The theatres were made very large. Audiences might have up to fourteen thousand people. Actors' voices needed to be heard throughout the theatre, including the very top row of seats. The Greeks' understanding of acoustics compares well with the current state of the art.
In 465 BC, the playwrights began using a backdrop or scenic wall, which hung or stood behind the orchestra, which also served as an area where actors could change their costumes. It was known as the "skênê" (scene). In 425 BC a stone scene wall, called a "paraskenia", became a common supplement to "skênê" in the theatres. The proskenion ("in front of the scene") was columned, and was similar to the modern day proscenium.
Greek theatres also had entrances for the actors and chorus members called "parodoi". They were tall arches that opened onto the orchestra, through which the performers entered. By the end of the 5th century BC, around the time of the Peloponnesian War, the "skênê", the back wall, was two stories high. Some theatres also had a raised speaking place on the orchestra called the "logeion".
There were several scenic elements commonly used in Greek theatre:
Although in the early days the chorus was much larger, the numbers settled down to 12 or 15 in tragedies and 24 in comedies. They usually play a group character, such as 'the old men of Argos'. The chorus offers background information, summaries and comments. In many of these plays, the chorus expresses to the audience what the main characters cannot say, such as their hidden fears or secrets.
The chorus might sing, or might speak in unison (say the same thing together). The chorus made up for the fact that there were only one, two or three actors, who played several parts each (changing masks).
Before the introduction of several actors by Aeschylus, the Greek chorus was the main performer opposite a solitary actor. The importance of the chorus declined after the 5th century BC, when the chorus began to be separated from the dramatic action. Later dramatists depended less on the chorus.
The mask is known to have been used since the time of Aeschylus in the 6th century AD. It is one of the typical things they did in classical Greek theatre. Masks were also used in the worship of Dionysius, and that is probably how the tradition started.
Most of the evidence comes from a few vase paintings of the 5th century BC which depict actors preparing for a Satyr play. No physical evidence survived: the masks were made of organic materials. They were not considered permanent objects, and were dedicated to the altar of Dionysus after performances. There are, however, examples of statues of actors carrying a mask in hand.
Masks were made for the actors and for the chorus, who help the audience know what a character is thinking. The chorus all wear the same mask, because they represent the same character.
In a large open-air theatre, like the Theatre of Dionysus in Athens, the masks brought the characters' face closer to the audience, as they had exaggerated features and expressions. An actor could appear and reappear in different roles, since the audience did not identify the actor with one character. Their variations help the audience to distinguish sex, age, and social status. Also, they could show a change in a character’s appearance, for example, Oedipus after blinding himself. Unique masks were also created for specific characters and events in a play, such as The Furies in Aeschylus’ "Eumenides" and Pentheus and Cadmus in Euripides’ "The Bacchae". Worn by the chorus, the masks created a sense of unity and uniformity, a sort of multi-voiced persona or single organism.
Sophocles
Sophocles (497 BC, 496 BC, or 495 BC – 406 BC) was an Ancient Greek writer who wrote over 100 plays, according to the Suda. Only seven of his tragedies have survived complete. Sophocles was the second of the three greatest Ancient Greek writers of tragedies, the others were Aeschylus and Euripides.
The most famous of Sophocles' tragedies are those about Oedipus and Antigone: these are often called the Theban plays. Each play was a part of different tetralogy (set of four), the other members of which are now lost.
Sophocles, the son of Sophillus, was a rich member of the rural community of Colonus Hippius in Attica. This was the setting for his plays. He was probably born there. His birth took place a few years before the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC: the exact year is unclear, although 497/6 is perhaps most likely. Sophocles' first great play was in 468 BC when he took first prize in the Dionysia theatre competition ahead of Aeschylus.
In Oedipus the King, Oedipus is the main character.
Oedipus' death as a child is planned by his parents, Laius and Jocasta, to stop him fulfilling a prophecy. A servant passes the infant on to a childless couple, who adopt him. They did not know his history.
Oedipus eventually learns of the Delphic Oracle's prophecy of him. It was: he would kill his father and marry his mother. He thought this meant his adopted parents. He flees to avoid his fate. Oedipus meets a man at a crossroads accompanied by servants. Oedipus and the man fight, and Oedipus kills the man. This man was his father, Laius, not that anyone apart from the gods knew this at the time.
Oedipus becomes the ruler of Thebes after solving the riddle of the sphinx. In the process, he marries the widowed Queen, his mother Jocasta. Thus the stage is set for horrors. When the truth comes out, Jocasta commits suicide, Oedipus blinds himself and leaves Thebes. The children are left to sort out the results for themselves.
In "Oedipus at Colonus", the banished Oedipus and his daughters Antigone and Ismene arrive at the town of Colonus where they encounter Theseus, King of Athens. Oedipus dies and trouble begins between his sons Polyneices and Eteocles.
In "Antigone" the protagonist is Oedipus' daughter. The king, Creon, has forbidden the burial of Polyneices as a traitor to the city. Antigone is faced with a choice: allow her brother Polyneices' body to remain unburied, outside the city walls. There it would be exposed to the ravages of wild animals. Or, she could bury him and face death. Antigone decides to bury his body and face the results of her actions.
Creon sentences her to death. Eventually, Creon is convinced to free Antigone from her punishment, but his decision comes too late. Antigone has committed suicide. Her death leads to the suicide of two others close to King Creon: his son, Haemon, who was going to marry Antigone, and the queen, who commits suicide after losing her only surviving son.
Running through such tragedies is the theme of fate, which cannot be avoided. A forbidden act is committed in innocence, and the consequences follow remorselessly.
Black pepper
Black pepper is a plant that grows in the tropics, especially in India. The plant is a perennial vine that bears flowers. People cultivate the plant for its fruit, the peppercorn. The peppercorn can be used as a spice or condiment. Usually, it makes things hot.
There are several different plants called "Pepper", all are in the "Piper" genus of "Piperaceae".
From the 16th century onwards, people used the word "pepper" to also refer to the Chili peppers, which come from a completely unrelated plant. It was also called black gold in older times.
Pepper is one of the most common spices used around the world. It is very common in European cuisine, and has been known and traded for a very long time. Very often, the peppercorns are ground, and the powder is used to make things taste hot. They get their heat from a chemical called piperine unlike other peppers that get it from capsaicin.
Like all eastern spices, pepper was historically both a seasoning and a medicine. Long pepper, being stronger, was often the preferred medication, but both were used.