juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Five Families

The **Five Families** are the five major Italian-American Mafia crime families which have controlled organized crime in New York City since the 1930s. The Five Families, under the suggestion of Salvatore Maranzano and Charles "Lucky" Luciano, were responsible for the establishment of The Commission, a council that changed how things worked with Mafia activities in the United States.

The five families and their bosses are (currently):
- **Bonanno**: Vincent "Vinny Gorgeous" Basciano (Salvatore Montagna is the acting boss)
- **Gambino**: Nicholas "Little Nick" Corozzo and Jackie "Nose" D'Amico
- **Colombo**: Carmine "Junior" Persico (Thomas Gioeli is the acting boss)
- **Genovese**: Daniel "Danny the Lion" Leo
- **Lucchese**: Vittorio "Vic" Amuso (Steven "Wonderboy" Crea is the acting boss)
The Colombo family was once known as the Profaci Crime Family, until a coup caused a name change in the early 1960s. Former Godfather Joe Massino had wanted to change the name of the Bonanno Family to the Massino Family but since his arrest and defection it is unlikely to happen. The DeCavalcante crime family, based in nearby Elizabeth, NJ, also has ties to the five New York families.

## In pop culture

- In _The Godfather_, five crime families control the Mafia of New York, but the families have different names.  The Corleones, go to war with the other members of the Five Families, the Tattaglias, the Barzinis, the Cuneos, and the Straccis.
- In _The Sopranos_, the DiMeo Crime Family of New Jersey have close business connections with the Lupertazzi Crime Family of Brooklyn, one of the five families in New York. Members of the DeCavalcante family believed themselves to be the ones used for the DiMeo family.
Carlo Gambino

**Carlo Gambino** (; August 24, 1902 – October 15, 1976) was an Italian-American Mafioso who became Boss of the Gambino crime family, that is still takes the name today. No one expected Gambino to seize control over the Commission of La Cosa Nostra in the US, at 1957 Apalachin Convention. Gambino was known for being low-key and secretive and unlike many modern mobsters, Gambino served no time in prison, but lived to the age of 74, when he died of a heart attack in bed.

## Infobox (person)

- **name**: Carlo Gambino
- **image**: Carlo Gambino.jpg
- **caption**: Mugshot of Carlo Gambino
- **birth place**: Caccamo, Palermo, Sicily, Italy
- **death place**: Massapequa, New York, Massapequa, New York (state), New York, United States, U.S.
John Gotti

**John Joseph Gotti, Jr.** (October 27, 1940 – June 10, 2002), commonly known by the media as "The Dapper Don" and "The Teflon Don" was an Italian-American crime boss. After the murder of his former boss Paul Castellano, was the boss of the well known Gambino crime family.

In 1998, Gotti was diagnosed with throat cancer and sent to the United States Medical Center for Federal Prisoners in Springfield, Missouri, for surgery. Though the tumor was removed, the cancer returned two years later and Gotti was transferred back to Springfield. He died on June 10, 2002, at the age of 61.

## Infobox (criminal)

- **name**: John Gotti
- **nationality**: Italian-American
- **height**: 5 ft 10+1/2 in
- **image name**: John Gotti.jpg
- **image caption**: Gotti's 1990 mugshots
- **birth name**: John Joseph Gotti Jr.
- **birth place**: The Bronx, New York, U.S.
- **death place**: Springfield, Missouri, U.S.
- **resting place**: St. John Cemetery (Queens), St. John Cemetery, Queens, New York City
- **charge**: Murder, conspiracy (crime), conspiracy to commit murder, loansharking, racketeering, obstruction of justice, illegal gambling, tax evasion
- **conviction penalty**: Life imprisonment, Life imprisonment without the possibility of parole
- **other names**: "The Teflon Don", "The Dapper Don", "Johnny Boy", "Black John", "Crazy Horse"
- **occupation**: Crime boss, mobster, extortionist, racketeer
Energy transfer

In physics, **energy transfer** is when energy is moved from one place to another. Energy cannot be made or destroyed. However, it can be transferred and it can change from one form of energy to another form of energy.
Galago

**Galagos**, also known as **bushbabies** or **** (meaning "little night monkeys" in Afrikaans), are small, nocturnal primates native to continental Africa. There are 21 species, and they form the family **Galagidae**.

## Geography

Range varies with species but includes most of the forested and bush regions of Africa south of the Sahara including some of the nearby islands such as Zanzibar. Their range does not extend to Madagascar.

There are many kinds of bush babies. Bush babies are the most successful prosimian primates in Africa.

## Habitat

Galagos are all arboreal and are able to jump far between branches. They also flock to savahhn areas of Africa.

## Diet

Galagos are omnivorous but mainly eat insects. Their favorite food is grasshoppers, but they also eat small birds, eggs, fruits, seeds and flowers. Euoticus has specialized front teeth for removing tree bark so it can eat tree gum.
Mongolic languages

The **Mongolic languages** are a group of languages that are spoken in East Asia and parts of Siberia. Some linguists propose to put Mongolic languages in the same group as the  Turkic and Tungusic languages. They call this group the Altaic languages, but not all linguists agreed on this proposed classification.

The best-known member of this language family is Mongolian. In Cyrillic orthography as it is used in Mongolia it is written **Монгол Хэл**. In the vertical Uygur-derived script as used in Inner Mongolia in China it is written ***Mongγol Kele***. It is the primary language of most of the residents of Mongolia, and is spoken by around 5.7 million people in Mongolia, Russia, and China.

## References

- Γarudi (2002): _Dumdadu üy-e-yin mongγul kelen-ü bütüče-yin kelberi-yin sudulul_ [The study of grammatical forms in Middle Mongolian]. Kökeqota: Öbür mongγul-un arad-un keblel-ün qoriy-a.
- Janhunen, Juha (ed.) (2003): _The Mongolic languages_. London: Routledge.
- Janhunen, Juha (2003a): _Written Mongol_. In: Janhunen 2003: 30-56.
- Janhunen, Juha (2003b): _Para-Mongolic_. In: Janhunen 2003: 391-402.
- Janhunen, Juha (2003c): _Proto-Mongolic_. In: Janhunen 2003: 1-29.
- Poppe, Nicholas (1964 [1954]): _Grammar of Written Mongolian_. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
- Rybatzki, Volker (2003): _Middle Mongol_. In: Janhunen 2003: 47-82.
- Sechenbaatar, Borjigin (2003): _The Chakhar dialect of Mongol - A morphological description_. Helsinki: Finno-Ugrian society.

## Other websites

- Ethnologue report on Mongolic languages
- Ethnic groups of Mongolia
- Ethnic map of Mongolia

## Infobox (language family)

- **name**: Mongolic
- **region**: Mongolia; Inner Mongolia and regions close to its border, Xinjiang, Gansu, Qinghai (China); Republic of Buryatia, Buryatia and Kalmykia (Russian Federation)
- **familycolor**: Altaic
- **fam1**: Altaic languages, Altaic (controversial)
- **child1**: Central Mongolic
- **child2**: Shirongolic languages, Shirongolic
- **child3**: Dagur language, Dagur
- **child4**: Mogholi
- **iso5**: xgn
- **map**: Linguistic map of the Mongolic languages.png
- **mapalt**: Topographic map showing Asia as centered on modern-day Mongolia and Kazakhstan. Areas are marked in multiple colors and attributed some of the language names of Mongolic languages. The extent of the colored area is somewhat less than in the previous map.
- **mapcaption**: Geographic distribution of the Mongolic languages
Tungusic languages

The **Tungusic languages** (also known as Manchu-Tungus, Tungus) are spoken in Eastern Siberia and Manchuria. Some linguists consider them to be part of the Altaic languages but many others do not think so.

Many Tungusic languages are in danger, and the long-term future of the family is uncertain.

## Classification

Linguists working on Tungusic have proposed a number of different classifications based on different criteria, including morphological, lexical, and phonological characteristics.

**Northern Tungusic**
- Evenki (obsolete: Tungus), spoken by Ewenkis in central Siberia and northeastern China and
- Even (Lamut) of eastern Siberia

These languages can be considered dialects or related languages of Evenki:
- Oroqen
- Negidal
- Solon
- Manegir

**Southern Tungusic**
- Southeast Tungusic
    - Nanai (Gold, Goldi, Hezhen)
    - Akani
    - Birar
    - Kile
    - Samagir
    - Orok
    - Ulch
    - Oroch
    - Udege
- Southwest Tungusic (or the Jurchen-Manchu group)
    - Manchu of Manchuria, the language of the Manchus, who founded the Qing Dynasty of China.
    - Sibe - spoken in Xinjiang autonomous region by descendants of a Manchurian tribe dispatched by the Qing Dynasty to Xinjiang as a military garrison.
    - Jurchen - an extinct language of the Jin Dynasty of China.
Jurchen-Manchu (Jurchen and Manchu are simply different stages of the same language).

## References

- Ethnologue entry for Tungus languages
- Kane, Daniel. _The Sino-Jurchen Vocabulary of the Bureau of Interpreters_. Indiana University Uralic and Altaic Series, Volume 153. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies, 1989.

## Other websites

- Monumenta Altaica - Altaic Linguistics. Grammars, Texts, Dictionaries, Bibliographies of Mongolian and other Altaic languages
- Tungusic Research Group at Dartmouth College

## Infobox (language family)

- **name**: Tungusic
- **region**: Siberia, Manchuria
- **familycolor**: Altaic
- **fam1**: possibly Altaic languages, Altaic (controversial)
- **sil**: 17-844
- **child1**: Northern
- **child2**: Southern
- **iso5**: tuw
- **map**: Linguistic map of the Tungusic languages.png
- **mapcaption**: Geographic distribution
Cystitis

**Cystitis** is the infection of the urinary bladder. Women get this more often than men, but men can get it also. It also affects all age groups.

## Infobox (medical condition (new))

- **image**: Cystitis glandularis at trigone.jpg
- **caption**: Micrograph of a histopathological sample obtained by biopsy, in a case of cystitis glandularis. Hematoxylin and eosin staining.
- **name**: Cystitis
Royal Academy

The **Royal Academy** (RA), is an art institution based in Burlington  House, Piccadilly, London. It is a club for top painters and sculptors. They elect their own members, and give regular exhibitions of art works.

The Royal Academy was formed to rival the Society of Artists after an leadership dispute between two leading architects, Sir William Chambers and James Paine. Paine won, but Chambers used his strong connections with King George III to create the Royal Academy, in 1768. It was formally launched the following year.

Membership of the Royal Academy is up to 80 practising artists, each elected by ballot of the General Assembly of the Royal Academy. They are known as Royal Academicians (RA, or more traditionally as R.A.). The Royal Academy is governed by these Royal Academicians.

Sir Joshua Reynolds was its first president, and Benjamin West its second.

## Related pages

- List of Royal Societies
The Last Judgement (Michelangelo)

The ***Last Judgment*** is a fresco by Michelangelo painted on the altar wall of the Sistine Chapel in Vatican City. Clement VII commissioned the painting in 1534, the last year of his papacy. After the election of Paul III Farnese, Michelangelo, aged 61, began work in 1536. He completed the _Last Judgement_ in the autumn of 1541.

The _Last Judgment_ shows the Second Coming of Christ, as described by John the Evangelist in the apocalypse. The painting depicts the moment when the living and dead are judged by Christ, and their souls consigned to heaven or hell.

