juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Kambly

**Kambly** is a Swiss biscuit factory that was founded in 1910 by Oscar Kambly.

## History

He got to know a girl that lived in Trubschachen. It was a real love story. When he went at her home, he had the idea to make a biscuit after his grandmother's recipe in 1906. In 1910 he could absorb the store of his instructor.

## The factory today

Today, Kambly is Switzerland's largest biscuit producer and leading exporter.
Kambly is represented in more than 30 different countries.
It is the most famous and the most liked biscuit brand of Switzerland.
There are two factories, one in Trubschachen and one in Lyss, both in the Canton of Berne. The biscuits can be bought there that the factoriy stores for less than elsewhere.

Oscar Kambly III has administrated the factory since 1983.

Oscar Kambly, who founded the factory led it from 1910-1953.
The first factory was only in Trubschachen, but because Kambly bought the Arni AG in Lyss in 1999. There is now a another station.
There are 420 employees. In 2007, there was a conversion of 164 million Swiss francs. Kambly got the award Brand Excellence Swiss Trophy in 2003.

In 2003, 2005, 2007 and 2008, it got the international prize _Saveur de l'année_

## Products

The oldest product is the "Bretzeli" and has been produced since 1906 and that was invented by Oscar Kambly I.
Some other known products are "Biscuits Butterfly", "Caprice", "Mignon" and "Petit Beurre".

The company also produces salted biscuits.

## Other websites

- Webpage of Kambly.ch

## Infobox (company)

- **company name**: Kambly
- **foundation**: 1910
- **location**: Trubschachen and Lyss, Canton of Berne, BE,
- **key people**: Oscar Kambly
- **num employees**: 420 (2007)
- **products**: biscuits
- **operating income**: 164 millionCHF (2007)
- **homepage**: http://www.kambly.ch
Differential cryptanalysis

**Differential cryptanalysis** is a general form of cryptanalysis applicable to block ciphers. It can be applied to stream ciphers and cryptographic hash functions. It is the study of how differences in the input can affect the resultant differences at the output. In the case of a block cipher, it refers to a set of techniques and methods for tracing differences through the network of transformations, discovering where the cipher demonstrates non-random behaviour, and extend such properties to recover the secret key.

Differential cryptanalysis attacks are usually chosen plaintext attacks, meaning that the attacker must be able to obtain encrypted ciphertexts for some set of plaintexts.

## Related pages

- Linear cryptanalysis
Linear cryptanalysis

In cryptography, **linear cryptanalysis** is a general form of cryptanalysis based on finding affine approximations to the action of a cipher. Attacks have been developed for block ciphers and stream ciphers. Linear cryptanalysis is one of the two most widely used attacks on block ciphers; the other being differential cryptanalysis.

A variety of refinements to the attack have been suggested, including using multiple linear approximations or including non-linear expressions.

Evidence of security against linear cryptanalysis is usually expected of new cipher designs.

## Related pages

- Differential cryptanalysis
Rijndael key schedule

The **Rijndael key schedule** (Advanced Encryption Standard) uses a key schedule to expand a short key into a number of separate round keys.

The three AES variants have different numbers of rounds. Each round has 16 bits in it. Each variant requires a separate 128-bit round key for each round plus one more. The key schedule produces the needed round keys from the initial key. This initial key has only one 8-bit-(1-byte) long array (string of data arranged in a certain order).

One step rotates (shifts) the 32 bits (4 bytes) of a certain word by a fixed amount. For example, rotating by 8 bits (1 byte) shifts each byte one place to the left, and the starting byte goes at the end. Another step arranges each byte in a 16-byte rectangular array and shifts it according to its size. For example, the first byte is unchanged, the second shifted 1 byte to the left, the third 2 bytes to the left and the fourth 3 bytes to the left. It continues until the end of the array.
Gorillaz

**Gorillaz** are an animated British rock band. The band was invented by Damon Albarn, a member of the band Blur, and Jamie Hewlett, who has worked on the comic book series _Tank Girl_. Even though the band members are fictional, they have released a large number of albums and music videos. The band's animated members are 2-D, Noodle, Russel Hobbs, and Murdoc Niccals.

The band's genre is mostly a combination of alternative rock, alternative hip hop, and electronica. It also has elements of experimental, trip hop, dub, and psychedelic rock.

## Live performances

Since they are an animated group, they cannot perform live, like other bands can. At Gorillaz concerts, the real members of the band stand behind screens which show computer-generated images of the animated group performing.

Despite the animated performances, the actual band members did go on tour as the Gorillaz (which the animated band referred to as _that Gorillaz tribute band_), playing at various venues across the states, headlining at Coachella. The live Gorillaz band played at the 2010 Glastonbury Festival, performing in place of u2 due to Bono's emergency back surgery.

### Studio albums

- _Gorillaz_ (2001)
- _Demon Days_ (2005)
- _Plastic Beach_ (2010)
- _The Fall_ (2010)
- _Humanz_ (2017)
- _The Now Now_ (2018)
- _The Song Machine, Season 1: Strange Timez_ (2020)
- _Cracker Island_ (2023)
- _The Mountain_ (2026)

### Compilation albums

- _G-Sides_ (2002)
- _Laika Come Home_ <small>(with Spacemonkeyz)</small> (2002)
- _D-Sides_ (2007)
- _The Singles Collection 2001–2011_ (2011)

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Gorillaz
- **image**: Gorillaz, Brixton Academy, London (34377484273).jpg
- **caption**: Gorillaz, Brixton Academy, London, 2017
- **background**: group_or_band
- **origin**: Essex, United Kingdom
- **years active**: 1998-present
- **current members**: 2-D
Noodle
Russell Hobbs
Murdoc Niccals
- **genre**: Alternative rock, trip hop, electronica, , experimental music, experimental rock
- **label**: Parlophone, Virgin Records, Virgin, EMI
Pantanal

The **Pantanal** is the world's largest wetland or swamp.

