The wars left England, Scotland and Ireland all as part of the Commonwealth of England, one of the few countries in Europe without a monarch. After the wars ended, Cromwell disbanded the Rump Parliament and took over the country. He chose to be "Lord Protector" rather than King, because he did not think the country needed another king. His government was called "the Protectorate" or "the Commonwealth". The period from 1649 to 1660 is also called the English Interregnum (meaning gap between kings).
Oliver Cromwell ruled the country until he died in 1658. Cromwell's son, Richard, took over as Lord Protector. However, the Army did not think he was a good ruler. After seven months, the Army removed Richard, and in May 1659 it re-installed the Rump Parliament. However, the Army did not get on with the Rump Parliament either and disbanded them a second time. There were fears that England would not have a proper government.
George Monck, a key leader in the Army, arranged for a new Parliament to be elected. On 8 May 1660, the new Parliament decided to restore the monarchy with Charles II as the king. He returned to England later that month. This event is known as the English Restoration. Scotland and Ireland went back to being separate countries and the pre-war churches returned.
Although the monarchy returned, the Civil War had long-lasting effects. The war made it clear that an English monarch could not rule without the support of Parliament. The law was not changed to limit the monarch's power (this was done after the 1688 Glorious Revolution). But historians consider the Civil War to be stage on England and Scotland's long journeys from rule by one king to becoming a democracy.
In Ireland, the defeat of the rebellion strengthened the power of the Protestants. This was one of the reasons why Ireland would be ruled by Protestants from the late 17th century until the 20th century, even though most Irish people were Catholic.
The English Civil War was fought with "pike and shot" tactics. These were used in most wars from the late 15th century to the late 17th century. Armies were divided into three main groups:
At first, the Royalists had a better cavalry. Their riders were faster and more skilled. Prince Rupert had fought in the Eighty Years War in The Netherlands and used the lessons learned there to improve his cavalry. However, sometimes the Royalist cavalry failed to work as a team. At the Battle of Edgehill, many of them decided to chase fleeing soldiers or steal from the Parliamentarian baggage wagons. The Royalists might have won this battle if their cavalry had stayed together.
Cromwell's "Ironside" cavalry were slower, but worked better as a team. They helped the Parliamentarians win some key battles. The Parliamentarians sometimes had a problem that pikemen would run away when cavalry charged at them. Cromwell and Fairfax trained them to stay in place.
Urdu
Urdu , also known as Lashkari or the Lashkari language (لشکری ‍زبان) is the national language of Pakistan and a recognized regional language in India. It is spoken as a lingua franca by the majority of people in Pakistan And it is also Spoken in some Parts of India like the states of Delhi, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. With Exceptions of numerous Vocabulary Words, Phrases or Tone of Speaking some words are similar to spoken Hindi. When Written, it is Written Completely Different from Hindi. That is why speakers of Hindi and Urdu can have a conversation with one another, but they cannot read or write Urdu or Hindi Letters to one another.
Urdu was believed to have developed in 11th century in the Mughal Sultanate, Urdu is evolved from Turkish and Persian. The origin of the name Urdu is the Turkish language's word for a crowd or lashkar, "Ordu".
Urdu uses the Persia-Arabic alphabet and relies heavily on Persian vocabulary with influences from Turkish and Arabic as well. The poet Ghulam Hamadani Mushafi coined the term Urdu for this language in 1780. In India Hindus used to speak and write Hindi, whereas Muslims would begin to speak and write Urdu.
in 1882 Arya Samaj argued that, Urdu should be written in the Devanagari/Sanskrit script, which started the controversy named, Hindi-Urdu controversy, and makes a divide of Urdu language, Urdu for Muslims, and Hindi for Hindus.
The letters in Urdu are derived from the Persian/Farsi alphabet, which is derived from the Arabic alphabet. The additional letters that are found in Urdu include ٹ ,ڈ ,ڑ (ṫ, ḋ, ṙ). To make the alphabet more enriched two letters were created for sounds ه (h) and ی (y). By adding these letters to the existing Persian letters the Urdu alphabet became more suitable for the people of Pakistan and North India.
Urdu is written right to left like Farsi (Persian) script. Urdu is also written in the Nasta’ liq style of Persian Calligraphy. Nastaliq style is a cursive script invented by Mīr ʿAlī of Tabrīz, a very famous calligrapher during the Timurid period (1402–1502).
Urdu in its less formalized register has been called a "rekhta" (ریختہ, ), meaning "rough mixture". The more formal register of Urdu is sometimes called "zabān-e-Urdu-e-mo'alla" (زبان اردو معلہ ), the "Language of Camp and Court."
In local translation, it is called "Lashkari Zabān" ( []) meaning "a language of crowds" or "language made up of many languages" or "military language". This can be shortened to "Lashkari".
The etymology of the word used in the Urdu language for the most part decides how nice or well done your speech is. For example, Urdu speakers would distinguish between پانی "pānī" and آب "āb", both meaning "water" for example, or between آدمی "ādmi" and مرد "mard", meaning "man." The first word is ad derivative from Adam (آدم) Arabic mean from Adam and it can be used for both man and woman in place of human being. Second word مرد "mard" refers to a gender or can be used for manly hood as well.
If a word is of Persian or Arabic origin, the level of speech is thought to be more formal. If Persian or Arabic grammar constructs, such as the izafat, are used in Urdu, the level of speech is also thought more formal and correct. If a word is inherited from Turkish, the level of speech is thought more colloquial and personal. The reason perhaps is the Turks influence over India deeming Sanskrit to be a lesser language than Persian or Urdu itself. For the longest time Persian was also official language of Mughul ruled territories.
Urdu is supposed to be a well formed language; many of words are used in it to show respect and politeness. This emphasis on politeness, which comes from the vocabulary, is known as Aadab ( Courteous ) and to sometimes as takalluf (Formal) in Urdu. These words are mostly used when addressing elders, or people with whom one is not met yet. Just like "French Vous and Tu. Upon studying French and other forms of Language similar formal language construct are present. The whole grammatical layout appears to be almost identical to French language structure. The rules to form sentences and structuring them are identical"
Two very respected poets who are not only celebrated in the South Asian subcontinent but are famous in many other communities worldwide are Mirza Ghalib and Sir Dr Muhammed Iqbal.
Ghalib (1797-1869) is famous for his classic satire and sarcasm as seen in the following verse;
(Latin/Roma alphabet):
"Umer bhar hum yun hee ghalati kartey rahen Ghalib"
"Dhool ch-herey pei thee aur hum aaina saaf karte rahe"
(translation):
"O Ghalib (himself) all my life I kept making the same mistakes over and over,"
"I was busy cleaning the mirror while the dirt was on my face."