The painting was not unanimously admired at the time. Due to his depiction of holy persons in the nude, with exposed genitals, Michelangelo was accused of immorality and obscenity. The cardinal said that this could not be tolerated inside the most important church of Christianity. A censorship campaign was started, known as the "Fig-leaf campaign". Carafa and Monsignor Sernini (Mantua's ambassador) launched the campaign to remove the frescoes.  When the Pope's own Master of Ceremonies, Biagio da Cesena, said "it was mostly disgraceful that in so sacred a place there should have been depicted all those nude figures, exposing themselves so shamefully," and that it was no work for a papal chapel but rather "for the public baths and taverns," Michelangelo worked the Cesena's semblance into the scene as Minos, judge of the underworld (far bottom-right corner of the painting). It is said that when Cesena complained to the Pope, the pontiff responded that his jurisdiction did not extend to hell, so the portrait would have to remain.

The genitalia in the fresco were later covered by the artist Daniele da Volterra, whom history remembers by the derogatory nickname "Il Braghettone" ("the breeches-painter").

In the painting, Michelangelo does a self portrait depicting himself as St. Bartholomew after he had been flayed (skinned alive) This is reflective of the feelings of contempt Michelangelo had for being commissioned to paint the _Last Judgement_.
Fancy rat

The **fancy rat** or **pet rat** is a type of the brown rat (_Rattus norvegicus_) that is bred to be a pet.  The name _fancy rat_ has nothing to do with the "fanciness" of how they look. It comes from the phrase _animal fancy_.  A person who keeps pet rats is said to be involved in "rat fancy."  Some people domesticate black rats (_Rattus rattus_), and Gambian pouched rats (_Cricetomys gambianus_). These types of rats are not usually called fancy rats because the hobby does not center around them.

Fancy rats have been bred as pets at least since the late 19th century. They can have many different colors and coat types.  They are sociable, intelligent animals. They can learn to come when called, use a litter box, and do many different tricks. Pet rats act differently from rats found in nature. The number of generations since they have been removed from the wild and how they were bred has an effect on how much they act differently. They are not any more of a health risk than other common pets.

In the 19th century france, Fancy Rats were quite a popular attraction of entertainment, they could be taught a handful of tricks.

Fancy rats do not have the diseases and illness as a wild rat would have.
Fancy rats can have ears on the top of their head (standard) or at the side (dumbo)
Gymnasium (ancient Greece)

In Ancient Greece the **Gymnasion** (or **Gymnasium**, romanized name) was a place where athletes could train for the competitions in public games, such as the Olympic Games. _Gymnos_ means naked. Only men were allowed to enter, and train; they did so fully naked (as the name implies). Athletes also competed in the nude. This was said to encourage aesthetic appreciation of the male body. It was believed to be a tribute to the Gods. Gymnasia and palestrae were under the protection and patronage of Heracles, Hermes and, in Athens, Theseus.

## Layout

The picture above shows the Pompeii gymnasium from the top of the stadium wall. The depression in the center-left of the picture was filled with water and used for swimming practice as well. Mock sea battles (naumachiae) took place in the flooded arena floor or a specially dug pool in the arena. According to Oscar Brockett in his History of the Theatre, 5th Ed. (1987), p. 70, > "Perhaps the most spectacular of all entertainments were the naumachiae, or sea battles. The first was given in 46 B.C. by Julius Caesar on a lake dug for the occasion; it featured a battle involving 2,000 marines and 6,000 oarsmen. Later the amphitheatres were sometimes flooded for such events. By far the most ambitious of all the naumachiae was given in 52 A.D. on the Fucine Lake east of Rome to celebrate the completion of a water conduit. On that occasion, 19,000 participants fought and many died. To the right of the picture (partially behind a tree trunk) is a line of carbonized tree stumps. These are the remains of trees (each hundreds of years old) that were part of the palaistra. They were burned in the volcanic eruption of 79. Between these and the colonnade is a line of saplings recently planted as a replacement.
Arnold Rikli

**Arnold Rikli** (1823-1906) was a healer. He proposed various therapies, mostly based on exposing the body to sun and air (called Sun tanning, preferably done while naked). He is one of the forefathers of a movement called naturism today.
Eastern White Pine

The **eastern white pine** (_Pinus strobus_), also known as the **white pine**, **Weymouth pine** (British), and **soft pine**, is a large pine native to eastern North America, occurring from Newfoundland west to Minnesota and southeastern Manitoba, and south along the Appalachian Mountains to the extreme south of Georgia.

It is the state tree of Maine and Michigan.
Forget-me-not

**Myosotis** is a genus of flowering plants. It is in the family of Boraginaceae. They are often called Forget-me-nots. Similar names and variations are found in many different languages.

Myosotis, commonly known as Forget-me-nots, is a genus of flowering plants belonging to the family Boraginaceae. These charming blooms, with their delicate, five-petaled flowers in shades of blue, pink, or white, are beloved by gardeners for their dainty beauty and symbolic meaning. The name "Forget-me-not" and its variations, such as "Vergeet-mij-niet" in Dutch and "Ne m'oubliez pas" in French, are reflective of the sentiment these flowers evoke—a reminder of love, friendship, and cherished memories. With a rich history in folklore and mythology, Forget-me-nots have captured the imagination of people worldwide, making them a timeless favorite in gardens and floral arrangements.

Forget-me-nots are native to Europe and Asia but have been naturalized in many other parts of the world due to their popularity and ease of cultivation. They are often found in moist, shady areas, although some species can tolerate drier conditions. These plants typically grow in small clusters and can reach heights of 6 to 12 inches, creating a carpet of colorful blooms that brighten up any garden.

