church of the Apostles, was built.
Kars Province

**Kars** is a province of Turkey. It is in the northeastern part of the country. It shares part of its border with the Republic of Armenia.

From 1878 until 1917 most of the present-day Turkish province of Kars was part of the Russian oblast of Kars.

In 1919 and 1920 the province came under the control of the Democratic Republic of Armenia as the Vanand province (with the city of Kars as its capital). Its territory was ceded to Turkey by the Soviet Union in the Treaty of Kars.

## Districts

Kars province is divided into 8 districts (_ilçe_), each named after the administrative center of the district:
- Akyaka
- Arpaçay
- Digor
- Kağızman
- **Kars**
- Sarıkamış
- Selim
- Susuz

There are 383 villages in Kars.

## Other websites

- Pictures of the capital of this province and of nearby Ani
Manny Gamburyan

**Manvel Gamburyan** (was born in 1981) is a mixed martial artist with a history in judo. Manvel was chosen as a participant on the reality show _The Ultimate Fighter 5_. He fights on Jens Pulver's team. Manny defeated Noah Thomas in the preliminary round.

## Life

In May, 1991, Manvel's family relocated from Armenia to United States.  Shortly after his arrival, Manvel began training in judo at Gokor Chivichyan's Hayastan MMA Academy and quickly became one of the top judokas in the country, winning junior nationals less than two years later.  He went on to win junior nationals eight times, the junior Olympics once, and was a member of the 2000 judo junior world team.

## Other websites

- Manny Gamburyan at ArmeniaPedia
The Mickey Mouse Club

***The Mickey Mouse Club***, otherwise referred to as ***MMC*** for short, was an American variety television series that began in 1955, ran intermittently, and left the air in 1996. It was directed by Walt Disney Productions.

Over the years, the series featured many stellar teenage performers including Annette Funicello, Britney Spears, and Justin Timberlake. The original series ran newsreels, cartoons, talent segments, and Disney produced serials such as The Hardy Boys with Tommy Kirk and Tim Considine.

_Mickey Mouse Club_ was hosted by Jimmie Dodd, a songwriter and the Head Mouseketeer. He provided leadership both on and off screen. In addition to his other contributions, he often provided short segments encouraging young viewers to make the right moral choices. These little sermons became known as "Doddisms".

## Related pages

- Mickey Mouse Clubhouse

## Infobox (television)

- **alt name**: The New Mickey Mouse Club (1977–1979)
The All-New Mickey Mouse Club (1989–1996)
Club Mickey Mouse (2017–2018)
- **runtime**: 22-44 minutes
- **creator**: Walt Disney
Hal Adelquist
- **producer**: Bill Walsh (producer), Bill Walsh (1955–1958)
- **presenter**: Fred Newman (actor), Fred Newman (1989 revival, seasons 1-6)
Mowava Pryor (1989 revival, seasons 1-3)
- **theme music composer**: Jimmie Dodd
- **company**: The Walt Disney Company, Walt Disney Productions
- **country**: United States
- **network**: United States: American Broadcasting Company, ABC (1955–1959)
Broadcast syndication, Syndication (1977–1979)
Disney Channel, The Disney Channel (1989–1996)
Canada: Family Channel (Canadian TV network), Family Channel (1989–1996)
- **num episodes**: 360
- **num seasons**: 14
Fanta

**Fanta** is a soft drink. There are over 200 flavors worldwide.

Fanta was created during World War II in Nazi Germany by the German Coca-Cola (GmbH) bottling company in 1940. Because of the war, there was no shipping between Nazi Germany and the United States. Therefore, the German bottling plant could no longer get Coca-Cola syrup. The manager of the plant, Max Keith, needed to do something to keep the plant going. He came up with a fruit-flavored drink made from whatever he could find. Using apple fiber leftover from lollipops and whey, from cheesemakers, Fanta was created and became quite popular. The original German Fanta had a red-orange color from beets and tasted different from today's Fanta Orange; the flavor would change during the war, depending on what ingredients could be found.

