Latin literature

**Latin literature** includes essays, histories, poems, plays, and other writings in the Latin language. Formal Latin literature is usually said to begin in 240 BC, when the first stage play in Latin was performed in Rome. Latin literature flourished for about six hundred years. The classical period of Latin literature is often divided into several phases: early Latin literature, the golden age, the imperial period, and Late Antiquity.

Latin was the language of the ancient Romans and later the main _lingua franca_ of Western and Central Europe during the Middle Ages. Latin literature includes the work of Roman authors such as Cicero, Virgil, Ovid and Horace, and also the work of later European writers after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. These later authors include religious writers like Aquinas (1225–1274) and secular writers like Francis Bacon (1561–1626), Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677), and Isaac Newton (1642–1727), who all wrote important works in Latin.

### Early Latin literature

Although Latin literature developed gradually over several centuries, formal Latin literature is usually dated from 240 BC. In that year, regular performances of comedies and tragedies in Latin began in Rome, one year after the end of the First Punic War.

These early Latin plays were adapted from Greek drama by Livius Andronicus, a Greek prisoner of war who came to Rome as a slave in 272 BC. Andronicus also translated Homer’s _Odyssey_ into Latin, using an old Italian verse form called Saturnian meter.

In 235 BC, the Roman citizen Gnaeus Naevius continued this tradition of adapting Greek plays into Latin, producing comedies and tragedies based on Greek models, called _fabula palliata_. From 222 BC he also wrote a new kind of tragedy, _fabula praetexta_, based on Roman myths and Roman history. Later in life Naevius composed an epic poem in Saturnian meter about the First Punic War, in which he had fought.

Other epic poets followed Naevius. Quintus Ennius wrote a historical epic, the _Annals_, soon after 200 BC, describing Roman history from the founding of Rome up to his own time. He adopted the Greek dactylic hexameter, which then became the standard verse meter for Roman epic poetry. Ennius was also famous for his tragic plays. Important successors in tragedy include Marcus Pacuvius and Lucius Accius. These three tragedians rarely used episodes from Roman history. Instead, they usually wrote Latin versions of Greek tragic themes. Even in these versions, they did not simply copy the Greek originals but reworked them freely. Only fragments of their tragedies survive today.

Early Latin comedy is much better preserved. Twenty-six complete or nearly complete Early Latin comedies survive. Of these, twenty were written by Plautus and six by Terence. Both authors based their plays on Greek New Comedy, but they treated the plots and dialogue very freely. Plautus filled his plays with songs, puns, quick jokes, and broad physical humour. Terence’s comedies are plainer in style and more serious in tone, dealing mainly with family and domestic situations. His works later became a major model for French and English comedy in the 17th century AD.

The best-known prose work of this early period is _On Agriculture_ (160 BC) by Cato the Elder. Cato also wrote the first Latin history of Rome and of other Italian cities. He was the first Roman statesman to publish his political speeches in writing to influence public opinion.

Early Latin literature is often said to end with Gaius Lucilius, who invented a new kind of poetry in his thirty books of _Satires_ (2nd century BC). He wrote in an easy, conversational style about books, food, friends, and current events.

### The golden age

Traditionally, the high point of Latin literature is the period from 81 BC to AD 17, although modern scholars have questioned giving this period special privilege over earlier and later Latin writing. This “golden age” is usually considered to begin with the first known public speech of Cicero and to end with the death of Ovid.

#### The age of Cicero

Cicero has long been regarded as the greatest master of Latin prose. From about 80 BC until his death in 43 BC, he produced more writing than any other surviving Latin author, and in more different genres. His style was seen as a model of clarity and balance.

Cicero’s works fall into four main groups: letters, rhetorical treatises, philosophical works, and orations. His letters give detailed information about Roman politics and society in a crucial period and portray both public and private life among the ruling class. His works on rhetoric and oratory are the most important Latin sources for ancient ideas on education and public speaking. His philosophical writings formed a basic source for moral philosophy in the Middle Ages. His speeches influenced many later European political leaders and some of the founders of the United States.

Other important prose writers of Cicero’s time include Julius Caesar and Sallust. Caesar’s commentaries on the Gallic War and the civil war are written in a simple, clear style. They present his actions as a general and politician and offer brief but sharp descriptions of people and their motives.

Lyric poetry in Latin also began to flourish in this period. The poet Catullus, whom Aulus Gellius called “the most elegant of poets”, wrote short poems known for their emotional intensity and personal tone. At about the same time, Lucretius set out the Epicurean philosophy in his long didactic poem _De rerum natura_ (“On the Nature of Things”).

One of the most learned writers of this era was Marcus Terentius Varro. Quintilian later referred to him as “the most learned of the Romans”. Varro wrote on many subjects, including religion, agriculture, language, and literature. Only his works on farming and on the Latin language survive complete.

