A chess problem is an artificial construction, not part of the game, but using a board and pieces. It is a separate intellectual activity. Chess problems have a history as long as the game itself, and their own terminology. The Arabs (9th/10th centuries) used specially composed positions ("mansurbat") as teaching devices; the idea of specifying a set number of moves to mate is European. Problem solving tournaments are held, and there is a World Championship for problem solvers. There are also international prizes for problem composers.
Promotion is what happens when a pawn reaches the other side of the board (that is, the 8th rank) and cannot move further. Then it becomes any other piece on the board, except the king. Players usually promote their pawns to a queen (called "queening") because it is the most powerful piece on the board. There are cases where a player might want to promote a pawn to a knight, rook, or bishop instead. This is called an "underpromotion", but they almost never happen, as almost all promotions are made to a queen.
A key concept of positional chess. It is a move, or sequence of moves, to deal with an opponent's plan before it starts. Sometimes one can completely stop the threat; sometimes one just makes the plan relatively harmless. The idea was spelled out in detail in Nimzovich's books "My system" and "Chess praxis". Prophylactic moves are often seen in games by Capablanca, Petrosian and Karpov.
The idea of choosing the layout of the pieces on the back row at random. The point is to avoid opening knowledge. White picks the pieces out of a bag and places them left to right; Black places his pieces on the corresponding squares. Alternatively, each player places his own pieces at random, producing two different arrays. The idea has been tried several times in the last 200 years, but has never caught on. There are problems. Usually special rules are needed for the king (castling?) and the bishops (no two bishops on the same colour squares). More serious is the great difficulty players experience in getting the pieces to work together.
The horizontal eight lines on the board, labelled 1 to 8.
Rapidplay (FIDE Laws, Appendix B) is a game where each player has a set time for all the moves. That time can be from 15 to 60 minutes. Players need not record the moves. The touch & move rule is usually put aside by the organiser; if so starting the opponent's clock is the official end of a move. In other words, a player can change his mind so long as his own clock is running.
Removing the Defender, also known as removing the guard is a chess tactic where a chess piece is either captured or forced to move in order to eliminate the protection of an opponent's piece.
To concede loss of the game. A resignation is usually done by stopping the clock, and sometimes by offering a handshake or saying "I resign".
The intentional loss of material to get a more important result. Often the start of a combination.
The intentional exchange of piece of greater value for a piece of smaller value in order to get a more important result. For instance, the exchange of a rook for a minor piece (bishop or knight), or the exchange of a queen for a rook.
The sheet of paper used to write down the moves of a game in progress. During formal games both players must record the game using a score sheet.
Made when a game is adjourned. Score sheet with move and position are placed in an envelope, and played on the board when the game is resumed.
When a master plays a number of opponents at the same time. Usually arranged as a ring of tables, with the master moving round inside, and the opponents outside. Players move when the master arrives at their board, master replies and moves on.
Like a pin, but the valuable piece is in front. So black B, white K and white R on a diagonal in that order wins the rook.
Unlike the fork, a skewer only works with a line piece (B, R, Q).
Where a player is not in check, but has no legal moves. It is a draw in modern chess.
A chess or endgame study is a position which is made to show an interesting point. It is usual for studies to be endgame positions. Unlike chess problems, studies are connected to the game.
A term in positional chess, where a player loses ground because he/she has to make a move. See Zugzwang.
A series of symbols are in wide use. They help annotate games of chess.
Short-term attacks requiring exact calculation, sometimes called 'forcing sequences'. It is contrasted with positional play, which is long-term strategy.
In chess, a single move. A loss of a tempo would be taking two moves where one would do. This may, or may not, be critical in the early stages of a game.
Article 4 of the Laws of Chess. If the player to play touches a piece, it must be moved if possible. If there is no legal move, then the player may make any legal move. See also J'adoube, which permits adjustment of pieces without penalty.
To arrive at the same position from different move orders. Common in certain openings, such as the Modern defence.
A trebuchet is a type of reciprocal zugzwang occurring in pawn endgames, where each King is attacking the others pawn and whoever it is to move loses.
A position, usually in an ending, where the player to move loses because he/she must move. A more complex definition is given by Hooper:
An "in between move", where a player, instead of playing the expected move, first inserts a move which the opponent must answer, before making the expected move.
Emperor Chūai
No certain dates can be assigned to this emperor's life or reign. The conventionally accepted names and sequence of the early emperors were not to be confirmed as "traditional" until the reign of Emperor Kammu, who was the 50th monarch of the Yamato dynasty.
Chūai is almost certainly a legend; but the "Kojiki" and "Nihonshoki" record his name. He was a grandson of Emperor Keikō.
Chūai's wife is known as Empress Jingū. Her son would become known as Emperor Ōjin.
The limited information about Chūai does not imply that no such person ever existed. Very little information is available for study prior to the reign of the 29th monarch, Emperor Kimmei.
This emperor's official name after his death (his posthumous name) was regularized many centuries after the lifetime which was ascribed to Chūai.
The actual site of his grave is not known. According to the Imperial Household Agency, this emperor is venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine ("misasagi") at Fujiidera of Osaka Prefecture.
Empress Jingū
, also known as was a legendary empress of Japan. Although her name was once included in the traditional order of succession, she is now considered as a regent.
Historians consider details about the life of Empress Jingū to be mythical; and the name Jingū"-tennō" was created for her posthumously by later generations.
No certain dates can be assigned to this empress's life or reign. The conventionally accepted names and sequence of the early emperors were not to be confirmed as "traditional" until the reign of Emperor Kammu, who was the 50th monarch of the Yamato dynasty.
Jingū is almost certainly a legend; but the "Kojiki" and "Nihonshoki" record her name.
Jingū was the principle wife of Emperor Chūai Her son would become known as Emperor Ōjin. The "Gukanshō" mentions her, but she is not included on the list of persons born within the line of Imperial descent.
The limited information about Jingū does not imply that no such person ever existed. Very little information is available for study prior to the reign of the 29th monarch, Emperor Kimmei.
After the death of Chūai, Jingū also served as regent, according to the oracle of Sumiyoshi-jinja, until her son was old enough to be emperor.
This empress' official name after her death (her posthumous name) was regularized many centuries after the lifetime which was ascribed to Jingū.