juno-labs/simple_wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Jean-Jacques Rousseau

**Jean-Jacques Rousseau**, (28 June 1712 – 2 July 1778) was a famous French-speaking philosopher. He was born in Geneva, Switzerland and always described himself as being Genevan.

## Early life

Rousseau lived in the 18th century during the Age of Enlightenment. His political ideology influenced the French Revolution and aided the development of nationalism and socialist theories.

## Career

Rousseau was also a composer, writing numerous books about music theory. Rousseau authored _Confessions_, an autobiography, one of the first of its kind. Many later philosophers were influenced by him. He wrote a novel _Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse_, which was a best-seller and influenced 19th century writers of romanticism.

Rousseau believed that men were born good and innocent, and that corruption and sadness happened because of life experiences and experiences in society.  He believed that if society were gone, man would be happy and pure once again.

Rousseau is most famous for his social contract ideology, which is often compared to the social contract of John Locke. This ideology is stated in Rousseau's book, _The Social Contract._

## Infobox (philosopher)

- **birth place**: Geneva, Republic of Geneva
- **caption**: Rousseau by Maurice Quentin de La Tour, 1753
- **death place**: Ermenonville, Kingdom of France
- **era**: 18th-century philosophy
(early modern philosophy)
- **image**: Jean-Jacques Rousseau (painted portrait).jpg
- **influenced**: Immanuel Kant, Kant, French Revolution, American Revolution, Maximilien Robespierre, Robespierre, Louis Antoine de Saint-Just, Saint-Just, Counter-Enlightenment, Romanticism, David Hume, Hume, Thomas Paine, Paine, Adam Smith, Smith, Mary Wollstonecraft, Wollstonecraft, G.W.F. Hegel, Hegel, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, Proudhon, Karl Marx, Marx, Friedrich Engels, Engels, Friedrich Nietzsche, Nietzsche, Charles Darwin, Darwin, Sigmund Freud, Freud, Jacques Derrida, Derrida, Marquis de Sade, de Sade, Leo Strauss, Strauss, Maria Montessori, Montessori, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Goethe, Leo Tolstoy, Tolstoy, John Dewey, Dewey, Dimitri Kitsikis, Kitsikis, Madame de Stael, Arthur Schopenhauer, Schopenhauer, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Fichte, John Rawls, Rawls
- **influences**: Plato, Aristotle, Socrates, Niccolo Machiavelli, Machiavelli, Thomas Hobbes, Hobbes, Baruch Spinoza, Spinoza, John Locke, Locke, Montesquieu, Denis Diderot, Diderot, Voltaire, Jean le Rond d'Alembert, D'Alembert, Louise d'Épinay, D'Épinay
- **main interests**: Political philosophy, music, education, literature, autobiography
- **notable ideas**: General will, _amour de soi_, _amour-propre_, Human nature, moral simplicity of humanity, child-centered learning, civil religion, popular sovereignty, positive liberty, public opinion
- **region**: Western philosophy
- **school tradition**: Social contract
Romanticism
- **signature**: Jean-Jacques Rousseau Signature.svg
Harmonic series

**Harmonic series** may refer to:

- Harmonic series (mathematics)
- Harmonic series (music)
Theodoric the Great

**Theodoric the Great** (454–August 30, 526), known to the Romans as **Flavius Theodoricus**, was king of the Ostrogoths (488–526), ruler of Italy (493–526), and regent of the Visigoths (511–526). He united several German tribes and encouraged Arianism.

## Other websites

- Theodoric the Great at MiddleAges.net
- New Advent
Pumpkin Studios

**Pumpkin Studios** was a video game studio founded in 1996 in Bath, England that is infamous for only developing a single game. Their game: _Warzone 2100,_ is a real-time strategy game developed for PC and PlayStation. The game used many ideas that were new at the time such as machines that use radio waves to find other objects (radar technology) and machines that shoot objects (artillery). The game also used movies to tell the story to the player. These movies are called full motion videos, better known in the gaming community as cutscenes. Not much else is known about the company as they disbanded not long after their formation in March of 2000.

## Other websites

- Pumpkin Studios, MobyGames
- Pumpkin Studios website  (no longer used)
- Warzone 2100 website
Real-time strategy

**Real-time strategy** (**RTS**) is a genre of computer and video games. In real-time strategy games, every player has an army to attack the other player(s). Every player has a military base and people or vehicles (these are called units). The player also has money to create new units or to build new buildings. These buildings can allow the player to do things, such as creating units or to use new technology. Usually, the player that destroys the base and the units of the other player(s) wins. In Esports, if the game has a time limit, the player with the higher points win.

In real-time strategy games, everything the player does, happens right away: there's no time between doing something (like telling a unit to move) and seeing it happen. This is different in turn-based strategy where the players take turns to do things. Under the RTS genre, there is a Real-Time Tactics sub-genre (battlefield focused). The _Total War (video game series)_ is an example of RTT game.

## God game vs. Simulation

Most RTSs are God game, that is, the player does not control a single member or unit while playing, but controls all aspects of the game: direct the units, their tactics, improvements and attacks, and direct the planning and Construction of the base, its improvements and the quantity of resources and production.

While in simulation, the player controls a member of the faction, being a collector, soldier, spy, producer, diplomat or leader of the faction itself. Example is the Ark: Survival Evolved in its "Hunger Games" mode.

