Atoms and molecules had long been theorised as the main parts of matter. Albert Einstein published a paper in 1905 that explained in precise detail how the motion that Brown had observed was a result of the pollen being moved by individual water molecules. This was one of his first big contributions to science, and convinced many scientists that atoms and molecules exist, It was further verified experimentally by Jean Perrin in 1908. Perrin was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1926 "for his work on the discontinuous structure of matter". The direction of the force of atomic bombardment is constantly changing, and at different times the particle is hit more on one side than another, leading to the seemingly random nature of the motion.
There are too many molecular impacts making the Brownian pattern, so no scientific model can account for all of them. That is why only probabilistic models of molecular populations can be used to describe it. Two such models of the statistical mechanics, made by Einstein and Smoluchowski are presented below. Another, pure probabilistic kind of models are stochastic process models. There exist both simpler and more complicated stochastic processes which in extreme ("taken to the limit") may describe the Brownian Motion (see random walk and Donsker's theorem).
Albert Einstein and Norbert Wiener also studied Brownian Movement, with greater mathematical precision.
The Roman Lucretius's scientific poem "On the Nature of Things" (c. 60 BC) has a description of Brownian motion of dust particles in verses 113–140 from Book II. He uses this to help people know for sure of the existence of atoms:
"Observe what happens when sunlight is let into a building and small building light on its shadowy places. You will see an amount of tiny particles moving in an amount of ways..."
While Jan Ingenhousz described the strange motion of coal dust particles on the top of alcohol in 1785, the discovery of this is often given to the botanist Robert Brown in 1827. Brown was studying pollen grains of the plant "Clarkia pulchella" suspended in water under a microscope when he observed minute particles, ejected by the pollen grains, executing a jittery motion. By repeating the experiment with particles of inorganic matter he was able to rule out that the motion was life-related, although its origin was not known yet.
The first person to describe the mathematics behind Brownian motion was Thorvald N. Thiele in a paper on the method of least squares published in 1880. This was followed by Louis Bachelier in 1900 in his PhD thesis "The Theory of Speculation", in which he presented an analysis of the stock and option markets. The Brownian motion model of the stock market is often used, but Benoit Mandelbrot denied its applicability to stock price movements.
Albert Einstein (in one of his 1905 papers) and Marian Smoluchowski (1906) brought the solution of the problem to the attention of physicists, and presented it as a way to indirectly confirm the existence of atoms and molecules. Their equations describing Brownian motion were checked by the experimental work of Jean Baptiste Perrin in 1908.
University of New Haven
The University of New Haven is a private and nonsectarian university within West Haven, Connecticut, which borders the much larger city of New Haven. The university was established in 1920 and given the name "University of New Haven" in 1970.
Kylie (album)
Kylie is the first album by Australian singer Kylie Minogue, released on 4 July 1988. The album was produced by Stock, Aitken and Waterman, who also wrote nine of the ten songs. Mostly a dance-pop album, it also contains many bubblegum pop elements.
All songs written and produced by Mike Stock, Matt Aitken and Pete Waterman, except where noted.
Monster movie
A monster movie (also called a creature feature or giant monster movie) is a movie with humans trying to stay alive in attacks by very large monsters. Monster movies can fit in the horror, fantasy, or science fiction genres. In Japan, large monsters are called kaiju.
In many monster movies, the monster is created by humans because of something such as a bad experiment, the effects of radiation, or the destruction of habitat. Since the 1953 movie "The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms", many monster movies have shown the monster being created by nuclear warfare. One of the most well-known movie monsters, Godzilla, was created by a nuclear weapon. Godzilla has appeared in 28 movies and has become a cultural icon in Japan.
The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms
The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms is a 1953 science fiction monster movie. It was released on June 13, 1953, by Premier Productions. It was produced by Warner Bros. It made over $5 million, including $2.25 million in the United States in its first year.
The movie was the first movie to show a monster being woken up or created by an explosion from an atomic bomb. Its success helped cause the creation of more monster movies in the 1950s such as "Godzilla".
An atomic bomb test in the Arctic Circle wakes up a sleeping dinosaur, the fictional "Rhedosaurus". After being woken up, it destroys New York City before being killed at Coney Island.
Transkei
The Transkei (meaning "the area beyond the river Kei"), officially the Republic of Transkei was a Bantustan—an area for members of a specific ethnicity. It was in the southeastern region of South Africa. Its capital was Umtata (renamed Mthatha in 2004). President of South Africa Nelson Mandela was born here.
Xhosa language
Xhosa is one of the official languages of South Africa. Xhosa is spoken by 7.6 million people, or about 18% of the South African population. Xhosa is written using a Latin alphabet. Henry Hare Dugmore helped translate the entire Bible in Xhosa language. Xhosa has ten vowels.
Xhosa is well known for its set of three major clicks.
Thembu people
The Thembu are a tribe or subgroup of the Xhosa people. They are one of the handful of nation groups that speak Xhosa in South Africa. In Xhosa the name is abaThembu, aba- being a common prefix for peoples. One famous Thembu person in Nelson Mandela. The traditional homeland of the Thembu is called Thembuland.
University of Fort Hare
The University of Fort Hare is a public university in Alice, Eastern Cape, South Africa. It was an important university for black Africans from 1916 to 1959.
It offered a Western-style, academically excellent education to students from across sub-Saharan Africa, creating a black African elite. Nelson Mandela studied at the university during his early years before leading a group of students on a political strike and getting expelled.
African National Congress Youth League
The African National Congress Youth League (ANCYL) is a part of the African National Congress for younger people. It was founded in 1944 by Nelson Mandela and Walter Sisulu. They created the foundation to put an end to apartheid in Africa.
Inkatha Freedom Party
The Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP) is a political party in South Africa. Since it was founded it has been led by Mangosuthu Buthelezi. It is currently the fourth largest party in the National Assembly of South Africa. It was very close with the African National Congress.
Sit-ski
A Sit-ski is a sled used by a skier with paraplegia, spina bifida, muscular dystrophy, or cerebral palsy. It is made from fiberglass. Early sit-skis looked like kayaks and had metal edges.
Sit-skis are used for para-Nordic skiing and para-alpine skiing. If the sit-ski has one ski, it is sometimes name a mono-ski. If a sit-ski has two skis, it is sometimes called a bi-ski. Skiers first used bi-skis in para-alpine skiing before using mono-skis. Mono-skis allow skiers to ski using the same way that people who stand ski down a hill.
Sit-ski users use outrigger skis. In para-Nordic skiing, a sit-skier may use a normal ski pole that is not as long as one people standing up to ski would use.