It covers a region of 140,000 km<sup>2</sup>, larger than the area covered by the country Greece.

The Pantanal is in South America and shared by Brazil, Bolivia and Paraguay.

There are many threats to the Pantanal such as pollution, mercury from gold mining and ranching. Although the Pantanal can wash some of the chemicals away, the increased amount is becoming a concern.

In winter nearly 80% of the area is flooded.
Balliol College, Oxford

**Balliol College** is one of the colleges of the University of Oxford in England. It was founded in 1263 by John Balliol, father of King John Balliol of Scotland.

Usually, the undergraduate students are among the most politically active students in the university. The college's alumni include Boris Johnson, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, and several former prime ministers. Adam Smith, a graduate student of the college, is one of its best known students. In 2006, 45.1% of finalists got First Class Honours degrees. This is a higher percentage than any other Oxford college has ever had. The college was placed second in the Norrington Table.

## Other websites

- Official website
Erich Mende

**Erich Mende** (28 October 1916 - 6 May 1998 in Bonn) was a German jurist and politician for the Christian-Democratic Union of Germany and the Free Democratic Party of Germany.

Mende was born in Groß Strehlitz, near Oppolne.
1936 he made his abitur. Afterwards he had to do his working service for the state and then his military service.
Up from 1938 he was an officer. At the end of World War II he was major.
After he was set free as prisoner of war, his hometown was made Polish. He found a new home in the Ruhr area. Then he studied laws in Cologne and Bonn.
In 1949 he finished his doctorade thesis.

In 1946 he joined the FDP.
He was Secretary for Intra-German Relations (Bundesminister für gesamtdeutsche Fragen) from 1963 to 1966.
In the same time he was Vice Chancellor of West Germany.
Petra Kelly

**Petra Karin Kelly** (November 23, 1947 – October 1, 1992) was a German politician, peace activist and one of the founders of the Green Party of Germany.

Kelly was born in Günzburg. Her stepfather was a US officer. Her original father and her mother were German.
Her family moved to the US in 1959.
She went to school in both countries.
From 1966 to 1970 he studied political sciences in Washington, D.C..
Kelly campaigned for Robert F. Kennedy in the 1968 U.S. elections.
She admired Martin Luther King and was an anti-Vietnam War protester.
She graduated in 1970 in Washington and got another exam in 1971 in Amsterdam.
Then she returned to West Germany.
She worked for the European Commission in Brussels from 1971 to 1983.

She was one of the founders of the Green Party in Germany in 1979 – the first Green Party worldwide.
From 1983 to 1990 she was a member of the Bundestag for the Greens.
Kelly received the Right Livelihood Award in 1982.

Petra Kelly, who was seriously ill, died in Bonn in 1992, aged 44. She had been shot by her partner, politician and former general Bert Bastian, who committed suicide afterwards.

## Other websites

- _The Life and Death of Petra Kelly_ by Sara Parkin, Rivers Oram Press/Pandora, 1995 ()
- _Thinking Green! Essays on Environmentalism, Feminism, and Nonviolence_ by Petra K. Kelly, Parallax Press, Berkeley, California, 1994 ()
- _Nonviolence Speaks to Power_ by Petra K. Kelly, online book , almost complete text (also, out of print, published by Matsunaga Institute for Peace, University of Hawaii, 1992, )
- Curriculum Vitae with picture
- Happiness is a Warm Gun. Film on Petra Kelly's death
- Right Livelihood Award website
- Petra Kelly Archives at the Heinrich Böll Foundation
- Petra Kelly prize for human rights, ecology and non-violence
Along the River During Qingming Festival

***Along the River During Qingming Festival*** is a well known panoramic Chinese painting by artist Zhang Zeduan (1085-1145). It was painted during the Song Dynasty.  The painting is among the most famous of all Chinese paintings. It is kept at the Forbidden City, also known as the "Palace Museum" in Beijing.
Kaiserswerth

**Kaiserswerth** is a settlement with a more than 1,000-year history.
It is one of the oldest parts of Düsseldorf.

## Geography

It is in the north of Düsseldorf, next to the river Rhine. Kaiserswerth has 7,712 inhabitants and an area of 4.71 km².

## History

About the year 700 the monk St. Suitbert founded a Benedictine-abbey there.
It was destroyed 88 years later.

The Kaiserpfalz (temporary seat of the Holy Roman Emperor) was built in 1045.

In 1062 the young German King Heinrich IV (still a child) was kidnapped by the archbishop of Cologne.

In 1174 Friederick I Barbarossa moved the Rhine customs collection to Kaiserswerth. So the bishop took over control over the whole empire.

Following emperors used Kaiserswerth as temporary seat like as prison for high-range prisoners.

Between 1212 and 1215 the Count of Berg tried to get out prisoners and made the ground around the Castle dry.

In 1273 the Emperor pledged Kaiserswerth to the archbishop of Cologne.

In 1689 Kaiserswerth was particularly destroyed by France during the War of the Palatine Succession. During the Spanish war of succession the Bishop of Cologne stayed with France.

Kaiserswerth got a French garrison. In 1702 the city was therefore besieged by the Grand Alliance. After that war the castle was mostly destroyed.

In the 19th century Kaiserswerth was famous by its deaconess clinic. Florence Nightingale visited in 1850 and learned from Pastor Theodor Fliedner and the deaconesses working there for the sick and the deprived. Nightingale published _The Institution of Kaiserswerth on the Rhine, for the Practical Training of Deaconesses, etc._ in 1851 - her first publication.

