juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Andorra la Vella

**Andorra la Vella** is the capital city of the principality of Andorra and is one of the seven parishes of Andorra. It is in the southwestern part of the country.

## Geography

The Andorra la Vella parish is in the southwestern part of the country at the confluence of two mountain streams, the _Valira del Nord_ (Northern Valira) and the _Valira de l'Orient_ (Eastern Valira), which join to form the Gran Valira that flows through the capital city.

The parish borders with the La Massana parish to the north, with the Escaldes-Engordany parish to the east, with the Sant Julià de Lòria parish to the south and with Spain to the west.

The highest mountain in the parish is _Pic d'Os_ () with an elevation of  above sea level; it is on the border with the Sant Julià de Lòria parish and Spain.

At 1023 m (3,356 ft) above sea level, it is the highest capital in Europe.

## Population

The parish had a population, in 2015,  of 22,886 inhabitants, for a population density of  persons/km².

**Evolution of the population in Andorra la Vella**

## Villages

The urban areas in the parish are:

|No.|Town|Population <small>(2015)</small> !! Altitude <small>(m)</small> !! Notes|||
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|1|**Andorra la Vella**|19,884|1,029|The capital of the country and of the parish.|
|2|Santa Coloma d’Andorra|3,002|970|On the right side of the _Gran Valira_ river, at about  from Andorra la Vella.|

## Economy

Andorra la Vella is the country's commercial centre. The city is also the centre for many banks and businesses. The state is not a member of the European Union, but has a customs arrangement with the EU, and uses the euro.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Andorra la Vella
- **settlement type**: Parishes of Andorra, Parish
- **image skyline**: Andorra la Vella 3.JPG
- **image alt**: View of Andorra la Vella and Escaldes-Engordany
- **image caption**: View of Andorra la Vella and a small part of Escaldes-Engordany
- **image flag**: Hypothetical flag of Andorra la Vella.svg
- **image shield**: Emblem of Andorra la Vella.svg
- **shield size**: 70px
- **nickname**: _Queen Bee Angela_
- **image map**: Andorra la Vella in Andorra.svg
- **mapsize**: 270px
- **map alt**: Andorra la Vella in Andorra
- **map caption**: Andorra la Vella parish, in red, in Andorra
- **pushpin map narrow**: yes
- **subdivision type**: List of sovereign states, Country
- **subdivision name**: Andorra
- **parts type**: Villages
- **parts style**: para
- **p1**: Santa Coloma d'Andorra
- **seat type**: Capital city, Capital
- **seat**: Andorra la Vella
- **leader title**: Mayor
- **leader name**: Conxita Marsol Riart
- **unit pref**: Métrico
- **area total km2**: 12
- **elevation m**: 1023
- **population total**: 22886
- **population as of**: 2015
- **population density km2**: auto
- **population demonym**: Andorran
 _andorrà_, _andorrana_ (Catalan language, ca)
- **timezone**: Central European Time, CET
- **utc offset**: +1
- **timezone dst**: Central European Summer Time, CEST
- **utc offset dst**: +2
- **postal code type**: Postal code
- **postal code**: AD500
- **iso code**: AD-05
- **website**: [http://www.andorralavella.ad/ Official website]
Woodland

**Woodland** is a low-density forest with plenty of sunlight and limited shade. It forms an open habitat.

Woodlands have an understory of shrubs and herbaceous plants including grasses. Woodlands grade into shrubland in drier conditions or in early stages of plant succession. Higher densities and areas of trees, with largely closed canopy, and nearly continuous shade and are often called forests.

_Woodland_ in British forestry means any smaller area covered in trees, however dense. Forest in the British Isles means extensive wooded areas, regardless of density. Royal forests may not be wooded at all. The term ancient woodland is used in British conservation to mean any wooded land that has existed for a very long time (equivalent to the American term old growth forest).

Conservationist work hard to preserve woodlands. The woodlands in Northwest Indiana have been preserved as part of the Indiana Dunes.

## Other websites

- The Woodland Trust
Limburg (Netherlands)

- Other meanings are at Limburg
**Limburg** is the southernmost province of the Netherlands. Its capital is Maastricht. About 1,128,000 people are living in Limburg (2023).

It is the only province in the Netherlands which has hills. It is a very old province; the capital city, Maastricht, is over 2000 years old. The Limburgish people do speak Dutch, but they also speak their own dialects called Limburgish. These dialects - especially the ones in the South of Limburg, the normal Dutch people find difficult to understand. These dialects have many influences from German and French. The Limburgish are renowned for their famous vlaai.

Limburg got its status as a Dutch Province in 1867

Limburger cheese comes from this region.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Limburg
- **native name**: Limburg / Limbörg / Lèmburg
- **settlement type**: Province
- **image skyline**: Oud-Valkenburg-Däölkesberg (13).jpg
- **image caption**: Däölkesberg (municipality of Valkenburg aan de Geul)
- **image flag**: Flag of Limburg.svg
- **image shield**: Limburg-nl-wapen.svg
- **map caption**: Location
- **image map1**: Prov-Limburg-OpenTopo.jpg
- **map caption1**: Map
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision name**: Netherlands
- **established title**: Established
- **established date**: 1867
- **seat**: Maastricht
- **area total km2**: 2210
- **area land km2**: 2145
- **area water km2**: 65
- **elevation max m**: 323
- **elevation min m**: 10
- **population as of**: 2023
- **population total**: 1128000
- **population density km2**: 526
Mount Cayley

**Mount Cayley** is an eroded stratovolcano. It is 11 km southeast of Callaghan Lake and 24 west of Whistler, British Columbia, Canada. It is part of the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt which is a segment of the Cascade Volcanic Arc.

