juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Great Famine (Ireland)

The **Great Famine,** **Great Hunger,** or **Potato Famine** is the name given to the famine in Ireland in the years 1845-1852. Outside Ireland, it is usually called the **Irish Potato Famine**.

The famine was caused by "the potato blight", a  fungus-like organism which quickly destroyed the potatoes in Ireland, and throughout Europe. The effect was particularly bad in Ireland because potatoes were the staple food for most Irish people at the time.

In Ireland this time is referred to as "the starvation".

## Background

By the late 17th century in Ireland, potatoes had become common as a supplementary rather than a major food. The diet was mainly around butter, milk, and grain products. Potato became a base food of the poor, especially in winter.

Starting in 1801, Ireland had been directly governed, under the Act of Union, as part of the United Kingdom. In the 40 years after the union, British governments grappled with the problems of governing the country. One historian calculated that, between 1801 and 1845, there had been 114 commissions and 61 special committees enquiring into the state of Ireland.

According to author Cecil Woodham-Smith:> "Without exception [the committees'] findings prophesied disaster. Ireland was on the verge of starvation, her population rapidly increasing, three-quarters of her labourers unemployed, housing conditions appalling and the standard of living unbelievably low".

## Causes

There were many causes of the Great Famine.

The lack of genetic variability among the potato plants in Ireland caused _Phytophthora infestans_ to emerge. This had devastating effects.

The potato was the only crop affected, and Ireland continued to produce corn, wheat, barley, and beef.  However, the mostly English landlords sold these food products outside of Ireland. Meanwhile, there was not enough food for the people in Ireland.

Another factor is that holdings were so small that no crop other than potatoes would be able to feed a family.

The famine was also caused by monoculture, because they only planted one main crop and let its disease infest all other potatoes in the Irish territory.

## Casualties

It is believed that between 1 million to 1.5 million people died in the three years from 1846 to 1849 because of hunger or disease. Another million became refugees.

Many people who left Ireland moved to Great Britain, (mostly to the nearby town of Liverpool), the United States, Canada and Australia.

## Legacy

Its legacy includes a monument in Dublin: the Famine Memorial in St Stephen's Green (by the River Liffey).

## Other websites

- Irish Potato Famine at The History Place
Wannanosaurus

***Wannanosaurus*** is the smallest known ornithischian dinosaur. Its length is estimated at just less than a metre. It lived in the Upper Cretaceous, about 80 million years ago, and was found in Anhui, China.

It is known from a single partial skeleton, including a partial skull roof and lower jaw, an upper leg and lower leg, part of a rib, and other fragments. It was herbivorous, but may also have eaten insects. _Wannosaurus_ means Wanno lizard. It is one of several pachycephalosaurs with flat-topped skulls.
Chihuahua (dog breed)

A **chihuahua** is a very small kind of dog and is bred to be a pet.

## Appearance

They can reach a height of 6-9 inches (12.7–20.3 cm) and a weight of 2–6 pounds (0.9–2.7 kg). Chihuahuas can have a long or short coat, and come in many different colors. They only need grooming once a week if they have a short coat or it may be twice if they have a long coat.

## Origins

The Chihuahua's start goes back to Mexico as the descendants of the Techichi, a short haired and silent dog. The Techichi was liked by the Toltec people, one of the indigenous (original) people of Mexico. Chihuahuas are believed to have been made by breeding the Techichi and Chinese Crested Dogs (a type of small hairless dog) to form today's Chihuahuas.

Another possible start for Chihuahuas was the breeding of Techichis with Phalène terriers, which were well liked at the time and were known for their small body and black and tan colors. Mating with another type of dog increased the loudness of the Techichi's bark while making it smaller.

Chihuahuas were named after the Chihuahua state in Mexico.  The word Chihuahua comes from the Na'huatl word for "between two waters" and the name is older than the Spanish Conquest of Mexico.

## Infobox (dogbreed)

- **image**: Chihuahua1 bvdb.jpg
- **country**: Mexico
- **name**: Chihuahua
- **coat**: Short-haired (smooth coat) and long-coat
- **color**: Any color
- **litter size**: usually 2–5
- **life span**: 12–20
- **fcistd**: http://www.fci.be/Nomenclature/Standards/218g09-en.pdf
Minmi

***Minmi*** is a genus of small ankylosaurian dinosaur that lived during the Lower Cretaceous of Australia, about 119 to 113 million years ago.

A recent cladistic analysis suggests that _Minmi_ is the most basal known ankylosaur.
That does not mean it was the ancestor of the group; it is far too late for that. It means its body is not specialized, and is relatively unchanged from whatever was the ancestral group.

Two good specimens of _Minmi_ have been described, including a mostly complete skeleton, and additional fragments may belong to this genus. The dinosaur grew to about 2 m (6.5 ft) long (Holtz), or 3 m long and weighed about 300 kilograms (Paul). It was roughly 1 m (3 ft) tall to the top of the shoulder.

## Paleobiology

_Minmi_ is classified in the Ankylosauria, but is too 'primitive' (basal) to be included in either the Ankylosauridae or Nodosauridae.

As with other ankylosaurians, _Minmi_ was herbivorous  Unlike most herbivorous dinosaurs, there is direct evidence of the diet of _Minmi_: gut contents are known from the well-preserved nearly complete specimen. The gut contents consist of fragments of fibrous or vascular plant tissue, fruiting bodies, spherical seeds, and tissue (possibly from fern sporangia).  The most common remains are the fibrous or vascular fragments, which have clean cut ends.

Because of the small size of the fragments, they are probably nibbled from plants or chopped in the mouth. These small fragments may have come from twigs or stems, but their size is more suggestive of vascular bundles in leaves. The clean cuts, and lack of gastroliths, suggest that the animal relied on chewing to grind food. The seeds (0.3 mm [0.01 in] across) and fruiting bodies (4.5 mm [0.18 in] across) were apparently swallowed whole. When compared to gut contents and scat from modern herbivorous lizard, emu and goose, this shows _Minmi_ had a more sophisticated process for cutting up plant material.