Kaiserswerth became a part of Düsseldorf in 1929.

## Other websites

- Kaiserswerth in Spanish succession war 1702
Vichy

**Vichy** () is a _commune_ in central France, in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region, along the Allier river. It is the _commune_ in the department with second largest population after Montluçon. It is in the historic province of _Bourbonnais_.

## History

Vichy has lots of Spas and resorts. This site was inhabited before the Roman conquest of Gaul.

In 1861, Napoleon III visited Vichy several times.

During World War II, it was the capital city of Vichy France.

## Geography

The _commune_ of Vichy is on the southern part of the Allier department. The city is on the right side of the Allier river.

The _commune_ has an area of , and its average altitude is ; at the city hall, the altitude is .

The distances from Vichy to other cities are:
- Paris, the national capital - ;
- Lyon, the regional capital - ;
- Reims - ;
- Bordeaux - ;
- Toulouse - ;
- Montpellier - ;
- Strasbourg - ;
- Nantes - ;
- Marseille - .

Vichy is surrounded by the _communes_ Creuzier-le-Vieux, Cusset, Le Vernet, Abrest, Bellerive-sur-Allier and Charmeil.

### Climate

The Köppen climate classification type for the climate at Vichy is an "Oceanic climate" (also known as Maritime Temperate climate) and of the subtype "Cfb".

## Population

The inhabitants of Vichy are known, in French, as _Vichyssois_ (women: _Vichyssoises_).

With a population of 25,279, Vichy is the second largest city of the Allier department. It has a population density of  inhabitants/km<sup>2</sup>.

**Evolution of the population in Vichy**

## Administration

Vichy is a subprefecture of the Allier department since 1941; before that year, the subprefecture was in Lapalisse. It is also the capital of the _arrondissement_ of Vichy and the administrative centre () of two cantons:
- Vichy-1 formed by 3 _communes_ and part of Vichy, with 18,420 inhabitants <small>(2014)</small>.
- Vichy-2 formed by 2 _communes_ and part of Vichy, with 18,763 inhabitants <small>(2014)</small>.

It is part of the intercommunality _Vichy Communauté_.

### Sister cities

Vichy is twinned with:
- Wilhelmshaven, Lower Saxony, Germany
- Bad Tölz, Bavaria, Germany
- Rhein-Neckar-Kreis, Baden-Württemberg, Germany
- Dunfermline, Fife, Scotland
- Logroño, La Rioja, Spain
- San Giuliano Terme, Tuscany, Italy

## Related pages

- Arrondissement of Vichy
- Communes of the Allier department
- Capital of France

## Other websites

- Ville de Vichy council website
- Official Website of the Tourist Office of Hydrotherapy and Vichy

## Infobox (french commune)

- **name**: Vichy
- **image coat of arms**: Blason fr Vichy.svg
- **image**: Zone urbaine (VICHY,FR03).jpg
- **caption**: Vichy and the Aller river.
- **arrondissement**: Vichy
- **canton**: Chief town of 2 cantons:
 * Vichy-1
 * Vichy-2
- **intercommunality**: Vichy Communauté
- **mayor**: Claude Malhuret
- **term**: 2014-2020
- **elevation m**: 280
- **elevation min m**: 243
- **elevation max m**: 317
- **area km2**: 5.85
- **population demonym**: Vichyssois
- **population**: 25279
- **population date**: 2014
- **insee**: 03310
- **postal code**: 03200
- **website**: [https://www.ville-vichy.fr/ www.ville-vichy.fr]
Indochina

**Indochina** or the **Indochinese Peninsula** or the Mainland Southeast Asia is a region in Southeast Asia.

The region lies roughly east of India, south of China.

Indochina comprises the territory of the following countries:
- Cambodia
- Laos
- Vietnam

Those countries have been known as Indochina since they were French Indochina.

Often also included in the scope of the term are:
- Peninsular Malaysia (comprising the southern end of the Malay Peninsula but not the Malay Islands)
- Myanmar (formerly known as Burma)
- Singapore
- Thailand (formerly Siam)
Wadi Halfa

**Wadi Halfa** is a small city in the northern part of Sudan by Lake Nubia (the Sudanese section of Lake Nasser).

It has 6 neighborhoods with inhabitants of 18,000 people. There is a highway under construction which will connect it with Aswan in Egypt and via Dongola with Khartoum.

Wadi Halfa is now one of fastest growing cities in Sudan.

in 1964 when the Aswan Dam was built, the old city of Wadi Halfa was flooded and Nubians were forced to relocate in New Halfa. Now there is a huge number of Nubians are immigrating back to their mother land.

Wadi Halfa is a home of Geology and earth science college with student body of more than 500 students.
Mechanical energy

In physics, **mechanical energy** describes the potential energy and kinetic energy present in the components of a mechanical system.

When a given amount of mechanical energy is transferred (such as when throwing a ball, lifting a box, crushing a soda can, or stirring a beverage) it is said that this amount of mechanical work has been done. Both mechanical energy and mechanical work are measured in the same units as energy in general. It is usually said that a component of a system has a certain amount of "mechanical energy" (i.e. it is a state function), whereas "mechanical work" describes the amount of mechanical energy a component has gained or lost.

The conservation of mechanical energy is a principle that states that under certain conditions, the total mechanical energy of a system is constant. This rule does not hold when mechanical energy is converted to other forms, such as chemical, nuclear, or electromagnetic. However, the principle of general conservation of energy is so far an unbroken rule of physics - as far as we know, energy cannot be created or destroyed, only changed in form.
Virtue

**Virtue** (Latin _virtus_; Greek ἀρετή) is a kind of behaviour which is thought to be good.  The adjective is "virtuous".  Someone who lives a virtuous life is someone who leads a good moral life, doing things that society thinks are good.  The opposite of virtue is vice.

