juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Gross domestic product

In economics, **gross domestic product** (**GDP**) is how much a place produces in an amount of time. GDP can be calculated by adding up its output (total production) inside a country.

To find the GDP of a country, one adds up all consumer spending (C), all investment (I), all government spending minus taxes (G), and the value of exports minus imports (_X – M_). This is shown by the equation: This measure is often used to find out how healthy a country is; a country with a high value of GDP can be called a large economy. The United States has the largest GDP in the world. Germany has the largest in Europe, Nigeria in Africa and China in Asia.

When a country's GDP is negative for two consecutive quarters it is considered to be in a recession. This is an unhealthy state for the country.

There are different ways to calculate GDP. Nominal GDP is the total amount of money spent on all the goods (new and final) in an economy; however, real GDP (adjusting for changes in prices) tries to correct this number for inflation. For example, if the prices rise by 2% (meaning, everything costs 2% more) and the nominal GDP grows by 5%, the real GDP growth is only increased by 3%.

## GDP per capita

GDP per capita is the total income of a country divided by the number of people living in that country. It shows how rich people are, on average.

There are also different ways of calculating GDP per capita: nominal and purchasing power parity (PPP). Nominal does not take into account the inflation rate and the cost of living of a country, but it's more useful when comparing national economies on the international market. PPP may be more useful when comparing peoples' living standards between countries.

## Gross national product

The GDP measure is different from **gross national product** (GNP) in that GNP = GDP + net income from assets in other countries (net income receipts).
Q

## Nominal GDP

When the gross domestic product is evaluated at the current market prices, it is called the nominal GDP. It includes changes in prices which makes it different from the real GDP due to inflation or price fluctuations. It can be measured in one of three different ways: _income approach_ uses the total of all income from businesses and individuals in a single year; the _expenditure approach_ uses the market value of all goods purchased in a single year; and the _production approach_ is based on the total production in a single year.
Cricket

**Cricket** is a sport. It is an outdoor bat-and-ball game played by two teams of eleven players on a large, grassy field. At the centre of the field is a rectangular pitch with a wooden structure called a wicket sited at each end. As in other sports, there are separate men's and women's games, both played internationally.

In all levels of cricket, the essence of the game is that the wicket is a target being attacked by a bowler using the ball, and defended by a batter using a bat. The bowler is a member of the fielding team; the batter is a member of the batting team. The objective of the batting team is to score as many runs as possible. The objective of the fielding team is to restrict scoring and, by various means, dismiss the batters. If ten batters are dismissed, the batting team is all out and the teams change roles. Generally, the winning team is the one scoring the most runs, although some matches can result in a draw or, occasionally, a tie.
Track and field athletics

**Track and field** is part of the sport of athletics. Athletics is a collection of sport events that includes running, jumping and _throwing_. Track and field events take place in a sports stadium, either on the running track, or on the field inside the running track. These tracks are generally made up of synthetic rubber – rubber particles bound with latex or polyurethane. Other athletics events that are not track and field, include cross country running, road running, marathon running, and race-walking - these events take place outside a sports stadium.
Athletics is a very common sporting event over the world. Athletics is a combination of different sports, generally running, jumping and throwing events. Running events include marathons, hurdle races, long distance and short-distance events. Some jumping events are high jump, long jump, triple jump and pole vault. Throwing events involve javelin throw, discus throw, hammer throw and shot put.

There are also events that combine parts of running, jumping, and throwing. One of these is the _decathlon_, which includes two short-distance races, a mile run, a hurdles race, javelin, discus, shot-put, high jump and pole vault.

All participants are timed or have a distance measured and this is their result. Participants train hard for an event and always aim to better their results.

Athletics is a sport that people take part in all over the world. It is a sport that is most common between young children up to younger adults. Athletics can be played for enjoyment, but it can also be a competitive sport. Athletics is also an event in the Olympic games.

## Other websites

- International Association of Athletics Federations website
- USA Track & Field website
- Results & Statistics for Collegiate, High School, Middle School, and Club teams

## Infobox (sport)

- **name**: Athletics
- **image**:
- **union**: World Athletics
- **mgender**: Yes
- **category**: Outdoor or indoor
- **olympic**: Present since inaugural 1896 Summer Olympics, 1896 Olympics
- **paralympic**: Present since inaugural 1960 Summer Paralympics, 1960 Paralympics
Badminton

**Badminton** is a sport for two or four( "singles" or "doubles") people. The game is either one player against one player or a team of two players against another team of two players. Players use rackets to hit a shuttlecock over a net but if it goes too far it will be an out. It is often enjoyed in various settings, from casual backyard matches to intense professional tournaments.

The aim of the game is to hit the shuttlecock over the net in a way that the other player or pair cannot hit it back properly before it hits the floor. Every time this is done, the player or pair gets one point. They also get to serve. The first player or pair to reach 21 points wins a set.

The winner of the match is the first to win 2 sets.

## History

Badminton traces its history to a game called George Cajoles, which was played in Pune, India in the 19th century by the British military officers stationed there. This game was taken by retired officers back to England where it developed and quickly grew in popularity.

In 1877, the first set of written rules were arranged by the newly formed Bath Badminton Club. The All England Open Badminton Championships, the first badminton competition in the world, was held in 1899.
Badminton has been an Olympic sport since 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona.
Although badminton originated in England, it is mainly played in countries of Asia such as China, Nepal, Indonesia, India, and the Republic of Korea that now dominates this sport.
The first Indian to win the All England Badminton Championship was Prakash Padukone in the year 1980.

## Equipment

- Rackets
- Shuttlecocks
- Net/ court
- Line Courtyard
- Badminton shoes

## Other websites

- International Badminton Federation
- Badminton Central
- Badminton World Federation
- https://www.badmintonengland.co.uk/
North

**North** is one of the 4 main directions on a compass. North is usually up on most maps. For Example: The United States is north of the Mexico, which is itself north of Brazil. The North Pole is the farthest north you can go. The North of the world is considered to be the top.
GNOME Web

**GNOME Web** (sometimes called **Epiphany**) is a web browser for GNOME. The browser uses the WebKit browser engine to load web pages but supports extensions from Mozilla Firefox and Google Chrome and uses Firefox Sync's API to allow syncing between multiple browsers. This also allows the browser to sync its bookmarks and reading list with Firefox and its mobile app.

GNOME Web was originally made from Galeon by Marco Pesenti Gritti (also the creator of Galeon) with the aim of making a web browser with a very simple user experience. Because of that, GNOME Webdoes not have its own themes, instead, it uses GNOME’s settings that are set in the GNOME Control Center. It also used to be Firefox based but switched to WebKit in September of 2009.

## Other websites

- Epiphany Homepage
- Galeon History homepage  covering the decision to split development
- GNOME Human Interface Guidelines
- Epiphany WebKit Project

## Infobox (software)

- **name**: GNOME Web
- **logo**: File:GNOME Web logo (2021-03).svg
- **screenshot**: File:Epiphany 44 Screenshot.png
- **screenshot size**: 250px
- **caption**: GNOME Web displaying the Wikipedia front page
- **developer**: Various
- **frequently updated**: yes
- **operating system**: Cross-platform
- **platform**: GNOME
- **genre**: Web browser
- **license**: GNU General Public License
- **website**: [https://apps.gnome.org/Epiphany/ apps.gnome.org/Epiphany/]
PlayStation (console)

The **PlayStation** (often known as the **PS1** or the **PSX**) is a video game console made by Sony released in December 1994. At the time, it was competing against the Nintendo 64 and the Sega Saturn. PlayStation games were stored on CDs. The controllers that were first released with the console had no analog joysticks on them, but analog joysticks and a vibration feature were added to later controllers.

A slimmer version of the console called the _PS One_ was released in 2000. It was white instead of grey.

It was succeeded by the PlayStation 2 in March 2000 and was discontinued on March 23, 2006 (eight months before the PlayStation 3 was released).

## History

The PlayStation was created by Ken Kutaragi, a Sony executive who managed a engineering division and was later nicknamed "the Father of the PlayStation".
The PlayStation was released in 1994 in Japan and 1995 in North America and Europe

## Sales

The **PlayStation** and the PSOne have sold over 120 million consoles.

### PocketStation

The PocketStation is a very small games console released as a peripheral (an extra accessory) for the PlayStation. It has a clock, an LCD display and four buttons. It can be used as a memory card. It wasn't released in the United States, because it did not sell well.

## Infobox (brand)

- **logo**:

- **image**:
- **caption**: The original grey _PS1_ and the slimmer white _PS One_ below
- **name**: PlayStation
- **type**: Video game console
Handheld game console
- **currentowner**: Sony Computer Entertainment
- **origin**: Aoyama, Tokyo, Minami-Aoyama, Minato, Tokyo, Japan
- **discontinued**: 23 March 2006
- **markets**: Worldwide
- **trademarkregistrations**: Worldwide
- **website**: [http://www.jp.playstation.com/ Japan]
[http://us.playstation.com/index.htm United States]

[http://uk.playstation.com/ Europe]
[https://returndays.com/ Canada]
Transport

**Transport**, or **transportation**, is moving people or things from one place to another place. Transport can be divided into _infrastructure_, _vehicles_ and _operations_.

_Infrastructure_ includes cableways, roads, railways, airports, canals and pipelines. The infrastructure is the network where things are carried. Infrastructure also includes airports, railway stations, bus stations and seaports (docks). Infrastructure is usually built by governments and paid for by taxes from the citizens of a country or region. Infrastructure such as roads and railways are designed by civil engineers and urban planners.

_Vehicles_ or vessels travel on the infrastructure. Vehicles include cable cars, cars, trucks, trains, spaceships and airplanes. Vehicles are usually designed by mechanical engineers. Vessels include boats, ferries, and barges which travel on canals and use docks and seaports. In the same way that trains use train stations, airplanes use airports. In the same way that trains use railway lines (train tracks), airplanes use flight paths and then fly in the sky.

