The Newton metre is the unit of moment in the SI system. It is abbreviated N·m, and sometimes written with hyphen "newton-metre". It is a compound unit of torque corresponding to the torque from a force of one newton applied over a distance arm of one metre.
A newton metre is dimensionally equivalent to a joule.
Gamma ray
Gamma rays (γ-rays) are electromagnetic waves with the smallest wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum. They were discovered in 1900 by Paul Villard, and named in 1903 by Ernest Rutherford.
Gamma rays are like x-rays, but the waves are smaller in wavelength. Both gamma rays and x-rays are photons with very high energies, and gamma have even more energy. They are also a type of ionizing radiation. Gamma rays can travel through thicker materials than x-rays can.
Gamma rays are produced by some types of radioactive atoms. Cobalt-60 and potassium-40 are two isotopes that emit gamma rays. Cobalt-60 is created in accelerators and is used in hospitals. Potassium-40 occurs naturally. Small amounts of potassium-40 are in all plants and animals. Gamma rays from potassium-40 each have an energy of 1460 thousand electron volts (keV).
Gamma rays and X-rays can also be distinguished by their origin: X-rays are emitted by electrons outside the nucleus, while gamma rays are emitted by the nucleus.
Gamma rays can also go through the skin to kill cells, such as cancerous cells.
Doctors can use radiation therapy machines which produce gamma rays in hospitals to treat people with some types of cancer.
Doctors also use gamma rays to find disease. In hospitals, doctors can give patients radioactive medicine which emits gamma rays. Doctors can find some types of disease by measuring gamma rays which come from a patient afterward. Hospitals can also use gamma rays to sterilise (clean) things as disinfectants do.
Cynicism
Cynicism is a philosophy started by the Cynics, Ancient Greek philosophers. It was started by Antisthenes in the 5th century BC. The main points the cynics wanted to make was that man had no needs. At the same time, they were against possessing material goods. They also were against prejudices such as being ashamed of being naked. Diogenes of Sinope made the cynics extend their views and combine them with that of other schools of philosophy, like the stoa. They also integrated elements of Greek mythology.
Today, the word 'cynicism' generally describes the opinions and actions of those who believe that self-interest is the primary motive of human behavior. These persons, called "cynics", shy away from relying upon sincerity, human virtue, or altruism as motivations.
Sonic the Hedgehog (TV series)
Sonic the Hedgehog is the name of a cartoon series, starring Sonic the Hedgehog. It is more popularly known as "SatAM Sonic", especially to distinguish itself from other similarly-named animated shows that also star Sonic.
This series was made by DiC Entertainment, and originally ran on ABC from September 18, 1993 to June 3, 1995, and had a total of 26 episodes, at 13 episodes per season.
The show starred Sonic the Hedgehog, and the Knothole Freedom Fighters, a group of woodland animals united to fight the evil Doctor Robotnik, who has taken over the entire planet.
Roman Servile Wars
The Servile Wars were a series of three slave revolts in the late Roman Republic. See:
Plutarch
Mestrius Plutarchus (; "c." 46 – 127), better known in English as Plutarch, was a Greek historian, and writer of biographies and essays.
Plutarch was born into a well-known family in "Chaeronea", "Boeotia" Greece, a town about twenty miles east of Delphi. His works are "Parallel Lives" and "Moralia".
Crassus
Marcus Licinius Crassus (c. 115 BC – 53 BC) was a Roman general and politician.
He commanded the left wing of Sulla's army at the Battle of the Colline Gate. It was he who finally suppressed the slave revolt led by Spartacus. The Third Servile War began with three defeats of Roman armies against Spartacus and his followers. The revolt was finally destroyed by the concentrated military effort of a single commander, Marcus Licinius Crassus.
The last stage of his career was as a "triumvir", one of the First Triumvirate, with Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus and Gaius Julius Caesar. One of the richest men of the era, he was killed after a defeat at the Battle of Carrhae. His death led to the civil wars between Julius Caesar and Pompey, the other two triumvirs.
When Crassus formed his army, in addition to six new legions, he was given other legions which had been beaten by Spartacus. He decimated them. This was the brutal method of executing "one man in ten" to encourage the others to fight harder. Each group of ten men drew lots to decide who would die. This punishment had not been used since the early days of Rome.
Crassus's punishment of Spartacus's surviving men was just as brutal. They were crucified.
Crassus arranged to govern the Roman province of Syria, with the transparent intention of going to war with Parthia. In fact, he set out on a war against Parthia, using his own money, and without the Senate's official approval.
After being informed of the presence of the Parthian army, Crassus panicked. His general Cassius recommended that the army be deployed in the traditional Roman fashion, with infantry forming the center and cavalry on the wings. At first Crassus agreed, but he soon changed his mind and redeployed his men into a hollow square, each side formed by twelve cohorts. This formation would protect his forces from being outflanked, but at the cost of mobility.
The day went badly for the Romans, who were repeatedly outflanked by the Parthian cavalry. The next day they received a message, offering to negotiate with Crassus. A truce was proposed, allowing the Roman army to return to Syria safely, in exchange for Rome giving up all territory east of the Euphrates. Crassus was reluctant to meet with the Parthians, but his troops threatened to mutiny if he did not. At the meeting, a Parthian pulled at Crassus' reins, sparking violence. Crassus and his generals were murdered. After his death, the Parthians allegedly poured molten gold down his throat, in a symbolic gesture mocking Crassus' renowned greed. The remaining Romans at Carrhae attempted to flee, but most were captured or killed. Roman casualties amounted to about 20,000 killed and 10,000 captured, making the battle one of the costliest defeats in Roman history. Parthian casualties were minimal.
Pompey
Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (29 September 106 BC – 28 September 48 BC), otherwise known as Pompey () or Pompey the Great, was an important military and political leader of the late Roman Republic.
Coming from an Italian provincial background, he secured a place for himself in the ranks of Roman nobility, and was given the nickname "Magnus" ("the Great") by Lucius Cornelius Sulla.
Pompey was a rival of Marcus Licinius Crassus and an ally to Gaius Julius Caesar. Together, the three politicians would dominate the Late Roman republic through a political alliance called the First Triumvirate. After the deaths of Julia and Crassus (54 BC), disputes between Pompey and Caesar over the leadership of the Roman Republic lead to civil war. Pompey was decisively beaten by Caesar at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC, whereupon he fled to Egypt, where he was assassinated.
In the beginning, Pompey said he could defeat Caesar and raise armies merely by stamping his foot on the soil of Italy, but in the spring of 49 BC, Caesar crossed the Rubicon and his legions swept down the peninsula. Pompey abandoned Rome, and took his legions south towards Brundisium. Pompey intended build up his army, and wage war against Caesar in the east. Neither Pompey nor the Senate thought of taking the vast treasury with them, probably thinking Caesar would not dare take it for himself. It was left in the Temple of Saturn when Caesar and his forces entered Rome.