Back in America, the Coca-Cola Company—led by Robert Woodruff—did not discourage this. The company sponsored the 1936 Berlin Olympics, which Woodruff attended and made banners featuring the Coca-Cola logo alongside the Swastika. Keith used a 10th anniversary party for Coca-Cola GmbH to order a mass Sieg-Heil (Nazi salute) in honor of the dictator’s 50th birthday. He declared that this was “to commemorate our deepest admiration for our Fuhrer.”

The name 'Fanta' came during an employee contest to name the new beverage. Keith told them to let their **Fantasie** (German for imagination) run wild. On hearing that, salesman Joe Knipp thought of the name _Fanta_.

After the war, Fanta was brought to the United States by Coca-Cola, and in 1960 they bought the trademark. Fanta Orange is the most popular Fanta flavor and it is available in a little over 190 countries. Fanta is more popular in Europe and South America than in the United States. There are over 200 different flavors worldwide. Most of them are only available by region in some countries. For example, in Romania (and some other countries), there is "Fanta Shokata" based on the traditional Romanian drink "Socată". This drink is made from Elderflower. In Switzerland and the Netherlands the local fruit, blackcurrant is used to make Fanta as well. Some identical flavors have different names in different markets. “The classic orange”, for example, was renamed "Fanta Funky Orange" in 2003 for the Nordic countries and Belgium, while other countries have kept the older "Fanta Orange" brand name. As of the year 2005, the Fanta brand has been connected with the word _Bambaacha_ (or _Bamboocha_), which is often seen in the Fanta commercials. Tab diet Cola was originally produced by the Fanta division of Coca-Cola. It was available in different non-cola flavors as well. Later in 2005, Fanta branched out into new Fanta Zero (diet versions) varieties in Great Britain and in other countries as well.
Agavaceae

**Agavaceae** is a family of plants. Many of these plants grow in dry, hot climates. Some grow in the desert. Well-known plants of this family are the agave, yucca, and Joshua tree.  The family includes about 550-600 species in around 18 genera. It is widespread in the tropical, subtropical and warm temperate regions of the world.

It is not quite clear how large the family really is. There are genera which some biologists leave out of the family. This includes for example _Cordyline_ and _Dracaena_, which are sometimes separated off into a separate family, Dracaenaceae. Recent research has tended to incorporate these into a larger family Ruscaceae, though.  _Nolina_, _Beaucarnea_, and _Dasylirion_ are sometimes recognized as Nolinaceae or placed in Ruscaceae. Conversely, data from molecular systematics now suggest that Agavaceae should be broadened to include a number of genera previously classified elsewhere. Among them  are _Chlorogalum_, _Camassia_ and the family Anthericaceae. This would enlarge the family with anything up to 22 genera.  The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group's APG II classification places Agavaceae, along with a number of other families (including Ruscaceae) in an expanded family Asparagaceae.  However, APG II allows the alternative of keeping some of these families, including Agavaceae, separate. In this case, it recommends expanding the family to include the genera currently classified in Anemarrhenaceae, Anthericaceae (with _Anthericum_ and _Paradisea_), Behniaceae and Herreriaceae. Most references have retained Agavaceae (in varying circumscriptions) as a family distinct from Asparagaceae. _Hesperocallis_, sometimes placed in its own family, Hesperocallideaceae, has recently been shown to be closely related and its inclusion in Agavaceae has been recommended (Pires et al. 2004).

Some species are succulent. In general, Agavaceae leaves occur as rosettes at the end of a woody stem, which may range from extremely short to tree-like heights, as in the Joshua tree.  The leaves are parallel-veined, and usually appear long and pointed, often with a hardened spine on the end, and sometimes with additional spines along the margins.

_Agave_ species are used to make pulque and mezcal, while others are valued for their fibres.  They are quite popular for xeriscaping, many types having showy flowers.

## Other websites

- Agavaceae in Flora of North America.
- Agavaceae  in L. Watson and M.J. Dallwitz (1992 onwards). The families of flowering plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, information retrieval.
Succulent plant

**Succulent plants** are plants that have adapted to very dry climate. They have adapted in such a way that they can store water, either in their leaves, stems or roots.

Often, they look different than plants that do not do this. Their leaves may look fleshy.  Almost all cacti are succulents. Not all succulents are cacti. Other plant families with this property are the Agavaceae (Agave family), Azioaceae and Crassulaceae. Other well-known succulents are the Aloe and the bottle tree.
Lu Xun (Three Kingdoms)

**Lu Xun** (:183-245) was a general and politician in Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period in ancient China.

He showed his skills by helping defeat Guan Yu with the Wei army. Sun Quan saw his potential and promoted him to main strategist in the Wu army after the death of Lü Meng. He showed his talents  at Yiling where his tactics and fire attack lead Wu to victory. In 228, he plot to defeat Cao Xiu's attack in Shiting.

He also as a important minister in Eastern Wu, led the political and diplomatic of Eastern Wu, and educate the princes, he also honored as the Imperial Chancellor in 244. But Lu Xun died of anger in 245 when related with the trouble of two princes.
King (chess)

The **king** is the most valuable chess piece in a game of chess. It can move left, right, up, down or diagonally. It can only move one square at a time. When recording chess games, king is shortened to K.

The object of the game is to checkmate (capture the king). If a player's king is attacked by an opponent's piece, it is called check. The player with the attacked king _must_ move so that the king is no longer in check. If the king cannot do this, it is in checkmate, and that side loses the game.

## Castling

With a rook, the king may make a special move called 'castling'. This is when the king moves two squares toward one of its rooks and then the rook is placed on the other side of the king. Castling consists of moving the king two squares on its first rank toward either one of the first rooks, then moving the rook onto the square over which the king crossed. Castling is only allowed when the king nor the castling rook has moved already, when no squares between them are occupied, when the king is not in check, and when the king will not move across or end its movement on a square that puts the king in check.

## Check and Checkmate

If a player's move places the opponent's king under attack, that king is _in check_, and the player in check is made to stop the attack. There are three possible ways to remove the king from check:
- Moving the king to an adjacent non-threatened square
- Blocking the check with another piece between the king in check and the attacking piece in order to break the line of threat (not possible when the attacking piece is a knight, or when in double check).
- Capturing the attacking piece (not possible in double check, unless the king captures)

If none of these three ways are possible, the player's king has been _checkmated_ and the player with the checkmated king loses the game.

### Stalemate

A stalemate is when the player to move has no legal move, but is not in check.

## Advice

In the opening and middlegame, the king will mostly not play an active role in the development of an attacking or defensive position. Instead, a player will usually castle and find safety on the edge of the board behind pawns. In the endgame, however, the king may comes out of hiding to play an active role as an offensive piece as well as helping in the promotion of their remaining pawns.
Work (thermodynamics)

In thermodynamics, **work transfer** is an energy transfer in which temperature is not considered during energy transfer. Unit is always in Joules. It is also a result of force acting through the distance.

where  is the work done,  is the force acting, and  is the distance.

### 1824

Work, i.e. "weight _lifted_ through a height", was originally defined in 1824 by Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot in his famous paper _Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire_. Specifically, according to Carnot:

### 1845

In 1845, the English physicist James Joule wrote a paper _On the mechanical equivalent of heat_ for the British Association meeting in Cambridge. In this work, he reported his best-known experiment, in which the work released through the action of a "weight _falling_ through a height" was used to turn a paddle-wheel in an insulated barrel of water.

In this experiment, the friction and agitation of the paddle-wheel on the body of water caused heat to be generated which, in turn, increased the temperature of water.  Both the temperature change ∆T of the water and the height of the fall ∆h of the weight mg were recorded.  Using these values, Joule was able to determine the mechanical equivalent of heat. Joule estimated a mechanical equivalent of heat to be 819 ft•lbf/Btu (4.41 J/cal).  The modern day definitions of heat, work, temperature, and energy all have connection to this experiment.

## Overview

According to the _First law of thermodynamics_, it is useful to separate changes to the internal energy of a thermodynamic system into two sorts of energy transfers. **Work** refers to forms of energy transfer which can be accounted for in terms of changes in the _macroscopic_ physical variables of the system, for example energy which goes into expanding the volume of a system against an external pressure, by driving a piston-head out of a cylinder against an external force.  This is in contrast to **heat** energy, which is carried into or out of the system in the form of transfers in the _microscopic_ thermal motions of particles.