_Operations_ control the system. Operations include traffic signals, railway signals and air traffic control. Operations also include the government policies (a policy is a plan of action to guide decisions and actions) and regulations (a set or group of laws and rules) used to control the system, such as tolls, fuel taxes, and traffic laws.

## Transport and communications

Transport and communication can be used instead of each other (someone could telephone a person rather than visit them). Transport traffic also needs communication.  For example, air traffic control lets more airplanes fly. So, an increase of either transport or communication usually leads to an increase in the other one.

## Transport, energy, and the environment

Transport uses a lot of energy. Trams, trolleybuses and trains use electricity and cycling is human-powered. Most transport uses hydrocarbons (oil and gas). This can create pollution. Environmental regulations (laws) and low-pollution fuels (for example liquified natural gas) can reduce pollution. But as more vehicles are used, more pollution is created.  Ethanol and biodiesel pollute less than petroleum.

## Kinds of transportation

Transport can be by cable, land, water or air:
- Cable using cableways. e.g. cable cars and ski lifts etc.
- Land transport using walking, roads and railway tracks. by bicycles and other vehicles. e.g. buses, cars, trucks, trains, trams, bikes etc.
- Water transport using ships and barges in canals, and in rivers and seas. e.g. ships, submarines, jet skis etc.
- Air transport using airplanes and airports and helicopters. e.g. jets, aeroplanes etc.
- Pipeline
Road

A **road** is a piece of land which connects two or more places. Usually, a road has been made easy to travel on.  For example, by removing trees and stones so the ground is more level. Although, many roads are made of gravel and dirt, some are paved with concrete or bricks or stones, Roads, which are man-made paved or unpaved pathways for travel, exist primarily on Earth.

People have been making roads for a long time. Roman roads in Britain and the Inca road system are famous. Transport by boats on waterways was usually easier and faster than transport by road. In the industrial revolution, the railway was invented. A railway is a special type of road, using railway tracks. Roads are now usually made for wheeled vehicles, like cars, to travel on.

When traffic jams becomes a frequent problem, the road may be made wider or other roads built.

Road building and care is usually paid for by taxes.  Some roads are toll roads, where people pay to use the road.

## Other kinds of road

- Bicycle path
- Tracks
- Trails
- Freeways
- Highways
2004

**2004** (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday in the Gregorian calendar.

### January

- January 1 - Deiss becomes President of the Confederation in Switzerland.
- January 2 - Several British Airways flights from London Heathrow Airport to Washington D.C. and Riyadh, Saudi Arabia are cancelled due to security fears.
- January 3 - Flash Airlines Flight 604 crashes into the Red Sea off the coast of Egypt. All 148 aboard are killed.
- January 3 - NASA's MER-A (_Spirit_) lands on Mars.
- January 3 - Tony Blair goes to Basra, Iraq and talks to the British soldiers there.  Very few people are told before he comes.
- January 4 - Dr. Mikhail Saakashvili wins presidential elections in the Republic of Georgia.
- January 4   - A NASA rover lands on Mars and starts sending back photos of Mars.
- January 5 - Britney Spears's marriage to childhood sweetheart Jason Allen Alexander is annulled (declared invalid) by a Las Vegas court after a surprise 55-hour marriage.
- January 5    -  China confirms that a sick man in southern China has the SARS virus.
- January 6 - An official look into the death of Diana, Princess of Wales begins in London.  It is held by Michael Burgess, the coroner of The Queen's household.
- January 12 - More than 100,000 people come together in Tel Aviv against Prime Minister Ariel Sharon's plan to withdraw from parts of Gaza and the West Bank.
- January 13 - An Uzbekistan Airways plane crashes in Uzbekistan's capital of Tashkent. 37 are killed.
- January 14 - The shock site Goatse.cx is placed on registry lock for violating the AUP.
- January 15 - The South Korean Foreign Minister, Yoon Young-kwan resigns after he says he supports American policy towards North Korea.
- January 20 - India signs a $1.5 billion deal with Russia to buy the 45,000 tonne aircraft carrier _Admiral Gorshkov_ along with 28 MiG-29k fighter planes.
- January 22 - The European Union bans the import of poultry from Thailand, as bird flu spreads throughout Southeast Asia.
- January 24 - NASA's MER-B (_Opportunity_) lands on Mars.
- January 28 - The findings of the Hutton Inquiry are published in London. The British Government is found not to have falsified information in the "sexed up dossier". The report criticises the BBC's role in the death of David Kelly, a weapons expert on Iraq.
- January 28 - At a hearing of the Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States, it is revealed that the September 11, 2001 terrorists used mace (a brand of tear gas) or pepper spray to overpower the flight crew of American Airlines Flight 11.
- January 31 - Mystery Science Theatre 3000 ends its run on the Sci-Fi Channel.
Hawaiian Islands

From west to east, Hawaii is made up of the following **Hawaiian Islands**:

The chain of islands stretches 2,400 km (1500 miles) in a southeasterly direction to the southern tip of the Island of Hawaii The hot-spot which formed them moved South-East in the Pacific Ocean. The hot-spot in the Earth's crust moved to where it is now, near the island of Hawaii, or, rather, the hot spot stayed where it was, and the plates of the Earth's crust moved, so creating the islands.

