In common law countries, damages are usually categorized into compensatory (or actual) damages, and punitive damages. Compensatory damages are further categorized into special damages and general damages. Special damages include economic losses such as loss of earnings, property damage and medical expenses. General damages are noneconomic damages such as pain and suffering and emotional distress. Statutory damages are those required by statute.
Compensatory damages are paid to compensate the claimant for loss, injury, or harm suffered as a result of another's negligence (tort law). Expectation damages are used in contract law. In civil law countries, these are called "ordinary damages" and may be limited to actual loss.
Generally, punitive damages, which are also termed "exemplary damages" in the United Kingdom, are not awarded in order to compensate the plaintiff, but in order to reform or deter the defendant. They are also to intended to be an example to others not to do the same thing. Punitive damages are awarded when it is determined that compensatory damages are not enough. Punitive damages are awarded over and above the amount of compensatory damages, such as in the event of malice or intent. Great judicial restraint is expected to be exercised in their use. In the United States punitive damages awards are subject to the limitations imposed by the due process of law clauses of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments to the United States Constitution.
Punitive damages in most civil law countries are not awarded.
Statutory damages are an amount stated within the statute rather than calculated based on the degree of harm to the plaintiff. Lawmakers will provide for statutory damages for acts in which it is difficult to determine the value of the harm to the victim. Someone breaking the law can entitle the victim to a statutory award. This is even if no actual injury happened.
For example, United States Civil Code 18 USC §§2520 provides for statutory damages to victims of various wiretapping offenses.
Equity (law)
In common law countries equity is based on a judiciary assessment of fairness. It is what is often what is considered fair and right under natural law. It is used when the laws themselves do not address an issue or are inadequate in some way. Examples of equity decisions include imposing a lien, correcting a property line or ordering someone to do something to prevent damage.
Common law in England can be traced back to the Norman conquest. The laws, such as they were then, did not address every concern. At first, a subject (of the king) had to petition the king to ask to be heard in his court. One of the first instances of this was in 1070 when Lanfranc, the Archbishop of Canterbury had a case against Odo, Earl of Kent, the king's brother. The archbishop petitioned that lands taken by Odo be restored. Rules of equity began when it became apparent that the common law courts could not solve all legal problems. The king set up courts of chancery (equity). By the 1800s the equity courts were becoming obsolete. In 1875 Parliament did away with the chancery courts altogether.
States in New England followed the English tradition of maintaining separate courts for law and equity. Others, however, combined their courts with both types of jurisdiction. This is what Congress did with respect to the US federal courts. United States bankruptcy courts are the one example of US federal courts which operate as courts of equity.
Commoners
The terms commoners, common people or the masses refers to ordinary people who are members of neither the nobility nor the priesthood. In a system of social classes they are those without title or rank. Since the 20th century, the term "common people" has been used in its place. It refers to typical members of society in contrast to highly privileged (in either wealth or influence).
In Europe, a concept of common people started in the classical antiquity of ancient Rome around the 6th century BC. The Roman social division was into patricians (nobles) and plebeians (commoners). The division may have been instituted by Servius Tullius, as an alternative to the previous clan based divisions that had been responsible for internecine conflict. The ancient Greeks generally had no concept of class and their leading social divisions were simply non-Greeks, free-Greeks and slaves. With the growth of Christianity in the 4th century AD, a new world view arose in European thinking about social division. This continued until at least early modern times. Saint Augustine stated that social division was a result of the Fall of Man. The three leading divisions were considered to be the priesthood (clergy), the nobility, and the common people. Sometimes this would be expressed as "those who prayed", "those who fought" and "those who worked". The Latin terms for the three classes – "oratores", "bellatores" and "laboratores" – are often found even in modern textbooks, and have been used in sources since the 9th century.
Lateral sulcus
The lateral sulcus (also called Sylvian fissure or lateral fissure) is one of the most prominent structures of the human brain.
It divides the frontal lobe and parietal lobe above from the temporal lobe below. It is in both hemispheres of the brain. A sulcus is a depression or groove in the cerebral cortex.
The lateral sulcus first appears around the fourteenth week of gestation.
Principal Skinner
Principal W. Seymour Skinner (born Armin Tamzarian) is a fictional character on the long running TV show The Simpsons. His voice is performed by Harry Shearer. He is the principal of Springfield Elemantary School.
He has after behavioral psychologist B. F. Skinner.
Skinner was a sergeant in the United States Army during the Vietnam War and now he is the principal of Springfield Elementary School. He has developed a love-hate relationship with Bart Simpson.
Leon Bibb
Leon Bibb (February 7, 1922 – October 23, 2015) was an American folk singer. He grew up in Kentucky, studied voice in New York, and worked on Broadway. His career began when he became a featured soloist of the Louisville Municipal College glee club as a student. He was known for performing at "Hootenanny", on "The Ed Sullivan Show" and performed with Bill Cosby on tours.
He lived in Vancouver, British Columbia in Canada since 1969. He died in Vancouver at the age of 93.
Krunoslav Hulak
Krunoslav Hulak (25 May 1951 – 23 October 2015) was a Croatian chess master. He was awarded the International Master title in 1974, and the grandmaster title in 1976. Hulak was born in Osijek, Croatia.
Hulak died in Zagreb, Croatia, aged 64.
Speedway, Indiana
Speedway is a town in the state of Indiana, in the United States. It is the home of the Indianapolis Motor Speedway.
National Informatics Centre
The National Informatics Centre (NIC) is a science and technology group that is part of India's government. It is regulated by the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY).
It was founded in 1976. NIC is responsible for providing IT support to Goverment of India and it also maintains the National Portal of India that contains the Constitution of India.
1959 Mexico hurricane
The 1959 Mexico hurricane was one of only two Category 5 Eastern Pacific hurricanes to make landfall in Mexico. It was first observed south of Mexico on October 23. The storm intensified into a Category 3 hurricane on October 25 and a Category 4 the following day. The storm later turned toward the northeast and intensified to Category 5 level. It made landfall near Manzanillo, Mexico.
The hurricane caused at least $280 million in damage. More than 1,800 people lost their lives.
Shel Dorf
Sheldon "Shel" Dorf (July 5, 1933 – November 3, 2009) was an American comic-strip letterer and freelance artist. He is known for being the founder of the San Diego Comic-Con International. Dorf lettered the "Steve Canyon" comic strip for the last 12 to 14 years of the strip's run.
Amancio Ortega