It was Bede who identified the invaders as Angles, Saxons and Jutes. But he sometimes used the names "Angli" and "Saxones" for the same people in different parts of his writings. In Book I, Chapter 15 he said that by invitation of King Vortigern "Angles "or" Saxons" came to Britain in three longships. Modern authorities confirm that Angles, Saxons, Frisians and some Jutes did come to England during this migration time period. The differences between the tribes that moved to England were not significant. Kent was different in culture from other parts of England, mostly because it had close contact with parts of Europe such as Gaul.
Certain styles of jewellery are recognized by archaeologists as being typical of Anglian, Saxon and Jutish areas in Northern Europe. But why the name England came to be used for the country and English for the language is not clear. In Old English the people called themselves "Engle," and in Latin they were called "Angli," but nothing suggests the Angles made up the largest percentage of the Germanic peoples in Britain. The name "Englaland", which became 'England' was regularly used by the 11th century.
The native British people, who wrote in both Latin and Welsh (a Celtic language), referred to these invaders as "Saxones" or "Saeson". The latter name is still used today in the Welsh word for English people, "Saeson", the English language, "Saesneg", and things related to England, "Seisnig". In the Scottish Gaelic language the word for an English person is "sasannach" and in Irish the word is s"asanach".
Anglo-Saxon art before the time of Alfred (who ruled from 871–899) is a mixture of Anglo-Saxon and Celtic techniques and styles. The Sutton Hoo treasure is an excellent example of very early Anglo-Saxon metalwork and jewellery. It came from a royal grave of the early 7th century. The period between Alfred and the Norman Conquest saw a distinct Anglo-Saxon style in art. This was due in part to the revival of the English economy and culture after the end of the Viking raids. This later style appears to have been in touch with trends in western Europe.
Anglo-Saxon art is mainly known today through illuminated manuscripts. Manuscripts were not the only Anglo-Saxon art form, but they have survived in much greater numbers than other types of objects. People in Europe at the time regarded Anglo-Saxon goldsmithing and embroidery as especially fine. The most common examples of Anglo-Saxon art are coins. Anglo-Saxon artists also worked in fresco, ivory, stone carving, metalwork and enamel, but few of these pieces have survived.
Old English literary works include epic poetry, biography, sermons, Bible translations, legal works, chronicles, riddles and others. In all there are about 400 surviving manuscripts from the period.
A very famous work from this period is the poem "Beowulf". It has achieved national epic status in Britain. The "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" is a collection of important early English history. "Cædmon's Hymn" from the 7th century is the earliest attested literary text in (Old) English. One of the most valuable and important sources on Anglo-Saxon history is Bede's "Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation".
Norman conquest of England
The Norman conquest of England was a military invasion of England by William the Conqueror in 1066.
William was Duke of Normandy, a country on the other side of the English Channel, now a region in France. He invaded England after the death of King Edward the Confessor because he believed he had the most right to be King of England, but King Harold II had himself crowned king instead. King Harold, with his Saxon army, and Duke William fought at the Battle of Hastings on October 14, 1066. King Harold was killed in the battle and his army left. On December 25, 1066 William was crowned the new King of England.
The Norman conquest was an important change in English history. The conquest linked England more closely with Continental Europe, and made Scandinavian influence less important. It created one of the most powerful monarchies in Europe. The conquest changed the English language and culture, and set the stage for rivalry with France, which would continue (with a few breaks) until the 19th century.
England has never been successfully invaded since the Norman invasion nearly 1000 years ago.
Raid
A raid is an attack into enemy territory with no intent to get control of it. For example, the attack on Pearl Harbor was an air raid.
The attackers go away immediately after the attack. Most raids are brief and performed by a small number of people.
Restauration
Following the fall from power of Napoleon Bonaparte:
English Reformation
The English Reformation was part of the Protestant Reformation. Many Christian churches in Europe broke away from Rome. Each of the countries that went through this process did so in a different way. Earlier the Roman Catholic Church had supreme powers.
Henry VIII broke ties with the church and became head of the English church. This was done in 1534 in the Acts of Supremacy. It was the beginning of the Church of England. His friend Thomas Cranmer became Henry's Archbishop of Canterbury. For years, the Church of England was almost exactly the same as the Catholic Church, except that it was ruled by the King instead of the Pope. This is different from the Reformation on the European continent, where the reformers wanted big changes right away.
There were several causes for the English Reformation. One of these was that Henry VIII, who was King of England, wanted to divorce his wife, Catherine of Aragon. Another reason was because Henry wanted the Church's wealth and power, and got them with the dissolution of the monasteries.
The Protestant Reformation in Scotland, however, was based more on the teachings of Martin Luther and John Calvin, so it was more like the Reformation in continental Europe.
Gianluigi Buffon
Gianluigi "Gigi" Buffon (born 28 January 1978) is an Italian professional footballer who plays in the goalkeeper position. He currently plays for Serie A team Juventus and used to play for the Italy national team from 1997 until he retired in 2018. Buffon is recognized by many peoples as one of the greatest goalkeepers of all time, and, by some, as the greatest ever.
Gianluigi Buffon started his career in Parma and won a UEFA Cup in 1999. In 2001, he transferred to the Italian giant Juventus and won the Serie A on consecutive years.
Buffon joined the Italy national team in 1997. In the 2006 FIFA World Cup, he led them to the championship, allowing only two goals in 7 games and keeping 5 clean sheets (no goals allowed), which was a new World Cup record at that time.
Checksum
A checksum is a number. It is a kind of redundancy check. There are different ways to calculate it. It serves as a check, that no errors have been made when writing down the number. In its simplest form, the digits are simply added up. This can however not detect errors of swapping digits around. Better ways (algorithms) of calculating a checksum are to use a Hamming code, a cyclic redundancy check or modular arithmetic. One of the uses of checksums is to check that account numbers have been entered correctly.
Portuguese bank account identifiers are a good example of how checksums work. They have 21 digits. The first 19 digits identify the bank, branch and account number. The last two digits are "mod 97" checksum digits based on modular arithmetic. A typical Portuguese bank account number is 0002.0123.12345678901.54. The digits have the following meanings: