The British in Pittsburgh: POWs in the War of 1812

Field: Social Sciences (Social Sciences)

Far from the Atlantic seaboard and the Canadian frontier, Pittsburgh was not expected to play a major role in the War of 1812. But it became involved in military affairs even before the start of the war, with Fort Fayette acting as a staging point for troops going down the Ohio River to more westerly posts, notably at Newport, Kentucky, opposite Cincinnati. After Congress declared war on Great Britain on June 18, 1812, troops marched from Pittsburgh to posts along the Canadian frontier in northern Ohio and Michigan.1 For much of the war, too, Pittsburgh also played a little-known role as a prisoner-of-war (POW) depot for British soldiers and sailors.The United States anticipated that many, if not most, of the British prisoners captured during the war would be taken from ships. The government therefore sanctioned holding prisoners of war at various seaports on the Atlantic coast and at New Orleans. These ports were designated in the opening months of the war, where all British prisoners were turned over to the US Marshals in their respective districts. Military prisoners were almost an afterthought in a nation that was poorly prepared for war itself. Depots for army and militia prisoners were not officially established until 1813, almost a year after the war began. The first was to be at Schenectady, New York, but that location proved unsatisfactory and the army posts at Greenbush, New York, and Pittsfield, Massachusetts, were quickly substituted instead. This concentration of POW depots in the Northeast reflected the anticipated area of greatest army operations, along the border between Canada and New York, since the Great Lakes separated most of the remaining settled areas of the two countries.Yet it was a naval victory, not a military one, that unexpectedly changed the situation in the west. Lake Ontario, between New York and present-day Ontario, was contested throughout the war, with both British and American fleets challenging each other for control. But Lake Erie farther west was also crucially important. Separating western Pennsylvania and Ohio from Ontario, both ends of the lake provided ready passage across the border. On the western side, Lake Erie provided crucial communications and supplies for the British posts on both sides of the border around Detroit and Amherstburgh. Overland supply was inadequate, so control of the lake was crucially important for holding these areas. The pivotal battle on Lake Erie occurred on September 10, 1813; under pressure to act, the British fleet of six ships commanded by Captain Robert Heriott Barclay attacked the nine ships of the American fleet commanded by Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry. In the ensuing battle, Perry triumphed, capturing hundreds of British POWs. He then wrote Secretary of the Navy William Jones, reporting that two British ships, two brigs, one schooner, and one sloop had surrendered to him. Perry's commander, Commodore Isaac Chauncey, similarly wrote Jones. Barclay reported that in the battle he had lost three officers and thirty-eight men killed, and nine officers and eighty-five men wounded.2With the United States now controlling Lake Erie, Major General William Henry Harrison's forces were free to advance into Canada toward Amherstburg. With their supplies and reinforcements now cut off, the British commander at Amherstburgh, Major General Henry Proctor, was unable to resist and began withdrawing to the east. Harrison caught up with him near Moraviantown. On October 5 a battle ensued at the River Thames between the American forces and the British and their Indian allies. During the battle, the Shawnee leader Tecumseh was killed, and over 600 British soldiers were taken prisoner.3Both Perry's and Harrison's victories left hundreds of prisoners in American hands, with the nearest POW depot far to the east at Greenbush, opposite Albany. Marching hundreds of POWs for such a distance through rugged and sparsely populated territory posed such serious logistical and security obstacles as to be impractical. Perry and Harrison therefore agreed to send their prisoners south, to Chillicothe, then the capital of Ohio, where there was a military command. Perry's prisoners would remain there, while Harrison's would continue on to Newport, Kentucky. Only those too seriously wounded or too ill to travel were exempted; these were to be sent to Pittsburgh.After his victory on Lake Erie, Perry had landed his prisoners at Sandusky, Ohio, from whence they had been marched to Chillicothe to remain there pending orders from the secretary of the navy.4 The British officers remained near the lake while Perry waited for orders from Jones, as he wanted to parole those with families back to Canada.5 The British commander, Barclay, had been seriously wounded by grapeshot during the engagement, which rendered his right shoulder useless, although he could still bend his elbow and use his hand. The injury was especially hard on Barclay as he had lost his left arm earlier in his career. As a result, Perry promised he would parole him, and had so written Jones, acknowledging that it was the humane