Sometimes a place is a city because it got the name "city" by law. However, people often call a place a "town" if it is small.
In the Middle Ages, a place became a town by means of a charter, which gave it town privileges.
In the United States of America, the meaning of the term "town" is different in each state. In some states, a town is a town if the state says it is. In other states, like Wisconsin, a town is a subdivision of a county. In other states, like Michigan, the name "town" has no official meaning. People use it to describe any place where many people live.
In the six New England states, a town is a smaller part of the county. In all six, towns do things that, in most other states, the counties do. In many of these towns, town meetings are the main form of government, so citizens can say what happens where they live by direct democracy. In these states, the towns are really more important than the county. In Connecticut and Rhode Island, counties are only on the map and have no power. In the other four states, courts are the main work of counties. The counties with other functions are mostly in New Hampshire and Vermont.
In Alabama, whether or not a place is a "town" or a "city" is based on how many people live there. A place with 2,000 people or more is a city. A place with less than 2,000 people is a town (Code of Alabama 1975, Section 11-40-6). For legislative purposes, places are put into eight categories based on the number of people. Class 8 includes all towns, and it includes all cities with that have less than 6,000 people (Code of Alabama 1975, Section 11-40-12).
All incorporated places in Kansas are called cities. Once a city is incorporated in Kansas, it will continue to be a city no matter what. There are three categories for cities:
In Louisiana, a "town" is a place that has a city government, and it has 1,0014,999 people living there.
In New York, a town is also a smaller part of the county, but it is less important than in New England. Towns provide almost all municipal services to places, called "hamlets", that are not in villages, and some services to places that are in "villages". In New York, a town usually has some hamlets and villages. But, because villages have power without towns (they are "independent") they can be in two towns or even two counties. Everyone in New York State who does not live in an Indian reservation (a special place for American Indians) or a city lives in a town, and perhaps in one of the town's hamlets or villages. A city may be part of a county, but even if it is surrounded by a town that has more people than the city, it is not part of the town.
In Utah, the terms "town" and "city" is based on the number of people living there. A place with 1,000 or more people is a city. A place with fewer than 1,000 people is a town. Cities are divided into five different categories based on the number of people.
In Virginia, a town is similar to a city, but it can have a smaller number of people in it. By Virginia law cities are independent of counties (they have power without counties), towns are part of a county.
Wyoming law says towns are incorporated places that have less than 4,000 people living there. Places with 4,000 or more people are "first-class cities".
In England and Wales, the name "city" is only for places that have a Royal Charter (a special document) saying they can have that name.
In the past, cities usually had a cathedral. Some English people think that a place with a cathedral must be a city, but it is not true today. For example, Northampton, Blackburn and Middlesbrough (where is the cathedral??) are all towns with a cathedral.
In the past, a place was usually a town, not a village, when it had a regular market or fair (a market, but not so often). There are some English villages (for example Ipswich, Oxfordshire) larger than some small towns (e.g. Middleham, North Yorkshire).
In Japan, The population of a town (町) is less than 50,000 people.
Condensed matter physics
Condensed matter physics is a branch of physics which talks about matter that has its molecules packed together very closely. This usually means it deals with solids (solid matter).
Bag
A bag is a kind of soft container. It can hold or carry things. It may be made from cloth, leather, plastic, or paper. Many bags are disposable but some are made to use for a long time. A bag may have one or two handles or a shoulder strap. Bags come in different shapes and sizes depending on how they will be used. A small bag that can be carried with a single hand is sometimes called a handbag, purse, or pocketbook. Children can suffocate, or stop breathing and die, when they put certain kinds of bags over their heads, due to having the supply of oxygen cut off.
Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar (July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC) was a military commander, politician and author at the end of the Roman Republic.
Caesar became a member of the First Triumvirate, and when that broke up, he fought a civil war against Pompey the Great. Winning the war, Caesar became Roman dictator for life. He was killed by his enemies in Rome.
Later rulers of Rome called themselves “Caesar” and this title was later copied as “Kaiser” and “Tsar”.
Julius Caesar was born in Italy around July 100 BC. The exact date is not known.
At sixteen he was the head of his family, and soon came under threat as Lucius Cornelius Sulla became Roman dictator.
Sulla set about purging Rome of his enemies. Hundreds were killed or exiled, and Caesar was on the list. His mother's family pleaded for his life; Sulla reluctantly gave in, but stripped Caesar of his inheritance. From then on, lack of money was one of the main problems in his life. Caesar joined the army, and left Rome.
On the way across the Aegean Sea, Caesar was kidnapped by pirates and held prisoner. He maintained an attitude of superiority throughout his captivity. When the pirates thought to demand a ransom of twenty talents of silver, he insisted they ask for fifty. After the ransom was paid, Caesar raised a fleet, pursued and captured the pirates, and imprisoned them. He had them crucified on his own authority, as he had promised while in captivity—a promise the pirates had taken as a joke. As a sign of leniency, he first had their throats cut. He was soon called back into military action.
On his return to Rome, he was elected as military tribune, a first step in a political career. He was elected quaestor for 69 BC. His wife Cornelia died that year. After her funeral, Caesar went to serve his quaestorship in Spain. On his return in 67 BC, he married Pompeia (a granddaughter of Sulla), whom he later divorced. In 63 BC he ran for election to the post of Pontifex Maximus, as high priest of the Roman state religion. He ran against two powerful senators; there were accusations of bribery by all sides. Caesar won comfortably, despite his opponents' greater experience and standing.
After his praetorship, Caesar was appointed to govern Roman Spain, but he was still in considerable debt and needed to pay his creditors. He turned to Marcus Licinius Crassus, one of Rome's richest men. In return for political support, Crassus paid some of Caesar's debts and acted as guarantor for others. Caesar left for his province before his praetorship had ended. In Spain he conquered two local tribes, was hailed as "imperator" by his troops, and completed his governorship in high esteem. Though he was due a 'triumph' in Rome, he also wanted to stand for Consul, the most senior magistracy in the Republic. Faced with the choice between a triumph and the consulship, Caesar chose the consulship. After election, he was a consul in 59 BC.
Caesar took power with Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey the Great) and Marcus Licinius Crassus. These three men ruled Rome and were called the "Triumvirate".