- Niihau
- Kauai
- Oahu
- Moloka'i
- Lana'i
- Kaho'olawe
- Maui
- Hawaii

Hawaii has been a U.S. state since 1959.

The Hawaiian islands, plus former islands now below sea level (guyots), make up the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain.
Mauna Kea

**Mauna Kea** is a dormant volcano on Hawaii Island, in the state of Hawaii, United States. It is the highest point in Hawaii at 4,205 meters.  If measured from top to bottom, below sea level, it is 10,200 meters high and would be the tallest mountain in the world. It is around 1,000,000 years old. Mauna Kea means 'white mountain' because in winter it often has snow at the summit.

## Astronomy

Mauna Kea is an important site for astronomy. Many different countries or institutions have an observatory there, including the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan. The W. M. Keck Observatory with its 10-meter mirror is one of the most powerful in the world. Mauna Kea is an important site, especially for infrared astronomy, because of its height and clear skies.

High altitude is important because atmosphere causes an effect called seeing, which limits the quality of images by blurring them.  At high altitude, there is less atmosphere between the observatories and space and this lessens the effect.
Mauna Loa

**Mauna Loa** is an active volcano on Hawaii Island, in the state of Hawaii, United States. It is considered to be the largest subaerial (from the bottom of the Pacific Ocean) volcano in the world and the tallest volcano in Hawaii.

## Name

_Mauna Loa_ is Hawaiian for "long mountain."

## Size

The volcano is at least  in volume and over 4 kilometers above sea level.  Measured from its base on the ocean floor, it reaches above 8 kilometers, making it the tallest mountain on Earth, but not the highest. That distinction is reserved for Mount Everest.

Measured from sea level Mauna Loa is 4,169 meters high. It is also one of the largest volcanoes measuring 96 kilometers long and 48 kilometers wide.

The world's biggest volcano is named Mauna Loa in Hawaii. Mauna Loa is part of the five volcanoes on Hawaii Island. The most recent time this volcano erupted was in 2022. It erupted 33 times in the last 170 years. Like all the other Hawaiian volcanoes, Mauna Loa was created by the movement of the Pacific tectonic plate which moved over the Hawaii hotspot in the Earth's mantle. It is a shield volcano. The largest recent eruption from Mauna Loa left a lava trail 51 kilometers long.

## Infobox (mountain)

- **name**: Mauna Loa
- **elevation ft**: 13,679
- **prominence ft**: 7,079
- **photo**: Mauna Loa Volcano.jpg
- **map**: USA Hawaii
- **map caption**: Mauna Loa within the Hawaiian Islands
- **type**: Shield volcano
- **last eruption**: 2022
- **volcanic arc**: Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain
- **location**: Hawaii (island), Hawaii County, Hawaii, United States
- **language**: Hawaiian language, Hawaiian
Kilauea

**Kīlauea** is an active volcano in the Hawaiian Islands. It is a shield volcano. The volcano is 1,277 meters high. Kīlauea is a large lake of lava. The crater of Kīlauea is named Pu'u'O'o. The first eruption of Kīlauea is estimated as 300 to 600 thousand years ago. Its first recorded eruptions were in 1823. Its most recent eruption was April 7 2025. It is still erupting now. The Hawaiian name _Kīlauea_ means "spewing" or "much spreading". It refers to the constant flow of lava. Kīlauea lies on the curve of volcanoes on the island of Hawaii that includes Mauna Loa and Kohala. The volcano of Kīlauea is one of the youngest and also is said to be the home of an ancient volcano goddess Pele. The oldest dated rocks are said to be about 23,000 years old. It has its own magma plumbing under the Earth that goes down under the Earths crust by 60 km. Kīlauea has a basalt-based lava rock type hot-spot.

## May 2018 eruption

In May 2018, the volcano erupted causing damage in nearby homes and streets. It also destroyed a freshwater crater lake called Green Lake.
Luggage

People use **luggage** to carry their possessions when travelling. In the United States luggage is often called **baggage**.

## Types of luggage

- A **valise** is a small bag. It is usually for carrying clothes or accessories. Some other words for this size of luggage are _overnight bag_, _overnight case_, and _overnighter_
- A **suitcase** is a larger bag, most often for carrying clothes
- A **trunk**, also known as a **travelling chest** or **steamer trunk**, is a very large, rigid chest that was mostly used when moving across the ocean on a ship; they are much less common in the 21st century
Pan

**Pan** can mean:
- Pan (mythology), a god in Greek mythology
- Pan (moon), one of Saturn's moons
- Pan (genus), genus of apes
- A type of cookware, for example a frying pan
Pantograph

A **pantograph** is a machine. It is  used in drawing or planning. It makes it easy to copy diagrams.

The device that an electric train uses to get its electricity is also called a pantograph, because it looks a bit like the drawing instrument.
Paperback

A **paperback** is a type of book. It has a cover of thick paper or thin cardboard. Paperback book covers can bend and be folded. The covers are laminated (have layers), and some of the methods are more durable (lasting) than others. Another name for paperback is _soft cover_.

