Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers () was a general encyclopedia published in France between 1751 and 1772. The full title was "Encyclopédie, ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, par une société de gens de lettres, mis en ordre par M. Diderot de l'Académie des Sciences et Belles-Lettres de Prusse, et quant à la partie mathématique, par M. d'Alembert de l'Académie royale des Sciences de Paris, de celle de Prusse et de la Société royale de Londres."
The "Encyclopédie" was the first encyclopedia to include contributions from many people, and it was the first to include applied science and engineering. Still, the "Encyclopédie" is famous above all for representing the thought of the Enlightenment. According to Denis Diderot in the article "Encyclopédie", the "Encyclopédie"'s aim was "to change the way people think."
The "Encyclopédie" was conceived as a translation of Ephraim Chambers's "Cyclopaedia" (1728). In 1743, the translation was given by the Parisian book publisher André Le Breton to John Mills, an Englishman living in France. In May 1745, Le Breton announced the work as available for sale, but Mills had not done the work. Le Breton beat Mills with a cane. Mills sued for assault, but Le Breton was set free because he was justified. For his new editor, Le Breton chose mathematician Jean Paul de Gua de Malves. In August 1747, Gua de Malves was fired for being a poor leader. Le Breton then hired Diderot and Jean d'Alembert as the new editors. Diderot would remain editor for the next twenty-five years, seeing the "Encyclopédie" through to completion.
Many of the most noted figures of the French Enlightenment contributed to the "Encyclopédie", including Voltaire, Rousseau, and Baron d'Holbach. The most prolific contributor wrote 17,266 articles, or about eight per day, between 1759 and 1765.
Approximate size of the "Encyclopédie":
Print run: 4,250 copies (note: even single-volume works in the 18th Century seldom had a print run of more than 1,500 copies)
Denis Diderot
Denis Diderot (; 5 October 1713 – 31 July 1784) was a French philosopher, art critic and writer. He was a known figure during the Enlightenment. He is best known for serving as co-founder, chief editor and contributor to the "Encyclopédie" along with Jean le Rond d'Alembert.
Diderot died from pulmonary thrombosis in Paris, aged 70.
2 Baruch
2 Baruch is a text that was written in the late first century, or the early second century CE. It was probably written after the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem, in 70 CE, and before the second Roman-Jewish War, 132-135 CE. It is attributed to Baruch ben Neriah and is included in some editions of the Old Testament and the Peshitta, but neither Jews nor Christians regard it as scripture. The Syrian Orthodox Church includes it in the Bible. The text has 87 sections and is also known as Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch and Letter of Baruch to the Nine and a Half Tribes.
Rhysling Award
The Rhysling Awards are a prize given each year for the best poem from science fiction, fantasy, or horror. Most awards for writing are named for the creator of the award, the subject of the award, or an important person. The Rhyslings are named for a character in a science fiction story: the blind poet Rhysling, in Robert A. Heinlein's short story "The Green Hills of Earth". Two awards are given: "Best Long Poem", for poetry of 50 or more lines, and "Best Short Poem", for works of 49 or fewer lines.
The members of the Science Fiction Poetry Association (SFPA) choose several possible winners (nominees) for each year's Rhysling Awards. Each member may name one work that should win in each category. All of the nominees are published in a book called "The Rhysling Anthology". Members of the Association then vote on the final winners. Since 2005, the Awards have been presented in July at a ceremony at Readercon. The "Best Short Poem" category allows very short poems to be entered. However, the SFPA also has the Dwarf Stars Award for poems from one to ten lines.
Northbourne
Northbourne is a village and civil parish near Deal in Kent, England. In 2001 there were 793 people living in Northbourne.
Huntshaw
Huntshaw is a village and civil parish in Torridge, Devon, England. In 2001 there were 120 people living in Huntshaw.
East Bergholt
East Bergholt is a village and civil parish in Babergh, Suffolk, England. In 2001, there were 2,689 people living in East Bergholt.
West Bergholt
West Bergholt is a village and civil parish in Colchester district, Essex, England. In 2001 there were 3,294 people living in West Bergholt.
Wormingford
Wormingford is a village and civil parish in Colchester district, Essex, England. In 2001 there were 459 people living in Wormingford.
Stanstead, Suffolk
Stanstead is a village and civil parish in Babergh, Suffolk, England. In 2001, there were 316 people living in Stanstead.
Civil parishes in England
In England, a civil parish is a unit of local government. Civil parishes are the lowest tier of local government, below districts and counties. It is an administrative parish, in comparison to an ecclesiastical (church) parish.
The parish council can decide to call itself a town, village, neighbourhood or community; and in a limited number of cases has city status granted by the monarch. Civil parishes only cover part of England; about 35% of the population.
There are currently no civil parishes in Greater London, and before 2008 their creation was not permitted within a London Borough.
The creation of ancient parishes was linked to the manorial system. The parishes often shared the same boundaries as the manor of the local lord. At first the manor was the main unit of local administration and justice in the early rural economy. Eventually the church replaced the manor court as the rural administrative centre and levied a local tax on produce known as a tithe. Responsibilitfor things such as relief of the poor passed from the Lord of the Manor to the church, but in practice it was administered by monasteries. After the dissolution of the monasteries, the power to charge (levy) a rate to fund relief of the poor was given to the parish authorities by the 1601 Act for the Relief of the Poor.
The parish authorities were known as vestries and were made up of all the inhabitants of the parish. As the population was growing it became increasingly difficult to hold meetings as an open vestry. In some, mostly built up, areas the select vestry took over responsibility from the community at large. This innovation improved efficiency, but allowed governance by a self-perpetuating elite. The administration of the parish system relied on the monopoly of the Church of England. As religious membership became more fractured, such as through the revival of Methodism, the legitimacy of the parish vestry came into question and the perceived inefficiency and corruption inherent in the system became a source for concern. Because of this scepticism, during early the 19th century the parish progressively lost its powers to ad-hoc boards and other organisations, such as the loss of responsibility for poor relief through the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834. The replacement boards were each able to levy their own rate in the parish. The church rate ceased to be levied in many areas and was abolished altogether in 1868.
The ancient parishes split into two distinct units during the 19th century. The Poor Law Amendment Act 1866 declared that all areas that levied a separate rate —extra-parochial areas, townships, and chapelries— become civil parishes as well. The parishes for church use continued unchanged as ecclesiastical parishes. The latter part of the 19th century saw most of the ancient irregularities inherited by the civil system cleaned up, with the majority of exclaves abolished.