In the formal operational stage, children are able to think about abstract ideas. The abstract ideas are ones that are within the child’s mind and not in front of them in the world. In this stage, children can come up with rules about how things can happen without needing concrete items. Piaget believed that there were two main parts of the formal operational stage: hypothetico-deductive reasoning and propositional thought. In hyothetico-deductive reasoning children are able to guess the outcome of a problem. They are able to do this by making guesses that can be tested in an experiment. By testing the guesses they learn if their guess was right and if not why it was not. In propositional thought children are able to understand if spoken statements are true. They are able to do so without needing to see an example of those statements.
Lev Vygotsky built his theory of child development on the importance of three things. Vygotsky thought that children’s development was formed from mainly social and cultural interactions. Interactions occur when two or more people talk and/or work together. Vygotsky thought that culture has a big affect on how cognitive growth develops. Vygotsky also focused on language. He felt language was very important for changing how a child thinks.
Vygotsky thought that child development during the first two years have to do with direct connection with the world. After the two years language changes the way a child thinks. Language is important because it is how adults pass on ideas to children. Vygotsky felt that growth of language leads to a huge change in how children think because they can communicate ideas with others. Children talk to both others and themselves. Vygotsky thought that children talking to themselves was very important for development. He thought that children talk to themselves to help guide their thoughts. He called talk directed at the self, private speech. Private speech is used when a job is hard, after an error is made, or when the child is unsure of what to do. Children that use private speech are more attentive and involved in the job they are doing. Also children who have trouble learning use private speech more. This is to help them understand what they are learning.
Vygotsky thought that important learning comes from working with adults or more skilled peers. These helpers can help the child to find out how to do different jobs. Vygotsky thought that there is a range of difficulty that a job needs to be in. If the job is in the range than a child can learn best. Vygotsky called this range the zone of proximal development. The zone of proximal development has jobs that are to hard to do alone but are able to be done with help. The help would come from a helper.
When the helper works with the child social interactions occur. Vygotsky thought that there are two important parts of social interaction: intersubjectivity and scaffolding. Intersubjectivity happens when two people start with different understandings. The two people interact with each other. By interacting, the two people get to the same understanding. Scaffolding happens when a teacher is helping a child. The teacher will change how much they help based on the child’s work level. The teacher will help more if the child needs it. The teacher will also help less if the child does not need help. Over time, the teacher lets the child work alone. When the child works alone he or she puts the conversation into his or her private speech. The private speech is then used to help the child do the problem.
Priscilla Lane
Priscilla Lane (June 12, 1915 - April 4, 1995) was an American actress. She acted mostly in movies. She played a heroine in "The Roaring Twenties" (1939). She played a bride in the movie "Arsenic and Old Lace".
Lane was born in Indianola, Iowa.
The Emotions
The Emotions is an all female American R&B group who are well known for their hit single "Best of My Love". This group is from Chicago. It was formed around 1968. It was very popular in the 1970s. Its music has been sampled by several musicians and recording artists.
Cheryl Lynn
Cheryl Lynn (11 March 1957) is an American R&B, disco and pop singer who was most popular in the late 1970s to early 1980s. She is famous for her popular single "Got to be Real". Cheryl Lynn was born in Los Angeles.
Z3
The Z3 was an electromechanical computer designed by Konrad Zuse. It was the world's first working programmable, fully automatic digital computer. The Z3 was built with 2000 relays, implementing a 22 bit word length that operated at a clock frequency of about 5–10 Hz. Program code and data were stored on punched film.
The Z3 was completed in Berlin in 1941. The German Aircraft Research Institute used it to perform statistical analyses of wing flutter. Zuse asked the German government for funding to replace the relays with fully electronic switches, but funding was denied during World War II since such development was deemed "not war-important". The original Z3 was destroyed in 1943 during an Allied bombardment of Berlin. A fully functioning replica was built in the 1960s by Zuse's company, Zuse KG, and is on permanent display in the Deutsches Museum. The Z3 was Turing-complete.
Because of this machine and its predecessors, Konrad Zuse is often regarded as the "inventor of the computer".
Barnum's American Museum
Barnum's American Museum was a museum in New York City at Broadway and Ann Street. It was a collection of natural history curios originally stored in City Hall at the end of the 18th century.
John Scudder acquired the collection and opened the museum about 1800. P. T. Barnum bought the museum about 1830 and replaced the tired displays with more exciting live fare such as General Tom Thumb, Commodore Nutt, and the "Siamese Twins", Chang and Eng.
In 1865, the building was destroyed in a fire. Barnum rebuilt at another location, but that building burned to the ground in 1868. The museum never reopened.
Amniocentesis
Amniocentesis is the name of a medical test that is often performed when screening babies. The test consist of taking a little Amniotic fluid, and testing this fluid. This fluid contains tissue of the embryo or fetus, and allows to determine the sex. It also allows to find certain birth defects.
Karyn Parsons
Karyn Parsons (born October 8, 1966) is an American actress. She performs in television and movies. She was in "Class Act" in 1992. She also had the role of Hilary Banks in "The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air". Parsons was born in Los Angeles.
Keds
Keds is an American brand of canvas shoe. It has rubber soles. It was established around 1916. The shoes became very popular from the 1960s to the 1980s. They waned in popularity in the 1990s. They became very popular again in the 2000s and 2010s. Keds usually manufactures sneakers. The shoes were worn by participants of Kids Incorporated and on other television shows.
Schlieffen Plan
The Schlieffen Plan was a strategic plan made by Count Alfred von Schlieffen, who worked for the German navy. It was made for the army of the German Empire in 1905. It was designed for a war between France on one side and the German Empire, Austria-Hungary, and Italy on the other. Germany and their allies would invade France through Belgium, instead of directly attacking. With help from allies, Germany would have just enough men to beat France in a few months.
When Schlieffen retired in 1906, and the WW1 came up 9 years later, in August 1915, the German officers and tactic leaders dug up the plan that Schlieffen had made and thought that the plan would work like it would in Schlieffen's hypothetical war. However, the plan didn't work, because the plan was outdated and things had changed a lot within the decade.