juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
French Polynesia

**French Polynesia** (, Tahitian: _Porinetia Farani_) is a French "overseas collectivity" (French: _collectivité d'outre mer_, or COM) with the particular designation of "overseas country" (French: _pays d'outre-mer_, or _POM_) in the southern Pacific Ocean.

The country is made up of several groups of Polynesian islands. The most well-known is Tahiti, the most populous island, which is in the Society Islands group. The capital of the territory, Papeete, is also there.

Although it does not really belong in the territory, French Polynesia is in charge of affairs for Clipperton Island.

Other island groups include:
- Austral Islands
- Bass Islands _often considered part of the Austral Islands_
- Gambier Islands _often considered part of the Tuamotu Archipelago_
- Marquesas Islands
- Society Islands (including Tahiti)
- Tuamotu Archipelago

Aside from Tahiti, some other important atolls, islands, and island groups in French Polynesia are: Ahe, Bora Bora, Hiva `Oa, Huahine, Maiao, Maupiti, Mehetia, Moorea, Nuku Hiva, Raiatea, Tahaa, Tetiaroa, Tubuai, and Tupai.

## References

**Notes**

## Infobox (country)

- **conventional long name**: French Polynesia
- **common name**: French Polynesia
- **image flag**: Flag of French Polynesia.svg
- **image coat**: Coat of arms of French Polynesia.svg
- **national anthem**: _La Marseillaise_ ()

_Ia Ora 'O Tahiti Nui, ’Ia ora ’o Tahiti Nui_ ()
- **image map**: French Polynesia on the globe (French Polynesia centered).svg
- **official languages**: French language, French
- **ethnic groups year**: 2015
- **status**: Overseas collectivity
- **demonym**: French Polynesian
- **capital**: Papeete, Pape'ete
- **largest city**: Faaa, Fa'a'ā
- **government type**: Dependent territory
- **legislature**: Assembly of French Polynesia, Assembly
- **leader title1**: President of France
- **leader name1**: Emmanuel Macron
- **leader title2**: President of French Polynesia
- **leader name2**: Édouard Fritch
- **leader title3**: List of colonial and departmental heads of French Polynesia, High Commissioner
- **leader name3**: René Bidal
- **area km2**: 4,167
- **area sq mi**: 1,609
- **percent water**: 12
- **area label2**: Land area
- **area data2**: 3,521.2 km<sup>2</sup>
1,359.5 sq mi
- **population census**: 268,270
- **population census rank**: 177th
- **population census year**: August 2012
- **population density km2**: 76
- **population density sq mi**: 197
- **population density rank**: 130th
- **population estimate year**: July
- **gdp nominal year**: 2014
- **gdp nominal per capita**: US$20,098
- **sovereignty type**: Overseas collectivity of France
- **established event1**: Protectorate
- **established date1**: 1842
- **established event2**: Overseas territory (France), Overseas territory
- **established date2**: 1946
- **established date3**: 2003
- **currency**: CFP franc
- **currency code**: XPF
- **utc offset**: -10, −9:30, -9
- **drives on**: right
- **calling code**: +689
- **cctld**: .pf
Magnitude

**Magnitude** could mean:
- Magnitude (mathematics), a measure of the size of a mathematical object.

In **astronomy**:
- Magnitude (astronomy)
- Magnitude of an eclipse

In **seismology**:
- Either of two measures of earthquake strength:
    - Richter magnitude scale
    - Moment magnitude scale

Other:
- _Magnitude_ is an attack in the Pokémon fictional world

## Related pages

- Order of magnitude, a coarse measure of numerical size
Neighbour

A **Neighbour** (or **neighbor** in American English) is a person who lives nearby, normally in a house or apartment that is next door or, in the case of houses, across the street. Some people form friendships with their neighbours, and help them by sharing their tools and helping with gardening tasks. Other people become frustrated with their neighbours, if the neighbour makes a lot of noise or a mess

A group of people living close together in a small community is called a neighbourhood. Some neighbourhoods have many community organizations, where people volunteer and do charitable activities. Other neighbourhoods in poor communities may have no community organizations, and there may be many problems in the community, such as illegal drugs, prostitution, and homelessness.
Flip-flop (electronics)

_For the type of shoes (sandals), see Flip-flops_

In electronics, a **flip-flop** or **latch** is a circuit that has two stable states and can be used to store information. Signals applied to control inputs can change the circuit’s state. It is the basic storage element in sequential logic. Flip-flops and latches are fundamental building blocks of digital electronics systems used in computers, communications, and many other types of systems.

Flip-flops are mainly used as static RAM to store data in a computer. That data is represented in binary. Binary is represented in a 1 (“high state”) and 0 (“low state”). The structure of flip flops vary, but the general characteristic is that two branches affect each other's state by putting the current resulting state of one branch and using that as input for the next iteration of the other branch.

## History

The first electronic flip-flop, originally called the Eccles-Jordan trigger circuit, was invented in 1918 by the British physicists William Eccles and F. W. Jordan. The initial design’s only active elements were two vacuum tubes. While working at Hughes Aircraft, Eldred Nelson coined the term JK for a flip-flop which changed states when both inputs were on (a logical "one").

## Implementation

Flip-flops can be either simple or clocked. A simple flip-flop changes state as soon as the input changes. A clocked flip-flop changes state only when an extra pulse occurs. This pulse is called the clock signal. Commonly, _flip-flop_ only refers to clocked circuits; the simple ones are commonly called _latches_.

