Gender hierarchy in the Qurʾan : medieval interpretations modern responses This book explores how medieval and modern Muslim religious scholars (ulamā) interpret gender roles in Qurā;nic verses on legal testimony marriage and human creation. Citing these verses medieval scholars developed increasingly complex laws and interpretations upholding a male dominated gender hierarchy; aspects of their interpretations influence religious norms and state laws in Muslim majority countries today yet other aspects have been discarded entirely. Karen Bauer traces the evolution of their interpretations showing how they have been adopted adapted rejected or replaced over time by comparing the Qurān with a wide range of Qurānic commentaries and interviews with prominent religious scholars from Iran and Syria. At times tradition is modified in unexpected ways: learned women argue against gender equality or Grand Ayatollahs reject sayings of the Prophet citing science instead. This innovative and engaging study highlights the effects of social and intellectual contexts on the formation of tradition and on modern responses to it This book explores how medieval and modern Muslim religious scholars (ulamā) interpret gender roles in Qurānic verses on legal testimony marriage and human creation. Citing these verses medieval scholars developed increasingly complex laws and interpretations upholding a male dominated gender hierarchy; aspects of their interpretations influence religious norms and state laws in Muslim majority countries today yet other aspects have been discarded entirely. Karen Bauer traces the evolution of these interpretations showing how they have been adopted adapted rejected or replaced over time by comparing the Qurʼān with a wide range of Qurānic commentaries and interviews with prominent religious scholars from Iran and Syria. At times tradition is modified in unexpected ways: learned women argue against gender equality or Grand Ayatollahs reject sayings of the Prophet citing science instead. This innovative and engaging study highlights the effects of social and intellectual contexts on the formation of tradition and on modern responses to it