thing to do although he should have waited for orders from the secretary.6When the war was declared, no formal agreement for the treatment of POWs existed between the United States and Great Britain. Nevertheless, general standards for POW treatment were recognized among the Western powers, and local arrangements were reached by various British and American commanders. Such agreements were limited to the areas and personnel under their authority. Neither the British nor American agents for prisoners of war met to negotiate a formal arrangement until April 1813.The acting British agent for prisoners of war was Anthony St. John Baker, who had been the chargé d'affaires when the war was declared, and had been allowed to remain in Washington to serve in that capacity.7 Receiving all his instructions from the departing British minister to the United States, Augustus Foster, Baker had no authority to negotiate a POW agreement on behalf of his government. So a formal agreement awaited the appointment of a permanent agent. A POW exchange agreement was, however, negotiated at Halifax, Nova Scotia, between the American agent for prisoners of war there, John Mitchell, and Richard John Uniacke, His Majesty's Advocate General for Nova Scotia, and ratified by the commanding admiral, Sir John Borlase Warren, but was limited to maritime prisoners and, in any case, was subsequently rejected by US Secretary of State James Monroe.8Thomas Barclay (no relation to Robert Barclay) had been appointed to be the permanent British agent for prisoners of war in the United States in late 1812, but he did not reach Washington from London until early April 1813.9 There he met with newly appointed American Commissary General for Prisoners of War John Mason, and the two men negotiated a cartel for the exchange of prisoners of war over the next several weeks.10 Although it was not subsequently ratified by the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty in London, the cartel agreement of May 12, 1813, codified the terms of treatment for POWs, most of which were generally followed by both sides.Among its provisions were the number and locations of POW depots, all except Schenectady being at seaports; the cartel agreement provided for none in the west. Thus, news that Perry and Harrison had sent their prisoners to Ohio, Kentucky, and Pittsburgh must have come as a surprise to Mason when his letters finally reached Washington. Correspondence from the West was slow to reach the capital, so it was two weeks after Perry's victory that Mason wrote Perry about the prisoners. Mason agreed that Perry should fulfill his promise to parole the wounded Barclay either to Canada or, if he was unable to return because of the continuing military campaign on Lake Ontario, to remain on parole in the United States somewhere he would be most comfortable and receive the best medical care. Perry was to provide the same medical care for the other wounded British officers and men, but Mason could not allow them to be paroled since the British had refused to release any American officers who were POWs in Canada for months and were treating them severely. Many of them had been sent from Quebec to the prison at Halifax on crowded ships, and the British were threatening to send the rest to prisons in England. Mason nevertheless approved of the decision to send the estimated 450 POWs to Chillicothe.11Perry's prisoners were ordered to Chillicothe, including the officers, but the 97 wounded prisoners (54 seriously, 43 slightly) were sent to Erie, Pennsylvania, until they were well enough to travel. There they recuperated for nearly three months until December 27 when they were sent to Pittsburgh.12Pittsburgh, a town of about 5,000 people, was unprepared for large numbers of prisoners; no arrangements had been made to receive, house, feed, or guard them. Mason's few instructions regarding the Pittsburgh-bound prisoners had been sent on November 19 to US Marshal of Pennsylvania John Smith at Philadelphia. Mason wrote that he assumed a deputy marshal had been appointed at Pittsburgh to oversee the prisoners.13Throughout the war, administrative dictates from Washington suggest a smoothly running POW establishment. But the reality on the ground was frequently far different. It was easy to order that accommodations, provisions, guards, and medical care be arranged for the prisoners, but actually doing so was far more difficult.Fortunately, Marshal Smith had appointed a deputy marshal a year earlier, after Congress enacted a law on July 6, 1812, requiring all alien enemies (British subjects resident in the United States) to report themselves to the marshals. The United States was primarily concerned about British merchants in seaports who might pass intelligence to British ships. Nevertheless, as a major military transit point, Pittsburgh was also a concern, and Marshal Smith had accordingly appointed William B. Irish as deputy marshal for that purpose.14 While his initial duties were relatively simple—collecting lists of enemy aliens and reporting those who failed to register themselves—the unexpected responsibilities toward POWs were enormous. Irish, however, proved to be a conscientious, though ultimately