The process, known as the Calvin cycle, uses products of the light-dependent reactions (ATP and NADPH) and various enzymes. Therefore, the light-independent reaction cannot happen without the light-dependent reaction.
Sugars made in the light-independent reactions are moved around the plant (translocation). This takes place in the grana region of the chloroplast. It is anaerobic (does not use oxygen).
The sum of reactions in the Calvin cycle is the following:
2008
2008 (MMVIII) was .
Falafel
Falafel is a kind of vegetarian food. It is a deep-fried ball or patty made from ground chickpeas, fava beans, or both. Falafel is made from chickpeas or fava beans. Spices are added to these. Falafel is either made into a ball, or a disc, which is then fried. The dish originally came from Egypt. Today, it is a popular form of fast food in the Middle East, where it is also served as a mezze. In Israel it is served as street food.
The word is pronounced (fuh-lah-full); .
In Egyptian and Sudanese Arabic it is called "Ta'amiyya".
The Arabic word "falafel" ("falāfil") may be the plural of () 'pepper'. More relevantly, it is an adjective for "fluffy"/"crunchy" things, as in (), a kind of cooked rice, and (), curly hair. Different spellings in English include "felafel" and "filafil".
Falafel is usually served in a pita-like bread called lafa, either inside the bread, which acts as a pocket, or wrapped in a flat bread. In many countries falafel is a popular street food or fast food. The falafel balls, whole or crushed, may be topped with salads, pickled vegetables and hot sauce, and drizzled with tahini-based sauces. Falafel balls may also be eaten alone as a snack or served as part of a mezze. During Ramadan, they are sometimes eaten as part of an iftar, the meal which breaks the daily fast after sunset.
Falafel was originally made with fava beans. When the dish was used more to the north, chickpeas were more common, so they were used instead. The chickpea was used as a food item in the Levant before 4000 BC.
According to Ynetnews, "A common theory suggests falafel was invented some 1000 years ago by the Egyptian Copts. They took it with them when they moved to the rest of the Middle East. Another theory dates the invention of falafel as far as the 6th century AD, or even earlier, placing it on the subcontinent of India, which is known until today for making various chickpea-based dishes".
Falafel is made from fava beans or chickpeas or a combination of the two. In Egypt, fava beans are used exclusively. Other variations may contain only chickpeas. This is the case of Palestinians, Yemenite Jews in Jerusalem as well as in Syria and Lebanon. In the Levant, Falafel is generally made only with chickpeas. Unlike many other bean patties, in falafel the beans are not cooked before they are used. Instead they are soaked, possibly skinned, then ground, a small quantity of onions, parsley, spices (including cumin), and bicarbonate of soda are added. It is then deep fried at a high temperature. Sesame seeds may be added to the balls before they are fried; this is particularly common when falafel is served as a dish on its own rather than as a sandwich filling.
Recent culinary trends have seen the chickpea falafel have more success than fava bean falafel. Chickpea falafels are served across the Middle East, and have been popularized by expatriates of those countries living abroad. However, fava-bean falafel continue to predominate in Egypt and Sudan and their respective expatriate communities, and Egyptians are fond of deriding chickpea falafel as inferior.
In Israel small 2.5 cm spherical balls are made, while in Egypt and among Palestinians larger patties are shaped with a tablespoon or a special scoop with a lever to release them into the hot oil.
The kind of bread used for falafel may be different. Outside the Middle East, pita bread is often used as a pocket and stuffed with the different ingredients; in Arab countries a round khubz bread, 'eish' in Egypt, is halved, and the two resulting round pieces are used to create a cigar-shaped wrap. There, hummus (chickpeas pureed with tahini) is rarely used as a condiment, the usual sauce is tahini (sesame seed paste) thinned with water and lemon. The most common salad ingredients are tomato and parsley. In Lebanon, parsley is mixed with chopped mint leaves. It is also common in Syria and Lebanon to add pickles; the two canonical ones are pickled turnip, colored pink with beetroot, and pickled cucumber. Recently, there has been a new "filled" falafel, its center usually consisting of ground meat or minced onions or a boiled egg. These fillings are wrapped by the uncooked falafel mixture, and then deep fried.
The salads or the pita itself may be seasoned with salt or sumac, which is very commonly used in Syria; alternatively, these may be sprinkled on top.
Egyptian Falafel is made from Phaseolus vulgaris or fried Vicia faba grains.
Falafel made of bean beans with ground chickpeas and fried in a pretzel shape with a hole in the middle and coated with sesame.
Meze
Meze or mezze 'to taste', is the name for a number of small dishes or appetizers served before a meal, often with a drink. The food is common in the Eastern Mediterranean. Drinks include anise-flavored liqueurs, such as "arak", "ouzo", "raki" or different wines. These dishes are similar to the "tapas" of Spain or finger food.
In Levantine cuisines and in the Caucasus region (especially in Armenia and Georgia), these dishes are served as a part of any large-scale meal. Not accompanied by alcohol, meze is known in the Arab world as "muqabbilat" (Arabic for "starters").
Finger food
Finger food is the name for a number of foods that are usually eaten with the hands, as opposed to using utensils, like forks, knives or chopsticks. In some cultures, food is almost always eaten with the hands; for example, Ethiopian cuisine is eaten by rolling various dishes up in "injera" bread.
Examples of finger food are small beef pies, sausage rolls, sausages on sticks, cheese and olives on sticks, chicken drumsticks or wings, spring rolls, small quiches, samosas, onion bhajis, potato wedges, vol au vents, and risotto balls. Other well-known foods that are generally eaten with the hands include pizza, hot dogs, fruit and bread.
Risotto
Risotto (plural: "risotti") is a typical Italian dish based on rice. Originally it comes from Piedmont, where rice is commonly grown. It is very important for the cuisine of Milan. Common ingredients of the base recipe are white wine, and onions.
Risotto is a class of Italian rice dishes cooked in broth to a creamy consistency. The broth may be meat-, fish-, or vegetable-based. Many types of risotto contain Parmesan cheese, butter, and onion. It is one of the most common ways of cooking rice in Italy.
Risotto is normally a "primo" (first course), served on its own before the main course, but "risotto alla milanese" is often served together with ossobuco alla milanese.
A high-starch (amylopectin), low-amylose round medium- or short-grain rice is usually used to make risotto. Such rices have the ability to absorb liquids and to release starch and so they are stickier than the long grain varieties.