It had bony protrusions on its head, back, abdomen, legs and along the tail. Several types of armour are known in place in _Minmi_, including small ossicles, small keeled scutes on the body, large scutes without keels on the snout, large keeled scutes on the neck, shoulders, and possibly tail, spike-like scutes on the hips, and a combination of ridged and keeled scutes and triangular plates on the tail. There was one preserved ring of scutes around the neck. The arrangement of armour is unclear on the tail, although the triangular plates may have run on the sides of the tail, with long scutes forming a row along the top of the tail.  However, unlike other ankylosaurians, _Minmi_ had horizontal plates of bones that ran along the sides of its vertebrae (hence its species name, _M. paravertebra_).
Rugops

***Rugops*** was a dinosaur related to _Carnotaurus_. It lived in what is now Africa, about 95 million years ago. It was a medium-sized carnivorous dinosaur, about 20 feet long as an adult (other estimates put its length at 14 to 17 feet).

_Rugops_ lived at the same time as _Spinosaurus_, _Carcharodontosaurus_, and _Deltadromeus_, in the Upper Cretaceous.

_Rugops_ was a carnivore, with weak jaws and small teeth.  It may have been a scavenger, feeding on dead animals.  It also may have preyed on sauropods, such as _Paralititan_ and _Aegyptosaurus_, and ornithopods, such as _Ouranosaurus_.  The name "Rugops" means "wrinkled face".  The bony wrinkles on its snout may have helped to support a structure, such as horny crest or a wattle, like on a rooster or a turkey.
Abrictosaurus

***Abrictosaurus*** was a heterodontosaurid dinosaur from the Lower Jurassic of what is now southern Africa. It was a small bipedal herbivore or omnivore, about 1.2 meters (4 feet) long, and weighing less than 45 kilograms (100 pounds).

_Abrictosaurus_ is usually thought to be the most basal member of the family Heterodontosauridae. _Lycorhinus_ and _Heterodontosaurus_ both had high-crowned cheek teeth, which went over each other in the jaw, making a continuous chewing surface analogous to those of Cretaceous hadrosaurids. _Abrictosaurus_ had more widely-split cheek teeth, with lower crowns, more similar to other early ornithischians.

The family as a whole has canine-like tusks. Tusks were clearly present on one of the two specimens of _Abrictosaurus_. The upper caniniform measured 10.5 millimeters (0.4 inches) high, while the lower reached 17 mm (0.67 in).

_Abrictosaurus_ had smaller, less powerful forelimbs than _Heterodontosaurus_ and one fewer phalanx bone (finger joint) in both the fourth and fifth digits of the forelimb.
Heterodontosaurus

***Heterodontosaurus*** (meaning "different toothed lizard") is a genus of small herbivorous dinosaur with prominent canine teeth.

It lived in the Lower Jurassic of South Africa, 200–190 million years ago. It was related to _Abrictosaurus_. It had three different kinds of teeth.
Camarasaurus

***Camarasaurus*** (meaning "chambered lizard") was a large plant-eating sauropod. It was about 18 meters long and weighed about 18 metric tones. Its name comes from its skull, which is in the shape of an arch. It lived during the late Jurassic, between 155 and 145 million years ago. These dinosaurs may have lived in herds.

It was first discovered in 1877 in Colorado by Oramel W. Lucas. Its fossil remains have been found in the Morrison Formation of Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming.

There are four species of Camarasaurus:
- _C. grandis_ ("grand chambered lizard")
- _C. lentus_
- _C. lewisi_
- _C. supremus_ ("biggest chambered lizard")

It was shown in the movie _When Dinosaurs Roamed America_.

## Skull

_Camarasaurus_ is among the most common and frequently well-preserved sauropod dinosaurs. The maximum size of the most common species, _C. lentus_, was about 15 meters (50 ft) in length. The largest species, _C. supremus_, reached a maximum length of 23 meters (75 ft) and maximum estimated weight of 47 tonnes (51.8 tons).

The arched skull of _Camarasaurus_ was remarkably square and the blunt snout had many fenestrae (openings). It was sturdy and is often found in good condition by paleontologists. The 19 centimeter long (7.5 in) teeth were shaped like chisels (spatulate) and arranged evenly along the jaw. The strength of the teeth indicates that _Camarasaurus_ probably ate coarser plant material than the slender-toothed diplodocids.

## Palaeobiology

There is a fossil record of two adults and a 12.2 meter (40 ft) long juvenile that died together in the late Jurassic leriod, about 150 million years ago (northeast Wyoming). It is assumed that their bodies were washed to their final resting place, in river mud. This suggests that _Camarasaurus_ traveled in herds or, at least, 'family' groups. Also, recovered camarasaur eggs have been found in lines, rather than in neatly arranged nests as with some other dinosaurs, which appears to suggest that, like most sauropods, _Camarasaurus_ did not tend its young.

## Other websites

- Page from DinoData.org
Zizhongosaurus

***Zizhongosaurus*** was a very large plant-eating dinosaur. It was a large sauropod, related to _Camarasaurus_.

## Other websites

- _Zizhongosaurus_ at the Dinosaur Encyclopedia
Burping

**Burping** is when gas comes out of the stomach through the mouth. Burping happens when air is trapped in the stomach. "Esophageal speech" means to "burp" words. Burps are also called **belches** or an **eructation**.
Great Fire of London

The **Great Fire of London** happened in Central London in 1666. It lasted for just under five days, from 2nd September until 6th September.

