The victims of parasitoids do have defences they can use. Many try to hide from the wasps. The egg shells and cuticles of the prey are thickened to prevent the wasp from penetrating them. When the wasp arrives, prey may drop off the plant they are on, or twist and thrash to dislodge the female. Some regurgitate onto the wasp to tangle it up. The wriggling can sometimes help by causing the wasp to miss laying the egg on the host and instead place it nearby. Wriggling of pupae can cause the wasp to lose its grip on the smooth hard pupa or get trapped in the silk strands. Some caterpillars bite wasps that approach it. Some secrete poisonous compounds that kill or drive away the parasitoid. Ants that are in a symbiotic relationship with caterpillars, aphids or scale insects defend them from attack by wasps.
Even parasitoid wasps are vulnerable to hyperparasitoid wasps. Some parasitoid wasps change the behaviour of the infected host to build a silk web around the pupa of the wasps after they emerge from its body to protect them from hyperparasitoids.
In endoparasitoids, host immune cells can encapsulate the eggs and larvae of parasitoid wasps. In aphids, a secondary endosymbiont, "Buchnera aphidicola" carries a latent phage. This phage makes the aphid relatively immune to their parasitoid wasps by killing many of the eggs. However, wasps counter this by laying more eggs in aphids that have the endosymbiont so that at least one of them can hatch and parasitize the aphid.
Certain caterpillars eat plants that are toxic to both themselves and the parasite to cure themselves. "Drosophila melanogaster" larvae also "self-medicate" with ethanol to treat parasitism. "D. melanogaster" females lay their eggs in food containing toxic amounts of alcohol if they detect parasitoid wasps nearby. Despite the alcohol slowing the growth of the flies, it protects them from the wasps.
Parasitoidism evolved only once in the Hymenoptera, during the Permian. It lead to a single clade, the Apocrita. Almost all parasitoid wasps are descended from this clade.
The parasitic lifestyle has been lost several times, including among the ants, bees, and yellowjacket wasps. As a result, the order Hymenoptera has many families of parasitoids intermixed with non-parasitoid groups. The Hymenoptera, Apocrita, and Aculeata are all clades, and each has both parasitic and non-parasitic species. The parasitoid wasps do not form a clade on their own.
The parasitoid wasps include some very large groups. Some estimates suggest the Chalcidoidea has 500,000 species, the Ichneumonidae 100,000 species, and the Braconidae up to 50,000 species.
Host insects have evolved a range of defences against parasitoid wasps, including hiding, wriggling, and camouflage markings.
A big increase of species in the Hymenoptera occurred soon after the evolution of parasitoidy in the order. The parasitoidy may have been a main cause of it. The evolution of a 'wasp waist' (a constriction in the abdomen) helped the Apocrita because it increased manoeuverability of the ovipositor (the organ used to lay eggs).
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It was preceded by "Before Sunrise" and "Before Sunset".
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The 84th Academy Awards was on February 26, 2012. It was held in the Dolby Theatre in Hollywood. Billy Crystal was the morderator at this ceremony.
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He was born in Adelaide, although he later moved to the United States. His first part in a movie was "Cold Steel" in 1987. LaPaglia appeared on Broadway in 1997, in a production of "A View From the Bridge". He received a Tony Award his role as the play's main character.
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Martínez was born February 5, 1984 in Albacete, Spain, and has an intellectual disability. He lives in the city where he was born. He went to school in Cruz de Mayo. He helps track and field athletes where he lives.
In 2008, Martínez got an award from the Culture and Sport at the yearly award ceremony for the Federation of Employers of Albacete (FEDA).