Paperback books may be glued or held by sewing. If the pages are held only by adhesive, the book will eventually come apart. The quality of the paper also varies. It is generally less white than bound hardback books because it is less bleached.

Usually, paperback books cost less money than hardback books. In the middle 20th century a "mass market" type of paperback became commonplace, having a standard size, fitting a standard display rack, and glued.
Palette

A **palette** is used for mixing colours.They are usually made out of plastic or wood but can be made out of other materials. An artist often uses one of these and is in fact an essential item in art, when painting.
Glow-worm

A **glow-worm** is an insect. Other names for it are "**fireworm**", "**lightning worm**" and "**lightworm**".

There are several insects given this name. Most are beetles, but one is a fly, _Arachnocampa_. They are nocturnal, active during the night. They have special organs that can produce light. This is used to find mates. The patterns in which the beetles flash is unique to each species.

The major families are
- Lampyridae (Fireflies). The adult female of this family has no wings. It is the glow worm of the literature.
- Phengodidae, insects found in North and South America. One species, the railroad worm features two colors.
- Arachnocampa,  insects found in Australia and New Zealand
Palette knife

A **palette knife** is not actually a knife. It has a very flexible steel blade and no sharpened cutting edge. It is a tool.

## Uses

A palette knife is used for mixing paint colors. It may be used for mixing and applying a whole range of semi-fluid mixtures.
Foolscap

**Foolscap** is paper cut to the size of , sometimes . This was a traditional paper size used in Europe and the British Commonwealth, before the adoption of the international standard A4 paper, the most common standard size in the world. Foolscap was so called because, in the 18th century, folio-sized paper had the watermark of a fool's cap on it. Basically, it is taller than A4.

In North America, foolscap is lined, legal-size paper. In some South American countries it is called "oficio", because it is or was used for official documents.

Paper of the size is now very rarely used, being superseded by A4 (297 x 210). However, some ring binders, lever arch files, suspended files, and other filing related things still use the size.
Polymer

A **polymer** is a molecule, made from joining many small molecules called monomers. The word "polymer" can be broken down into "poly" (meaning "many" in Greek) and "mer" (meaning "unit"). This shows how the chemical composition of a polymer consists of many smaller units (monomers) bonded together into a larger molecule. A chemical reaction bonding monomers together to make a polymer is called **polymerization**.

Some polymers are natural and made by organisms. Proteins have polypeptide molecules, which are natural polymers made from various amino acid monomer units. Nucleic acids are huge natural polymers made up of millions of nucleotide units. Cellulose and starch (two types of carbohydrate) are also natural polymers made up of glucopyranose monomer bonded together in different ways. Rubber is a mixture of polymers. Plastics are man-made polymers. Many fibers are made of polymers.

If the "units" called monomers in a polymer are all the same, then the polymer is called a "homopolymer". Homopolymers are named by adding the prefix **poly-** before the monomer name from which the polymer is made. For example, a polymer made by bonding styrene monomer molecules together is called polystyrene.

If the monomers are not all the same, the polymer is called a "copolymer" or a "heteropolymer".

Many polymer molecules are like _chains_ where the monomer units are the links. Polymer molecules can be straight-chain, have _branching_ from the main chain, or _cross-linking_ between chains. As an example of cross-linking, sulfhydryl (-S-H) groups in two cysteine amino acid units in polypeptide chains can bond together to make a disulfide bridge (-S-S-) joining the chains together.

In the same way how large hydrocarbon molecules in crude oil can be broken down in smaller molecules e.g. ethylene by applying heat (a process called cracking), the monomer ethylene can then be turned into the polymer polyethylene by applying pressure and adding catalysts. Polyethelene is the basis of many plastic objects.

## Related pages

- Macromolecule
- Synthetic fabric
Medium

**Medium** might mean:

- **Medium**, a size between small and large
- Medium (spirituality), a person who claims to communicate with the dead
- Interstellar medium, the matter between stars
- Optical gain medium
- Storage medium, a device for storing information
- Transmission medium, a solid, liquid, gas, or plasma that can transmit energy
- Growth medium, a solid or liquid material in which an organism can grow.

## Entertainment

- _Medium_ (TV series), a television series that starred Patricia Arquette
- _The Medium_, a 1946 opera by Gian Carlo Menotti

## Related pages

- Media, the way information is sent or received
Phrase

A **phrase** is a group of words that adds meaning to a sentence. A phrase is not a sentence because it is not a complete idea with a subject, verb and a predicate.

English has five different kinds of phrases, one for each of the main parts of speech. In a phrase, the main word or the word that is that is the subject of the phrase is called the **head**. In the following examples, it is printed in **bold**. The other words in the phrase do the work of changing, or modifying the head.

In a **noun phrase**, one or more words work together to give more information about a noun.

- all my dear **children**
- the information **age**
- seventeen hungry **lions** in the rocks

In an **adjective phrase**, one or more words work together to give more information about an adjective.

- so very **sweet**
- **earnest** in her desire
- very **happy** with his work

In a **verb phrase**, one or more words work together to give more meaning to a verb. In English, the verb phrase is very complex, but a good description of its many forms can be found here.

