juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Macedonia (ancient kingdom)

**Macedonia** (Greek: Μακεδονία) or **Macedon** was an Ancient Greek kingdom of the Archaic and Classical Greece, and later the most powerful state of Hellenistic Greece. The kingdom was established and was at first ruled by the royal Argead dynasty, which was followed by the Antipatrid and Antigonid dynasties. Home to the ancient Macedonians, the earliest kingdom was centered on the northeastern part of the Greek peninsula, and bordered by Epirus to the west, Paeonia to the north, Thrace to the east and Thessaly to the south.

Alexander the Great made it the most powerful kingdom in the Near East for a few years. When he died the empire fell apart and the Antigonid dynasty ruled Macedonia as a small empire. Centuries later the Roman Empire conquered Macedonia and much of Alexander's empire.

### Argead dynasty

- Karanus 808-778 BC
- Koinos
- Tyrimmas
- Perdiccas I 700-678 BC
- Argaeus I 678-640 BC
- Philip I 640-602 BC
- Aeropus I 602-576 BC
- Alcetas I 576-547 BC
- Amyntas I 547-498 BC
- Alexander I 498-454 BC
- Perdiccas II 454-413 BC
- Archelaus 413-399 BC
- Craterus 399 BC
- Orestes 399-396 BC
- Archelaus II 396-393 BC
- Amyntus II 393 BC
- Pausanias 393 BC
- Amyntas III 393 BC
- Argaeus II 393-392 BC
- Amyntas III (restored) 392-370 BC
- Alexander II 370-368 BC
- Ptolemy I 368-365 BC
- Perdiccas III 365-359 BC
- Amyntas IV 359-356 BC
- Philip II 359-336 BC
- Alexander III (the Great) 336-323 BC
    - Antipater, Regent of Macedon 334-319 BC
- Philip III Arrhidaeus 323-317 BC
- Alexander IV 323-310 BC
    - Perdiccas, Regent of Macedon 323-321 BC
    - Antipater, Regent of Macedon 321-319 BC
    - Polyperchon, Regent of Macedon 319-317 BC
    - Cassander, Regent of Macedon 317-306 BC

### Antipatrid dynasty

- Cassander 306-297 BC
- Philip IV 297-296 BC
- Alexander V 296-294 BC
- Antipater II 296-294 BC

### Antigonid dynasty

- Demetrius I Poliorcetes 294-288 BC
- Lysimachus (divided with Pyrrhus of Epirus) 288-281 BC
- Pyrrhus of Epirus (divided with Lysimachus) 288-285 BC
- Ptolemy II Ceraunus 281-279 BC
- Meleager 279 BC
- Antipater II Etesias 279 BC
- Sosthenes (Army Commander) 279-277 BC
- Antigonus II Gonatas 277-274 BC
- Pyrrhus of Epirus (restored) 274-272 BC
- Antigonus II Gonatas (restored) 272-239 BC
- Demetrius II Aetolicus 239-229 BC
- Antigonus III Doson 229-221 BC
- Philip V 221-179 BC
- Perseus 179-168 BC

## Books

- Eugene N. Borza: _Before Alexander: constructing early Macedonia._ Claremont, CA: Regina Books, 1999. Pp. 89.  (pb)
    - Review by Konrad H. Kinzl (Trent University)
- Robin Lane Fox, _Alexander the Great,_ Penguin Books, 1973,  (pb).
- Nicholas G. L. Hammond, _The Macedonian State_, Oxford University Press, 1989, . Pg. 12-13.

## Other websites

- History of Macedon
- Ancient Macedonia  at Macedonia, The Historical Profile , by D. Pandermalis,
- Ancient Macedonia  at Livius, by Jona Lendering
- History of Macedonia through ages
- Selian Е. The Mystery of the Name “Macedon”. In: American Chronicle, June 2009
Burger King

**Burger King** (**BK** for short) is an American chain of fast food restaurants that comes from the United States. It sells hamburgers, french fries, and soft drinks. It was created in 1954 in Miami, Florida, by James McLamore and David Edgerton. Edgerton bought a restaurant named Insta Burger King and changed it to Burger King. More than 34,000 people work for the company.

There are more than 18,000 Burger King restaurants world-wide in 100 countries, and almost all of them are franchises. But in Australia, since the name "Burger King" was already trademarked there, BK franchises there are called **Hungry Jack's**.

Burger King is owned mostly by 3G Capital, a Brazilian investment company. But it is also owned by shareholders and used to publicly trade on the New York Stock Exchange under the ticker **BKW**. In 2014, the chain's operations was merged with that of Tim Hortons from Canada, under the name Restaurant Brands International (). Burger King is an American global chain of hamburger fast food restaurants. Headquartered in the unincorporated area of Miami-Dade County, Florida, the company was founded in 1953 as Insta-Burger King, a Jacksonville, Florida–based restaurant chain.

## Other websites

- Official website

## Infobox (company)

- **name**: Burger King Corporation
- **logo**: Burger King 2020.svg
- **logo size**: 160px
- **alt**: Red text spelling "Burger King" in between two orange semi-circles.
- **logo caption**: Logo since 1999
- **type**: Subsidiary
- **predecessor**: **Insta-Burger King**
- **foundation**: **Insta-Burger King**:

Jacksonville, Florida
**Burger King**:

Miami, Miami, Florida
- **founder**: **Insta-Burger King**:
Keith J. Kramer and Matthew Burns
**Burger King**:
David Edgerton and James McLamore
- **hq location**: 5505 Blue Lagoon Drive, Miami-Dade County, Florida,
- **num locations**: 17,796
- **num locations year**: 2018
- **area served**: Global
- **industry**: Restaurants
- **genre**: Fast food restaurant
- **parent**: Restaurant Brands International
Lech Kaczyński

**** (18 June 1949 - 10 April 2010) was the President of the Republic of Poland from 2005 until his death in a plane crash in Smolensk, Russia on 10 April 2010. Kaczyński served as Mayor of Warsaw from 2002, until the day before he became president. He was a Roman Catholic and was the identical twin brother of the Prime Minister of Poland, Jarosław Kaczyński.

