An immunogen is an antigen substance (or adduct) that is able to trigger a humoral (innate) or cell-mediated immune response. It first initiates an innate immune response, which then causes the activation of the adaptive immune response. An antigen binds the highly variable immunoreceptor products (B-cell receptor or T-cell receptor) once these have been generated. Immunogens are those antigens, termed immunogenic, capable of inducing an immune response.
At the molecular level, an antigen can be characterized by its ability to bind to an antibody's paratopes. Different antibodies have the potential to discriminate among specific epitopes present on the antigen surface. A hapten is a small molecule that changes the structure of an antigenic epitope. In order to induce an immune response, it needs to be attached to a large carrier molecule such as a protein (a complex of peptides). Antigens are usually carried by proteins and polysaccharides, and less frequently, lipids. This includes parts (coats, capsules, cell walls, flagella, fimbriae, and toxins) of bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms. Lipids and nucleic acids are antigenic only when combined with proteins and polysaccharides. Non-microbial non-self antigens can include pollen, egg white, and proteins from transplanted tissues and organs or on the surface of transfused blood cells.
Chaos
Chaos is when something unpredictable or random happens. It may refer to several different things:
Information entropy
Information entropy is a concept from information theory. It tells how much information there is in an event. In general, the more certain or deterministic the event is, the less information it will contain. More clearly stated, information is an increase in uncertainty or entropy. The concept of information entropy was created by mathematician Claude Shannon.
Information and its relationship to entropy can be modeled by:R = H(x) - Hy(x)"The conditional entropy Hy(x) will, for convenience, be called the equivocation. It measures the average ambiguity of the received signal."
The "average ambiguity" or Hy(x) meaning uncertainty or entropy. H(x) represents information. R is the received signal.
It has applications in many areas, including lossless data compression, statistical inference, cryptography, and sometimes in other disciplines as biology, physics or machine learning.
The information gain is a measure of the probability with which a certain result is expected to happen. In the context of a coin flip, with a 50-50 probability, the entropy is the highest value of 1. It does not involve information gain because it does not incline towards a specific result more than the other. If there is a 100-0 probability that a result will occur, the entropy is 0.
Let's look at an example. If someone is told something they already know, the information they get is very small. It will be pointless for them to be told something they already know. This information would have very low entropy.
If they were told about something they knew little about, they would get much new information. This information would be very valuable to them. They would learn something. This information would have high entropy.
Spice Girls
The Spice Girls are a British girl group. The group formed in 1994. The group has five members. Each member uses a nickname initially given to them: Melanie Chisholm ("Sporty Spice"), Emma Bunton ("Baby Spice"), Melanie Brown ("Scary Spice"), Victoria Beckham (née Adams) ("Posh Spice"), and Geri Halliwell ("Ginger Spice") . They were signed to Virgin Records. The Spice Girls released their debut single, "Wannabe" in 1996. It hit number-one in more than 30 countries. The song helped make the group as a global phenomenon. The group is credited for being starting the trend of commercial success of teen pop in the late 1990s. Their debut album, "Spice", sold more than 28 million copies worldwide. It is the best-selling album by a female group in music history. They have sold over 75 million records worldwide. This makes them the best-selling female group of all time. It also makes them the most successful British band since the Beatles.
The group released three albums: Spice in 1996, Spice World in 1997 and Forever in 2000. The Spice Girls starred in , which was released in December 1997.
The members reunited in 2007. They released a "Greatest Hits" album in November and said a world tour would start in December. On 1 February 2008, the group said that they would be ending the tour early.
In 2012, they reunited again to perform at the closing ceremonies of the 2012 Summer Olympics in London.
Traffic cone
Traffic cones (also called road cones, safety cones or pylons) are cone-shaped markers, usually made from plastic, that are put on roads to temporarily redirect automobile traffic in a safe manner.
Traffic cones are usually placed around construction sites or roadside accidents. As well, many utility companies such as telephone companies and electric companies place cones on the road when utility workers are working on or near the road. Cones are also used by driving schools to set up tests of turning and parking skills.
They have many other uses including bike training, fun and for personal use like reserving parking spaces.
Traffic cones are easily movable and about 60 cm (24 inches) tall. Traffic cones come in many different colors, with orange, yellow and red being the most common colors. Many types of traffic cones have reflective strips or stripes of reflective paint, so that the cones are easier to see at night.
Traffic cones were invented in 1914 by Charles P. Rudabaker. The first cones were made of concrete. In the 2000s, most cones are made of brightly-colored plastic.
Agatha Christie
Dame Agatha Mary Clarissa Christie (15 September 1890 – 12 January 1976) was an English writer of crime stories. Her books are very famous all over the world, and she sold more than 4 billion books around the world. Only William Shakespeare has sold more books. Also, her books are written in more languages than any other writer's books. People can read them in 103 different languages. Her stories are about murders and finding out who did them. It is hard to find that person. There is a detective who tries to catch the bad person. People like reading her books because they can try to find the answer, too. Reading these books is like playing a game. The most well-known characters in her books are Miss Marple and Hercule Poirot. Miss Marple is an old English lady, and she talks to everyone. People do not think she is smart, but she always finds the bad person. She uses logic to find out who is guilty of the murder. Hercule Poirot is a strange man, a private detective from Belgium who lives in London. He likes to find out who did the murder by thinking about all the evidence. The stories of Poirot and Miss Marple were made into many TV shows and movies.
Christie also wrote plays. One of them is called "The Mousetrap", and it started over 60 years ago. It remains the world's longest-running play.
Christie was born in Torquay in Devon, England. She did not go to school. She had lessons from her mother at home. Her mother thought children should not learn to read until they were eight years old. But Christie learned how to read by herself when she was four. She read many books, so she learned to become a good writer. She later became a very good pianist and singer, too. She was married twice; she had a daughter called Rosalind Hicks. She worked in a hospital and in a pharmacy during World War I. She also wrote romance novels and plays. They were very successful too. In 1971, she was honoured by the Queen with the title Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire.