She held a lecturership in palaeobotany at the University of Manchester from 1904 to 1907; she was first female academic of that university. In 1910, at the age of 30, she became a Fellow of University College London. She had reached the top of the tree. Not only was she a palaeobotanist, but she was an expert on the botany of the coal measures which were laid down in the Pennsylvanian (Upper Carboniferous). Coal was the most vital source of energy at that time.
Stopes continued to publish on botany until 1935, but by about 1912 her interests began to change because of problems in her private life.
After a disastrous marriage, Stopes became aware of how ignorant many people were about sex, and what troubles women had inside marriage. Her goals were: improved happiness through better knowledge, and the protection of female health by controlling the pregnancies which naturally occurred in marriage.
Stopes' first book on family planning, "Married Love: a new contribution to the solution of the sex difficulties", 1918, ran to 28 editions and over 150 reprints. It was translated into 14 languages, and braille. The English-language version sold over a million copies, and made her rich.
The social effects of the book were tremendous. No-one can say why social changes take place, yet attitudes to sex and marriage certainly changed during her life. Between the first edition of her book and the last, the women of the Europe and North America changed from almost no birth control to most using birth control. This was despite the opposition of the Catholic Church and other forces.
Also, there has been a continuous improvement in knowledge about sex and in medical attention to female needs in relation to birth. The availability of knowledge on all subjects relating to personal life has continued to improve.
Later in 1918 Stopes published a second book, "Wise Parenthood: a sequel". This ran to 25 editions and many reprints. in 1919 came "A letter to working mothers on how to have healthy children and avoid weakening pregnancies". The stream of books and pamphlets continued to the end of her life.
Stopes opened the UK's first family planning clinic at 61, Marlborough Road, Holloway, North London on 17 March 1921. In 1925 the Mothers' Clinic moved to Central London, where it remains to this day.
The parent body of Marie Stopes Clinics round the world is now called Marie Stopes International. It is especially strong in Bangladesh and Pakistan.
Stopes had a relationship with Japanese botanist Kenjiro Fujii (or Fugii). They met at the University of Munich in 1904 whilst she researched her Ph.D. It was serious, and in 1907 she went to be with him in Japan. However, the affair ended there.
In 1911 Stopes married Canadian botanist and geneticist Reginald Ruggles Gates. It was a disaster which changed her life. She got a divorce on the grounds that the marriage was never consummated. Her marriage to Gates was annulled in 1914.
In 1918 she married Humphrey Verdon Roe. He was the financial backer of her most famous work, "Married Love".
Stopes died at her home in Dorking, Surrey, UK from breast cancer.
École normale supérieure
École normale supérieure is the name for a number of French higher education bodies "grand école"s, comparable to universities. In France, universities have to accept all students with a baccalaureat. This is different for the so called Grandes Ecoles, which includes the Ecoles normales supérieures. These schools do not have the obligation to accept anyone, and only a select few can attend studies at these institutions, most of whom will become part of the elite in various areas. Universities have faculties, and each faculty is responsible for one branch of studies. the ENS usually group similar subjects at one school, and do not have faculties.
Malaysia at the Olympics
Malaysia was first at the Olympic Games in 1956.
The International Olympic Committee's official abbreviation for Malaysia was MAL. It is now MAS.
Teams from Malaysia have been in every Summer Olympic Games since 1956, except the boycotted 1980 Summer Olympics. Malaysia has never been in the Winter Olympic Games.
As the Federation of Malaya, the nation was named"Malaya" (MAL) for the 1956 and 1960 Games. North Borneo sent an independent team to the 1956 Games, and Singapore had also competed at the Olympics from 1948 to 1960. After these British colonies formed an independent "Malaysia" in 1963, the nation competed under that name for the first time at the 1964 Summer Olympics. Singapore regained independence from Malaysia in 1965 and competed once again as Singapore at the Olympics from 1968 onwards.
Malaysian athletes have won a total of six Olympic medals. Most are in badminton.
The National Olympic Committee for Malaysia was formed in 1953 and recognized by the International Olympic Committee in 1954.
Maldives at the Olympics
The Maldives were first at the Olympic Games in 1988. They have been in every Summer Olympic Games since then. The nation has never been in the Winter Olympic Games.
As of 2011, the Maldives has not won any medals at the Olympics.
The National Olympic Committee for Maldives was formed in 1985 and recognized by the International Olympic Committee that same year.
Mongolia at the Olympics
Mongolia at the Olympics is a history which began in 1956.
The International Olympic Committee's official abbreviation for Mongolia is MGL.
A team from Mongolia was first at the Olympic Games in 1964. They have been in every Summer Olympic Games since then, except the boycotted 1984 Summer Olympics.
Mongolia has also been in the Winter Olympic Games since 1964. They have missed only the 1976 Winter Games.
Mongolian athletes have won a total of nineteen medals, all in Summer Olympics competitions.
The Mongolian National Olympic Committee was formed in 1956 and recognized by the International Olympic Committee in 1962.
Myanmar at the Olympics
Myanmar, also known as "Burma", was first at the Olympic Games in 1948.
The International Olympic Committee's official abbreviation for Myanmar is MYA. In 1964, it was BUR for Burma.
Athletes from this country have been in every Summer Olympic Games since then, except for the 1976 Games. The nation has never been in the Winter Olympic Games. Since the 1992 Games, the nation has been named "Myanmar" in Olympic competition.
As of 2011, no Burmese athlete has ever won an Olympic medal.
The National Olympic Committee for Myanmar was formed in 1947 and recognized by the International Olympic Committee that same year.
Nepal at the Olympics
Nepal at the Olympics is a history which began in 1963.
The International Olympic Committee's official abbreviation for Nepal is NEP.
Nepal has been in eleven Summer Olympic Games, and in three Winter Olympic Games.
The country has never won an official Olympic medal. Bidhan Lama won a bronze medal at the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, when taekwondo was an exhibition sport.
The Nepal Olympic Committee was formed in 1962 and recognized in 1963.
Oman at the Olympics
Oman at the Olympics is a history which includes 8 games in 7 countries and 30+ athletes. Since 1982, Oman has contributed to the growth of the "Olympic Movement".
The International Olympic Committee's official abbreviation for Oman is OMA.
Teams from Oman have taken part in the Summer Olympic Games but not the Winter Olympic Games. No Oman athlete has won an Olympic medal.
The Oman Olympic Committee was formed and recognized in 1982.
Pakistan at the Olympics
Pakistan at the Olympics is a history which includes 17 games in 13 countries and 300+ athletes. Since 1948, Pakistan has contributed to the growth of the "Olympic Movement".
The International Olympic Committee's official abbreviation for Pakistan is PAK.
The Pakistan National Olympic Committee was formed in 1948. It was recognized by the International Olympic Committee in 1948.
Pakistan's team first competed at the 1948 Summer Olympics in London.