## Related pages

- Death and state funeral of Lech Kaczyński and Maria Kaczyńska

## Other websites

- Official site

## Infobox (president)

- **honorific-prefix**: His Excellency
- **name**: Lech Aleksander Kaczyński
- **image**: Lech_Kaczyński.jpg
- **nationality**: Poland, Polish
- **order**: President of Poland
- **term start**: 23 December 2005
- **term end**: 10 April 2010
- **predecessor**: Aleksander Kwaśniewski
- **successor**: Bronisław Komorowski
- **birth date**: 18 June 1949
- **birth place**: Warsaw, Poland
- **death date**: 10 April 2010 (aged 60)
- **death place**: Near Smolensk, Russia
- **party**: nonpartisan (Law and Justice at the time of election)
- **profession**: Lawyer
- **spouse**: Maria Kaczyńska (m. 1978–2010, both killed)
Argead dynasty

The **Argead dynasty** (, ) was an ancient Macedonian royal house. They were the founders and the ruling dynasty of the kingdom of Macedon from about 700 to 310 BCE.  From about 700 BCE, the founder of the dynasty, Perdiccas I, led the people who called themselves Macedonians eastward from their home on the Haliacmon River. Aegae (today Vergina) became the capital, and by the reign of Amyntas I (6th century BCE) Macedonian power extended eastward beyond the Axius (Axiós) River to dominate the neighbouring Thracian tribes.

People of the Argead royal house supposedly believed they were descended of Heracles' family. Famous kings included Philip II of Macedon (reigned 359-336 BC) who subdued Greece and famously united the defeated Greek city states as the League of Corinth with the Macedonians as Hegemon, and his son Alexander the Great (reigned 336–323 BC) who led his army along with allied armies to conquer much of the known world at the time, creating a vast Empire stretching from Macedonia and Greece, to Egypt, and the Indus River, also defeating the Persian Achaemenid Empire.

The Argead family dynasty ended during the wars of the Diadochi when Alexander IV of Macedon and his mother Roxana were murdered.

## List of Kings

- Karanus of Macedon
- Koinos of Macedon
- Tyrimmas of Macedon
- Perdiccas I of Macedon 700-678 BC
- Argaeus I of Macedon 678-640 BC
- Philip I of Macedon 640-602 BC
- Aeropus I of Macedon 602-576 BC
- Alcetas I of Macedon 576-547 BC
- Amyntas I of Macedon 547-498 BC
- Alexander I of Macedon 498-454 BC
- Perdiccas II of Macedon 454-413 BC
- Archelaus I of Macedon 413-399 BC
- Craterus of Macedon 399 BC
- Orestes of Macedon 399-396 BC
- Archelaus II of Macedon 396-393 BC
- Amyntas II of Macedon 393 BC
- Pausanias of Macedon 393 BC
- Amyntas III of Macedon 393 BC
- Argaeus II of Macedon 393-392 BC
- Amyntas III of Macedon (restored) 392-370 BC
- Alexander II of Macedon 370-368 BC
- Ptolemy I of Macedon 368-365 BC
- Perdiccas III of Macedon 365-359 BC
- Amyntas IV of Macedon 359 BC
- Philip II of Macedon 359-336 BC
- Alexander the Great (Alexander III of Macedon) 336-323 BC
- Philip III of Macedon 323-317 BC (supposedly)
- Alexander IV of Macedon 323-309 BC (supposedly)

## Other websites

- List of the Kings of Macedonia
Antipatrid dynasty

The **Antipatrid dynasty** was a Macedonian dynasty. It was created by Cassander in 302 BC, who was the son of Antipater. However it was not a long dynasty. It ended in 294 BC when it was taken over by the Antigonid dynasty.

## Kings

- Antipater, regent, not king

- Cassander (302-297 BC)
- Alexander V of Macedon (297-296 BC)
- Philip IV of Macedon (296-294 BC)
- Antipater II of Macedon (296-294, 279 BC)
- Sosthenes of Macedon (279-277 BC)

## Other websites

- List of the Kings of Macedonia
Antigonid dynasty

The **Antigonid dynasty** was a Macedonian dynasty. The kings were part of the family of Alexander the Great's general Antigonus I Monophthalmus ("the One-eyed"). The dynasty ended when the Roman Empire conquered the area after the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC.

## Kings

- Demetrius I Poliorcetes (294 BC – 287 BC)
- Antigonus II Gonatas (276 BC – 239 BC)
- Demetrius II (239 BC – 229 BC)
- Antigonus III Doson (229 BC – 221 BC)
- Philip V (221 BC – 179 BC)
- Perseus (179 BC – 168 BC)
Radar

A **radar** is a machine that uses radio waves for echolocation to find objects such as aircraft, ships, and rain.

The basic parts of a radar are:
- The transmitter creates the radio waves.
- The antenna directs the radio waves.
- The receiver measures the waves which are bounced back by the object.

By doing this, the radar can locate the object. Radar is used in many different ways. It can measure the speed and number of cars on a road, the amount of water in the air, and many other things.