The concept of thermodynamic work is slightly more general than that of mechanical work because it includes other types of energy transfers as well.  The electrical work required to move a charge against an external electrical field can be measured, as can the work required to move heat against a temperature gradient.  Thermodynamic work need not have any mechanical component to be considered such.

## Related pages

- Thermodynamics
- Chemistry
Internal energy

In thermodynamics, the **internal energy** of a thermodynamic system, or a body with well-defined boundaries, denoted by _U_, or sometimes _E_, is the total of the kinetic energy due to the motion of molecules (translational, rotational, vibrational) and the potential energy associated with the vibrational and electric energy of atoms within molecules or crystals. It includes the energy in all the chemical bonds, and the energy of the free, conduction electrons in metals.

The internal energy is a thermodynamic potential and for a closed thermodynamic system held at constant entropy, it will be minimized.

One can also calculate the internal energy of electromagnetic or blackbody radiation. It is a state function of a system, an extensive quantity. The SI unit of energy is the joule although other historical, conventional units are still in use, such as the (small and large) calorie for heat. (Calories that are on classic food labels are actually kilo-calories.)

## Overview

_Internal_ energy does not include the translational or rotational kinetic energy of a body _as a whole_. It also does not include the relativistic mass-energy equivalent _E_ = _mc_<sup>2</sup>. It excludes any potential energy a body may have because of its location in external gravitational or electrostatic field, although the potential energy it has in a field due to an induced electric or magnetic dipole moment does count, as does the energy of deformation of solids (stress-strain).

The principle of equipartition of energy in classical statistical mechanics states that each molecular degree of freedom receives 1/2 _kT_ of energy, a result which was modified when quantum mechanics explained certain anomalies; e.g., in the observed specific heats of crystals (when _h_ν > _kT_). For monatomic helium and other noble gases, the internal energy consists only of the translational kinetic energy of the individual atoms. Monatomic particles, of course, do not (sensibly) rotate or vibrate, and are not electronically excited to higher energies except at very high temperatures.

From the standpoint of statistical mechanics, the internal energy is equal to the ensemble average of the total energy of the system.
Physical law

A **physical law**, **scientific law**, or a **law of nature** is a scientific generalization based on empirical observations of physical behavior.  Empirical laws are typically conclusions based on repeated scientific experiments over many years, and which have become accepted universally within the scientific community.  The production of a summary description of nature in the form of such laws is a fundamental aim of science.

Laws of nature are distinct from the law, either religious or civil, and should not be confused with the concept of natural law.
Nor should 'physical law' be confused with 'law of physics' - the term 'physical law' usually covers laws in other sciences (e.g. biology) as well.

## Origin of laws of nature

Some extremely important laws are simply definitions. For example, the central law of mechanics _F_ = _dp_/_dt_ (Newton's second "law" of mechanics) is often treated as a mathematical definition of force just like Newton's first law of mechanics (an object that is at rest stays at rest and an object that is in motion stays in motion unless acted by an out side force). Although the concept of force predates Newton's law, there was no mathematical definition of force before Newton.  The principle of least action (or principle of stationary action), Schroedinger equation, Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, causality and a few other laws also fall into this category (of mathematical definitions).

## Related pages

- Scientific method

## References

- Barrow, John (1991). _Theories of Everything: The Quest for Ultimate Explanations._ ()
- Davies, Paul (1992). _The Mind of God_ ()
- Feynman, Richard (1965). _The Character of Physical Law_ ()
- Hans Wehrli: _Metaphysik - Chiralität als Grundprinzip der Physik _, 2006,
- Francis Bacon "Novum Organum"

## Other websites

- Baaquie, Belal E., "_Laws of Physics  : A Primer_". Core Curriculum, National University of Singapore.
- Carroll, John W. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry
- Francis, Erik Max, "_The laws list_". Physics. Alcyone Systems
- Pazameta, Zoran, "_The laws of nature _". Committee for the scientific investigation of Claims of the Paranormal CSICOP.
Pipe (material)

A **pipe** is a tube or hollow cylinder for the transport of fluid. The terms 'pipe' and 'tube' can be used for the same objects. 'Pipe' is generally specified by the internal diameter (ID) whereas 'tube' is usually defined by the outside diameter (OD) but may be specified by any combination of dimensions (OD, ID, wall thickness). 'Tube' is often made to custom sizes and may often have more specific sizes and tolerances than pipe. The terms 'tube' and 'tubing' are more widely used in the US and 'pipe' elsewhere in the world.