## Types

The two common types of flip-flops are SR ("set-reset"), D ("data" or "delay").

### SR flip-flop

The most fundamental flip-flop is the simple SR flip-flop. In the SR flip-flop, the S and R stand for set and reset. The stored bit is present on the output marked Q.

If S is pulsed high while R is held low, then the Q output is forced high. Conversely, if R is pulsed high while S is held low, then the Q output is forced low. When the R and S inputs are both low, the Q outputs are in a constant state. However, when the R and S inputs are both high, the Q outputs are in a forbidden state.

Since high and low mean logical '1' and '0', respectively, the SR flip-flop can have four combinations showing below:

(A) S = 1, R = 0: set

(B) S = 0, R = 0: hold

(C) S = 0, R = 1: reset

(D) S = 1, R = 1: not allowed

The restricted combination (D) leads to an unstable state.

### D Flip-flop

A D Flip-Flop prevents an SR flip-flop from receiving the forbidden combination. It takes only one input for data, called D. It splits this data down two paths. On one path it flips the data to the opposite value. This is the “NOT” box in the animation. That way, S = 1, R = 1 is never fed to the internal SR latch.
Satoshi Tajiri

is the person who created the _Pokémon_ franchise. He created _Pokémon_ because he liked to collect insects when he was a child and _Pokémon_ is similar to collecting insects. He was born in Tokyo and in the forest, he liked collecting insects. He wanted to be a scientist who studied insects. He was pushed away as a child and when he grew up he created a magazine and named it _Game Freak_. He then opened a video game company and called it Game Freak like his magazine. Tajiri first thought of the idea of Pokémon in 1990.

The protagonist of the Pokémon anime, Ash Ketchum, was thought to be Satoshi as a child.
Ilkley

**Ilkley** is a tourist town in the City of Bradford in West Yorkshire, England.  The biggest attraction there is the wonderful and big _Ilkley moors_.  It is very green and grassy and provides walks for any type of people.  One of these walks includes a big rock and a little rock called the Cow and Calf Rocks.  This is one of the bigger wonders of the Yorkshire dales. By these rocks there is a pub called _The Cow and Calf_.

The town is has one railway station where trains run to Leeds and Bradford.
Econometrics

**Econometrics** is a branch of economics. It is the use of statistical and mathematical methods to describe the relation between economic forces such as capital (any of the tools, work, or other things needed to make something useful), interest rates (the price of borrowing money), and labor.

Much of econometrics is making models which are simple pictures of the real world. These models then can be used to predict what will happen in the real world.

An example of econometrics would be looking at the prices of houses in a town. An economist (someone who studies economics) can try to make a simple picture of the house prices in the town. This picture might show that houses close to the market are worth more. An economist could then say that if a new market is made in another part of the town, home prices there might go up. The economist also might say that the new market could make prices less than before near the old one, because the new market will make it so that more houses are near a market. This would make the people who sell houses near a market sell them for less, since there could be more sellers than buyers.

## Basic model: linear regression

A basic tool for econometrics is the multiple linear regression model. In modern econometrics, other statistical tools are often used, but linear regression is still the most used starting point for an analysis. Estimating a linear regression on two variables can be shown by drawing a line through data points representing paired numbers of the independent and dependent variables.
Franconia

**Franconia** ( ; Franconian dialect: _Franggn_ ) is the northern part of the German federal state of Bavaria. This region is divided in three smaller regions: Oberfranken, Mittelfranken, and Unterfranken. The biggest city in Franconia is Nuremberg.

Other large cities in Franconia are Coburg, Aschaffenburg, Würzburg, Erlangen, Fürth, Bamberg, Bayreuth, Schweinfurt and Hof.

## Rivers

The most important river in Franconia is the Regnitz, which is 63.7 km (39.6 mi) in length.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Franconia
- **settlement type**: Cultural region of Germany
- **image flag**:
- **image shield**:
- **anthem**: "Frankenlied"
- **image map**: Map of Franconia.PNG
- **mapsize**: 270px
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision name1**: Bavaria
- **seat type**: Largest cities
- **seat**: 1. Nuremberg 2. Würzburg 3. Fürth 4. Erlangen 5. Bamberg
- **unit pref**: imperial
- **timezone**: Central European Time, CET
- **utc offset**: +1
- **timezone dst**: Central European Summer Time, CEST
- **utc offset dst**: +2
King of Arms

A **King of Arms** is a government officer in countries like England, Scotland, and Wales. He grants coats of arms to other people. King of Arms is the highest rank of officer of arms. Some countries do not have a King of Arms, but have another person that grants coats of arms.

## Heraldic jobs

- In England, Wales and Northern Ireland two of the three Kings of Arms gives coats of arms to people after the Earl Marshal approves.
- In Scotland, the Lord Lyon gives coats of arms without needing any other permission.
- In the Republic of Ireland, the coats of arms are given by the Chief Herald.
- Canada also has a chief herald,  who is in charge of the Canadian Heraldic Authority
- In South Africa, the _State Herald_ is in charge of the Bureau of Heraldry
- In the Kingdom of Spain, a _Cronista de Armas_ (Chronicler of Arms) has the power to give people coats of arms.

A King of Arms is also usually in charge of special ceremonies for a country.

