juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Cluses

**Cluses** is a commune in the French Haute-Savoie department.

## Sister cities

Cluses is a twin town with:
- Trossingen since 1974
- Beaverton since 1999

## Infobox (french commune)

- **name**: Cluses
- **image**: Cluses_vue_du_Chevran.JPG
- **caption**: View from la pointe du Chevran.
- **image flag**: Flag of Cluses.svg
- **image coat of arms**: Blason_ville_fr_Cluses.svg
- **time zone**: CET <small>(GMT +1)</small>
- **arrondissement**: Bonneville
- **insee**: 74081
- **postal code**: 74300
- **population demonym**: Clusiens
- **mayor**: Jean-Louis Mivel
- **term**: 2014-2020
- **intercommunality**: Communauté de communes Cluses-Arve et Montagnes
- **elevation m**: 485
- **elevation min m**: 470
- **elevation max m**: 1175
- **area km2**: 10.45
- **population**: 17525
- **population date**: 2012
Gol Transportes Aéreos

**Gol Transportes Aéreos**, also known as _Gol Airlines_, is a low-cost carrier of Brazil. It began in 2000. Its headquarters are in São Paulo.

## History

Gol began flights on January 15, 2000. In 2004, it began to be listed on the New York Stock Exchange.  In September 2011, Aerolíneas Argentinas began an agreement.  After Varig Brazilian Airlines declared bankruptcy in 2006, Gol bought some of their possessions. Varig's airport lounge was also acquired by Gol in 2013.  Gol currently owns the _Varig_ name.  It used to painted some airplanes with that name. In 2006, a Gol airplane hit a private jet.  No one was hurt or killed on the private jet. But, all 154 people on the Gol airplane died.

## Infobox (airline)

- **airline**: Gol Transportes Aéreos
- **logo size**: 250
- **fleet size**: 138
- **iata**: G3
- **icao**: GLO
- **callsign**: GOL
- **founded**: 2000
- **headquarters**: São Paulo
- **hubs**: *Belo Horizonte
*Brasília
*Rio de Janeiro
*São Paulo
- **website**: [https://www.voegol.com]
Garden fork

A **garden fork**, also called a **spading fork** or **digging fork**, is a tool for digging. It is used for loosening soil in gardening and farming.  It is used similarly to a spade, but it can be pushed more easily into the ground. It does not cut through plant roots. Garden forks were made of wood, but now most are made of steel.

Garden forks are slightly different from pitchforks. Their tines are usually shorter and thicker and closer together.
Canadian Airlines

**Canadian Airlines** used to be the second largest airline of Canada.  It flew to all five continents. Calgary, Alberta used to be their headquarters and hub. Canadian was also a founding member of Oneworld alongside American Airlines, British Airways, Cathay Pacific and Qantas, but left the alliance in 2000.  Air Canada bought the airline in 2000.

## Infobox (airline)

- **airline**: Canadian Airlines International
 Lignes aériennes Canadien International
- **logo size**: 250
- **fleet size**: 97
- **destinations**: 160 in 17 countries
- **iata**: CP
- **icao**: CDN
- **callsign**: CANADIAN
- **parent**: Canadian Airlines Corporation
- **founded**: 1987 (amalgamation)
- **ceased**: January 1, 2001 (acquired by Air Canada)
- **headquarters**: Calgary, Alberta
- **key people**: Kevin Benson (President and CEO)
- **hubs**: <div>
*Calgary International Airport
*Montréal-Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport
*Toronto Pearson International Airport
*Vancouver International Airport
</div>
- **frequent flyer**: _defunct_ (_formerly _ Canadian Plus)
- **alliance**: Oneworld (1999-2000)
- **subsidiaries**: Canadian Regional Airlines
- **focus cities**: <div>
*Edmonton International Airport
*Halifax Stanfield International Airport
*Ottawa Macdonald–Cartier International Airport
</div>
- **website**: [https://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.cdnair.ca cdnair.ca]
Alexander Bulgakov

**Alexander Yakovlevich Bulgakov** (15 November 178117 April 1863) was a Russian diplomat, senator, and postal administrator.

## Biography

Alexander Bulgakov was born in 1781 in Constantinople in the family of a Russian diplomat, Yakov Bulgakov (1743–1809). At the beginning of his career, Bulgakov worked in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. He served as an official with special duties attached to the Governor General of Moscow in 1809–1832.

In 1832, Bulgakov stopped his diplomatic career and was appointed to Director of Posts in Moscow. He served in this position in 1832–1856. His younger brother Konstantin Bulgakov  (1782–1835) was the Director of the Saint Petersburg Post Office at that time. Because both were the top officers of the Russian Postal Service, they could freely correspond with each other. Both brothers were much respected by their staff for their effort to improve working conditions for postal workers.

## Related pages

- Konstantin Bulgakov

## Infobox (person)

- **name**: Alexander Yakovlevich Bulgakov
- **native name**: Александр Яковлевич Булгаков
- **native name lang**: rus
- **image**: Alexander Bulgakov 1781 1863.jpg
- **image size**: 200px
- **alt**: Alexander Bulgakov
- **birth place**: Constantinople
- **death place**: Dresden
- **resting place**: Dresden
- **nationality**: Russian Empire
- **citizenship**: Russian Empire
- **education**: Secondary education, secondary
- **alma mater**: Saint Peter's School
- **occupation**: diplomat, senator, post director
- **years active**: 1796–1863
- **employer**: Governor General of Moscow
- **known for**: correspondence, writing
- **title**: Director of the Moscow Post Office
- **term**: 1832–1856
- **spouse**:

- **children**: 12 including:
daughter Catherine Bulgakov (1811–1880)
son Konstantin Bulgakov (1812–1862)
daughter Olga Bulgakov (1814–1865)
son Pavel Bulgakov (1825–1873)
- **parents**: Yakov Bulgakov (1743–1809)
Catherine Amber (?–1809)
- **relatives**: brother Konstantin Bulgakov (1782–1835)
Rosa Julieta Montaño Salvatierra

**Julieta Montaño** (born 16 August 1946) is a Bolivian lawyer, a human rights defender, and a writer.  In 2015 she won the US State Department's International Women of Courage Award.

## Life

Rosa Julieta Montaño Salvatierra was born 16 August 1946 in Quillacoll, Bolivia. She finished her Bachelor's degree in Humanities at the Universidad Mayor de San Simón in 1965. She finished her law degree at the same university in 1972.  She finished Master's degrees in human rights and political science at the Universidad Mayor de San Simón and University of Huelva in Huelva, Spain. She finished her doctorate degree in human rights at the Universidad Pablo de Olavide in Seville, Spain.

## Work

Montaño was the Vice President of the Human Rights Assembly of Bolivia and the Comptroller of Cochabamba, Bolivia. From 1997 to 2002 she was in the Chamber of Deputies representing the Cochabamba Department.  In 1981, during the Bolivian Cocaine Coup, Montaño  was the head of the _Union de Mujeres de Bolivia_ (Union of Bolivian Women).  She was arrested, and stayed in her house, under house arrest.  Montaño returned to her work in 1981, after the end of the dictatorship.

On 11 April 1985 Montaño started the _Oficina Jurídica para la Mujer_ (Legal Office for Women) to promote women’s rights and fight violence against women.  The organization has helped more than 30,000 women.  It has also worked with the Bolivian legislature to make laws to protect women.

## Other websites

- 2015 International Women of Courage Awards, U.S. State Department photostream on Flickr 
- Secretary's International Women of Courage Award (U.S. Department of State)
May Sabai Phyu

**May Sabai Phyu** (also **May Sabe Phyu**, born 5 August 1976) is an activist from Kachin state in Burma (Myanmar). She works for human rights, freedom of speech, peace, justice for Myanmar’s ethnic people. She works to stop violence against women. In 2015, she won the U.S. State Department's International Women of Courage Award.

## Work

In 2008, May Sabai Phyu started the Women’s Protection Technical Working Group during Cyclone Nargis. After the storm, 14 out of every 100 families were headed by women, many of them widows.  Because of this, more women were in the sex trade for money or food. The Working Group helped women to find housing, sex education, and jobs.

After the problems of the storm were ended, the Working Group became the Gender Equality Network.  May Sabai Phyu was the Senior Coordinator. In 2012, this group helped the government write the National Strategic Plan for the Advancement of Women. The organization also works for gender equality and makes plans to stop violence against women and girls.

May Sabai Phyu is a leader of the Kachin Peace Network. She led a protest against the civil war between Myanmar Government troops and the Kachin Independence Army. She spoke at Human Rights Workshops in Myanmar for human rights and for the rights of people with disabilities.

## Other websites

- 2015 International Women of Courage Awards, U.S. State Department photostream on Flickr 
- Secretary's International Women of Courage Award (U.S. Department of State)
Levelland, Texas

**Levelland** is a city in the state of Texas in the United States. It is the county seat of Hockley County. About 12,652 people lived there in 2020.

In November 1957, some drivers in Levelland saw an unidentified flying object that caused automobiles to stop until it lifted.  Two of the drivers were Weir Clem, Levelland's sheriff, and Ray Jones, a firefighter.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Levelland, Texas
- **settlement type**: City
- **image skyline**: Levelland Texas grain elevator 2011.jpg
- **image caption**: Old grain elevator in Levelland
- **pushpin map**: Texas#USA
- **pushpin relief**: yes
- **pushpin label**: Levelland
- **pushpin label position**: right
- **pushpin map alt**: Location of Texas in Hockley County, Texas, Hockley County, Texas
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision type1**: State
- **subdivision type2**: County
- **subdivision name2**: Hockley County, Texas, Hockley
- **subdivision type3**: Region
- **subdivision name3**: Llano Estacado
- **established title**: Established
- **established date**: 1921
- **unit pref**: Imperial
- **elevation ft**: 3520
- **population total**: 12652
- **population as of**: 2020 United States Census, 2020
- **area total km2**: 26.45
- **area land km2**: 26.44
- **area water km2**: 0.01
- **population density km2**: 478.52
- **timezone1**: North American Central Time Zone, CST
- **utc offset1**: -6
- **postal code type**: ZIP code
- **postal code**: 79336, 79338
- **area code type**: Area code
- **area code**: Area code 806, 806
- **blank name**: FIPS code
- **blank info**: 48-42448
- **blank1 name**: GNIS feature ID
- **blank1 info**: 1361113
- **area total sq mi**: 10.21
- **area land sq mi**: 10.21
- **area water sq mi**: 0.01
- **population density sq mi**: 1239.18
Quitman, Texas

**Quitman** is a city in the state of Texas in the United States. It is the county seat of Wood County. About 1,942 people lived there in 2020.  It was named for John A. Quitman, a governor of Mississippi.  Sissy Spacek was born in Quitman.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **official name**: Quitman, Texas
- **settlement type**: City
- **image skyline**: Quitman, Texas Town Square.jpg
- **image caption**: Quitman Town Square
- **image map**: Wood County Quitman.svg
- **mapsize**: 250px
- **map caption**: Location of Quitman, Texas
- **pushpin map**: Texas#USA
- **pushpin label**: Quitman
- **pushpin relief**: yes
- **pushpin map caption**: Location in Texas
- **subdivision type**: List of sovereign states, Country
- **subdivision type1**: U.S. state, State
- **subdivision type2**: List of counties in Texas, County
- **subdivision name2**: Wood County, Texas, Wood
- **government type**: Mayor–council government
- **leader title1**: Mayor
- **leader title2**: Mayor _pro tempore_
- **leader title3**: Council–manager government#Recent hybrids, City Secretary / Administrator
- **leader title4**: City Council
- **established title**: Founded
- **established title2**: Incorporated
- **named for**: John A. Quitman
- **unit pref**: Imperial
- **area total km2**: 4.885
- **area land km2**: 4.862
- **area water km2**: 0.023
- **population density km2**: auto
- **population as of**: 2020 United States Census, 2020
- **population total**: 1942
- **timezone**: Central Standard Time, CST
- **utc offset**: −06:00
- **timezone dst**: Central Daylight Time, CDT
- **utc offset dst**: −05:00
- **area code type**: North American Numbering Plan, Area codes
- **elevation m**: 126
- **elevation ft**: 413
- **postal code type**: ZIP code
- **postal code**: 75783
- **area codes**: Area code 903, 903, Area code 430, 430
- **blank name**: Federal Information Processing Standard, FIPS code
- **blank info**: 48-60188
- **blank1 name**: Geographic Names Information System, GNIS feature ID
- **blank1 info**: 1375601
Quitman

