The term organic originates from Jons Jacob Berzelius, a 19th century Swedish scientist, who used the term to refer to substances present in living things. During Berzelius’ time, the vital force theory was popular. This theory stated that a "life force" was needed to produce the organic compounds found only in living things. The vital force theory began losing support after an 1828 experiment conducted by Friedrich Wöhler. His work showed that urea, an organic compound, could be created from ammonium cyanate, an inorganic compound.
The study of hydrocarbons is a very large part of organic chemistry. Hydrocarbons are molecules containing only the elements carbon and hydrogen in the form of chains. Hydrocarbons can be classified into two categories based on the presence of a benzene ring, a circular type of hydrocarbon. Aliphatic hydrocarbons do not contain a benzene ring and aromatic hydrocarbons do.
Organic chemistry reactions happen because electrons are not shared evenly in a chemical bond. Some atoms or molecules, like oxygen, nitrogen, and negatively charged anions, are nucleophilic because they have extra electrons and want to be around positive charges. Others, such as H+ and other positively charged cations, are electrophilic and want to be around negative charges. When an organic molecule has a positive charge, it is called a carbocation. It is also an electrophile. When nucleophiles and electrophiles mix, a reaction can occur.
A reaction mechanism is a series of smaller reactions that form an overall reaction. Two basic mechanism types are substitution and elimination reactions. They are very important in the study of organic chemistry mechanisms because many more complicated mechanisms use them.
Nucleophilic substitution occurs when an atom or group of atoms detaches from an organic molecule and is replaced by another. If the leaving and adding happens at the same time, it is called a S2 reaction. If the leaving group breaks away from the organic molecule and forms a carbocation before substitution occurs, it is called an S1 reaction.
Elimination occurs when two groups are broken off of an organic molecule by a strong acid and the resulting charges form a double bond. Usually one of the groups is a nucleophile and the other is a hydrogen atom. If both groups are pulled off at the same time, it is called an E2 reaction. If one group is pulled off first and forms a carbocation before the second group is removed, it is called an E1 reaction.
Stereochemistry is the study of molecules in space. It looks into the arrangement of atoms inside of molecules in space relative to one another and how they will interact. Molecules that have the same chemical make up but are arranged differently are called isomers. Famous chemist Louis Pasteur was an early researcher of stereochemistry.
A central part of the study of sterochemistry is chirality. Put simply, chirality looks at the symmetry in chemical molecules. If an object cannot be superimposed onto its mirror image, then it is a chiral object. If it can, it is called achiral.
Spectroscopy is the study of the interactions between light energy and matter. We are able to see colors because of energy absorption by organic and inorganic compounds. When a plant undergoes photosynthesis, it traps energy from the sun, and this is an example of an interaction between energy and organic compounds.
Spectroscopy is used to identify organic molecules in unknown compounds. There are many types of spectroscopy, but most important to organic chemistry are infrared spectroscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy.
Proton
A proton is part of an atom. They are found in the nucleus of an atom along with neutrons. The periodic table groups atoms according to how many protons they have. A single atom of hydrogen (the lightest kind of atom) is made up of an electron moving around a proton. Most of the mass of this atom is in the proton, which is almost 2000 times heavier than the electron. Protons and neutrons make up the nucleus of every other kind of atom. In any one element, the number of protons is always the same. An atom's atomic number is equal to the number of protons in that atom.
Protons are made of quarks. A proton is believed to be made up of 3 quarks, two up quarks and one down quark. One down quark has a charge of -1/3, and two up quarks have a charge of +2/3 each. This adds to a charge of +1. A proton has a very small mass. The mass of the proton is about one atomic mass unit. The mass of the neutron is also about one atomic mass unit. The size of a proton is determined by the vibration of the quarks that are in it, and these quarks effectively form a cloud. This means that a proton is not so much a hard ball as an area that contains quarks.
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Clint Eastwood
Clint Eastwood (born May 31, 1930) is an American actor, movie director, producer and composer.
Eastwood was born in San Francisco, California on May 31, 1930. He was nicknamed "Samson" by the hospital nurses as he weighed at birth. Eastwood is of English, Irish, Scottish, and Dutch ancestry. He was raised in Piedmont, California. He studied at Piedmont Junior High School and at Oakland Technical High School.
He has appeared in many movies since the 1950s. The most famous are the Dollars trilogy of Spaghetti Westerns (1964–1966), "Dirty Harry" movie series as Harry Callahan (1972–1988), "Any Which Way You Can" (1979) and similar movies. Eastwood also won critical acclaim as a director with the movies "Unforgiven" (1992), "Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil" (1996), "Space Cowboys" (2000), "Mystic River" (2003), and "Million Dollar Baby" (2005). In recent years, Eastwood directed biopic movies such as "American Sniper", "Sully" and "Richard Jewell".
Eastwood was married to Maggie Johnson from 1953 until they divorced in 1984. They had two children. Then he was married to Dina Ruiz since 1996. They have one child. He now lives with his family in Carmel-by-the-Sea, California. He was the mayor of Carmel-by-the-Sea for two years, starting in 1986.
Spaghetti Western
Spaghetti Westerns were a name given to low-budget Western movies, which were made by Italian movie companies in the 1960s. They were different from the American western movies, usually filmed in Italian, had limited budgets, filmed on location in Spain and Italy with minimal sets, and many close-ups and artistic shots. Perhaps the most well-known of these movies is "The Man with No Name" trilogy: "A Fistful of Dollars" (1964), "For a Few Dollars More" (1965), and "The Good, the Bad and the Ugly" (1966). All three of these movies were directed by Sergio Leone, featured music by Ennio Morricone, and starred American actor Clint Eastwood as the main character.
Disneyland
Disneyland Park is a theme park in Anaheim, California, United States. It is the first Disneyland. It was opened on July 17, 1955, by Walt Disney, the man who invented Mickey Mouse. It is one of the most popular theme parks in the world. Disneyland Park celebrated its diamond, or 60th, anniversary on July 17, 2015.
In 2001, the area around the park expanded into a resort with three hotels, a shopping and dining area called Downtown Disney and a second theme park, Disney's California Adventure. The area is now called Disneyland Resort.
The park offers its guests many ways of enjoying their visit. For instance, when visiting the park, guests can find "Hidden Mickeys" on each ride and all throughout the resort. "Hidden Mickeys" are shaped in the form of Mickey Mouse's head and ears, and displayed through various forms; such as a Hidden Mickey shaped cement, on the floor of the Daisy Level in the Mickey & Friends Parking Structure, or three speakers—in the shape of a circle—forming Mickey Mouse's head on the Space Mountain ride, in Tomorrowland. Hidden Mickeys provide guests an exciting way of discovering magic throughout the park.