In addition to their aesthetic appeal, Forget-me-nots also hold special significance in various cultures and traditions. In medieval times, it was believed that wearing Forget-me-nots would ensure lasting friendship and true love. The flowers are also associated with the idea of remembrance, especially in relation to loved ones who have passed away. In this way, Forget-me-nots serve as a poignant symbol of loyalty, affection, and the enduring nature of memories.
Willow grouse

The **willow grouse** (Europe) or **willow ptarmigan** (North America) (_Lagopus lagopus_) is a medium-to-large (15–17 inches) gamebird in the grouse family, from the Arctic. It is a sedentary species, breeding in birch and other forests and tundra across northern Eurasia, and in Alaska and northern Canada. Feathers are brown in summer, changing to white in winter. It is the state bird of Alaska. During the last ice age, the species occurred in continental Europe (Tomek & Bocheński 2005).
Watershed (television)

Today, television can show a number of programmes. Usually the content of these programmes is rated, by a number of people (usually called _advisory board_). Some of the programmes may be suitable for children (of different ages), other content may not be suitable for children. The **watershed** is the time of the day where content not suitable for children may be shown. This is usually during the night (starting in the later evening, and ending in the early morning)

## Content that children should not see

The content that is not suitable for children to see usually includes sex or nudity outside a functional context. People bathing naked in a lake may be ok, people doing a striptease in a night club or cabaret may not be. Other content generally not suitable includes various levels of violence or the use of illegal drugs. Sometimes _strong language_ (full of expletives) is also seen as unfit for children.
Spot-billed pelican

The **spot-billed pelican** (_Pelecanus philippensis_) is a member of the pelican family. It breeds in southern Asia from southern Pakistan. It is a bird of large inland and coastal waters, especially shallow lakes. The nest is a heap of vegetation in a tree. Three to four eggs is the usual clutch size.
Lake Manasarovar

**Lake Manasarovar** or **Lake Manasa Sarovar** (, Mapham Yutso; ) is a fresh-water lake. It is in the Tibet Autonomous Region of China,  from Lhasa. Lake Manasarovar is the source of the Pakistani river Sindhu. Sindhu flows west to the Arabian Sea.
Bathing

**Bathing** is putting the body into a fluid, most often water, or a solution with water. Usually it is done for hygiene or for religious purposes, or for fun. Sometimes bathing is also done as a form of therapy.

When people talk about bathing, they most often mean being immersed in water. But people have also "bathed" in other substances. Some therapies involve bathing in mud. People have also bathed in other substances, like Champagne, beans, or chocolate. A form of bathing quite common is bathing in sunlight.

## Reasons for bathing

Bathing serves several purposes:
- Hygiene, and the physical appearance of cleanliness
- Decontamination from chemical, biological, nuclear or other exposure-type hazards.
- Recreation
- Therapy (e.g. hydrotherapy), healing, rehabilitation from injury or addiction, relaxation (e.g. Blessed Rainy Day)
- Religious, or, less frequently, other ceremonial rites (e.g. Baptism, Mikvah)
- Celebration and socialization, e.g. running through fountains after winning the World Series, or jumping through a hole cut in the ice over a lake on New Year's Eve.
- Ensuring people are free of certain items such as weapons or other contraband: In Chicago, Russian baths were a safe meeting place for rival gang leaders. Weapons are difficult to conceal on a nearly naked body. If the meeting resulted in reconciliation, the gangs would meet upstairs for bagels, cream cheese and borscht. Many homeless shelters, and almost all prisons have an intake facility or intake process that includes a supervised shower with change of clothes to ensure that no contraband or contamination enters the facility.

## Other websites

- A virtual exhibition about bathing in art, from Cranach to Fellini
Pygmy marmoset

**Pygmy marmosets** are the smallest marmosets and one of the smallest of all primates. They inhabit Brazil, Ecuador, Peru and Colombia. Most pygmy marmosets lives in troops of two to nine individuals, with a dominant male, a breeding female, and up to four successive litters of offspring. The modal size of a standard stable  troop would be 6 individuals.

Pygmy marmosets have tawny agouti fur (the tip of the hair is a different color to the base) with an indistinctly dark-ringed tail. They can range in size from 4.6 in to 6 in but could possibly be half that size when they are first born since they are the size of a human thumb.

They are expected to live as long as 15-20 years.

## Habitat

They live in flooded forest near rivers, bamboo thickets and the edges of agricultural fields. They're mostly native in South Africa but can also be found around the western part of the amazon rainforest. Can also be found in Bolivia, Peru, Columbia, and Western Brazil.

## Diet

Pygmy marmosets mainly feed on gum (tree exudates, sap), but they also eat fruit, nectar and insects. They gouge holes in the bark of trees, and revisit these holes daily to collect the sap. The marmosets hang on with specially adapted claws.

## References

2. Tardif , S., Smucny , D., Abbott , D., Mansfield , K., Darkin, N. S., & Yamamoto , M. E. (2003). National Library of Medicine . Reproduction in Captive Common Marmosets (Callithrix Jacchus), 364–368.

3. University of Salford. (2018, February 27). Smallest monkey's evolutionary secret. ScienceDaily. Retrieved October 19, 2021 from www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/02/180227094726.htm

4. Jean P. Boubli, Maria N.F. da Silva, Anthony B. Rylands, Stephen D. Nash, Fabrício Bertuol, Mário Nunes, Russell A. Mittermeier, Hazel Byrne, Felipe E. Silva, Fabio Röhe, Iracilda Sampaio, Horacio Schneider, Izeni P. Farias, Tomas Hrbek, How many pygmy marmoset (Cebuella Gray, 1870) species are there? A taxonomic re-appraisal based on new molecular evidence, Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, Volume 120
Patras

**Patra** () is the third biggest Greek city. Patra is in southwest Greece on the west coast of the Peloponnese. It is the capital of the prefecture of Achaia and also the capital of the Greek perifereia (district) of Western Peloponnese. 171,616 lived there in 2001. The total population of Patra, including all its suburbs, is over 200,000 people. Patra is a coastal city, so it has a big port. Patra's port connects Greece with east-facing Italian ports such as Bari, Brindisi and Ancona.