The radar transmitter sends radio pulses. By controlling how often the rapid pulses of radar energy are sent out by a radar transmitter (called the transmitter's "pulse repetition rate"), and how long it takes for the reflected pulse energy to come back to the radar receiver, one can tell where objects are, and how far away.  Digital circuits in a radar receiver calculate the distance to an object by knowing the time interval between energy pulses. The radar receiver's digital circuits count how long it takes between pulses for an object's reflected energy to be detected by the radar receiver. Since radar pulses are sent and received at approximately the speed of light, the distance to an object can easily be calculated. This is done in digital circuits by multiplying the speed of light by the time it takes to receive the radar energy reflected back from an object.

The time between pulses influences how far away an object can be detected. That distance is called the "range" of a radar transmitter and receiver.  Radar transmitters and receivers use slow repetition frequencies to find the distance to objects that are far away.  This makes it possible to accurately determine the distance to the moon, for example.  Fast repetition is used to detect objects that are much closer, like ships at sea, high flying aircraft, or to determine the speed of fast moving automobiles on highways.

Radar was first used in 1904 by Christian Hülsmeyer. He was given a patent for radar (Reichspatent Nr. 165546). Radar was vital in the Battle of Britain and other parts of World War II. The Axis countries failed to keep up with British and American radar technology during the war.

The word _RADAR_ was created in 1942 as an acronym for **Ra**dio **D**etection **a**nd **R**anging. This acronym replaced the British initialism _RDF_ (_Radio Direction Finding_). The word is now thought of by many people as a regular word, no longer as an acronym.

The FAA (Federal Aviation Administration) use several kinds of radar:
- ARSR (Air Route Surveillance Radar)
- ASR (Airport Surveillance Radar)
- ASDE (Airport Surface Detection Equipment)
- TDWR (Terminal Doppler Weather Radar)
- PAR (Precision Approach Radar)

## Related pages

- Sonar

## Other websites

- Radar Technology Website
    - A collection of educational videos
- Applications of radar
GameSpot

**GameSpot** is a website that was created in June 1996 by Pete Deemer, Vince Broady and Jon Epstein.

## History

In the beginning the website was mainly about PC games. Another similar site, videogamespot.com was created in December of the same year to talk about console video game systems. In 1997, videogamespot.com became videogames.com for a short time. Afterward in 1998, videogames.com and GameSpot.com joined together to become a single site.

GameSpot makes video game and PC reviews, previews, downloads, news, and information. It is known as one of the biggest game websites on the Internet. ZDNet bought GameSpot later on. However ZDNet was later bought by CNET Networks, who were then bought by CBS Corporation in March 2008.  CBS Interactive are the owned GameSpot until they sold it in 2020 to Red Ventures. Fandom purchased GameSpot in 2022.

On October 3, 2005, GameSpot changed how the website looked, making it similar to what TV.com looks like.

## Infobox (website)

- **name**: GameSpot
- **logo**: Logo of GameSpot.svg
- **caption**: GameSpot logo
- **type**: Video game journalism
- **registration**: Optional (free and subscription business model, paid)
- **owner**: Fandom, Inc
TV.com

**TV.com** is a popular website owned by the CNET Games & Entertainment family of websites, which also includes GameSpot, GameFAQs and MP3.com. The website replaced the popular TV Tome website.

The website has information about television (mostly English-language television in the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and Ireland). Other than episode guides, TV.com also has news, reviews, photos, trailers and TV listings.

People can also get accounts on TV.com like other CNET websites. Users get a user page and can keep track of television shows. They can also add things like episode details and cast members.

## Other websites

- Official website
1159

## Events

- In the Roman Catholic Church, Cardinals are given the right of election of the Pope. Prior to this, the pope was selected by election by the clergy and congregation of the church.
- Heiji Rebellion in Japan
- Tunis is conquered by the Almohad caliphs.
- Marie of Boulogne becomes the Countess of Boulogne

## Deaths

- September 1: Pope Adrian IV dies.
Olive (color)

**Olive** is a color which looks like green or yellow. (when gray or black is added to yellow, the various shades of the color olive are produced).  Some dark shades of olive can also be made by mixing a darker color (like brown) with green.

The most common place you will find the color olive is on an olive. It is the color of the outside of an olive. An olive's center is usually brown or sometimes orange or red.

There is a mineral called olivine that is colored a pale olive color.

## Meaning of olive

- Olive drab is one of the colors used for Sofia and camouflage in the military.
- Olive is one of the colors used in fashion when a conservative, moderate color is desired.
- Olive or earls green is sometimes used for showing vomit in animated films.

## Tones of olive color comparison chart

|Name|width=100|Color|HEX Code|Red|Green|Blue|Hue|Sat|Lum|Source|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Light Earls Green|style="background:#e8e08e;"||#E8E08E|232|224|142|55°|66%|73%|(Earls Green Light (Xona.com color list))|
|Earls Green|style="background:#c9b93b;"||#C9B93B|201|185|59|53°|57%|51%|(Xona.com color list)|
|Light Olivetone|style="background:#b8b654;"||#B8B654|184|182|84|59°|41%|53%|(Olivetone Light (Xona.com color list))|
|Olivine|style="background:#9ab973;"||#9AB973|154|185|115|87°|33%|59%|(PerBang.dk) (Maerz and Paul)|
|Camouflage Green|style="background:#78866b;"||#78866B|120|134|107|91°|11%|47%|(PerBang.dk)|
|Olive Drab (web color)|style="background:#6b8e23;"||#6B8E23|107|142|35|80°|60%|35%||
|**Olive**|style="background:olive;"||**#808000**|**128**|**128**|**0**|**60°**|**100%**|**25%**|**(web color)**|
|Olivetone|style="background:#716e10; color:#fff;"||#716E10|113|110|16|58°|75%|25%|(Xona.com color list)|
|Dark Olive Green|style="background:#556b2f; color:#fff;"||#556B2F|85|107|47|82°|39%|30%|(web color)|
|Black Olive|style="background:#3b3c36; color:#fff;"||#3B3C36|59|60|54|70°|5%|22%|(**Olive** RAL 6015)|

## Related pages

- List of colors
400s

The **400s** was a decade that started on 1 January 400 and ended on 31 December 409.