## Examples of real-time strategy games

- Age of Empires series
- Command & Conquer series
- StarCraft, Warcraft and Dota 2
- Total Annihilation
- Supremacy 1914
- Ark: Survival Evolved
- Empire Earth series
- Rise of Nations
- Stronghold (2001 video game)
- Clash Royale
- Pikmin 4
Raw material

**Raw materials** are materials that have not been processed. They are in the form in which they are found in nature without any thing done to them.  Raw materials are made into other things.

Raw materials usually come from:

- A plant or tree
- An animal
- A mine

Examples of raw materials:

- Grains such as wheat and rice
- Vegetables such as carrots and onions
- Meat such as beef and chicken
- Wood from a tree
- Honey from a bee's nest
- Minerals or metal from a mine
- Crude oil
- Raw hair, a type of hair extensions that has not been processed

Things that are not raw materials because they have been processed

- Bread and pasta
- Toothpaste and soap
- Sausages
- Furniture such as chairs and tables
- Machines such as cars
- Jewelry
- Clothing and shoes
- Gasoline
- Oil that goes in cars
- Refined coal (coke)
Pasta

**Pasta** is a food made from flour, starch and water. It is usually cooked in hot water before being eaten. Pasta has been very popular in Italy and has also been eaten in many parts of Asia for a long time.
According to history, however, pasta's earliest roots begin in China, during the Shang Dynasty (1700-1100 BC), where some form of pasta was made with either wheat or rice flour. Pasta also appears to be a feature in the ancient Greek diet in the 1st millennium BC.

Pasta is often noodles. It is usually eaten in sauce, fried or in soup. Pasta is usually made from either wheat flour or rice flour, but it can be made with other types of flour. Pasta sometimes has eggs in it. Pasta comes in many different shapes and sizes.

Long pasta is named noodles. it has different names for each width. the name also changes if the edge is wavy.

Short pasta comes in many shapes, each with a different name. they are named after what they look like. one common example is "bow-ties".

## Types of pasta

- Spaghetti
- Macaroni
- Tortellini
- Linguini
- Tagliatelle
- Ravioli

## Other websites

- www.archimedes-lab.org :: Pasta shapes – history and a pasta shapes list
- www.food-info.net :: Pasta shapes – a well-illustrated list
- www.lifeinitaly.com :: History of Pasta  – includes pictures of how pasta is made.
- Information about Italian Pasta
Flour

**Flour** is grains that have been dried and ground into powder. It is usually made of wheat, but can also be made from many other grains, nuts and other substances. Flour is used to make many foods.

## Uses

Flour is an important part of bread, pasta, cookies, cakes, and tortillas. Flour is made in a flour mill, where the grain is put between two stones or steel wheels which are rubbed together to make the grains into powder.

## Types

The main kinds of flour used in cooking are all-purpose flour, self-raising flour and cake flour. Self-raising flour contains a leavening agent. This makes the food rise (expand) during baking. It produces lighter and softer baked foods by creating small bubbles. Flour that does not have a leavening agent is called all-purpose flour, or plain flour.

### Homemade flour

Some people like to make flour at home because when flour comes from the factory, the outer shells of the grains have usually been removed. The outer shells have fiber, which people need to eat for good health.

Flour has many nutrients that are good to eat. People can also make flour with things like pumpkins, pumpkin seeds, brown and white rice, and wheat.

## History

Around 6000 BC, humans discovered that wheat seeds could be crushed between simple millstones to make flour.

The Romans were the first to grind seeds on cone mills. Most mills were driven by wind (windmills) or water. Later, they were driven by steam.

In the 1930s, some flour began to be enriched with iron, niacin, thiamine and riboflavin. In the 1940s, mills started to enrich flour and folic acid was added to the list in the 1990s.

## Related pages

- Kinako
- Wheat flour
Boston Tea Party

The **Boston Tea Party** was a protest by American colonists (called "patriots") against King George III's rule in colonial America. It happened on December 16, 1773.

Specifically, the Boston Tea Party was a protest against the British colonial government's Tea Act. This was one of several new taxes the British government had imposed on the American colonies. In protest, the colonists threw 342 chests of tea imported by a British company into Boston Harbor.

## Taxation without representation

Because they had no one to speak for them in the British government, the colonists were paying taxes but had no part in how the government was run. They argued that there should be "no taxation without representation" - meaning they should not have to pay taxes when they did not have a representative in the government.

The taxes also reduced merchants' profits. Colonists began purchasing smuggled goods, which were much cheaper.

## Events

On the evening of December 16, 1773, several ships in Boston Harbor were holding tea imported from the British East India Company. Anyone who bought this tea would have to pay the new British tax. In protest, the Sons of Liberty**,** led by Samuel Adams, boarded the ships and dumped the boxes of tea into the harbor. They disguised themselves as Native Americans for the protest.

## Reaction

The British government was enraged.  Parliament passed even stricter laws for the colonies, later called the Intolerable Acts.  One of these laws, the Boston Port Act, closed Boston Harbor until the colonists paid for all the tea they dumped. Another, the Massachusetts Government Act, took away Boston's right to govern itself.

The Boston Tea Party was one of the main events that started the American Revolutionary War.

David Kinnison (1764[?]-1852), who served briefly in the American Revolution,  claimed to have been at the Boston Tea Party. However, he would have been only 9 years old at the time.

