The Book of Optics is a book that was written by Ibn al Haytham (965–1040 CE), an Arabic scientist and polymath. It was a seven-volume treatise on optics, physics, mathematics, anatomy and psychology, from 1011 to 1021. It was originally written in Arabic and was later translated into Persian, Latin and Italian within the next several centuries. The book had an important influence on the development of optics and on science in general because it introduced the experimental scientific method. Ibn al-Haytham has been called the "father of modern optics". Ibn al-Haytham wrote more than 200 works on a wide range of subjects, of which at least 96 of his scientific works are known.
the book of optics is also written en part by Ibn al-Haythams nephew at four years old
Letter (paper)
A letter is a message in writing that is sent to others, often by post (mail). The sender addresses it to the intended reader. For example:
Letter is more personal and official than phone conversation or an email.
Tobolsk
Tobolsk () is part of the Tyumen Oblast in Russia. It is near many rivers. It is one of the few towns in Russia that have stone fortresses, known as kremlins. According to the census in 2002, 92,880 people live inside it. Its economy depends mostly on its oil. In February 1917, Nicholas II abdicated the throne, and his family, including his youngest daughter Anastasia, were moved to Tobolsk.
Princess Helen of Serbia
Princess Helen of Serbia (4 November 1884 – 16 October 1962) was the daughter of King Peter I of Yugoslavia and his wife Princess Zorka of Montenegro. She was the older sister of George, Crown Prince of Serbia and Alexander I of Yugoslavia. Helen was also a niece of Anastasia of Montenegro, or Stana, wife of Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaevich of Russia, and of Milica of Montenegro. They were the women who introduced Grigori Rasputin to Tsarina Alexandra. She was born as "Princess Jelena of Serbia". Her mother died when she was younger, so she was brought up mostly by her aunts. After she was married, she was known as "Elena Petrovna", "Jelena Petrovna", "Hélène Petrovna" or "Ellen Petrovna". Grand Duchess Olga Nikolaevna of Russia liked her very much. After the Imperial family died, she was questioned about Anastasia Nikolaevna. When she was put in prison for a short time at Perm in 1918, she said that a guard took a girl who called herself Anastasia Romanova to her cell and asked her if the girl was the Tsar's daughter. When she did not recognize the girl, the guard took her away.
Lithography
Lithography (from Greek "λίθος" - "lithos", 'stone' + "γράφω" - "graphο", 'to write') is a method for printing using a stone (lithographic limestone) or a metal (steel or aluminium) plate with a completely smooth surface.
Lithography was invented in 1796 by Bavarian author Alois Senefelder as a low-cost method of publishing theatrical works. Lithography can be used to print text or artwork onto paper or other suitable material.
Lithography originally used an image drawn in wax or other oily substance applied to a lithographic stone as the medium to transfer ink to the printed sheet. In modern times, the image is often made of polymer applied to a flexible aluminium plate.
The flat surface of the plate or stone is slightly roughened, or etched, and divided into hydrophilic (= water-loving) regions that accept a film of water and repel the greasy ink, and hydrophobic regions which repel water and accept ink. The image may be printed directly from the stone or plate (in which case it is reversed from the original image) or may be offset by transfer to a flexible sheet, usually rubber, for transfer to the printed article.
This process is different from gravure or intaglio printing where a plate is engraved, etched or stippled to make cavities to contain the printing ink, and in woodblock printing and letterpress where ink is applied to the raised surfaces of letters or images.
In the early days of lithography, a smooth piece of limestone was used (hence the name "lithography"—"lithos" (λιθος) is the ancient Greek word for stone). After the oil-based image was put on the surface, a solution of gum arabic in water was applied, the gum sticking only to the non-oily surface. During printing, water adhered to the gum arabic surfaces and avoided the oily parts, while the oily ink used for printing did the opposite.
Chromolithography (colour lithography) was invented by Engelmann and son, who were granted a patent in 1837. After that, it was a matter of time before it reached full commercial development.
By using more than one stone, different colours can be added to the same picture. Each colour needs a separate stone. The great posters of such artists as Alphonse Mucha and Toulouse-Lautrec are made like this. Complicated graphics may need twenty or more stones.
Eve's Plum
Eve's Plum was an American rock band. The band existed from 1991 to 1998.
Sulla
Lucius Cornelius Sulla (c. 138 BC – 78 BC), usually called Sulla, was a Roman general and statesman. He was a "praetor" (a commander of an army) in 97 BC, and held the office of Consul twice. He was the only man in history to have attacked and kept both Athens and Rome.
Sulla unconstitutionally marched his armies into Rome and defeated his enemy Gaius Marius in battle. After his second march on Rome, he revived the office of dictator. Sulla was made Dictator in 81 or 82 BC. He had the Senate draw up a list of those he considered "enemies of the state" and published the list in the Roman Forum. Plutarch states in his "Life of Sulla" (XXXI): "Sulla now began to make blood flow, and he filled the city with deaths without number or limit".
This was remembered when Caesar became Dictator.
Doric language (Scotland)
Doric is the language of the people of the northeast of Scotland.
Norm Maciver
Norman Steven Maciver (born September 8, 1964 in Thunder Bay, Ontario) is a Canadian retired professional ice hockey defenceman who played in the National Hockey League as a member of the New York Rangers, Hartford Whalers, Edmonton Oilers, Ottawa Senators, Pittsburgh Penguins, and the Winnipeg Jets/Phoenix Coyotes franchise.
MacIver was never drafted by an NHL franchise and instead took the university route in order to reach the NHL. The defenceman played four seasons with the University of Minnesota Duluth and in 1985-86 was a finalist for the Hobey Baker Award, awarded to the NCAA's top player. While playing at the University of Minnesota, MacIver earned a communications degree and signed as a free agent with the NHL's New York Rangers upon graduation.
He played 500 regular season games in the NHL, scoring 55 goals and 230 assists for 285 points and collecting 350 penalty minutes. A career highlight came during the Ottawa Senators' debut season of 1992-93, when Maciver led the team in scoring with 17 goals and 46 assists for 63 points in 80 games. In the spring of 1996, he scored the final goal in Winnipeg Jets' history prior to the team's relocation to Phoenix in the sixth game of a first round playoff series against the Detroit Red Wings. After retirement he became an assistant coach for the American Hockey League's Springfield Falcons from 2000 to 2003, and then the NHL's Boston Bruins from 2003 to 2006.
Maciver is currently an amateur scout with the NHL's Chicago Blackhawks.
Shortening
Shortening is a semisolid fat used in baking. It makes foods crumbly. Shortening doesn't smoke as easily as butter or oil, and it is 100% fat. Butter is 80% fat. It works by stopping long gluten polymers from forming in the food. It does not need to be refrigerated. It also is cheaper than butter. It can make foods last longer.
Shortening is made from hydrogenated oils, which have trans fats in them. Trans fats can cause heart attacks. People making shortening try to take out the trans fats.
Semisolid