### English Kings of Arms

- Garter Principal King of Arms
- Clarenceux King of Arms
- Norroy and Ulster King of Arms

### Scottish King of Arms

- Lord Lyon King of Arms

## Chief Heralds

- The Chief Herald of Canada
- Chief Herald of Ireland
- The State Herald of South Africa

## Cronistas de Armas

- Cronista de Armas de Castille and Leon

## Related pages

- Heraldry
- Officer of Arms
- College of Arms
- Court of the Lord Lyon
- Canadian Heraldic Authority

## Other websites

- The Court of the Lord Lyon
- The College of Arms
- The Canadian Heraldic Authority
- The Office of the Chief Herald of Ireland
Psychokinesis

**Psychokinesis** or **telekinesis** is the supposed ability to change matter, energy, space or time by using your mind.  It is often mentioned and performed in science fiction movies and video games.

## Abilities

Psychokinesis is the word used to describe many different abilities. These abilities include:
- moving objects (this is called _telekinesis_; see below)
- changing the shape of objects (this includes melting or bending metal)
- influencing events
- healing
- teleportation (disappearing and reappearing in a different place)
- traveling through objects, like a wall
- changing an object into something else
- changing oneself into something else
- putting an energy field around oneself
- control of magnetism
- control of photons (light waves/particles)

### Telekinetic abilities

- moving objects (move, lift, shake, vibrate, spin, bend, or break large and small objects)
- lifting oneself up off of the ground (including flying)

### Elemental control

- Ability to control fire, water, air, and earth.

### Age control

- with telekinesis and blood control you can become immortal or change your age.

### Vibration

- With telekinesis you can send extreme vibrations to an object, like glass, so it can shatter
Autobiography

An **autobiography** is a biography in which the author writes about his or her own life. It is a self-written account of one's own life. It is one of the earliest form of literature, but the word itself is quite modern. The word comes from the Greek stems "auto-" (_"self"_) "bio-" (_"life"_) and "-graph" (_"write"_).

## Related pages

- Novel
- Pro
Penjing

***Penjing*** (**盆景 pinyin: pén jǐng**, literally tray scenery), also known as ***penzai*** is the ancient Chinese art of growing trees and plants in containers. The plants are kept small by skilled pruning.

Penjing is similar to the Japanese art of bonsai.

## History

The first historical reference to _penjing_ is from the 9th century.

## Related pages

- Bonsai
- Chinese scholar's rocks

- Suiseki
Brian Eno

**Brian Eno** (born 15 May 1948) is an English musician. He was one of the original members of the band Roxy Music. He makes music called electronic music, which is music made using computers and other electronic devices, like the synthesizer. Brian Eno has worked with other famous musicians and groups like David Bowie and U2.

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Brian Eno
- **image**: Brian_Eno_2015.png
- **caption**: Eno 2015
- **landscape**: yes
- **background**: solo_singer
- **birth name**: Brian Peter George Eno
- **birth place**: Woodbridge, Suffolk, Woodbridge, Suffolk, England
- **years active**: 1970–present
Kirby (character)

**Kirby** is the titular character of the _Kirby_ franchise. Kirby has appeared in many video games made for Nintendo game systems.

His's appearance is simply a pink ball with red shoes and nubs for arms. Kirby has black oval eyes, blushing cheeks, and a small mouth.

Kirby also has the power to fly over obstacles by puffing up into a large ball. He can also eat enemies by inhaling them, and he can spit them out to shoot other enemies.

In most of the series, Kirby has the power to copy the abilities of enemies by swallowing them. When Kirby eats an enemy with a power to copy, he changes his look to show his new power, mostly shown as a hat.

Kirby also appears in the Super Smash Bros. series of crossover fighting video games.

He was named after John Kirby, a lawyer who helped Nintendo win a lawsuit that was filed against them by Universal City Studios over the copyrights of Donkey Kong in 1984.

## Infobox (character)

- **color**: #FF69B4
- **name**: Kirby
- **image**: KirbyAsMario.jpg
- **series**: Kirby (series), _Kirby_ series
- **first**: _Kirby's Dream Land_ (1992)
- **creator**: Masahiro Sakurai
- **designer**: Masahiro Sakurai
Shigeru Miyamoto
Satoru Iwata
- **voice**: Mayumi Tanaka (1993)
Taeko Kawata (1994)
Makiko Ohmoto (1999–2019-present)
Condenser

**Condenser** may mean:

- The old name for a capacitor
- Condenser (laboratory), a device used in a chemistry laboratory
- Condenser (heat transfer), a device used in HVAC to condense a gas into a liquid by cooling.
Strategy

**Strategy** is a long term plan on what to do to achieve a certain goal. Today, the word "strategy" is in common use; people might talk about "business strategy", for example. However, it is a word which was first used by the military. It comes from an ancient Greek word for the most important leader who made all the big decisions for the rest of the soldiers. In other words, this leader was the highest general of the country.

When talking about the near future, people often use the word _tactics_.  Military theorist Carl von Clausewitz said "tactics is the art of using troops in battle; strategy is the art of using battles to win the war". The distinction between strategy and tactics applies to any planning which might be done against an enemy or opponent. Strategy is what we broadly intend to do to reach our long-term goal or objective. Tactics is the detailed steps which are used as our progress is opposed by the opponent. For this reason, tactics are short-scale and easy to change. Strategy, on the other hand, is changed as little as possible. It may be that our goal simply cannot be reached. In that case, a search goes on for a new goal and a new or adjusted strategy. Often, in war, chess or business, roughly the same tactics are still used to get to a different goal. Negotiation is another area where the distinction between strategy and tactics is especially clear.

