juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Ruth Bader Ginsburg

**Ruth Bader Ginsburg** (March 15, 1933 – September 18, 2020) was an American jurist. She was an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States from 1993 until her death. She was nominated by President Bill Clinton. She was known as a feminist icon and was nicknamed "The Notorious R.B.G.".

Ginsburg died on September 18, 2020 in Washington, D.C.

## Supreme Court

Ginsburg was appointed by President Bill Clinton and took the oath of office on August 10, 1993. She was the second female justice (after Sandra Day O'Connor) and the first Jewish female justice. Ginsburg was considered a member of the more liberal side of the Supreme Court.

Ginsburg wrote notable majority opinions, including _United States v. Virginia_, and _Friends of the Earth, Inc. v. Laidlaw Environmental Services, Inc._

She was known as "The Notorious R.B.G.", in reference to the rapper known as "The Notorious B.I.G.".

When John Paul Stevens retired in 2010, Ginsburg became the oldest justice on the court at age 77.

## Health

Ginsburg had surgery for colon cancer in 1999 and for pancreatic cancer in 2009. On November 8, 2018, she was hospitalized after fracturing three ribs in a fall.

On August 24, 2019, it was revealed that Ginsburg underwent radiation treatment for pancreatic cancer over the summer. In July 2020, she announced that she had liver cancer.

On September 18, 2020, Ginsburg died from problems caused by metastatic pancreatic cancer in Washington, D.C. at the age of 87.

## Other websites

- Issue positions and quotes at OnTheIssues
- _Voices on Antisemitism_: Interview with Ruth Bader Ginsburg from the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum
- Ruth Bader Ginsburg, video produced by _Makers: Women Who Make America_
- Supreme Court Associate Justice Nomination Hearings on Ruth Bader Ginsburg in July 1993 United States Government Publishing Office
- Membership  at the Council on Foreign Relations

## Infobox (officeholder)

- **alt**: Ginsburg seated in her robe
- **image**: Ruth Bader Ginsburg 2016 portrait.jpg
- **caption**: Official portrait, 2016
- **office**: Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States
- **nominator**: Bill Clinton
- **term start**: August 10, 1993
- **term end**: September 18, 2020
- **predecessor**: Byron White
- **successor**: Amy Coney Barrett
- **office1**: Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit
- **nominator1**: Jimmy Carter
- **term start1**: June 30, 1980
- **term end1**: August 9, 1993
- **predecessor1**: Harold Leventhal (judge), Harold Leventhal
- **successor1**: David S. Tatel, David Tatel
- **birth name**: Joan Ruth Bader
- **death cause**: Problems caused by pancreatic cancer
- **death place**: Washington, D.C., U.S.
- **resting place**: Arlington National Cemetery
- **signature**: Ruth Bader Ginsburg signature.svg
John Roberts

**John Glover Roberts Jr.** (born January 27, 1955) is the seventeenth and current Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court. Appointed by President George W. Bush, Roberts is generally considered a member of the more conservative wing of the court. However, since the retirement of Justice Anthony Kennedy, he has been seen as the moderate and tie-breaker in some major Supreme Court cases during the Presidency of Donald Trump.

Before joining the Supreme Court on September 29, 2005, Roberts was a judge on the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit for two years.

Roberts has been portrayed as a consistent advocate for conservative principles by analysts such as Jeffrey Toobin.

Roberts was first nominated by President George W. Bush to replace Sandra Day O'Connor as an Associate Justice, but Chief Justice William Rehnquist died before Roberts's confirmation so Bush nominated Roberts to replace Rehnquist instead. Roberts was confirmed by the full United States Senate on September 29 by a margin of 78–22.

## Infobox (chief justice)

- **name**: John G. Roberts
- **image**: Official roberts CJ.jpg
- **office**: 17th Chief Justice of the United States
- **nominator**: George W. Bush
- **term start**: September 29, 2005
- **predecessor**: William Rehnquist
- **office1**: Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit
- **nominator1**: George W. Bush
- **term start1**: June 2, 2003
- **term end1**: September 29, 2005
- **predecessor1**: James L. Buckley
- **successor1**: Patricia Ann Millett
- **birth name**: John Glover Roberts Jr.
- **birth place**: Buffalo, New York, Buffalo, New York (state), New York, U.S.
- **children**: 2
- **education**: Harvard University (Bachelor of Arts, BA, Juris Doctor, JD)
- **signature**: John Roberts signature.svg
Tacna Region

**Tacna Region** is the most southern region in Peru. The capital city is Tacna.
Tacna

**Tacna** is a city in Peru. It is the capital of Tacna Region.
Eva Braun

**Eva Anna Paula Braun** (6 February 1912 – 30 April 1945) was the longtime German girlfriend of Adolf Hitler. She met him in Munich when she was 17 years old. They married the day before they committed suicide. Braun killed herself by using cyanide. Hitler used cyanide and at the same time shot himself. When she was married, she was known as **Eva Anna Paula Hitler**. She was born in Munich, German Empire and died in Berlin, Germany at the age of 33. Her body was burned, as well as Adolf Hitler's. She also had a brother-in-law named Hermann Fegelein.
Computer recycling

**Computer recycling** means taking things from old computers and using them in new computer things. The phrase is also used to mean that computers need to be thrown away in a special way, as they often have things that are bad for the environment or dangerous inside them that can cause problems if they are thrown away like usual waste (garbage).

## Secure Recycling

Sometimes people are worried that the information inside a computer will be stolen when the computer is thrown away. For example, if you have a product design on an old computer, somebody might copy your design. Big companies have a lot of computers, with a lot of private information on them. They will often pay other companies to remove all the information from a computer before it is thrown away. This usually involves physically destroying the drive. It is possible to non-destructively erase the data on a hard drive by overwriting the entire drive with random numbers. With this method, only the data is destroyed, not the drive itself. This allows the drive to be reused.
Nagasaki

is the capital city of Nagasaki Prefecture in Japan.

Nagasaki was founded by the Portuguese in the late 16th century.

It has been recognized as a core city since 1997.

## History

Nagasaki was founded by the Portuguese in the late 16th century. During the Edo period, Nagasaki was the only port in which trade with other countries was permitted because of the national isolation policy (_sakoku_).

In the 1870s, Nagasaki became the capital city of the prefecture which evolved from the former province.

On August 9, 1945, Nagasaki was the second of two Japanese cities which were destroyed with an atomic bomb near the end of the Second World War.

## Related pages

- Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
- Hashima

## Other websites

- Nagasaki official website ; 長崎市
- VISIT NAGASAKI Official Tourism Website for Nagasaki City

## Infobox (settlement)

- **official name**: Nagasaki City
- **settlement type**: Core cities of Japan, Core city
- **image flag**: Flag of Nagasaki, Nagasaki.svg
- **image seal**: Nagasaki Nagasaki chapter.svg
- **nickname**:
City of Peace
Naples of the Orient
- **image map**: Nagasaki in Nagasaki Prefecture Ja.svg
- **map caption**: Map of Nagasaki Prefecture with Nagasaki highlighted in pink
- **pushpin map**: Japan
- **pushpin map caption**:  
- **subdivision type**: List of sovereign states, Country
- **subdivision name**: Japan
- **subdivision type1**: List of regions of Japan, Region
- **subdivision name1**: Kyushu
- **subdivision type2**: Prefectures of Japan, Prefecture
- **subdivision name2**: Nagasaki Prefecture
- **subdivision type3**: Districts of Japan, District
- **subdivision name3**: n/a
- **leader title**: Mayor
- **leader name**: Shirō Suzuki (2023-)
- **area total km2**: 406.35
- **area land km2**: 241.20
- **area water km2**: 165.15
- **population total**: 425,723
- **population as of**: March 1, 2017
- **population density km2**: auto
- **timezone1**: Japan Standard Time
- **utc offset1**: +9
- **blank name sec1**: City Symbols
- **blank1 name sec1**: - Tree
- **blank1 info sec1**: Chinese tallow tree
- **blank2 name sec1**: - Flower
- **blank2 info sec1**: Hydrangea
- **blank name sec2**: Phone number
- **blank info sec2**: 095-825-5151
- **blank1 name sec2**: Address
- **blank1 info sec2**: 2-22 Sakura-machi, Nagasaki-shi, Nagasaki-ken
850-8685


## Infobox (chinese)

- **pic**: Nagasaki (Chinese characters).svg
- **piccap**: _Nagasaki_ in _kanji_
- **picupright**: 0.45
- **kanji**: 長崎
- **katakana**: ナガサキ
- **hiragana**: ながさき
- **romaji**: Nagasaki
Akilattirattu Ammanai

**Akilathirattu Ammanai** (; from _akilam_ (world) + _thirattu_ (collection) + _ammanai_ (ballad)), also called **Thiru Edu** (venerable book), is the main religious book of the Southern Indian Ayyavazhi, officially a branch of Hinduism. The title is shortened as Akilam. This is the largest Ammanai work. it has  more than 15,000 verses.

## History

According to the book, Hari Gopalan Citar wrote this book on the twenty-seventh day of the Tamil month of Karthikai (November/December) in the year 1016 ME (1839 CE). He says that God woke him up during his sleep and ordered him to take the first words from what he said. Akilathirattu was recorded on palm leaves. Then in 1939 it was printed.

The book is the story of God coming in this age, the Kali Yukam or Iron Age, to rule the world by transforming it into that of Dharma Yukam. This story of faith has woven together the historical facts about Ayya Vaikundar and his activities, with mixing of episodes from the Hindu Puranas (mythologies) and Itihasas (epics). It is presented as if Vishnu is telling the whole story to his consort Lakshmi.

Though the Citar Hari Gopalan wrote the book  he did not know any thing about the contents of the book. He woke up in the morning as usual and he did not know what he had written the day before.

It contains the regulations of the Ayyavazhi sect.
Ayya Vaikundar

**Ayya Vaikundar** () is a Manu (father, sovereign) avatar (the incarnation of a deity) of   Muthukutty according to Akilattirattu Ammanai the holy book of the Ayyavazhi religion, officially a Tamil Hindu branch.

The physical human body of Ayya Vaikundar was born with the name **Muthukutty**. However, Muthukutty is referred to as Sampooranathevan, a deva (a deity), in the religious book Akilam. Ayya Vikundar is a combination of the spirit of **Muthukutty.** the soul of the Supreme God, **Ekam** (God beyond conciouseness) and the body of an ordinary human being (Muthukutty).

The Ekam as soul incarnated with the spirit of Narayana in the body of Muthukutty.
Pathi

The worship centers of Ayyavazhi are called **Pathis**. The activities of Vaikundar is historically joined with these Pathis. There are five Pathis:

- Swamithoppepathi
- Ambalappathi
- Muttappathi
- Thamaraikulampathi
- Pooppathi
Planck mass

The **Planck mass** is a small unit of mass used in physics. It is derived using an equation involving Planck's constant, the speed of light in a vacuum, and the gravitational constant. It is approximately 21.76 µg.

The Planck mass can be thought of as an upper bound for the mass of a single particle. A particle with more mass would become a black hole. It's also a lower bound for the smallest possible black hole, since a black hole this small wouldn't be able to emit any Hawking Radiation to evaporate any smaller.

As with all Planck units, the idea was to have a definition based only on fundamental universal constants.
Human sexuality

**Human sexuality** is the ability of people to have sexual experiences and feelings. This involves biological, erotic, physical, emotional, social, or spiritual feelings and behaviors. The most common form of human sexuality is heterosexuality, but homosexuality, bisexuality and asexuality exist too. An abnormal form of sexuality is called a paraphilia, while a normal one is called a normophilia.

## Related pages

- Human sexual activity
- LGBT
- Pornography
Bay City, Michigan

The American city of **Bay City** is a small city in the state of Michigan, United States. In the 2020 census it had more than 32,000 people living in it.

Although small, Bay City is one of the largest port cities on Lake Huron, one of the North American Great Lakes. It is part of a triangle of small cities in Central Michigan. The other two cities are Saginaw, Michigan, and Midland, Michigan.

Bay City was the birthplace in 1958 of Madonna Ciccone, a well-known American singer. The Scottish Pop group Bay City Rollers are said to have gotten their name from the city as well.

## Other websites

- City of Bay City, Michigan
Zirconium

**Zirconium** is a chemical elemental metal. It is a greyish-white in color. It is atomic number 40 on the periodic table. Its symbol is Zr. And it is in the family of four (4). Zirconium alloys are used as cladding for nuclear fuel rods.

## Production

Most zirconium is made from the mineral zircon. Zircon is also called zirconium silicate (). Zirconium is found in many types of sand and rock. These sources of zircon are crushed into a powder, separated using a centrifuge, and then treated with chemicals in a process called leaching. This separates the pure zircon from other minerals.

Zircon needs to be split apart into zirconia and silica in order to purify it further. One way of doing this is alkaline fusion. In this chemical process, zircon is treated with a base like sodium hydroxide or sodium carbonate.

Zirconia is finally treated in the Kroll process to make pure zirconium metal.

Further processing is needed to make nuclear-grade zirconium, because zirconium normally contains small amounts of hafnium, a neutron poison.
Yttrium

**Yttrium** is a chemical elemental metal with an atomic number of **39**, a chemical symbol of **Y**, and an atomic weight of **88.905**(abridged). It is classified as a transition metal. It is atomic number 39 which means it has 39 protons in an atom. It is silvery-white, solid at room temperature, and tends to form crystals. In chunk form, it is unreactive in air, but powdered yttrium may burn at 400 degrees Celsius. It has several uses, which include lasers, TV's, and metallurgy. It is a transition metal, and along with terbium, erbium, and ytterbium, is one of the four elements to be named after the town of Ytterby in Sweden, all of which are rare earth elements.
1096

## Events

- Vital I Michele is Doge of Venice
- Peter I, King of Aragon, conquers Huesca
- Bernhard becomes Bishop of Brandenburg
- First documented teaching at the University of Oxford
- Phayao, now a province of Thailand, is founded as a kingdom
- Beginning of the People's Crusade, the German Crusade, and the First Crusade
1098

## Events

- December 12 – massacre of Ma'arrat al-Numan where Crusaders resort to cannibalism.
- First Crusade: end of the siege of Antioch.
- Cîteaux Abbey founded.

## Births

- September 16 – Hildegard of Bingen, German mystic writer, and composer (d. 1179)

## Deaths

- January 3 – Walkelin, first Norman bishop of Winchester
- August 1 – Adhemar of Le Puy, papal legate
- December 1 – Domnall Ua hÉnna, Pre-Reformation Bishop of Killaloe
- Baldwin II, Count of Hainaut
- Hugh of Montgomery, 2. Earl of Shrewsbury
Tamil Nadu

**Tamil Nadu** () is a state in the South of India. The capital of this state is Chennai. Other large cities in Tamil Nadu include Coimbatore, Tiruchirapalli, Salem, Madurai, Tirunelveli, Thanjavur and Thoothukudi. Tamil is the language spoken in Tamil Nadu. It is surrounded by the Bay of Bengal to the east and the Indian Ocean to the south. A small part of Tamil Nadu borders the Arabian Sea to the west. It borders the Indian states of Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh. In traditional Indian geography, it is part of the South Indian zone.

The current chief minister of the state is M. K. Stalin. He is the leader of the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK), a political party. The leader of the opposition is Edappadi K. Palaniswami. He belongs to the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIDMK), another political party. These two political parties have been in power alternately in Tamil Nadu since 1967.

The eastern and western tips of the state are defined by the Point Calimere and Mudumalai wildlife sanctuaries while the southernmost tip is Kanyakumari (also called Cape Comorin) at the tip of the Indian peninsula. Tamil Nadu is the 11th largest state in India, with an area of 129,996 km<sup>2</sup> and over 62 million people. The major river is Kaveri, which meets the needs of agriculture. Other important rivers include south Pennar, Palar, Vaigai, Tamira bharani, Manimuthar, Noyyal and Bhavani. Tamil Nadu, a South Indian state, is famed for its Dravidian-style Hindu temples. The three ancient Tamil empires of Chera, Chola, and Pandya were of ancient origins. In Tamil Nadu, the Neolithic period had its advent around 2500 BCE.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **official name**: Tamil Nadu
- **native name**: तमिलनाडु
 தமிழ்நாடு
- **settlement type**: State of India
- **image seal**: TamilNadu Logo.svg
- **image map**: IN-TN.svg
- **map caption**: Location of Tamil Nadu in the Republic of India
- **image map1**: India Tamil Nadu location map.svg
- **map caption1**: Map of Tamil Nadu
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision type1**: Regions of India, Region
- **subdivision name1**: South India
- **leader title**: Governors of Tamil Nadu, Governor
- **leader title1**: Chief Ministers of Tamil Nadu, Chief Minister
- **leader title2**: Legislature of Tamil Nadu, Legislature
- **leader name2**: Unicameral
- **established title**: Established
- **area total km2**: 129966
- **population as of**: 2020
- **population total**: 76.4 Million
- **timezone**: Indian Standard Time, IST
- **utc offset**: +05:30
- **blank name**: Official languages
- **blank info**: Tamil language, TamilEnglish language, English
Duck

**Ducks** are birds in the family Anatidae. Ducks are closely related to swans and geese, which are in the same family. Ducks are generally black, brown or grey.

Ducks are not a monophyletic group. They are a 'form taxon'. Swans and geese are in the same family but are not called ducks. The main difference is that ducks have shorter necks, and are smaller.

Other swimming and diving birds, like grebes and loons, are not ducks. A baby duck is called a _duckling_, and a male duck is called a _drake_. Most ducks are aquatic birds. They can be found in both saltwater and fresh water.

The subfamily Anatinae ("dabbling ducks") feed on the surface of water or on land, or as deep as they can reach by up-ending without completely submerging.

Ducks lay eggs once a year and are omnivorous, eating aquatic plants and tiny animals.  Along the edge of the beak there is a comb-like structure called a _pecten_. This strains the water squirting from the side of the beak and traps any food. The pecten is also used to preen feathers. Diving ducks dive deep to get their food.

Many ducks are migratory. This means that they spend the summer months in a different place than the winter months. Ducks show a cosmopolitan distribution, meaning they can be found all over the world, except for Antarctica. Some duck species live on the South Georgia and Auckland Islands, which are subantarctic. Many species have established themselves on remote islands, such as Kerguelen or Hawaii.

Ducks are sometimes kept as pets. They are often kept by groups of people on public ponds for their beauty and calming nature. People commonly feed ducks in ponds stale bread, thinking that the ducks will like to have something to eat. However, bread is not healthy for ducks and can kill them. In nature, ducks eat grasses, aquatic plants, fish, insects, small amphibians, worms, and small molluscs.

## In poultry

Some ducks are bred and kept by humans. They are not wild ducks. They are kept to provide food (meat and eggs), or to use their feathers for pillows and other items in the house. Especially in Asia, many people like to eat duck.

Duck meat is high in fat, which helps the bird float in the water.

The eggs from ducks are thought to have a richer taste than chicken eggs.

## Related pages

- Waterfowl
- The Ugly Duckling
Nightwish

**Nightwish** is a symphonic metal band from Finland. They formed in July 1996 and played acoustic mood music. The band's keyboardist and composer Tuomas Holopainen had the idea of forming a band. He asked Tarja Turunen to sing and Emppu Vuorinen to play guitar.

At the beginning of 1997, the band started playing stronger music. Jukka Nevalainen joined the band to play the drums. Vuorinen used an electric guitar instead of an acoustic guitar. In May 1997, Nightwish signed a contract (binding agreement) with Spinefarm Records and they released their first album 'Angels Fall First'.

In 1998, Sami Vänskä joined the band to play bass guitar. The same year Nightwish released 'Oceanborn', which was quite different to
'Angels Fall First'.

In May 2000 they released 'Wishmaster', which was similar to 'Oceanborn'. They also entered the contest to be Finland's representatives for the Eurovision Song Contest, with the song 'Sleepwalker'. They won the phone vote but the judges disagreed so they came second.

The other band members asked Tarja to leave the group in 2005 after their "End of an Era" tour. Tuomas wrote an open letter to her, stating the reasons why she had to leave. He then put the letter on the official website. In 2007, Swedish singer Anette Olzon became the new singer, and Nightwish released a single, 'Amaranth'. A few months later, they released the album 'Dark Passion Play'.

### Albums

- _Angels Fall First_ (1997)
- _Oceanborn_ (1998)
- _Wishmaster_ (2000)
- _Over the Hills and Far Away_ EP (2001)
- _Century Child_ (2002)
- _Once_ (2004)
- _Dark Passion Play_ (2007)
- _Imaginaerum_ (2011)
- _Endless Forms Most Beautiful_ (2015)
- _Human. :II: Nature._ (2020)
- _Yesterwynde_ (2024)

### Singles

- The Carpenter (1997)
- Sacrament of Wilderness (1998)
- Walking in the Air (1999)
- Sleeping Sun (Four Ballads of the Eclipse) (1999)
- Deep Silent Complete (2000)
- Ever Dream (2002)
- Bless the Child (2002)
- Nemo (2004)
- Wish I Had an Angel (2004)
- Kuolema tekee taiteilijan (2004)
- The Siren (2005)
- Eva (2007)
- Amaranth (2007)
- Erämaan Viimeinen (2007)
- Bye Bye Beautiful (2008)
- The Islander (2008)
- Storytime (2011)
- The Crow, the Owl and the Dove (2012)
- Élan (2015)
- Endless Forms Most Beautiful (2015)
- Alpenglow (2015) (promo)
- My Walden (2016) (12)
- Noise (2020)
- Harvest (2020)

