After the disaster of the Battle of Pharsalus, Brutus wrote to Caesar with apologies and Caesar immediately forgave him. Caesar then accepted him into his inner circle and made him governor of Gaul when he left for Africa in pursuit of Cato and Scipio. In 45 BC, Caesar nominated Brutus to serve as urban praetor for the following year.
Also, in June 45 BC, Brutus divorced his wife and married his first cousin, Porcia Catonis, Cato's daughter. According to Cicero the marriage caused a semi-scandal as Brutus failed to state a valid reason for his divorce from Claudia, except that he wished to marry Porcia. The marriage also caused a rift between Brutus and his mother, who resented the affection Brutus had for Porcia.
Around this time, many senators began to fear Caesar's growing power after his appointment as Dictator for life. Brutus was persuaded into joining the conspiracy against Caesar. Eventually, Brutus decided to take action against Caesar. His wife was the only woman who knew about the plot.
The conspirators planned to kill Caesar on the Ides of March (March 15) that same year. On that day, Caesar was delayed going to the Senate because his wife tried to convince him not to go. The conspirators feared the plot had been found out. Brutus persisted, however, waiting for Caesar at the Senate, and allegedly still chose to remain even when a messenger brought him news that would otherwise have caused him to leave. When Caesar finally did come to the Senate, they attacked him. The conspirators attacked in such numbers that they even wounded one another. Brutus is said to have been wounded in the hand.
After the assassination, the Senate passed an amnesty on the assassins. This amnesty was proposed by Caesar's friend and co-consul Mark Antony. Nonetheless, uproar among the people caused Brutus and the conspirators to leave Rome. Brutus settled in Crete from 44 to 42 BC.
In 43 BC, after Octavian received his consulship from the Senate, one of his first actions was to have the people that had assassinated Julius Caesar declared murderers and enemies of the state. Cicero, angry at Octavian, wrote a letter to Brutus explaining that the forces of Octavian and Mark Antony were divided. Antony had laid siege to the province of Gaul, where he wanted the governorship. In response to this siege, Octavian rallied his troops and fought a series of battles in which Antony was defeated. Upon hearing that neither Antonius nor Octavian had an army big enough to defend Rome, Brutus rallied his troops, which totalled about 17 legions.
When Octavian heard that Brutus was on his way to Rome, he made peace with Antony. Their armies, which together totaled about 19 legions, marched to meet Brutus and Cassius. The two sides met in two engagements known as the Battle of Philippi. The first was fought on 3 October 42 BC, in which Brutus defeated Octavian's forces. Cassius was defeated by Antony, and committed suicide, because he thought Brutus had also failed.
The second engagement was fought on 23 October 42 BC and ended in Brutus' defeat. After the defeat, he fled into the nearby hills with only about four legions. Knowing his army had been defeated and that he would be captured, Brutus committed suicide.
Antony, as a show of respect, ordered Brutus' body to be wrapped in his most expensive purple mantle, which was later stolen. Antony had the thief executed. Brutus was cremated, and his ashes were sent to his mother.
The well-known phrase "Et tu, Brute?" ("And you, Brutus?") is famous as Caesar's last utterance in Shakespeare's play "Julius Caesar". The reason for the remark was that Caesar had thought him a friend.
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Panchayati raj
The pachayati raj is a political system of decentralisation. It is mostly used in South Asia, in the countries India, Pakistan and Nepal. The idea behind it is to give power to local people.
Indian rupee
The Indian rupee () (sign: ; code: INR) is the official currency of the Republic of India. The currency is issued and controlled by the Reserve Bank of India. During the past 15 years, the value has ranged from $1 USD = 35–65 INR or 1 euro = 44–69 INR (see below: "Convertibility").
The modern rupee is sub-divided into 100 "paise" (singular "paisa"). The coins have values and of 5, 10, 20, 25 and 50 paise, as well as 1, 2, 5 and 10 rupees. The bank notes are available in values of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, 500 and 2000 rupees.
The Indian rupee symbol () is an amalgam of both the Devanagari consonant "र" (Ra) and the Latin letter "R" without the vertical bar. The design was presented to the public by the government of India on 15 July 2010.
The current abbreviation "INR" started in July 2010. Until then, the abbreviation "Rs" (or "Re") was used.
The word "rupee" originates from the Sanskrit word रौप्य(raupya) meaning "silver" or "made of silver". Many Indian languages use this root word, for example, రూపాయి (rūpāyi) in Telugu, ரூபாய் (rūbāi) in Tamil, रुपया (rupayā) in Hindi, રૂપિયો (rupiyo) in Gujarati, ರೂಪಾಯಿ (rūpāyi) in Kannada and Tulu, രൂപ (rūpā) in Malayalam and रुपये (rupaye) in Marathi.
However, in West Bengal, Tripura, Mizoram, Odisha, and Assam, the Indian rupee is officially known by names derived from the Sanskrit word टङ्क (Tanka) which means money. The rupee is called টাকা (Taka) in Bengali, টকা (tôka) in Assamese and ଟଙ୍କା (Tanka) in Odia and is written as such on Indian banknotes.
On March 5, 2009, the Government of India announced a contest to create a symbol for the rupee. During the 2010 Union budget of India, Finance Minister Pranab Mukherjee mentioned that the proposed symbol would reflect and capture the Indian ethos and culture. Five symbols were shortlisted, and the Cabinet selected the definitive symbol created by D. Udaya Kumar on July 15, 2010. The symbol is derived from a combination of the Devanagari letter ‘र’ and English letter ‘R’. The parallel lines at the top (with white space between them) make an allusion to the tricolor and also depict an equality sign which symbolizes the nation's desire to reduce economic disparity. The Indian government has plans to adopt the symbol within six months in the country and globally within 18 to 24 months. Before the adoption of the symbol, the most commonly used symbols for the rupee were Rs, Re or if the text was in an Indian language, then an appropriate abbreviation in that language.
In Indian English, values at or above a hundred thousand Indian rupees are counted in terms of lakhs (one lakh = hundred thousand) and crores (one crore = ten million). For example, the amount 3,25,84,729.25 is read as three crores, twenty-five lakhs, eighty-four thousand, seven hundred and twenty-nine rupees and twenty-five paise. The use of million or billion, as is standard in American or British English, is not very common.