#### The Augustan age

Under the emperor Augustus, who ruled from 27 BC to AD 14, Latin literature reached a brilliant peak. Augustus encouraged and protected writers, and this period is sometimes called the Augustan Age of Latin literature.

Virgil produced three major works: the pastoral _Eclogues_, the didactic _Georgics_, and the epic _Aeneid_. The _Aeneid_ tells how the Trojan hero Aeneas came to Italy and became the ancestor of the Roman people. In the poem, Virgil gives a divine and historical justification for Roman rule over the world. Although Virgil died before he could make the final corrections, the _Aeneid_ was soon regarded as the greatest work of Latin literature.

Virgil’s friend Horace wrote _Epodes_, _Odes_, _Satires_, and _Epistles_. The _Odes_ are admired for their perfection of form, style, and content. The _Satires_ and _Epistles_ discuss ethical and literary issues in a polished and witty way. Horace’s _Art of Poetry_ (_Ars poetica_), probably published as a separate piece, strongly influenced later theories of poetry. It set out basic rules of classical style as Romans understood them. After Virgil’s death, Horace was generally regarded as Rome’s leading poet.

Love elegy in Latin reached its peak with Tibullus, Propertius, and Ovid. Most of their poems concern love affairs, often in a playful or emotional tone. Ovid’s _Fasti_ describes Roman religious festivals and their legendary origins. His most famous work, the _Metamorphoses_, retells many Greek and Roman myths in the form of a continuous narrative of transformations. It became the most important source of classical mythology in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance and inspired many later poets, painters, and composers.

One of the few known female poets of ancient Rome is Sulpicia, whose short elegies also survive from this period.

In prose, Livy wrote a large history of the Roman people in 142 books, covering Rome from its legendary beginnings down to his own time. Only 35 of these books survive, but they remain one of the main sources for early and middle Roman history.

### The imperial period

From the death of Augustus in AD 14 until about AD 200, Latin authors often focused on striking style and experimented with new and sometimes extreme ways of expression.

Under the emperor Nero (reigned 54–68), the Stoic philosopher Seneca wrote philosophical dialogues and letters on moral themes such as mercy, anger, and generosity. In _Natural Questions_ he discussed natural phenomena such as earthquakes, floods, and storms. Seneca also wrote tragedies that were highly influential on Renaissance and early modern European drama.

Seneca’s nephew Lucan composed the epic _Pharsalia_ (or _De bello civili_) around AD 60, describing the civil war between Julius Caesar and Pompey. Around the same time, Petronius wrote the _Satyricon_, often regarded as the first Latin picaresque novel. Only large fragments survive. The work follows the misadventures of low-status characters in a world of excess, danger, and petty crime.

Other imperial epics include the _Argonautica_ of Gaius Valerius Flaccus, about Jason and the Argonauts and their quest for the Golden Fleece; the _Thebaid_ of Statius, about the conflict between the sons of Oedipus and the war of the Seven Against Thebes; and the _Punica_ of Silius Italicus, about the Second Punic War and Hannibal’s invasion of Italy.

In short satirical poems, Martial gave the Latin epigram its sharp, pointed form, often ending with a memorable sting. Juvenal wrote powerful satires attacking what he saw as the moral corruption and social problems of his day.

The historian Tacitus wrote the _Histories_ and _Annals_ in the early 2nd century AD, giving a dark and intense picture of the early Roman Empire. His contemporary Suetonius composed biographies of the first twelve Roman rulers, from Julius Caesar to Domitian, focusing on their character and private lives.

The letters of Pliny the Younger offer a vivid picture of Roman society in the late 1st and early 2nd centuries, including famous descriptions of the eruption of Vesuvius and early Christians. The teacher Quintilian wrote the _Institutio oratoria_, the most complete surviving ancient work on education and rhetoric.

In the 2nd century, Aulus Gellius compiled _Attic Nights_, a collection of anecdotes, notes on grammar and law, and reports of literary conversations. The letters of the orator Marcus Cornelius Fronto to the future emperor Marcus Aurelius show the literary culture and personal relationships of the imperial elite.

The most famous Latin novel of this later period is the _Metamorphoses_ of Apuleius, also known as _The Golden Ass_. It tells the story of a young man magically changed into a donkey and his journeys through a world full of love affairs, violence, and witchcraft, before his final restoration and religious conversion.

### Latin in the Middle Ages, Renaissance, and Early Modernity

Pagan (non-Christian) Latin literature had a last period of energy from the late 3rd to the 5th centuries. Important writers include Ammianus Marcellinus in history, Quintus Aurelius Symmachus in oratory, and Ausonius and Rutilius Claudius Namatianus in poetry. Ausonius’s poem _Mosella_, which lovingly describes the Moselle river, shows a more personal and “modern” tone that marks the end of classical style.