## History

Patra developed in the third century BC. During the Roman period, Patra became an important city. In Patra Christianity arrived quite early, approximately in the first century AD, by St Andrew, who was martyred there. During the Middle Ages Patra was not very significant. Patra developed again after the Greek liberation from the Turks, in 1830 following the Greek revolution of 1821.

## Sights

The most important site in Patra is the contemporary Bridge Rion-Antirion which links Peloponnese and Sterea Ellada. This bridge is located a short distance from Patra's center, in the district of Rio. Opposite Rio is Antirio and it ends at the bridge. Other significant sites in Patra are the church of Agios Andreas and the Apollon theater. The cathedral of Agios Andreas is the third biggest churches in Greece. Patra is known for its wines, with the famous and oldest Winery in Greece, Achaia Clauss founded in 1861.
Santiago de Compostela

**Santiago de Compostela** (also **Saint James** of Compostela) is the capital of the autonomous community of Galicia. It is a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Site. The city is in the northwest of Spain in the Province of A Coruña.

The city's Cathedral is the destination of an important pilgrimage route, the Way of St. James (Galician: _Camiño de Santiago_, Spanish: _Camino de Santiago_). Pilgrims have been following this route since the ninth century.

The cathedral is believed to be where James, son of Zebedee is buried. Saint James was one of the apostles of Jesus Christ.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Santiago de Compostela
- **image skyline**: Collage de Santiago de Compostela.jpg
- **image flag**: Bandera de Santiago de Compostela.svg
- **image shield**: Escudo de Santiago de Compostela.svg
- **image map**: Location Santiago de Compostela.svg
- **map caption**: Location of the municipality of Santiago de Compostela within Galicia
- **pushpin map**: Spain
- **pushpin map caption**: Location of Santiago de Compostela within Spain
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision name**: Spain
- **subdivision type1**: Autonomous Community
- **subdivision name1**: Galicia (Spain), Galicia
- **subdivision type2**: Province
- **subdivision name2**: A Coruña (province), A Coruña
- **subdivision type3**: Comarca
- **subdivision name3**: Santiago (comarca), Santiago
- **parts type**: Parroquia (Spain), Parishes
- **parts style**: coll
- **p1**: Aríns
- **p2**: Bando
- **p3**: A Barciela
- **p4**: Busto
- **p5**: O Carballal
- **p6**: O Castiñeiriño
- **p7**: Cesar
- **p8**: Conxo
- **p9**: O Eixo
- **p10**: A Enfesta
- **p11**: Fecha
- **p12**: Figueiras
- **p13**: Fontiñas
- **p14**: Grixoa
- **p15**: Laraño
- **p16**: Marantes
- **p17**: Marrozos
- **p18**: Nemenzo
- **p19**: A Peregrina
- **p20**: Sabugueira
- **p21**: San Caetano
- **p22**: San Lázaro
- **p23**: San Paio
- **p24**: Santa Cristina de Fecha
- **p25**: Santiago de Compostela
- **p26**: Sar
- **p27**: Verdía
- **p28**: Vidán
- **p29**: Villestro
- **p30**: Vista Alegre
- **government type**: Mayor-council government, Mayor-council
- **governing body**: Concello de Santiago
- **leader party**: People's Party (Spain), PP
- **leader title**: Alcalde, Mayor
- **leader name**: Ángel Currás Fernández
- **leader title1**: Councillors
- **area total km2**: 220
- **elevation m**: 260
- **population as of**: 2012
- **population footnotes**: Instituto Nacional de Estadística (Spain), INE
- **population total**: 95,671
- **population density km2**: 428.81
- **population demonym**: Santiagan
 _santiagués_, _-guesa_ (Galician language, gl/Spanish language, es)
 _compostelán_, _-ana_ (Galician language, gl)
 _compostelano_, _-na_ (Spanish language, es)
- **timezone1**: CET (GMT +1)
- **timezone1 dst**: CEST (GMT +2)
- **postal code**: 15700
- **area code**: +34
Christopher Nolan

**Sir Christopher Edward Nolan**  (born 30 July 1970) is a British-American director, producer and screenwriter. He often works with his brother, author Jonathan Nolan. Nolan rose to prominence for directing the psychological thriller _Memento_, and for reviving the Batman movie franchise as the director of _The Dark Knight Trilogy_. Each of them are _Batman Begins_ (2005), _The Dark Knight_ (2008), and _The Dark Knight Rises_ (2012). He is also the founder of the production company, Syncopy Films through which his movies _Inception_ (2010), _Interstellar_ (2014), _Dunkirk_ (2017), _Tenet_ (2020) and _Oppenheimer_ (2023) were released.

For directing _Oppenheimer_, he won an Academy Award, Golden Globe Award and BAFTA Award for Best Direction.

In July 2012, Nolan became the youngest director to be honored with a hand and footprint ceremony at Grauman's Chinese Theatre in Los Angeles.

## In the media

Nolan is known for his unique visual style and unconventional narratives. His films often explore themes such as existentialism, ethics, and the nature of memory. Some of his notable films include Inception (2010), Interstellar (2014), Dunkirk (2017), and Oppenheimer (2023).