Philosophers throughout the ages have written their ideas about what they think virtue is.  The Ancient Greek philosophers from Plato onwards said that virtue consisted of four things: Justice, Courage, Wisdom, and Moderation.  In the Christian religion the three virtues  were Faith, Hope and Charity.  These are mentioned in the Bible in the First Epistle to the Corinthians chapter 13 verse 13.  These virtues are also very important in the Judaic and Muslim traditions.

## Related pages

- Ethics
- Justice
- Seven deadly sins
- Virtue ethics
- Virtue signalling
Greyhound Lines

**Greyhound Lines** (commonly called _Greyhound_) is a company in the United States that runs bus services between cities. It was founded in 1914. Its parent company is on the London Stock Exchange.  The buses use air brakes and hold over 200 gallons of diesel.
Twofish

In cryptography, **Twofish** is a symmetric key block cipher with a block size of 128 bits and key lengths up to 256 bits.

In 1997, the NIST announced for competition to choose a successor to DES to be known as AES, Twofish was one of the _five finalists_ of the Advanced Encryption Standard competition, but was not selected as a standard.

Twofish is related to the earlier block cipher Blowfish. Twofish's main features are the use of pre-computed key-dependent S-boxes, and a relatively complex key schedule. One half of an n-bit key is used as the actual encryption key and the other half of the n-bit key is used to modify the encryption algorithm (key-dependent S-boxes). Twofish uses some elements from other designs; for example, the pseudo-Hadamard transform (PHT) from the SAFER family of ciphers. Twofish uses the same Feistel structure as the DES.

On most software platforms Twofish is slightly slower than Rijndael (the chosen algorithm for Advanced Encryption Standard) for 128-bit keys, but somewhat faster for 256-bit keys.

## Creators

Twofish was designed by Bruce Schneier, John Kelsey, Doug Whiting, David Wagner, Chris Hall, and  Niels Ferguson; the "extended Twofish team" who met to made further cryptanalysis of Twofish and other AES competitors included Stefan Lucks, Tadayoshi Kohno, and Mike Stay.

Twofish algorithm is free for anyone to use without any restrictions whatsoever. The Twofish cipher has not been patented and the software example of its specification has been placed in the public domain. However, Twofish is not widely used like the Blowfish, which has been available for a longer period of time.

## Cryptanalysis

As of 2008, the best published cryptanalysis on the Twofish block cipher is a truncated differential cryptanalysis of the full 16-round version. The paper claims that the probability of truncated differentials attacks is 2<sup>-57.3</sup> per block and that it will take about 2<sup>51</sup> chosen plaintexts (32 PiB worth of data) to find a good pair of truncated differentials.

Bruce Schneier responds in a 2005 blog entry that this paper does not present a full cryptanalytic attack, but only some hypothesized differential characteristics: "But even from a theoretical perspective, Twofish is not even remotely broken. There have been no extensions to these results since they were published" in 2000.

## Related pages

- Blowfish (cipher)
- Advanced Encryption Standard
- Data Encryption Standard

## Other websites

- Twofish web page with full specifications, free source code, and other Twofish resources.
- David Wagner's sci.crypt post recommending AES over Twofish  — Wagner was one of the designers of Twofish.
- SCAN's entry for Twofish
- http://www.schneier.com/twofish-products.html List of products using TwoFish
Truncated differential cryptanalysis

In cryptography, **truncated differential cryptanalysis** is a generalization of differential cryptanalysis, an attack model against block ciphers. In 1994 Lars Knudsen designed the technique, during this period ordinary differential cryptanalysis analyzes the full difference between two texts, the truncated version considers differences that are only determined to some extent. It has been applied to SAFER, IDEA, Skipjack, E2, Twofish, Camellia, CRYPTON, and the stream cipher Salsa20 as well.
Maghreb

The **Maghreb** ( ) is the western part of the Arab world. It is in North Africa. The term is generally applied to all of Mauritania, Western Sahara, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya, but in older Arabic usage meant only the area of the three countries between the high ranges of the Atlas Mountains and the Mediterranean Sea (Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia). Historically, some writers also included Muslim ruled regions in Spain, Portugal, Sicily and Malta in the definition. Malta, in particular, still speaks Maltese, a language based on Maghrebi Arabic. Many Maghrebis (Algeria, Morocco) emigrate to Western Europe (especially the nearby France and Spain).

The Maghreb can be best understood by the many ways the region is both like and unlike other countries around the Mediterranean Sea and the Western Cape in South Africa, and the contrasts with the rest of Africa. The region faces various challenges, including security issues related to terrorism and migration. The population is mainly Arab or of Berber origin, or a mixture of the two. Arabic is the dominant language, but many populations also speak other languages, such as Tamazight. The region has mountain ranges (notably the Atlas), coastal plains, and the Sahara Desert. Historically, it was the westernmost point of the Islamic world, and the term was used to refer to regions beyond Egypt. Couscous is an emblematic dish of the region. The Arab Maghreb Union (AMU) is a regional organization for political and economic cooperation, which includes Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco and Tunisia.

## Other websites

- Politics, economics, and human affairs analysis in the Maghhreb
- Radio Online of the Maghreb
- News and Views of the Maghreb
Plaintext

In cryptography, **plaintext** is the information which the sender wants to transmit to the receiver(s).

Before computers, plaintext meant text in the language of the communicating parties.  Since computers, the definition has been expanded. It now includes not only the electronic representation of text, such as emails and word processor documents, but also the computer representation of speech, music, pictures, videos, ATM and credit card transactions, sensor data, and so forth. That is basically any information which the communicating parties might wish to hide from others.  The plaintext is the normal representation of the data before any action has been taken to hide it.

The plaintext is used as input to an encryption algorithm; the output is termed **ciphertext**.  Some systems, however, use a cascade of layers of encryption (called 'rounds') in which case the ciphertext output of one encryption algorithm becomes the plaintext input to the next. Triple DES is an example.

## Related pages

- Cleartext
Ciphertext

In cryptography, **ciphertext** (or cyphertext) refers to the output of the encryption process. Plaintext is turned into ciphertext using an algorithm (cipher). This makes it unreadable to anyone except those who own unique information about it, usually referred to as a key.

**Decryption** is the reverse process of **encryption**. It takes the unreadable **ciphertext** as an input and makes it readable again in the form of plaintext.

## Other websites

- Ciphertext -Citizendium
Azad Kashmir Day

**Azad Kashmir Day** celebrates the 75th day of the Azad Jammu Kashmir government, created on the 24th of October in 1947. However, most people celebrate it on 26 October as they class it as a lucky day once all the papers were signed and settled. However the whole Jammu & Kashmir as well as Ladakh & Aksai Chin was, is & will always be the integral part of India.

Jai Hind !!
Nyon

**Nyon** is a municipality in the district of Nyon in the canton of Vaud in Switzerland. It is found 25 kilometers north of Geneva, and is part of the Geneva metropolitan area. The town has (as of 2006) 17,267 people.

## History

Nyon was built by the Romans between 50 BCE and 44 BCE, and was called "Colonia Iulia Equestris" or "Colonia Equestris Noiodunum". It grew to be one of the most important Roman colonies in modern-day Switzerland, with a forum, a basilica and an amphitheater that was discovered in 1996.

## Modern Day Nyon

Today, Nyon has a high school (Gymnase de Nyon), a hospital, a movie theatre, hotels, restaurants, cafes and a popular tourist attraction - the castle.
In the last week of July each year, Nyon hosts the Paléo Festival - a huge music festival.

## Other websites

- Official website of the town (available in French, English and German)
- Web site of the Roman Museum of Nyon (same languages as above link)
- Paléo Festival
- Rugby Club Nyon
- Ultimate Frisbee Club, Les Mange-Disques de Nyon
- La Redoute, Popular neighbourhood of Nyon
Letterkenny

**Letterkenny** () is a town in County Donegal of the Ireland. It is  on the River Swilly and has a population of 17,586.

In 1824, when the first description of Letterkenny as a modern town was written, it was stated that: _"Within half a mile is the Port of Ballyraine, whither vessels of 100 tons bring iron, salt and colonial produce and whence they export hides and butter"_. Nothing is left of the port now except the warehouses.

Letterkenny achieved town status in the early 1920s following the partition of Ireland.
Thalwil

**Thalwil** is a municipality in the district of Horgen in the canton of Zürich in Switzerland.

## History

Early Middle Ages Thalwil was Alemannic farmland.

Thalwil was originally four _Wachten_, or hamlets:
- Ludretikon, the oldest hamlet (mentioned in 915), bordering Rüschlikon
- Oberdorf (Upper Village), the area around the church
- Unterdorf (Lower Village), the area roughly south of the railway station
- Langnau am Albis, (which separated from Thalwil around 1713)

In the Middle Ages, most income was made in farming, vineyards and a small amount of fishing on the lake.
Thalwil also has the oldest wood corporation in the Canton of Zurich, the _Bannegg-Waldung_. It was first mentioned in 1483.

## Modern day Thalwil

Today, the economy of Thalwil is mostly some small and medium-sized businesses, and a wide range of shops. Most of the shops are located around Gotthardstrasse- the town centre.

The main source of Thalwil's wealth lies with its 7,000 commuters. These people live in Thalwil, but work in Zurich city. Today, Thalwil has left most of its farming past behind in exchange for a town of commuters, with its public transportation links, low tax and good quality of life.

## Other websites

- Official website of the Thalwil Gemeinde
- Blog about life in Thalwil
- Thalwiler Anzeiger newspaper
Hearth

A **hearth** is a brick or stone lined fireplace or oven that is used for cooking and heating. Historically, the hearth was the center of the home, as it provided heat for the house.

In more modern times, the hearth may be a section of the fireplace that can be seen. This often includes tiles around the base of the fireplace and the floor.
Jack-o'-lantern

A **Jack-o'-lantern** is a carved pumpkin, turnip, beet, or potato. In the 19th and 20th centuries people in Scotland and Ireland carved Halloween lanterns from large yellow turnips. This custom has become less prevalent in recent years as supermarkets have begun selling the larger and easier-to-carve American pumpkins.

In Irish lore, the Jack-o'-lantern is from the story of Stingy Jack. Jack was a clever man who cheated the devil several times. Once when Jack was leaving hell, the devil threw him a glowing coal to light his way. Jack put the coal in a hollowed-out turnip to make the first "Jack-o'-lantern". Lore says Jack can still be seen wandering the world with his turnip lantern, especially around All Saints Day, November 1.

In the United States, the carved pumpkin was first associated with the harvest season in general, long before it became an emblem of Halloween. In 1900, an article on Thanksgiving entertaining recommended a lit Jack-o'-lantern as part of the festivities.

To make a Jack-o'-lantern, the top of the pumpkin surrounding the stump of the vine is cut off. This top will be used as a "lid" when the Jack-o'-lantern is completed. The seeds and pulp inside the pumpkin are scooped out using a spoon or one's hands. The seeds may be roasted in a hot oven, and then salted to make a snack.