In an **adverb phrase**, one or more words work together to give more information about an adverb.

- especially **softly**
- **formerly** of the city of Perth
- much too **quickly** to see clearly

In a **prepositional phrase**, one or more words work together to give information about time, location, or possession, or condition. The preposition always appears at the front of the phrase (preposition = pre-position).

- **after** a very long walk
- **behind** the old building
- **for** all the hungry children
- **in case** it should happen again
Preposition

**Prepositions** often describe the position of something, the time when something happens or the way in which something is done. The prepositions "of", "to" and "for" have other functions.

Prepositions may sometimes be used to end sentences. For example, "What did you put that there for?" (better English is the alternative: "Why did you put that there?") Example 2: "A pen is a device to write with" (better English is "A pen is a writing device"). In general, because they are links, prepositions belong in the middle of sentences, rather than at the end.

The table below shows some examples of how prepositions are used in sentences.

|Function|Sentence||
| --- | --- | --- |
|Position||The cat is **under** the table. He is sitting **on** the chair. The pencil is **in** the box.|
|Time||The class starts **at** 8 am. I am going to Spain **on** Wednesday.|
|How something is done||We travelled **by** car.|
|Possession||The book belongs **to** Colin. The door **of** the house is red.|

## List of common prepositions

- About
- Above
- Across
- After
- Along
- Amid
- Among
- Around
- As
- At
- Before
- Behind
- Below
- Beneath
- Between
- Because of
- Down
- During
- Except
- For
- From
- In
- Into
- Inside
- Instead of
- Near
- Next to
- Of
- Off
- On
- onto
- Outside
- Out of: unusual in needing two words, e.g. "The bat flew _out of_ the cave".
- Over
- Past
- Round
- Since
- Than
- Through
- Till
- To
- Towards
- Under
- Underneath
- Until
- Unto
- Upon
- Without
- With
Adverb

An **adverb** is a word used to tell more about a verb, and it almost always answers the questions _how?_, _when?_, _where?_, _how often?_, and _in what way?_. Words like _slowly_, _loudly_, _carefully_, _quickly_, _quietly_ or _sadly_ are all adverbs. Adverbs usually, but not always, end in _-ly_.

Examples of adverbs in a sentence (with the adverb in italics):
- How did the man walk? The man walked _slowly_.
- How did the dogs bark? The dogs barked _loudly_.

An adverb can also modify (describe) an adjective or another adverb

Examples:
- Adverb modifying a verb He writes well
- Adverb modifying another adverb: He writes very well
- Adverb modifying an adjective: He is very well

In the first two examples the word 'well' is an adverb. In the last example, it is an adjective. This is one example in which the same word can be both an adjective and an adverb but not in the same sentence.

As a rule, the same word can play different roles but not in the same sentence. It all depends on what the word is doing in the sentence. It could be a noun, an adjective, an adverb, a verb, etc. Example: take the word 'cool'. In the sentence, "he walks cool", the word 'cool' is an adverb. In the sentence, "cool the hot dish", the word 'cool' is a verb. In the sentence, "it is a cool evening", the word 'cool' is an adjective. In the first example, "he walks cool", the word 'cool' really means 'coolly' as in "play it cool" (do not get excited; be calm).

## Adverb form

Most adverbs are formed by adding **ly** to the end of an adjective. To see 100 adjectives used in Basic English, click here ---> : adjective
Sunday

**Sunday** is one of the seven days of the week. It is part of the weekend, along with Saturday. Sunday is the Sabbath or day of worship for most Christians (for example, Easter is celebrated on Sunday). Sunday is the beginning of the week in the United States, but is the end of the week in the United Kingdom.
News agency

A **news agency** is a kind of company. It supplies information to newspapers, radio and television.

## Examples

In the United Kingdom and some other countries a **news agency** or newsagent is a shop which sells newspapers, magazines and cigarettes.

Although there are many news agencies around the world, three global news agencies, Agence France-Presse (AFP), Associated Press (AP), and Reuters have offices in most countries of the world, cover all areas of information, and provide the majority of international news printed by the world's newspapers.

## Other websites

- Brainpix  - Portugal/Brasil
- Agentia
- 1EnGoogle
Mudguard

A **mudguard**, **fender** or **wing** is a part covering the wheels of a vehicle to stop it from throwing off mud, water or objects from the road. It protects people and property from dirtiness, dampness, and damage.

Mudguards protect in several ways:
1. They protect brakes and lights.
1. They protect the bicycle from getting rusted by mud and water.
1. They protect clothes from being dirty.
1. They protect from injuries.
Para rubber tree

A **Para rubber tree** (or simply, **rubber tree**) is the tree which naturally produces rubber. It is native to tropical areas from South America, in the Amazon (Brazil), but was spread by European farmers to the Far East.

Para Rubber trees belong to the Euphorbiaceae family. In the wild they may reach heights of 100 to 125 ft (30-38 m) with large cylindrical trunks with or without buttresses. Crop trees reach a width of about 20 in. (50 cm), usually with a short bole, and with a sloped taper.

