to build a house is different from that used to make puzzle toys,
although elements overlap.
Wood is strong when stressed along the grain (longitudinally), but weak across it (radially and tangentially). It expands and contracts in response to humidity.
This change is very small longitudinally. It is considerable, but unequal,
in the radial and tangential directions.
Two of the most common traditions of joinery are Japanese and European. The Japanese in particular developed hundreds of types of joints and their furniture was often held together without glue or nails.
George Grenville
George Grenville (14 October 1712–13 November 1770) was Prime Minister of Great Britain. He was a member of the Whig Party. He was one of the few prime ministers who never was given a title of nobility.
Grenville was the second son of Richard Grenville and Hester Temple. His older brother was Richard Grenville-Temple. Grenville went to school at Eton College and at Christ Church College, Oxford. He entered Parliament in 1741 as member for Buckingham, and represented Buckingham until his death.
As Treasurer of the Navy in 1758 he introduced and carried a bill which established a fairer system of paying the wages of sailors. He stayed in office in 1761, when Pitt resigned, and in the administration of Lord Bute acted as Leader of the House of Commons. In May 1762 he became Secretary of State for the Northern Department, and in October First Lord of the Admiralty; and in April 1763 he became First Lord of the Treasury and Chancellor of the Exchequer.
While Prime Minister, his government oversaw the prosecution of John Wilkes and the passing of the American Stamp Act 1765, which led to the first disagreements between American colonies and Great Britain that led to the American Revolutionary War.
After many years of being Prime Minister, he began to have disagreements with young king George III. The king started to think that the Prime Minister was using him as a puppet. The king convinced Rockingham to become the new Prime Minister and Grenville never held an office again.
Grenville was called the "gentile shepherd" because he bored the House by asking over and over again, during the debate on the Cider Bill of 1763, that somebody should tell him "where" to lay the new tax if it was not to be put on cider. Pitt whistled the air of the popular tune "Gentle Shepherd, tell me where", and the House laughed. Though few excelled him in a knowledge of the forms of the House or in mastery of administrative details, he lacked tact in dealing with people and with affairs.
In 1749 Grenville married Elizabeth Wyndham (before 1731-5 December 1769), daughter of Sir William Wyndham. They had seven children.
Harald Hardrada
Harald Sigurdsson was also known as Harald of Norway (; – 25 September 1066). He was also called Hardrada (, modern Norwegian: ("stern counsel" or "hard ruler") in the sagas).
Harald was King of Norway (as Harald III) from 1046 to 1066. Also, he unsuccessfully claimed the Danish throne until 1064 and the English throne in 1066. Before becoming king, Harald had spent about fifteen years in exile as a mercenary and military commander in Kievan Rus' and of the Varangian Guard in the Byzantine Empire.
When he was fifteen years old, in 1030, Harald fought with his half-brother Olaf against Cnut (Canute). Olaf sought to reclaim the Norwegian throne, which he had lost to the Danish king Cnut the Great two years before. In the battle, Olaf and Harald were defeated by forces loyal to Cnut. Harald was forced into exile to Kievan Rus' (early form of Russia). After some time in the army of Grand Prince Yaroslav the Wise, he moved on to Constantinople with his companions around 1034. In Constantinople, he commanded the Byzantine Varangian Guard.
Harald got wealthy during his time in the Byzantine Empire. He shipped the money to Yaroslav in Kievan Rus' for safekeeping. He finally left the Byzantines in 1042. He arrived back in Kievan Rus' to prepare his campaign of reclaiming the Norwegian throne. In his absence Olaf's illegitimate son Magnus the Good had got the throne. Magnus had also become king of Denmark.
In 1046, Harald joined forces with Magnus's rival in Denmark the pretender Sweyn II of Denmark, and started raiding the Danish coast. Magnus, unwilling to fight his uncle, agreed to share the kingship with Harald, since Harald in turn would share his wealth with him. The co-rule ended abruptly the next year as Magnus died, so Harald became the sole ruler of Norway.
Domestically, Harald crushed all opposition, and outlined the union of Norway under a national rule. Harald's reign was probably one of relative peace and stability, and he set up a viable coin economy and foreign trade. Probably seeking to restore Cnut's "North Sea Empire", Harald also claimed the Danish throne, and spent nearly every year until 1064 raiding the Danish coast and fighting his former ally, Sweyn. Although the campaigns were successful, he was never able to conquer Denmark.
Not long after Harald had renounced his claim to Denmark, the former Earl of Northumbria, Tostig Godwinson, brother of the English king Harold Godwinson, pledged his allegiance to Harald and invited him to claim the English throne. Harald invaded Northern England with 10,000 troops and 300 longships in September 1066, raided the coast and defeated English regional forces of Northumbria and Mercia in the Battle of Fulford near York. Although initially successful, Harald was defeated and killed in an attack by Harold Godwinson's forces in the Battle of Stamford Bridge, which wiped out almost his entire army. Modern historians have often considered Harald's death, which brought an end to his invasion, as the end of the Viking Age. The famous Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records these events.
Normans
The Normans were Vikings who settled in northern France. There they made a kingdom called Normandy.
In 1066 the Normans attacked England and took over. The battle was called The Battle Of Hastings. They ruled England for about 300 years. There they built the Tower of London, Windsor Castle and many other stone castles.
The Normans wore woollen tunics and sometimes they wore a waistband to keep the tunic in place. The men also wore long cloaks.
Normans ate dairy, oatmeal porridge, green vegetables and sometimes meat. They often used honey as a sweetener and for mead (an alcoholic drink).
Norman built many stone castles that often had moats around them to protect them from intruders.
Norman houses had a wooden frame with sticks and twigs woven in between, which is called wattle, and then it was all covered in a layer of daub which was made from mud, wet clay, dung and straw. The roofs were usually thatched.
Diarmuid MacMurrough, King of Leinster kidnapped the King of Breifne’s wife. Then Rory O’Connor, the High King of Ireland fired him from being the King of Leinster. Diarmuid still wanted to be king so he hired some Normans, lead by Strongbow to help him get the throne back. Diarmuid had to pay Strongbow so he said that he could marry his daughter and become king when Diarmuid died. Strongbow agreed to this. They first came to Ireland at Bannow Bay, Wexford in 1169 and soon they got the throne back for Diarmuid. King Henry II, King of England and part of France, thought that Strongbow was getting too powerful since Strongbow wasn’t actually the king, so Henry decided to take over the whole of Ireland. He sent over some other Normans who arrived at Ireland in Baginbun, Wexford in 1170. Then King Henry II became King of Ireland as well.
While the Normans were in Ireland they built the original Dublin castle and many other stone castles.
Normans probably introduced rabbits and fallow deer to Ireland for meat and skins.
Captain
Captain is a military rank.