A scenario of an eruption of Mount Cayley shows how western Canada is vulnerable to an eruption. The scenario is based on past activity in the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt and involves both effusive and explosive eruptions. The scenario impact is largely a result of the concentration of vulnerable infrastructure in valleys.

In 2003, Catherine Hickson, a scientist with the Geological Survey of Canada, was one of the three scientists to report on the hypothetical eruption at Mount Cayley. The first signs of activity at the volcano would probably be enlarged seismic activity in and close to the mountain. Flooding would turn out to be a huge issue for the community of Squamish and could eventually overrun parts of Highway 99.

The Mount Cayley volcanic field is named after Mount Cayley.

## Infobox (mountain)

- **name**: Mount Cayley
- **photo**: Mount Cayley.jpg
- **photo caption**: Mount Cayley as seen from its southeast slopes
- **elevation m**: 2377
- **prominence m**: 674
- **listing**: List of volcanoes in CanadaList of Cascade volcanoes
- **location**: Squamish River, British Columbia, Canada
- **range**: Pacific Ranges
- **topo**: National Topographic System, NTS 92J/03
- **type**: Stratovolcano
(potentially active)
- **age**: Pleistocene
- **volcanic arc/belt**: Canadian Cascade Arc
Garibaldi Volcanic Belt
- **last eruption**: Pleistocene
- **first ascent**: 1928 by E.C. Brooks, W.G. Wheatley, B.Clegg, R.E. Knight, and Tom Fyles
- **easiest route**: rock/ice climb
Limburg

**Limburg** might mean:

## Duchies, and former countries

- the Duchy of Limburg (which was later split into the provinces below)

## Provinces

- Limburg (Netherlands), a province of the Netherlands
- Limburg (Belgium), a province of Belgium

## Cities

- The city of Limbourg in Belgium (also known as _Limburg an der Weser_)
- The city of Limburg an der Lahn in Germany

## People

- the Limbourg brothers, famous Renaissance painters

## Other use

- Limburger cheese is made in both Dutch Limburg and Belgian Limburg
Limbourg

- _Other meanings are at Limburg_

**Limbourg** or **Limburg** is a medieval city in the Belgian province of Liège. It was founded in the 11th century.

In 2007 its population was 5644.

It is located at 50° 37 North, 05° 56 East.
Limburg an der Lahn

**Limburg an der Lahn** (Limburg on the Lahn river) is a German town and the capital of the _Kreis_ Limburg-Weilburg in the west of Hesse.

## Infobox (german location)

- **type**: Stadt
- **image coa**: DEU Limburg an der Lahn COA.svg
- **image photo**: DomLimburgLahn27.jpg
- **image caption**: Cathedral with the old Lahn bridge
- **image plan**: Limburg in LM.svg
- **state**: Hesse
- **region**: Gießen (region), Gießen
- **district**: Limburg-Weilburg
- **elevation**: 117
- **area**: 45.15
- **gemeindeschlüssel**: 06533009
- **population**: 33832
- **stand**: 2006-12-31
- **postal code**: 65531–65556
- **area code**: 06431, 06433 (Ahlbach)
- **licence**: LM
- **mayor**: Marius Hahn
Stinky

**Stinky** could mean:

## Television and movies

- Stinky, a character on the American animated television show _Foster's Home for Imaginary Friends_
- "Stinky Britches", a fictional song by Alanis Morissette on the _South Park_ episode "Chef Aid"
- Stinky Pete, a fictional seal from the television series _Sealab 2021_
- Stinky Pete the Prospector, a character from the film _Toy Story 2_
- Stinky Peterson, the name of characters on the television shows _Hey Arnold!_, _The Red Green Show_, and _Recess_
- Stinky Toe / House Broken, an episode of _The Angry Beavers_

## Music

- The Stinkypuffs, an early 90's rock band
    - _A Little Tiny Smelly Bit of...the Stinky Puffs_, an album by The Stinkypuffs
- _Stinky Fingers_, a 1995 EP by Turbonegro and Flying Crap
- Stinky Toys, a Parisian punk band in the '70s

## Other

- Mr. Stinky, a nickname of Raymond Edmunds, a convicted rapist and murderer
- _The Stinky Cheese Man and Other Fairly Stupid Tales_, a children's book by Jon Scieszka
- Stinky tofu, a type of tofu with a strong odor
Illusion

An **illusion** is a change of perception. The brain arranges, sorts, and organises data from the senses. Normally the system works well. Sometimes it does not, and we see illusions. In general, they are shared by most people in the same situation.

Illusions can happen with all five senses (taste, touch, sight, smell, and hearing), and some involve the way information from two senses is put together. Some illusions happen because of disorders, but generally, all normal people can sense the same illusion.

An illusion is different from a hallucination. A hallucination is sensing something that is not real, but an illusion is interpreting what we sense wrongly.

### Optical illusions

Optical illusions are the best known and understood. Because they are illusions common to most people, it follows that they are a product of the visual system. The visual system, from the retina to the visual cortex, is what is common to most humans.

### Auditory illusions

These are illusions which are heard. The person listening hears sounds that aren’t really there, or sounds that can’t really happen. A Shepard tone is an auditory illusion.

### Touch illusions

They are when a person feels something that is not there, or something that should not be there but feels like it is. This happens sometimes when a person loses their arm.  The person still feels like the arm is there.  They might want to scratch the arm, or the arm might hurt them.  This can happen with any limb of the body, and it is called the phantom limb.
Charcoal

**Charcoal** is a carbon-containing substance made from wood, naturally black and powdery. Charcoal is made from wood by heating it in an "airless" (minimal oxygen) space at a high temperature. The wood will not burn, but instead turn into charcoal. The by-product of making charcoal is tar and turpentine.