## Style

Christopher Nolan's filmmaking style is characterized by non-linear narratives, mind-bending concepts, complex themes, unconventional characters, strong visuals, sparse music, collaboration, attention to detail, intellectual depth, and genre-blending. His films engage and challenge viewers.

## Casting

Nolan has frequently cast the following;

### Major motion pictures

- _Following_ (1998) (also writer/producer)
- _Memento_ (2000) (also writer)
- _Insomnia_ (2002)
- _Batman Begins_ (2005) (director/also writer/producer)
- _The Prestige_   (2006) (also co-writer/producer)
- _The Dark Knight_ (2008) (director/also co-writer/producer)
- _Inception_ (2009) (director)
- _The Dark Knight Rises_ (2012) (director/co-writer/producer)
- _Man of Steel_ (2013) (producer/writer)
- _Transcendence_ (2014) (producer)
- _Interstellar_ (2014) (director/co-writer/producer)
- _Dunkirk_ (2017) (director/writer/producer)
- _Tenet_ (2020) (director/co-writer/producer)
- _Oppenheimer_ (2023) (director/co-writer/producer)
- _The Odyssey_ (2026) (director/co-writer/producer)

### Short movies

- _Tarantella_ (1989) (Also writer/producer)
- _Larceny_ (1996) (Also writer/producer)
- _Doodlebug_ (1997) (Also writer/producer)

## Other websites

- NolanFans.com Fansite and community for Christopher Nolan.
- Telegraph.co.uk  Interview with Christopher Nolan and Christian Bale

## Infobox (person)

- **honorific prefix**: Sir
- **name**: Christopher Nolan
- **image**: Christopher Nolan Cannes 2018.jpg
- **caption**: Nolan in 2018
- **alt**: Nolan smiling to his right
- **birth name**: Christopher Edward Nolan
- **birth place**: London, England
- **alma mater**: University College London
- **years active**: 1993–present
- **boards**: The Film Foundation
- **title**: Co-founder of Syncopy Inc.
- **children**: 4
- **awards**: List of awards and nominations received by Christopher Nolan, Full list
Foucault pendulum

The **Foucault pendulum**, or **Foucault's pendulum** (named after the French physicist Léon Foucault) was a pendulum created as an experiment to show the rotation of the Earth.

## The experiment

On  January 3, 1851, Foucault did the following experiment: He mounted a 2 metre long pendulum, and let it swing, in the basement of his house. On the floor, he marked the axis, along which the pendulum was swinging. After some time, he noticed, that the pendulum no longer swung along the axis he had marked on the floor, but on an different axis. When he tried to explain this, he considered, what could have caused the axis to change. He considered gravity. Gravity could not have caused the axis to change, as it only acts vertically. There were no other forces acting on the pendulum. So: according to Newton's laws, the pendulum did not change the axis it was swinging in. So it was the floor (or the earth) that changed this axis, because it rotated.

Vincenzo Viviani (1662-1703) had made similar observations, but he didn't attribute them to the rotation of the earth.

On the 3rd of February 1851, he repeated the experiment, with a 12m pendulum at the Paris observatory. On 26th of March he presented the experiment to the public: At the Panthéon, he used a 67m long pendulum, with a weight of 28kg. At the bottom of the pendulum, there was a tip that left a trace in a sandbox. This was an easy way to show the earth's rotation to common people. The metal ball of this pendulum still exists: Until 1946, it was stored at the Conservatoire national des arts et métiers, then it was returned to the Panthéon.

Caspar Garthe repeated the experiment at Cologne Cathedral, Friedrich Magnus Schwerd did in Speyer Cathedral. Their results were deceptive, and not nearly as good as those obtained in Paris. In 1879, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes wrote his thesis on the subject, doing extra calculations on the exact magnitude of the effect. In his thesis, he  also pointing out the problems the people had encountered in Cologne and Speyer.

An exact copy of the original has been operating in the Panthéon since 1995. It takes 31h 50min to do a full rotation (of 360 degrees).

Because a Foucault pendulum is an easy way to show the rotation of the earth, such devices can be found in many science museums around the world today.
Mickie James

**Mickie Laree James** (born August 31, 1979) is an American professional wrestler and singer currently signed to Ohio Valley Wrestling (OVW) as Creative Director, Head of Female Talent and Executive Producer.

## Infobox (wrestler)

- **name**: Mickie James
- **names**: **Mickie James**
Alexis Laree
Princess Alexis
Queen Alexis
Superball
Vicki Adams
- **image**: Mickie James at SummerSlam 08.jpg
- **birth place**: Montpelier, Hanover County, Virginia, Montpelier, Virginia
- **billed**: Richmond, Virginia
- **trainer**: Extreme Championship Wrestling
Funking Conservatory
KYDA Pro Training School
Ohio Valley Wrestling, OVW
- **debut**: 1999
- **children**: 1
- **spouse**: Nick Aldis (m. 2015)
Jaguar S-Type

**Jaguar S-Type** was a car produced by Jaguar from 1998 till 2008. It was first shown at the 1998 Birmingham Motor Show, and shared 'retro' styling with the Rover 75, which was shown at that same show.

## Replacement and discontinuation

The S-Type was replaced by the Jaguar XF in the spring of 2008.
Muskrat

**Muskrats** are rodents that live in freshwater and saltwater marshes, lakes, ponds, and streams. Muskrats often build dome-shaped houses in marshes. These houses, made of plants, protect the muskrat from predators, since the only entrance is underwater. Some muskrats live in burrows on the water banks. Muskrats are excellent swimmers but are slow on land.

Muskrats are native to North America, but have been brought to Europe and Asia, where they now live in the wild. Muskrats got their name because they have musk glands that produce a strong scent.
Griffith's experiment

**Griffith's Experiment** was an experiment done in 1928 by Frederick Griffith. It was one of the first experiments showing that bacteria can get DNA through a process.