## Events

- Constantine III seizes control of the Roman garrison in Britain, declares himself emperor, and crosses into Gaul.
- August 22, 408 – Stilicho, military power behind the imperial throne, is executed. The Roman military is leaderless for several years until Constantius III becomes patrician.
- Construction (and therefore occupation) at Great Zimbabwe begins.
- Validity limit for the information on Eastern Roman Empire in the _Notitia Dignitatum_.
South Asia

**South Asia** (or **Southern Asia**) is a region and the southern part of the continent of Asia.There are 8 countries that are generally included in this region. It is surrounded by (clockwise) West Asia, Central Asia, Eastern Asia, Southeastern Asia and the Indian Ocean. The Indian subcontinent makes up a large part of South Asia and is primarily a geographical term while South Asia is more of a geopolitical term that is used to refer to a group of modern nations as a whole.

Countries included in South Asia:
- Afghanistan

The natural resource most used by the people is the rich land. Most of the people living there are farmers. They produce a lot of cashews, rice, peanuts, sesame seeds, and tea. A lot of natural gas is there, but these resources are usually underdeveloped. Many people there raise cattle and sheep. The cattle are raised for their milk or to carry things in Hindu areas. In India, the cattle are very important to the environment because the manure is a fertilizer for farmers.

The climate of South Asia can be divided into three basic types: tropical, dry, and temperate. The northeast is from tropical to subtropical. Moving west the moisture and elevation change, causing a steppe and a desert climate like in the Middle East. There is also a steppe climate in the center of the lower peninsula. Two parts of the South Asian climate especially affect the people. One is the _monsoon_. These changing winds bring lots of the area's rain, so when they do not come early, the land becomes very dry. Hurricanes also happen every year and sometimes destroy many things and kill and injure people. In the extreme north of India and Pakistan, the climate is affected by the mountains. There is a mild climate near the Indus river where farmers grow crops like rice and tea.

The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) is the largest organization here.

## Related pages

- Central Asia
- East Asia
- Southeast Asia
- West Asia
- Indian subcontinent
Thermodynamics

**Thermodynamics** is a branch of physics that studies the relations between heat, temperature, and energy. A branch of math called statistics is often used in thermodynamics to look at the motion of particles.

Thermodynamics is useful because it helps us understand how the world of the very small atoms connects to the large scale world we see everyday.

Thermodynamics also has two main branches called classical thermodynamics and statistical thermodynamics. An important idea in thermodynamics is that of a thermodynamic system.

An example of a thermodynamic system is a brick. A brick is made up of many atoms which all have their own properties. All thermodynamic systems have two kinds of properties, _extensive_ and _intensive_. For the brick, the extensive properties are the ones you get by adding up all the atoms. Things like the volume, energy, mass, and charge are extensive because two of the same brick put together have twice as much mass as one brick. The intensive properties of the brick are the ones you get by looking at the average over all atoms. Things like temperature, pressure, and density are intensive because two of the same brick still has the same temperature as one brick alone.

## Laws of thermodynamics

There are four laws of thermodynamics that say how energy can be moved between two objects in the form of heat. The laws of Thermodynamics point out how the energy in a system changes and if the system can work well with its surroundings.
- Zeroth law of thermodynamics
    - If two systems have equal heat flow back and forth and one of the two systems has equal heat flow back and forth with another system, all three systems have equal heat flow with each other.

- First law of thermodynamics

- An increase in energy in a system is the same as the energy given to a system in the form of heat or work. Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only changed. The amount of energy given to a system is the same amount of energy taken from the surroundings.

- Second law of thermodynamics
    - Given a pair of systems touching with different temperatures, heat will flow from hot to cold until the temperature of the systems becomes equal.

- Third law of thermodynamics
    - When a system has a temperature of 0 kelvin, absolute zero (the lowest temperature), the entropy (energy that cannot be used to do work) is at 0.

## Uses of thermodynamics

Earlier, thermodynamics was studied to make steam engines work better. Now, ideas from thermodynamics are used in everything from making engines to studying black holes.

Scientists use thermodynamics for many reasons. One is to make better engines and refrigerators. Another is to understand the properties of everyday materials so that they can make them stronger in the future. Thermodynamics is also used in chemistry to explain which reactions will work and which will not (this study is known as chemical kinetics). Thermodynamics is powerful because simple models for atoms work well in explaining the properties of large systems like bricks.

## Related pages

- Physics
- Thermal efficiency
Brookhurst, Wyoming

**Brookhurst** is a census-designated place in Natrona County, Wyoming, USA. About 205 people live there.
Dinah Washington

**Dinah Washington** (born **Ruth Lee Jones**; August 24, 1924 - December 14, 1963) was an American R&B and jazz singer. She was an African American who was born in Tuscaloosa, Alabama and raised in Chicago. She died of an accidental drug overdose in Detroit.

## Other websites

- http://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc19767/m1/
Robin Ward

**Robin Ward** (born **Jacqueline McDonnell** in 1941) was an American singer. She had a hit with her song "Wonderful Summer" in 1963.
Adrenal gland

The **adrenal gland** is a gland in most mammals. It is near the kidneys. Its name tells its position (_ad_ – "near", and _renes_ – "kidneys"). The gland is made up of two types of tissues: the centrally located tissue is called the **adrenal medulla** and outside this lies the **adrenal cortex**.

The adrenal glands are known as suprarenal glands in humans. In many animals the glands are next to the kidneys, but they are cap-like structures on top of the kidneys in humans.