Once the inside of the pumpkin is clean, a face is carved into one side of the pumpkin. The eyes and nose are usually triangles. The mouth is usually filled with jagged teeth. A candle, devotional candle in a candle-holder, or a flashlight is put inside the Jack-o'-lantern and lit. The "lid" is replaced. The lid may be placed slightly askew to keep the candle alit.

In the United States, a completely carved and lit Jack-o'-lantern is put on the porch, the porch steps, or in a window to welcome trick-or-treaters on Halloween. Once the pumpkin is carved, it is good for nothing else and lasts only a day or two before it starts to rot. Pumpkins used to make Jack-o'-lanterns are inedible. In the United States, mischief-makers steal the Jack-o'-lanterns of their neighbors. The pumpkins are smashed in the street, dropped from a bridge, or otherwise destroyed.
West Coast blues

The **West Coast blues** is a type of blues music related to jazz and jump blues, with lots of piano sounds and jazz guitar solos, which originated from Texas blues musicians that moved to California in the 1940s.  West Coast blues also uses smooth, honey-toned vocals, often sounding similar to urban blues.

**Texas and the West Coast**

The best known West Coast blues musicians may be guitarist T-Bone Walker, famous for the song "Call It Stormy Monday (But Tuesday Is Just As Bad)", originally from Texas, he had made his first recordings in the late 1920s. During the early 1940's Walker moved to Los Angeles, where he recorded a lot of music for Capital, Black & White, and Imperial. Walker an electric guitar sound to the blues, prossibly doing more to make the use of electric guitar popular in blues than anyone else. Much of his material had a jazzy jump blues feel, which is typical of popular blues from California in the 1940s and 1950s. Other Texas bluesmen followed: Pianist/songwriter Amos Milburn, singer Percy Mayfield, famous for the song "Hit the Road Jack", and Charles Brown moved to Los Angeles. Guitarist Pee Wee Crayton divided his time between Los Angeles and San Francisco, while Lowell Fulson, from Texas by way of Oklahoma, moved to Oakland.

After the efforts of Tom Mazzolini, producer of the San Francisco Blues Festival, started in 1974, and the efforts of recording companies like Arhoolie and HighTone, the West Coast is one of the most important blues areas in the country.

## Other websites

- Bay Area Blues Society

## Infobox (music genre)

- **name**: West Coast blues
- **bgcolor**: #0000E1
- **color**: white
- **stylistic origins**: Blues, Jazz blues, Jump blues
- **cultural origins**: Texas
- **instruments**: Piano, Guitar
- **popularity**: <small>United States
1940s — Present
Third person

**Third person** (or **third-person**) may refer to:

- A grammatical person, _he_, _she_, and _they_ in many languages
- Third-person narrative, a perspective in story-telling
    - Third-person view, a point-of-view in film, television, and video games that is shown outside any of the actors or characters.
        - Third-person shooter, a genre of 3D computer and video games in which the onscreen character is seen at a distance from a number of different possible angles
- Third Person, a New York City improvising trio

## Related pages

- First person (disambiguation)
- Second person (disambiguation)
Bushfire

A **bushfire** is a wildfire that happens mostly in the Australian bush. Bush is the word for scrub, woodland or grassland of Australia and New Zealand. In south east and south west of Australia, bushfires are most common in the summer and early autumn. In the north of Australia, bushfires usually happen during winter which is the dry season. Many Australian plants burn easily. Eucalyptus trees have a high oil content which makes them burn. Over the last 40 years, Australian bushfires have cost around 2.5 billion Australian dollars. In the same period, Australian bushfires caused the death of around 250 people and the destruction of 4,554 homes.But these figures do not include the 173 people who died and the 2000 homes destroyed in the 2009 Victorian bushfires. They can also kill wildlife including rare koalas.

## Related pages

- Wildfire
- Fire ecology
Artificial selection

**Artificial selection** is the intentional breeding of plants or animals. It means the same thing as **selective breeding** and is an ancient method of genetic engineering.

Selective breeding is a technique used when breeding domesticated animals, such as dogs, pigeons or cattle. Some of these animals may have traits that a breeder will want to carry over to the next generation. The breeder will therefore select those animals to breed which have that quality, rather than those that do not.

Inbreeding is a particular kind of selective breeding, designed to produce a population which is genetically virtually identical.  Such populations are rarely viable outside the laboratory.  They lose fertility.  To control this, most breeds are outcrossed or backcrossed to wild-type individuals, or at least less inbred stock. The details differ from breed to breed.  The improvement when outcrossing is done is called hybrid vigour.

Charles Darwin used the example of artificial selection to introduce his idea of natural selection. Artificial selection may be contrasted with the process of natural selection. In natural selection, the differential reproduction of organisms with certain traits happens. This is because some variations help the organism to have better survival and reproduction. The process maintains or enhances the fitness of a population in its natural habitat.

Artificial selection may sometimes be unintentional; it is thought that domestication of crop<nowiki/>s by early humans was largely unintentional.
Selectable marker

A **selectable marker** is a reporter gene introduced into a cell along with a gene insert. What this means is, the experimenter can tell the right gene is in the cell because the marker can be seen or detected.

Most often, this is used for  bacteria or for cells in culture. Selectable markers show the success of a transfection or other procedure meant to introduce foreign DNA into a cell. It is a technique in gene targeting and gene knockout.

Selectable markers are often antibiotic resistance genes; bacteria that have been subjected to a procedure to introduce foreign DNA are grown on a medium containing an antibiotic.  The antibiotic knocks out cells which do not have the resistant marker. Those bacterial colonies that can grow have successfully taken up and expressed the introduced genetic material.

