Roman roads remained in use as trunk roads for centuries after the Romans withdrew from Britain in 410 AD. Systematic construction of paved highways did not resume in England until the 18th century.
The Romans became expert at constructing roads, which they called "viae". It was permitted to walk or drive cattle, vehicles, or traffic of any description along the road. The "viae" differed from the many other smaller or rougher roads, bridle-paths, drifts, and tracks. By law, the minimum width of a "via" was fixed at 2.4 m where it was straight, and 4.9 m where it turned.
The best sources of information as regards the construction of a regulation "via munita" are:
After the civil engineer looked over the site of the proposed road and determined roughly where it should go, the "agrimensores" went to work surveying the road bed. They used two main devices, the rod and a device called a "groma", which helped them obtain right angles. The rod men put down a line of rods called the "rigor". A surveyor looked along the rods and told the "gromatici" to move them as required. Using the "gromae" they then laid out a grid on the plan of the road.
The "libratores" then began their work using ploughs and, sometimes with the help of legionaries, with spades dug down to bed rock or at least to the firmest ground they could find. The excavation was called the "fossa", "ditch". The depth varied according to terrain.
In top-quality roads, there were five layers, plus footpaths and kerbstones:
The method varied according to place, materials available and terrain, but the plan was always the same. The roadbed was layered. The road was constructed by filling the ditch. This was done by layering rock over other stones.
Into the "fossa" was dumped large amounts of rubble, gravel and stone, whatever fill was available. Sometimes a layer of sand was put down, if it could be found. When it came to within 1 yd (1 m) or so of the surface it was covered with gravel and tamped down, a process called "pavire", or "pavimentare". The flat surface was then the "pavimentum". It could be used as the road, or additional layers could be constructed. A "statumen" or "foundation" of flat stones set in cement might support the additional layers.
The final steps used concrete, which the Romans had rediscovered (it had been used in Ancient Egypt). They seem to have mixed the mortar and the stones in the fossa. First a small layer of coarse concrete, the "rudus", then a little layer of fine concrete, the nucleus, went onto the pavement or "statumen". Into or onto the nucleus went a course of polygonal or square paving stones, called the "summa crusta". The "crusta" was crowned for drainage.
An example is found in an early basalt road by the Temple of Saturn on the Clivus Capitolinus. It had travertine paving, polygonal basalt blocks, concrete bedding (substituted for the gravel), and a rain-water gutter.
Cam'ron
Cameron Giles (born February 4, 1974 in Harlem, New York) is an American rapper better known by his stage name, Cam'ron or Killa Cam.
Cam'ron was known for popularising the colour pink, which he demonstrated in his music video for "Killa Cam", where he was wearing all pink clothing and drove a pink Range Rover.
Cam'ron started the "Stop Snitchin'" campaign when he was shot outside a nightclub in his Lamborghini, which the gunman was trying to carjack. Cam'ron said in a "60 Minutes" interview that he did not know the gunman, but he did not want to help the police because he did not want to be a snitch and it would hurt his record sales. He also mentioned his Stop Snitchin' campaign in another "60 Minutes" interview when Anderson Cooper asked him, "If there was a serial killer living next to you, you wouldn't tell the police?" He replied, "I would probably move."
Cam'ron has released 7 studio albums:
Kaihin-Makuhari Station
Kaihin-Makuhari Station (海浜幕張駅,かいひんまくはりえき) is a Railway station of East Japan Railway Company (JR East) in Mihama-ku, Chiba City, Chiba Prefecture, Japan. This is the nearest station to Makuhari Messe, Chiba Marine Stadium, and the AEON headquarters.
Nihombashi Station
Nihombashi Station (日本橋駅,にほんばしえき) is a railway station of Tokyo Metro and Toei Subway in Chiyoda, Tokyo, Japan.
Drew Brees
Drew Brees (; born January 15, 1979) is an American football quarterback for the New Orleans Saints. A native of Austin, Texas, he played college football for Purdue and was drafted by the San Diego Chargers in 2001, where he was their starting quarterback until 2006. In 2009, he led the Saints to a Super Bowl championship and was named MVP of the game.
Mariano Rivera
Mariano Rivera (born November 29, 1969 in Panama City, Panama) is a baseball player. He has played with the New York Yankees for many seasons. He is a “closer”, a type of pitcher who pitches in the ninth inning. Rivera is thought to be one of the best relief pitchers ever, and will probably be in the Baseball Hall of Fame. Rivera throws a very fast “cutter” pitches that are good at striking out batters. Rivera has more saves in the World Series than any other pitcher. He also has more saves all-time then anybody, a record he set in 2011. Mariano Rivera wears #42, and is the only player in Major League baseball to do so. Rivera was born in Panama and played his first baseball there.
Taco truck
A taco truck is a truck that sells tacos and other types of Mexican food. Some taco trucks also deal in fusion cuisine. It is one of the most common types of food trucks. In most taco trucks, the food is made in the truck. Taco trucks and other food trucks are common around colleges, as college students often eat at them. Though there are taco trucks all over the world, they are most often seen in Los Angeles and other Mexican-American cities. In many cities, such as Los Angeles, regular restaurants have tried to shut down taco trucks. This is because taco trucks sell food at a lower price than many restaurants. Taco trucks have been criticized in the past for being dirty and unhealthy, but this is not the case anymore. Chicago is the only city in the United States which does not allow cooking on food trucks but Taquero Fusion, Chicago's Original Taco Truck, managed to figure out a way to provide gourmet tacos to their customers.
Silky shark
The Silky shark ("Carcharhinus falciformis") is a type of shark of the genus "Carcharhinus", family Carcharhinidae. They are mainly found in warm bodies of water in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans. The Silky shark is large, slim, and grows up to a maximum length of 3.3 metres (10 feet). The Silky shark gets its name from the fact that it has a smooth, "silky" texture.
The Silky shark feeds on bony fish such as tuna, mackerel, sardines, and mullets, and molluscs such as squid and paper nautilus. They have also been known to feed on the bodies of dead whales.
The Silky shark is classified as "Near Threatened" by the IUCN.
A large, slim shark, the Silky shark has a fairly stretched , rounded snout, a relatively slanting first dorsal fin with a blunt top that is located behind the edges of the pectoral fins, a small second dorsal fin with an extremely long free rear tip (more than two times the height), and a low inter-dorsal ridge (ridge between the dorsal fins). The pectoral fins are long and slim, and have dusky coloured tips.
Silky sharks are normally dark grey with a shade of bronze, but are sometimes a golden-brown colour. Their undersides are white. Except for the first dorsal fin, the tips of all the fins are a dusky colour; this is more visible among the young.
The upper teeth are widely triangular and slanted, becoming more diagonal toward the angle of the jaws which are strongly cut and heavily jagged on the sides. The lower teeth are raised with smooth edges. There is usually 1 to 2 symphysial teeth on both, the lower and upper jaw.
The dermal denticles are small, tightly packed and over-lapping, giving the hide a smooth or "silky" texture, giving the shark it's name.