The connections between this experiment and those of Pressey were obvious. Active responses by learners and helpful feedback on the activities were now seen as critical elements in any successful system of learning. Pressey's work had been half forgotten, but it was now recognised as significant.
If so much research had already been done on learning from films, what exactly did programmed learning add? The short answer is "stimulus control", by which is broadly meant the teaching material itself. Also, in programmed learning, a complete system was proposed which included these stages:
A helpful discussion of the different programming techniques was given by Klaus.
Although there were three or four other systems proposed, we discuss here the two best-known methods.
One was by Norman Crowder, a psychologist with the U.S. Air Force. He had been asked to investigate the training of aircraft maintenance men. Crowder's system was to set multiple choice questions in the text, and provide feedback for each of the alternatives. Examples of this method show that the alternatives offered in questions were chosen to cover mistakes which students were likely to make.
Much better known was the other style of programmed learning, as proposed by the behaviourist B.F. Skinner. Skinner made some very effective criticisms of traditional teaching methods. His scheme of programmed instruction was to present the material as part of a "schedule of reinforcement" in typical behaviourist manner. The programmed text of Skinner's theory of behaviorism is the most complete example of his ideas in action. Skinner was a wonderful publicist for his own ideas, as can be seen from this passage:
Both methods were originally presented in machines, and both were later presented in book form. Both systems were to an extent student centered. They were ways of teaching individual learners who worked at their own pace. Both systems (in different ways) used knowledge of results to promote learning. In both systems the content was pre-tested to identify problems and iron them out. Both systems emphasised clear learning objectives. Progress in learning was measured by pre- and post-tests of equivalent difficulty. Many practical tests showed the effectiveness of these methods.
Many of these ideas were picked up and used in other educational fields, such as open learning (see the Open University) and computer-assisted learning.
Sidney L. Pressey
Sidney L. Pressey (Brooklyn, New York, 1888 1979) was Professor of Psychology at Ohio State University for many years. He is famous for having invented a teaching machine many years before the idea became popular.
Pressey joined Ohio State in 1921, and stayed there until he retired in 1959. He continued publishing after retirement, with 18 papers between 1959 and 1967. He was a cognitive psychologist who "rejected a view of learning as an accumulation of responses governed by environmental stimuli in favor of one governed by meaning, intention, and purpose". In fact, he had been a cognitive psychologist his entire life, well before the "mythical birthday of the cognitive revolution in psychology".
Pressey was the first winner of the E.L. Thorndike Award for achievements in educational technology, in 1964. This is an award of the American Psychological Association.
In 1923, Pressey and a co-worker published the first reading ease formula. They had been concerned that science textbooks in junior high school had so many technical words. They felt that teachers spent all class time explaining their meaning. They argued that their formula would help to measure and reduce the “vocabulary burden” of textbooks. Their formula, based on the Thorndike word list, took three hours to apply to a single book. It was a measure of vocabulary difficulty. Many later formulae made use of some measure of sentence complexity as well as vocabulary. These are the two main causes of text difficulty or 'readability'.
Pressey's idea started as a machine for administering multiple-choice questions to students. These were (and are still) a basic method for testing students in the U.S.A.. The machine had a window with a question and four answers. The student pressed the key to the chosen answer. The machine recorded the answer on a counter to the back of the machine, and showed the next question.
The great idea was to fix the machine so that it would not move on until the student chose the right answer. Then it was easy to show that the second arrangement taught the students what were the right answers. This was the first demonstration that a machine could teach, and also a demonstration that knowledge of results was the cause of the learning.
A number of reviews credit Pressey with being the founder of programmed learning and teaching machines, long before the better known efforts of B.F. Skinner. Skinner was, however, responsible for bringing the whole subject into popular view, and his critique of the limitations of traditional classroom teaching is a classic work.
Polar climate
Polar climate has temperatures below for much of the year. According to the Köppen climate classification, a polar climate is one in which no monthly average goes above . If the temperature is between and in the warmest month, it is a tundra climate. If the average temperature is below in the warmest month, it is an ice cap climate. These climates are found near the poles and on high mountains. There is usually little precipitation because the air is so dry. Ice cap climates are in the Arctic Ocean, Greenland, Iceland, Antarctica and at high altitude.
About 20% of the Earth has a polar climate.
Teaching machine
Teaching machines were originally mechanical devices. They presented educational materials and taught students. They were first invented by Sidney L. Pressey. His machine originally administered multiple-choice questions. When the machine was set so it moved on only when the student got the right answer, tests showed that learning had taken place. Much later, Norman Crowder developed the Pressey idea much further.
B.F. Skinner was responsible for a different type of machine which used his ideas on how learning should be directed with positive reinforcement.
There is extensive experience that both methods worked well, and so did programmed learning in other forms, such as books.
The ideas of teaching machines and programmed learning provided the basis for later ideas such as open learning and computer-assisted instruction.
Luke Shaw
Luke Paul Hoare Shaw (born 12 July 1995) is an English professional footballer. He plays as a defender for Manchester United and the England national team. Shaw primarily plays as a left back.
Konstantinos Stephanopoulos
Konstantinos "Kostis" Stephanopoulos (, August 15, 1926 – November 20, 2016) was a Greek conservative politician. He served as President of Greece from 1995 to 2005. He was the longest serving president of the Third Hellenic Republic.
Stephanopoulos died at a hospital in Athens, Greece on November 20, 2016 from pneumonia, aged 90.
Ray Lonnen
Ray Lonnen (18 May 1940 – 11 July 2014) was an English stage and television actor. His most famous roles include Willie Caine in the cold-war spy drama series "The Sandbaggers" (1978–80) and also as Harry Brown in the television miniseries "Harry's Game" (1982).
Lonnen died on 11 July 2014 from cancer, aged 74.
Nestor Basterretxea
Nestor Basterretxea Arzadun (6 May 1924 – 12 July 2014) was a Basque-Spanish artist. He was born in Bermeo, Biscay. In the 1950s and 60s, he worked along with other artists such as Jorge Oteiza, Remigio Mendiburu, and Eduardo Chillida.