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Nightwish
- **img**: Nightwish Toronto concert 2022.jpg
- **caption**: Nightwish live in Toronto, Canada, on May 2022
- **image size**: 250
- **landscape**: yes
- **background**: group_or_band
- **origin**: Kitee, Finland
- **genre**: Symphonic metal, Alternative metal, Gothic metal, power metal
- **years active**: 1996 – present
- **label**: Spinefarm Records, Spinefarm, Nuclear Blast, Roadrunner Records, Roadrunner, Nems Enterprises (label), NEMS Enterprises, Century Media, Drakkar Entertainment
- **website**: [http://www.nightwish.com www.nightwish.com]
- **current members**: Floor Jansen
Tuomas Holopainen
Emppu Vuorinen
Kai Hahto
Troy Donockley
- **past members**: Tarja Turunen
Sami Vänskä
Anette Olzon
Jukka Nevalainen
Marco Hietala
Door

A **door** is a hard, flat object a person can open and close so that person can go into a room or other place. It is found in houses and other buildings. Doors are also found in cars and cages.

The reasons for a door are:
- for people, animals, and objects to go through; some doors are for emergencies only (emergency exit)
- to keep cold or hot air outside (or inside, such as the door on a refrigerator)
- so that people cannot see or hear what happens on the other side (privacy and stopping noise)
- so that people do not fall out of the car or other vehicle
- so a person can decide who to let in—many doors have a lock

## Types of doors

A **revolving door** is a group of doors that turn in a circle as a person pushes one. The person can go through, but wind and rain cannot get in.

A **blind door** is a fake door that is really part of the wall. People use them to make a room look nice.

An **up-and-over door** is often used in garages. Instead of hinges, it rolls up on rails so that it stays above the opening.

A **fire door** is a door that does not let fire go through. They are usually made of heavy steel.

A **doggie door** is a small door for dogs or other small pets. They are usually on the bottom of people-sized doors.
1540s

The **1540s** was a decade that started on 1 January 1540 and ended on 31 December 1549.

It is distinct from the decade known as the ***155th decade*** which began on January 1, 1541 and ended on December 31, 1550.

## Events

- Hernando de Soto is the first European to see the Mississippi River.
- Ivan IV of Muscovy becomes the first Tsar of Russia.
- Edward VI succeeds his father Henry VIII as King of England.
- Wars between Protestants and Catholics in Europe.
- Japan opens up to Europeans.

## Births

- El Greco, Greek-born artist
- Mary, Queen of Scots
- Miguel de Cervantes, Spanish writer

## Deaths

- Martin Luther, reformer
- Hernando de Soto, Spanish explorer
- Henry VIII, King of England
- Hernán Cortés, Spanish explorer
- Juan Diego Cuauhtlatoatzin, Mexican Catholic saint
Boeing 737

The **Boeing 737** is a twin-engine, narrow-body airliner built by Boeing. At first, Boeing was making it to be a shorter, cheaper airliner than its 707 and 727. However, the 737 has become a family of many different models. The number of passengers it can carry ranges from 85 to 215. The 737 is the only narrow-body airliner that Boeing is making. The only types of 737 that Boeing is still making are the -700, -800 and -900ER. A version of the 737 with larger engines, the 737 MAX, came into service in 2017 but was grounded between March 2019 and December 2020 as unsafe.

Boeing began designing the 737 in 1965. The very first 737-100 flew in 1967. It was first used by an airline in February 1968.  The 737-200 started being used in April 1968. The -200 was basically just a longer version of the 737-100. In the 1980s Boeing made the -300, -400, and -500 models. Boeing called these models the Boeing 737 Classic series. The 737 Classics could carry more passengers, and they had new engines: CFM56 turbofans. The 737 Classic planes also had some improvements made to the wings. In the 1990s, Boeing brought out the 737 Next Generation. The 737 Next Generation planes also had redesigned wings, a better cockpit and a new cabin. The 737 Next Generation is made up of the -600, -700, -800, and -900ER models. These models go from  to  in length.

## Infobox (aircraft begin)

- **name**: Boeing 737
- **image**: File:South African Airlink Boeing 737-200 Advanced Smith.jpg
- **caption**: A Boeing 737-200, the first mass-produced 737 model, in operation with South African Airways in 2007


## Infobox (aircraft type)

- **type**: Narrow-body airliner
- **national origin**: United States
- **manufacturer**: Boeing Commercial Airplanes
- **first flight**: April 9, 1967
- **introduced**: February 10, 1968, with Lufthansa
- **status**: In service
- **primary user**: Southwest Airlines
- **more users**: Ryanair
United Airlines
American Airlines
- **produced**: 1965-present
- **number built**: 12,030 as of May 2025
- **unit cost**: -100: United States dollar, US$3.7M (1968), $M today
-200: US$4.0M (1968), $M today
-200: US$5.2M (1972), $M today
- **variants with their own articles**: Boeing T-43
- **developed into**: Boeing 737 Classic
Boeing 737 Next Generation
Boeing 737 MAX
Tsar

**Tsar** is a title for the supreme ruler in several countries. In Bulgaria, the title was used in 913–1422 and again in 1908–1946. The last tsar to rule Bulgaria was Boris III, who replaced Ferdinand I of Bulgaria 1918.