People use it for different things such as cooking on a barbecue grill, and in painting.
Brose Baskets

**Brose Baskets Bamberg** (also **Brose Baskets**) is a basketball club in Bamberg, Germany. In 2005 (as GHP Bamberg), 2007, 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2013 it won the BBL. In 1992, 2010, 2011, and 2012 it won the German Cup.
Armenian Revolutionary Federation

The **Armenian Revolutionary Federation** (**ARF** or **ՀՅԴ**) (Armenian:  – **Hay Heghapokhakan Dashnaktsutiun**, **Dashnaktsutiun**,  – **Dashnak** or **Tashnag**) is an Armenian political party founded in Tiflis (Tbilisi in modern-day Georgia) in 1890 by Christapor Mikaelian, Stepan Shaumian, Stepan Zorian, and Simon Zavarian. The party works in Armenia and in countries where the Armenian diaspora is active, notably in Lebanon.

## Museum

The Armenian Revolutionary Federation History Museum was created during an official ceremony Friday 2007 at Yerevan's Kristapor Mikaelian Center, with the party's leaders and supporters on hand to mark this momentous occasion.

Opened in 1946, the ARF History Museum was in Paris and during the years has collected more than 3,000 artifacts describing the party's history. After the ARF's return to Armenia, the museum and the ARF archives have been sent to Armenia.

Giro Manoyan is one of the leaders of ARF.

## Other websites

- Official web site - Armenian Revolutionary Federation
- Armenian Revolutionary Federation Shant Student Association
- History of the Armenian Socialist Party
Christapor Mikaelian

**Christapor Mikaelian** (Armenian: ) also known by his _noms de guerre_ **Hellen** (), **Topal** (), and **Edward** (), (1859-1905) was one of the three founders of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation along Stepan Zorian and Simon Zavarian, also part of Armenian national liberation movement.

## Early life

Rosdom was born in the village of Agulis in Goghtn, now part of the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic. He graduated from the Professorial academy of Tiflis and also attended the University of Moscow, where he met Simon Vratsian, another co-founder of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation.

## References

- Translated from the Armenian: Mihran Kurdoghlian, Badmoutioun Hayots, C. hador [Armenian History, volume III], Athens, Greece, 1996, pg. 34.
Varazdat

**Varasdates** or **Varazdat** (, Varazdat) was an Armenian prince who succeeded his uncle King Papes as King of Armenia in 374.

Following the murder of King Papes, Valens sent Varazdat, a nephew of Pap, a young man highly reputed for his mental and physical gifts, to hold the Armenian throne.  Shapur II, having failed on the battlefield, now proposed to Valens in 375 that Armenia be divided between the two powers. The Emperor rejected the proposal, but sent Victor Magistrianus to the Persian King to discuss the question. This emissary was cozened into exceeding the bounds of his authority and agreeing to the Persian proposal. In the meantime, the internal condition of Armenia was imperiled through friction between King Varazdat and the nakharars, culminating in the assassination of Musel Mamikonian, the leader of the latters' party. Manuel, the son of Musel, took up arms against the King and compelled him to flee from Armenia in 378, after four years of reign.  Varazdat's life was saved, but the country was thrown into confusion. The Persians took advantage of the turmoil and invaded Armenia; but their occupation was a short-lived one. Shapur II died in 379, and the Persians evacuated in haste. Manuel, the dynamic Mamikonian, had rallied a formidable national force for action.

## Related pages

- List of Armenian Kings
Adana massacre

The **Adana massacre** happened in Adana Province, in the Ottoman Empire, in April 1909. A religious-ethnic clash in the city of Adana amidst governmental upheaval resulted in a series of anti-Armenian pogroms throughout the district. Reports estimated that the massacres in Adana Province resulted in 20,000 to 30,000 deaths.

## Other websites

- The Red Rugs Of Tarsus - A Woman’s Record of the Armenian Massacre of 1909
- Adana Massacre
Adana

**Adana** (Greek Άδανα) (the ancient _Antioch in Cilicia_ or _Antioch on the Sarus_) is the capital of Adana Province in Turkey. According to the 2000 census, with 1,130,710 inhabitants, it is the fifth most populous city of Turkey (after İstanbul, Ankara, İzmir and Bursa). The 2006 estimate of Adana's population is 1,271,894.

For most Turkish people, the word 'Adana' associates with Kebab, şalgam, cotton, oranges and very hot weather, in the awareness that Adana also embodies more than just these.

Adana is also named among the 25 _European Regions of the Future_ for 2006/2007 by Foreign Direct Investment Magazine. Chosen alongside Kocaeli for Turkey, Adana scored the most points for cost effectiveness against Kocaeli's points for infrastructure development, while Adana and Kocaeli tied on points for the categories of human resources and quality of life.

Adana has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (_Csa_ in the Koeppen climate classification).

## Related pages

- Adana massacre

## Other websites

- Governorship of Adana
- Municipality of Adana
Parsley massacre

In October 1937, Dominican dictator Rafael Leonidas Trujillo Molina ordered the execution of the Haitian population living within the borderlands with Haiti. The violence resulted in the killing of 17,000 to 35,000 Haitian civilians over a span of approximately five days. This would later become known as the **Parsley Massacre**.

## Events

Trujillo had made his actions for the Haitian community clear in a short speech given at a dance held in his honor on October 2, 1937 in Dajabón, stating:

## Infobox (military conflict)

- **conflict**: The Parsley Massacre
- **date**: October 1937
- **place**: Rio Artibonito and surrounding borderlands.
- **casus**: Haitian theft of cattle and crops from Dominicans living in the borderlands.
- **result**: $750,000 in reparations to Haiti sought, $525,000 paid.
- **combatant1**: Dominican Republic
- **combatant2**: Haiti, Republic of Haiti
- **commander1**: Rafael Trujillo
- **casualties3**: 17,000 to 35,000 Haitian civilians dead.
Branch (disambiguation)

A **branch** is a part of a tree.

**Branch** or **branching** could also mean:

## Computing

- Branch (computer science), a point in a computer program where program-flow may change depending on a condition.
    - Branch predictor, the part of a processor that determines whether a conditional branch in the instruction flow of a program is likely to be taken or not.
    - Branch table, a term used to describe an efficient method of transferring program control (branching) to another part of a program using a table of branch instructions.
    - Indirect branch, a type of program control instruction.
- Branching (software), a way of duplicating an object under revision control.

## Geography

- Branch, Arkansas, United States
- Branch, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada

## Mathematics

- Branch (graph theory), a concept in mathematical logic
- Branch point, a point at which a multiple-valued function changes values
- Principal branch, a function which selects one branch of a multi-valued function

## Religion

- Branch (Christ), the Branch Davidian new name of Christ
- Branch (Latter Day Saints), the Latter Day Saints equivalent of a congregation

## Other

- Arthur Branch, a fictional character on the TV crime drama _Law & Order_
- Branch (academia), an academic sub-discipline
- Branch (banking), a retail location.
- Branch (business), a franchise location.
- Branch (bridle), a crooked piece of iron in a bit shank
- Branch line, a relatively minor railway line
- Branching (chemistry), a concept in polymer chemistry
- Branching (linguistics), the general tendency towards a given order of words within sentences and smaller grammatical units within sentences
- Cadet branch, a family line of nobility not descending from the first born son
- Earthly Branches, one Chinese system for reckoning time
- Executive branch, the branch of government responsible for the day-to-day management of the state
- Olive branch, a gesture of peace
- Post office branch, a type of postal facility that is not a main post office

## People named Branch

- Branch, Christopher (circa 1600-1682), early American colonist
- Branch, Cliff (1948–2019), retired American football player
- Branch, David (born 1948), Commissioner of the Ontario Hockey League
- Branch, Emmett Forrest (1874-1932), governor of the U.S. state of Indiana
- Branch, Frank (born 1944), Canadian politician
- Branch, John, Jr. (1782–1863), U.S. Senator, Secretary of the Navy, governor of North Carolina, and  territorial governor of Florida
- Branch, Lawrence O'Bryan (1820-1862), Confederate General and Representative from North Carolina
- Branch, Michael (born 1978), English professional footballer
- Branch, Michelle (born 1983), American singer, songwriter and guitarist
- Branch, Vanessa (born 1973), British actress and model
- McCracken, Branch (1908–1970), college men's basketball coach

## Related pages

- Branch County
- Branch Township
- East Branch
- Fort Branch
- Long Branch
- North Branch
- South Branch
- West Branch
- USS _Branch_
First law of thermodynamics

The **first law of thermodynamics** is that **energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it can change only from one form to another**. The law forms the basis of the principle of conservation of energy. This means that anything that uses energy is changing the energy from one kind of energy to another. For example, exercising changes energy from food into kinetic (motion) energy.  Another example:  In the Sun (or any star), nuclear fusion changes **mass **into heat and light (electromagnetic radiation), which travels to Earth and is used by plants to create food (chemical energy) by photosynthesis, which can be eaten by animals allowing them to move (kinetic energy).  Energy only ever changes its form; it is neither created nor destroyed. This is why perpetual motion machines do not exist and could **never** exist; it would break a fundamental law of physics.

People can use the changes to do work that is useful. Examples of forms of energy in classical mechanics include heat, light, kinetic (movement) or potential energy. However, in modern physics it is considered that there are only two types of energy - mass and kinetic energy, although this may not be helpful to those not familiar with more complex physics.

The law means that the total energy of the universe (or any Closed system) is a constant. However, energy can be transferred from one part of the universe to another.

The most common wording of the first law of thermodynamics used by scientists is:

## History

James Prescott Joule was the first person who found out by experiments that heat and work are convertible.

The first  statement of the first law of thermodynamics was given by _Rudolf Clausius_ in 1850: "There is a state function E, called 'energy', whose differential equals the work exchanged with the surroundings during an adiabatic process."

### Thermodynamics and Engineering

In thermodynamics and engineering, it is natural to think of the system as a heat engine which does work on the surroundings, and to state that the total energy added by heating is equal to the sum of the increase in internal energy plus the work done by the system. Hence  is the amount of energy lost by the system due to work done by the system on its surroundings. During the portion of the thermodynamic cycle where the engine is doing work,  is positive, but there will always be a portion of the cycle where  is negative, e.g., when the working gas is being compressed. When  represents the work done by the system, the first law is written:

People disagree whether energy is a positive or a negative number. So that  is the flow of heat out of the system, and  is the work into the system:

Because of this ambiguity, it is very important in any discussion involving the first law to explicitly establish the sign convention in use.

dU = the change in internal energy

Q = heat

W = work

## Related pages

- Second law of thermodynamics

## References

- Goldstein, Martin, and Inge F., 1993. _The Refrigerator and the Universe_. Harvard Univ. Press. A gentle introduction.
Monophyly

**Monophyly** means common descent from a single ancestor.
Biologists have introduced  a kind of taxonomy called cladistics. The aim of this is to make biological classification fit what we know about the way organisms evolved.

If there is a group made of a common ancestor, and all its descendants, that group is **monophyletic**.  (Greek: "of one race").

A group which contains organisms, without their common ancestor, is called **polyphyletic**. Convergent evolution is a usual cause of such groups. If a group contains the common ancestor, but leaves out some of its descendants, it is called **paraphyletic**. All living things on this planet are thought, on the basis of DNA analysis, to be monophyletic, that is, to have one origin, not many.

Example: all species in the genus _Homo_ have come from the same ancestral form in the family Hominidae, and no other descendants are known. Thus the genus _Homo_ is monophyletic.

If, on the other hand, it were discovered that _Homo habilis_ had developed from a different ancestor from _Homo sapiens_, and this ancestor were not included in the genus, then the genus would be polyphyletic. Since biologists by and large tend to prefer monophyletic groups, in this case, they would likely either split the genus or broaden it to include the additional forms.

Example of polyphyletic group: Sea slugs.

## Polyploidy

Sometimes taxonomists are frustrated fitting plant species into a monophyletic group because of polyploidy. There is clear evidence that some polyploid plant species are of multiple origins (the species has arisen more than once). For example, _Salsify_, the hybrid goat's-beard, (_Tragopogon miscellus_) has formed as many as 20 times in eastern Washington.

Also, it can happen that hybrids between two close plant species undergo polyploidy, and the polyploids continue as a new and distinct species. Situations like this are outside the normal rules of descent, and are dealt with by special decisions, guided by the International Commission of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN).
Lepidoptera

The order **Lepidoptera** is the second biggest order of  insects. It includes the moths and butterflies including the  skippers. There is no common word for the group: ordinary people talk of "butterflies and moths".

The order has more than 180,000 species in 128 families and 47 superfamilies. They are 10% of all the described species of living organisms. The Coleoptera (the beetles) is the only order that has more species.

The name, Lepidoptera, comes from the Ancient Greek words _λεπίδος_ (scale) and _πτερόν_ (wing).

The earliest discovered fossils date to 200 mya or earlier. This early origin was long before flowering plants evolved. Earlier butterflies must have been adapted to a habitat of cycads and conifers, something which had not previously been suspected.

## Characteristics of Lepidoptera

Lepidopterans go through complete metamorphosis. This means that they have a four parts to their lives. The first part is the egg. The second part is the caterpillar or larva. The third part is the pupa. The last part is the adult or imago.

### Larva

The larvae have a tough head and a soft body. They have mouths that are made to chew. Some larvae are covered with hairs, or other body extensions. The larvae have three pairs of small legs on the thorax. These legs are called true legs. There are up to five pairs of bigger legs on the abdomen. These legs are called prolegs. Lepidopteran larvae can be confused with the larvae of sawflies. The difference between Lepidopteran larvae and sawfly larvae is that Lepidopteran larvae have tiny hooks on their prolegs. These hooks are called crochets. Most larvae are herbivores, but a few are carnivores and detritivores.

### Adult

Adults have two pairs of wings. They are covered by small scales. In some species, the adults have very small wings or no wings at all. This is more common in females. Adults have antennae. Some moths have antennae that look like feathers. These feather-like antennae are larger in males than females. Adults have a mouthpart called a proboscis. It  sucks nectar from flowers. Some adults do not have mouths and cannot feed. Others have different mouths that are made to pierce and suck blood or fruit juices.

## Related pages

- Differences between butterflies and moths
- Lepidopteran diversity

## Other websites

- Forum Lepidoptera
- Lepidopterology.com
- Lepidoptera  in online insect museum
- Historic Moth illustrations
Diurnal

**Diurnality** is a form of plant and animal behavior characterized by activity during daytime. Animals that are active during the day are called **diurnal**. They hunt or feed during the day and sleep during the night. Nocturnal animals do it the other way round.

Scientists sometimes use the word _crepuscular_ to describe nocturnal  animals that are not active when it is very dark at night; they are mostly active near dawn, dusk, and sometimes when the moon makes a lot of light.
Skipper (butterfly)

The **skippers** are a family of butterflies, the **Hesperiidae**. They are named after their quick, darting flight.

Skippers used to be classified in their own superfamily, **Hesperioidea**, because they have their antennae clubs hooked backward like a crochet while the other butterflies have club-like tips to their antennae. Skippers also have generally stockier bodies than regular butterflies, with stronger wing muscles.

## Subfamilies

There are about 3500 species of skippers.  They are usually classified in the following subfamilies:
- Coeliadinae: awls, awlets and policeman (butterfly) (about 75 species)
- Hesperiinae: grass skippers (over 2000 species)
- Heteropterinae: skipperlings (about 150 species)
- Megathyminae: giant skippers (about 100 species)
- Pyrginae: spread-winged skippers (about 1000 species)
- Pyrrhopyginae: firetips (about 150 species)
- Trapezitinae: Australian skippers (about 60 species)

Many species of skippers look frustratingly alike. For example, some species in the genera _Erynnis_, _Hesperia_, and _Amblyscirtes_ cannot currently be distinguished in the field even by experts. The only reliable method of telling them apart involving dissection and examination of the genitalia.

## Examples

Examples include:
- Aaron's skipper - _Poanes aaroni_
- Chequered skipper - _Carterocephalus palaemon_
- Small skipper - _Thymelicus sylvestris_
- Essex skipper - _Thymelicus lineola_
- Lulworth skipper - _Thymelicus acteon_
- Silver-spotted skipper - _Hesperia comma_
- Large skipper - _Ochlodes venata_
- Dingy skipper - _Erynnis tages_
- Grizzled skipper - _Pyrgus malvae_
- Dakota skipper - _Hesperia dacotae_

## Other websites

- Skippers of North America: Large format diagnostic photographs Cirrus Digital Imaging
- Tree of Life Hesperiidae
Quakenbrück

**Quakenbrück** is a small town in Lower Saxony. It has about 13,000 inhabitants.

## Infobox (german location)

- **type**: Stadt
- **image plan**: Quakenbrück in OS.svg
- **image coa**: DEU Quakenbrück COA.svg
- **state**: Lower Saxony
- **district**: Osnabrück
- **samtgemeinde**: Artland
- **elevation**: 24
- **area**: 17.95
- **population**: 12829
- **stand**: 2005-12-31
- **postal code**: 49610
- **area code**: 05431
- **licence**: OS
- **gemeindeschlüssel**: 03 4 59 030
- **mayor**: Wolfgang Becker
- **party**: CDU
Dew point

The **dew point** is the temperature where water vapor condenses into liquid water.