**Quitman** is the name of six cities and a county in the United States, named for John A. Quitman, Governor of Mississippi:
- Quitman, Arkansas
- Quitman, Georgia
- Quitman, Louisiana
- Quitman, Mississippi
- Quitman, Missouri
- Quitman, Texas
- Quitman County, Georgia
Hateg Island

**Hațeg Island** was a large offshore island in the Tethys Sea during the late Cretaceous. It was in an area now around modern-day Hațeg, Hunedoara County, Romania. Upper Cretaceous fossils of small-sized dinosaurs have been found in the former island's rocks.

The island was formed mainly by tectonic uplift during the early Alpine orogeny towards the end of the Cretaceous. There is no real present-day analog, but the island of Hainan (off the coast of China) is perhaps closest as regards climate, geology and topography, though still not a particularly good match. The vegetation, for example, was quite distinct from today, as was the fauna.

Hungarian paleontologist Franz Nopcsa (1877–1933) had the idea that "limited resources" found on the island often have an effect of "reducing the size of animals" over the generations, producing a localized form of dwarfism. Nopcsa's theory of island dwarfism – also known as the "island rule" – is today widely accepted.
Volvic

**Volvic** is a commune in the Puy-de-Dôme department in Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes. It is internationally known for its mineral water.

## Infobox (french commune)

- **name**: Volvic
- **commune status**: Communes of France, Commune
- **image**: Commune de Volvic.jpg
- **image coat of arms**: Blason ville fr Volvic (Puy-de-Dôme).svg
- **arrondissement**: Riom
- **canton**: Châtel-Guyon
- **insee**: 63470
- **postal code**: 63530
- **mayor**: Mohand Hamoumou
- **term**: 2008–2014
- **intercommunality**: Volvic–Sources et Volcans
- **elevation m**: 500
- **elevation min m**: 392
- **elevation max m**: 998
- **area km2**: 27.78
- **population**: 4698
- **population date**: 2006
Island dwarfism

**Island dwarfism**, or insular dwarfism, is the reduction in size of large animals over a number of generations.

The same process can happen in evolution on a mainland: an example is the evolution of the dwarfed marmosets and tamarins among New World monkeys. The smallest member is _Cebuella pygmaea_.

The main cause is their population's range being limited to a small environment, and this happens most often on islands. This process has occurred many times throughout evolutionary history. Examples include dinosaurs, like _Europasaurus_, and modern animals such as elephants and their relatives.

This process may occur not only on traditional islands, but also in other situations where an ecosystem is isolated from external resources and breeding. This may include caves, desert oases, isolated valleys and isolated mountains ("sky islands"). Insular dwarfism is one aspect of the more general "**island rule**": when mainland animals colonize islands, small species tend to evolve larger bodies, perhaps because the island may not have key predators. On the other hand large species may  evolve smaller bodies because food supplies are limited.

## Possible causes of island dwarfism

There are several proposed explanations for the mechanism which produces such dwarfism.

One is based on the idea that a smaller territory means a smaller food supply. A process where only smaller animals trapped on the island survive, as food declines to a borderline level. Population declines and, as smaller animals need fewer resources and smaller territories, they will survive longer. Eventually food sources replenish, and the survivors flourish.  Smaller size is also advantageous from a reproductive standpoint, as it leads to shorter gestation periods and generation times.

Among carnivores, the main factor is thought to be the size and availability of prey resources, and competition is believed to be less important. In tiger snakes, insular dwarfism occurs on islands where available prey is restricted to smaller sizes than are normally taken by mainland snakes. Since prey size preference in snakes is generally proportional to body size, small snakes may be better adapted to take small prey.

### Naming

The occurrence of small species on islands is known as Foster's Rule, and was first used by van Valen in 1973.
Évian-les-Bains

**Évian-les-Bains** is a commune in the French Haute-Savoie department. It is a famous spa town, widely known for its mineral water.

## Infobox (french commune)

- **name**: Évian-les-Bains, France
- **commune status**: Communes of France, Commune
- **image**: HôtelRoyal1.JPG
- **caption**: The Hotel Royal
- **image coat of arms**: Blason ville fr Évian-les-Bains (Haute-Savoie).svg
- **arrondissement**: Thonon-les-Bains
- **canton**: Évian-les-Bains
- **insee**: 74119
- **postal code**: 74500
- **mayor**: Josiane Lei
- **term**: 2018-
- **intercommunality**: Pays d'Évian
- **elevation min m**: 372
- **elevation max m**: 739
- **area km2**: 4.3
- **population**: 8822
- **population date**: 2014
Thonon-les-Bains

**Thonon-les-Bains** is a commune in the French Haute-Savoie department. It is a famous spa town, also known for its mineral water.