In Serbia, the title was used in 1346—1371. The last tsar to rule Serbia was Stephen Uroš V.

In the Russian Empire, the title was used from 1546 until 1721. Starting in 1721, the title of Russian emperors was _imperator_, but the word _tsar_ remained in common use until the Russian Revolution in 1917. The last tsar to rule Russia was Nicholas II, who replaced Alexander III in 1894. The system of government used during the Tsardom of Russia and the Russian Empire was called Tsarist autocracy, also known as Tsarism. _Tsar_ is also spelled _tzar_, _czar_, and _csar_. It is the Eastern European word for _caesar_. It can be translated to _emperor_.
1550s

The **1550s** was a decade that started on 1 January 1550 and ended on 31 December 1559.

It is distinct from the decade known as the ***156th decade*** which began on January 1, 1551 and ended on December 31, 1560.

## Events

- Helsinki founded in Finland.
- Rule of _Bloody Mary_, or Mary I of England from 1553 to 1558.
- São Paulo founded in Brazil.
- Religious wars continue in Europe.
- Russia breaks peace with Sweden by attacking Finland.
- The Shaanxi Earthquake, the deadliest earthquake in history.

## Births

- Sarsa Dengel, Emperor of Ethiopia
- King Sebastian of Portugal
- Nurhaci, Chinese founder of the Qing Dynasty

## Deaths

- Tabinshwehti, King of Burma
- Edward VI, King of England
- Ignatius of Loyola, Spanish founder of the Jesuit priests
1840

## Events

- The Great Natchez Tornado: A massive tornado hits Natchez, Mississippi. Before it was over, 317 people had died and 209 were injured.

## Births

- January 3– Father Damien, priest
- January 18 – Edmund Barton, 1st Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1920)
- May 7 – Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Russian composer
- Kuroda Kiyotaka, Prime Minister of Japan

## Deaths

- May 27 – Niccolò Paganini, Italian violinist and composer
Engelbert Dollfuss

**Engelbert Dollfuss** (_German_: **Dollfuß**) (October 4, 1892 – July 25, 1934) was the Chancellor of Austria from 1932 until 1933. He led the country as a dictator from early 1933 until 1934.

He studied law in Vienna, and Economics in Berlin. During World War I, he served in the Alps and briefly became a prisoner of war in 1918.

He became Chancellor on May 20, 1932 as head of a right-wing coalition government. He wanted to solve the problems caused by the Depression. He had problems finding majorities in parliament. The measures he liked to take to deal with inflation were not well liked. In March 1933, he suspended the Austrian parliament. He then governed by decree.

With Adolf Hitler as Chancellor in Germany, Dollfuss feared that the influence of the NSDAP would grow. This would then lead to a growth in popularity for its Austrian counterpart. Because of this, he banned the NSDAP in June 1933. He also banned the SDAPÖ in February 1934.

In September 1933, he formed an umbrella grouping to support the regime, the _Vaterländische Front_ (Fatherland Front) and merged the Christian Social Party with the para-military Heimwehr (Home Guard), a Nationalist paramilitary group. The regime which was put into power by him and remained in power until 1938 is often called _Austrofascism_. The form of state he employed was called the _Ständestaat_.

On July 25, 1934, eight Austrian Nazis entered the Chancellery building and shot and killed Dollfuss in an attempted coup, as a prelude to Anschluss. The Nazis surrendered and were executed. Kurt Schuschnigg became the new dictator of Austria.

## Other websites

- Video: Dollfuß holds a speech in Burgenland 1933 (mpeg, 6,1 kb)

## Infobox (_person)

- **name**: Engelbert Dollfuss
- **image**: Engelbert Dollfuss.png
- **caption**: Engelbert Dollfuss 1933
- **birth date**: October 4 1892
- **birth place**: Texing, Austria-Hungary
- **death date**: July 25 1934
- **death place**: Vienna, Austria
Language isolate

A **language isolate** is a language that is not known to be related to any other language. Many languages are related to other languages by coming from an older language, and both are still similar. Languages that are related are language families. Most languages are known to belong to a language family. However, some are not known to be related to other languages and are called language isolates.

Some spoken language isolates are Basque, Zuni, Burushaski, Ainu and Mapudungun. Some extinct language isolates are Sumerian, Elamite and Urartian.
Ancestor

An **ancestor** is a person (or another organism or thing) from whom (or which) another is descended. Usually, it refers to a person far in the past, rather than the parents or grandparents in the close family. A very similar word is **forebear**. A female ancestor may be called an **ancestress**. The line of ancestors from which an organism descends is referred to as its **ancestry**.

A second meaning relates to evolution. There, it is used of a species or group of species of animals or plants from which others have evolved. In a similar way, the word ancestor can be used for an early prototype or forerunner of a later device.

In law an ancestor can mean the person from whom an estate is lawfully obtained. No blood relationship is necessarily implied. More commonly, however, it is the person from whom an estate is obtained based on law and blood.

Two people have a genetic relationship if one is the ancestor of the other, or if they share a common ancestor. Each of someone's ancestors will have contributed to their DNA. In evolution, species that have evolved from the same ancestor are said to be of common descent. However, this concept of ancestry does not apply to some bacteria and other organisms capable of horizontal gene transfer. DNA testing is used in determining ancestry. This can be for paternity testing, to determine the parents of a child for legal purposes. DNA is also used to better understand the ancestry and history of all humans over the last 50,000 years. This was one of the benefits of the Human genome project.