The adrenal cortex produces three main types of steroid hormones: mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and androgens. Mineralocorticoids (such as aldosterone) help in the regulation of blood pressure and electrolyte balance.

The adrenal gland makes hormones which control stress. It is involved in the production of steroid hormones. Among these hormones are cortisol and adrenaline.

## Cortex

The hormones secreted from the cortex region are called adrenocorticosteroids or corticoids. These are the hormones it makes:

- Corticosteroids: all corticosteroids are made from cholesterol.
    - Cortisol / cortisone. These two are in a reversible reaction: they can be changed to each other by an enzyme. Cortisol is the active version, cortisone is the inactive version.
    - Aldosterone: a hormone which regulates blood pressure.
    - Androgens: these are intermediate male sex hormones. They are turned into more active hormones in the testes.

## Medulla

The adrenal medulla, in the center of the gland, makes:
- Adrenaline (U.S = Epinephrine) and noradrenaline (U.S. = norepinephrine): they make the fight or flight response in animals.
Chiswick

**Chiswick** is a district in the London Borough of Hounslow in West London. It is most famous as the home of the artist William Hogarth.
Bark

**Bark** is the covering of the stems of woody plants, like trees. Bark protects the tree. Bark of different plants and trees can look very different, it can be rough or smooth and can have different colors. It is the outer layer of tree trunks.

Most of the bark grows from the vascular cambium. Some outer parts of the bark sometimes come from a cork cambium. In the bark are lenticels which allow gases to move in and out of those inner tissues which have living cells.

Bark of one kind or another has been on trees from the Carboniferous period. It is obvious on stems and branches, and on some kinds of storage organs.
Tartar

**Tartar** could mean:
- The Tatars, an ethnic group in present-day Russia
- Hardened dental plaque (see calculus (dental))
- Tartar sauce
- Salts of tartaric acid:
    - Cream of tartar
    - Tartar emetic
Cowboy

**Cowboy** is a broad term for men who work on ranches in North America.  Etymologists trace the use of the term cowboy back to 1000 AD in Ireland. Being the oldest use of the word, in Irish it’s “ buachaill  bó “. Other languages have used other words, such as "Boötes" in Ancient Greek The word "cowboy" was used in England in the early 19th century but its use in the late 19th century in North America comes from the Spanish word . The cowboy has deep historic roots tracing back to Spain and the earliest European settlers of the Americas. In the United States the Native Americans and cowboys have a rich history, Still today, Native American cowboys are making a big impact in the world of rodeo.

Over the centuries Movies about cowboys are often called western movies. They often show cowboys as fighting rather than working. Cowboys can be recognized by their big brown hats and lassos. Men who do similar work in Australia are called "stockmen".

Common clothing includes a belt with a big buckle, a cowboy hat, a lasso, a buttoned shirt, chaps, boots, and sometimes include another belt for carrying things while riding a horse.

## Job

A Cowboy is simply a person who works on a ranch and rides on a horse while he herds cattle.  However, on the modern day ranch, the job has evolved into more duties such as branding, fencing, hay production, and machine and animal maintenance.  Cowboys have also been gunfighters, lawmen, outlaws, or shooting exhibitionist.  Some were hired guns who made a living with weapons in the Old West.

## In American culture

In American culture, the idea of cowboys is of freedom and independence. It is part of the myth of the Wild West. In movies and other stories, white actors usually play cowboys, for example Dale Robertson, Clint Eastwood and John Wayne. In real life, many cowboys of the 1800s were white Irish, black or Latino.

The fictional cowboy called Sheriff Woody is played by Tom Hanks.

## In British culture

In Britain, a "cowboy" is someone who charges money but is unskilled. For example, a "cowboy roofer" is someone who offers to fix a roof but does not know how to fix roofs.

## Related pages

- Western (genre)
Janet Reno

**Janet Reno** (June 21, 1938 – November 7, 2016) was the United States Attorney General from 1993 to 2001 under President Bill Clinton. She was the first woman to ever have this job.

Reno died on November 7, 2016 from complications of Parkinson's disease, aged 78.

## Infobox (officeholder)

- **name**: Janet Reno
- **image**: Janet Reno-us-Portrait.jpg
- **order**: 78th
- **title**: United States Attorney General
- **president**: Bill Clinton
- **term start**: March 12, 1993
- **term end**: January 20, 2001
- **predecessor**: William Barr
- **successor**: John Ashcroft
- **birth place**: Miami, Florida, Miami, Florida,
 United States
- **death date**: November 7, 2016 (aged 78)
- **death place**: Miami, Florida,
United States
- **party**: Democratic Party (United States), Democrat
- **alma mater**: Cornell University
Harvard Law School
1493

## Events

- March 15 – Christopher Columbus returns to Spain after his first trip to the Americas.
- July 28 – Great fire in Moscow.
- September 9 – Battle of Krbava field between defending Croatian nobles and invading Ottoman Turk forces.
- November 19 – Christopher Columbus goes ashore on an island he saw for the first time only the day before. He names it San Juan Bautista (later renamed Puerto Rico).
- December 23 – Georg Alt's German translation of Hartmann Schedel's _Nuremberg Chronicle_ is published.
1285

## Events

- January 6 – Archbishop Jakub Świnka orders all priests subject to his bishopry in Poland to deliver sermons in Polish rather than German, thus further unifying the Catholic Church in Poland and fostering a national identity.
- April 25 – Mamluk sultan Qalawun begins a siege of the Crusader fortress of Margat (in present-day Syria), a major stronghold of the Knights Hospitaller thought to be impregnable; he captures the fortress a month later.
- September 4 – Roger of Lauria defeats King Philip III of France in a naval battle off of Barcelona.
- The writ Circumspecte Agatis, issued by King Edward I of England, defines the jurisdictions of church and state in England, thereby limiting the church's judicial powers to ecclesiastical cases only.
- The Second statute of Westminster is passed in England, reforming various laws; it includes the famous clause _de donis conditionalibus_, considered one of the fundamental institutes of medieval law in England.
- The English romantic poem _The Lay of Havelok the Dane_ is written (approximate date).
- Tran Hung Dao leads Vietnamese forces in victory over an invading Yuan dynasty Mongol army.
Harold Robbins

**Harold Robbins** (born **Harold Rubin**; May 21, 1916 – October 14, 1997) was an American author.
Baptism

**Baptism** is a rite or ceremony performed by Christians and Sikhs. It is done as a  symbolic cleansing. For Christians it shows that the person being baptized has become a follower of Jesus, and it can represent the joining of the Christian family. For Sikhs, taking Baptism or Amrit Sanskar is most important and it represent followers of Sikhism.