All air holds different amounts of water vapor. The dew point shows the amount of moisture in the air. The higher the dew point is, the higher the level of moisture in the air at a given temperature. The dew point of humid air will be higher than the dew point of dry air.

Condensation of water vapor starts when the temperature of air is lowered to its dew point and beyond. The dew point, like other measures of humidity, can be found from measurement taken by a hygrometer.

## Related pages

- Relative humidity

## Other websites

- What is the dew point?
- NOAA Dew point
- dew point formula
- Windows program for Heat Index, Dew Point, etc
- Dew point evaporates on KPRC newscast ("The dew point is absolutely worthless information")
- Often Needed Answers about Temp, Humidity & Dew Point from the sci.geo.meteorology Usenet newsgroup
Podgorica

**Podgorica** () is the capital of Montenegro. In 2011, the population was 185,937.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Podgorica
- **native name**: Подгорица
- **native name lang**: sr
- **settlement type**: Capital city
- **image skyline**: PodgoricaOverview.jpg
- **image caption**: Podgorica in 2009
- **image flag**: Flag of Podgorica, Montenegro.svg
- **image seal**: Podgorica Coat of Arms.png
- **pushpin map**: Montenegro
- **population total**: 185937
- **population as of**: 2011
- **subdivision type**: Country
Región Autónoma del Atlántico Sur

The **Región Autónoma del Atlántico Sur** is an independent part of Nicaragua. It is often simply known as **RAAS**. Its capital is Bluefields. It was made when new regions were formed in Nicaragua in 1989. The old region was turned into Atlántico Sur and Atlántico Norte. The capital of Atlántico Norte is Puerto Cabezas. There is also a popular tourist place called Corn Island, which is about 45 km from the capital Bluefields
Región Autónoma del Atlántico Norte

**Región Autónoma del Atlántico Norte** is an autonomous region of Nicaragua. It was created in 1989. Its capital is Puerto Cabezas. Often the name is shotened to **RAAN**.
Compressor

**Compressor** could mean:
- Gas compressor, a mechanical device that compresses a gas e.g. air
- Compressor (software), a video and audio compression and encoding application made for use with Final Cut
- A device used to apply audio level compression to an audio signal
- KOMPRESSOR, an electronic musician

## Related pages

- Compression
- Compaction
- Decompression
- Expansion
Cash

**Cash** is a form of currency, such as banknotes or coins. There is usually different sorts in every country.

## Bookkeeping and finance

In bookkeeping and finance, _cash_ can also refer to checks, money orders, cashier's checks, bank drafts, or traveler's checks. In all these forms, the term indicates the most liquid form of assets, which have a fixed value and can be easily converted to currency: "ready money".  For example, wages or salaries paid as "cash" (as opposed to, e.g., stock options) would in most countries normally be paid with checks or direct bank deposits, which are trivially convertible to currency.
Hemer

**Hemer** is a city in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. About 35,000 people live there.

## Infobox (german location)

- **type**: Stadt
- **name**: Hemer
- **image photo**: Haus Hemer.jpg
- **imagesize**: 250px
- **image caption**: Haus Hemer
- **image coa**: DEU Hemer COA.svg
- **image plan**: Hemer in MK.svg
- **state**: Nordrhein-Westfalen
- **region**: Arnsberg
- **district**: Märkischer Kreis
- **elevation**: 208
- **area**: 67.56
- **population**: 37441
- **stand**: 2009-06-30
- **postal code**: 58675
- **area code**: 02372
- **licence**: MK
- **gemeindeschlüssel**: 05 9 62 016
- **mayor**: Christian Schweitzer
- **party**: CDU
Heating

**Heating** is making something warm. It could mean:
- HVAC: Heating, ventilation and air-conditioning.
HVACR "R" stand for Refrigeration

**Heating devices**, or systems:
- Block heater, or headbolt heater, an electric heater that heats the engine of a car to ease starting in cold weather
- Boiler
- Cathode heater, a coil or filament used to heat the cathode in a vacuum tube or cathode ray tube
- Central heating, method of providing warmth from one point to multiple rooms or apartments of a building
- Convector heater, a heater which operates by air convection currents circulating through the body of the appliance
- Dielectric heating, the phenomenon in which radiowave or microwave electromagnetic radiation heats a dielectric material
- District heating, a system for distributing heat generated in a centralized location for residential and commercial heating requirements
- Fan heater, a heater that works by using a fan to pass air over a heating element
- Feedwater heater, a power plant component used to pre-heat water delivered to the boiler
- Fireplace, an architectural element consisting of a space designed to contain a fire for heating or cooking
- Gas heater, a heater that burns natural gas or liquefied petroleum gas
- Geothermal heat pump, a heat pump that uses the thermal mass of the Earth to regulate indoor temperatures
- Geothermal heating a method of heating using geothermal heat
- Heating pad, a pad used for warming of parts of the body
- Hydronics, the use of water as the heat-transfer medium in heating and cooling systems
- Induction heating, the process of heating a metal object by electromagnetic induction
- Radiant heating, a heating system which heats a building through radiant heat rather than convection or forced-air heating
- Radiator, a heat exchanger designed to transfer thermal energy from one medium to another for the purpose of cooling and heating
- Radioisotope heater unit, small heaters that provide heat through radioactive decay
- Salamander heater, a portable forced-air or convection heater, often kerosene-fueled, used in ventilated areas for worksite comfort
- Solar furnace a structure used to harness the sun's rays to produce very high temperatures
- Solar heating, the usage of solar energy to provide process, space or water heating
- Storage heater, an electrical appliance which stores heat at a time when base load electricity is available at a low price
- Water heating, the heating of water for residential, commercial or industrial use
Thermodynamic cycle

A **thermodynamic cycle** is a series of thermodynamic processes which returns a system to its initial state. Properties depend only on the thermodynamic state and thus do not change over a cycle. Variables such as heat and work are not zero over a cycle, but rather depend on the process. The first law of thermodynamics dictates that the net heat input is equal to the net work output over any cycle. The repeating nature of the process path allows for continuous operation, making the cycle an important concept in thermodynamics.

