Corruption as a last resort : adapting to the market in central Asia An absence of alternatives : a new framework for understanding corruption Alternatives to corruption and the impact of market reform : the arguments and their theoretical implications Bribery favoritism and clientelism : evidence from Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan Market actors as an unrealized alternative : the impact of market reforms Islamic institutions and secular charities : obstacles to providing substitute resources Families : the uneven impact of market reforms Reducing corruption : policy recommendations Appendix : statistical analysis Why do ordinary people engage in corruption In Corruption as a Last Resort Kelly M. McMann contends that bureaucrats poverty and culture do not force individuals in Central Asia to pay bribes use connections or sell political support. Rather corruption is a last resort when relatives groups in society the market and formal government programs cannot provide essential goods and services. Using evidence from her long term research in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan McMann shows that Islamic institutions secular charities entrepreneurs and banks cannot provide the jobs and credit people need. This drives individuals to illicitly seek employment and loans from government officials.