Both "pipe" and "tube" imply a level of rigidity and permanence, whereas a 'hose' is usually portable and flexible.

## Uses

- Domestic water systems
- Pipeline containing high pressure gas or fluid
- Scaffolding
- Structural steel
- As components in mechanical systems such as:
    - Rollers in conveyor belts
    - Compactors (E.g.: steam rollers)
    - Bearing casing
- Casing for concrete pilings used in construction projects
- High temperature or pressure manufacturing processes
- The petroleum industry:
    - Oil well casing
    - Oil refinery equipment
- The construction of high pressure storage vessels

## Pipe cutter

Pipe cutters for thin plastic pipes are like scissors. For cutting pipes of large diameter, with thicker walls and made of harder materials, pipe cutters are used, which are a clamp with a cutting wheel, pressure rollers and a lever.

## Related pages

- Pipe (disambiguation page)
Bacon number

The **Bacon number** of an actor or actress is the number of degrees of separation (see Six degrees of separation) they have from actor Kevin Bacon, as defined by the game known as Six Degrees of Kevin Bacon. It applies the Erdős number concept to the movie industry. The higher the Bacon number, the farther away from Kevin Bacon the actor is.

For example, Kevin Bacon's Bacon number is 0. If an actor works in a movie with Kevin Bacon, the actor's Bacon number is 1. If an actor works with an actor who worked with Kevin Bacon in a movie, the first actor's Bacon number is 2, and so forth.

## Other websites

- The Oracle of Bacon at the University of Virginia computes the Bacon number of any actor or actress from data scraped from TMDB (formerly using IMDb data).

## References

2. "Modern Family", _Daddy Issues_ (2018)
Pondicherry

**Pondicherry** is the capital of the Indian union territory of Puducherry. It is also known as Puducherry since 2006.
Enya

**Enya** (born **Eithne Pádraigín Ní Bhraonáin** on 17 May 1961 in Gweedore, County Donegal, Ireland) is an Irish singer and composer. She became most well-known following the release of her song _Orinoco Flow (Sail Away)_ on her breakthrough album Watermark (1988).

She has also won numerous awards, including four Grammy Awards and seven World Music Awards . Her vocal range across her career spans around four octaves; her vocal type is considered a light mezzo-soprano.

She grew up speaking the Irish language, and began to learn English once she  attended primary school.

Her first works were soundtracks for _The Frog Prince_ movie by David Puttman and _The Celts_ documentary by BBC.

Enya is very popular and has sold more than 75 million albums worldwide. Her best selling album is _A Day Without Rain_ (2000).

## Albums

Enya has recorded the following albums:
- _Enya_ (1987)
- _Watermark_ (1988)
- _Shepherd Moons_ (1991)
- _The Celts_ (1992)
- _The Memory of Trees_ (1995)
- _Paint the Sky With Stars_ (1997)
- _A Day Without Rain_ (2000)
- _Amarantine_ (2005)
- _And Winter Came_ (2008)
- _Dark Sky Island_ (2015)

She has also recorded music for the following movie soundtracks:
- _The Frog Prince_ (1985)
- _The Celts_ (1987)
- _Far And Away_ (1992)
- _Toys_ (1992)
- _The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring_ (2001)

## Related pages

- Clannad

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Enya
- **background**: solo_singer
- **image**: Enya - The Orlando Sentinel (1989) (cropped).jpg
- **birth name**: Eithne Pádraigín Ní Bhraonáin
- **birth place**: Gweedore, County Donegal, Ireland
- **years active**: 1980–present
- **producer and lyricist**: Nicky Ryan and Roma Ryan
- **siblings**: Moya Brennan b. 1952, Ciarán Brennan b. 1954,  Pól Brennan b. 1956 , Deirdre Brennan b. 1958, Leon Brennan (1959-2021), Olive Brennan b. 1963, Bartley Brennan b. 1966, Brídín Brennan b. 1968
Downing Street

**Downing Street** is a street in London. It is close to Whitehall and Buckingham Palace. The official residences of the two most senior Government ministers are here. These are the Prime Minister, and the Chancellor of the Exchequer.

