Codes operated by substituting according to a large codebook which linked a random string of characters or numbers to a word or phrase. For example, "UQJHSE" could be the code for "Proceed to the following coordinates".
A cipher is used to turn the original information ("plaintext") to the encrypted form "ciphertext". The ciphertext message contains all the information of the plaintext message, but cannot be read by human or computer without the proper mechanism to decrypt it.
To encipher or decipher, you need the "key". In encryption, a key specifies the particular transformation of plaintext into ciphertext, or vice versa during decryption.
By type of key used ciphers are divided into:
The word cipher in French is "cifre" and in Medieval Latin "cifra", from the Arabic "sifr", meaning 'zero'. The first known English use of "zero" was in 1598.
Chief Justice of the United States
The Chief Justice of the United States is the senior judge of the Supreme Court of the United States.
They have no more powers than any of the other judges of the Supreme Court, who are called Associate Justices. The Chief Justice is responsible for organizing the Court's schedules and administration.
By tradition, the Chief Justice administers the oath of office to the President of the United States. The only time this has not happened is when Calvin Coolidge became president.
Sturmabteilung
The Sturmabteilung (; often shortened to SA) was a paramilitary group for the German Nazi Party. Their leader was Ernst Röhm. The group was important in helping Adolf Hitler gain power in the 1930s.
In English, they are often called the Stormtroopers or the Brownshirts, while "Sturmabteilung" literally translates to " detachment" or "assault section". They wore a brown uniform, similar to the black uniform worn by Mussolini's Blackshirts.
The word "Sturmabteilung" was used before the founding of the Nazi Party in 1919. It originally comes from the specialized assault troops used by Germany in World War I using "Hutier" infiltration tactics.
The SA played a key role in Adolf Hitler's rise to power in the 1930s. In 1934, however, he abolished the organization and sent the Schutzstaffel to arrest and kill their leaders.
Green card
Green Card or Permanent Resident Card is an identification card that proves that someone who is not a United States citizen is a permanent resident of the United States. The holder of the card is allowed to live, work and study in the United States on a permanent basis.
Most people get Green Cards after being sponsored by a family member, such as a wife or husband, or by an employer that is located in the United States. Other people may become permanent residents through refugee or asylum programs, or similar programs designed to protect their human rights. In some cases, a person may be allowed to file for their own Green Card without a sponsor.
After five years of legal permanent residency within the United States, the holder of the card is eligible to become a U.S. Citizen.
Council of Chalcedon
The Council of Chalcedon was an ecumenical council that took place from October 8 to November 1, 451, at Chalcedon (a city of Bithynia in Asia Minor). Chalcedon is today part of the city of Istanbul on the Asian side of the Bosphorus.
The most comprehensive confession of the Person of Christ was made at the Council of Chalcedon in 451:
For many people, these definitions were too dogmatic; The Oriental Orthodox Churches split from the main church (that would later become the Roman Catholic and the Eastern Orthodox Church).
Chalcedon
Chalcedon (Χαλκηδών, sometimes transliterated as "Chalkedon") was an ancient maritime town of Bithynia, in Asia Minor, almost directly opposite Byzantium, south of Scutari (modern Üsküdar). Today, in modern Turkish, Chalcedon is called Kadıköy and a district of Istanbul, Turkey.
Bithynia
Bithynia was an old kingdom of a Roman province in the northwest of Asia Minor. It was at the coast of the Black Sea. It was named after the Bithyni, a tribe that moved there from Thrace. It was an important territory for the Roman empire. Bithynia was also the site of early Christian activities in the first and second centuries AD.
Kadıköy
Kadıköy is a large district on the Anatolian side of İstanbul, Turkey. It is on the shore of the Sea of Marmara. It faces the historic city centre on the European side of the Bosporus. Kadıköy was known as Chalcedon in ancient history.
Antiquity
Antiquity may mean:
Bosporus
The Bosporus or Bosphorus is a strait that forms part of the boundary between the European part of Turkey and its Asian part (Anatolia). It connects the Black Sea with the Sea of Marmara. It is about 30 km long, with a maximum width of 3,700 metres at the northern entrance, and a minimum width of 700 metres between Kandilli and Aşiyan; and 750 metres between Anadoluhisarı and Rumelihisarı. The depth varies from 36 to 124 metres in midstream.
The shores of the strait are heavily populated as Istanbul is nearby. Several bridges and tunnels cross the strait.
Strait
A strait is a narrow channel of water between two land areas. A strait connects two bodies of water. Straits often connect two seas. Many straits are economically and strategically important. Straits may be part of important shipping routes. So, someone who controls a strait can control the shipping. Wars have been fought to control them. Although rivers and canals often connect two large lakes or a lake and a sea, they are not straits. Straits are much larger and wider and do not have water running in a single direction.
Well-known straits in the world are:
Channel
In a "general sense" channel means connection.
In a more "specific sense" it may mean:
In context with water:
In other context:
Strait of Dover
The Strait of Dover or Dover Strait is the strait at the narrowest part of the English Channel.
The strait is at the east end of the English Channel, where it joins the North Sea. Its width is the shortest distance between France and England. On a clear day, it is possible to see the coastline on the other side and the buildings on the shore without the help of binoculars.
The shortest distance across the strait is from the South Foreland, some 6 km (4 mi) north-east of Dover in the county of Kent, England, to Cap Gris Nez, a cape near Calais in the "département" of Pas-de-Calais, France. Between these two points – the most popular route for cross-channel swimmers – the distance is just 33 km (20 mi).
SA
SA is an abbreviation. It can stand for different things.
The Pigeon Detectives
The Pigeon Detectives are an English band who originated from Rothwell in Leeds, they formed in 2002. They have received praise by such well known DJs as Steve Lamacq and Jo Whiley, and performed at the Reading and Leeds Festivals in 2006, where they were "the band most likely to leap to the main stage in 2007” in an issue of the NME.
They supported "Dirty Pretty Things" whilst they toured in spring 2006. In early November 2006 they supported The "Kaiser Chiefs", who are known to be admirers of the band. On 8 July 2007, they played on the Radio 1 NME Stage in front of thousands of people at T in the Park. The performance was televised and shown later that day on BBC3 television channel.
Hirschaid
Hirschaid is the biggest municipality in the district of Bamberg. About 11,650 people live there. The mayor is Andreas Schlund.
Julián Marías
Julián Marías Aguilera (June 17, 1914 – December 15, 2005) was a Spanish philosopher. He is the author of "History of Philosophy" (1941) written in Spanish on the subject of the history of philosophy. He was a pupil of the Spanish philosopher José Ortega y Gasset.
Deuteronomy
Deuteronomy is a book in the Bible. It is the last of the five books of Moses, meaning it deals with Moses, the Israelites and their ancestors, and their relationship with God. It is part of the Torah. The Hebrew name of the book is , which means 'people of the Word.'