## Other websites

- Boston Tea Party -history.com
- The Boston Tea Party Historical Society
Cookie

A **cookie** is a sweet dessert made from flour.  Cookies are made in an oven. They are also called biscuits in many English-speaking countries. In the United States and Canada, many varieties of biscuit are called cookies as well.

## Description

Most cookies are flat and round like a disc.  Cookies often have flavors added to them, like spices, chocolate, butter, peanut butter, nuts or dried fruits. Most cookies are very sweet. Today, many people think of cookies with warmth and love. Cookies may be used like chocolate and candy as a reward when children do good deeds.

Even though it is close to cakes and other sweetened breads, cookies usually do not use water for cohesion. Water in cakes makes the base (in the case of cakes called "batter") as thin as possible, which allows the bubbles to form better. Cookies do not have bubbles, so they do not need this. In cookies, some form of oil or fat is used for cohesion. Oils, like butter, egg yolks, vegetable oils or lard are much more viscous than water and evaporate freely at a much higher temperature than water. So a cake made with butter or eggs instead of water is more dense when cooked.

## History

Cookies were made in Ancient Greece around 1200 BC. Hard wafers have been made for as long as baking existed. They were very popular because they last a long time and are not fragile, but they were normally not sweet enough to be called cookies today.

Cookies were made at first in 7th century AD Persia, just after the use of sugar became common there. They spread to Europe through the Muslim conquest of Spain. By the 14th century, they were common in all parts of Europe, and could be found anywhere from royal cuisine to street vendors.

People started to travel around the world at that time, and cookies made a good travel snack; a sweeter version of the travel cakes used throughout history. One of the most popular early cookies, which traveled very well and became known on every continent, was the jumble, a hard cookie made mostly from nuts, sweetener, and water.

## Types

Common types of cookies:

- Vanilla cookie
- Chocolate cookie, often called chocolate chip cookie
- Nut cookie, especially peanuts and walnuts
- Oatmeal cookie
- Ginger cookie
- Fig cookie
- Sugar cookie
- Snickerdoodle cookie

## Related pages

- Gingerbread Man
- Cake
- Pastry
- Cracker
- Biscuit
Chocolate chip

**Chocolate chips** are small pieces of chocolate.  They are used to make desserts, usually in baking.  Chocolate chips are most common in cookies.  Chocolate chips are also used in some cakes and other desserts.

## Origin

Chocolate chips were invented in 1937 when Ruth Graves Wakefield of the Toll House Inn added cut-up chunks of a semi-sweet Nestlé chocolate bar to a cookie recipe. Lots of people liked the new cookies, and Wakefield made an agreement in 1939 with Nestlé to put her recipe on the chocolate bar's packaging. In return, Nestlé gave Wakefield a lifetime supply of chocolate.

At first, Nestlé put a small chopping tool in the chocolate bar package. In 1941 Nestlé and one or more other chocolate bar companies started selling the chocolate in chip (or "morsel") form. The Nestlé brand Toll House cookies is named after Toll House Inn.
Encephalopathy

**Encephalopathy** means _problem of the brain_. Most of the time, it is used by medical doctors, to speak about changed brains and thus changed thinking or changed behavior.

## Related pages

- Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy
Guru Nanak Dev

**Guru Nanak Dev** (15 April 1469 – 22 September 1539) was the founder of Sikhism and is regarded as its first Guru.

## Life

Guru Nanak was born in Rāi Bhoi Dī Talvaṇḍī , in Punjab. This is now part of Pakistan.

Guru Nanak came from a Hindu landowning family, with his father known as Mehta Kalu and his mother as Mata Tripta. When Guru Nanak was a child he refused the _upanayana_ (holy thread) to initiate him into the Hindu religion. Later in his life he married Mata Sulakhani with whom he had two sons. They were called Sri Chand and Lakshmi Das. According to the Sikh religion, one day he was bathing in the river and god took him up to heaven. His family members were very worried as they had thought he died. After three days, he returned with the message of god. He gave up his job to spread the message on how to be a good person.

Guru Nanak died in Kartarpur.

## Other websites

- Eternal Glory of Sri Guru Nanak Ji
- Sikh-History.com
- Max Arthur MacAuliff, _The Sikh Religion, Vol 1, (The Life of Guru Nanak Ji)_, Oxford University Press, 1909.
- Satguru Nanak Ji (for Children) - eBook
- _Sufis, Philosophers, and Nanak_
- A short video documentary summarizing the life of Satguru Nanak Ji

## Infobox (religious leader)

- **name**: Guru Nanak Dev
- **image**: Mural painting of Guru Nanak from Gurdwara Baba Atal Rai.jpg
- **office**: The first Sikh guru
- **birth place**: Nankana Sahib (present-day Punjab, Pakistan)
- **death place**: Kartarpur (present-day Punjab, Pakistan)
- **location type**: Gurdwara
- **successor**: Guru Angad Dev
- **known for**: Creator of Sikhism
Sea of Japan

The **Sea of Japan** is a sea in the western Pacific Ocean. It is bordered by Korea to the west, Russia to the north and Japan to the east and south.

South Korea calls it the **East Sea**, while North Korea calls it the **East Sea of Korea**.