## Infobox (french commune)

- **name**: Thonon-les-Bains
- **commune status**: Subprefectures in France, Subprefecture and Communes of France, commune
- **image**: 200505-Thonon Hotel de Ville.JPG
- **caption**: Town hall
- **image flag**: Flag of Le Puy-en-Velay.svg
- **image coat of arms**: Blason Thonon-les-Bains.svg
- **time zone**: CET <small>(GMT +1)</small>
- **arrondissement**: Thonon-les-Bains
- **canton**: Thonon-les-Bains
- **insee**: 74281
- **postal code**: 74200
- **mayor**: Jean Denais (Union for a popular movement, UMP)
- **term**: 2014-2020
- **elevation m**: 425
- **elevation min m**: 371
- **elevation max m**: 569
- **area km2**: 16.21
- **population**: 34973
- **population date**: 2014
Bill Guthridge

**William Wallace "Bill" Guthridge** (July 27, 1937 – May 12, 2015) was an American college basketball coach.  Guthridge is known for serving for 30 years as Dean Smith's assistant at the University of North Carolina.  Following Dean Smith's retirement in 1997, Guthridge served as head coach of the Tar Heels for three seasons.

Guthridge died at his home in Chapel Hill, North Carolina on May 12, 2015 after a long-illness, aged 77.

## Other websites

- North Carolina profile

## Infobox (college coach)

- **image**: Bill Gutheridge in January 2013.jpg
- **name**: Bill Guthridge
- **player sport1**: Basketball
- **caption**: Guthridge in 2013
- **birth place**: Parsons, Kansas
- **death place**: Chapel Hill, North Carolina
- **awards**: Naismith College Coach of the Year (1998)
- **championships**: Atlantic Coast Conference, ACC Conference Tournament Championship (1998)
- **overall record**: 80–28
- **player years1**: 1957–1960
- **player team1**: Kansas State Wildcats men's basketball, Kansas State
- **player positions**: Guard (basketball), Guard
- **coach years1**: 1962–1967
- **coach years2**: 1967–1997
- **coach years3**: 1997–2000
- **coach team1**: Kansas State Wildcats men's basketball, Kansas State (assistant)
- **coach team2**: North Carolina Tar Heels men's basketball, North Carolina (assistant)
- **coach team3**: North Carolina
Derek Davis

**Derek Davis** (26 April 1948 – 13 May 2015) was an Irish broadcaster. He co-hosted _Live at 3_. He also presented _Out of the Blue_ and won _Celebrity Bainisteoir_.

Davis died on 13 May 2015 after a short illness, aged 67.

## Other websites

- 4fm profile
- Today with Derek Davis

## Infobox (presenter)

- **name**: Derek Davis
- **birth place**: County Down, Northern Ireland
- **death place**: County Dublin, Republic of Ireland, Ireland
- **show**: _Sunday Magazine with Davis on 4_
- **station**: 4fm
- **timeslot**: 10:00a.m. Sunday
- **style**: Current affairs
- **country**: Republic of Ireland, Ireland
- **web**: [http://www.4fm.ie/profile.asp?id=9 4fm profile]
Dieppe

**Dieppe** is a commune in Upper Normandy. Dieppe is in the Arrondissement of Dieppe in the Seine-Maritime department in the Normandie region of northern France. The population stands at 34,000.

Dieppe is in front of The English Channel.
Saumur

**Saumur** is a commune in Maine-et-Loire.
Juan-les-Pins

**Juan-les-Pins** is a town in the commune of Antibes in the department of Alpes-Maritimes.

## Infobox (settlement)

- **name**: Juan-les-Pins
- **type**: Health Resort and Spa
- **image skyline**: Blick aufs Mittelmeer von Juan-Les-Pins.jpg
- **image caption**: Evening view on the Mediterranean Sea from Juan-Les-Pins
- **pushpin map**: France Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur#France
- **pushpin map caption**: Location within Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision name**: France
- **subdivision type1**: Regions of France, Region
- **subdivision name1**: Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur
- **subdivision type2**: Departments of France, Department
- **subdivision name2**: Alpes-Maritimes
- **subdivision type3**: Arrondissements of the Alpes-Maritimes department, Arrondissement
- **subdivision name3**: Arrondissement of Grasse, Grasse
- **subdivision type4**: Cantons of the Alpes-Maritimes department, Canton
- **subdivision name4**: Canton of Vallauris-Antibes-Ouest, Vallauris-Antibes-Ouest
- **subdivision type5**: Communes of the Alpes-Maritimes department, Municipality
- **subdivision name5**: Antibes
- **population density km2**: auto
- **timezone1**: Central European Time, CET
- **utc offset1**: +1
- **elevation m**: 10
- **postal code type**: Postal codes in France, Postal code
- **postal code**: 06600
Atari, Inc.

**Atari, Inc.** is an American video game and home computer company. It was founded in 1972 by Nolan Bushnell and Ted Dabney. Atari was the first company to make a video arcade game in a cabinet. The company made famous games, such as Pong. Atari helped define the gaming entertainment industry and home computers from the 1970s to the mid-1980s. They made home computers until 1993.

Atari filed for bankruptcy in 2013

## Other websites

- The Atari History Museum - Atari historical archive site.
- Atari Times, supporting all Atari consoles.
- AtariAge.com
- Atari Gaming Headquarters - Atari historical archive site.
- Atari On Film - List of Atari products in films.
- History of Atari from 1978 to 1981
- A History of Syzygy / Atari  / Atari Games  / Atari Holdings
- http://atari.com - Company that manages intellectual property of games and franchises.