## Methods

Roman Catholics baptize infants to mark their becoming members of the church. It is a sacrament usually performed by a priest. Anglicans, Methodists, Lutherans and Presbyterians also baptize babies. Baptists and many other churches, baptize only when the person is old enough to decide that they are ready to declare their faith in Christ.

Some religious groups practice baptism by sprinkling a small amount of water on the person, usually their head. Other groups put the person under the water. Almost all Christians baptize in the name of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit. A few baptize only in the name of Jesus.

## Biblical era

In the Old Testament, a similar washing ceremony was done when priests were ordained. Jesus was baptized by John the Baptist before he began his ministry. The usual form of baptism among the earliest Christians was for the person to be immersed totally or partially. But sprinkling, or pouring, was also practiced at an early day with sick and dying persons when total or partial immersion was not practical.

## Other websites

- "Baptism." Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Shang dynasty

The **Shang dynasty** (existed from 1600BC - 1046BC) was the second dynasty in China following the Xia dynasty. Most of what we know about the Shang Dynasty is from reading pictures on oracle bones and bronze objects. A dynasty is a series of rulers which are considered to be part of the same family because they are ruling a country over generations. According to tradition, the last Shang king was overthrown in 1046 BC. The succeeding dynasty was called the Zhouh dynasty.

## Capitals

The Shang moved their capital c. five times.

- Bo (either modern Yanshi or Zhengzhou)
- Ao (near modern Zhengzhou)
- Yan (near modern Qufu)
- Xiang (near modern Anyang)
- Yinxu (picture; near modern Anyang)
- Zhaoge (map; near modern Qi County, Hebi)

## Kings

|Order|# of years|Rulers|
| --- | --- | --- |
|01|29|King Tang of Shang of China|
|02|02|Da Ding of Shang|
|03|32|King Bu Bing of Shang of China|
|04|04|Zhong Ren|
|05|12|Tai Jia|
|06|29|Wo Ding|
|07|25|Tai Geng|
|08|17|Xiao Jia|
|09|12|Yong Ji|
|10|75|Tai Wu|
|11|11|Zhong Ding|
|12|15|Wai Ren|
|13|09|He Dan Jia|
|14|19|Zu Yi|
|15|16|Zu Xin|
|16|20|Wo Jia|
|17|32|Zu Ding|
|18|29|Ding Wang|
|19|07|King Yang Jia|
|20|28|Pan Geng|
|21|29|Xiao Xin of Shang|
|22|21|Xiao Yi of Shang|
|23|59|Wu Ding|
|24|12|Geng of Shang|
|25|20|Zu Jia|
|26|06|Lin Xin|
|27|06|Geng Ding|
|28|35|Wu Yi|
|29|11|Wen Ding|
|30|26|Di Ying|
|31|30|Di Xin|

## Other websites

- Zhengzhou Shang City Site

## Infobox (former country)

- **conventional long name**: Shang
- **common name**: Shang dynasty
- **era**: Bronze Age
- **status**: Kingdom
- **government type**: monarchy
- **year start**: c. 1600 BC
- **year end**: c. 1046 BC
- **p1**: Xia dynasty
- **s1**: Zhou dynasty
- **event end**: Zhou conquest
- **image map**: Shang dynasty.svg
- **image map caption**: Remnants of advanced, stratified societies dating back to the Shang period have been found in the Yellow River Valley.
- **capital**: Yinxu, Yin (modern Anyang)
- **common languages**: Old Chinese
- **religion**: Chinese folk religion
- **title leader**: Emperor of China, King
- **stat year1**: 1122 BC est.
- **stat area1**: 1250000
Tang of Shang

|style="background:#ccf; border-bottom:2px solid" align=center colspan=2|**Shang Tang (Zi Lu)** 商湯 (子履)|
| --- | --- |
|colspan=2 align=center style="border-top:2px solid"||
|Family name:|Zi (子)|
|Given name:|Lu (履)|
|Courtesy name (字):|Tai Yi (太乙)|
|Dates of reign:|1617 BC–1588 BC|
|Temple name:|Gaozong (高宗)|
|Posthumous name:|Tang (湯)|

King **Tang of Shang**, in Chinese:" ", born **Zi Lu**, in Chinese:" " (1617 BC - 1588 BC) was the first king of the Shang dynasty in Chinese history. He fought Jie, the last king of the Xia dynasty.

He was the leader of his _tribe_, or group of people,  for more than 17 years. When he was a leader, he made many smart men officials to help fix his government.

When he saw that the Xia Dynasty was starting to be weak, Tang started 16 wars fighting the Xia Dynasty, getting many lands. Tang finally defeated the dynasty in 1600bc.

Many people of his country thought he was a good leader.  He made taxes smaller and did not force his people to be soldiers for a long time. He affected many people from foreign places.
Bu Bing

King **Bu Bing** of Shang of China, in Chinese:"<span lang="zh">卜丙</span>", born **Zi Sheng**, in Chinese:"<span lang="zh">子勝</span>",.  He was the forth king of the Shang Dynasty (1600 BC - 1046 BC). He was the second son of King Tang.