## Bibliography

- Clausewitz, Carl von. 1989. _On War_, trans. Michael Howard and Peter Paret. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
- Gray, Colin S. 1999. _Modern Strategy_. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
- Liddell Hart, Basil. H. 1967. _Strategy_. New York: Praeger.
- Luttwak, Edward. 2001. _Strategy: the logic of war and peace_. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press.
- Sun Tzu. 1963. _The Art of War_. trans. Samuel B. Griffith. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
- Watson, John 1998. _Secrets of modern chess strategy: advances since Nimzowitsch_. Gambit, London.
Amarillo, Texas

**Amarillo** is a city in the U.S. state of Texas. It is in the northern part of Texas. The city's economy is mostly based on cattle. In 2020, 200,393 people lived there.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Amarillo
- **native name lang**: en
- **settlement type**: City
- **image flag**: AmarilloTexasSeal.gif
- **flag size**: 100px
- **blank emblem type**: Wordmark
- **map caption**: Interactive map of Amarillo
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision name**: United States
- **subdivision type1**: U.S. state, State
- **subdivision type2**: List of counties in Texas, Counties
- **subdivision name1**: Texas
- **subdivision name2**: Potter County, Texas, Potter and Randall County, Texas, Randall
- **named for**: Amarillo Lake
- **government type**: Council-manager government, Council-Manager
- **leader title**: Mayor
- **leader name**: Cole Stanley
- **leader title1**: City Council
- **leader name1**: Tim Reid
Don Tipps
David Prescott
Les Simpson
- **unit pref**: Imperial
- **area total km2**: 268.99
- **area total sq mi**: 103.86
- **area land km2**: 264.97
- **area land sq mi**: 102.30
- **area water km2**: 4.03
- **area water sq mi**: 1.56
- **elevation ft**: 3668
- **population total**: 200,393
- **population as of**: 2020 United States Census, 2020
- **population density km2**: 752.44
- **population urban**: 205,860 (US: List of United States urban areas, 185th)
- **population density urban sq mi**: 2,450.9
- **population metro**: 268,691 (US: Metropolitan statistical area, 184th)
- **population density sq mi**: 1948.81
- **population demonym**: Amarilloan
- **timezone1**: North American Central Time Zone, CST
- **utc offset1**: −6
- **timezone1 dst**: CDT
- **utc offset1 dst**: −5
- **postal code type**: ZIP Codes
- **postal code**: 79101–79111, 79114, 79116–79121, 79123–79124, 79159, 79163, 79166–79168, 79171–79172, 79174, 79178, 79182, 79185, 79187, 79189
- **area code**: Area code 806, 806
- **area code type**: Telephone numbering plan, Area code
- **blank name sec1**: Federal Information Processing Standard, FIPS code
- **blank info sec1**: 48-03000
- **blank1 name sec1**: Geographic Names Information System, GNIS feature ID
- **blank1 info sec1**: 1351066
Lansdowne, Pennsylvania

**Lansdowne** is a suburb of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in the US.

## Geography

Lansdowne has a total area of 1.2 square miles.
Gillingham F.C.

**Gillingham Football Club** is an English football club. They are based in the town of Gillingham, Kent. They are currently in Football League One. They play home games at Priestfield Stadium.  Gillingham are managed by Steve Lovell and the chairman is Paul Scally. The club captain, Gabriel Zakuani, plays in defence.  They finished their last season (2017-18) in 17th.

## Infobox (football club)

- **clubname**: Gillingham
- **image**:
- **caption**: Priestfield Stadium, Gillingham's home stadium
- **fullname**: Gillingham Football Club
- **nickname**: The Gills
- **founded**: 1893
- **ground**: Priestfield Stadium
- **capacity**: 11,582
- **chairman**: Paul Scally
- **manager**: Steve Evans (footballer, born 1962), Steve Evans
- **league**: Football League One, League One
- **season**: The Football League 2019-20, 2019–20
- **position**: Football League One, League One, 10th
Round (music)

A **round** in music is a song which can be sung by two or more groups of people.   One group starts off and the next group start to sing the same song a bit later.  It should sound nice together.  When a group gets to the end of the song they start again.  They can go round and round, singing it several times.

Usually rounds are in 2, 3 or 4 parts (meaning that they are for 2, 3 or 4 groups of people).  When a group of people sing or  play a round they usually sing it an agreed number of times.  This means that the group which starts last also finishes last.

_Frère Jacques_ is a famous French round.  _London's Burning_ is an English round.  Both those rounds can be sung in 4 parts.

The oldest round that we know is _Sumer is icumen in_.  This is a very famous piece of music because it is the oldest piece of music we know that was written down.  It was written around 1250 by a monk.  It can be sung in 4 parts with 2 bass drones (held notes).

Writing music by making one part imitate another is called canonic writing.  Rounds are a kind of canon.

## Related pages

- Canon (music)
Gall bladder

The **gallbladder** is a pear-shaped organ in the abdomen. It stores about 50 ml of acidic liquid (bile) until the body needs it for digestion. That liquid helps digest fat. The gallbladder is about 7-10cm long in humans. It is dark green in color because of the bile in it. It is connected to the liver and the duodenum by the biliary tract. The bile is later carried through the blood stream and into the Small intestine, where most of the nutrients is absorbed.
Addenbrooke's Hospital

**Addenbrooke's Hospital** is a large hospital in Cambridge, England. It was started in 1766. A new building was started in 1962 and the old building closed in 1984.  It is run by Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust. The hospital lets people in to look around, once every two years. You can visit the mortuary, the operating theatres and the hospital roof.