## Infobox (company)

- **name**: Atari, Inc.
- **logo**: Atari logo alt.svg
- **logo size**: 175
- **logo caption**: The Atari logo, also known as the "Fuji"
- **fate**: Consumer products sold to Jack Tramiel as Atari Corporation in 1984.
Arcade business renamed to Atari Games in 1985.
- **industry**: Video game industry, Video games
- **parent**: Warner Communications (1976–1984)
Chevrolet Trax

**Chevrolet Trax** is a subcompact CUV/mini SUV (Europe) sold by the Chevrolet division by General Motors. It was introduced in 2013. It replaced both the Chevrolet HHR station wagon and the Suzuki based Tracker subcompact SUV. It is a mere rebadged version of Opel Mokka, which is also offered in the U.S. as Buick Encore. It is built on GM's Gamma platform. The Gamma platform is also used to built the Sonic and the Spark. In 2014 it replaced the Chevrolet Captiva Sport as GM's fleet car. The car is sold under the name Tracker in Russia due to the word trax loosely. translating to a sexual connotation. GM has thought of selling a GMC version of this vehicle due to sales success in the U.S.
Chevrolet Tracker

The **Chevrolet Tracker** was a subcompact SUV made in Canada. It is sold by General Motors. It was introduced in 1989 as a Geo model. It derives from Suzuki's Escudo model. The Tracker was built at CAMI Automotive which was jointly owned by GM and Suzuki til 2010.

In Canada, it was sold under various names such as GMC Tracker and Asüna/Pontiac Sunrunner. The Sunrunner was replaced in 2001 by the minivan-based Aztek CUV.  In 1998 the Tracker became an official Chevrolet brand due to GM consolidating the Geo brand. The United States/Canadian version of the Tracker continued until 2004 where it was discontinued and replaced by the Chevrolet Equinox. The Tracker was still made in Mexico and Brazil until the late 2000s where it was replaced by the Chevrolet Captiva and the Chevrolet Captiva Sport. In 2015 Chevrolet introduced Trax model to the U.S. and it serves as a secondary replacement for the Tracker.
Gallows letter

In postal history, a **gallows letter** was a letter with a "gallows" mark meaning "very quickly".

Gallows letters were official letters or dispatches used by the Privy Council of Elizabeth I of England. To express an extreme degree of urgency of delivery, the letter had on the address panel a rough drawing of a gallows. Sometimes the picture included a hanging body.  These drawings could also have repeated written directions as _"haste haste"_, _"post haste"_, _"haste for life"_, _"for life haste"_, etc.

There are also modern forgeries of such letters. This is when counterfeit gallows marks have been applied onto original letters.

## Related pages

- Envelope
- Letter (paper)
Europasaurus

***Europasaurus*** is a basal sauropod from the titanosaur clade, but very much smaller than usual.

This quadrupedal herbivorous dinosaur lived during the Upper Jurassic (middle Kimmeridgian, about 154 million years ago). It was found in northern Germany. It is an example of insular dwarfism. This means it probably came from an isolated sauropod population on an island in the Lower Saxony basin.

Small sauroopods with an adult body mass less than five tonnes are rare, and small sauropod bones usually come from juveniles. This species was a small adult, based on its bone histology. It was a dwarf species.

There are fossils from more than 11 individuals of 1.7 to 6.2 m in total body length. These size differences between the specimens are due to growth stages, from juveniles to fully grown individuals. The little dinosaurs must have lived on one of the large islands around the Lower Saxony basin.

A similar discovery was made in Transylvania at the start of the 20th century. A local aristocrat, Franz Nopcsa, found the fossils on his estate. He realised they might have lived on an island, because he knew that dwarf elephants had lived on islands in the Ice Age. Nopsca's estate was ruined by World War I, but his find was recorded as _Magyarosaurus_.
Jon Castañares

**Jon Mirena Bitor Castañares Larreategui** (1925 – 5 May 2015) was a Spanish politician and economist. He was born in Bilbao. He was known for being a strong supporter of Basque nationalism. He served as mayor of Bilbao from 1979 through 1983.

Castañares died in Bilbao at the age of 90.
Victor Fleming

**Victor Lonzo Fleming** (February 23, 1889 – January 6, 1949) was an American movie director, cinematographer, and producer. His most popular movie were _The Wizard of Oz_ (1939), and _Gone with the Wind_ (1939). He won an Academy Award for Best Directing in 1939.

Fleming died of a heart attack while on his way to the hospital in Cottonwood, Arizona, aged 59.

## Other websites

- The Real Rhett Butler – David Denby on Victor Fleming (_The New Yorker_)

## Infobox (person)

- **name**: Victor Fleming
- **image**: Red Hot Romance (1922) - Makeup Test.jpg
- **caption**: Victor Fleming (sitting) in 1921
- **years active**: 1910–1949
- **birth name**: Victor Lonzo Fleming
- **birth place**: Pasadena, California,
United States
- **death place**: Cottonwood, Arizona,
United States
- **death cause**: Heart attack
- **spouse**: Lucile Rosson (1933–1949) (1895–1966)
Millerites

**Millerites** was the name for the followers of the teachings of William Miller. In 1833, Miller said that he had done some calculations, and that the second coming of Christ would happen about the year 1844. This turned out to be false, and there was a great disappointment. Miller had documented how he did Bible interpretation, so anyone could do it. After the disappointment, some movements emerged that were generally called _Adventist_.
War tax due stamp

**War tax due stamp** is a kind of war tax and postage due stamps that was used for mail when the war tax has not been paid by the sender. They were issued in Romania between 1915 and 1921.

During war the sender of a letter paid a war tax. Then they placed a war tax stamp on the letter showing the tax was paid. If the sender did not do that, a war tax due stamp was applied by the postal service. When the letter was delivered the person receiving the letter paid double the normal rate.

## Related pages

- Postage stamp
- Stamp Act
- Tax
Emilie Béatrice Epaye

**Emilie Béatrice Epaye** is a politician and teacher from the Central African Republic. She was a minister in the government and she was in the National Assembly.  Epaye works for better government, economic development, freedom, human rights, and peace.  In 2015, she won the U.S. State Department's International Women of Courage Award.

## Life

Emilie Béatrice Epaye was born about 1956.  She studied to be a teacher. She worked in her family transportation business.