## Geography

The Sea of Japan is a sea in the north-western edge of the Pacific Ocean. It is separated from the ocean by the Japanese Archipelago, including Sakhalin, Hokkaidō and Honshū. It is surrounded by these islands and the Eurasian Continent. It covers 978,000 square km. The average depth is 1,667 meters. The depth of the deepest point is 3,742 meters. Five (or Six) narrow channels of water link the Sea of Japan and other seas: the Strait of Tartary and La Pérouse Strait with the Sea of Okhotsk; the Tsugaru Strait with the Pacific Ocean; the Kanmon Straits with the Seto Inland Sea; the Busan and Tsushima Strait with the East China Sea.

The Sea of Japan has a shallow area in its center, called the Yamato Bank. Water here is less than 1,000 meters deep. It has three major sea basins: the Yamato Basin in the southeast, the Japan Basin in the north, and the Tsushima Basin in the southwest. These three surround the Yamato Bank counterclockwise.

The structure of the Sea of Japan can be divided into two layers: the surface water layer is about 300 meters deep, and the deep sea layer is below this. Currents in the surface layer move in the counterclockwise direction. One of them is the Tsushima Current, which is a warm current from the Korean Straits to the north-east direction along the shore of the Japanese Archipelago and mainly considered to be the branch of the Kuroshio Current. The other is the Liman Current, which is a cold current from  the Strait of Tartary to the south-west direction along the shore of the Eurasian continent.

In contrast to the surface water, the deep sea water does not move as much because the five straits in and out are narrow and shallow. The deep sea water of the Sea of Japan tends to stay longer in the bottom of the sea than other deep sea water. The deep sea water is about eighty percent of the water in this sea.

## Name

The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) decided to call this area the "Sea of Japan" in 1929.

Since 1992, South Korea has asked the world to use the names "East Sea" or "Sea of Korea" instead of "Sea of Japan".
South Korea argues that this sea has been called "East Sea" since early times. It is also a Korean belief that the name "East Sea" was eliminated from maps of the world in the early 20th century while South Korea was under the rule of Japan.

However, Japan says that the name "Sea of Japan" has been used more widely than "East Sea" in Europe and America since before the 18th century. Japan also argues that if there were no Japan, there would be no sea.

Now, most international maps and documents use the name Sea of Japan only. However, in some cases, the name East Sea is included along with the name Sea of Japan.
Natural environment

The **Natural environment** means all living and non-living things occurring naturally. It does not include human activity. The universe is natural, but often the term "natural environment" only means nature on Earth.

Two aspects are usually included::
- Ecological units which are natural systems without much human interference.  These include all vegetation, microorganisms, soil, rocks, atmosphere, and natural events.
- Universal natural resources and physical phenomena which lack clear-cut boundaries. These include climate, air, water,  energy, radiation, electric charge, and magnetism.

There is also the built environment, which is not natural. There, man has changed landscapes and natural environment to make cities and agricultural land.

## Etymology

- EEA multilingual environmental glossary
- EU Environment Directorate-General
- Rehbar Development Foundation  — Development Foundation/Organization working on Environment, Education and Health

## Related pages

- Biodiversity
- Ecosystem
- Environmentalism
- Habitat
- World Environment Day
Natural capital

**Natural capital** is a metaphor for the mineral, plant, and animal formations of the Earth's biosphere when viewed as a means of production of oxygen, water filter, erosion preventer, or provider of other ecosystem services.

In a traditional economic analysis of the factors of production, natural capital would usually be understood as "land" and therefore something else than "capital" in its original sense.

At the beginning of reflection about economics "land" was seen as something natural, but "capital"  as man-made goods only.

But the benefits which humans have from nature are many. 17 of them were closely looked at by Robert Costanza.  These benefits are in some ways similar to those that owners of "capital" have as their capital produces more goods, e.g. a factory which produces automobiles just as an apple tree produces apples.

This is an approach to ecosystem valuation, an alternative to the traditional view of all non-human life as passive natural resources. But human knowledge and understanding of the natural environment is never complete, and therefore we cannot yet know what _natural capital_ means exactly.

## Related pages

- Natural resource
- Nature's services
- Ecosystem services
- Environmental economics

## References

- Amory B. Lovins, L. Hunter Lovins and Paul Hawken: _A Road Map for Natural Capitalism _ (Pdf), in: Harvard Business Review May-June 1999, p.145-157

## Other websites

- Natural Capital indicators for OECD countries
- Natural Capitalism
- Ecosystem Valuation - US DA
Parkhead

**Parkhead** () is a suburb in the east end of Glasgow, Scotland. It is the home of the Glasgow Celtic football club.

## Infobox (uk place)

- **country**: Scotland
- **official name**: Parkhead
- **scots name**: Pairkheid
- **os grid reference**: NS625639
- **unitary scotland**: Politics of Glasgow, Glasgow City Council
- **lieutenancy scotland**: Glasgow
- **constituency westminster**: Glasgow East (UK Parliament constituency), Glasgow East
- **constituency scottish parliament**: Glasgow Shettleston (Scottish Parliament constituency), Glasgow Shettleston
- **constituency scottish parliament1**: Glasgow (Scottish Parliament electoral region), Glasgow
- **post town**: GLASGOW
- **postcode district**: G31
- **postcode area**: G
- **dial code**: 0141
Oswaldtwistle

**Oswaldtwistle** is a town in Lancashire county near Accrington in North West England.

Many years ago, Oswaldtwistle had a running textile mill, which is a presentation today.

