Ambroise Paré (1510-1590) was an important French surgeon of the 16th century. He caused a major change in how medicine was practiced. Unlike surgeons before him, he cared about his patients. He worked to promote healing and minimize a patient's pain. His said "I dressed him, God cured him." Paré was a royal surgeon to several French kings including Henry II. He considered by many to be the father of modern surgery.
Paré was born about 1510 in France. His father was a country artisan. As a youth he was an apprentice to a barber. Then he trained as a barber-surgeon in Paris. This was at the Hôtel-Dieu de Paris hospital.
There were three levels of those who practiced medicine. Physicians were at the top and were the only ones who could be members of the Faculty of Medicine. Master surgeons were the next group. Paré belonged to the lowest group, the barber-surgeons. At the time wars were being fought all around him. Battlefield medicine was brutal and dirty. Firearms were a new weapon on the battlefield and were causing new and different wounds. Shrapnel, shot and bullets were a new problem for surgeons. They also believed gunpowder was poisonous. To stop the bleeding, they poured boiling oil over the wound. This burned an already suffering soldier.
In 1536, Paré was a young war surgeon just getting started on the battlefield. He ran out of oil to seal soldiers' wounds after amputations. He made up a mix of egg yolks, oil of roses and turpentine. He applied this to several soldier's wounds. The next morning he was surprised to see those soldiers with the mix he made up were much better than the soldiers who had been scalded. He used ligatures to tie off arteries during amputations to stop bleeding.
In 1552, Paré became the official royal surgeon. He was surgeon to four French kings: Henry II, Francis II, Charles IX and Henry III.
Paré wrote his first book, "Methods of Treating Wounds", in 1545. He wrote it in French because he did not speak Latin. In 1575 he published his collected works. He was severely criticized by the Faculty of Physicians. This was the top school of physicians in France. Paré was called an ignorant fraud by Etienne Gourmelen, the dean of the Faculty. He stated no books on medicine could be published except through the Faculty of Physicians. Paré had the support of the king so his books sold without the Faculty. He wrote three more books. Paré wrote his own story titled "The Apology and Treatise of Ambroise Paré".
List of English Football League managers
There are 92 association football teams in the top four tiers of English football. Each team has a manager or head coach. The Premier League and Football Leagues are the only fully professional football leagues in England. The Premier League has 20 clubs at the top of the English football league system. The other 72 clubs are split into the three divisions of the Football League: the Championship, League One, and League Two.
Some of these managers were chosen as caretaker managers before the main job. A caretaker's start date is written in italics. Some managers have had more than one time in charge at their current club, however their time as manager is counted from the date of their latest club. Only one manager has spent more than 10 years in his current job. This list includes every manager currently managing a club in the Premier League and The Football League, in order of the date that they took up their job.
‡ indicates player-manager
1981 Manitoba general election
The Manitoba general election of November 17, 1981 was held to elect members to the Legislative Assembly of Manitoba, Canada. The New Democratic Party won the election. They won 34 out of 57 seats. The Progressive Conservative Party won the remaining 23 seats. The Manitoba Liberal Party didn't win any seats for the first time in its history. The Progressive Party (which ran for the first time), the Communist Party, and Western Canada Concept Party also ran candidates in the election. None of these parties won any seats.
Howard Pawley of the New Democratic Party became premier.
1999 Manitoba general election
The Manitoba general election of September 21, 1999 was held to elect members to the Legislative Assembly of Manitoba, Canada. The New Democratic Party won the election. They won 32 out of 57 seats. The Progressive Conservative Party won 24 seats. The Manitoba Liberal Party won one seat. The Manitoba Party, the Green Party, the Libertarian Party, and the Communist Party all ran candidates as well, but none won any seats. Each of those parties got less than 1% of the total vote.
The New Democratic Party formed the government for the first time since losing the 1988 general election. Gary Doer became premier.
Rhynia
Rhynia is a genus of Early Devonian fossil land plants. Only one species is known, "R. gwynne-vaughanii". The fossils are the sporophyte generation of a vascular plant. "Rhynia" had anatomical features more advanced than those of the bryophytes.
Productive efficiency
In economics, productive efficiency is a situation in which an economy is not able to produce any more of one good without reducing the production of another good. As resources are limited, it is not possible for more units of a good to be produced without taking away the resources used for producing another good. The concept of productive efficiency can be shown on a production possibility frontier (PPF), where all points on the curve are productively efficient.
Productive efficiency refers to the maximum amount of output that an economy can produce at a certain point in time. However, if firms in the economy were to improve on their production methods and increase productivity, it is possible for the PPF to shift outwards, thus allowing more goods to be produced than before.
Productive inefficiency happens when factors of production (i.e. land, labor, capital or enterprise) are not used to its maximum. For example, labor in the form of workers may be sitting and not doing any work. If the worker were to be used to produce more output than before, then having the worker not doing any work would be productively inefficient.
Allocative efficiency is a special type of productive efficiency in which the right amount of goods is produced to benefit society in the best way.
Productive efficiency can be shown either by using a production possibility frontier (PPF) diagram, or by using the marginal cost and average total cost curves.
Assuming that the economy only produces 2 goods – guns and butter. Points B, C and D on the diagram are considered to be productively efficient as it is not possible to produce more of either good without having to reduce the production of the other. For example, if the economy is producing at point D, the only way to produce more butter is to reduce the production of guns, thus reaching point C.
If the economy was originally producing at point A of the diagram, it is possible for more butter and guns to be produced without having to reduce the production of any of them. When this happens, the economy shifts from point A to point D and is better utilizing its resources.
However, if the economy was originally producing at point D and wants to produce more butter, the production of guns would have to be reduced. If the production of guns is not reduced, the economy would produce at point X, which is not possible in reality as there are no resources available to produce the extra output.
For a firm that is producing a certain type of good, it would have the marginal cost (MC) and average total cost (ATC) curves when producing an additional unit of output as shown in the diagram.