Christian Latin literature grew rapidly from the 4th and 5th centuries. Major Church Fathers such as Augustine of Hippo, Jerome, and Ambrose wrote influential theological and devotional works. The poet Prudentius is often regarded as the first great Christian Latin poet.

Some Latin works by Christian women also survive. These include the prison diary of the North African martyr Perpetua of Carthage, and the travel account of the pilgrim Egeria, who described her journey to the Holy Land and other biblical sites.

During the Early Middle Ages, Latin literary culture remained strong, especially in the Carolingian Empire (mainly in modern France). This period is called the Carolingian Renaissance. The _Clavis Scriptorum Latinorum Medii Aevi_, published by Brepols, lists about 80 Latin writers active in this age.

In the High Middle Ages, Latin literature was renewed through translations made in places such as the School of Translators in Toledo, where scholars translated works from Islamic Spain and from Greek into Latin. Scholastic philosophers used Latin to develop new theological and philosophical systems, and Latin remained the standard language of education and science.

During the Renaissance, many scholars tried to return to the pure classical Latin of Cicero and Virgil. This form of the language is known as Neo-Latin. Neo-Latin became the common language of educated people across Europe. Important works by thinkers such as Descartes, Francis Bacon, and Baruch Spinoza were written in Latin.

Some of the last major scientific and philosophical works to be written mainly in Latin prose were by Emanuel Swedenborg (d. 1772), Linnaeus (d. 1778), Euler (d. 1783), Isaac Newton (d. 1727), and Gauss (d. 1855). A knowledge of Latin is still needed today to read many early modern works in fields such as theology, science, linguistics, and philosophy in their original language.

#### Great Britain and Ireland

The _Handlist of the Latin Writers of Great Britain and Ireland before 1540_, published by Brepols, gives the names of about 2,000 Latin-language writers from modern-day England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. It covers the period from the 5th to the 16th century.

Several leading English poets of the pre-modern period wrote in both English and Latin. John Milton’s 1645 collection of poems is one well-known example. Others include Thomas Campion, George Herbert, and Milton’s friend Andrew Marvell. Some poets wrote mainly in Latin and were admired for the purity and classical elegance of their style. Anthony Alsop and Vincent Bourne were praised for applying classical Latin verse to everyday 18th-century themes while keeping correct classical diction.

One of the last English writers to be widely praised for high-quality Latin verse was Walter Savage Landor in the 19th century.

## Characteristics

Much Latin literature reflects the Roman interest in rhetoric, the art of public speaking and persuasion. For educated Romans, skill in speaking was essential, especially for those seeking political success. In the Roman Republic, effective speech could decide elections and influence laws. After the rise of the Roman Empire, public speaking became less central to power, but rhetorical training remained important and shaped written style as well.

A key part of rhetoric is the ability to express familiar ideas in fresh and striking ways. Latin authors became experts at this kind of variation and developed a wide range of stylistic devices to hold the attention of their audiences.

### Language and form

Latin is a highly inflected language, meaning that word endings change to show grammatical function. Because of this, Latin can be used with great brevity and compactness, in a way that is harder to reproduce in English. The flexible word order and tight syntax allow authors to construct long and complex sentences that still remain logically clear.

Some Latin writers, such as Sallust and Tacitus, are known for their concise, compressed style. Others, such as Livy and Cicero, use fuller, flowing periods with broad rhythms.

Compared to Greek, Latin has a more limited poetic vocabulary. Some early Roman poets tried to fill this gap by inventing compound words like those used by Greek poets, but Latin writers generally avoided creating many new words. Except in epic poetry, most poets preferred to use ordinary vocabulary, giving it poetic force through unusual combinations, metaphor, and sound effects.

Rome’s major poets were technically very skilled. They paid close attention to meter, word choice, and arrangement. Almost all of them knew Greek literature very well, and Greek themes and forms appear throughout Latin poetry and prose.

## Related pages

- Medieval Latin
- Renaissance Latin
- Neo-Latin
- Contemporary Latin
- Prosody (Latin)
- Clausula (rhetoric)
- Alliteration (Latin)

## Sources

- Fantham, Elaine. "Latin literature." _World Book Advanced._ World Book, 2011. Web. 18 October 2011.

## Other websites

- Corpus Scriptorum Latinorum.
- The Latin Library.
- Bibilotheca Augustana. (archived 13 December 2011)
- https://archive.today/20121204163129/http://kaali.linguist.jussieu.fr/CGL/index.jsp (archived 4 December 2012)
- Catalogus Translationum et Commentariorum