## Other websites

- Life and Times of Oswaldtwistle
- Rhyddings Business and Enterprise School, Oswaldtwistle
- Melbourne Street Church, Oswaldtwistle
Prevention

**Prevention** could mean:
- Preventative medicine
- _Prevention_ (magazine), a magazine about health in the United States
- Crime prevention
Sod

**Sod** is grass and the part of the soil beneath it held together by the roots, or a piece of this material. Some sod is grown agriculturally, and is sold to landscapers who use it to quickly get a lawn. Sod was used for building of fortifications in former times.
Turf

**Turf** could mean:

- Lawn, an area of grass maintained for decorative or recreational use
- Sod, the surface layer of ground consisting of a matt of grass and grass roots, sometimes used as a construction material.
- AstroTurf, or any variety of artificial turf made to resemble grass.
- A colloquialism for the world of horse-racing.
- Slang for territory claimed by a gang. See also: turf war
- Slang for the area of jurisdiction or influence exercised by a unit within a bureaucracy.
- Slang for disposing or getting rid of something.
- Peat used for fuel.
- The Turf, a public house in Oxford, England.
- T.U.R.F The Upper Room Fellowship
Flyover

**A flyover** is a ceremonial flight by a plane or group of planes. flyovers are often because of important events or celebrations, although more rarely they are because of memorials, like the 9/11 memorial planes. The planes commonly fly in the colors of the country they are in. They are most often seen in the United Kingdom and other commonwealth countries.
Blue Angels

The **Blue Angels** are a group of special pilots who work for the US Navy.  They fly F/A-18 fighter jet airplanes that are painted to look different from regular Navy planes.  They are very famous.  Almost every American has heard of them.  The pilots of the **Blue Angels** are very good at what they do.  They are able to fly very close to each other and do very difficult tricks.  They are most famous for the flyovers they do at many American sporting events.

## Other websites

- Explore the Navy: Blue Angels  official website.
Means of production

**Means of production** (abbreviated MoP; German: _Produktionsmittel_), also called **means of labour** are the materials, tools and other instruments used by workers to make products. This includes: machines, tools materials, plant and equipment, land, raw materials, money, energy, and anything else labor needs to make things.

The means of production can be owned by different people in different ways in different societies. Capitalism is when the means of production are owned privately. A capitalist society has a market, where things can be sold and bought. Capitalism also has wage labor. Other societies can be socialist, meaning the means of production are owned in common, either by the workers themselves or by the state. A socialist society may also have a market, depending on the variation of socialism.

## Related pages

- Communism
- Capitalism
- Factors of production
- Labor
- Marxism
- Socialism
Ecosystem services

**Ecosystem services** are processes by which the natural environment produces resources useful to people, as to economic services. They include:

- Provision of clean water and air
- Flood control
- Pollination of crops
- Mitigation of environmental hazards
- Pest and disease control
- Carbon sequestration
- Aesthetic, cultural and ethical values associated with biodiversity.

To look at the way in which ecosystems provide goods is popular now at Stanford University. The concept of ecosystem services is similar to that of natural capital.

The _Millennium Ecosystem Assessment_ released in 2005 showed that 60% of ecosystem services are used in a way that destroys them.

## References

- Ecosystem Services: A Primer , Ecological Society of America (ESA)
- The New Economy of Nature: The Quest to Make Conservation Profitable (), Gretchen C. Daily and Katherine Ellison.
- Ecosystem Services: Backgrounder , The Ecosystem Marketplace
Year 2000 problem

The **Year 2000 problem** (also known as the **Y2K problem**, the **millennium bug**, **Y2K Bug**, and **Y2K**) was a computer problem that affected lots of computer systems. It happened because of the way in which some early computer programs were made to handle only years containing two digits (for example '92 instead of 1992). This meant that the computer could confuse the year 2000 with the year 1900, because both would be written as 00. People started fearing that date-related processing would happen incorrectly for dates and times after December 31 1999. It caused concerns that many industries (such as electricity or financial) and government functions would stop working at exactly midnight, January 1 2000. People were panicked by press coverage and media speculation, as well as corporate and government reports. Companies and organisations around the world had to check and upgrade their computer systems to avoid the bug. The preparation for Y2K had a significant effect on the computer industry. No big computer failures occurred when the year changed to 2000.

## Similar bugs

- Year 100 problem
- Year 2038 problem
Biodiversity

## The term

The term **biological diversity** was used first by wildlife scientist and conservationist Raymond F. Dasmann in 1968, where he advocated conservation. It was widely adopted only in the 1980s.

The term **biodiversity** first appeared in a publication in 1988 when entomologist E. O. Wilson used it as a title. Since then, the term has often been used by biologists, environmentalists, political leaders, and citizens. A similar term in the United States is "natural heritage." It predates the others and is more accepted by the wider audience interested in conservation. Broader than biodiversity, it includes geology and landforms.

## Definitions

Biologists most often define biodiversity as the "totality of genes, species, and ecosystems of a region". An advantage of this definition is that it seems to describe most circumstances. There are three levels at which biological variety can been identified:

- species diversity
- ecosystem diversity
- genetic diversity.

## Threats

The idea can be used for tackling practical problems in conservation, for example:
- loss of species
- destruction of habitats
- introduced and invasive species
- genetic pollution
- over-exploitation
- effect of climate change

## Related pages

- Biodiversity Convention
- Conservation biology
- Endemism
- Neurodiversity

## Further reading

- Levin, Simon A. 2013. _Encyclopedia of biodiversity_. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-384719-5
- Wilson E.O. 2016. _Half-Earth: our planet's fight for life_. Liveright. ISBN 978-1631490828
Aberdeen, Washington

**Aberdeen** is a city in the American state of Washington. Aberdeen was founded by Samuel Benn in 1884. In 2020, 17,013 people lived in Aberdeen. Aberdeen is sometimes called the "Gateway to the Olympic Peninsula". It is also called the "Birthplace of Grunge" because musician Kurt Cobain is from Aberdeen. Other notable musicians from Aberdeen include The Melvins. Aberdeen is also the hometown of professional wrestler Bryan Danielson, better known as Daniel Bryan.
Julián Padrón

**Julián Padrón** (September 8, 1910 - August 2, 1954) was a Venezuelan writer. He wrote for books, newspapers and magazines.

## Story about Julián Padrón

Julián Padrón was born on  September 8, 1910. He was from San Antonio, a small town from Monagas, Venezuela. When he was a little boy, he went to private schools in Cumaná. After Padrón went to a secondary school called Andrés Bello in Caracas. In 1929 Julián Padrón got a degree of secondary education in Philosophy.

In 1935 Padrón got 2 degrees:
- A degree of Lawyer
- A degree of Doctor in Political Science (a person who has knowledge about the science of government).

Padrón got the first degree at the Supreme Court, a place where judges work. The Supreme Court is in the Federal District. He got the second degree at the Central University of Venezuela, a place of learning. In 1944 Padrón got, at that university, a degree to be a Diplomat and a Consul (a Diplomat and a Consul are persons who are the representatives of a country in other countries).

In 1929 Julián Padrón wrote for the magazine _Elite_. In 1935 Julián Padrón, Arturo Uslar Pietri, Pedro Sotillo and Bruno Plá made the magazine **El Ingenioso Hidalgo** for a short time. In 1936 Padrón made and wrote for the newspaper **Unidad Nacional**. From 1945 to 1947 he wrote for the newspaper El Universal. He wrote for other newspapers and magazines.

Julián Padrón had these jobs:

- He was the leader of the **Asociación de Escritores Venezolanos**, an organisation that is the representative of writers from Venezuela. Padrón was the leader of this organisation in 1937 and in 1940.
- He created and was the manager of the Asociación de Escritores Venezolanos’ Magazines.
- He had the direction of a committee of the Athenaeum (an organisation that does works about writings) of Caracas in 1940.
- He had the direction of the magazine Shell from 1952 to 1954.

Julián Padrón died in Caracas on August 2, 1954.

## Writings

Julián Padrón did this group of writings:

- Novels (books of long stories)
- La Guaricha (1934)
- Madrugada (1939)
- Clamor Campesino (1945)
- Primavera Nocturna (1950)
- Este Mundo Desolado (1954)
- Short Stories
- Candelas de verano (1937)
- Dramatical Comedy
- Fogata (1938)
- Short Comic Play
- Parásitas Negras (1939)

In 1940 Padrón and Arturo Uslar Pietri did **Antología del Cuento Moderno Venezolano**. It was a book that was an anthology (a group of writings) by people from Venezuela. In 1945 Padrón did other book in the anthology **Cuentistas Modernos**.

## Source

This book has a short biography (story) about Julián Padrón:
- Padrón, Julián (1984): La Guaricha. Ediciones Amon C.A., Caracas. (Biblioteca de Temas y Autores Monaguenses; Colección Guácharo; Reediciones y Biografías).
Peter Ham

**Peter William Ham** (27 April 1947 – 24 April 1975) was a Welsh singer, songwriter and guitarist, best known as the prominent songwriter and singer of the 1970s group Badfinger.

Ham was born in Swansea, South Wales. He formed a local rock group called The Panthers in 1961. This group became The Iveys in 1965. The band was relocated to London by The Mojos manager, Bill Collins, in 1966, and they continued to perform for three years throughout the United Kingdom. Ham especially took to songwriting and Ray Davies of The Kinks took initial interest in producing his group. In 1968, The Iveys came to the attention of Mal Evans (The Beatles personal assistant) and were eventually signed to the Beatles' Apple label after approval from all four Beatles, who were most impressed by dozens of demos recorded at home, mostly by Pete.

The Iveys changed their name to Badfinger with the single release of "Come And Get It," a song written by Paul McCartney, which became a worldwide Top Ten hit. Ham's hard work paid off eventually as his song "No Matter What" became another worldwide Top Ten hit record in late 1970 . He followed up writing two more huge hits released in 1972, "Day After Day" and "Baby Blue". But the peak came with his co-written song "Without You" - a worldwide No. 1 hit as covered by Harry Nilsson in 1972. The song has since become one of the all-time ballad standards as covered by hundreds of singers including Mariah Carey and Clay Aiken. Ham was also used as a musician on Beatles solo records such as the "All Things Must Pass" LP by George Harrison and the single "It Don't Come Easy" by Ringo Starr.

## Other websites

- Pete Ham's Official website

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Peter William Ham
- **background**: solo_singer
- **birth name**: Peter William Ham
- **birth place**: Swansea, Wales
- **death place**: Surrey, England
- **genre**: Rock music
- **occupation**: Singer-songwriter
- **years active**: 1964–1975
- **instrument**: Guitar, Piano
- **label**: Apple Records, Apple, Warner Bros. Records, Rykodisc
- **associated acts**: Badfinger, The Iveys
- **url**: [http://www.peteham.net/ Pete Ham's Official website]
Egalitarianism

**Egalitarianism** is the belief that people should be equal to one another. The word is named for the French word **égal**, meaning _equal_ or _level_.