Estimates say that the fire destroyed the homes of 70,000 of the city's 80,000 residents. It is not known how many people died in the fire. Only a few deaths are certain, but for many of the victims there were no records. The fire may have cremated many people, leaving no recognisable remains.

The fire threatened the aristocratic district of Westminster (the modern West End), Charles II's Palace of Whitehall, and most of the suburban slums, but it never reached these districts.

## Events

The fire started from a few oven sparks at the bakery of Thomas Farriner (or Farynor) on Pudding Lane. It began just after midnight on Sunday 2nd September and grew very quickly.

Firefighters of the time usually made firebreaks by destroying buildings around the fire so it could not spread. This did not happen quickly enough because Lord Mayor, Sir Thomas Bloodworth was not certain what to do. By the time he ordered such measures, it was too late. The Tower of London guard used gunpowder to make good firebreaks that stopped the fire from spreading to the east.

The fire pushed north on Monday into the center of the city. Some people thought fires were being set by French and Dutch people (who at the time were England's enemies in the Anglo-Dutch Wars).

On Thursday, the fire spread over most of the city. It destroyed St. Paul's Cathedral and crossed over the River Fleet. It almost reached Charles II's court at Whitehall.

## Effects

The Great Fire caused major social and economic problems. Charles II strongly encouraged people to leave London to go and live elsewhere. He feared a London rebellion amongst the refugees who had lost their property.

Despite numerous radical proposals, London was reconstructed on essentially the same street plan used before the fire.

Some historians think the fire may have helped to stop the Great Plague of London. Others say this is a myth.

Historians know a lot about the Great Fire because Samuel Pepys kept a diary and survived the fire. When it started, he looked out of his window, saw the fire, and started writing about it.

## Damages

Estimates say the Great Fire destroyed 436 acres, 13,200 houses, 87 parish churches, 44 Company Halls, the Royal Exchange, the Custom House, St Paul's Cathedral, the Bridewell Palace and other City prisons, the General Letter Office, and the three western city gates—Ludgate, Newgate, and Aldersgate.

## Other websites

- BBC history site
- Channel 4 animation of the spread of the fire

## Infobox (event)

- **title**: Great Fire of London
- **image**: Great Fire London.jpg
- **image alt**: With the dark sky, some buildings are burning.
- **caption**: The Great Fire of London, September 1666. Painted by an unknown artist
- **location**: London, United Kingdom
- **cause**: Bakery fire
- **casualties1**: 13,500 houses damaged
- **casualties2**: 87 parish churches damaged
- **reported deaths**: 6
Golgi complex

The **Golgi complex**, also known as the **Golgi apparatus** or simply the **Golgi**, is a cytoplasmic organelle. It is found in eukaryote cells, as in animals, plants, and fungi.

The complex was discovered by Camillo Golgi in 1898. Golgi, who worked at Pavia, Italy, was ignored. His discovery was said to be dirt on his lenses. Years later, electron microscope pictures showed structures just like in the original Golgi drawings. It is made of several flattened sac-like membranes which look like a stack of pancakes.

The main function of the Golgi apparatus is to process and package macromolecules, such as proteins and lipids. They come to the Golgi after being built, and before they go to their destination. Much of the enzymatic processing is post-translational modification of proteins. The Golgi complex inspects them for flaws and discards extra material added during their manufacture, wraps them up and then targets them for packaging. The Golgi complex is especially active in processing proteins for secretion. The Golgi releases special enzymes which clean off any extra amino acids. When the package is ready, it is pinched off the Golgi and released into the cytoplasm.

The Golgi complex is part of the cellular membrane system, and so is the endoplasmic reticulum.
Bandung Institute of Technology

**Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB, Bandung Institute of Technology)** is a public government-funded, higher education, technology school located in Bandung, West Java, Indonesia. Institut Teknologi Bandung are the one of most popular universities in Indonesia, together with Gadjah Mada University and the University of Indonesia. The symbol of Institut Teknologi Bandung is Ganesha, a Hindu god representing wisdom.

## Other websites

- Homepage of Institut Teknologi Bandung

## Infobox (university)

- **name**: Bandung Institute of Technology
- **native name**: _Institut Teknologi Bandung_
- **motto**: _In Harmonia Progressio_
- **mottoeng**: Progress in Harmony
- **established**: 3 July 1920 (as _Technische Hoogeschool te Bandoeng_)
2 March 1959 (as _Institut Teknologi Bandung_)
- **type**: Public university
- **rector**: Prof. Reini Wirahadikusumah, Ph.D.
- **academic staff**: 1,207 (as of 2014):
<small>Undergraduate: 19 (1.57%)</small>
<small>Graduate: 300 (24.85%)</small>
<small>Doctorate: 888 (73.57%)</small>
- **students**: 19,747 (as of 2014)
<small>Undergrad : 14,320 (as of 2014)</small>
<small>Postgrad : 4,776 (as of 2014)</small>
<small>Doctoral : 651 (as of 2014)</small>
- **mascot**: Ganesha
- **city**: Jl. Ganesha 10, Bandung
- **country**: Indonesia
- **campus**: Urban
795,646 m<sup>2</sup>
- **colors**: Deep Cobalt Blue
- **affiliations**: Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology, ABET, Association of Southeast Asian Institutions of Higher Learning, ASAIHL, ASEAN University Network, AUN, EBA Consortium, ASEA UNINET, Global E3, AOTULE, SEATUC
- **website**: [http://www.itb.ac.id www.itb.ac.id]
- **former name**: _Technische Hoogeschool te Bandoeng_ (Dutch language, Dutch)
Alan Freeman

**Alan Leslie "Fluff" Freeman** (born 6 July 1927 in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, died 27 November 2006 in London, England) was an Australian radio presenter who worked for most of his career in the United Kingdom.

