It used to be called the Organisation internationale de la francophonie (OIF) or the International Organization of the Francophonie. There are 56 member states and governments, 3 associate members, and 19 observers. The modern organization was created in 1970. Its motto is "equality, complementarity, and solidarity". Its present Secretary General is Michaëlle Jean since 2015
French geographer Onésime Reclus made the word "Francophonie" in 1880. It is used to refer to the community of people and countries using the French language.
Community of Sahel-Saharan States
The Community of Sahel-Saharan States (CEN-SAD) aims to create a free trade area.
CEN-SAD was started in February 1998 by six countries. Since then its membership has grown to 29. One of its main goals is to get economic unity through the free movement of people and goods. This is to make the member states a free trade area.
Founding members:
Countries that joined later:
African Petroleum Producers Association
African Petroleum Producers Association is an organisation of African countries that produce petroleum. It was founded in 1986. The headquarters of the organisation are in Brazzaville in the Congo.
The members of the African Petroleum Producers Association:
Niger Basin Authority
The Niger Basin Authority is an intergovernmental organisation in West Africa. They manage and develop the resources of the basin of the Niger River. The group is called by both French and English acronyms, NBA or ABN.
The organisation was founded in 1964 as the River Niger Commission. On 21 November 1980, it was refounded as the Niger Basin Authority.
Nine nations are members: Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chad, Côte d'Ivoire, Guinea, Mali, Niger and Nigeria. While a small area of Algeria is in the Niger Basin, it is not a member of the NBA. The organisation is based in Niamey. They work in both French and English.
Slave Coast
The Slave Coast is the name of the coastal areas of present Togo, Benin (formerly Dahomey) and western Nigeria. This is a fertile region of coastal Western Africa along the Bight of Benin. In pre-colonial times it was one of the most densely populated parts of the African continent. It was one of the most important places for the Atlantic slave trade from the early 16th century to the 19th century.
The slave trade became so large in the 18th and 19th centuries that an “Atlantic community” was formed. Slaves went to the New World, mostly to Brazil and the Caribbean. Ports that exported these slaves from Africa include Ouidah, Lagos, Aného (Little Popo), Grand-Popo, Agoué, Jakin, Porto-Novo, and Badagry.
Researchers think that between 2 and 3 million slaves were exported out of this region. They were traded for goods like alcohol and tobacco from the Americas and textiles from Europe. Religions, architectural styles, languages, knowledge, and other new goods were mixed at this time.
After slavery was ended by European countries, the slave trade continued for a time with independent traders (instead of government agents).
French Dahomey
Dahomey was a French colony. It was part of French West Africa from 1904 to 1958. In 1947, Dahomey became part of the French Union and had more freedom. On 11 December 1958, the French Fifth Republic was started. The colony became the self-governing Republic of Dahomey. Two years later on 1 August 1960 the country had full independence. In 1975 it changed its name to Benin.
People's Republic of Benin
The People's Republic of Benin was a socialist state in the Gulf of Guinea on the African continent. It became present-day Benin. The People's Republic was started on November 30, 1975, after the 1972 coup d'état in the Republic of Dahomey. It lasted until March 1, 1990, with a new constitution. The end of Marxism-Leninism in the nation was in 1989.
Flag of Benin
The national flag of Benin was adopted in 1959. It was changed after the Marxist regime started in 1975. When that regime ended the old design was reintroduced on August 1, 1990. The colours are the traditional Pan-African colours : green symbolizes hope, yellow symbolizes wealth and red symbolizes courage.
Coat of arms of Benin
The coat of arms of Benin, was introduced in 1964. It was replaced in 1975. Then it was readopted in 1990.
At the top of the emblem is the national crest that has two horns with corn in the ear and filled with sand. These are to stand for prosperity. Below the crest is a shield that has the actual coat of arms of Benin.
The shield is broken into four quadrants. The top left quadrant has a castle in the style of the Somba. This is for the history of Benin. In the top right quadrant, is the Star of Benin. This is the highest award of the nation. Below this is a ship, that stands for the arrival of Europeans in Benin. In the lower left quadrant is a palm tree.
The shield is supported by a pair of leopards, the national animal of Benin. Below the shield is the motto of Benin (Fellowship, Justice, Work) in French.
L'Aube Nouvelle
L'Aube Nouvelle is the national anthem of Benin. In English the name is The Dawn of a New Day. It was written and composed by Gilbert Jean Dagnon. It was adopted on independence in 1960.
Zinc finger
Zinc finger nucleases (or ZFN) are a tool used to target genes and change DNA. It is one of three methods of changing the genome with engineered nucleases.
They have two parts. Zinc fingers are man-made molecules made of a protein and zinc. Each binds to a specific DNA. Zinc-finger nucleases (ZFNs) are enzymes got by fusing a zinc finger to a DNA cleavage enzyme called a "Fokl". So the ZFN binds onto a specific DNA sequence, then snips it in two places. Regular cell enzymes stick the ends together, minus the bit snipped out (DNA repair).
Each ZFN is made to use on a single gene which is called a “target gene” or “target DNA”. They can be designed to work on specific parts of genes to create a desired change. The two types of DNA changes are mutations such as deletions and insertions. Genetics research looks at mutated animal subjects to find out what the particular gene does.
'Zinc finger' is the name of many protein structures. The zinc atom binds the proteins and makes them more stable. ZFNs bind to DNA base pairs. One zinc finger can bind about 3 base pairs by itself.
Zinc finger nucleases are made with 3-6 zinc fingers. ZFNs have two important domains: a DNA-binding domain and a DNA-cleavage domain. The DNA-cleavage domain uses an enzyme called "Fokl" that breaks DNA.
ZFN’s can only change DNA sequences they are designed for. The DNA-binding domain binds to a specific DNA sequence. Two ZFN’s designed for the same DNA sequence are needed change one gene. The DNA-binding domains bind to both strands on the DNA double helix. DNA-cleaving domains break the DNA strand and cut the gene base pairs out. Cells fix broken DNA strands on their own using DNA repair. Deletion mutations result from missing base pairs after DNA repair.
The length of target gene sequence can also be specified. A minimum of 9 base pairs can be changed using 3 zinc fingers. This is useful for removing and inserting very short DNA sequences and determining their effect on the target gene. Also large sequences can be changed using more than one ZFN.
ZFNs have been used to discover gene functions in many genetics studies. ZFNs can be used to change DNA on any species. Another feature of ZFNs is that they can be used "in vivo" (in living organisms). They are currently used on model organisms: plants, insects, and fish.
A list of organisms involved in ZFN gene altering research includes:
The biggest issue with ZFNs is accidentally altering genes besides the target gene. A ZFN must be made to find the right base pairs on the target gene. These base pairs are chosen so only the target gene will have them. DNA-cleavage domains work on any DNA sequence so binding to a wrong gene sequence will change it instead. ZFNs that knock out base pairs for more than one gene are not considered accurate.