There are many possible kinds of egalitarianism. For example, legal egalitarianism is the belief that groups of people should be equal in law even if they are of different race or religion. Gender egalitarianism is the idea that men and women are equally important, even though they are different.

This word may be used when talking about philosophy in many slightly different ways. We can best understand the different kinds of egalitarianism by asking, "Who is equal to whom?" and "How are they equal?"

## Related pages

- Equality before the law
- Primitive communism
- Social equality
- Social justice
Jurisdiction

In law, **jurisdiction** is the authority given to a judge to take decisions in matters concerning the law. The word comes from the Latin _jus, juris_ meaning "law" and _dicere_ meaning "to speak": and literally means: telling the law. Jurisdiction may be legally restricted to a certain period of time called a statute of limitations.

It also includes the authority a of formally constituted legal body or a political leader to deal with legal matters and, by implication, to administer justice within a defined area of responsibility. Jurisdiction relies on public International Law, conflict of laws, constitutional law and the powers of the executive and legislative branches of government to give resources to best serve the needs of its society.

## Other websites

- LII Law about... Jurisdiction
- Supreme Court Decision on Guantánamo Bay jurisdiction
- Jurisdiction As Property  on franchise jurisdiction
Thermoplastic

A **thermoplastic** is a material, usually a plastic polymer, which becomes more soft when heated and hard when cooled. Thermoplastic materials can be cooled and heated several times without any change in their chemical or mechanical properties. When thermoplastics are heated to their melting point, they melt to a liquid. They freeze to a glassy state when cooled below their glass transition temperature.

Thermoplastic materials have many features. Some products made from thermoplastic materials are used for electronic applications. They protect against electrostatic discharge and radio frequency interference. Thermoplastics are one of the main two types of plastics.

Thermoplastic can be moulded into any shape. Thermoplastics differ from thermosetting polymers. Thermosets form irreversible chemical bonds during the curing process, and won't melt.

## Types of thermoplastics

**PET (polyethylene terephthalate)** :- Light, rigid or semi-rigid, naturally transparent or colorless, PET is an excellent moisture and gas barrier and is resistant to impacts. It is one of the most easily recyclable plastics and is used to produce bottles, bags and synthetic fibers for clothing.

**HDPE (high-density polyethylene)** :- HDPE is translucent, strong and easy to process, resistant to impacts and non-toxic. It is used to make bottles, tanks, bins and containers for transport.

**LDPE (low-density polyethylene) :-**  LDPE can be translucent or transparent. Suitable for contact with food, it is the lightest and most heat-sensitive plastic. It is used for packaging, bags, sacks, cable coatings, containers, pipes and toys.

**PVC (polyvinyl chloride) :-** PVC is a very versatile plastic, resistant to wear and tear, chemical and atmospheric agents and fire. It is used in the paper industry and for packaging, food containers, credit cards, furnishings, clothing and toys.

**PP (polypropylene) :-** Transparent, light and strong, this material can be used as both a plastic and a fiber. Easily colored, it does not absorb water. It is used to make textile fibers, couplings, containers for transport, furniture, carpets, ropes and food containers.

**PS (polystyrene or styrofoam)** :- One of the most important thermoplastic materials, it is transparent, hard and inflammable, very bright and inert against many corrosive agents. It can be given shiny or opaque colors. Polystyrene is commonly used to replace glass, aluminum and wood because it is cheaper. It can also be used in packaging materials (including for foods), containers, boxes, lamps, disposable objects, cups and toys.

## Related pages

- Plastic
Pete Doherty

**Peter Doherty** (born 12 March 1979) is an English musician. He was born in Hexham, Northumberland. He is in the popular rock band The Libertines. He is also in a band called Babyshambles.

He receives a lot of media coverage for his drug and legal problems and the relationship he had with fashion supermodel Kate Moss. Doherty has been convicted of many crimes.  Some of the crimes are drug offences, car theft, and driving with a suspended licence.  He has served prison sentences for drug possession and burglary.

## Infobox (musical artist)

- **name**: Pete Doherty
- **img**: Pete doherty 2007.jpg
- **background**: solo_singer
- **birth place**: Hexham, Northumberland England
- **origin**: London, England
- **genre**: Indie rock, post-punk revival, garage rock revival
- **occupation**: Musician, songwriter, writer
- **instrument**: Vocals, guitar, bass guitar, harmonica, melodica, piano, Organ (music), organ
- **years active**: 1997–present
- **associated acts**: The Libertines, Babyshambles
Polycarbonate

**Polycarbonate** is a transparent (something which can be seen through) thermoplastic. This material is tough and stable. It can resist a high temperature of 138°C (280°F) and a low temperature of -40°C (-40°F). It is stain resistant and non-toxic. The weight of polycarbonate is one sixth of glass.

Industries use polycarbonate for making different products, from bulletproof windows to CDs and DVDs. The main advantages of polycarbonate are high strength and light weight.

Industries use clear polycarbonate to make glasses. This is because it has very good transparency and durability. Lenses made from clear polycarbonate can be thinner than lenses made from regular glass.

Companies that make electronic equipment use polycarbonate to make the cover of mobile phones, laptops and other products. Although polycarbonate is not poisonous, the process of making polycarbonate uses toxic chemicals. (See Bisphenol A).