In some cultures ancestors may have relatively little importance. Many today have no knowledge of their own great-great-grandparents. China is an example of a culture that in general has a deep respect for ancestors. Korea is an example of a culture that engages in ancestor worship where ancestors are revered. But genealogy (the study of one's ancestors) is growing in popularity and includes both amateur and professional genealogists.

## Related pages

- Ethnicity
- Kinship
- Generation
- Human Genome Project
River dolphin

**River dolphins** are five species of dolphin which live in fresh water rivers and estuaries. Three species live in fresh water rivers. The La Plata Dolphin lives in salt water estuaries and the ocean.

- South Asian river dolphins (two sub-species)
    - Ganges river dolphin, _Platanista gangetica gangetica_ – Lives in Nepal, Republic of India and Bangladesh
    - Indus river dolphin, _Platanista indicus minor_ – Lives in Pakistan; _National mammal of Pakistan_.
- South American river dolphins (three species)
    - Amazon river dolphin (or Boto), _Inia geoffrensis_ – Largest of river dolphins, lives in Peru and Brazil.
    - Araguaia river dolphin, _Inia araguaiaensis_  – Recently discovered in the river basin in Brazil after which it is named. Identified as a separate species by genetic sequence analysis.
    - La Plata dolphin (or Franciscana), _Pontoporia blainvillei_ – Lives in Argentina.
- Chinese river dolphin (or Baiji), _Lipotes vexillifer_ – Lives in the Yangtze River in China (one of the most endangered of all dolphins and whales). Recent counts have come up with 17 remaining individuals. Scientists now want to raise some dolphins in a lake.

## Differences between marine and river dolphins

Both river dolphins and marine dolphins belong to a group of mammals called cetaceans. The snout of a river dolphin measures about 58 centimeters (2 ft) long, approximately four times as long as that of most marine dolphins. They use their long snout to search for fish on the muddy bottom of the river. River dolphins have smaller eyes than marine dolphins, and their vision is poorly developed because they live in dark, muddy water. River dolphins are less active than marine dolphins because they do not need to search so widely to find fish. Marine dolphins work in pods (packs) because when they find a shoal of fish then they work together to make the most of their find. River dolphins work mostly as individuals or small groups.

## Taxonomy

The following is the taxonomy of river dolphins, or how dolphins are classified:

### River dolphin classification

- Superfamily Platanistoidea
    - Family Platanistidae
        - South Asian river dolphin _Platanista gangetica_ (two subspecies)
            - Ganges river dolphin _P. g. gangetica_
            - Indus dolphin _P. g. minor_
    - Family Iniidae
        - Amazon river dolphin (or Boto) _Inia geoffrensis_
    - Family Lipotidae
        - Chinese river dolphin (or Baiji) _Lipotes vexillifer_
    - Family Pontoporiidae
        - La Plata dolphin (or Franciscana) _Pontoporia blainvillei_

## Other sources

River-Dolphins-and-their-habitat
Estuary

An **estuary** is where a river meets the sea. There, saltwater mixes with freshwater. The river becomes wider and wider and flows slowly to the ocean.

Bays, marshes, swamps, and inlets can all have estuaries. A view of an estuary from the air is usually an interesting sight: many estuaries meander (curve and bend) to find their way to the sea. Estuaries come in all sizes and shapes, each according to its location and climate. Where rivers meet the sea and fresh water mixes with salt water, the mixture is called brackish water.

Some estuaries are very large. They may be large ocean bays that have more than one river flowing into them.  For example, Chesapeake Bay is a large estuary, and several different rivers meet the Atlantic Ocean there.
In simple terms it is where a river meets with a large body of water, only with one outlet and not  many like a delta.

## Habitat

Estuaries are usually filled with shallow waters, and sunlight reaches all levels of the water. Marsh grasses, algae, and other kinds of plants live in estuaries and provide food for a variety of fish, crabs, oysters, and shrimp. Estuaries are especially important since they act as nurseries for many different types of young fish and other animals before they head out toward the open ocean. Many sea birds also nest in estuaries.

The United States government has a program to study and protect the natural environment in many different estuaries, called the National Estuarine Research Reserve System. One reason that the natural environment in so many estuaries is in danger is because they are also good places for people to live and build cities. Unfortunately, many of world's largest cities are at or near estuaries.
A Streetcar Named Desire (1951 movie)

***A Streetcar Named Desire*** is a 1951 movie. It is based on the 1947 play by Tennessee Williams. The movie stars Marlon Brando and Vivien Leigh.

## Infobox (movie)

- **name**: A Streetcar Named Desire
- **image**: A Streetcar Named Desire (1951).jpg
- **director**: Elia Kazan
- **producer**: Charles K. Feldman
- **writer**: Tennessee Williams (play and screenpaly)
Oscar Saul (adaptation)
- **music**: Alex North
- **cinematography**: Harry Stradling Jr.
- **editing**: David Weisbart
- **starring**: Marlon Brando
Vivien Leigh
Kim Hunter
Karl Malden
- **studio**: Warner Bros.,
Charles K. Feldman Group
- **distributor**: Premier Productions
- **released**: September 18, 1951
- **runtime**: 122
- **country**: United States
- **language**: English language, English / Spanish language, Spanish
- **budget**: $1.8 million (estimated)
Tetrahedron

A **tetrahedron** or **triangular pyramid** is a polyhedron (a three-dimensional shape). It has four corners and six edges. All four of its faces are equilateral triangles. Every two edges meet on one of those corners forming a sixty-degree angle.

