This is a list of traditional abbreviations for U.S. states and territories. These abbreviations (short names) were used in mailing addresses before the introduction of two-letter U.S. postal abbreviations. The traditional abbreviations are still commonly used in other ways besides mailing addresses. For example, they can be used in writing after a city (like in "Miami, Fla."). In 1987, the Secretary of Commerce switched to the two-letter State Alpha Code for state abbreviations.
Saprophyte
A saprophyte or saprotroph is an organism which gets its energy from dead and decaying organic matter. This may be decaying pieces of plants or animals. This means that saprophytes are heterotrophs. They are consumers in the food chain.
This is the typical life-style of fungi. Some fungi are parasites on living organisms, but most are saprophytes. Many bacteria and protozoa are also saprophytes. Most dead organic matter is eventually broken down and used by bacteria and fungi. Slime moulds are also saprophytes, as well as consuming bacteria. Examples of saprophytes are cheese mold, and yeast. The term "saprophyte" refers specifically to fungal and bacterial saprotrophs; animal saprotrophs are known as saprozoites.
Other terms, such as 'saprotroph' or 'saprobe' may be used instead of saprophyte. Strictly speaking, -phyte means 'plant'. The problem is that no embryophytes (land plants) are true saprotrophs, and bacteria and fungi are no longer considered plants. Nevertheless, saprophyte is such a well-known term that most writers continue to use it.
A heterotroph is a general term for an organism that needs organic material to get its carbon for growth and development. Many plants which lack chlorophyll need fungi to break down organic material for them. Traditionally, they were called saprophytes. Now the process is given a new name: myco-heterotrophy.
Giacomo Puccini
Giacomo Puccini (23 December 1858 - 29 November 1924) was the most famous Italian opera composer after Verdi. He wrote 16 operas, most of which are performed very often today. Many of his operatic songs are known by many people, especially the aria "Nessun dorma" from "Turandot" which was sung by Luciano Pavarotti for the BBC’s television coverage of the Football World Cup which was held in Italy in 1990.
Puccini was born in Lucca, Tuscany into a musical family. He was expected to follow the family tradition and become a church organist. He started playing the organ in churches near Lucca. He liked to improvise on the organ, playing popular tunes from Verdi’s operas. He soon realized that he wanted to be an opera composer. Eventually he persuaded his family to let him study at the Milan Conservatory. His earliest compositions showed that he had a great talent for writing beautiful melodies and that he was good at writing for the orchestra. His first opera to be published, "Edgar", had a story similar to that of Bizet’s "Carmen", but it was not a suitable story for Puccini.
"Manon Lescaut" was the first opera for which Puccini chose the story himself. It is the same story as Massenet’s opera "Manon". This made Puccini internationally famous. His next opera, "La bohème", produced in 1896, is often thought to be his best opera. He worked with two poets on this opera and, although they quarrelled a lot, the result was a work in which the music flowed beautifully like a conversation.
His next opera was "Tosca". When it was first performed in Rome in 1900 there were rumours that a bomb would be thrown, but nothing happened. "Tosca" was a great success. However, "Madama Butterfly" was hissed and booed at its first performance in Milan’s famous opera house La Scala in 1904.
It was at this time that Puccini married. He already had a son by Elvira, his wife, who had been married to someone else. When her husband died, she was able to marry Puccini. The marriage was not without difficulties. Elvira accused Puccini of having an affair with their servant girl. This servant girl committed suicide and there was a court case which resulted (after an autopsy) in Elvira being found innocent. Puccini was very upset by all this and did not compose much for several years.
When he finally started writing again his new opera "La fanciulla del West" was set in the American West at the time of the Goldrush. The music has very Impressionistic harmonies like that of Debussy. The way he writes for the orchestra shows the influence of Richard Strauss. The opera was first performed in New York. The world-famous tenor Enrico Caruso sang the main hero part and Arturo Toscanini was the conductor. With such a star cast it had to be a great success.
Puccini followed this by writing an operetta and two one-act operas. The best of these is "Gianni Schicchi" His last opera is "Turandot", which has a fairy-tale like story. While he was working very hard at it he developed throat cancer. He died of complication of the disease in autumn 1924 in Brussels. The whole of Italy went into mourning and Mussolini spoke at the funeral. Puccini had not quite managed to finish "Turandot". A man called Franco Alfano finished it using the sketches that Puccini had left.
Pharaoh Hound
The Pharaoh Hound is a breed of dog. Pharaoh Hounds always have a bright orange colour coat. They may have a small white spot on the front of their body. They need lots of physical exercise, and they are fast runners and can jump high. They need little brushing because their fur is very short. In the past, people used them to hunt rabbits. Now people keep them as pets.
Mycelium
The mycelium is the part of a fungus that is usually underground (or inside some another substance). It is composed of hyphae, which look like threads, or rootlets. The mat of hyphae may be very thickly woven. The fungus uses it to extract nutritients. The hyphae are usually syncytic, that is, they do not have complete cell walls. Fungal colonies composed of mycelium are found in and on soil and many other natural materials.
A mycelium may be tiny, forming a colony that is too small to see, or it may be extremely large and cover the floors of a large forest.
The part of the fungus which is most visible is the reproductive body. This is often, but not always, the stem and hat of the mushroom.
Lviv
Lviv () is the capital city of Lviv Oblast in Ukraine. 860,000 people live in Lviv. 88% of the people living there are Ukrainian, 8% are Russian, and 1% are Polish. An extra 200,000 people commute to Lviv every day for work.
During the city's history, it was ruled by many countries. When part of Poland it was called Lwów (pronounced and sometimes spelled "Lvov"). In German, it was known as Lemberg, that was part of the Austrian and Austro-Hungarian Empires and again under Nazi German occupation. From 1350 until 1772 it belonged to the Kingdom of Poland and from 1918 to 1939 to the Republic of Poland.
Orchestra pit
An orchestra pit is the space where an orchestra plays in a theatre or opera house. The actors or singers are on the stage, and the orchestra pit is normally lower than the stage so that the audience can watch the play or opera. Depending on where they sit, the audience may just be able to see the heads of the musicians in the orchestra pit. It is important that singers can see the conductor so that they can watch the beat out of the corner of their eye. Opera houses nowadays often have close-circuit television monitors at the sides so that singers can watch the conductor even when they are not facing him.
The orchestra pit in the Bayreuth Festspielhaus is unusual. This opera house was designed by the composer Richard Wagner for the performance of his own operas. He did not want the audience to be able to see the orchestra at all, so it is very low. The orchestra members do not have to dress up in ties and jackets because they cannot be seen anyway.
Will o' the wisp