frustrated, man.As soon as the decision was made to send the wounded prisoners to Pittsburgh, Mason informed Marshal Smith, who instructed his deputy at Pittsburgh to receive the POWs, provide them with rations, and consult with the military commandant about their safekeeping. He also enclosed a copy of Mason's letter and instructions.15Irish replied to Smith on December 1 that no sick or wounded prisoners had been received in Pittsburgh, nor had there been any British POWs there since the declaration of war. There had been seven prisoners held since at least October, five white and two men of color. They had initially been confined at Fort Fayette, but on October 29 the commandant, Major R. Martin, ordered them removed, so Irish placed them in the county jail, where three of them escaped over the jail wall on November 30. As they had been placed in the sheriff's custody, Irish then instructed him to advertise for their capture.16With no major federal prisons in the United States at this time, the marshals were typically dependent on town and county jails. Local needs, however, had priority, the jails were too small to hold large small numbers of prisoners, and their use depended on the willingness of municipal, county, and state politicians to comply with the government's request. This cooperation was often not forthcoming in New England, a region generally opposed to the war. This was not the case in Pennsylvania, but using local jails was nevertheless an undesirable alterative in the government's view since the federal government was charged the same rate to care for prisoners as the town or county, which was often exorbitant.17 Consequently, there was a marked preference for marshals to confine prisoners in army garrisons, especially when large numbers were involved.To ensure compliance with the terms of the POW agreement, the British agent was allowed to appoint his own subagents at all POW depots. Barclay offered the position of subagent at Pittsburgh to a man apparently of his acquaintance, James Swearingen. Swearingen, a US Army captain, declined it, arguing that his duties required too much time. He did recommend another Pittsburgh resident, John Linton, and gave Barclay's letter and instructions to him. Apparently eager to be the subagent even before Barclay made a formal offer, Linton called on the senior British officer as soon as the POWs arrived and arranged for the prisoners' comfort.18 Barclay followed Swearingen's recommendation and offered the position to Linton, who accepted on December 31, sent his accounts for the clothing supplied thus far, and asked what money he was to supply the prisoners per month.19 A few months later, the United States decided that American citizens should not act as British agents, and Barclay accordingly notified Linton in April 1814. But it appears that at Pittsburgh, as elsewhere, Barclay ignored the US regulation, and Linton continued to serve until the departure of the prisoners.20Even before he secured a subagent to report on conditions, and almost immediately on the arrival of the POWs at Pittsburgh, Barclay complained that the British prisoners had not been supplied with bedsteads, straw, cooking utensils, or enough fuel. The complaints must have come from the POWs and, in light of subsequent events, probably from John Kennedy, the surgeon of the 41st Infantry Regiment. Barclay's attitude, widely shared in British circles, was that all British assertions were true and all American statements were merely assertions requiring proof. As he typically did, Barclay then threatened to withdraw these items from the American prisoners held by the British if British prisoners were not properly cared for. It should be noted Barclay was a New York loyalist who had fled to Canada, his property was confiscated, and he had been attainted for treason by the state in 1779. In 1805 DeWitt Clinton had him to of State James as early more British POWs arrived at Pittsburgh, including two of the men who had escaped the jail on November 30. These men had been by who had been the British POWs to Pittsburgh, and he the men with the the prisoners, none were officers and were in the including the two the rest were army most from the British 41st Infantry received three advance that so men were and with both the at Fort Fayette and the jail it was with that he was to on Major Martin, the commander at that to of them. Irish assumed that the military was to prisoners of war in such but had received no such orders from his and did not that He soon ordered Irish to the British prisoners from the and with no in the jail and few Irish wrote Mason for informed Irish that still more POWs were now on their from Erie, including they Irish he would have to to the men and would to the and other at this as codified in the cartel agreement was to confine the men and provide them and The officers were generally paroled the of the town and a at this time, was three per per officer at six per American they were not for major received no and were provided with the other POWs. On however, the officers were expected to for their own in local or and provide for their own was for POWs, a few A British at Chillicothe wrote to Henry at Pittsburgh his