An alternative to a selectable marker is a **screenable marker**, which allows the researcher to distinguish between wanted and unwanted cells.

Examples of selectable markers include:
- Beta-lactamase which confers ampicillin resistance to bacterial hosts.
- Neo gene from Tn5, which confers antibiotic resistance to kanamycin in bacteria and to geneticin in eukaryote cells.
- Mutant FabI gene (mFabI) from _E. coli_ genome, which confers triclosan resistance to the host.
Evolutionary algorithm

In computer science, especially in artificial intelligence, **evolutionary algorithms** (**EA**) are a kind of algorithm that simulate evolution to optimise something. Each generation of solution is subjected to some kind of fitness function; those that _survive_ are then recombined in some way to make the next generation of solution. This is done until a certain level of fitness is reached, or a determined number of generations have been used.
Artificial life

**Artificial life** (commonly **Alife** or **alife**) is a field of study that looks at systems related to life, its processes, and its evolution. This is done with simulations using computer models, robotics, and biochemistry. There are three main kinds of alife, named for their approaches: _soft_, (from software); _hard_, (from hardware); and _wet (_from biochemistry). Artificial life simulates traditional biology by trying to _recreate_ biological phenomena. It is common for "artificial life" to refer to soft alife in specific.
Nils Aall Barricelli

**Nils Aall Barricelli** (24 January 1912 – 27 January 1993) was a Norwegian-Italian mathematician.

Barricelli's early computer-assisted experiments in symbiogenesis and evolution are considered pioneering in artificial life research. Barricelli, who was independently rich, held an unpaid residency at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey in 1953, 1954. and 1956. He later worked at the University of California, Los Angeles, at Vanderbilt University (until 1964), in the Department of Genetics of the University of Washington, Seattle (until 1968) and then at the Mathematics Institute of the University of Oslo. Barricelli published in a variety of fields including virus genetics, DNA, theoretical biology, space flight, theoretical physics and mathematical language.

## Other websites

- Barricelli's Universe (make-digital.com)
- George Dyson TED talk discusses Barricelli
Ingo Rechenberg

_Ingo Rechenberg_' ( January 20 1934 in Berlin - September 25, 2021)  is a German computer scientist and professor. Rechenberg is a pioneer of the fields of evolutionary computation and artificial evolution.   In the 1960s and 1970s, he invented a highly influential set of optimization methods known as evolution strategies (from German _Evolutionsstrategie_). His group successfully applied the new algorithms to challenging problems such as aerodynamic wing design. These were the first serious technical applications of artificial evolution, an important subset of the still growing field of bionics.

Rechenberg was educated at the Technical University of Berlin and at the University of Cambridge. Since 1972, he was a full professor at the Technical University of Berlin, in the Department of Bionics and Evolution Techniques.

His awards include the Lifetime Achievement Award of the Evolutionary Programming Society (US, 1995) and the Evolutionary Computation Pioneer Award of the IEEE Neural Networks Society (US, 2002). In 1954, Rechenberg also became world champion in the field of model airplanes.

## Selected bibliography

- Ingo Rechenberg (1971): Evolutionsstrategie - Optimierung technischer Systeme nach Prinzipien der biologischen Evolution (PhD thesis). Reprinted by Fromman-Holzboog (1973).
- Ingo Rechenberg: Evolutionsstrategie '94. Stuttgart: Frommann-Holzboog 1994.

## Other websites

- Rechenberg's Bionic's Lab in Berlin  (in German) and in English
Evolution strategy

**Evolution strategies** are ways to solve a problem using evolutionary algorithms. The term was coined by Ingo Rechenberg.
John Henry Holland

**John Henry Holland** (February 2, 1929 – August 9, 2015) was an American scientist. He was Professor of Psychology and Professor of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. He was a pioneer in complex system and nonlinear science. He was known as the father of genetic algorithms.

Holland died on August 9, 2015 in Ann Arbor, Michigan, aged 86.
Ontario Lacus

**Ontario Lacus** is a lake filled with methane and ethane near the south pole of Saturn's moon Titan.  It was identified as a hydrocarbon lake and confirmed by data from the Cassini spacecraft. This discovery was announced in the 31 July 2008 edition of _Nature_. Ontario Lacus is about 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> in area, and is named after Lake Ontario in North America, which is a similar size and shape.

## Infobox (infobox)

- **name**: Infobox/doc
- **title**: **Ontario Lacus**
- **image**:
- **caption**: Ontario Lacus is the dark shape near the centre-left of this image of Titan (moon), Titan's south pole.
- **header1**: Feature on Titan
- **label2**: Type
- **data2**: Lacus
- **label3**: Latitude
- **data3**: 72S
- **label4**: Longitude
- **data4**: 183W
- **label5**: Diameter
- **label6**: Eponym
- **data6**: Lake Ontario
Penetrometer

A **penetrometer** is a device to test the strength of a material.

It is often used on soil. The penetrometer is dropped on soil or it is pressed against soil to measure how deep a hole it makes. This is a way to decide if soil is strong enough to build a road on. Scientists can use a penetrometer to measure how much moisture is in soil. Penetrometers are used on space probes such as the Cassini-Huygens probe, to measure the amount of moisture in soil on other planets.