In May 2000 he was presented with a Lifetime Achievement award at the Sony Radio Academy Awards.
Freeman was best known for presenting _Pick of the Pops_ on BBC Radio 1 throughout the 1960s and 1970s.

Freeman was openly bisexual.
Brian Krause

**Brian Krause** (born February 1, 1969) is an American actor. He grew up in El Toro, California. He is best known for his role as Leo Wyatt on the WB Network television series _Charmed_ from 1998 to 2006.

Krause made his first movie as Richard Lestrange in the movie sequel _Return to the Blue Lagoon_ (1991). A year later, he also starred opposite Alice Krige, playing Charles Brady in the horror movie _Sleepwalkers_.

Brian and his wife Beth Bruce had their first child, Jamen, in 1996. They divorced in 2000. He dated co-star Alyssa Milano. During his time off the set, he enjoys being a handyman which was his job before acting (and was his character's job when he played Leo Wyatt on _Charmed_). He also enjoys golf and auto racing.
Julian McMahon

**Julian McMahon** (27 July 1968 – 2 July 2025) was an Australian actor and model. His father, Sir William McMahon was Prime Minister of Australia from 1971 to 1972. McMahon is best known for playing Cole Turner on the television series _Charmed_, Doctor Doom in the 2005-2007 _Fantastic Four_ movie series and Christian Troy on the series _Nip/Tuck_. He was born in Sydney, Australia.

McMahon died from lung metastatic head and neck cancer on 2 July 2025, at the age of 56, in Clearwater, Florida.

## Infobox (person)

- **name**: Julian McMahon
- **image**: Julian McMahon Dec 2011 (cropped).jpg
- **caption**: McMahon in 2011
- **birth name**: Julian Dana William McMahon
- **birth place**: Sydney, Australia
- **death place**: Clearwater, Florida, U.S.
- **death cause**: lung cancer, Lung metastatic head and neck cancer
- **occupation**: Actor
- **years active**: 1989–2025
- **children**: 1
- **relatives**: _Political families of Australia#McMahon/Walder family, See McMahon family_
- **mother**: Sonia McMahon, Sonia, Lady McMahon
- **father**: William McMahon, Sir William McMahon
Ted King

**Theodore William King** (born October 1, 1965) is an American actor. He was born in Hollywood, California. Ted King is also credited as **T.W. King**.

King is first known to soap opera fans as Danny Roberts on _Loving_ in 1999 and _The City_ until the series was went off the air in March 1997. He had the starring role in the series "Timecop" on ABC in the fall of 1997. He was on the series _Charmed_ as Inspector Andy Trudeau from 1998 to 1999. In 2002, King returned to soaps operas as Luis Alcazar on _General Hospital_ for a few months until his character was killed on the series. In 2003, he returned to _General Hospital_ as Luis' twin brother, Lorenzo Alcazar.
Coffs Harbour

**Coffs Harbour** () is a city on the north coast of New South Wales, Australia.  It is 540 km north of Sydney and 440 km south of Brisbane. Coffs Harbour is famous for its bananas  and is also an important diving spot. It also has a campus of the Southern Cross University. It is the home of the Big Banana, a tourist attraction and amusement park. There are passenger trains to and from Sydney and Brisbane.

## Infobox (australian place)

- **type**: city
- **name**: Coffs Harbour
- **state**: nsw
- **native name**: _Garlambirla_
- **image**: Coffs harbour.jpg
- **caption**: Coffs Harbour jetty and harbour, including Muttonbird Island, looking north.
- **relief**: 1
- **pushpin label position**: left
- **pop**: 70000
- **pop year**: 2017
- **poprank**: 25th
- **established**: 1870s
1987 (city)
- **postcode**: 2450
- **elevation**: 21
- **dist1**: 540
- **location1**: Sydney
- **dist2**: 390
- **location2**: Brisbane
- **dist3**: 391
- **location3**: Newcastle, Australia, Newcastle
- **dist4**: 313
- **location4**: Surfers Paradise
- **lga**: City of Coffs Harbour
- **county**: Fitzroy County, New South Wales, Fitzroy
- **stategov**: Electoral district of Coffs Harbour, Coffs Harbour
- **fedgov**: Division of Cowper, Cowper
- **maxtemp**: 23.4
- **mintemp**: 14.0
- **rainfall**: 1699.0
- **local map**: yes
- **zoom**: 10
Yggdrasil

**Yggdrasil** (Old Norse: _Yggdrasill_), also known as **King Drasil** (Old Norse: _Konungr Drasill_), is the name of the immense cosmic tree that serves as the connection between the Nine Worlds in Norse mythology. Referred to as the **World Tree**, Yggdrasil was said to lie at the very center of the universe, supported by three roots which extend far away into varying locations. Various creatures dwell within Yggdrasil. Upon the onset of Ragnarök, Yggdrasil will shudder and groan, ultimately crumbling as the universe meets its end.

## Yggdrasil and Its Structure

Yggdrasil's roots extend into three locations: **Urðarbrunnr** (Old Norse: “Well of Urðr”), **Hvergelmir** (Old Norse: “bubbling" or "boiling spring"), and **Mímisbrunnr** (Old Norse: “Well of Mímir"). As seen in the Poetic Edda poem, Grímnismál (Old Norse: "Sayings of Grímnir"), various creatures dwell within the World Tree, including:

**Níðhöggr** (Old Norse: _Níðhǫggr_ - “Malice striker”), a massive dragon/serpent-like being that gnaws at its root(s), an unnamed eagle, and the hawk **Veðrfölnir** (Old Norse: “wind bleached” or “wind-witherer”), who sits between its eyes, along with the four stags **Dáinn**, **Dvalinn**, **Duneyrr**, and **Duraþrór**.