as an provided he could his was a in the of and on and to from Mason for the to come to Pittsburgh, to use the to ensure that would not and to the for his if he Henry a Pittsburgh also wrote to Mason, to a from among the British prisoners. He too was to the He was to be paroled to remain two or three of the of his provided he wanted to be and on the same terms agreed to by which reporting each to the The arrangements were apparently as subsequently to six more British POWs at elsewhere, the prisoners at Pittsburgh were allowed to send and receive provided they were first by the But Irish soon an letter sent by John Kennedy, surgeon of the 41st Regiment. Irish the letter to Mason he it and was, he a he to Pittsburgh, the who was the POWs, and to Irish, for which he was that he would be confined if he did so was that Irish refused to provide him with British did not hold at that time, Irish him as a more Irish gave the a of those to such letters so they could be orders from his however, Irish the would Nevertheless, he might seriously the government if he were not of the British officers sent letters that and were thus allowed to continue Mason Irish for not Kennedy, as to send letters was a parole and instructed him to letters in the for Barclay declined to but nevertheless as that the were to complained that was and a most enemy to American and have no this should he be to Nevertheless, Mason subsequently ordered that was to be held as a and would be of one six per for paroled officers were to until Irish received from Mason he was to and the officers as well as the prisoners. eighty-five British POWs including officers were held at Pittsburgh, all at Fort He was to them there because the troops had been ordered to to Erie, thus the But other troops were expected to and when they did, he would have to other to the though he did not have to the paroled officers their money while they were held at Fort Fayette, Irish had in and the prisoners, but had received no from either Mason or Marshal Irish to for from the army at Pittsburgh, but he was refused because he did not to comply with the in the cartel agreement as they from army Irish therefore a local man who would the rations, but he expected to be The would be about per straw, and so Irish accordingly instructions from were however, and Irish was left to his own Fayette could not be a permanent for the prisoners. The local jail held but it was too small to hold them and were crowded into one of a the and citizens of Pittsburgh that the prisoners be to they more would and their would to the these Irish it to order the of to the prisoners and in early April 1814. It was, he either that or release the but not his in and the prisoners. the prisoners Irish had been His to Marshal Smith for for these had similarly as Smith too had in from Irish therefore accepted for the and had on for but he was now so far in he wrote Mason that he refused to either for the prisoners' supplies or he received at least as soon as Irish was for May most of it for the of the had received for the POW but to all the marshals were Marshals received or in but were expected to send accounts by Mason was to the for his which was slow in its This often left marshals far in and in In any Irish was even throughout his at was was taken each and and the prisoners and their own The prisoners were into that were for cooking the for each and were all at least in for the prisoners at Pittsburgh was by their control. as soon as the British were captured on Lake Erie, began to exchange them. Barclay's initial for an exchange was at first but weeks Mason agreed to exchange all the British POWs taken from the Canadian for all the American prisoners held in The POWs at Chillicothe and Pittsburgh would be sent to Erie and on for or the nearest British this offer, Barclay that it was too late in the to send the prisoners They would therefore continue to be held as POWs until the the The were still when Barclay wrote but by the the POWs could be even if the did not their the would be too to The Pittsburgh prisoners therefore remained confined throughout the of But also their anticipated General Sir and of the had sent captured American soldiers to in to for These men were Irish and most, if not were American which the British refused to on the that the could release subjects from their of this months after the men were sent to England, he ordered British soldiers similarly confined to the of the soldiers sent to The British were at this and the by more American POWs the number of and now on The United States replied in and British officers were ordered similarly which those held at the United States for the that would the British officer POWs at He also declared that all would also and he accordingly British POW at Pittsburgh to the other British Mason instructed Marshal Smith to confine the officers in They were to be and their which their money and them with the other prisoners. Nevertheless, their were to be supplied with or and and each officer major and was to be allowed one who would be confined him. They were to with in the As the officers at Pittsburgh were confined because had reached Irish, the was relatively when Mason ordered the