Most rubber plantation<nowiki/>s are in South Asia and Southeast Asia. When trees reach 5-6 years old, they are harvested. Their trunks are cut just deep enough to tap the vessels without harming the tree's growth, and the sap is collected in small buckets. This process is known as rubber tapping. Older trees produce more latex, but they stop producing it after 30-40 years.  It was first collected in para district of brazil. Sri henry Wickham brought the seeds of para rubber from Brazil to India and Sri Lanka through the kew botanical garden in 1876. At first, the plantation was done in Malayasia and Sri Lanka and later in Java, Sumatra, India and parts of Indonesia.
Safety curtain

A **safety curtain** is a curtain in theatre at the front of the stage. It is made of material that will not burn.  The safety curtain may be lowered during the intermission and after the performance.  A safety curtain is there in case there is a fire on stage.  It will stop the fire from spreading to the auditorium where the audience sits.
Safety lamp

A **safety lamp** is a miner's lamp with a covered flame that used to be used in coal mines.

## Types of safety lamps

The first safety lamp was invented by William Reid Clanny. It used bellows and water to separate gasses. Later, two newer designs were invented. One newer design was the Geordie lamp, made by George Stephenson, and the other was the Davy lamp, made by Sir Humphry Davy. In 1815, Davy discovered that if a flame was in a lamp, it would not ignite the flammable gases in mines.

## How it works

Coal mines are dangerous because of flammable gasses like methane that can accumulate (gather together). A lamp with a naked (exposed) flame might make these flammable gasses catch fire, causing an explosion, which could kill people. The safety lamp prevents the hot flame of the lamp touching the flammable gasses, reducing the chance of an explosion.
Christmas stocking

A **Christmas stocking** is a long sock hung by a fireplace or bed on Christmas Eve. Christmas presents are put into it for children. It came from an old legend. Stockings are now  a European Christmas tradition.
Hacksaw

A **hacksaw** is a tool for sawing. A hacksaw is designed for cutting materials like very thin metals and plastic. It has a handle on one end, and can be either pushed or pulled across the object being cut. There are manual and electric hacksaws.
Spade

In gardening, a **spade** is a tool for digging. It is similar to a shovel. It has a straight handle, usually of wood and a blade, usually of steel.

For some purposes the difference between a spade and a shovel is important. For example, spade more easily digs in hard soil; a shovel more easily moves gravel.

In card game<nowiki/>s a **spade** is one of the four shapes or "suits" of cards.
Hoe (tool)

A **hoe** is a tool in farming and gardening. It has a blade, usually metal, attached to a long handle, usually wood. There are many types of blade and several uses, probably the most common of which is weeding. Other uses include shaping the soil and harvesting root crops such as potatoes. Along with the spade and fork, the hoe is considered a basic, essential hand farming implement.
Shovel

A **shovel** is a tool used for moving loose material.  Shovels have a flat bottom head which is angled slightly from the handle to enable scooping and moving of material.

Although a shovel can be used for digging, it is much less efficient than a spade. Spades are straight, and transmit force straight downwards. Shovels move loose material, such as coal, snow, gravel etc. They are usually made of metal at the bottom, and wood is sometimes used for the handle.
Plunger

A **plunger** is a tool. It is used to get rid of things that are blocking pipes. The plunger is placed over one end of the pipe, and the handle is pushed up and down. Doing this creates a sucking force, which makes the thing blocking the pipe move and unclog.
Ladder

A **ladder** is a tool which is made for people to climb up or down. Ladders have two vertical supports that go along the whole length of the ladder. Between these supports are the horizontal rungs. The rung is what the climber can put his foot on. The climber can use his hands to hold on to the rungs above him, or to the supports at the side.

Some ladders are made in one piece. They can be carried around and made to lean against something such as the wall of a house. There should be a good distance between the bottom of the ladder and the wall so that the ladder is not too vertical, otherwise the ladder might fall backwards and the climber would fall off. Sometimes these ladders are extension ladders. Extension ladders are made in two or more sections so that the ladder can fold up to make it easier to carry about and to store. To open up the ladder, each section slides up almost to the top of the next section.

**Step ladders** are useful in the home or the garden to reach things that are not too high, e.g. ceilings or the tops of hedges. They have two parts which are joined by a hinge, so that they are shaped like an upside down V. There is usually a platform at the top to stand on, but this can be dangerous unless great care is taken that the ladder will not wobble or fall down.

Some ladders are vertical (they go straight up or down). These are fixed onto something. Examples are: ladders in a swimming pool for climbing in and out of the water, small ladders to climb up to a top bunk bed, ladders at the side of a big boat or at the side of a canal lock or of any other high or low construction where workmen may need to get up or down to do repairs.

Fire engines always have ladders. They often have a **turntable ladder** which makes it possible for the ladder to be facing in any direction.

**Rope ladders** can be folded away easily. They may be used for climbing trees or for rock climbing or in caves.
Oral history

**Oral history** is history that is told rather than written down. It is given through talking rather than reading a book. It is usually passed from generation to generation in order to explain events that have occurred.