If the cyclic process moves clockwise around the loop, then it represents a heat engine, and W will be positive.  If it moves counterclockwise then it represents a heat pump, and W will be negative.

## Classes

Two primary classes of thermodynamic cycles are **power cycles** and **heat pump cycles**. Power cycles are cycles which convert some heat input into a mechanical work output, while heat pump cycles transfer heat from low to high temperatures using mechanical work input.

### Thermodynamic power cycles

Thermodynamic power cycles are the basis for the operation of heat engines, which supply most of the world's electric power and run almost all motor vehicles. Power cycles can be divided according to the type of heat engine they seek to model. The most common cycles that model internal combustion engines are the Otto cycle, which models gasoline engines and the Diesel cycle, which models diesel engines. Cycles that model external combustion engines include the Brayton cycle, which models gas turbines, and the Rankine cycle, which models steam turbines.

## Related pages

- Entropy
- Heat engine

## References

- Halliday, Resnick & Walker. _Fundamentals of Physics_, 5th edition. John Wiley & Sons, 1997.  Chapter 21, _Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics_.

## Other websites

Educational software links:
- Thermodynamic Cycle Simulation Software
Christoph Metzelder

**Christoph Metzelder** (born 5 November 1980 in Haltern, Germany) is a German football player. He plays for Real Madrid. He played 47 matches for the Germany national team and scored no goals.

### Club

|rowspan="2"|Club|rowspan="2"|Season|colspan="2"|League|colspan="2"|Cup|colspan="2"|Europe|colspan="2"|Other|colspan="2"|Total|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|rowspan="8"|Borussia Dortmund|2000–01|19|0|2|0|0|0|–|21|0|||
|2001–02|25|0|1|0|12|0|2|0|40|0||||
|2002–03|24|0|1|0|10|0|1|0|36|0||||
|2003–04|0|0|0|0|0|0|0|0|0|0||||
|2004–05|16|0|0|0|0|0|–|16|0|||||
|2005–06|23|2|1|0|0|0|2|0|26|2||||
|2006–07|19|0|0|0|0|0|–|19|0|||||
|rowspan="4"|Real Madrid|2007–08|9|0|1|0|3|0|0|0|13|0||
|2008–09|12|0|2|0|1|0|0|0|15|0||||
|2009–10|2|0|1|0|0|0|–|3|0|||||
|rowspan="4"|Schalke 04|2010–11|32|1|5|0|10|0|1|0|48|1||
|2011–12|16|1|0|0|3|0|0|0|19|1||||
|2012–13|4|0|2|0|1|0|–|7|0|||||

### International

|National team|Year|Apps|Goals||
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|rowspan="8"|Germany|2001|1|0|
|2002|14|0|||
|2003|1|0|||
|2004|0|0|||
|2005|1|0|||
|2006|11|0|||
|2007|11|0|||
|2008|8|0|||

## Honours

**Borussia Dortmund**
- Bundesliga: 2001–02
- DFB-Ligapokal runner-up: 2003
- UEFA Cup runner-up: 2001–02

**Real Madrid**
- La Liga: 2007–08
- Supercopa de España: 2008

**Schalke 04**
- DFB-Pokal: 2010–11
- DFL-Supercup: 2011; runner-up: 2010

**Germany**
- FIFA World Cup runner-up: 2002; third place: 2006
- UEFA European Championship runner-up: 2008

**Individual**
- Bravo Award: 2002

## Other websites

- Official Website
- FootballDatabase provides Christoph Metzelder's profile and stats

## Infobox (football biography)

- **name**: Christoph Metzelder
- **image**: 2016-02-01 1054 Christoph Metzelder (cropped).JPG
- **caption**: Metzelder in 2016
- **full name**: Christoph Tobias Metzelder
- **birth place**: Haltern, West Germany
- **height**: 1.94 m
- **position**: Centre-back
- **youthyears1**: 1986–1995
- **youthclubs1**: TuS Haltern
- **youthyears2**: 1995–1996
- **youthclubs2**: FC Schalke 04, Schalke 04
- **youthyears3**: 1996–1998
- **youthclubs3**: SC Preußen Münster, Preußen Münster
- **years1**: 1999–2000
- **clubs1**: SC Preußen Münster, Preußen Münster
- **caps1**: 32
- **goals1**: 4
- **years2**: 2000–2007
- **clubs2**: Borussia Dortmund
- **caps2**: 126
- **goals2**: 2
- **years3**: 2007–2010
- **clubs3**: Real Madrid CF, Real Madrid
- **caps3**: 23
- **goals3**: 0
- **years4**: 2010–2013
- **clubs4**: FC Schalke 04, Schalke 04
- **caps4**: 52
- **goals4**: 2
- **years5**: 2013–2014
- **clubs5**: TuS Haltern
- **caps5**: 1
- **goals5**: 0
- **totalcaps**: 234
- **totalgoals**: 8
- **nationalyears1**: 2000–2001
- **nationalteam1**: Germany national under-21 football team, Germany U21
- **nationalcaps1**: 9
- **nationalgoals1**: 1
- **nationalyears2**: 2001–2008
- **nationalteam2**: Germany national football team, Germany
- **nationalcaps2**: 47
- **nationalgoals2**: 0
Thermodynamic system

In thermodynamics, a **thermodynamic system**, originally called a _working substance_, is defined as that part of the universe that is under consideration.