In October 2022  there were two cases where people were waiting more than 60 hours in the emergency department for a hospital bed. 515 patients  waited more than 12 hours.
John Adams (composer)

**John Coolidge Adams** is an American composer. He was born in 1947. He was born in Worchester, Massachusetts. His music often uses minimalism with large orchestras and lots of different sounds. He was named after John Adams, the 2nd President of the United States.

## Life

He studied music at Harvard University. After he graduated from Harvard, he went to California. Soon, he became part of the musical community of San Francisco. He listened to the music of minimalist composers like John Cage, Terry Riley and Morton Feldman. By the mid-1980s he was working as composer and conductor. The piece that made him famous was called _Harmonium_. _Harmonium_ is made to sound like a harmonium, but the title also refers to "harmony". This shows that he is writing tonal music, unlike some composers at the time whose music was getting more difficult to understand because it was not in any key.

Adams wrote several short pieces such as _Short Ride in a Fast Machine_ and _The Chairman Dances_. This last piece is music from his opera _Nixon in China._ It was performed many times, but made some people angry because the Chinese leaders Chou En-lai and Mao Tse-tung are shown in it as human beings who deserve sympathy.

Adam's Violin Concerto has been performed over 100 times by many of the world's famous violinists. Adam's song, _The Chairman Dances_, was put in the game Civilization IV.
Flashlight

A **flashlight** (in American English) or **torch** (in Commonwealth countries) is a small, portable spotlight. Its function is a beam of light which helps to see. It usually requires batteries.

The light is made by a small light bulb.  In the 20th century, it was usually an incandescent bulb.  Nowadays most use LEDs, which work slightly differently.  In 1896, the first dry cell battery was invented. Unlike previous batteries, it used a paste electrolyte instead of a liquid. This was the first battery suitable for portable electrical devices, as it did not spill or break easily and worked in any orientation.  Sometimes the electricity comes from a small generator instead of a battery.

The torch can also refer to a flammable stick that is lit on fire to provide light and (or) heat.

## Origin

Hundreds of years ago, people used candles or oil lamp<nowiki/>s for indoor light. Candles were expensive, and once the candle was gone, you would have to buy or make a new one or be stuck in the dark. When electricity was discovered and the light bulb was invented, David Misell, a British man working in Hubert's New York shop in 1898, came up with the idea of a light bulb that you could take with you, anywhere you wanted to go. Then, the torch was invented. The first flashlight has three D batteries which powered a small incandescent bulb. The bulbs would glow with a simple ON/OFF switch.
Discrimination

**Discrimination** is when someone is treated unfairly or differently because the person is one of a particular group. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights affirms that all persons must be protected against any kind of discrimination, or even its inciting.

## Overview

A person might be discriminated against because of their race, age, sex, sexual orientation, gender identity, religion, caste, the way they look, a past criminal record, the person's lifestyle, their choice of clothing, their age or their disabilities, whether they are a member of or fit in with a social clique (group), social class, social status or caste, and many other reasons.

## Forms

Discrimination can take many forms. It can include being fired from a job, not being able to be hired for a job, being paid less money than others at the same job, being refused a home or apartment, teasing, harassment, or simply being treated differently than other people. Laws known as "equal opportunity legislation" protect people from discrimination.

They say people should be employed whatever their race, age, sex or religion. There should be reasonable care for people with disabilities or accessibility. Two people in the same position must be paid the same wage if they have exactly the same job.

## Legality

In some countries, discrimination against somebody on the basis of race, sex, religion, sexual orientation, age, or disability is illegal. Even in those countries where discrimination is unlawful, it still takes place because there is a world of difference between the law and its application.

In some other countries, discrimination against somebody is legal or even official government policy. This especially takes place in countries in which there is an official religion, and people of other religions are discriminated against.

## Related pages

- Sexism
- Racism
- Ageism
- Ableism
- Antiziganism
- Antisemitism
- Intersectionality
- Homophobia
- Transphobia
Ernest Rutherford

**Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson ** OM PC FRS (30 August 1871 – 19 October 1937) was a New Zealand-born British scientist. He won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1908 for his work on nuclear physics, and for his theory of the structure of the atom.

## Career

Rutherford was one of the first researchers in nuclear physics, after the discovery of radiation by the French physicist Henri Becquerel in 1896. Rutherford discovered the radioactive half-life, and the three parts of radiation which he named Alpha, Beta, and Gamma. He also discovered that alpha particles were the nuclei of Helium. Rutherford's Geiger–Marsden experiment led to what we know today about the atomic structure, where the atom is a nucleus and electrons orbit around it.

In 1919, Rutherford made the world's first artificial nuclear reaction, where he put alpha particles with nitrogen gas and created particles of oxygen isotopes and protons. This was nuclear transmutation, changing nitrogen gas into oxygen gas.

Rutherford was the leader of the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge. He proved the existence of the nucleus and that is was composed of protons and neutrons. In 1932 James Chadwick made an experiment at the Cavendish Lab that showed Rutherford was right.

Rutherford College, a school in Auckland, New Zealand, was named after him.