Downing Street is a few minutes' walk from the Houses of Parliament. The street was built in the 1680s by Sir George Downing, 1st Baronet (1632–1689) on the site of a mansion called Hampden House. The Prime Minister, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, and the Chief Whip all have official residences in buildings along one side of the street. The houses on the other side were all replaced by the Foreign Office in the nineteenth century.

## Related pages

- 10 Downing Street
Armenian illuminated manuscripts

**Armenian illuminated manuscripts** are a form of artwork in the Byzantine tradition. They come from between the 5th century and the 13th century. They can include prayer rolls, the Mugni Gospels, and the Echmiadzin Gospels.

## Other websites

- Matenadaran site
- Armenian manuscripts at Armenica.org
Illuminated manuscript

An **illuminated manuscript** is a handwritten book decorated with gold, silver, or miniature pictures. Illuminated manuscripts were most commonly found in medieval Europe, where Christianity was the state religion of various kingdoms. Illuminated manuscripts are said to have played a huge role in the history of arts. The ease of carrying illuminated manuscripts from one region to another contributed to the spread of knowledge. From the 15th century onwards, illuminated manuscripts were replaced by printed manuscripts.

## Related pages

- Armenian illuminated manuscript
Manuscript

A **manuscript** is any document that is written by hand, which is not printed or made in some other way. The early history of writing is closely connected with the history of writing materials, of which the manuscript is one. Early printing made use of many ideas which developed in the era of manuscripts.

Manuscripts have played a important role in human history, serving as tools for sharing knowledge, literature, religious texts, scientific discoveries, and personal writings. They offer insights into the intellectual, cultural, and artistic achievements of civilizations throughout the ages.

They were written on palm leaves and compressed birch tree barks. The people who wrote manuscripts were known as scribes. Only the high ranking class, such as kings and nobles could afford a manuscript.

In the early stages of human civilization, various materials were used for writing manuscripts, including clay tablets, papyrus, parchment, and paper. These materials influenced the form, durability, and portability of manuscripts, shaping their physical features and preservation needs.

With the invention of the printing press in the 15th century, manuscripts gradually gave way to printed books, which allowed for mass production and wider spread of texts. However, early printing methods often borrowed techniques and styles from manuscript production, such as the use of decorative initials and illustrations. The transition from manuscripts to printed books marked a significant shift in the history of written communication and knowledge sharing.

## Influence in the 21st century

In the modern context, manuscript writing continues to hold relevance, particularly in academic and creative fields. Manuscripts are created for various purposes, including research articles, novels, poetry, plays, and historical texts. While digital technology and word processing software have made it easier to produce and edit manuscripts electronically, there is still a demand for professional manuscript writing services to ensure accuracy, clarity, and adherence to specific style guidelines.

Manuscripts hold a significant place in the history of human communication, helping modern day historians study the past. While new technology has changed standard writing processes, manuscripts continue to be appreciated for their historical value, aesthetic appeal, and the human touch they embody. Manuscripts are admired as an example of the handwritten expression and craftsmanship involved in their creation.
Matenadaran

Mesrop Mashtots' **Matenadaran** Institute of Ancient Manuscripts in Yerevan, Armenia, is one of the richest depositories of manuscripts and books in the world.
Blue Mosque, Yerevan

The **Blue Mosque** (; Persian: <bdi>مسجد کبود</bdi> Masdsched-e Kabud) is a mosque in Yerevan, Armenia. It was built in 1766 during the reign of Huseyn Ali.
Plainview

**Plainview** is the name of several places in the United States of America:

- Plainview, Arkansas
- Plainview, Minnesota
- Plainview, Nebraska
- Plainview, New York
- Plainview, Tennessee
- Plainview, Texas
235 BC

__NOTOC__Year **235 BC** was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar.

#### Roman Republic

- In Rome, the consul Titus Manlius Torquatus does the first ever closing of the gates of the Temple of Janus, signifying peace.

