Astrophysical techniques 1.3.3 Shielding 1.3.4 Imaging 1.3.4.1 Collimation 1.3.4.2 Coincidence Detectors 1.3.4.3 Occultation 1.3.4.4 Reflecting Telescopes 1.3.5 Resolution and Image Identification 1.3.6 Spectroscopy 1.3.6.1 Grating Spectrometers 1.3.6.2 Bragg Spectrometers 1.3.7 Polarimetry 1.3.8 Observing Platforms 1.4 Cosmic Ray Detectors 1.4.1 Background 1.4.2 Detectors 1.4.2.1 Real Time Methods 1.4.2.2 Residual Track Detectors 1.4.2.3 Indirect Detectors 1.4.3 Arrays 1.4.4 Correction Factors 1.4.4.1 Atmospheric Effects 1.4.4.2 Solar Effects Long used in undergraduate and introductory graduate courses Astrophysical Techniques Seventh Edition provides an accessible yet comprehensive account of the innovate instruments detectors and techniques employed in astronomy and astrophysics. Emphasizing the underlying unity of all astronomical observations this popular textbook provides a coherent state of the art account of the instruments and techniques used in current astronomy and astrophysics. Fully updated throughout this seventh edition builds upon the sixth edition covering improved techniques and cutting edge methods in the field as well as other exciting new developments in gravitational waves dark matter and energy the use of photonics and astronomy education and outreach in addition to further detailed discussions on the latest scientific instruments and individual detectors. The book is written in a very accessible manner and most of the mathematics is accessible to those who have attended a mathematics course in their final years at school. Nevertheless the treatment of the topics in general is at a sufficiently high level to be of use to those professionals seeking technical information in areas of astronomy with which they might not be completely familiar. Key Features: Details the instrumentation and theory of astronomical observations including radio waves gamma rays cosmic rays neutrinos gravitational waves and dark matter and energy and more Presents the background theory and operating practice of state of the art detectors and instruments Fully updated to contain the latest technology and research developments 1.2.1 Introduction 1.2.2 Detectors and Receivers 1.2.2.1 Detectors 1.2.2.2 Receivers 1.2.3 Radio Telescopes 1.2.3.1 Construction 1.2.3.2 Future 1.3 X Ray and Gamma Ray Detection 1.3.1 Introduction 1.3.2 Detectors 1.3.2.1 Geiger Counters 1.3.2.2 Proportional Counters 1.3.2.3 Scintillation Detectors 1.3.2.4 Pair Production Detectors 1.3.2.5 Gas Scintillation Proportional Counters 1.3.2.6 Compton Interaction Detectors 1.3.2.7 Solid State Detectors 1.3.2.8 Microchannel Plates 1.3.2.9 Cerenkov Detectors 1.3.2.10 Future Possibilities Cover Half Title Title Page Copyright Page Dedication Table of Contents Preface Author Chapter 1: Detectors 1.1 Optical Detection 1.1.1 Introduction 1.1.2 Detector Types 1.1.3 The Eye 1.1.4 Semiconductors 1.1.4.1 The Photoelectric Effect 1.1.5 A Detector Index 1.1.6 Detector Parameters 1.1.7 Cryostats 1.1.8 Charge Coupled Devices (CCDs) 1.1.8.1 CCDs 1.1.8.2 Charge Injection Devices (CIDs) 1.1.8.3 CCDs The Future 1.1.9 Avalanche Photodiodes (APDs) 1.1.9.1 Photodiodes 1.1.9.2 Avalanche Photodiode 1.1.9.3 Single Photon Avalanche Photodiodes 1.1.10 Photography 1.1.11 Photomultipliers (PMTs) 1.1.12 Superconducting Tunnel Junction (STJ) Detectors 1.1.13 Microwave Kinetic Inductance Detectors (MKIDs) or Kinetic Inductance Detectors (KIDs) 1.1.14 Future Possibilities 1.1.15 Infrared Detectors 1.1.15.1 Photoconductive Cells 1.1.15.2 Bolometers 1.1.15.3 Other Types of Detectors 1.1.15.4 Astronomical Applications 1.1.16 Ultraviolet Detectors 1.1.16.1 Applications 1.1.17 Noise Uncertainties Errors Precision and Accuracy 1.1.17.1 Intrinsic Noise 1.1.17.2 Signal Noise 1.1.17.3 Digitisation 1.1.17.4 Errors and Uncertainties in Data Reduction Analysis and Presentation 1.1.18 Telescopes 1.1.18.1 Telescopes from the Beginning 1.1.18.2 Optical Theory 1.1.19 Telescope Designs 1.1.19.1 Background 1.1.19.2 Designs 1.1.20 Telescopes in Space 1.1.21 Mountings 1.1.22 Real Time Atmospheric Compensation 1.1.22.1 Sampling System 1.1.22.2 Wavefront Sensing 1.1.22.3 Wavefront Correction 1.1.23 Future Developments 1.1.24 Observing Domes Enclosures and Sites 1.2 Radio and Microwave Detection