## Sources

- University of Arizona document, "An impact penetrometer for a landing spacecraft". http://www.lpl.arizona.edu/~rlorenz/acce.pdf
- A picture of a penetrometer from the European Space Agency (ESA) http://www.esa.int/esaSC/SEM7EXGHZTD_index_1.html
Crème brûlée

**Crème brûlée** (or **Crème brulée**) is a dessert. It is made of custard. It is topped with a thin, brittle crust of caramelized sugar. It may be served cold, warm, or at room temperature. The custard is baked, and then sprinkled with sugar Casa  that is caramelized under a broiler or with a kitchen blowtorch. The custard is flavored with vanilla. Other flavorings include chocolate, orange liqueur, fruit, or other. The caramelized sugar crust can be covered with a liqueur and set on fire.

The exact origin of crème brûlée is uncertain. It is claimed that crème brûlée originated in France, England, and Spain. The first printed recipe for a dessert called crème brûlée is from the 1691 edition of the French cookbook _Le Cuisinier Royal et Bourgeois_ by Francois Massialot, a cook at the Palace of Versailles. That version was a sweet custard of egg yolks and milk with a burnt sugar crust. It is similar to the modern versions. In the second edition of the book, the dessert is called _crème anglaise_.

At Trinity College, Cambridge the dessert was known as 'burnt cream'. The college crest was burnt into sugar on top of a custard using a hot iron. It may predate Massialot's cookbook with one authority claiming it was first served at Trinity in 1630.

Catalans claim their dessert known as _crema catalana_ is the original. It is a rich custard often flavoured with cinnamon and lemon or orange zest topped with carmelized sugar. The Catalan version was first recorded in the 18th century. It is also called _Crema de Sant Josep_, after Saint Joseph, the husband of the Virgin Mary. In Spain and in many other parts of Europe, Saint Joseph’s Day is celebrated on 19 March. _Crema Catalana_ is a traditional dessert served on this day.

## Other websites

- A guide to crème brûlée history and how to prepare a recipe
Kraken Mare

**Kraken Mare** is the largest known lake on the surface of Saturn's moon Titan. It was discovered in 2007 by the Cassini probe and was named in 2008 after the Kraken, a legendary sea monster.

Kraken Mare is believed to be the largest of seas and lakes near Titan's north pole. It was discovered as a sea of hydrocarbons by radar pictures. Only a small part of the sea has been pictured by radar, but its full size is seen in visible light pictures. Kraken Mare is believed to be similar in size to the Caspian Sea.

An island in the sea is named Mayda Insula.

## Other websites

- Map of Titan's north pole, based on radar imagery, showing Kraken Mare's location

## Infobox (infobox)

- **name**: Infobox/doc
- **title**: **Kraken Mare**
- **image**:
- **caption**: A radar picture (top) mixed with a visible light picture of Titan's north pole, showing the full size of Kraken Mare.
- **header1**: Feature on Titan
- **label2**: Type
- **data2**: Mare
- **label3**: Latitude
- **data3**: 68N
- **label4**: Longitude
- **data4**: 310W
- **label5**: Diameter
- **label6**: Eponym
- **data6**: Kraken
Ligeia Mare

**Ligeia Mare** is a lake on Titan at 79.0° N, 248.0° W, measuring around 500 km in width. It is named after Ligeia, one of the sirens in Greek mythology. Ligeia Mare has been a proposed lake to land the Titan Lake In-situ Sampling Propelled Explorer space probe

## Other websites

- Map of the liquid bodies in the north polar region of Titan

## Infobox (infobox)

- **name**: Infobox/doc
- **title**: **Ligeia Mare**
- **image**:
- **caption**: Map of Ligeia Mare by an amateur cartographer
- **header1**: Feature on Titan
- **label2**: Type
- **data2**: Mare
- **label3**: Latitude
- **data3**: 79N
- **label4**: Longitude
- **data4**: 248W
- **label5**: Diameter
- **label6**: Eponym
- **data6**: Ligeia
Keystream

In cryptography, a **keystream** is a stream of random or pseudorandom characters that are combined with a plaintext message to produce an encrypted message (the ciphertext).

The "characters" in the keystream can be bits, bytes, numbers or actual characters like A-Z depending on the usage case.

Usually each character in the keystream is either added, subtracted or XORed with a character in the plaintext to produce the ciphertext, using modular arithmetic.

Keystreams are used in the one-time pad cipher and in most stream ciphers. Block ciphers can also be used to produce keystreams. For example, the CTR mode (also known as Integer Counter Mode (ICM)) is a block mode that makes a block cipher produce a keystream then turns the block cipher into a stream cipher.

## Example

In this simple example we will use only the English alphabet of 26 characters from a-z, therefore we will not encrypt numbers, commas, spaces and other symbols. As we have only 26 characters the random numbers in the keystream have to be at least between 0 and 25.

To encrypt we add the keystream numbers to the plaintext. And to decrypt we subtract the same keystream numbers from the ciphertext to get the plaintext.

If a ciphertext number becomes larger than 25 we wrap it to a value between 0-25. I.e. 26 becomes 0 and 27 becomes 1 and so on. (Such wrapping is called modular arithmetic.)

Here the plaintext message "attack at dawn" is combined by addition with the keystream "kjcngmlhylyu" and produces the ciphertext "kcvniwlabluh".

|Plaintext||||||||||||
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|a|t|t|a|c|k|a|t|d|a|w|n|
|0|19|19|0|2|10|0|19|3|0|22|13|
|k|j|c|n|g|m|l|h|y|l|y|u|
|10|9|2|13|6|12|11|7|24|11|24|20|
|10|28|21|13|8|22|11|26|27|11|46|33|
|10|2|21|13|8|22|11|0|1|11|20|7|
|k|c|v|n|i|w|l|a|b|l|u|h|

## References

- _Handbook of Applied Cryptography_ by Menezes, van Oorschot and Vanstone (2001), chapter 1, 6 and 7.