In a 9-0 decision, the Supreme Court ordered the states to start trying to obey the "Brown" decision and de-segregate their schools. It ordered the states to start making plans about how they were going to integrate their schools.
However, the Court refused to order the schools to integrate right away, like the NAACP had wanted. It also did not set any clear deadline for when schools needed to be de-segregated. In the Court's majority opinion, Chief Justice Earl Warren wrote that the states should integrate "with all deliberate speed."
To many people, it was not clear exactly what this meant. It also meant that the Court was denying relief to the black students in the "Brown" lawsuits. As constitutional law scholar Steven Emanuel explains:
Instead of ordering the states to de-segregate right away, the Court created a slower plan. It gave federal district courts the power to look after whether schools were de-segregating. Justice Warren wrote: "[These] courts will [make sure] that the defendants make a prompt and reasonable start" toward obeying "Brown."
"Brown II" did make it clear that schools in the United States would have to de-segregate. It also set out a process for making sure schools integrated, by giving federal district courts the power to supervise the schools, control how long they could have to de-segregate, and punish them if they refused to integrate.
However, many states, especially in the South, were able to avoid integrating their schools for years because "Brown II" did not set a specific deadline for integration. Justice Warren's ruling that schools needed to de-segregate "with all deliberate speed" was vague and could have many different meanings. States and schools that did not want to integrate chose meanings that gave them excuses not to let black students into their schools.
For example, based on the "Brown II" ruling, a federal district court ruled that Prince Edward County, Virginia, did not have to de-segregate its schools right away. Several years later, in 1959, a federal court of appeals ordered the county to start de-segregating its schools. Prince Edward County responded by refusing to fund (give any money to) the county's schools. With no money, the schools had to close. They stayed closed for five years, from 1959 to 1964.
Prince Edward County helped white students go to white-only private schools. Black students could not go to school at all, unless they moved to a different county.
Finally, in 1964, the United States Supreme Court ruled that what Prince Edward County was doing was unconstitutional, and ordered the schools to re-open without segregation.
Joseph Weizenbaum
Joseph Weizenbaum (8 January 1923 - 5 March 2008) was a German-American mathematician and computer scientist. He was born in Berlin. He became famous for writing the program ELIZA, which simulated a doctor, in the 1960s. He also became well-known for having a critical attitude to what computers can and should do. Weizenbaum died of a stroke at age 85, in 2008.
Benjamin Franklin Tilley
Benjamin Franklin Tilley (March 29, 1848 in Bristol, Rhode Island – March 18, 1907 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) was an admiral in the US Navy who served in the American Civil War and the Spanish-American War. He was also governor of American Samoa.
Black Hills
The Black Hills are a small mountain range from the Great Plains of North America in South Dakota.
Native Americans have a long history in the Black Hills. After conquering the Cheyenne in 1776, the Lakota took over the territory of the Black Hills.
In 1868, the U.S. government signed the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868. This exempted the Black Hills from all white settlement forever.
But, when European Americans discovered gold there in 1874, miners swept into the area in a gold rush. The US government reassigned the Lakota, against their wishes, to other reservations in western South Dakota. Unlike most of South Dakota, the Black Hills were settled by European Americans from population centers to the west and south. Miners flocked there from earlier gold boom places in Colorado and Montana.
As the economy shifted from mining and logging, the tourism industry has grown. The Black Hills have two areas: "The Southern Hills" and "The Northern Hills". The Southern Hills is home to Mount Rushmore National Memorial, Wind Cave National Park, Jewel Cave National Monument, Harney Peak (the highest point in the United States east of the Rockies), Custer State Park (the largest state park in South Dakota, and one of the largest in the US), the Crazy Horse Memorial (the largest Mountain sculpture in the world), and the Mammoth Site in Hot Springs, the world’s largest mammoth research facility.
Corn Palace
The Corn Palace is an arena in Mitchell, South Dakota. The designs on the buildings are covered in corn and other grains.
The Corn Palace has concerts, sports events, exhibits and other community events. Each year, the Corn Palace is celebrated with a citywide festival, the Corn Palace Festival. Historically it was held at harvest time in September, but now it happens in August. Other popular annual events include the Corn Palace Stampede Rodeo in July and the Corn Palace Polka Festival in September. It is also where the Dakota Wesleyan University Tigers and the Mitchell High School Kernels basketball teams play their games.
Chaplain–Medic massacre
The Chaplain-Medic massacre was a crime in the Korean War. It happened on a mountain in South Korea. Thirty unarmed, and critically wounded United States Army soldiers and an unarmed chaplain were killed by people of the North Korean army during the Battle of Taejon.
Knossos
Knossos is a Bronze Age archaeological site on the island of Crete. It is at modern Heraklion. It may be Europe's oldest city.
Many Roman coins found on the site had 'Knosion' or 'Knos' on one side, and an image of a Minotaur or Labyrinth on the reverse. These are symbols from the myth of King Minos, supposed to have reigned at Knossos.
The excavations at Knossos began in 1900 by the English archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans (1851–1941) and his team. They worked there for 35 years. The palace was excavated and partly restored. It was large. The team discovered two ancient scripts, called Linear A and Linear B. From the layering of the palace, Evans developed an idea of the civilization that used it, which he called Minoan. The palace was built over a previous Neolithic town. During the Bronze Age, the town surrounded the hill on which the palace was built.
The palace was abandoned at some unknown time at the end of the late Bronze Age, c. 1380–1100 BC, for reasons which are not known.
Imre Nagy
Imre Nagy (7 June 1896 - 16 June 1958) was a Hungarian communist politician. He was born in Kaposvár. He was chairman on two occasions. He was executed by hanging in Budapest.
Lee Trevino
Lee Buck Trevino (born September 1, 1939) is a retired American professional golfer who was born in Dallas, Texas.
China National Space Administration
The China National Space Administration (CNSA) is the national space agency of China, and is based in the Haidian District. It is in charge of the national space program and of managing different space-related activities.
Betts v. Brady
Betts v. Brady, , was a landmark case decided by the United States Supreme Court in 1942. The case had to do with "indigent" (poor) people who were on trial for crimes, but did not have enough money to pay for a lawyer. The Court ruled that a person did not need a lawyer to get a fair trial. They also ruled that the states did not have to pay for free lawyers for poor defendants.
In 1963, the Court reversed its decision in "Betts" when it decided "Gideon v. Wainwright", .
The Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution says that "In all criminal [trials], the accused shall ... have the assistance of counsel for his defence." ("Counsel" is another word for "lawyer.")