two and two at Pittsburgh confined on was not He was in Pittsburgh, for which Barclay declined to that the be from when gave American POW General William a parole to the United States on his promise to to the American government to the reached Secretary of State him to negotiate a general release with for Mason offered to Canada to Augustus and his held in Kentucky. They were to travel by of Pittsburgh and, from there, by a including and to Mason soon offered to three more British and These three were also to to Canada Pittsburgh, where they would be by surgeon John and John began between for the United States and an exchange agreement was in of the soldiers sent to for were not in this agreement and the United States rejected But in July an agreement was was not well with the Pittsburgh prisoners, in the of including A prisoners also two from the jail, from Fort Fayette, and the rest from the although Irish all but were reached Pittsburgh that the prisoners were to be back to Canada, officers to return to their own But the same was not true of the and they it was to their own side, or they fled into the of the United States and remained So when that British prisoners were to be sent to Canada reached Pittsburgh, another men escaped and were not release of POWs at Pittsburgh began the US to the initial exchange agreement, Mason ordered the release of of the officers in Ohio and Kentucky, and all of those in Pittsburgh, in They were to be taken across the lake and near Fort that time, Pittsburgh held and officers and This release was to be a parole an which the prisoners to it was not the if they had to return so soon and declined the of the officers who did to return to Canada, was too to so he was to an in the in order to his The other officers at Pittsburgh, however, decided to provided Irish could with the initial exchange agreement, prisoners to the United States before he that Secretary of State had rejected on that initial however, Mason ordered the release of prisoners at to and all at Pittsburgh to be sent to were ordered for the including Mason's Secretary of War ordered the guard at Pittsburgh to the reported that all the POWs would be sent on parole to Lake Erie under guard and there for Canada on July 6, along with several and to the But to do Irish required as he to for their for the and for the nine and who had the prisoners to Mason had the and the next Irish received from Marshal also to the prisoners but the militia Irish had been refused to until they were the commanding them was near and, even if he would be unable to Irish thus a guard of and expected the commander at Fort Fayette to But when he one from the commander, not received orders to provide it, as at this point, Mason had not made his to to send of the prisoners back to Canada when Major arrived on the of June with the paroled officers from Kentucky. But Irish would not be prepared to send the POWs to Canada for another or and refused to the as he the government did not to the He nevertheless Irish with of the British officers who arrived with him since they had in to them as far as So when Irish wrote Mason for instructions and to for he also money for the and on the and the officers left Pittsburgh between June and into for of but the Pittsburgh POWs were left On June Irish was still for but at least had enough to travel. had also left another at Pittsburgh, being 1 on June Mason had finally received enough to send all the POWs at Pittsburgh to But there were still had finally received an order to troops to guard the prisoners, but had sent all his troops before the order since the militia had received two back Irish them as the guard for the He had also provided to the prisoners, and July the POWs left Pittsburgh for Erie, Pennsylvania, where they were to the commander of the US Ohio to the the POWs at and for their however, was as American Major General had captured Fort Erie in Ontario, the of the prisoners, on July the POWs from Pittsburgh, but did not prisoners reached or through Pittsburgh, including British officers from paroled British officers made on Irish for which Irish was unable to not received least one, also through Pittsburgh but A late paroled from Chillicothe in December also through the British POW held in Pittsburgh was the POWs was a for the American as the British would return the same number or of American POWs as they received from their own often the of the British prisoners, they were all sent back to their own The at least at Pittsburgh and in the United States, was It turned that the British had allowed an American to to remain in Canada return so Mason wrote Irish that he was to a to He did and to remain in as a the British POW of the over captured by the United States to be this most of the prisoners left Pittsburgh in late June Irish wrote Mason, what he was to do with the that them. it to be or held for Apparently no instructions about the and no use for it, Irish it to to the a year in for the on which it He received this which he as a since it was not for families to the of what be as an Irish his position and was by at the Marshal at William B. Irish then became the of the of of Western Pennsylvania, and Canada, of of York New of of