Horse training describes what people do to get horses to do particular tasks. This includes training them to let people ride on their backs, or to pull carts and wagons. Horses have to be trained to accept a bridle or a saddle. Historically, horses were trained for transport, farm work, warfare and sport. In modern times, sport and recreation are the main reason horses are trained.
There is a lot of argument about horse training. Some ways are now thought to be cruel, and terms like horse breaking are also out of favour.
Coburg, Victoria
Coburg is a suburb of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. It is about 8km north of the Melbourne central business district. In 2006 there were 22,772 people living in the suburb. It is a part of the City of Moreland local government area.
Before Europen settlement the Coburg area was home to the Indigenous Australian Wurundjeri people. The area was first surveyed in 1837-8 by Robert Hoddle. The area was first called Pentridge, after the town of Pentridge, Dorset, England.
Proxy
Proxy has different meanings when talking about different subjects:
Proxy murder
A proxy murder is when a person murders on behalf of someone else. "Proxy" comes from the Latin word "procuratio" which means "to take care of".
An example of this would be an assassin killing for money. Another example would be a person that convinces someone that loves them to kill another person for them. Another example was in prisons where criminals in prison would act as the executioner for people sentenced to death. Lady Betty (1750—1807) was a famous hangwoman and prisoner in the Roscommon Gaol. The Nazis used proxy killings in World War II when they got prisoners to shoot Jewish prisoners instead of doing it themselves. The prisoners were told if they did not do it they would be shot as well.
A documentary movie was made in 2009 looking at mass killings in the US. It is called "Murder by Proxy".
Banded iron formation
Banded iron formations (or BIFs) are a distinctive type of rock often found in Precambrian sedimentary rocks.
They consist of repeated thin layers of iron oxides, either magnetite (FeO) or hematite (FeO), alternating with bands of iron-poor shale and chert.
Some of the oldest known rock formations, formed over 3,700 million years ago (mya), include banded iron layers. The banded layers are a common feature in sediments for much of the Earth's early history.
The formations are abundant around the time of the Great Oxygenation Event, 2,400 mya. They become less common after 1,800 mya.
The total amount of oxygen locked up in the banded iron beds is estimated to be perhaps twenty times the volume of oxygen present in the modern atmosphere of Earth. Banded iron beds are an important commercial source of iron ore, such as the Pilbara region of Western Australia, the Animikie Group in Minnesota and Carajás Mineral Province in Brazil.
The conventional concept is that the "banded iron" layers were formed in sea water as the result of oxygen released by photosynthetic cyanobacteria. This combined with dissolved iron in Earth's oceans to form insoluble iron oxides. These precipitated out, forming a thin layer on the substrate, which may have been anoxic mud (forming shale and chert). Each band is similar to a varve: the banding is assumed to result from cyclic variations in available oxygen.
It is assumed that the Earth started out with vast amounts of iron dissolved in the world's acidic seas. Iron is much more soluble than its oxides.
Eventually, as photosynthetic organisms generated oxygen, the available iron in the Earth's oceans was precipitated out as iron oxides.
At the tipping point where the oceans became permanently oxygenated, small variations in oxygen production produced pulses of free oxygen in the surface waters, alternating with pulses of iron oxide deposition.
Biggles
Biggles is a series of young adult adventure books. It was written by W. E. Johns. The series is named after the nickname of the main character, James Bigglesworth, who is a pilot and adventurer. There are around 100 Biggles books in total. The first Biggles book, "The Camels are Coming", was published in 1932 and is a collection of short Biggles stories.
Greenstone belt
Greenstone belts are large regions of very ancient metamorphosed volcanic rocks. The name comes from the green colour of the minerals in the rocks. Chlorite, actinolite and other green amphiboles are the typical green minerals.
Greenstone belts were originally formed of igneous rocks, such as basalt. The belts formed at ancient oceanic spreading centers and in volcanic island arcs. They may be several thousand kilometres long. Later, they were metamophosed, with minor sedimentary rocks in-between the volcanic formations.
Those greenstone belts which formed in ancient oceans are now found on land in Archaean and Proterozoic cratons between granite and gneiss bodies.
The rocks are mafic, meaning they are high in magnesium and silica.
Craton
A craton is the oldest part of a continental plate. It is an old and stable part of the continental lithosphere.
After surviving cycles of merging and rifting of continents, cratons are usually found in the interiors of tectonic plates. They are composed of ancient crystalline basement rock, which may be covered by younger sedimentary rock. They have a thick crust and deep roots that extend as much as several hundred kilometers into the Earth's mantle.
Cratonic lithosphere is much older than oceanic lithosphere – up to 4 billion years versus 180 million years.
The term "craton" is used to distinguish the stable portion of the continental crust from regions that are more geologically active and unstable. Cratons can be described as shields, in which the basement rock crops out at the surface, and platforms, in which the basement is overlain by sediments and sedimentary rock.
Cratons are subdivided geographically into geologic provinces. A geologic province is an area with common geologic properties.
Petrology
Petrology is a type of geology. It is concerned with rocks, how they form, and how they are used. It is between mineralogy, which is concerned with the minerals, in rocks, and geology, which tries to put rocks into a larger context.
Domitianus II (usurper)
Domitianus was probably a Roman soldier who was acclaimed emperor during the reign of Aurelian.
He was in northern Gaul in late 270 or early 271 AD. He struck gold coins to advertise his claim to the throne. This claimant did not survive the year. He is mentioned by the Byzantine historian Zosimus and also in the "Historia Augusta", a collection of biographies.
Aurelian
Aurelian (214–275 AD) was Roman emperor from 270 to 275.
Aurelian () came from the Balkans, part of the Roman Empire. He was a soldier in the Roman army when the emperor Claudius Gothicus promoted him to high rank. When Claudius died, his army chose Aurelian as the next emperor. Aurelian overcame a number of rebellions. His armies overcame the armies of the Gallic Empire and the Palmyrene Empire (two Roman states that formed during the Crisis of the Third Century). Aurelian joined the Roman Empire into one state again, and this was the beginning of the end of the Crisis of the Third Century.
While he was emperor, Aurelian overcame the armies of several groups of barbarians – the Goths, Vandals, Juthungi, Sarmatians, and Carpi. Aurelian increased the importance the god Sol Invictus in Roman religion and he built a temple for the god in the city of Rome. For the first time in many centuries, Rome needed a defensive wall to keep out enemies who might attack it. Aurelian's government started to build the Aurelian Walls around Rome. Aurelian's wife, Ulpia Severina, was his (empress) after summer 274. Aurelian was murdered by some of his soldiers in autumn 275.
The "Calendar of Philocalus" and the Greek historian John Malalas say that Aurelian was born on the 9 September 214. Aurelian was probably not from the nobility.