The **Three Norns** (Old Norse: _Nornir_) - Urðr (Old Norse: “fate”), Verðandi (Old Norse: possibly “happening” or “present”), and Skuld (Old Norse: possibly “debt” or “future”) - attend to Yggdrasil, weaving the fates of both gods and men.
Impeachment

**Impeachment** is a way to remove a government officer from their position in some countries.

## Process

Impeachment is like an indictment, which the prosecutor needs to get before a trial. First a legislature must vote to impeach a person. Later, there is another vote on whether or not to convict the person. This vote may be done by the same people who voted to impeach the person, or by someone else (like in a bicameral legislature).

Several different types of office holders may be impeached, but cases against the President or leader of a country usually attract the most attention.

### United States

In the United States, only Congress has the power to impeach a federal official (like a President, Vice President, judge, or legislator).

First the U.S. House of Representatives votes to impeach the person and charge them with committing treason, bribery, or other "high crimes and misdemeanors". Next the U.S. Senate holds a trial. The accused person cannot be convicted and removed from office unless two-thirds of the Senators vote for it.

The House has impeached 22 people throughout American history. Most of these (15 people) were federal judges; three were U.S. presidents; one was a Senator; and the rest were other federal officials.

## Historical impeachments

Warren Hastings, who was the first Governor-General of India from 1773 to 1785, was impeached. He was accused of abusing the local people. The process lasted for seven years and ended in his acquittal.

Brazilian president Dilma Rousseff was impeached and removed from office in 2016. So was South Korean president Park Geun-hye in 2017.

Three Presidents of the United States were impeached: Andrew Johnson (in 1868), Bill Clinton (1998) and Donald Trump (in 2019 and again in 2021). None of them were removed from office by impeachment. President Richard Nixon resigned before the House could impeach him, making him the only U.S. president ever to resign.

## Related pages

- First impeachment of Donald Trump
- Second impeachment of Donald Trump
- Impeachment of Bill Clinton
- Impeachment process against Richard Nixon
- Impeachment of Dilma Rousseff
- List of Impeached officials removed from office on English Wikipedia
Indictment

In common law, an **indictment** is a charge saying that a person committed a very serious crime. They used to be given out by grand juries (a special jury usually made up of 24 people that is used to see if a person should be charged), but many places do not have grand juries anymore. Sealed indictments are kept secret until they are unsealed.
Trial

A **trial** is where 2 people or 2 groups of people argue in a court.

## Civil trial

In a civil trial, there is a plaintiff and a defendant. The plaintiff tries to prove that he or she has a reason why the defendant needs to give him or her money.

## Criminal trial

In a criminal trial, there is a prosecutor and a defendant. The prosecutor works for the government and tries to prove that the defendant committed a crime. It often takes a long time to get a trial scheduled as the courts can be very busy. In the United States, Federal court can take up to 10 months to get a court date.

## Judge

The judge controls the courtroom. He or she decides who speaks when, and they decide what evidence and arguments can be used. Sometimes, a jury is brought in to determine whether the defendant is guilty or not guilty. If there is no jury, the judge or judges decide whether the defendant is proven guilty or not. If the defendant is proven guilty of the crime, the judge will decide the punishment, which is also called the "sentence". If the crime is serious, the defendant may go to prison or, in some countries, be executed. For smaller crimes, there is often a fine—money that must be paid, in addition to having a criminal record.

## Differences in each country

Trials are different in places where the laws are different. Different countries, cities and states all have different laws that change how trials happen. Trials in some places are very short. In some places, however, important trials can take as long as a few years while the two sides gather information and put together their arguments.

## Related pages

- Right to a fair trial
Belinda Peregrín

**Belinda Peregrín Schüll** (born 15 August 1989), is a Spanish-Mexican singer and actress. She is often called just **Belinda.** Her first album, _Belinda_ (2003), was very popular and sold over 16 million copies worldwide receiving the title of "The Princess of Latin Pop" by Billboard U.S. and Rolling Stone U.S. Her second album _Utopía_ (2006) gave her two Latin Grammy Award nominations.

She has also been in many movies, such as the Disney Channel Original Movie _The Cheetah Girls 2_ (2006). She was also in the telenovela _Camaleones_ (2009) and the TV series _Mujeres asesinas 3_ (2010). After this, she released her third album _Carpe Diem_ (2010), which had a hit single "Egoísta". Her fourth album _Catarsis_ (2013) went straight to number one in Mexico.

## Discography

- Studio albums
- _Belinda_ (2003)
- _Utopía_ (2006)
- _Carpe Diem_ (2010)
- _Catarsis_ (2013)
- _Indomable_ (2025)

### Headlining

- Belinda Tour 2002 (2002–2003)
- Tour Fiesta en la Azotea (2004–2005)
- Tour Utopía (2007–2008)
- Tour Catarsis (2014–2017)

### Promotional

- Rockola Coca-Cola 2007 (2007)
- Carpe Diem Promo Tour (2010–2011)

### Film

|Year|Title|Role|class="unsortable"|Notes|class="unsortable"||
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|2006|_The Cheetah Girls 2_|Marisol Duran|Disney Channel Original Movie||||
|2008|_The Tale of Despereaux_|Princess Pea|Voice role (Latin American dub)||||
|2012|_Tad, The Lost Explorer_|Sara Lavrof|Voice role (Latin American dub)||||
|2016|_Trolls_|Poppy|Voice role (Latin American dub)||||
|2017|_Baywatch_|Carmen|||||
|2020|_Trolls World Tour_|Poppy|Voice role (Latin American dub)||||
|2021|_My Little Pony: A New Generation_|Sunny Starscout|Voice role (Latin American dub)||||

### Television

|Year|Title|Role|class="unsortable"|Notes|class="unsortable"||
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|2000|_Amigos x siempre_|Ana Capistrán Vidal|Lead role||||
|2001|_Aventuras en el tiempo_|Violeta Arcángel Flores|Lead role||||
|2002|_Cómplices Al Rescate_|Mariana Cantú / Silvana del Valle Ontiveros|Lead role||||
|2004|_Corazones al límite_|Elena "Elenita" Arellano Gómez|Recurring role||||
|2007|_Patito Feo_|Herself|Guest star||||
|2009–10|_Camaleones_|Valentina Izaguirre|Lead role||||
|2010|_Mujeres asesinas_|Annette VanDiryk|Season 3, episode: "Annette y Ana, Nobles"||||
|2011|_Belinda, Un Reality Sobre Mi Vida_|Herself|13 episodes||||
|2013|_El Factor X_|Judge|MundoFox||||
|2019–2020|_La Voz_|Coach|First time working with TV Azteca||||
|2019–2021|_La Voz Senior_|Coach|||||
|2021|_La Voz Kids_|Coach|||||
|2022–2023|_Welcome to Eden_|Africa|||||
|2024|_Who Killed Him?_|Paola Duarte|||||

## Other websites

- Official website

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **embed**: yes
- **instrument**: Vocals


## Infobox (person)

- **name**: Belinda Peregrín
- **image**: Belinda Peregrin Schull.jpg
- **caption**: Belinda at the 24th Annual Hispanic Heritage Foundation, Hispanic Heritage Awards in Washington in 2010
- **birth place**: Madrid, Spain
- **years active**: 2000–present
Ngo Dinh Diem

**Ngo Dinh Diem** or **Ngô Đình Diệm** ( or ; 3 January 1901 – 2 November 1963) was the first President of South Vietnam. Unlike most people in Vietnam, he was a Catholic.

## Death

After he kept favoring people of his religion, he and his brother were arrested and killed on 2 November 1963 by the non-communist South Việtnamese army during the Buddhist crisis. The army then set up a military dictatorship.

## Other websites

- JFK and the Diệm Coup - Provided by the _National Security Archive_.
- Diệm Biography  From Spartacus Educational
- Photos of Diệm's family

## Infobox (president)

- **name**: Ngô Đình Diệm
- **image**: President NGO-DINH-DIEM of the Republic of Viet-Nam.jpg
- **order**: President of the Republic of Vietnam
- **imagesize**: 125px
- **term start**: 26 October 1955
- **term end**: 2 November 1963
- **predecessor**: None
- **successor**: Dương Văn Minh
- **spouse**: None
- **birth place**: Huế, French Indochina
- **death place**: Saigon, South Vietnam
- **party**: Front of National Salvation
Kaiser

**Kaiser** was the title used for the Emperors of Austria and Germany, from the creation of the Austrian Empire in 1806 (after 1867 the Austro-Hungarian Empire) and from the creation of unified Germany in 1871 until the end of World War I when both empires collapsed and became republics. The Holy Roman Emperor was also called "Kaiser". The word "Kaiser" is the German way to say Caesar, the name the ancient Romans used for their Roman Emperor, just as "Tsar" is the Russian way to say it.

In 1873 these three rulers formed a "League of the Three Emperors", also called the _Dreikaiserbund._
Orange, New South Wales

**Orange** is a city in New South Wales, Australia. It is on the Mitchell Highway about 250 kilometres west of Sydney. The main street (where people do all the shopping) is quite large for a country town. There are five high schools and five primary schools in Orange. Orange has two tennis centres, a big pool, an indoor sports centre, a netball centre, football pitches, a university, hockey pitches and lots of parks. There is also a big mine called Cadia and a big fun lake located outside of the town. It has passenger trains to and from Sydney.

## Infobox (australian place)

- **type**: city
- **name**: Orange
- **state**: nsw
- **image**: Summer Street from east.jpg
- **caption**: The main street of Orange, Summer Street, as viewed from the vicinity of McNamara Street looking west in May 2008
- **pop**: 39,755
- **pop year**: 30 June 2016
- **poprank**: 10th in NSW
- **established**: 1846
- **postcode**: 2800
- **elevation**: 863.2
- **dist1**: 254
- **location1**: Sydney
- **dist2**: 1010
- **location2**: Brisbane
- **dist3**: 777
- **location3**: Melbourne
- **dist4**: 280
- **location4**: Canberra
- **lga**: City of Orange
- **county**: Wellington County, New South Wales, Wellington, Bathurst County, New South Wales, Bathurst
- **stategov**: Electoral district of Orange, Orange
- **fedgov**: Division of Calare, Calare
- **maxtemp**: 17.6
- **mintemp**: 6.2
- **rainfall**: 895.1
- **local map**: yes
- **zoom**: 9
Endometrium

The **endometrium** is the innermost membrane of the uterus. It sensitive to hormone changes and menstrual cycle. The endometrium is shed each month as menstrual flow.

## Infobox (anatomy)

- **name**: Endometrium
Dwarf (mythology)

A **dwarf** is a humanlike creature from Norse and Germanic mythologies. They have been used in many fairy tales, fantasy, fiction and role-playing games. Pop culture depicts the Dwarves as being short, however original mythology does not, and they were described interchangeably with elves in some stories.

In some stories, dwarfs are mean, living under bridges, and having a bad reputation for stealing treasure.  One example is the Norwegian Troll.  It is an ugly and foolish creature who tells lies.  It causes problems everywhere it goes.  That is how the Internet troll got its name.  In Robert Louis Stevenson's story, "Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde," Edward Hyde is described as "a dwarf."

On the other hand, J. R. R. Tolkien's hobbits and the munchkins in The Wizard of Oz are likeable, honest, good and smart.

## Related pages

- Dvergr
- Goblin

## Other websites

- Pictures from the "25cm dwarf", discovered in Iran.
- Orange Alternative Website
- Dwarves and Pygmies of ancient Egypt
Vanir

The **Vanir** are one of the two tribes of deities in Norse mythology, the other being the Æsir. Native to Vanaheimr, the Vanir are peace-loving gods, associated with nature and fertility, while the Æsir were chaotic and warlike. Members of the Vanir include:
- Njörðr - God of the sea and wind, he was chief of the Vanir in the years prior to the Æsir-Vanir War.
- Freyr - God of prosperity and sunshine.
- Freyja - Twin sister of Freyr, she is the goddess of love and beauty, magic, war, and death.
- Skaði - Goddess of hunting and skiing, she is Freyr and Freyja's stepmother by way of her marriage to Njörðr.
- Gerðr - Freyr's beloved wife, she is a jötunn native to the realm of Jötunheimr.
- Oðr - Freyja's husband, who might be just a doublet of Odin. Nothing is known about Óðr except that he often went away on long journeys. When he was away, Freyja wept from loneliness. Her tears become the purest gold and amber.
- Gullveigr - A practitioner of dark magic, Gullveigr was a notably powerful sorceress. She was burnt and killed three times by the Æsir, which eventually led to the war between the two tribes. Loki ate the burnt heart of Gullveigr, causing him to give birth to a monster. Gullveigr still lived after all those punishments.
- Heimdallr - Guardian of the Bifröst. Whether he is Æsir or Vanir is unclear.
- Ullr - God of hunting. In later traditions, Ullr is considered as a stepson of Thor.

A number of the Vanir live in Asgard alongside the Æsir as a token of goodwill following the war between the two tribes, which resulted in them uniting into a single pantheon (group). The goddess Freyja receives half of those slain in battle as a share of power between the two clans.
Plesiosaurus

***Plesiosaurus*** was a large marine reptile from the Early to Late Jurassic period. It is one of the most famous plesiosaurs of all time.

The first specimen discovered by Mary Anning in 1820-21 was missing its skull. She found it on the Jurassic coast of Lyme Regis, Dorset, England. In 1823 she found another one, this time complete with its skull. The name _Plesiosaurus_ was given by the Rev. William Conybeare.

_Plesiosaurus_ was a predator, living mostly on fish and belemnites. It would swim through schools of fish and use its long neck and sharp teeth to snap them up.

_Plesiosaurus_ was a fairly typical member of its order, and measured around 3 to 5 metres (10 to 16 ft) in total length. The snout was short, but the jaws were able to open very wide, and had a series of conical teeth in sockets. The neck was quite long, and the short tail was used for steering. Like all plesiosaurs, it used its large paddles to swim.

Only two species are known, and the genus existed for about 25 million years from the beginning of the Jurassic period.

Scientists have wondered whether ancient reptiles like pleisiosaurs were warm-blooded or cold-blooded. Scientists from the University of Plymouth studied many animals of different sizes from insects to whales that dive and hold their breath. They found that larger animals can hold their breath longer than smaller animals because they can store more oxygen. They also found this difference was much bigger for warm-blooded animals than for cold-blooded animals. They said this could be why whales became so large. They think since plesiosaurs were also large, like whales, they were more likely to be warm-blooded than cold-blooded.

Scientists also looked at the phosphate molecules inside plesiosaurs' teeth and saw the oxygen isotopes that suggested they had been warm-blooded.
Festival

A **festival** is a gathering of people to celebrate something. It can also refer to a one-day or more when people in a country have a holiday so that they can celebrate something. Festivals may be religious or national. They also may be events which feature different cultural programs such as music, dancing, poetry, movies, etc.

## Related pages

- Halloween
- Christmas
- Thanksgiving
- New Year
- Easter
- Pentecost
- Eid festival
- Divali
- Yom Kippur
- Guy Fawkes Night
Oort cloud

The **Oort cloud**, **Oort's cloud**, or **Öpik–Oort cloud**, is a cloud of comets and other objects.  Astronomers believe it is way beyond the orbits of Pluto and the Kuiper belt. The Oort cloud is believed to be the source of long-period comets in the Solar System.

The Oort cloud may lie about 50,000 AU, or nearly a light-year, from the Sun. This means the cloud is nearly a quarter of the way to Proxima Centauri, the nearest star to the Sun.

The Kuiper belt and scattered disc, the other two reservoirs of trans-Neptunian objects, are less than one-thousandth of the Oort cloud's distance. The outer limit of the Oort cloud defines the boundary of the Solar System and the region of the Sun's gravitational dominance.

The Dutch astronomer Jan Hendrik Oort published the Oort cloud idea in 1950. The Oort cloud was named after him, as were the Oort comet, and Oort constants.

## Structure

The Oort cloud takes up a lot of space and is thought to have trillions of comets about tens of millions of kilometers apart.

The Oort cloud is made up of an inner Oort cloud and an outer Oort cloud. The outer cloud is weakly bound to the Sun; long-term comets are thought to come from there. The Inner cloud is also called the **Hills cloud** and maybe the maker of comets.

The objects in the Oort cloud are believed to consist of much ice. Since the object 1996 PW was found to be a rocky body in an orbit typical of long-period comets, it is believed that rocky objects might be in the Oort cloud.

### Origins

The Oort cloud is thought to be the remains of a protoplanetary disk that surrounded the Sun long ago.
Han dynasty

The **Han dynasty** came to power in 202 BC. They followed the laws of Confucianism and legalism. This was called 'the Han synthesis'.

The Han dynasty was considered the golden age of early China with many important events and discoveries.

## History

The Han dynasty ruled China for over 400 years: from 206 B.C. to 220 A.D. Its first emperor was Liu Bang, known in Chinese as Emperor Gaozu of Han.

Emperor Gaozu maintained a legalist ideology, just like the Qin dynasty had. However, the emperor also had ideas related to Confucianism about having a centralized system showing benevolence.

