However, in the 1930s, the Supreme Court made a few decisions that decreased the number of United States citizens who had the right to a lawyer.
In 1932, the Court decided a case called "Powell v. Alabama", . They ruled that the states had to assign free lawyers to poor defendants, but "only" if they were being tried for capital crimes. (Capital crimes are crimes that can be punished with the death penalty.)
Then, in 1938, the Supreme Court ruled in "Johnson v. Herbst" that in "federal" courts, any person who was charged with a crime and could not pay for a lawyer had to be assigned a lawyer for free. However, the Court also ruled that the Sixth Amendment applied "only" to federal courts not to state courts.
This meant that if a person was charged with a crime in a "state" court, and he could not afford a lawyer, he would have to defend himself in court.
In 1941, Betts was indicted (formally charged) with robbery by a court in Maryland. Betts could not pay for a lawyer. He asked the court to assign him a free lawyer. The judge refused. He said the court only appointed free lawyers to people charged with rape or murder.
Betts had to defend himself, without the help of a lawyer. He argued that he had been in a different place at the time of the robbery. He called witnesses who said this was true. However, the judge did not believe Betts. He sentenced Betts to eight years in prison.
Betts filed a writ of habeas corpus with a Maryland appeals court. A writ of habeas corpus asks to be set free from unfair imprisonment. Betts argued that his imprisonment was unfair because he had not been given a lawyer. His petition was denied.
Next Betts filed a writ of habeas corpus to the Court of Appeals of Maryland, the most powerful court in Maryland. It also denied his petition.
Finally, Betts filed a request with the Supreme Court of the United States, asking them to hear his case. The Court agreed.
The "Betts" case brought up some important legal issues for the Court to decide.
The Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution says that "In all criminal [trials], the accused shall ... have the assistance of counsel for his defence."
Also, the Fourteenth Amendment says that no state can take away any person's "life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person ... the equal protection of the laws."
The Court had already decided that the right to have a lawyer applied to all people in federal criminal trials; people being tried by the states for rape or murder; and anyone who could pay for a lawyer. Now they needed to decide whether poor people had the right to have lawyers too, even if they could not pay for them.
They also needed to decide these questions:
On June 1, 1942, the Supreme Court voted 63 against Betts. They ruled that his conviction was fair.
The Court ruled that having a lawyer was not a basic right. Usually, a defendant did not need a lawyer to get a fair trial, the Court said.
In their decision, the Court did rule that there were special cases where a court should assign a lawyer. In these special cases, not having a lawyer would make it difficult for a defendant to get a fair trial. In each case, the judge was supposed to talk to the defendant to figure out whether any of these "special circumstances" existed. For example, was the defendant mentally able to defend himself? Did he have enough education? Did he understand what happens during a trial?
For 21 years, "Betts" set a precedent that allowed individual courts and judges to decide whether poor people would be given lawyers or not.
Finally, in 1963, the Supreme Court decided a case called "Gideon v. Wainwright", . In the "Gideon" decision, the Court admitted that it made the wrong decision in "Betts". A lawyer "is" needed for a fair trial.
Magasa, Crete
Magasa, Crete is a settlement on Crete.
Mamba
A mamba is a fast-moving venomous snakes of the genus "Dendroaspis" (means "tree asp"). It belongs to the Elapidae family.
They are native to Africa. The black mamba is one of the well-known species and is also the most feared. Other members include the eastern green mamba, western green mamba and Jameson's mamba.
Most mambas are arboreal, meaning they live in trees. The only exception is the black mamba, which lives on land. All mamba species hunt during the day. They prey on birds, lizards and small mammals.
There are many stories of mambas chasing humans, but these snakes usually prefer to avoid contact with humans. Humans are actually their main predators, rather than prey.
Because mambas and cobras are in the same family, they share some similarities. Like the cobra, a mamba might display a hood when threatened. However, a mamba's hood is more narrow and is longer. A mamba usually opens its mouth when threatened, so they lean forward unlike the cobra which usually stands erect.
All mambas are very venomous. Their venom is mostly comprised of neurotoxins, which attack the nervous system. The venom can also contain cardiotoxins (which damage the heart muscle) and fasciculins (which cause muscle twitches).
The toxicity of the venom varies. Changes in the toxicity can even be caused by the weather or altitude.
All mamba species have similar venom, but the black mamba has the most toxic venom and is more aggressive.
Untreated black mamba bites are fatal.
Chanel
Chanel is a French fashion company created by Coco Chanel (19 August 1883 – 10 January 1971).
It designs clothing, perfumes, luxury goods and jewellery, usually of simple design. It is widely known for the "little black dress" and Chanel No. 5 perfume.
Sea Shepherd Conservation Society
The Sea Shepherd Conservation Society (SSCS) is an American organization that aims to protect marine life, and was founded in 1977 by activist Paul Watson, a former member of Greenpeace. One of the things they heavily campaign against is whaling.
LGBT rights in Canada
Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) rights in Canada are some of the most advanced in the world. During the British North America era, same-sex relationships were illegal. They were punishable with capital punishment. Homosexual activity became legal in 1969. Same-sex marriage became legal in 2005.
Swinging (sexual practice)
Swinging is a human sexuality based on multi-partner relations. In contrast with an affair, both partners are consenting to sexual exchange of one and the other. It was this exchange that creates a certain eroticism and even sexual arousal.
Neufchâtel-en-Bray
Neufchâtel-en-Bray is a commune of Seine-Maritime. It's famous as cheese production: the Neufchâtel.
Iris nebula
The Iris nebula is a reflection nebula in the constellation of Cepheus. It is about 1,300 light-years away from Earth.
Escobedo v. Illinois
Escobedo v. Illinois, , was a landmark United States Supreme Court case decided in 1964. The Court ruled that suspects in crimes have the right to have a lawyer with them while they are being questioned by the police. This case was decided just a year after the Court ruled in "Gideon v. Wainwright", , that indigent (poor) criminal defendants had a right to be assigned free lawyers at trial.
Danny Escobedo's brother-in-law, Manuel Valtierra, was shot and killed on the night of January 19, 1960. Escobedo was arrested without a warrant early the next morning and interrogated. However, Escobedo did not admit anything to the police, and was let go that afternoon.
Another man named Benedict DiGerlando had also arrested, and the police thought he was another suspect. DiGerlando told the police that Escobedo's brother-in-law, Valtierra, treated Escobedo's sister badly. Because of this, Escobedo had shot and killed Valtierra, said DiGerlando.
On January 30, 1960, the police again arrested Escobedo, as well as his sister, Grace. While driving them to the police station, the police explained that DiGerlando had told them Escobedo was guilty. The police urged him and Grace to confess. Escobedo again refused.