## Related pages

- List of scientists from Oceania

## Other websites

- The Rutherford Museum
- Rutherford Scientist Supreme
- Ernest Rutherford  @ nobel.se
- "Ernest Rutherford 1871–1937". A Science Odyssey, pbs.org.
Frédéric Chopin

**Fryderyk Franciszek Chopin** (1 March 1810 – 17 October 1849; pronounced SHOH-pen) was a Polish composer and virtuoso pianist. He is considered one of the greatest Romantic piano composers. Chopin was born in Żelazowa Wola, a village in the Duchy of Warsaw. A famous child prodigy, he grew up in Warsaw where he completed his music education and composed many of his mature works before leaving Poland in 1830 at age 20, shortly before the November 1830 Uprising.

## Early life

After the Uprising, he lived in Paris as part of Poland's Great Emigration. During the last 19 years of his life, Chopin performed only about 30 times, usually in a salon. He supported himself by selling his compositions and teaching piano. After a romantic relationship with Polish women, including an abortive engagement, from 1837 to 1847 he carried on a relationship with the French writer Amandine Dupin, better known as George Sand.

## Works

Since he composed many piano pieces, he was called the poet of the piano. Most of Chopin's works are for solo piano, though he also wrote two piano concertos, a few chamber pieces and some songs to Polish lyrics. His piano works are often technically difficult, especially because deep expression is involved along with the importance of considering each detail in his music. Chopin also created the instrumental ballade, along with the addition of new ideas to the piano sonata, mazurka, waltz, nocturne, polonaise, études, impromptu, scherzo and prélude. All of Chopin's works involve the piano, and for composing them he was using a number of them. While living in Warsaw, Chopin played on a Buchholtz piano. Later in Paris he preferred an instrument from Pleyel. Both of these instruments were recreated in the 21st century to help listeners hear Chopin's works played on pianos that they were written for.

## Death

Chopin suffered from poor health most of his life and died of tuberculosis in Paris in 1849 at age 39.

## Other websites

- Chopin biography
- Our Chopin

## Infobox (writer)

- **name**: Fryderyk Chopin
- **image**: Frederic Chopin photo.jpeg
- **caption**: Chopin in 1849
- **birth date**: 1 March 1810
- **birth place**: Żelazowa Wola, Poland
- **death date**: 17 October 1849 (aged 39)
- **death place**: Paris, France
- **occupation**: Composer, pianist
- **notableworks**: Military Polonaise
Black Key Etude
Minute Waltz
Nocturne in E flat major
Mikhail Glinka

**Mikhail Ivanovich Glinka** (1804–1857) was a Russian composer, regarded as the first to become very famous.

Russia is a very large country. In the 18th century there was a lot of music in Europe, but Russian people had not yet heard it. A lot of them were very poor and modern transport did not exist. By the time Glinka was born Russian people in the large towns like Saint Petersburg were becoming very interested in European music.

Mikhail Glinka was born in a little village called Novospasskoye. His father was a rich landowner. Glinka was brought up by his grandmother who looked after him very carefully. She was always afraid he would be cold, so she wrapped him up in a fur coat in a room which was kept at 77 °F. He was not often allowed to play in the fresh air. Later in his life Glinka was always worrying about his health.

It was a long way to the big cities from where the child lived. There was no radio in those days, and no CDs. The only music he heard was the church bells, and the singing of the peasants (the simple people who worked on the land). They sang folksongs and made up harmony underneath the tunes.

After his grandmother died he was allowed to travel 6 miles to his uncle’s home. His uncle had a group of musicians who played music by European composers like Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven. He had never heard such music before.

When he was 13 he went to school in St Petersburg. Now he could hear lots of music and meet some good musicians. He had piano lessons and spent a lot of time at parties. He started to compose some songs.

In 1830 he went to Italy. Italy was famous for its music, especially for opera. Glinka met famous composers like Mendelssohn and Berlioz as well as Italian composers like Donizetti and Bellini. He like their music, and decided he wanted to write opera as well, but he wanted to make his music sound very Russian.

Glinka went back to Russia. He wrote two great operas. The first one was called _Ivan Susanin_. The story of the opera, set in 1612, is about a poor peasant Ivan Susanin who dies to save the life of the Tsar (the Tsar was the ruler of Russia, like a king or emperor). The Tsar liked the opera and thought that it should be called _A Life for the Tsar_. It was a big success when it was first performed in 1836.

He soon wrote his second opera: _Ruslan and Lyudmila_. The story comes from a tale by the famous Russian poet Pushkin. The man who wrote the words for him did it very quickly while he was drunk, so the story is a bit muddled, but the music is wonderful. It is a fairy tale about a nasty dwarf Chernomor who has taken away a princess called Lyudmila. In the end Ruslan, the hero, rescues her. Some of the music sounds quite oriental. The overture that starts the opera is very famous.

Glinka also wrote piano music, songs and chamber music.

Glinka’s music is important because he was the first Russian composer to write music that sounded Russian. Later composers like Tchaikovsky were influenced by his music.

## References

- David Brown: _Mikhail Glinka, a biographical and critical study_ London OUP1974
1510

## Events

- January 23 – Henry VIII of England, then 18 years-old, appears incognito in the lists at Richmond, and is applauded for his jousting before he reveals himself.
- Conquest of Pskov by Grand Prince Vasili III of Muscovy.
- Formation of the Holy League to defend the Italian States.
- Peter Henlein builds the first pocketwatch.
- End of the War of the League of Cambrai (started 1508)
- Start of the War of the Holy League (ended 1513)

## Births

- March 30 – Antonio de Cabezón, Spanish composer and organist (died 1566)
- April 2 – Ashikaga Yoshiharu, Japanese shogun (died 1550)
- July 22 – Alessandro de' Medici, Duke of Florence (died 1537)
- October 6 – Rowland Taylor, English pastor (executed 1555)
- November 6 – John Caius, English physician (d. 1573)
- Mikael Agricola, Finnish scholar (died 1557)
- Francis Borgia, General of the Jesuits (died 1572)
- Jörg Breu the Younger, German painter (died 1547)
- Ferenc Dávid, Hungarian religious reformer (died 1579)
- Andrea Gabrieli, Italian composer and organist (died 1586)
- Claude Goudimel, French composer and music theorist (died 1572)
- Matsunaga Hisahide, Japanese warlord (died 1577)
- Aloysius Lilius, Italian inventor of the Gregorian calendar (died 1576)
- Solomon Luria, Polish-born Kabbalist (died 1574)
- Luis de Morales, Spanish religious painter (died 1586)
- Oda Nobuhide, Japanese warlord (died 1551)
- Bernard de Palissy, French potter and writer
- Ambroise Paré, French surgeon (died 1590)
- Guillaume Postel, linguist (died 1581)
- Renee of France, daughter of Louis XII of France and Anne of Brittany (died 1575)
- Lope de Rueda, Spanish dramatist and writer
- Lawrence Sheriff, Elizabethan gentleman and grocer (died 1567)
- Francisco Vasquez de Coronado, Spanish explorer (died 1554)
- Claudio Veggio, Italian composer
- Nicolas Durand de Villegaignon, French naval officer (died 1571)

## Deaths

- February 28 – Juan de la Cosa, Spanish mapmaker and explorer (born c. 1460)
- March 1 – Francisco de Almeida, Portuguese soldier and explorer (born c. 1450)
- March 10 – Johann Geiler von Kaisersberg, German preacher (born 1445)
- May 17 – Sandro Botticelli, Italian painter (born 1445)
- August 17 – Edmund Dudley, English statesman
- December 14 – Friedrich of Saxony (b. 1473)
- December 31 – Bianca Maria Sforza, daughter of Duke Galeazzo Maria Sforza of Milan and wife of Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor (born 1472)
- Agueybana, Taino chief
- Ambrogio Calepino, Italian lexicographer (born 1450)
- Catherine Cornaro, Queen of Cyprus (born 1454)
- Richard Empson, English statesman
- Giorgione, Italian painter (born c. 1477)
- Bohuslav Hasištejnský z Lobkovic, Bohemian writer (born 1461)
- Florian Zamoyski, Polish nobleman
Ellipsoid

An **ellipsoid** is a shape like a sphere, but prolate (longer in one or more directions) like a rugby ball, or like an egg. It is the 3 dimensional analogue of an ellipse.

The Earth is shaped slightly like an ellipsoid. Its shape is called an oblate spheroid. An ellipsoid shaped like the Earth, called a reference ellipsoid, is often preferred to the geoid because it makes calculations simpler.

## Related pages

- Ellipse
- Oblate spheroid
- Geoid
Pentagram

A **pentagram** is a five-pointed star, with all lines the same length and all angles the same. A 'pentangle', 'star pentagon', or 'pentalpha' means the same thing. It is a type of pentagon.

The word _pentacle_ originally meant 'any symbol that defies against pureness  spirits'. There are many of such symbols, only a few of which include a pentagram. During the modern age of Wicca, the word 'pentacle' acquired a second definition, due to sounding similar to the word 'pentagram', and the fact that wiccan pentacles use a pentagram. That second definition of 'pentacle' is 'a circumscribed pentagram', which means 'a pentagram drawn inside a circle so that the points of the pentagram touch the circle'.

The pentagram has been portrayed as a satanic symbol in popular media.

## Religious meanings

In ancient times, the pentagram was used as a Christian symbol. It stood for the five wounds that Jesus Christ received during his crucifixion (the nails in each hand and foot, and the spear wound in his side).

In the past, the pentagram was commonly seen as a symbol for good and for protection against evil.

One of the earliest recorded uses for the pentagram was by the Pythagoreans as a sign of initiation for its mathematical relation to the golden ratio and common presence in naturally occurring shapes.

In Taoism, a pentagram shows how the five classical oriental elements (earth, water, wood, fire, and metal) are related.

Today, the pentacle, commonly mistaken as a pentagram, is the most commonly used symbol of Wicca. Some post-Gardnerian wiccans, imitating Taoism, associate the five points of the pentagram with the four classical Greek elements (fire, water, earth, and air) and spirit.

Some Satanists, especially members of the Church of Satan, use an upside-down pentacle as a symbol for their religion. The Church of Satan's official symbol is an upside-down pentacle with a goat head inside, called the _Sigil of Baphomet._ (A 'sigil' is a symbol of a supernatural being). It was originally the influential 1800s French occultist Eliphas Levi who associated the pentagram with the goat-headed baphomet, by drawing a pentagram on the baphomet's forehead. Anton LaVey, who created the Church of Satan in 1966, took the idea from Levi.

## The pentagram in literature

In _Sir Gawain and the Green Knight,_ a 14th century romance story, the pentagram is mentioned as a symbol for Gawain's good character and truth.