Griffith used two strains of _Streptococcus pneumoniae_. He then uses the bacteria to infect the mice, which have many different characteristics to humans. He used a type III-S (smooth) and type II-R (rough) strain. The III-S strain covers itself with a polysaccharide capsule that protects it from the host's immune system. This means that the host will die. The II-R strain does not have that protective shield around it and is killed by the host's immune system.

In this experiment, bacteria from the III-S strain were killed by heat, and their remains were added to II-R strain bacteria. While neither harmed the mice on their own, the blend of the two was able to kill mice.

Griffith was also able to get both live II-R and live III-S strains of _S. pneumoniae_ from the blood of these dead mice. He concluded that the type II-R had been "transformed" into the lethal III-S strain by a "transforming principle" that was somehow part of the dead III-S strain bacteria.

Today, we know that the "transforming principle" Griffith saw was the DNA of the III-S strain bacteria. While the bacteria had been killed, the DNA had survived the heating process and was taken up by the II-R strain bacteria. The III-S strain DNA contains the genes that form the shielding polysaccharide part from attack. Armed with this gene, the former II-R strain bacteria were now protected from the host's immune system and could kill the host.

The exact nature of the transforming principle was confirmed in one of many experiments done by Avery, McLeod and McCarty, as well as Hershey and Chase.

## Related pages

- Genetics
- Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment
- Hershey–Chase experiment

## References

- Hartl, Daniel and Jones, Elizabeth 2005. _Genetics: analysis of genes and genomes_. 6th ed, Jones & Bartlett.
- The original experiment by Griffith. Original article  and 35th anniversary reprint available.
Frederick Griffith

**Frederick Griffith** (1879–1941) was a English medical officer and geneticist. In 1928, during an experiment, he discovered what he called a _transforming principle_, but today we call DNA.

## Early life

He was born in Hale, Lancashire and attended Liverpool University where he studied genetics. In his younger days he worked at the Liverpool Royal Infirmary, the Thompson Yates Laboratory, and the Royal Commission on Tuberculosis.

## Griffith's experiment

The experiment began when Griffith was trying to make a vaccine to prevent pneumonia infections in the "Spanish flu" influenza pandemic after World War I, by using two strains of the _Streptococcus pneumoniae_ bacterium.

## Later life

Griffith was killed at work in his laboratory in 1941, along with longtime friend and bacteriologist William M. Scott in London during an air raid in the London blitz. Years later Griffith's "transforming principle" was identified as DNA by Oswald Avery, along with coworkers Colin MacLeod and Maclyn McCarty, in 1944. The Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment.

## Other websites

- Frederick Griffith _Lancet_, (3 May 1941): 588. Obituary
- The Famous DNA Experiments
- Griffith's Experiment on Bacterial Transformation
Streptococcus pneumoniae

***Streptococcus pneumoniae***, or **pneumococcus**, is a gram-positive, alpha-hemolytic diplococcus aerotolerant anaerobe and a member of the genus _Streptococcus_. An important human pathogen, _S. pneumoniae_ has been known as a major cause of pneumonia in the late 19th century and is the subject of many humoral immunity studies.
Strain (biology)

In biology, a **strain** is a low-level taxonomic rank below the rank of species. This is seen in microbiology where strains are got from a single cell colony, and are quarantined by being in a Petri dish. Strains are also commonly referred to in virology, in horticulture, and with rodents used in experimental studies.

## Microbiology/Virology

A strain is a genetic variant or subtype of a microorganism, that is to say a virus or bacterium or fungus. For example, a "flu strain" is a certain biological form of the influenza or "flu" virus. Properly speaking, bacteria, archaea and viruses do not have species, because they do not have eukaryote-type sexual reproduction. Bacteria do exchange DNA, but they may exchange it between different kinds of bacteria, which shows their difference from eukaryotes. Strains are therefore an essential part of bacterial identification.

## Plants

In botany, the term is not used to rank plants. It is sometimes used to refer to all the descendants produced from a common ancestor that share a uniform morphological or physiological character. A strain is a designated group of offspring that have descended from a modified plant, produced ether by conventional breeding or by biotechnological means or result from genetic mutation.

For example, some rice strains are made by inserting new genetic material into a rice plant, all the descendants of the genetically modified rice plant are a strain with a unique genetic code that is passed on to later generations. The strain designation, a number or a formal name, covers all the plants that descend from the originally modified plant. The rice plants in the strain can be breed to other rice strains or cultivars, and if desirable plants are produced, these are further breed to stabilize the desirable traits; the stabilized plants that can be propagated and come true, are given a cultivar name and released into production to be used by farmers.

## Rodents

A mouse or a rat strain is a group of animals that is genetically uniform. Strains are used in laboratory experiments. Mouse strains can be inbred or genetically engineered, while rat strains are usually produced by inbreeding.

## Other websites

- International Mouse Strain Resource (IMSR)
- Rat strain index
Hannes Schäfer

**Dr. Johannes Schäfer**, born 2nd October 1965 in Göttingen, Germany, was the bass player of the German rock band Fury in the Slaughterhouse from the beginning (1987) until 1996. Today (2008) he is a doctor.

Schäfer's first band was 1982 the punk band _Defekt_ in Hanover, Germany, where he was singer and bass player. From 1985 until 1987 he played in the jazz rock band _CIT._, together with Mousse T. and at the same time he worked as a studio musician at the _Stakkato Studio_ in Hannover.

In 1987 Schäfer founded the rock band Fury in the Slaughterhouse together with Kai and Christian Wingenfelder, Rainer Schumann and Christoph Stein-Schneider. He played the bass in this band until 1996, when he was followed by Christian Decker. Together with his band Schäfer was awarded golden recording sales certifications for the Fury albums _Fury in the Slaughterhouse_ (1988), _Mono_ (1992), and _the Hearing and the Sense of Balance_ (1995). Fury in the Slaughterhouse sold about three million recordings of albums made in their time with Hannes Schäfer (1987-1996).

