Gilbert was given the 1980 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, shared with Frederick Sanger and Paul Berg. Gilbert and Sanger were recognized for their pioneering work in devising methods for determining the sequence of nucleotides in a nucleic acid.
Among many other awards, Gilbert was made a Foreign Member of the Royal Society in 1987.
Optic chiasma
The optic chiasma, or 'optic chiasm', is the part of the brain where the optic nerves (CN II) partially cross. The optic chiasm is located at the bottom of the brain immediately below the hypothalamus.
The images on the nasal (inner) sides of each retina cross over to the opposite side of the brain via the optic nerve at the optic chiasm. The temporal (outer) images, on the other hand, stay on the same side. This allows the images from either side of the visual field to go to the appropriate side of the brain, combining the sides together.
Beyond the optic chiasm, with crossed and uncrossed fibers, optic nerves become optic tracts.
The crossing over of optic nerve fibres at the optic chiasma allows the visual cortex to receive the same hemispheric visual field from both eyes.
The optic chiasma is found in all vertebrates.
Chimaera (fish)
Chimaeras are cartilaginous fish in the order Chimaeriformes. They are sometimes known informally as 'ghost sharks'.
They may be the "oldest and most enigmatic groups of fishes alive today". Their closest living relatives are sharks, though in evolutionary terms they branched off from sharks nearly 400 million years ago and have remained isolated ever since.
At one time they were a diverse and abundant group, as shown by the fossil record. They are now found mainly to deep water. There are fifty living species in six genera and three families. Studying the evolution of these species has been problematic because there are few good fossils. DNA sequences have become the preferred approach to understanding speciation.
The order appeared about 420 million years ago during the Silurian. The three living families seem to have diverged during the late Jurassic to early Cretaceous (170–120 million years ago.
They do not have shark-like skin or teeth. They have smooth scales on their bodies, and three pairs of grinding tooth plates. They have a poisonous spine on their backs between the head and the dorsal fin.
Otherwise, they are rather like other Chondrichthyes. They have skeletons are made of cartilage. They use claspers for internal fertilization of females. They lay eggs with leathery cases. They use electroreception to find their prey, which is also common in rays.
Mainframe computer
Mainframes (also called "big iron") are powerful computers used for large information processing jobs. They are mainly used by government institutions and large companies for tasks such as census, industry and consumer statistics, enterprise resource planning, and financial transaction processing. Mainframe computers are specially used as servers on the World Wide Web (WWW). They are distinct from supercomputers.
The term originally referred to the large cabinets that housed the central processing unit and main memory of early computers. Later the term was used to distinguish very big computers from less powerful ones ("minicomputers" or "personal computers").
Heavy Petting Zoo
Heavy Petting Zoo is the sixth studio album by American punk rock band, NOFX. "Heavy Petting Zoo" was released on January 31, 1996. The producers of the album were Ryan Greene and NOFX. The title of the album is a combination of the words "heavy petting" and "petting zoo".
So Long and Thanks for All the Shoes
So Long and Thanks for All the Shoes is the seventh studio album by American punk rock band, NOFX. "So Long and Thanks for All the Shoes" was released on November 11, 1997. The producers of the album were Ryan Greene and Fat Mike. The title of the album comes from the title of the fourth book of Douglas Adams's "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy" series, "So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish" and the common practice of punk rock fans when they throw shoes lost by crowd surfers on stage.
Pump Up the Valuum
Pump Up the Valuum is the eighth studio album by American punk rock band, NOFX. "Pump Up the Valuum" was released on June 13, 2000. The producers of the album were Ryan Greene and Fat Mike. The title of the album is purposely spelled wrong to avoid a lawsuit with Valium and is a play on words.
Youth
Youth is the opposite of elderly. When something is new, it can be called young. Sometimes "young" is only for living things, and things that are not alive are "new". The word youth is often used to describe young people from the beginning of the teen years to the beginning of adulthood.
Old can refer to someone or something's age.
Young can mean that something is current to date or well before its "best by" date.
Different things lose their youth or grow old at different rates. For example, some machines are only be considered young for roughly one year. There are laws about the age of majority when young teenagers are legally treated as adults. Even after that age, these youth may still be seen as immature. This is because complete mental and emotional development is not done until around age 21, and because many young people have not yet had adult life experiences.
For some people, youth is an obsession. They want to look young. Because of this, they use various products like face cream and plastic surgery, to stop or slow their looking older. The ""Fountain of Youth"" was a popular myth, and people thought that if you took water from the fountain, you would never be old. Now however, we know that this "was" a myth, and it was not magical at all.
Simplified molecular input line entry specification
The simplified molecular input line entry specification or SMILES is a line notation for the chemical structure of molecules. It uses a short series ASCII characters to represent structures. Most molecule editor computer programs can draw a two-dimensional diagram or a three-dimensional model of a molecule based on its SMILES code.
Arthur Weininger and David Weininger wrote the original SMILES specification in the late 1980s. It has since been modified and extended by others, including by Daylight Chemical Information Systems Inc. In 2007, the Blue Obelisk open-source chemistry community developed an open standard called "OpenSMILES".
In July 2006, the IUPAC introduced the InChI as a standard line notation for representing chemical structures. People think that it is easier for humans to understand SMILES than InChI. Some chemists argue that SMILES is better than InChI because many different software programs support it. SMILES also has theoretical (for example, graph theory) backing.
SMILES can be converted back to 2-dimensional representations using Structure Diagram Generation algorithms. This conversion can sometimes be ambiguous. Because SMILES just says which atoms are connected without any information about the angles between chemical bonds, computer programs use energy minimization to convert SMILES to 3-dimensional representations. There are many downloadable and web-based conversion utilities.
Here are some examples of the SMILES for molecules:
Insulin resistance
Insulin resistance is a serious condition in which insulin becomes less able to lower the level of glucose (sugar) in the blood. Usually, insulin helps sugar move out of the blood and into the body's cells. In the cells, the body can use sugar to make energy. If this does not happen correctly, too much sugar stays in the blood. This is called hyperglycemia. If the blood glucose level is above normal for a long time, this can lead to major health problems.
Insulin resistance often causes certain types of diabetes mellitus, especially type 2 diabetes or latent autoimmune diabetes of adults. A condition called 'metabolic syndrome' is strongly tied to insulin resistance.
Cheminformatics