Though today oral history is not as popular as written history, it is still used in many places as a way of transferring knowledge about the past.
Generation

A **generation** means any group that is sorted by the time they were born.

In a family, a generation means all the people on one level of a family tree.  For example, your brothers, sisters and cousins are in the same generation as you.

In populations of people, a “generation” means groups of people born in different periods of time. Each generation lasts for the average amount of time between the birth of parents, and the birth of their children.

Examples of generations:
- Generation Beta: 2025 to 2039
- Generation Alpha: 2013 to 2028
- Generation Z: 1997 to 2012
- Millennials: 1981 to 1996
- Generation X: 1965 to 1980
- Baby boomer: 1946 to 1964
- Silent Generation: 1928 to 1945
- Greatest Generation: 1901 to 1927
- Lost Generation: 1883 to 1900

## Generational theory

The sociologist Karl Mannheim (d. 1947) wrote about a theory of generations in his 1923 essay _The Problem of Generations_.

- One of the ideas, is  the "romantic-historical". In periods of rapid social change a generation would be much more likely to develop a cohesive character. Mannheim identified three (things in common, or) commonalities that a generation shares:
Homophone

**Homophones** are words that sound the same as another word but have a different meaning, and often a different spelling.

Examples include:
- one, won
- pail, pale
- fore, four, for
- it's, its
- there, their, they're
- Knight, night
- which, witch
- pore, pour
- pear, pair, pare
- see, sea, C
- high, hi
- wear, where
- hare, hair
- air, heir, err
- whether, weather
- too, to, two
- ate, eight
- no, know
- by, buy, bye
- flour, flower
- right, write
- be, bee
- week, weak
- rains, reins
- higher, hire
- fare, fair
- prince, prints
- pause, paws
- clause, Claus, claws

## Related pages

- Homonym
- Homograph
- Polysemy
- Synonym -a different word for the same or very similar meaning
Condensation

**Condensation** is how gas changes into a liquid when it touches a cooler surface. Condensation is part of the water cycle. It is the opposite of evaporation.

## Process

Condensation of water is when water changes from gas to a liquid or crystal shape.  Any gas can condense, either because the temperature is dropping or the pressure is increasing.  In either case the pressure of the condensing gas is higher than the vapor pressure of the gas/evaporation, at that temperature.

During condensation, the molecules in the matter slow down. Heat energy is taken away, causing the state of matter to change. Condensation is exothermic.  This means that condensation makes the temperature go **up**.  Evaporation is the opposite and causes a temperature **loss**.

It is a useful process. One use is in distillation. The gas made from a boiling liquid mix is sent to a condenser, where the different parts condense differently. This can purify a liquid, such as alcohol or water. The condensing liquid makes heat, which must be removed for the condensation to continue.

## Related pages

- Desalination

## Other websites

- International Consortium of Advanced Technologies and Security at SDSU
- ScienceDirect - Heat transfer and evaporation in geothermal desalination units00071-9)
- Condensation (phase transition) -Citizendium
Precipitation

**Precipitation** is the falling of water from the atmosphere. It is a term in meteorology, and includes rain, snow, sleet, ice pellets, dew, frost, and hail. These form by condensation from atmospheric water vapor, and fall under gravity.

Fog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions. In that case, the water vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate.

If liquid, precipitation can be measured using a rain gauge. The most common form of solid precipitation is snow. Snow is made when temperatures are so cold that water vapor changes directly to solid crystals. Frozen rain is hail or ice pellets.

## Related pages

- Water cycle
Relative humidity

**Relative humidity** is a way of describing how much humidity is present in the air, compared to how much there could be. Meteorologists often use the relative humidity as a measurement to describe the weather at various places.

When the temperature is warm, more water vapor can be in the air than when it is cold. If the actual amount of vapor is compared to the total amount there could be as a fraction, then the number tells if the air feels dry or moist. The value is usually written in percent, where 0% means that the air is totally dry, and 100% means that it is so moist that mist or dew is about to form.

When the temperature is lowered to the dew point, relative humidity becomes 100% and the water vapor  condenses, making precipitation as dew, rain or snow (etc.).
Dichlorphenolindophenol

**DCPIP** (its full name is _2,6-dichlorophenolindophenol_) is a blue chemical used as a dye because when it is oxidized it is blue.  Once DCPIP is reduced (by addition of electrons) it does not have a color anymore. This reaction can be reversed, and the colourless DCPIP will turn blue again, when it is oxidized.

## Purpose

DCPIP is often used to measure the electron transport chain in plants. It has a higher redox potential (electron affinity) than the Fe-S complex in cytochrome b and will therefore "steal" electrons from it. This means that cytochrome c does not  receive them. The process cuts off the electron supply of  photosystem I. A common way to illustrate this change is by the addition of vitamin C solution. This reduces the 'jelly' by transforming it to a colourless mass. This experiment can be carried out to illustrate the effect of changing cell sizes on SA/V (surface area:volume ratio). This is known as Titration.

## References

- Mathews, Ahern, Van Holde, _Biochemistry_, Addison Wesley Longman Inc., 2000 pp534–5