### La Fondation la Voix du Coeur

In 2000, Epaye became the new director of the _La Fondation la Voix du Coeur_ (The Voice of the Heart Foundation) organization.   Lucienne Patassé, the wife of president Ange-Félix Patassé started the organization in 1994 to help street children. She started a home for the children in the city of Bangui,  The children received food, education, medical care, and training, in a place that was safe and free from violence.

### Politics

In 2003, General François Bozizé led a coup and became the new leader of the Central African Republic.  He formed a transition council to help with the change in government.  The council wrote the 2004 constitution.  Epaye was in the transition council.

From 2003 to 2005, Epaye was president of the Foreign Affairs Commission of the National Assembly and was a member of the National Transitional Council.   In 2005 she became the Minister of Commerce, Industry and Small and Medium Enterprises.  She was in that position for five years. In 2008 she became the Minister of Trade and Industry.  She was in that position through 2011.

In 2013 there was a new coup by a group called _Séléka_. Michel Djotodia became president, but there was much violence.  The United Nations, the African Union, and the French government sent soldiers to stop the fighting. New elections were scheduled for 2015, and Catherine Samba-Panza was elected leader of the country for the transition.  Epaye was in the new council to help with the transition.

### Pan African organizations

From 2003-2005, Epaye was a member of the Inter-Parliamentary Commission of the Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa (CEMAC). Beginning in 2008, she was the leader of the African Intellectual Property Organization (OAPI. She also was on the Council of Ministers of the Economic Union of Central Africa (CAEU).

## Awards

In 2010, the Council of Ministers of the Economic Union of Central Africa (CAEU), gave Epaye the Medal of Grand Officer of the Order of Merit from the CEMAC Community.  In 2015, the U.S. State Department gave her the International Women of Courage Award.

## Other websites

- 2015 International Women of Courage Awards, U.S. State Department photostream on Flickr 
- Secretary's International Women of Courage Award (U.S. Department of State)
Continental Europe

**Continental Europe** is the European mainland. It is distinct from the various offshore islands, including British Isles, Iceland, the Balearic Islands, Corsica, the Italian islands, and the Greek islands. People in the islands also use it to refer to ways in which the customs and speech of mainlanders differ from their own.
Marie Claire Tchecola

**Marie Claire Tchecola** is a nurse from Guinea. She got Ebola, but she lived. She is an activist who teaches about disease. In 2015, the U.S. State Department gave Tchecola the International Women of Courage Award.

## Life

Tchecola is from a small village in Guinea, near Senegal. She was the first woman in her family to get an education. She studied to be a nurse. She worked as a nurse at Donka Hospital in Conakry, Guinea.  In July 2014, she worked with a very sick patient. She got Ebola from that patient.  She went to a center for treatment. She got better.

After Tchecola got well, she went back to her job as a nurse at Donka Hospital. She had more problems.  She lost her housing, because her landlord did not understand Ebola.

## Other websites

- Marie Claire Tchecola - I Survived Ebola

- 2015 International Women of Courage Awards, U.S. State Department photostream on Flickr 
- Secretary's International Women of Courage Award (U.S. Department of State)
Tainted Love

**"Tainted Love"** is a pop rock single. It was first sung by Gloria Jones. The lyrics are about leaving a relationship due to being abused.

The song was first released in May 1965. In 1981, Soft Cell covered the song. Their version hit #1 on some charts. In summer 1982, it reached #8 on the _Billboard_ Hot 100.

There are many versions of the song. It has been covered by many musicians.
Gloria Jones

**Gloria Jones** (born October 19, 1945) is an American singer and songwriter. She recorded the 1965 song "Tainted Love". She also had other songs.

On September 16, 1977, Jones was driving a car. Marc Bolan of the group T. Rex was a passenger. The car crashed and killed Bolan.

Jones was born in Cincinnati, Ohio. She later moved to Los Angeles, California.
Gainan Saidkhuzhin

**Gainan Rakhmatovich Saidkhuzhin** (; 30 June 1937 – 13 May 2015) was a Soviet cyclist. He was a ten-time cycling champion of the Soviet Union. He competed in the road race at the 1960 and 1964 Summer Olympics and finished in 34th and 41st places, respectively. He was born in Novosibirsk to a Tatar family.

Saidkhuzhin died from a heart attack on 13 May 2015 in Miami, Florida, United States. He was 77.
Luxeuil-les-Bains

**Luxeuil-les-Bains** is a spa town located in the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region in the Haute-Saône department in eastern France. About  people live there.

## Infobox (french commune)

- **name**: Luxeuil-les-Bains
- **commune status**: Communes of France, Commune
- **image coat of arms**: Blason Luxeuil-les-Bains.svg
- **arrondissement**: Lure
- **canton**: Luxeuil-les-Bains
- **insee**: 70311
- **postal code**: 70300
- **mayor**: Michel Raison
- **term**: 2008
- **intercommunality**: Pays de Luxeuil
- **elevation m**: 294
- **elevation min m**: 260
- **elevation max m**: 395
- **area km2**: 21.81
- **population**: 7997
- **population date**: 2006
All-Russian Society of Philatelists

**All-Russian Society of Philatelists** was a national philatelic organisation in Soviet Russia established in 1923. Later on, it was subsequently renamed and reorganised into the **All-Union Society of Philatelists** and the **All-Union Society of Collectors**.

## History

The idea of a new countrywide philatelic society was supported by the Russian Bureau of Philately at the RSFSR National Commissariat of Post and Telegraphs in 1922. On 15 March 1923, the charter of the All-Russian Society of Philatelists was approved. On 6 April 1923 its first meeting took place in Moscow. The society's branches worked in Yerevan, Tiflis, Tashkent, Ashgabat, Baku, and other cities. In 1924–1925, the First All-Union Philatelic Exhibition was held. The All-Russian Society of Philatelists published the _Soviet Philatelist_ journal (1922–1932). It existed till the late 1930s.