## Formulas for a regular tetrahedron

A **regular tetrahedron** is a tetrahedron whose edges are the same length. If the length of an edge is _a_:

|Surface area||
| --- | --- |
|Face area||
|Height|and|
|Volume|and|

## Other properties

A regular tetrahedron's faces are all the same, and so are all its edges, as well as its corners. This makes it a regular polyhedron. It is also convex (its faces do not go through one another), which makes it a Platonic solid.

The dual of regular tetrahedron is another regular tetrahedron. This is called being self-dual.
Emission

**Emission** is a word that originally comes from Latin. Originally it means something that is sent out. Several things can be sent out:

- The most common use talks about emission of toxic gases. Those gases get produced by factories and motors, like motors in cars.
- People talk about radio emissions. Those are programmes that people can listen to if they have a radio receiver.
- There could be emissions of loud noise, someone might be making loud noises.
- There also are emissions of light.
California wine

People have made **wine** in the American state of California for a long time. California has become recognized as making some of the world's best wine. California makes most of the wine that is made in America.

## History

People first made wine in California in 1769. Missionaries from Mexico brought their wine plants to produce wine for the mass. Later, people coming from Europe improved the making of wine. They had brought their own kinds of wine plants.

Before 1920, there was more wine made every year. Then Prohibition began. During Prohibition, it was not allowed to sell alcoholic drinks in the United States. It almost ended the making of wine in California. Californian wine-making took a long time to recover.

In 1990, the USA sent less than five percent of its wine to other countries. After that, exports of wine from California increased. Today, the USA is one of the big wine industries.

## Wines

Wine comes in different colors. Most wines are called "red" or "white". White wine is not really white, it just has a very light color.  54 percent of the Californian wines are white wines. Some examples of white wines are Chardonnay and Sauvignon Blanc. Some examples of red wines are Zinfandel, Cabernet-Sauvignon, Merlot, and Pinot Noir.

## Cool climate viticulture

Grapes for wine used to need warm weather. People wanted to grow more grapes, so they learned how to grow them where the weather was not as warm. That way of growing grapes is called "cool climate viticulture". Vines are now planted in colder places, up to  above sea level. Monterey County was the first place where that was done.

## Wine regions

In California, there are more than 800 wine cellars. Wine cellars are big rooms were wine is stored. They are part of a winery, the place where wine is produced.

Two of the most famous growing areas for wine in California are Napa County and Sonoma County. The wines from those places are some of the best in the world. Some examples of the wines made there are Chardonnay and Cabernet Sauvignon.

Other known wineries are in Mendocino, in the Lake Counties, Santa Maria and Santa Barbara.

## Other websites

- 3000 word report - Comprehensive overview Pinot Noir Wine
Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid

***Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid*** is a 1969 American movie from 20th Century Fox. George Roy Hill directed it, and John Foreman produced it. It stars Paul Newman and Robert Redford as two robbers in Wyoming who go to Bolivia to escape the law.

The movie was loosely based on the real story of the two title characters (Butch Cassidy and his friend Harry Longabaugh, also called "Sundance"). But it made the legends of the two more popular.

It won four Academy Awards: for Best Cinematography (shooting work on a movie), Best Original Score, Best Song (Burt Bacharach's "Raindrops Keep Fallin' on My Head") and Best Original Screenplay (William Goldman). It was also nominated for Best Picture, Best Director (Hill) and Best Sound. Goldman won the BAFTA Award for Best Screenplay.

It was one of the largest-grossing movies of the 1960s (with $102.3 million in the United States). It was number fifty on AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies list.

At first, Warren Beatty and Steve McQueen (even Marlon Brando) were called upon to play the title roles. When Newman and Redford took their place, the roles were switched, with Newman as Sundance, and Redford as Cassidy. The studio, 20th Century Fox, did not like Redford's role. But the movie's director, Hill, wanted it that way.

As a result, Redford has said that the movie made him a more famous actor.

The Sundance Film Festival is named after Redford's role, as well his Utah ski resort.

## Other websites

- Movie

## Infobox (film)

- **name**: Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid
- **director**: George Roy Hill
- **producer**: John Foreman (producer), John Foreman
- **writer**: William Goldman
- **music**: Burt Bacharach
- **cinematography**: Conrad Hall
- **distributor**: 20th Century Fox
- **runtime**: 110 minutes
- **country**: United States
- **language**: English
- **budget**: $6 million
- **gross**: $102.3 million
1480s

The **1480s** was a decade that began on 1 January 1480 and ended on 31 December 1489.

It is distinct from the decade known as the ***149th decade*** which began on January 1, 1481 and ended on December 31, 1490.

## Events

- War of the Roses in England.
- Bartolomeu Dias of Portugal sails around Africa and on to India.
- Spanish Inquisition begins.

## Births

- Martin Luther, German monk and reformer
- Raphael, Italian painter and architect
- Huldrych Zwingli, Swiss religious reformer
- Catherine of Aragon, queen of Henry VIII of England

## Deaths

- Mehmed II, Ottoman Sultan
- King Christian I of Denmark and Norway
- Axayacatl, Aztec ruler of Tenochtitlan