Werner had the idea that all rocks had precipitated out of a single enormous flood. That is called the Neptunist theory. A major shift in thinking came when James Hutton read his "Theory of the Earth; or, an Investigation of the Laws Observable in the Composition, Dissolution, and Restoration of Land Upon the Globe" before the Royal Society of Edinburgh in March and April 1785. James Hutton in those reading became "the founder of modern geology". Hutton suggested the interior of the Earth was hot, and that this heat was the engine which drove the creation of new rock. Land was eroded by air and water and deposited as layers in the sea; heat then consolidated the sediment into stone, and uplifted it into new lands. This theory was called Plutonist in contrast to the flood-oriented theory.
The identification of strata by the fossils they contained was pioneered by William Smith, Georges Cuvier and others in the early 19th century. Geologists could divide Earth history more precisely. If two strata (however distant in space or different in composition) contained the same fossils, chances were good that they had been laid down at the same time. Detailed studies between 1820 and 1850 of the strata and fossils of Europe produced the sequence of geological periods still used today. Cuvier thought many of the geological features of the Earth could be explained by catastrophic events which had caused the extinction of many species of animals. Over the course of his career, Cuvier came to believe there had not been a single catastrophe, but several, resulting in a succession of different faunas.
British geologists were most active in the 19th century. The "Cambrian," (the Roman name for Wales) and the "Ordovician," and "Silurian", named after ancient Welsh tribes, were periods defined by Welsh rocks. The "Devonian" was named after the English county of Devon, and the name "Carboniferous" was simply an adaptation of "the Coal Measures," the old British geologists' term for the same set of strata. The "Permian" was named after Perm, Russia, because it was defined using strata in that region by a Scottish geologist Roderick Murchison. British geologists were also responsible for the grouping of periods into eras and the subdivision of the Tertiary and Quaternary periods into epochs. In general, periods were named after places where the rocks were easy to see.
Geologists and paleontologists based the geologic table on the relative positions of different strata and fossils. They estimated the time scales based on studying rates of various processes. They estimated weathering, erosion, sedimentation, and how long it took to turn sediment into hard rock. The discovery of radioactivity in 1896 and its geological applications by radiometric dating happened in the first half of the 20th century. It made possible the absolute dating of rocks, and the discovery of the age of the Earth.
The International Commission on Stratigraphy is working to define exactly when geologic periods start and finish, and where the best examples are. They are called Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSP).
Yam
A yam is a root vegetable. It is similar to a sweet potato. The inside of a yam is white or orange. Yams are related to lilies and grasses.
Yam is the common name for some species in the genus "Dioscorea". These are perennial vines grown to eat. They are grown in Africa, Asia, Latin America, the Caribbean and Oceania. 95 percent of world's yam crop is harvested in West Africa.
Yam is a vegetable that can be cooked in many ways. It can be barbecued; roasted; fried; grilled; boiled; baked; smoked and when grated it is used in desserts.
Yam tubers can grow up to 1.5 meters (4.9 feet) in length and weigh up to 70 kilograms (154 lb) and 3 to 6 inches high. The skin is rough and hard to peel. It softens after heating. The inside ranges in color from white or yellow to purple or pink in mature yams.
Some people in the United States and Canada call the sweet potato a yam, but it is not a yam.
Six Flags Great America
Six Flags Great America is a theme park in Gurnee, Illinois, United States.
Frank Cappuccino
Frank Capcino (February 7, 1929 – June 8, 2015), better known by his ring name Frank Cappuccino, was an American boxing referee. He was best for officiating the Mike Tyson and Michael Spinks fight on June 27, 1988 in Atlantic City, New Jersey. He played a referee in the movie "Rocky V" (1990). He was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Cappuccino died from Alzheimer's disease on June 8, 2015 in Yardley, Pennsylvania, aged 86.
James Last
Hans "Hansi" Last (17 April 1929 – 9 June 2015), better known by his stage name James Last, was a German composer and big band leader. His "happy music" sold over 100 million albums. He worked in mainly his native Germany and the United Kingdom.
Last was born in Bremen. He was married twice and had two children.
Last died of an illness on 9 June 2015 in Palm Beach, Florida, United States. He was 86.
Fred Anton Maier
Fred Anton Maier (15 December 1938 – 9 June 2015) was a Norwegian speed skater. He won four Winter Olympics medals in 1964 and 1968. He was also a cyclist. He was born in Nøtterøy, Vestfold.
Maier died from cancer on 9 June 2015 in Nøtterøy, aged 76.
Jack King (NASA)
John W. "Jack" King (April 1931 – June 11, 2015) was an American public affairs officer. He was a Chief of Public Information and Public Affairs Officer for NASA. He was best known for his work as Kennedy Space Center Chief of Public Information during projects Mercury, Gemini and Apollo. Following announcing the Apollo 11, he earned him the nickname "Voice of Apollo".
King was born in Boston, Massachusetts. He was married to Evelyn until her death in 2005. They had three children. He was a Catholic.
King died from congestive heart failure on June 11, 2015 in Cocoa Beach, Florida. He was 84.
Jim Ed Brown
James Edward "Jim Ed" Brown (April 1, 1934 – June 11, 2015) was an American country music singer. He was a member of The Browns with his sisters Maxine and Bonnie Brown. He also worked with Helen Cornelius and was a solo artist. He was born in Sparkman, Arkansas.
Brown died from cancer on June 11, 2015 in Franklin, Tennessee, aged 81.
Wolfgang Jeschke
Wolfgang Jeschke (19 November 1936 – 10 June 2015) was a German sci-fi author and editor. He was best known for his novel "The Last Day of Creation" (1981). In 1987, he won the Harrison Award for international achievements in science fiction. His works were published at Heyne publishing house ().
Jeschke was in Tetschen, Czechoslovakia (now Děčín, Czech Republic). He grew up in Asperg near Ludwigsburg, Baden-Württemberg.
Jeschke died on 10 June 2015 in Munich, aged 78.
Pedro Zerolo
Pedro González Zerolo (20 July 1960 – 9 June 2015) was a Spanish lawyer, politician, activist and town councillor. He was a member of the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party. Zerolo, who was gay, helped Spain become the first country to recognise same-sex marriage.
Zerolo was born in Caracas, Venezuela. He married Jesús Santos, his partner of ten years, in a civil ceremony in October 2005.
Zerolo died from pancreatic cancer on 9 June 2015 in Madrid. He was 55.
Cross burning
Cross burning is a practice associated with racism. In the United States, the Ku Klux Klan burned crosses close to the homes of people they wanted to intimidate. It is unrelated to a custom called fiery cross, which was common in Northern Europe. In that custom, a burning piece of wood was used in processions, or to call people together for a rebellion.