On 27 September 315 Constantine went away from Rome. There was another ceremony (a ) when Constantine went out of the city. At some time, Constantine fought a civil war with his co-emperor Licinius. The "Calendar of Philocalus" says that Constantine's army overcame Licinius's army at the Battle of Cibalae on 8 October 314, but historians are not in agreement about the date. It may have been in 316. After this civil war, Constantine and Licinius made peace. This was either at the end of 314 or in January 317. As part of the agreement, Constantine got from Licinius the Roman provinces next to the Danube. (Licinius kept Thracia however.)
The "Consularia Constantinopolitana" and the "Chronicon Paschale" both say Constantine and Licinius chose co-emperors on 1 March 317. Constantine and his co-emperor made their three sons their junior co-emperors (their ). Crispus and Constantine II (Constantine's sons) and Licinius II (Licinius's son) were each made "caesar" at Serdica (Sofia, Bulgaria). Constantine was Roman consul for the fifth time in 319. He was consul for the sixth time in 320. On the 25 July 320, it was Constantine's fifteenth anniversary as emperor (his ).
In 321, it was the fifth anniversary of Crispus, Constantine II, and Licinius II as emperors (each "caesar"'s ). In summer 322, Constantine won a military victory against the Sarmatians. At the start of 323, Constantine fought a war against the Goths.
In 324, Constantine and Crispus fought another war against their co-emperor Licinius. The "Consularia Constantinopolitana" says that Constantine's army overcame the army of Licinius in a battle near Hadrianopolis (Edirne, European Turkey) on 3 July 324. Constantine's armies again overcame Licinius's soldiers at the Battle of Chrysopolis. The "Consularia Constantinopolitana" says that this battle was on the 18 September 324. Licinius and Licinius II both retired from being emperors. On 8 November that year, Constantine made his son Constantius II "caesar". At that time, all Constantine's co-emperors were Constantine's own children (the "" Crispus, Constantine II, and Constantius II).
On 20 May 324 at Nicaea (İznik, Turkey) the Council of Nicaea started. This meeting of bishops ended on 19 July 325. The Greek historian Socrates Scholasticus wrote about these events. The "Chronicle" of the Latin theologian Jerome and the "Chronicon Paschale" both say that on 25 July 325, it was Constantine's twentieth anniversary festival as emperor (his ) at Nicomedia (İzmit, Turkey).
Constantine was Roman consul for the seventh time in 326. The "Consularia Constantinopolitana" says that in around March 326, Constantine executed his oldest son, the "caesar" Crispus. The "Calendar of Philocalus" says that on 18 July 326 (or the 21 July) Constantine again came to Rome. When he came to the city there was another ceremony. Jerome wrote that on 25 July 326, it was Constantine's twentieth anniversary festival as emperor (his ) in Rome. (326 was the second year in which Constantine had a festival for the same twentieth anniversary.) Jerome's "Chronicle" and the "Chronicon Paschale" both say that Constantine set up the city of Helenopolis on 7 January 327. Constantine was consul for the eighth time in 329. The year was the last time Constantine was consul. The "Consularia Constantinopolitana" says that on 11 May 330, Constantine was in Byzantium. On that day, Constantine dedicated again the city. After that, Byzantium had the name Constantinople (; ).
The "Consularia Constantinopolitana" says that on 25 December 333, Constantine made his youngest son, Constans, his "caesar". They were probably at Constantinople then. In 333 or 334, Calocaerus started a rebellion in Cyprus. The "Consularia Constantinopolitana" says that the Romans forced the Sarmatians out of the Banat area around the Danube in 334.
Around 335, Shapur II's armies attacked Armenia, as part of the Roman–Persian Wars. Shapur's Sasanian Empire sent Narses to invade Armenia, but the attack did not have success and Narses died. The "Consularia Constantinopolitana" and the "Chronicon Paschale" both say that on 25 July 335, it was Constantine's thirtieth anniversary festival as emperor (his ) at Constantinople. Eusebius of Caesarea gave a speech at the festival.
On the 18 September 335, Constantine made Dalmatius "caesar". Constantine probably made Hannibalianus "King of Kings and of the Pontic people" () on the same day. Eusebius of Caesarea's "Life of Constantine" says that a Persian embassy from the Sasanian Empire came to Constantine at Constantinople not long after the festival of Easter. Constantine had been at Constantinople on Easter (3 April 337).
Eusebius of Caesarea's "Life of Constantine" says that Constantine died at Ancyrona, near Nicomedia (İzmit, Turkey). He died on 22 May 337.
Constantine was the first Christian Roman emperor. His rule changed the Christian Church greatly. In February 313, Constantine met with Licinius in Milan where they made the Edict of Milan. The edict said that Christians could believe what they wanted. This stopped people from punishing Christians, who had often been martyred, or killed for their faith. It also returned the property which had been taken away from them. In 311, Galerius had made a similar edict, though it did not return any property to them. In pagan Rome before this, it had been against the law to practise Christianity, and Christians had often been tortured or killed. Constantine protected them. He went on to organize the whole Christian Church at the First Council of Nicea, even though he himself did not get baptized until near the end of his life.
Constantine did not support Christianity alone. After winning the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, he built the Arch of Constantine) to celebrate, but the arch was decorated with pictures of sacrifices to gods like Apollo, Diana, or Hercules. It had no Christian symbolism. In 321, Constantine said that Christians and non-Christians should all join the "day of the sun" (the eastern sun-worship which Aurelian had helped him introduce). His coins also had symbols of the sun-cult until 324. Even after pagan gods disappeared from the coins, Christians symbols never appeared on the coin, either. Even when Constantine dedicated the new city of Constantinople, he was wearing the Apollonian sun-rayed Diadem.
Cleopatra VII
Cleopatra (Greek: Κλεοπάτρα Φιλοπάτωρ) 69 BC – 10 August 30 BC was queen of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt. She was its last active ruler.
She was one of the most famous women in history. Her full name was "Cleopatra VII Thea Philopator". She was the last of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Pharaohs set up in Egypt after the death of Alexander the Great. After her death, Egypt became the Roman province of "Aegyptus".
The main historical source for her life is Plutarch's "Life of Antony", available in translations.
"Antony and Cleopatra" is the famous tragedy by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written sometime between 1603 and 1607. It was first printed in 1623. She was of mixed Greek and Egyptian heritage.
Cleopatra was born in Alexandria, then the capital of Egypt. When she was 18 years old, her father, who was king, died. She and her brother, Ptolemy XIII, became the leaders of Egypt. She was queen and her brother was king. Her brother was only 10 years old, so she was the real leader.
Cleopatra made some enemies amongst the courtiers. The reign of Cleopatra was ended by a cabal of courtiers, led by the eunuch Pothinus. They removed Cleopatra from power, as her being a woman, and made Ptolemy sole ruler, in about 51 to 48 BC. She had to leave the country. Ptolemy was king, but because he was still a boy, Pothinus and his friends were the real leaders of Egypt.