## Related pages

- First All-Union Philatelic Exhibition
- Leniniana
- Organisation of the Commissioner for Philately and Scripophily
- Philatelic International
- Philately
- Soviet Philatelic Association
- Soviet Philatelist

## Further reading

- Archived from the original and another source on 2015-05-15.

## Infobox (organization)

- **name**: All-Russian Society of Philatelists
- **native name**: Всероссийское общество филателистов
- **image**: ЭмблемаВОК.jpg
- **image size**: 350px
- **alt**: Emblem of the organisation when it became the All-Union Society of Collectors
- **abbreviation**: (VOF),  (VOK)
- **predecessor**: Moscow Society of Philatelists and Collectors
- **successor**: All-Union Society of Philatelists, All-Union Society of Collectors
- **founding location**: Moscow, USSR
- **extinction**: late 1930s
- **type**: Non-governmental organization, NGO
- **status**: national association
- **purpose**: philately, scripophily, numismatics, Wikt:ex libris, ex-libris collection
- **headquarters**: 31 Bolshaya Nikitskaya Street, Herzen Street
- **location**: Moscow, USSR
- **region**: USSR
- **membership**: ~3,000 members
- **membership year**: 1926
- **language**: Russian
- **sec gen**: Leongard Eichfuss
- **leader title**: Chairman of the Board
- **leader name**: Vladimir Repman (1923–1924)
Leongard Eichfuss (1924–1925)
Boris Bildin (1925–1928)
Kazimir Dunin-Barkovsky (1928–1934)
- **leader title2**: Deputy Chairman of the Board
- **leader name2**: B. F. Pamfilov
- **leader title3**: Second Secretary
- **leader name3**: B. S. Pashkov
- **leader title4**: Treasurer
- **leader name4**: E. I. Markevich
- **main organ**: Board of the Society
Publication: _Soviet Philatelist_
- **remarks**: private persons, 51 regional branches (1927)
Aix-les-Bains

**Aix-les-Bains** is a commune in the Savoie department. It is a well-known spa town.

## Infobox (french commune)

- **name**: Aix-les-Bains
- **image**: Aix-les-Bains_(Savoie).JPG
- **image coat of arms**: Blason_Ville_73_Aix-les-Bains.svg
- **arrondissement**: Chambéry
- **insee**: 74119
- **postal code**: 74500
- **elevation m**: 320
- **elevation min m**: 224
- **elevation max m**: 524
- **area km2**: 12.62
- **population**: 28729
- **population date**: 2012
First All-Union Philatelic Exhibition

The **First All-Union Philatelic Exhibition** was held in Moscow in 1924–1925. Its full name was the **First All-Union Philatelic, Scripophilic and Numismatic Exhibition**. This was because it combined the objects of philately, scripophily (collecting stock and bond certificates), and numismatics (of coins, money).

The exhibition was organised from 15 December 1924 to 15 February 1925. This was done by the Presidium of the All-Union Philatelic Association and Board of the All-Russian Society of Philatelists. The combined exhibition was meant to prepare formation of the _All-Union Society of Collectors_. The society was to be under the direction of Feodor Chuchin, the Commissioner for Philately and Scripophily.

## Related pages

- All-Russian Society of Philatelists
- Leniniana
- Organisation of the Commissioner for Philately and Scripophily
- Philatelic International
- Philately
- Soviet Philatelic Association
- Soviet Philatelist

## Further reading

- Archived from the original and another source on 2015-05-15.
WOW air

**WOW air** was a budget airline from Iceland.

## History

WOW air began in November 2011. Its first flight was on 1 June 2012. The airline flew 11 airplanes from the Airbus A320 family to destinations in Europe, North America and the Middle East.

Wow air stopped operations on 28 March 2019. All flights were cancelled and thousands of stranded passengers were told to book with other airliners.

## Infobox (airline)

- **airline**: WOW air
- **logo size**: 100px
- **fleet size**: 11
- **iata**: WW
- **icao**: WOW
- **callsign**: WOW AIR
- **founded**: November 2011
- **ceased**: 28 March 2019
- **headquarters**: Reykjavík, Iceland
- **website**: http://wowair.com/
Dzhokhar Tsarnaev

**Dzhokhar Anzorovich** "**Jahar**" **Tsarnaev** (Cyrillic: Джоха́р Анзо́рович Царна́ев ; born July 22, 1993) and his brother Tamerlan Tsarnaev planted bombs at the Boston Marathon on April 15, 2013. The bombings killed three people and reportedly injured as many 264 others. On May 15, 2015, a Boston U.S. federal court jury verdict resulted in a death-sentence verdict for Tsarnaev for his crimes.

## Early life

He and his family immigrated to the United States as refugees in 2002. Tsarnaev was a student at University of Massachusetts Dartmouth. He had become a naturalized U.S. citizen on  September 11, 2012.

## Capture

During the bombings, on April 19, there was a shootout between police and the Tsarnaev brothers. MBTA police officer was critically injured in the course of Tsarnaev's escape in the SUV Tsarnaev was injured but escaped. On the evening of April 19, the heavily wounded Tsarnaev was found unarmed hiding in a boat on a trailer in Watertown just outside the police perimeter. He was arrested and taken to a hospital. It was later reported that he was persuaded to surrender when the FBI negotiators mentioned a public plea from his former wrestling coach.

Tsarnaev was charged on April 22 with using and conspiring to use a weapon of mass destruction resulting in death and with destruction of property resulting in death.

## Conviction

He was convicted on April 8, 2015, and was sentenced to death on May 15, 2015. Tsarnaev allegedly later said during questioning that they next intended to detonate explosives in Times Square in New York City. Tsarnaev reportedly also said to authorities that he and his brother were radicalized, at least in part, by watching Anwar al-Awlaki lectures.