After leaving Fury in the Slaughterouse Schäfer studied medicine and today (2008) he works as a doctor in the hospital _Vinzenzkrankenhaus_ in Hanover.

## Other websites

- Homepage of Fury in the Slaughterhouse
- the hospital Schäfer works at today
The Prestige

***The Prestige*** is a 2006 period movie directed by Christopher Nolan. The story follows Robert Angier and Alfred Borden, enemy stage magicians in fin de siècle London.  Obsessed with creating the best stage Magic, they take part in a competition with tragic results.

## Cast and characters

- Hugh Jackman as Robert Angier, a classy magician with a talent for performance.
- Christian Bale as Alfred Borden, a working-class magician who knows magic.
- Michael Caine as John Cutter, the stage engineer who works for Angier.
- Rebecca Hall as Sarah Borden, Borden's wife.
- Scarlett Johansson as Olivia Wenscombe, Angier's assistant and Borden's lover.
- David Bowie as Nikola Tesla, the inventor (Tesla was a real person) who creates a device for Angier.
- Piper Perabo as Julia McCullough, Angier's wife.
- Andy Serkis as Mr. Alley, Tesla's assistant.
- Ricky Jay as "Milton the Magician", an older magician Borden and Angier work for at the beginning of the story.
- Roger Rees as Owens, a solicitor working for Lord Caldlow.
- W. Morgan Sheppard as Merrit, the owner of a theater where Angier initially performs.

## Other websites

- Official Website
- Writer Christopher Priest's website

## Infobox (movie)

- **name**: The Prestige
- **director**: Christopher Nolan
- **producer**: Christopher Nolan
Emma Thomas
- **writer**: Novel:
Christopher Priest (English novelist), Christopher Priest
Screenplay:
Jonathan Nolan
Christopher Nolan
- **starring**: Hugh Jackman
Christian Bale
Michael Caine
Scarlett Johansson
David Bowie
Piper Perabo
- **music**: David Julyan
- **cinematography**: Wally Pfister
- **editing**: Lee Smith (editor), Lee Smith
- **studio**: Touchstone Pictures (NA)
- **distributor**: Buena Vista Pictures (NA)
Warner Bros. (worldwide)
- **released**: October 20, 2006 (USA)
November 10, 2006 (UK)
- **runtime**: 130 min.
- **country**: United States
- **language**: English
- **budget**: US$40 million
- **gross**: US$109 million
Javon Ringer

**Javon Ringer** (born February 2, 1987, Dayton, Ohio) is an American football running back for the Tennessee Titans of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Michigan State University. He attended Chaminade Julienne High School, where he set many running records.

## Other websites

- Ringer's official site
- Javon Ringer statistics, ESPN.com
- MSU Spartans Player Profile
- CBS Player Page

## Infobox (nfl player)

- **name**: Javon Ringer
- **number**: 21
- **position**: Running back
- **birth place**: Dayton, Ohio
- **height ft**: 5
- **height in**: 9
- **weight lbs**: 213
- **high school**: Chaminade-Julienne High School, Dayton (OH) Chaminade-Julienne
- **college**: Michigan State Spartans football, Michigan State
- **draftyear**: 2009
- **draftround**: 5
- **draftpick**: 173
- **pastteams**: * Tennessee Titans (–)
- **highlights**: * Consensus All-American (2008 College Football All-America Team, 2008)
* First-team All-Big Ten Conference, Big Ten (2008)
* Second-team All-Big Ten (2007)
* #Rankings, College All-Time & Season Rankings
* #Awards and honors, Awards and Honors
- **statlabel1**: Rushing attempts
- **statvalue1**: 120
- **statlabel2**: Rushing yards
- **statvalue2**: 486
- **statlabel3**: Rushing touchdowns
- **statvalue3**: 3
- **statlabel4**: Receptions
- **statvalue4**: 38
- **statlabel5**: Receiving yards
- **statvalue5**: 243
- **statlabel6**: Receiving touchdowns
- **statvalue6**: 0
- **nfl**: RIN387478
Running back

A **running back** (**RB**) is the position of a player on an American football team. They are the players who carry the ball the most. They receive handoffs, catch passes, and block for other runners.

## References

- Football 101: Basic Football positions
- http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/what-the-running-backs-do-in-a-football-game.html
Heisman Trophy

The **Heisman Memorial Trophy Award** (often known simply as the **Heisman Trophy** or **The Heisman**), named after the former college football coach John Heisman, is awarded annually to the most outstanding player in collegiate football.

It was first awarded in 1935 by the Downtown Athletic Club of New York City. At the time, it was known as the DAC Trophy, with only players at colleges east of the Mississippi River eligible. A year later, after the death of Heisman (who had been the club's athletic director), the award was renamed the Heisman Trophy, and all college players became eligible. Since the DAC closed in 2002, the trophy has been presented by the Heisman Trophy Trust. All award ceremonies have been held in New York City except the 2020 ceremony, held virtually at ESPN's studios in Bristol, Connecticut amid COVID-19.

## Other websites

- The Heisman Memorial Trophy Award website
- StiffArmTrophy.com  (attempts to project the Heisman Trophy winner through "exit polls" of actual Heisman voters)
- HeismanPundit.com  (commentary and discussion)
- New Home of the Heisman - Sports Museum of America
Place of birth

The **place of birth** is the place where a person was born. This place is often used in legal documents, together with name and date of birth, to uniquely identify a person. Sometimes a person's place of birth decides the ethnicity of the person.