## Theory

A real or imaginary boundary separates the system from the rest of the universe, which is referred to as the environment or surroundings – sometimes called a reservoir. A useful classification of thermodynamic systems is based on the nature of the boundary and the quantities flowing through it, such as matter, energy, work, heat and entropy. A system can be anything. For instance, a cylinder, a solution in a test tube, a living organism or a planet etc.
Treat

**Treat** could mean:
- Treat (band), a Swedish band
- Treats, a 1975 play by Christopher Hampton
- Tahitian Treat
- Special Treat
- Taco Treat
- Chicken Treat
- Trick-or-treating
- Round of drinks, treating others to a drink.

## People

- Roger Treat
- Robert Treat
- Lawrence Treat
- Treat Williams
- Spencer Treat Clark
- Treat Baldwin Johnson
Piston

In general, a **piston** is a lubricated sliding shaft that fits tightly inside the opening of a cylinder. Its purpose is to change the volume enclosed by the cylinder, to exert a force on a fluid inside the cylinder, to cover and uncover ports, or some combination of these.  A rubber seal is sometimes used to keep the lubricate within the shaft. Due to the constant motion of the machine this seal wears quickly and should be replaced with every servicing. If the seal should break during usage there can be disastrous long lasting consequences for the machine.

## Creating force

There are two ways that a piston engine can transform combustion into motive power. These are two-stroke and four-stroke.

A single cylinder two-stroke engine produces power every crankshaft revolution, while a single cylinder four-stroke engine produces power once every two revolutions. Older designs of small two-stroke engines produced more pollution than four stroke engines. However, modern two-stroke designs, like the Vespa ET2 Injection use fuel-injection and are as clean as four-strokes. Large diesel two-stroke engines, as used in ships and locomotives, have always used fuel injection and produce low emissions. One of the biggest internal combustion engines in the world, the Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C is a two-stroke; it is bigger than most two-story houses, has pistons nearly 1 metre in diameter and is one of the most efficient mobile engines in existence. In theory, a four stroke engine has to be larger than a two stroke engine to produce an equivalent amount of power. Two stroke engines are becoming less common in developed countries these days, mainly due to manufacturer reluctance to invest in reducing two-stroke emissions. Traditionally, two stroke engines were reputed to need more maintenance. Even though the simplest two stroke engines have fewer moving parts, they could wear out faster than four stroke engines. However fuel-injected two-strokes achieve better engine lubrication, and cooling and reliability should improve considerably.

## External combustion engine

A steam engine is another type of piston engine. In most steam engines, the pistons are _double acting_: steam is alternately admitted to either end of the cylinder, so that every piston stroke produces power.

## Related pages

- Wankel engine (an internal combustion engine with a rotary 'piston')
Pinyin

**Pinyin** is a way to write letters showing the sound of a word in place of a Chinese character. Today, it almost always has the sense of **Hanyu Pinyin**, the way of writing Mandarin sounds which has been used by the People's Republic of China from the 1950s. Other place like the United States and Taiwan used other ways of spelling Chinese (such as Wade-Giles and Tongyong Pinyin) for a long time, but in the late 20th century, they started to use Hanyu Pinyin as well. It is the standard romanization system in China and in the United Nations and is the most common for Chinese.

Pinyin uses Roman letters in a special way for certain Chinese sounds. For example, the pinyin letter C is pronounced as /ts/ as in the English word "ca**ts**" or the Japanese word "**ts**unami" and does not sound at all like /k/ or /s/ by itself. Pinyin uses special marks to show the four Chinese tones, which are very important in speaking Mandarin correctly.

## Consonants

b p m f w

d t n l

g k ng h

j q x y

z c s

## Vowels

a e i o u ü

## Basic combinations of vowel and consonant

ai ei ao ou

an en ang eng ong

## Tones

There are five tones:

ā, á, ǎ, à, a

## Syllable-dividing mark (_geyin fuhao_)

_Geyin fuhao_ is used after syllables that start with a, o, or e: pi'ao.

## Orthography

Pinyin should be divided text by words and write syllables connectedly. For example, "I am a foreigner" should be written as "Wo shi waiguoren" in pinyin.

## Pinyin reading matters

- Pinyin reading matters from Wikibooks
- Pinyin reading matters from Wikimedia

## Other websites

- New Edition Hanyu Pinyin Syllable Table
- Rules for Hanyu Pinyin
- Convert Chinese to Pinyin
- Little Pinyin App 1.0 online
Susianna Kentikian

**Susianna "Susi" Kentikian** (born September 11, 1987) is a woman boxer from Germany.  She was born in Yerevan, Armenian SSR, but she left the country together with her family when she was five years old, because of the Nagorno-Karabakh War. Kentikian has lived in Hamburg since 1996 and has signed a contract with the Hamburg boxing promoter Spotlight Boxing. Kentikian is the current world champion with the boxing organizations WBA and WIBF in the flyweight weight class.

## Other websites

- Kentikian.de, official homepage
- Susianna Kentikian , Spotlight Boxing homepage
- Professional boxing record for Susianna Kentikian from Boxrec.com
- Susianna Kentikian Biography  at WomenBoxing.com

## Infobox (boxer)

- **name**: Susianna Kentikian
- **image**: Kentikian.png
- **realname**: Susianna Kentikian
- **nickname**: Killer Queen
- **nationality**: Armenian
- **weight**: Flyweight
- **birth place**: Yerevan, Armenian SSR
- **home**: Berlin, Germany
- **style**: Orthodox
- **total**: 25
- **wins**: 25
- **ko**: 16
- **losses**: 0
- **draws**: 0
- **no contests**: 0