## Other websites

- Tsarnaev Family (_Wall Street Journal_)

## Infobox (criminal)

- **name**: Dzhokhar Tsarnaev
- **image**: DzhokharATsarnaev.jpg
- **native name**: Джоха́р Анзо́рович Царна́ев
- **birth name**: Dzhokhar Anzorovich Tsarnaev
- **birth place**: Tokmok, Kyrgyzstan
- **other names**: Jahar Tsarnaev
- **citizenship**: United States, Kyrgyzstan
- **alma mater**: University of Massachusetts Dartmouth
- **organization**: None
- **known for**: Boston Marathon bombings, Bombing the Boston Marathon, murdering a policeman, and other related crimes
- **conviction**: Using and Conspiracy (crime), conspiring to use a weapon of mass destruction resulting in death; malicious destruction of property resulting in death
- **criminal penalty**: Capital punishment, Death
- **criminal status**: Guilty
- **parents**: Anzor Tsarnaev and Zubeidat Tsarnaeva
- **relatives**: 1 brother (Tamerlan, deceased)
2 sisters (Ailina and Bella)
Tamerlan Tsarnaev

**Tamerlan Anzorovich Tsarnaev** (Тамерла́н Анзо́рович Царна́ев ; October 21, 1986 – April 19, 2013) and his brother Dzhokhar Tsarnaev planted bombs at the Boston Marathon on April 15, 2013. The bombings killed three people and reportedly injured as many as 264 others.

## Death

Shortly after the Federal Bureau of Investigation declared them suspects in the bombings and released images of them, the Tsarnaev brothers killed an MIT police officer, carjacked an SUV. They soon engaged in a shootout with the police in the Boston suburb of Watertown.

According to the police, during the shootout Tamerlan was captured, but died partly as a result of his brother driving over him. He was 26 years old.

## Other websites

- Tsarnaev Family (_Wall Street Journal_)

## Infobox (person)

- **name**: Tamerlan Tsarnaev
- **image**: Tamerlan Tsarnaev.jpg
- **caption**: FBI wanted photo, 2013
- **birth name**: Tamerlan Anzorovich Tsarnaev
- **occupation**: Unemployed
- **citizenship**: Russian and Kyrgyzstan, Kyrgyz with Permanent residence (United States), U.S. Permanent Residence Status (Application for US citizenship was in progress)
- **birth place**: Elista, Kalmyk Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, Kalmyk ASSR, Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union
- **death cause**: Gunshot wounds and blunt trauma
- **resting place**: Doswell, Virginia, Doswell, Virginia, U.S.
- **parents**: Anzor Tsarnaev and Zubeidat Tsarnaeva
- **relatives**: 1 brother (Dzhokhar)
2 sisters (Ailina and Bella)
- **spouse**: Karima Tsarnaev, born Katherine Russell (m. June 2010 – April 2013; his death)
- **children**: 1 daughter
Organisation of the Commissioner for Philately and Scripophily

**Organisation of the Commissioner for Philately and Scripophily** was established in Moscow in 1922 by the All-Russian Central Executive Committee (VTsIK) for matters concerned with philately and bonds. An old Bolshevik Feodor Chuchin headed this organisation.

## History

To help finance the Central Famine Relief Committee (POMGOL), VTsIK decided to sell abroad postage stamps of Imperial Russia and the newly formed governments of the Civil War period. The idea was to obtain hard currency for them. Feodor Chuchin was named in 1921 the POMGOL commissioner for matters pertaining to stamp donations.

In March 1922, the Organisation of the Commissioner for Philately and Scripophily was set up. Chuchin was appointed to supervise its activities in Soviet Russia and abroad. The sale of stamps and paper money was profitable:

The Organisation of the Commissioner for Philately and Scripophily  existed till 1926 and was superseded by the Soviet Philatelic Association.

## Related pages

- All-Russian Society of Philatelists
- First All-Union Philatelic Exhibition
- Leniniana
- Philatelic International
- Philately
- Soviet Philatelic Association
- Soviet Philatelist

## Further reading

- Archived from the original and another source on 2015-05-15.

## Infobox (government agency)

- **agency name**: Organisation of the Commissioner for Philately and Scripophily
- **nativename**: Организация Уполномоченного по филателии и бонам в СССР (ОУФБ)
- **preceding1**: Russian Bureau of Philately
- **superseding**: Soviet Philatelic Association
- **jurisdiction**: VTsIK
- **headquarters**: Moscow, USSR
- **chief1 name**: Feodor Chuchin
- **chief1 position**: Commissioner
- **parent agency**: Pomgol, POMGOL
Spy (2015 movie)

***Spy*** is a 2015 American action comedy spy movie directed by Paul Feig. This movie is about a CIA analyst, Susan Cooper. She goes undercover in the world of a deadly arms dealer to prevent a global disaster. Melissa McCarthy plays Susan Cooper. Allison Janney plays Elaine Crocker.

The movie was released on June 5, 2015 in the United States.
Michelle (song)

**"Michelle"** is a song by English rock band the Beatles. It was first released on the band's 1965 album _Rubber Soul_. It was mainly written by Paul McCartney, with some parts written by John Lennon. It is a love ballad and some of the words are in French.

## Personnel

According to Walter Everett:

- Paul McCartney – lead vocal, backing vocal, acoustic guitar, bass guitar
- John Lennon – backing vocal, classical guitar
- George Harrison – backing vocal, acoustic guitar, lead guitar
- Ringo Starr – drums

## Infobox (song)

- **name**: Michelle
- **artist**: the Beatles
- **album**: Rubber Soul
- **recorded**: 3 November 1965
- **studio**: Abbey Road Studios, EMI, London
- **genre**: Pop music, Pop
- **length**: 2:40
- **writer**: Lennon–McCartney
- **label**: Parlophone
- **producer**: George Martin