Japan was the first country to build railway lines for high speed travel. Because Japan has many mountains, the network that already existed was made of 3'6" gauge (1067 mm) narrow gauge lines, which tended to take non-direct routes and could not be adapted to higher speeds. Because of this, Japan had a greater need for new high speed lines than countries where the existing standard gauge or broad gauge rail system could be upgraded easily. Unlike the older lines, Shinkansen lines are standard gauge, and use tunnels and viaducts to go through and over obstacles, rather than around them.
Construction of the first section of the Tokaido Shinkansen between Tokyo and Osaka started in 1959. The line opened on October 1, 1964, just in time for the Tokyo Olympics. The line was an immediate success, reaching the 100 million passenger mark in less than three years on July 13, 1967 and one billion passengers in 1976.
The first Shinkansen trains ran at speeds of up to 200 km/h (125 mph), later increased to 220 km/h (135 mph). Some of these trains, with their classic bullet-nosed appearance, are still in use for stopping services between Hakata and Osaka. A driving car from one of the original trains is now in the British National Railway Museum in York.
Many more advanced models of train followed the first type, generally each with its own distinctive appearance. Shinkansen trains now run regularly at speeds of up to 300 km/h (185 mph), putting them among the fastest trains running in the world, along with the French TGV and German ICE trains.
Originally meant to carry passenger and freight trains by day and night, the Shinkansen lines carry only passenger trains. The system shuts down
between midnight and 6:00 every day to allow maintenance to take place, including the running of Doctor Yellow test trains. The few overnight trains that still run in Japan run on the old narrow gauge network which the Shinkansen runs parallel to.
In 2003, JR Tokai reported that the Shinkansen's average arrival time was within 6 seconds of the scheduled time. This includes all natural and human accidents and errors and is calculated from about 160,000 trips Shinkansen made. The previous record was from 1997 and was 18 seconds.
The first derailment of a Shinkansen train in passenger service occurred during the Chuetsu Earthquake on October 23, 2004. 6 of the total of 8 cars of the train on the Joetsu Shinkansen derailed near Nagaoka Station in Nagaoka, Niigata.
In 1965 pay phones were made available on Shinkansen trains. That service will end on 29 June 2021.
In recent years, due to noise pollution, increasing speed is getting harder. Thus, the current research is aimed to reduce the amount of noise, mainly when trains exit a tunnel.
Three extensions are under construction for opening by 2014-2018: Nagano-Kanazawa, Aomori-Hakodate and Takeo-Onsen-Isahaya.
The first ever Shinkansen line (built in 1964) travelled at 125mph and was called the Tōkaido Shinkansen. In 1972 a second one was developed and the improvements on infrastructure allowed it to travel at around 137mph. In 2003 the Japanese built the world's fastest ever Shinkansen, with a top speed of 361mph.
Two further lines, known as Mini-Shinkansen (ミニ新幹線), have also been constructed by upgrading existing sections of line:
Another standard gauge line using Shinkansen trains is not considered to be a Shinkansen line:
The following lines are under development:
Most Shinkansen lines that were proposed during the boom of the early 1970s have been postponed indefinitely. These include a link to Shikoku by the Honshu-Shikoku bridge system, a link from Tokyo to New Tokyo International Airport, and a route covering the entire Sea of Japan coast of Honshu.
Copper
Copper is a chemical element. It is the 29th element in the periodic table. Its mass number is 63.55. It is a transition metal in the middle of the periodic table. The symbol for copper is "Cu", which comes from the Latin word "cuprum", which, in turn, came from the Latin word for the island of Cyprus, where copper was found.
Copper is a reddish-orange color when it is pure, but soon gets a reddish tarnish after it is exposed to air.
Copper is one of the few coloured metals. Most metals are gray or silver. Gold, copper, caesium and osmium are the only four coloured metals. Copper is green as copper(II) carbonate and copper(II) hydroxide. It turns green because it oxidises. After a time in the air, copper forms green copper carbonate at the surface, called verdigris. That is why the copper roof of a building looks green.
Copper is very flexible and ductile. It can be stretched into wires easily. Copper is also very soft, it has a Mohs hardness of 2.5 to 3. That means that it is harder than a fingernail but softer than a steel pocketknife.
It reacts with solutions of hydrochloric acid or ammonia containing oxygen. It can also dissolve in a mixture of hydrogen peroxide and hydrochloric acid. This makes copper(II) chloride. It does not dissolve in weak acids. It can dissolve in nitric acid to make copper(II) nitrate and nitrogen dioxide or nitric oxide.
Copper forms chemical compounds. In these compounds, it has two normal oxidation states: +1 and +2. +2 is more common. Most +2 copper compounds are blue. +1 copper compounds can be white. Copper compounds are weak oxidizing agents. They corrode many metals. This corrosion takes the metal and puts it in the chemical compound, leaving the copper behind. An example would be iron and copper(II) sulfate reacting to make copper and iron(II) sulfate. +1 copper compounds are reducing agents when in air. They are normally made by reduction of +2 compounds.
Copper compounds can be black, green, reddish, white, blue, or yellow.
Copper(I) compounds have copper in +1 oxidation state. They are weak reducing agents. They react with air to make copper(II) compounds. They also disproportionate to copper and copper(II) compounds. Most of them do not dissolve in water.
Copper(II) compounds have copper in +2 oxidation state. They are weak oxidizing agents. They are greenish when hydrous (water molecules added). They are more stable in air than copper(I) compounds.
Copper can be found as a metal in the ground. Normally, it is green on the outside. Most copper is not as a metal but in chemical compounds. Chalcopyrite is the most common copper ore. It is a mixture of pyrite and copper sulfide. Copper is found in small amounts in living things. Some mollusks and arthropods have blue blood because they have copper in their blood. Animals such as humans and other mammals have red blood because it contains iron.
Copper can be used in many ways but one example is wires. Copper is used in making wires as it is easy to stretch and it is not expensive. So that’s why large wire companies will use copper as it is cheaper and takes less time to get
Copper may be the oldest metal in use, as very old copper tools have been found. Copper is used in electrical wiring. It can also be shaped into various parts. It can be used in a heat sink. The Statue of Liberty is made of copper. It is also used in pipes carrying water, because it does not corrode.
When people mix copper with tin, bronze is made. Bronze is much harder, and created the Bronze Age. It became less important when people learned to use iron better. When zinc is mixed with copper, brass is made, which is even harder than bronze. Copper with nickel makes cupronickel.
Copper is important in the human body. If a person does not get enough copper, the molecules in the body might not work. Having too much copper, though, can be a problem. Humans get most of the copper they need from food, and vitamins also contain copper to make sure we get enough. Copper compounds are also used to kill fungi and algae.
Copper is not as toxic as a metal. Copper compounds are toxic, although small amounts are needed to live. Copper is expelled from the body easily, so it does not build up in toxic effects.