In Records of the Grand Person, he was recorded as the second king of the Shang Dynasty. In that book he is given the name "Wai Bing", in Chinese:"<span lang="zh">外丙</span>". But in the oracle script, he was recorded as the forth king of the Shang Dynasty. In these records his name is "Bu Bing",in Chinese:"<span lang="zh">卜丙</span>".
New Year's Eve

**New Year's Eve** is the holiday before New Year's Day, on 31 December, the last day of the current year.

Today, Western countries usually celebrate this day with a party which ends with a group countdown to midnight. Party hats, noisemakers, fire crackers and drinking champagne are fairly common during this holiday.

Many towns also have firework shows or other noisy ways to start the new year. Places like Berlin, Chicago, Edinburgh, Los Angeles, London, New York, Paris, Rio de Janeiro, Sydney, Toronto,  and Tokyo are well known for their New Year's Eve celebrations.

New Year's Eve is also a work holiday in some countries, such as Australia, Argentina, Brazil, France, Mexico, the Philippines, Colombia and Venezuela

## Related pages

- Chinese New Year
- Omisoka (Japan)

## Infobox (holiday)

- **holiday name**: New Year's Eve
- **image**: Fireworks on New Year's Eve in a small Swabian village (1), brightened.jpg
- **caption**: New Year celebration in Eberhardzell, Germany, 2018
- **duration**: 1 day
- **frequency**: Annual
- **observedby**: Users of the Gregorian calendar
- **date**: 31 December
- **scheduling**: same day each year
- **celebrations**: Reflection; late-night partying; family gatherings; feasting; gift exchanges; fireworks; countdowns; watchnight services; social gatherings, during which participants may dance, eat, consume alcoholic beverages, and watch or light fireworks
- **type**: International
- **significance**: The last day of the year in the Gregorian calendar
- **relatedto**: New Year's Day
Fighter aircraft

**Fighter aircraft** are small military planes that are made to fight other airplanes. They are often fast, having aerodynamic shapes (shapes that make them move through air easily) and very powerful engines for their size.

Fighters may carry many different kinds of weapons, including missiles, machine guns, and bombs. Fighters may be used as attack aircraft to attack vehicles, soldiers, or buildings on the ground. They are different from bombers because they are mainly designed to fight other airplanes.

Specialized fighters have been made, such as night fighters, interceptors, and air superiority fighter<nowiki/>s.

Fighter aircraft also usually are maneuverable (turn well).

## Recent developments

- To counter the speed of modern aircraft, some surface ships are being designed with laser weapons.
- In the Russian invasion of Ukraine ground-to-air missiles are used against fighter planes.

## Examples of fighter aircraft

- Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor
- MiG-17
- North American P-51 Mustang
- SPAD S.XIII
- Su-27
- Mitsubishi A6M "Zero"
- Lockheed P-38 Lightning
- Shenyang J-35

## Other websites

https://techvozone.com/best-fighter-jets-in-the-world/
- WW2DB: List of WW2-era Fighter Aircraft
- aircraft fighter: aircraft fighter in the world
Aircraft carrier

**Aircraft carriers** are warships that carry airplanes and other aircraft like helicopters. They are used by navies to allow aircraft to fight along with naval warships.  Aircraft carriers are usually very large, carrying hundreds or thousands of sailors and tens or hundreds of aircraft.

The top of an aircraft carrier is called the flight deck and looks like a very small airport. Old aircraft carriers carried airplanes that could takeoff and land in the short distance of the flight deck without help. Similarly, small modern aircraft carriers only carry helicopters or specially designed airplanes such as the Harrier that can take off and land straight up and down or in the short distance of the flight deck.

The flight deck of a large, modern aircraft carrier has a landing area and a take-off area. The landing area is in the back and has a short runway. Airplanes stop by using a hook on the back of the airplane to grab wires stretched across the runway. In the front, the flight deck has a steam-powered catapult that connects to the front wheel of an airplane. The catapult pulls and throws the airplane off the deck, helping it take off quickly. So, aircraft carriers are basically small, floating, mobile airports.

Because they are big ships and need much electric power, big modern aircraft carriers are steamship<nowiki/>s.  Some have on-board nuclear power plants  Others burn fuel oil.

Except for their airplanes, aircraft carriers usually have few weapons, so other warships escort them. Together, the aircraft carrier and these warships form a carrier group.
Edward Kasner

**Edward Kasner** (1878–1955) was an American mathematician. He is famous for creating the word googol and the word googolplex.

Kasner went to Columbia University and received his Ph.D. (a degree (measure) of learning) in 1899.

Around 1920, Kasner decided to make a good, catchy name for a very big number (one, followed by a hundred zeros).  While he was walking with his nephews Milton (c. 1911–1980) and Edwin Sirotta in New Jersey's Palisades, Kasner asked them to think of good names. Milton was the one who said "googol".

In 1940, with James Roy Newman, Kasner made a book about math called _Mathematics and the Imagination_ . It was in this book that the name "googol" was first used.

The website Google was named after Kasner's number googol.

## Other websites

- History from the Google website
Bay of Bengal

The **Bay of Bengal** is a bay in the northeastern part of the Indian Ocean, west of the Malay Peninsula and east of India. It looks like a triangle. It is called the "Bay of Bengal", because to the north are the Indian state of West Bengal and the country of Bangladesh.

Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) supports free trade internationally around the Bay of Bengal between Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.
Malay Peninsula

The **Malay Peninsula** (Malay: _Semenanjung Tanah Melayu_) is a large peninsula in Southeast Asia. The place is divided into three political parts. This includes:

- the northwest is the extreme south part of Myanmar
- the middle area and northeast is the south part of Thailand
- the south is the part of Malaysia called Peninsular Malaysia or West Malaysia
Southeast Asia

**Southeast Asia** or **Southeastern Asia**, is the southeastern part of Asia. There are 11 countries in this region. All the countries in Southeast Asia are a part of ASEAN, except  East Timor. Some of the countries are mostly on the Asian mainland; they were formerly called Indochina. The others are only on island<nowiki/>s. All of the countries in Southeast Asia are in the tropics except for the northernmost areas of Myanmar, which is in the subtropics.

These are the countries and territories in Southeast Asia:
- (or Timor-Leste)
- Laos
- (formerly Burma)

The United Nations also includes the region of Northeast India and Southeast Bangladesh traditionally, due to ethnicity similarities and culturally as part of Southeast Asia.

## Related pages

- Brunei
- Cambodia
- East Timor
- Indonesia
- Laos
- Malaysia
- Myanmar
- Philippines
- Singapore
- Thailand
- Vietnam
- Far East (Usually referring to the 6 countries of East Asia and 11 countries of Southeast Asia collectively)
Sprint

**Sprints** are short running races in athletics. They are events in which runners will not have to "pace themselves", but can run as fast as possible for the entire distance. These are often some of the more popular events in the Olympic Games.  The most common distances are 60 meters, 100 meters, 200 meters ,400 meters and 1500 metres.

## Related pages

- Middle distance race
- Long distance race
- Walking race
- Hurdle race
- Relay
- Steeplechase
- Cross-country race
- Marathon
American Graffiti

***American Graffiti*** is a 1973 American teen comedy-drama movie directed by George Lucas. This was Lucas' second movie and made him very well known. It is about what happens to a group of teenagers one night in August 1962 in Modesto, California, while they are driving around town and listening to radio DJ Wolfman Jack.

In 1995, the Library of Congress selected American Graffiti into the United States National Film Registry.
Lake Vostok

**Lake Vostok** is the biggest of the seventy lakes in Antarctica that are under sheets of ice. It is at 77° S 105° E. It is under Russia's Vostok Station. It is 4,000 meters (13,000 feet) under Antarctica's surface.

The lake was found by Russian and British scientists. They used radar to find it.

The lake consists of fresh water. The temperature of the water is about -3 °C. The freezing point of water is at 0 °C, but the water in the lake remains liquid because of the high pressure produced by the ice.

There are two separate basins in the lake. These are separated by a ridge. It has been suggested that the ecosystems of the two basins are different.

## Pressure and oxygen

Lake Vostok is an oligotrophic extreme environment. It is supersaturated with oxygen. The levels of oxygen are fifty times higher than those typically found in ordinary freshwater lakes on Earth.
The weight of the ice on top of Lake Vostok is believed to add to the high concentration of oxygen. Oxygen from the ice gets dissolved into the water of the lake. Deposits of oxygen and other gases are trapped in the lake as well. The structure that traps them is called a clathrate. Gases trapped in clathrates are enclosed in ice and look like packed snow. These structures form at the high-pressure depths of Lake Vostok; they would become unstable if brought to the surface.

## Life

No other natural environment on Earth is as rich in oxygen. For this reason, if there are any forms of life in the lake, they would probably need to have adapted to the high levels of oxygen to be able to survive. Some adaptations might include high concentrations of protective enzymes.

The environment in the lake is very similar to that on Jupiter's moon Europa or Saturn's moon Enceladus. Finding life in the lake would therefore make it more probable that life has existed on one of these moons.

## Other websites

- "Miles Below Antarctic Ice, a Freshwater Lake May Harbor Ancient Life." Robert Lee Hotz, _The Los Angeles Times_.

## Infobox (lake)

- **lake name**: Lake Vostok
- **image lake**: Lake Vostok Sat Photo color.jpg
- **caption lake**: When photographed from space by radar, Lake Vostok can be seen as a flat area inside the ice sheet. (National Aeronautics and Space Administration, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, GSFC)
- **type**: subglacial lake, subglacial rift lake
- **basin countries**: (Antarctica)
- **length**: 250 km
- **width**: 50 km
- **area**: 15,690 km²
- **depth**: 344 m
- **max-depth**: 1,000 m
- **volume**: 5,400 ± 1,600 km³
- **residence time**: 1,000,000 yrs
- **islands**: 1 (found May 2005)
- **cities**: Vostok, Antarctica, Vostok Station
Infrared

**Infrared** (**IR**) radiation is a type of electromagnetic radiation (a wave with electricity). The wave is longer than light which humans can see and shorter than microwaves. The word _infrared_ means _below red_. It comes from the Latin word _infra_ (meaning _below_) and the English word _red_. (Infrared light has a frequency _below_ the frequency of red light). Red light has the longest wavelength that human eyes can see. Infrared waves cannot be seen by the eye.

Near-infrared waves are between 800 nm and 1.4 µm. Most infrared from the Sun is near-infrared. Thermal imaging is mostly done with thermal radiation waves between 8 and 15 **µm.**

People sense infrared as heat.

Most remote controls use infrared to send the control signals. Many missiles for anti-aircraft warfare find their target by infrared.

## Telecommunications

Before Bluetooth was invented, some computers, personal digital assistants, and cell phones used infrared technology to send files to other devices. Bluetooth replaced infrared in the early 2000s. Infrared is limited by the need to have both devices in a "line of sight" with each other.

Infrared lasers are used to provide the light for optical fiber communications systems. Infrared light with a wavelength around 1,330 nm (least dispersion) or 1,550 nm (best transmission) are the best choices for standard silica fibers.

## Related pages

- Infrared spectroscopy
- Infrared telescope