Unlike Chinese, Nôm was not studied or classified systematically for most of its history. Vietnamese authors who had studied Chinese applied the principles of Chinese writing to their native language. Although official records were generally kept in Chinese, Nôm was used under two short-lived dynasties, the Ho dynasty (1400-1407) and the Tay Son (1778–1802). King Minh Mang (1820-1841) opposed literacy and the use of Nôm. In 1838, Jean-Louis Taberd wrote a Nôm dictionary that eventually gained general acceptance and wide circulation. In 1867, Catholic scholar Nguyen Truong To petitioned King Tu Duc to replace Classical Chinese with Nôm in official usage. The king did not consent to this, but he did respond with various efforts to promote Nôm. A decree was issued entitled "Please respect "quốc âm" [the national voice]."
In the 19th century, there was a flowering of popular literature written in Nôm, including such classics as Nguyen Du's "The Tale of Kieu" and the poetry of Ho Xuan Huong. Although only 3 to 5 percent of the population was literate, nearly every village had someone who could read Nôm aloud for the benefit of other villagers.
In Korea and Japan, the traditional writing system was simplified so it could be taught to the general public. Vietnam's educated class looked down on Nôm as inferior to Chinese, so it was not interested in doing the work required to simplify and standardize the system so that it could be used for mass communication.
Like Chinese, Vietnamese is a tonal language. It has nearly 5,000 distinct syllables, far more than other East Asian language do. Phonetic scripts used elsewhere, including hangul in Korea and kana in Japan, do not indicate tone, so they cannot be applied to the Vietnamese language. As in Chinese, a semantic meaning is attributed to every syllable. This characteristic of the language may be can considered a result of the traditional writing system.
Beginning in the late 19th century, the French colonial authorities promoted the use of the Vietnamese alphabet, which they viewed as a stepping stone toward learning French. Language reform in other Asian nations stimulated Vietnamese interest in the subject. Following the Russo-Japanese War of 1905, Japan was often cited as a model for Asian modernization. Nationalists embraced the alphabet as "quốc ngữ" (the national language), and as a tool for promoting literacy. The Confucian education system was compared unfavorably to the Japanese system of public education. Nationalist writer Phan Boi Chau encouraged the young to "study in the East," meaning Japan.
The popularity of Hanoi's short-lived Tonkin Free School suggested that broad reform was possible. In 1910, the colonial school system adopted a "Franco-Vietnamese curriculum," which emphasized French and alphabetic Vietnamese. The teaching of Sino-Vietnamese characters was discontinued in 1917. On December 28, 1918, King Khai Dinh declared that the traditional writing system no longer had official status. The civil service exam was given for the last time at the imperial capital of Hue on January 4, 1919. This exam tested knowledge of Chinese. The examination system, and the education system based on it, had been in effect for almost 900 years. China itself abandoned Classical Chinese soon afterward as part of the May Fourth Movement.
In the 1920s, the Vietnamese alphabet became the country’s dominant writing system. By the 1930s, the use of Sino-Vietnamese characters was largely restricted to books with limited woodbock printings intended for the Buddhist clergy. In more recent times, the traditional characters have been used mainly in calligraphy, such as wedding decorations. In 2012, manuscripts in Classical Chinese were translated to support Vietnam's claim to the Paracel Islands.
The following are the twenty five most common characters in Nôm literature. The modern spelling is given in italics.
Some characters in this article may require the installation of an additional font to display properly:
Dio Chrysostom
Dio Chrysostom () was a Greek speaker, writer, philosopher and historian of the Roman Empire. He lived in the 1st century, from about the year 40 to around the year 115. He is also known as Dion of Prusa or Dio Cocceianus. Eighty of his "Discourses" (or "Orations") are known. A few Letters and a funny mock essay In Praise of Hair, as well as a few other fragments also survive. His surname "Chrysostom" comes from the Greek "chrysostomos", which literally means "golden-mouthed". He should not be confused with the Roman historian Cassius Dio, nor with the 4th-century bishop John Chrysostom of Constantinople.
Cauchy's integral formula
In mathematics, Cauchy's integral formula is a central statement in complex analysis. The statement is named after Augustin-Louis Cauchy. It expresses the fact that a holomorphic function defined on a disk is completely determined by its values on the boundary of the disk. The statement also provides integral formulas for all derivatives of a holomorphic function. Cauchy's formula shows that, in complex analysis, "differentiation is equivalent to integration": complex differentiation, like integration, behaves well under uniform limits – a result denied in real analysis.
Magdalen College, Oxford
Magdalen College is one of the colleges of the University of Oxford. The Bishop of Winchester, William of Waynflete, founded the college in 1458. The full name of the college is "The President and Fellows of the College of St. Mary Magdalene in the University of Oxford".
At dawn on May Day, the College choir sings hymns from the top of the Magdalen Tower. Large crowds gather each year on Magdalen Bridge to hear the choir.
Mansfield College, Oxford
Mansfield College is one of the colleges of the University of Oxford. It was founded in 1838 as Spring Hill College in Birmingham. Spring Hill College moved to Oxford in 1886. At that time it was renamed Mansfield College, in honor of its largest donors, George and Elizabeth Mansfield. The college's main building was designed by Basil Champneys, and was completed in 1889.
The first female student at Mansfield was admitted in 1913. In 1955, Mansfield was named a Permanent Private Hall at Oxford University. In 1995, Mansfield was granted a Royal Charter making it a full member of the University.
Chlöe Howl
Chlöe Howl (born 4 March 1995) is an English singer. On 4 March 2013, her first extended play "Rumor" was released for free download. In June 2013, she released the video for her first single "No Strings". She released her second extended play "No Strings" on August 23. "No Strings" was played in the movie "Kick-Ass 2".
Howl was nominated for BBC's Sound of 2014 prize on 3 December 2013.
On 5 December 2013, was nominated for the 2014 BRITs Critics' Choice Award.
On 9 December 2013, her second single "Paper Heart" was released.
Eliza Doolittle
Eliza Sophie Caird (born 17 April 1988), best known as Eliza Doolittle, is a British singer and songwriter. Her first album "Eliza Doolittle" was released on 12 July 2010.
Eliza Doolittle was born in London in 1988. Her father is John Caird. Her mother is Frances Ruffelle. Doolittle grew up in Camden. She went to Channing School.
On 29 November 2009 Doolittle released her first EP "Eliza Doolittle" on iTunes. On 11 April 2010 she released her first single "Skinny Genes". On 5 July 2010 her second single "Pack Up" was released. It entered the UK Singles Chart at number twelve. It reached number five on 11 July 2010. The two singles were from her album "Eliza Doolittle", which was released on 12 July 2010.
In 2011 Doolittle was signed to Select Models.
On 28 April 2013 "You & Me", a song by Disclosure with Doolittle singing on it, was released. It reached number ten in the UK Singles Chart.
On 7 June 2013 Doolittle released the first single from her second album, "Big When I Was Little".
Doolittle released her second album "In Your Hands" on 14 October 2013.
New College, Oxford