## Related pages

- DVD
- Compact disc
- Laptop
Natural disaster

A **natural disaster** is a major event caused by the natural processes of the Earth. Examples are floods, hurricanes, tornadoes, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis and other geologic processes. A natural disaster causes loss of life or property damage, and leaves some economic damage afterwards costing millions.

Human activities may be the cause of some natural disasters, such as climate change <sub>,</sub> deforestation and landslides.

The damage disasters do to humans and their property counts most. There is a saying: "disasters occur when hazards meet vulnerability".

If a strong earthquake happens in uninhabited areas, it is usually not seen as a disaster. An adverse event will not rise to the level of a disaster if it occurs in an area without vulnerable population. In a vulnerable area, such as Nepal during the 2015 earthquake, an earthquake can have disastrous consequences and leave lasting damage, which can take years to repair.

## Volcanoes

A **volcanic eruption** occurs when hot materials from the Earth's interior are thrown out of a volcano. Lava, rocks, dust, and gas compounds are some and volcanic ash and kill many people. Some are quiet outflows of hot lava. Several more complex types of volcanic eruptions have been described by volcanologists. These are often named after famous volcanoes where that type of eruption has been seen. Some volcanoes may show only one type of eruption during a period of activity, while others may show a range of types in a series.

## Other websites

- http://www.gdacs.org
- http://www.swemorph.com/pdf/multi.pdf
- http://www.undp.org/bcpr/
Ibanez

**Ibanez** is a company that makes guitars. The company is from Nagoya, Aichi, Japan. The company was started by Hoshino Gakki.  The company is very big and sells many guitars to musicians.

## Other websites

- Ibanez guitars and bass museum  - Ibanez instruments database, resources, user reviews, pictures
- History of Hoshino Gakki Co., Ltd.
- Ibanez Register - Gallery of past and present Ibanez guitars and basses.

## Infobox (company)

- **name**: Ibanez
- **logo**: Ibanez logo.svg
- **hq location city**: Nagoya, Aichi
- **hq location country**: Japan
- **products**: Guitars
Landslide

A **landslide** includes a wide range of ground movements, such as rock falls, deep failure of slopes and shallow debris flows.

The biggest reason for a landslide is that there is a slope and material goes down the slope because of gravity.

But other things also contribute to landslides:
- erosion by rivers, glaciers, or ocean waves makes slopes too steep
- rock and soil slopes made weak through saturation by snowmelt or heavy rains
- earthquakes that make weak slopes fail or crack the rocks that will eventually fall down
- volcanic eruptions produce loose ash deposits, heavy rain, and debris flows
- vibrations from machinery, traffic, blasting and even thunder may trigger failure of weak slopes
- weight from much rain or snow, stockpiling of rock or ore, from waste piles, or from buildings may stress weak slopes to failure and other structures
- groundwater pressure making the slope unstable
- in shallow soils, the removal of deep-rooted plants that bind the colluvium to bedrock

An underlying reason is the nature of the material. For example, a thixotropic material such as mud or sand and water, can change from a gel to a sol by adding water or pressure, or shaking. It goes from being stable one minute to fluid the next minute. The greatest disasters, like lahars or mudslides, happen suddenly. It is possible for much of a volcano to just slide down suddenly, as with Toba, Krakatoa and Mount St Helens.

## Other websites

- United States Geological Survey site
- British Columbia government landslide information
- Slide! , a program on B.C.'s Knowledge Network, with video clips
- Geoscience Australia Fact Sheet
2040s

The **2040s** will begin on January 1, 2040 and end on December 31, 2049. It is distinct from the decade known as the _205th decade_ will begin on January 1, 2041 to December 31, 2050.

## The decade as a whole

This decade will be called "the twenty-forties" or "the two thousand (and) forties". The Roman number will be MMXL.

Generation Beta will become adults starting in 2043.

The first baby boomers will be 100 years old in 2046.
Americium

**Americium** is a radioactive chemical element with the symbol **Am** and the atomic number 95. In chemistry, it is placed in a group of metal elements named the actinides. Americium is a transuranic element (Transuranic means after uranium as all the elements used after uranium are man-made). Americium does not exist in nature and has to be made by people. It has a silver color. Americium is made by bombarding a plutonium target with neutrons.

It was the fourth transuranic element to be discovered. It was named for the Americas, like europium was named for Europe.

The longest half life of any type of americium is 7370 years.

## How it's made

Americium is a synthetic element. It must be made by people and is not found in nature. Most americium is made as a byproduct of nuclear reactors, and can be separated out during nuclear reprocessing.

The two most stable isotopes of americium are  and . They are made by beta decay of the same-weight plutonium isotopes,  and , which are made from neutron capture in thermal reactors.

Most americium is .  has a 14 year half-life and large fission cross section, so decaying to americium is rare in active reactors. Most  is found in spent nuclear fuel, where plutonium is more likely to decay than go through fission.  is also a byproduct of nuclear weapons production, which needs to separate  from  to produce weapons-grade plutonium.

## Uses

Americium is used in ionization-type smoke detectors. The level of radioactivity is not enough to cause cancer, and it cannot get through the smoke detector's plastic case, so it is safe to live in a place where smoke detectors with americium are used. This type of smoke detector is becoming obsolete, and is being replaced by optical smoke detectors, which have fewer false alarms and don't contain radioactive material.