Chinese Prime Minister Zhou Enlai used the phrase in a letter addressed to Indian Prime Minister Nehru dated October 24, 1959. In a letter dated November 7, Zhou told Nehru that the LAC consisted of "the so-called McMahon Line in the east and the line up to which each side exercises actual control in the west". During the Sino-Indian War (1962), Nehru claimed not to know where the line was: "There is no sense or meaning in the Chinese offer to withdraw twenty kilometers from what they call 'line of actual control'. What is this 'line of control'? Is this the line they have created by aggression since the beginning of September? Advancing forty or sixty kilometers by blatant military aggression and offering to withdraw twenty kilometers provided both sides do this is a deceptive device which can fool nobody." It should be noted that these incursions were in response to India's "forward policy" in which India began to contest areas controlled by China, including some that were not included in the McMahon Line.
Tupí people
The Tupí people were an important ethnic group of indigenous peoples in Brazil. Scholars believe they first settled in the Amazon rainforest. Later, they started to move to the south and settled on the Atlantic coast.
The Tupí people were living in almost all of the Brazilian coast when the Portuguese first arrived there. In 1500, their population was estimated to be 1 million people. They were divided into tribes, each tribe numbering from 300 to 2,000 people. Some of these tribes are: "Tupiniquim", "Tupinambá", "Potiguara", "Tabajara", "Caetés", "Temiminó", "Tamoios".
The Tupí had agriculture. They grew cassava, corn, sweet potatoes, beans, peanuts, tobacco, squash, cotton and many other crops.
After the 16th century, the Tupí were assimilated, made to work as slaves, or killed by diseases such as smallpox or by Portuguese settlers and Bandeirantes (colonial Brazilian scouts). Except for a few communities, nearly all the Tupí were killed. Today, the descendants of the survivors live on Indian reservations or are part of the dominant Brazilian society.
The Tupí were divided into several tribes which would constantly engage in war with each other. In these wars, the Tupí would try to capture their enemies to later kill and eat them.
They believed that they would gain the strength of the warriors they eat. The Tupí also ate the remains of dead relatives.
Cannibalism by the Tupí decreased after European contact and religious intervention. When Cabeza de Vaca, a Spanish conquistador, arrived in Santa Catarina in 1541, for instance, he attempted to ban cannibalism.
Some scholars question whether the Tupí actually engaged in cannibalism. They do not think the sources that talk about cannibalism, mostly written by Europeans, are reliable.
In the 16th century, the Tupi were the first group to have contact with the Portuguese. The Portuguese colonists did not bring many women, so miscegenation between Portuguese settlers and indigenous women started. The Tupi had a tradition, called "Cunhadismo", of incorporating strangers to their community. The Indians offered the Portuguese an Indian girl as wife. Once he agreed, he formed a bond of kinship with all the Indians of the tribe. The settlers also adopted the Indian practice of polygyny.
The relatives of an Indian woman would have to work for her husband. If a settler had many Indian wives, he would have a large number of Indian relatives who would have to work for him. They would mostly have to cut wood and take it to the ships on the coast. Since there were not a lot of Portuguese women in Brazil, intermarriage made it easier for the Portuguese to colonize the country.
Although most of the Tupí population died, a large population with Tupí-Portuguese ancestry occupied much of Brazilian territory. They continued the ancient Tupí traditions in several points of the country. Darcy Ribeiro wrote that the first Brazilians looked more like the Tupí than the Portuguese. The language that they spoke, called Nheengatu or Língua Geral, was based on Tupí.
Eventually, Brazilian society started to lose its Tupi characteristics. Língua Geral was replaced by the Portuguese language. Indian ways of making things were replaced by European ones. Brazilian Portuguese absorbed many words from Tupi.
Victor Skumin
Victor Andreevich Skumin () (born 30 August 1948) is a Russian psychologist, psychiatrist, psychotherapist, medical doctor and writer.
Victor Skumin was born on 30 August 1948 in Penza Oblast, Russia. His father, Andrew Skumin, was a KGB officer. The family many times moved from one city to another. These cities were Penza, Chelyabinsk, Petrozavodsk.
Skumin studied medicine at the Kharkov National Medical University. He graduated the university in 1973 with diploma with honours.
In 1976, he became a psychotherapist in Kiev Institute of Cardiovascular Surgery. Skumin was the first to described a previously unknown disease, now it is called "Skumin syndrome".
From 1980 to 1990, he has been professor of psychotherapy at the Kharkov Medical Academy of Postgraduate education. During this period Skumin investigated borderline mental disorders in chronic diseases of the digestive system in children and adolescents.
From 1990 to 1994, Skumin held positions as Professor by the Chair of Psychology and Pedagogy, and Professor by the Chair of Physical Education and Health life at the Kharkov State Academy of Culture. In 1994, Skumin became President of the World Organization of Culture of Health (WOCH) — International social movement "To Health via Culture" (Russian: Междунаро́дное обще́ственное Движе́ние «К Здоро́вью че́рез Культу́ру»).
In 1995, Skumin became the first editor-in-chief of the journal "To Health via Culture". This journal of the World Organisation of Culture of Health (″World Health Culture Organization″) received an International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) 0204-3440. The main topics of the magazine are the dissemination of ideas of Culture of Health, holistic medicine, and Buddhism.
In the Russian Orthodox Church the social activities of this international organization qualifies as an ideology of the New Age.
In 1968, when Skumin was still a medical student, he proposed the term ″culture of health″ (Russian: ″Культу́ра Здоро́вья″), which has become widespread. The main task of the culture of health is to do health programs that support a holistic approach to physical, mental and spiritual well-being.
The 'culture of health' means recognizing health’s central importance in life. Skumin referred to the works of Helena Blavatsky, Helena and Nicholas Roerich, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, and Alexander Chizhevsky. In some of his publications, he argues that the culture of health will play an important role in the creation of a human spiritual society in the Solar System.
The doctrine of a culture of health, proposed by Skumin, the culture – spiritual, mental, and physical – determines the status of human health. And health – spiritual, mental, physical – is a prerequisite for achieving a higher level of culture.
"Skumin syndrome" () was described by Skumin in 1978 as a "cardioprosthetic psychopathological syndrome", associated with mechanical heart valve implant and manifested by irrational fear and sleep disorder. Patients have doubts about the reliability of the device, fear of breakdown, and suffer anxiety and depression. This syndrome is often accompanied by asthenia.
Alain Carpentier – a member of the French Academy of Sciences and the head the Department of Cardiovascular Surgery at the Hôpital Européen Georges-Pompidou in Paris – believed in 2011 that Skumin syndrome develops in a quarter of the patients with an artificial heart valve. It is possible that a similar problem arises in the conduct of operations to implement an artificial heart.