More recently, the meaning of the pentagram was discussed in _The Da Vinci Code_ by Dan Brown. According to the book, the pentagram actually belonged to the ancient religion of Pagan Sun Worship, and was tied to the female planet Venus: every 8 years Venus traces a perfect pentagram across the sky. The book says that the pentagram was a symbol for the sacred female, but was later taken by Christianity and said to mean the devil in order to destroy beliefs that females were sacred.

## Other uses

A pentacle is on the flag of Morocco, as well as  Ethiopia's.
Benzene

**Benzene**, also known as  **benzol**, is an organic chemical compound with the formula C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>6</sub>. It is a colorless and flammable liquid with a sweet smell. Benzene molecules are a ring of six carbon atoms that are each bonded to one hydrogen atom. It is an _aromatic_ compound, meaning the ring has alternating double bonds.

Benzene is carcinogenic, which means it can cause cancer. It has many real-world uses. It is used as an additive in gasoline, plastics, synthetic rubber, dyes and it is an industrial solvent, which means it can dissolve many other chemical molecules. Benzene is also a natural part of crude oil and is therefore present in gasoline. Many medicines contain parts made from benzene.

## Structure

Benzene has special properties called aromaticity. All six carbon atoms in the ring are on the same flat plane. To account for all the bonds on a six carbon ring, there must be alternating double carbon bonds (Conjugated system):

If benzene had three double bonds, three sides of its ring would be shorter than the other three sides. X-ray diffraction shows that all of six carbon-carbon bonds in benzene are of the same length of 140 picometres (pm). The C–C bond lengths are greater than a double bond (135 pm) but shorter than a single bond (147 pm). This intermediate distance is consistent with electron delocalization: the electrons for C–C bonding are distributed equally between each of the six carbon atoms. The molecule is planar. One representation is that the structure exists as a superposition of so-called resonance structures, rather than either form individually. (In other words, the molecule's double bonds switch quickly between pairs of carbon atoms.) The delocalization of electrons is one explanation for the thermodynamic stability of benzene and related aromatic compounds. It is likely that this stability contributes to the peculiar molecular and chemical properties known as aromaticity. To indicate the delocalized nature of the bonding, benzene is often depicted with a circle inside a hexagonal arrangement of carbon atoms.

As is common in organic chemistry, the carbon atoms in the diagram above have been left unlabeled. Realizing each carbon has 2p electrons, each carbon donates an electron into the delocalized ring above and below the benzene ring. It is the overlap of p-orbitals both above and below the ring that produces the pi clouds.

In 1986, some chemists disputed the delocalized view of benzene in an article published in the journal _Nature_. They showed that the electrons in benzene are almost certainly localized to particular carbon atoms. They showed the aromatic properties of benzene come from spin coupling rather than electron delocalization. Other scientists wrote articles to support this view in _Nature_ in 1987. But, chemists are slow to switch from the delocalized electrons view.

Derivatives of benzene occur sufficiently often as a component of organic molecules that there is a Unicode symbol in the Miscellaneous Technical block with the code U+232C () to represent it with three double bonds, and U+23E3 () for a delocalized version.
Tasmanian devil

The **Tasmanian devil** **(_Sarcophilus harrisii_)** is a meat eating mammal. It is a marsupial, which means it has a small pouch to carry its babies. It is the largest meat eating marsupial in the world. It is nocturnal, which means it sleeps during the day and is awake during the night. Tasmanian devils now live only in Tasmania, an island state of Australia.

The devil is the same size as a small dog with a wide head and a short tail. Male devils can weigh 12 kg and be 30 cm tall. It has black fur and makes a loud and very scary screeching noise. It will hunt other animals and also feed on dead animals. The devil has strong teeth and jaws and will eat all its prey, even bones and fur.

The Tasmanian devil became extinct on the Australian mainland about 3,000 years ago - before European settlement in 1788. They were hunted in Tasmania. In the 1930s the Van Dieman's Land Company offered 25 cents for each male and 35 cents for each female killed. In 1941 they became officially protected.

## Disease

In 1996 the devils began to get very sick and then die with large tumours on their faces. Devil facial tumour disease has greatly reduced the number of devils and now threatens their survival. In some areas 85% of devils have been found with the disease. In the places where the tumours were seen first, devil numbers have dropped by 95%. The tumour is spread by biting. Because the devils are all closely related (not enough genetic diversity), the tumour cells are not seen as new; so the devil's immune system does not fight it. In May 2008 the Tasmanian devil was listed as endangered. Programs are being tried by the Tasmanian government to reduce the impact of the disease. About 60 devils without the disease have been captured and are to be kept as a tumour free group for rebreeding. Scientists have been looking at ways to give the devils immunity but so far this has not worked.

New research is showing the devils are having babies earlier, they use to breed at two years, but now are breeding at one year old. Devils used to have babies every year for three years, but they are now dying before they can produce a second litter (family).

## Genetics

The devils have a low genetic diversity which is consistent with a 'founder effect'. What this means is: a small number colonised Tasmania from Australia at some stage. So their genetic variety was much less than the parent population. Disease like the present may have happened before, and reduced the population to a small number. These events are called 'population bottlenecks'. A small population which carries less variation is always vulnerable to extinction, because none of the animals may be resistant to the infection.

Its genome was sequenced in 2010 by the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute. There is some hope for their survival because, since 2005, three females have been found that are partially resistant to the disease.

## Other websites

- The Aussie Devil Ark Conservation Project