#### Asia Minor

- Under King Attalus I, Pergamum begins to build up its power and importance.

#### Greece

- Aratus of Sicyon brings Megalopolis into the Achaean League.
- The ephor, Lysander, says he has seen a sign from the gods against King Leonidas II of Sparta. Leonidas runs away to avoid his trial. While he is away, Leonidas is removed from the throne and replaced by his son-in-law, Cleomenes III.

#### Literature

- A work by the Latin epic poet and dramatist Gnaeus Naevius is performed for the first time.
302 BC

Year **302 BC** was an extended period of the pre-Julian Roman schedule. At that point, it was known as the Extended period of the Consulship of Denter and Paullus (or, less regularly, year 452 Stomach muscle urbe condita). The category 302 BC during the current year has been utilized since the early middle age time frame, when the In the year of the Lord schedule period turned into the common strategy in Europe for naming years.

## Events

- Following their agreement to work together to defeat Antigonus, Seleucus invades Asia Minor from Babylonia, while Ptolemy attacks Syria and Lysimachus moves into the western part of Asia Minor.
- Docimus, the regent of Phrygia, and Phoenix, the strategos of Lycia, desert Antigonus.
- The Macedonian general, Philetaerus, moves his allegiance from Antigonus to Antigonus' rival, Lysimachus. In return, Lysimachus makes Philetaerus guardian of the fortress of Pergamum with its treasure of some 9,000 talents.
San Marino City

**San Marino** is the capital of the tiny nation of San Marino. It is the third largest city in the country, after Dogana and Borgo Maggiore.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **official name**: City of San Marino
- **native name**: Città di San Marino
- **image skyline**: Collage San Marino.jpg
- **imagesize**: 270px
- **image caption**: A collage of the City of San Marino.
- **image flag**: Flag of the City of San Marino.svg
- **flag size**: 150px
- **image shield**: Coat of arms of the city of San Marino.svg
- **shield size**: 100px
- **image map**: San Marino-San Marino.png
- **mapsize**: 150px
- **map caption**: San Marino's location in San Marino
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **leader title**: _Capitano_
- **leader name**: Alessandro Barulli (since 2003)
- **established title**: Foundation
- **established date**: September 3, 301 (traditional date)
- **area total km2**: 7.09
- **population as of**: 2003
- **settlement type**: _castello_
- **population total**: 4,493
- **population density km2**: 633.71
- **timezone**: CET
- **utc offset**: +1
- **timezone dst**: CEST
- **utc offset dst**: +2
- **elevation m**: 749
- **postal code type**: Postal code
- **postal code**: RSM-47890
Akdamar Island

**Akdamar Island** (Turkish: _Akdamar Adası_; also known as _Aghtamar_, _Ahktamar_, and _Aght'amar_; Armenian: _Աղթամար_; Kurdish: _Axtamar_) is a small island in Lake Van in the Eastern Anatolia region of Turkey.

## Other websites

- The Surp Hach (Saint Cross) church on Akhtamar Island
Gandzasar monastery

The **Gandzasar monastery** (Armenian: Գանձասար) is an Armenian monastery in Nagorno-Karabakh, in the Mardakert region, near the village of Vank. Gandzasar means "treasure mountain" in Armenian.
Deportation

**Deportation**, means the removal of someone from a country. People may be deported from a country for many reasons. For example, one may be deported from a country if they enter the country illegally or if they overstay longer then their visa allows them to stay in the country.

Deportation can also happen inside a country. A person or a group of people may be forced to move to a different part of the country, as a type of punishment. Examples include the Crimean Tatars.

## Related pages

- Ethnic cleansing
- Forced migration
- Political asylum
912

## Events

- May 11 – Alexander becomes Emperor of the Byzantine Empire.

- November 23 – Otto I the Great
Vahe

**Vahe** was a legendary king of Armenia (351 BC–331 BC). He was the last offspring of the Hyke dynasty. He revolted against Alexander the Great and fought a war for Darius the Great of Persia.
Rhadamistus

**Rhadamistus** (other names Ghadam or Radamisto) was an Iberian prince who reigned in Armenia from 51 to 53 and 54 to 55 CE.