After eighty years, Emperor Wu of Han launched a period of military expansion. The Han armies took control of many territories, including the extremely important Silk Road in Mongolia and Xinjiang. The Silk Road helped make the empire a political, economic, military, and cultural center, but it was very expensive to manage and further expansion was cut off.

Several factors contributed to the fall of the Han dynasty, including uprisings of desperate and hungry people, the spread of attacks by nomadic groups, and official corruption.

### Accomplishments

Under the Han dynasty:

- China made progress in arts and science
- The empire also became larger and larger
- China started trading with a number of other countries
- The Silk Road was formed. Merchants used the Silk Road to reach China for trade.
- Buddhism was introduced in China.

### Han Chinese

In the Han dynasty, many of the features of Chinese culture (including Confucianism and Chinese characters) became firmly established. For this reason, the dominant ethnic group in China today calls themselves the Han Chinese.

## Literature

Fairbank, John King and Merle Goldman 1992. _China: a new history_. 2nd enlarged edition 2006. Cambridge: MA; London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.

## Other websites

- Han Dynasty by Minnesota State University
- Han Dynasty art with video commentary, Minneapolis Institute of Arts
Zhou dynasty

The **Zhou dynasty,** pronunciation ( ), replaced the Shang dynasty in 1046 BCE.  The kings of this dynasty made the empire a lot bigger.  For the first time in the history of China, many people began moving to far away places inside the empire.  The Zhou rulers moved the capital from Henan to a place near present-day Xi'an, near the Yellow River.  The Zhou Dynasty also brought the theory of the Mandate of Heaven.  This theory said that the fact that rulers were in charge proved that the gods wanted them to be in charge.  Almost all dynasties of Chinese rulers after the Zhou continued to believe this theory.

Mature Chinese philosophy developed during the Zhou Dynasty. The greatest Chinese philosophers were Confucius (), founder of Confucianism, and Laozi, founder of Daoism. Other philosophers, theorists, and schools of thought from the Zhou Dynasty were Mozi (Latin: Micius), founder of _Mohism_, Mencius (), a famous Confucian who expanded upon Confucius legacy, Shang Yang and Han Feizi, responsible for the development of _ancient Chinese_ Legalism (the core philosophy of the Qin Dynasty), and Xunzi.

## Infobox (former country)

- **conventional long name**: Zhou Dynasty
- **common name**: Zhou Dynasty
- **government type**: Monarchy
- **year start**: 1045 BC
- **year end**: 256 BC
- **p1**: Shang Dynasty
- **s1**: Qin Dynasty
- **event start**: Battle of Muye
- **image map**: China 2a.jpg
- **image map caption**: Population concentration and boundaries of the Western Zhou Dynasty (1050–771 BC) in China
- **capital**: Xi'an, Haojing, Luoyang
- **common languages**: Old Chinese, Chinese
- **religion**: Chinese folk religion, Hundred Schools of Thought
- **currency**: Cash (Chinese coin), Chinese coin
- **title leader**: Chinese sovereign, King
- **title deputy**: Chancellor (China), Chancellor
- **stat year1**: 273 BC
- **stat pop1**: 30,000,000
- **stat year2**: 230 BC
- **stat pop2**: 38,000,000
Tony Iommi

**Frank Anthony "Tony" Iommi** (born 19 February 1948, in Birmingham, England) is a British guitarist and songwriter. He is most famous for starting the heavy metal band Black Sabbath. He is the only person who has stayed a member of the band since it began in 1968. He lost two finger tips in a work accident, and made two fake finger tips from a plastic bottle. This helped give Black Sabbath their heavy sound.

In 2003, Iommi was listed at number 86 in Rolling Stone Magazine's _"100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time"_ issue.

Along with Jimmy Page of Led Zeppelin, Iommi is oft considered one of the greatest riff writers of all time.  Iommi used several riffs in Black Sabbath's songs.

He was born to an Italian immigrant family and has dual Italian British citizenship.

In 2006 Tony Iommi was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Tony Iommi
- **img**: Heaven and Hell 33.jpg
- **birth name**: Frank Anthony Iommi
- **birth place**: Birmingham, England
- **genre**: Heavy metal music, Heavy metal
- **background**: non_vocal_instrumentalist
- **occupation**: Musician, songwriter
- **instrument**: Guitar
- **associated acts**: Black Sabbath
- **years active**: since 1966
- **url**: [http://www.iommi.com/ Official website]
Yellow River

The **Yellow River** (Huáng Hé 黄河) is the second longest river in China (after Yangtze River) and the sixth longest in the world. The river is 5464 km long and it drains at the Bohai Sea, a gulf of the Yellow Sea. The river is often called the "Mother River of China" and "the Cradle of the Chinese civilization" in China. In Chinese mythology, the river is home to the deity Hebo.

## Other websites

- Yellow River delta Information at LSU
- Listen to the _Yellow River Ballade_ from the _Yellow River Cantata_
- "A Troubled River Mirrors China’s Path to Modernity" _New York Times_ November 19, 2006
- Illustrations of Guarding the Yellow River is an old book that shows how China protected the cities around the River from flooding.
- Illustrated Work on the Storage and Drainage Activities at the Lakes and Rivers of the Yellow River and the Grand Canal
Rebellion

A **rebellion** is when people refuse to obey orders and fight against authority. Those who do this are “rebels”. They may be citizens of a country who try to take over the government by force because they do not trust the current system. Some rebels in history were slaves who fought back against their masters or against slavery in general. Leaders of slave rebellions include Spartacus and Nat Turner.

The Zhou dynasty in China feared rebellion. Rulers of other Chinese states that were captured live were made to with their families in the Zhou capital, Anyang. However, this way failed to stop rebellion because groups of lords were brought together that could rebel. The Zhou dynasty declined because other lords who were ruling parts of China rebelled.

Rebellion is a usual method of secession.