The end of the Republic is still a matter of dispute; different scholars will give different dates for it. Usually, the dates of the start of the First Triumvirate or the Second Triumvirate are given. (The Triumvirates were groups of three men who had much power)
The end of the Republic is often said to be when Gaius Julius Caesar was appointed as dictator (single ruler) by the Roman Senate. This happened after a series of civil wars that lasted from about 49 BC to the year 44 BC.
Some people say the Republic ended with the naval Battle of Actium between Marcus Antonius and Octavian. They both had been in the Second Triumvirate. It was fought on 2 September 31 BC. Octavian won. Later on, he was proclaimed Roman Emperor. The end date could also be when Octavian was given the title of the first "Augustus" by the Senate. This was on 16 January 27 BC.
These are modern views though. In the view of the early emperors, the "Res Publica" (Republic, literally "Thing of the People") still existed. It was simply "under their protection". They promised that some day that the Republic would restored to its original form. This never happened, and so scholars divide the Roman Empire and the Roman Republic as two different, distinct periods of the history of Rome.
First Triumvirate
The First Triumvirate is the name most historians give to the political alliance between Gaius Julius Caesar, Marcus Licinius Crassus and Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey). They made it in 60 BC to give each other power. Each person helped the others to be more powerful.
Caesar was able to gain money from Crassus to finance his public works campaign. He also gained military power from Pompey's loyal legions. Crassus, who was much envied and hated for his wealth and the means he used to attain it, was also able to gain popularity from Pompey as well as Caesar who had a loyal following in the plebeian class. Pompey was grateful to Caesar for his support against slander in the senate. Caesar's speeches in the senate were in favor of giving the newly conquered land to Pompey's returned legions. Pompey and Crassus ended their old grudge that dated back to the Third Servile War because they realised the advantages they allowed each other. To cement the Triumvirate, Crassus told Caesar's numerous debt holders that he would pay Caesar's loans if Caesar defaulted. Pompey married Caesar's only child, Julia. The Triumvirate lasted until Crassus' death in the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC.
Caesar and Pompey started fighting. Caesar won at the Battle of Pharsalus. Caesar became dictator in the year 44 BC.
Second Triumvirate
The Second Triumvirate was an alliance between Octavian, Mark Antony and Lepidus. It was formed to punish the conspirators who assassinated Julius Caesar.
The Triumvirate lasted from 43 BC to 33 BC. It ended the effort by Marcus Tullius Cicero to make the Senate once again the top body of the Republic. From then on Rome was ruled by an Emperor.
The Triumvirate army, led by Octavian and Mark Antony, defeated the Conspirators' army led by Cassius and Brutus. The war ended with the Battle of Philippi in Roman Macedonia in 42 BC. Cassius and Brutus committed suicide and the remainder of their army joined the Triumvirate forces.
Occam's razor
Occam's razor (or Ockham's razor) is a principle from philosophy. Suppose an event has two possible explanations. The explanation that requires the fewest assumptions is usually correct. Another way of saying it is that the more assumptions you have to make, the more unlikely an explanation. Occam's razor applies especially in the philosophy of science, but also appears in everyday life.
William of Ockham, a Franciscan friar who studied logic in the 14th century, first made this principle well known. In Latin it is sometimes called lex parsimoniae, or "the law of briefness". William of Ockham supposedly (see below) wrote it in Latin:
This translates roughly:
This means if there are several possible ways something might have happened, the way which uses the fewest guesses is probably the correct one. However, Occam's razor only applies when the simple explanation and complex explanation both work equally well. If a more complex explanation does a better job than a simpler one, then you should use the complex explanation.
A problem with Occam's razor is that the sentence is not really about things ("entia" = entities), but about explanations or hypotheses. Other thinkers have come up with other versions:
In science, Occam's razor is used as an heuristic (general guiding rule or an observation) to guide scientists.
Example: Two trees have fallen down during a windy night. Think about these two possible explanations:
Even though both are possible, several other unlikely things would also need to happen for the meteorites to have knocked the trees down, for example: they would have to hit each other and not leave any marks. In addition, meteorites are fairly rare. Since this second explanation needs several assumptions to all be true, it is probably the wrong answer. Occam's razor tells us the wind blew the trees down, because this is the simplest answer therefore probably the right one.
Example: A person is standing on the top of a roof and dropping a feather. In calculating how long it takes for the feather to reach the ground, to make the maths simpler, one might make an assumption: that the effect of air resistance can be ignored. This assumption makes the problem simpler, but is unlikely to lead to a good prediction as to the time it will take for the feather to fall. Thus, making the assumption that air resistance can be ignored is in this case not the "simplest" in concept, but the simplest in other respects (in this case, the maths). "Not" making the assumption here "is" the "simplest" in concept because it involves making fewer assumptions.
Occam's razor also comes up in medicine. When there are many explanations for symptoms, the simplest diagnosis is the one to test first. If a child has a runny nose, it probably has the common cold rather than a rare birth defect. Medical students are often told, "When you hear hoof beats, think horses, not zebras".
Rio Grande do Sul
Rio Grande do Sul is a Brazilian state. It is in Southern Brazil. It has common borders with Uruguay to the south, and Argentina to the west. It has a very high standard of living. Its capital city is Porto Alegre. About 10 million people live in the state. The surface area of Rio Grande do Sul is about 282,000 square kilometres.
Turbofolk
Turbofolk or Pop-folk is a style of music from the Balkans that was invented in the early 1990s. It mostly comes from Greece, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro, but it is also popular in other nearby countries. It sounds like a mix of Arabic-style singing (in the Serbian language) with electronic music and rock music.
Turbofolk is sometimes associated with the recent Balkan wars and the Breakup of Yugoslavia but it is still popular.
Bérurier Noir
Bérurier Noir are a French punk band which formed in Paris in 1983. It is made up of Loran (guitar), François (vocals) and Dede (drum machine). In 1985 Masto joined, playing the saxophone. They sing about French politics and anarchism. They are one of the most famous French punk bands.
Roman Britain
Roman Britain ("Britannia") was the part of Great Britain in the Roman Empire from AD 43 to 409 or 410.
The first invasion was led by Julius Caesar, in the days of the Roman Republic. He defeated the dominant Catuvellauni tribe in 54 BC near Wheathampstead in Hertfordshire.
Their capital was taken over by the Romans. Trouble in Gaul (mainly modern France & Belgium) prevented Caesar from staying in Britain. The full conquest of Britain was delayed for almost a century.
In 43 AD, the Emperor Claudius sent an invasion force, led by Aulus Plautius, a distinguished senator. He was given four legions, totalling about 20,000 men, plus about the same number of helpers The legions were: