The standard ISO 7811 specifies the format in which information is stored on these cards. A magnetic stripe holds about 1024 bits of information, which is arranged in three tracks. The first track holds 76 alphanumeric characters, encoded in 7 bit per character. The two other tracks hold 37 and 104 numeric characters, encoded with 5 bits per character. The first two tracks can only be read, the third track can also be written to.
Cards that are used for banking used to store the PIN as a hash value on the magnetic stripe. Today, the ATM calculates the hash value, and transmits it to the server of the bank, which does the comparison. Storing the PIN in the ATM is no longer allowed.
In many payment cards around the world, magnetic stripes are being replaced with a more secure technology called EMV. Most of these cards, though, still have magnetic stripes to be used in places which do not yet work with EMV.
Payphone
A payphone is a telephone that lets the public make phone calls if they pay for them first. Many payphones accept coins, but some can accept credit cards, debit cards, and phone cards as well. In the 20th century they were very often used, especially in cities. When people used more mobile phones, payphones quickly became rarer in small towns, and later also in cities.
Sami people
The Sami people, also spelled as Saami are an ethnic group of people living in Sápmi, an area in the far north of Europe. It is a part of Norway, Sweden, Finland and Russia. There are 80,000 to 135,000 Sami people in the world. The Sami are sometimes called Lapps, but this is insulting and has a negative meaning. In English the area is sometimes still called Lapland.
There are 10 different Sami languages. Six of the languages can be written. The other four have very few speakers.
"Archaelogical research indicates that a culture identified as Sami arose in the Scandinavian peninsula between 1500 and 1000 B.C."
The first written mention of the Sámi, was made about 98 A.D. by Tacitus
One account (or description) from 896 was told to Alfred the Great, by Ohthere of Hålogaland (a Norwegian chieftain). Oh there had some connection to the English king's court.
Old Norse stories, such as the Icelandic sagas, tell about the Sami. "Olav Tryggvason's Saga says "that the king killed a big man who was "troll-wise" and "there followed him a great number of Finns whenever he had need of them". ("Finns" is a name that sometimes meant "Sami people".)
In the 19th century, Russia stopped allowing reindeer farmers and their reindeer herds, to come travel over the Norway-Russia border. Some of the Sami reindeer farmers, moved to another Nordic country, and took their reindeer herds into Russia (but not through the Norway-Russia border); later another country's border with Russia, was closed to herds from reindeer farming (coming into Russia).
During the 16th century there was more farms in Finland. Farmers from the province of Savonia went to Middle Finland, and the original Sami people often had to leave.
At Dovrefjell when Harald Hardrada was king, there was profit from the keeping of herds of reindeer, and the business was very popular.
In regard to Sami (in Norway) that had reindeer herds; when these Sami moved their herds (every year), then they would interact with people who lived permanently on the coast; the interaction also included "verdde": a friendship of convenience; for example, Sami needed milk and fish after having been on a plateau (or highland) for some weeks; Sami might need repair of equipment; trade was done: People from the coast traded fish for meat from reindeer.
Regarding getting the Sami to change their religion to Christianity: In the 18th century Thomas von Westen , a pietist, led missionary work (among the Sami), that has been called a concerted (or special) effort. "About a century later, Niels Vibe Stockfleth worked among the Sami and translated [the Bible's] New Testament into" [one of the Sami languages].
People living permanently on the coast in North Norway, were [largely] Sami; these Sami had permanent housing, and it became easier for these Sami to stop behaving like Sami; in some areas one was not allowed to own land, if one was Sami; some Sami changed names, to names that might sound more Norwegian (and family names such as Sæter, Strømeng, and Kalvemo became new family names).
Sami language [largely] disappeared among the Coastal Sami. Sami that did reindeer farming, and Coastal Sami slowly lost the close contact [between the two groups].
"There were organized attempts to eradicate [or make to disappear ] the Sami language and culture[,] as a step in assimilating the Sami into Norwegian society". Policies to "Norwegianize", Samis - were in place from the late 1840s,
into the 1980s.
"From the late 1840s to the 1950s, missionaries, agricultural experts and schoolteachers" tried "to "Norwegianize" the Sami"; the "first formal act of Parliament regarding the Norwegianization of the Sami people was made in 1848: 'The government is requested to investigate ... [find out if, and how far] there should be opportunity to bring the Norwegian Lapps, especially those living in coastal areas , instruction in the Norwegian language for the enlightenment of these people, and that the result of their findings be reported to the next Parliament'".
Norway's authorities made "a language directive (or rule) in 1880, which" was "made more forceful in 1898. It" said "that 'Teachers in those districts where the Lappish ... and Finnish ("kvænsk") languages are permitted for the sake of facilitating instruction in the public schools shall do their utmost to spread knowledge of the Norwegian language and seek to promote its use in the circles where they work'". Furthermore, the "government had a major objective for the schools: Not a single Sami word was to be heard on the school grounds" or in school buildings.
"The authorities also" used "economic measures to carry out the work of Norwegianization, including the Land Act. A regulation [or part of the law] from 1902" says that "Sale [of land] may only be made to Norwegian citizens ... who can speak, read, and write the Norwegian language and use it on a day-to-day basis".
A report by the "Parliamentary School Commission, appointed in 1922" said, without being able to show [ evidence], "that that the Sami are less educable [or able to learn] than others"; the report also said that the Sami population is less gifted and the "Sami culture does not lend itself to development".
From around 1850, a government policy of "Fornorskning" [tried to remove Sami culture]. An article in Klassekampen said that the policy was very rough [to Sami persons]. Into the 1980s, the policy of "Fornorskning" lasted in some places.
[Possibly the first] Sami association (in Norway) was started during the New Year's weekend in 1911: "Buolbmag Same Særvve", in Polmak municipality. (Polmak is now part of Tana (municipality).)
The first Sami association in Sweden, seems to have been started in 1903: "Tärnaby lappeforening".
In 1826, Russia has not allowed reindeer herds and their Sami owners, to travel from Norway to Russia.
Since 1852, Russia has not allowed reindeer herds and their Sami owners, to travel from Norway to Russia.
Reindeer farming, which is a type of animal husbandry, is done by Sami, between the White Sea and towards the west and the south, across Russia's Kola peninsula, Finland, Sweden and Norway, into Norway's county of Hedmark.
In reindeer farming, "the Sami travel with their flocks (of reindeer) according to an established cycle"; the cycle makes sure "that the" [reindeer] can eat properly during the various [or different] seasons of the year. For example, the spring migration to summer pastures, which have a rich variety of grasses and herbs, takes place just before new calves are born in May. Summer is a time when the calves grow and the adult animals regain their strength following a long, hard winter".