jasperyeoh2/new-methodology-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Claim: Mass coral bleaching is a new phenomenon and was never observed before the 1980s as global warming ramped up.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: The first mass global bleaching events were recorded in 1998 and 2010, which was when the El Niño caused the oceans temperatures to rise and worsened the corals living conditions.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: While localized triggers lead to localized bleaching, the large scale coral bleaching events of the recent years have been triggered by global warming.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: According to Clive Wilkinson of Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network of Townsville, Australia, in 1998 the mass bleaching event that occurred in the Indian Ocean region was due to the rising of sea temperatures by 2°C coupled with the strong El Niño event in 1997-1998.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: A global mass coral bleaching has been occurring since 2014 because of the highest recorded temperatures plaguing oceans.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: The first recorded mass bleaching event that took place in the Belize Barrier Reef was in 1998, where sea level temperatures reached up to 31.5 °C (88.7 °F) from 10 August to 14 October.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Mass coral bleaching events due to elevated ocean temperatures occurred in the summers of 1998, 2002 and 2006, and coral bleaching is expected to become an annual occurrence.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: According to Clive Wilkinson of Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network of Townsville Australia, in 1998 the mass bleaching event occurred the indian ocean region worst affected by it due to rising of temperature of sea by 2℃ to normal temperature level coupled by strong El nino event in 1997-1998.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Coral bleaching may be caused by a number of factors.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Elevated sea water temperatures are the main cause of mass bleaching events.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: One of the main results of climate change is rising sea water temperature which has a serious effect on coral reefs, through thermal-stress related coral bleaching.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: The Great Barrier Reef along the coast of Australia experienced bleaching events in 1980, 1982, 1992, 1994, 1998, 2002, 2006, 2016 and 2017.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: The leading cause of coral bleaching is rising water temperatures.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: A UNESCO World Heritage Site, the reef has experienced unprecedented rates of bleaching over the past two decades, and additional warming of only 1 °C is anticipated to cause considerable losses or contractions of species associated with coral communities.
Claim: In Albany, New York, the high temperature of 74 degrees on Thursday was the warmest temperature on record for any day during the months of December, January and February.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: Record temperature extremes range from −28 °F (−33 °C), on January 19, 1971, to 104 °F (40 °C) on July 4, 1911.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: The normal winter high from December through March is about 36 °F (2 °C), with January and February being the coldest months; January 2019's polar vortex nearly broke the city's cold record of minus 27 degrees, which was set on January 20, 1985.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: January February March April May June July August September October November December December is the twelfth and final month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian Calendars and is the seventh and last of seven months to have a length of 31 days.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: Temperatures are very warm to hot but are not excessive: the average maximum in February is usually around 29 °C (84 °F) and in July around 21 °C (70 °F).

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: However, due to seasonal lag, June, July, and August are the warmest months in the Northern Hemisphere while December, January, and February are the warmest months in the Southern Hemisphere.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Record temperatures were felt in:

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Winters are cool and wet with December, the coolest month, averaging 40.6 °F (4.8 °C), with 28 annual days with lows that reach the freezing mark, and 2.0 days where the temperature stays at or below freezing all day; the temperature rarely lowers to 20 °F (−7 °C).

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: The hottest officially recorded temperature was 103 °F (39 °C) on July 29, 2009; the coldest recorded temperature was 0 °F (−18 °C) on January 31, 1950; the record cold daily maximum is 16 °F (−9 °C) on January 14, 1950, while, conversely, the record warm daily minimum is 71 °F (22 °C) the day the official record high was set.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Winters are mild: January is the coolest month, with average maximum temperatures of 16.0 °C (61 °F) and minimum of 5.7 °C (42 °F).

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Average temperatures of January is 21 ° C, February is 23 ° C, March is 29 ° C, April is 34 ° C, May is 37 ° C.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: December, January and February also brought extremely mild weather making the winter of 2006/2007 the warmest in recorded history.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: This includes the record of , which is currently considered the highest temperature recorded on Earth.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: May is the warmest month, and January, the coolest.
Claim: “‘If you remove the ice shelf, there’s a potential that not just ice-cliff instabilities will start occurring, but a process called marine ice-sheet instabilities,’ says Matthew Wise, a polar scientist at the University of Cambridge.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: Secondly, melting of the ice shelves, the floating extensions of the ice sheet, leads to a process named the Marine Ice Cliff Instability.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: "Potential Antarctic Ice Sheet retreat driven by hydrofracturing and ice cliff failure".

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: The WAIS is classified as a marine-based ice sheet, meaning that its bed lies well below sea level and its edges flow into floating ice shelves.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: "Antarctic ice shelf disintegration triggered by sea ice loss and ocean swell".

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: An ice shelf is a large floating platform of ice that forms where a glacier or ice sheet flows down to a coastline and onto the ocean surface.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: An ice shelf is a thick suspended platform of ice that forms where a glacier or ice sheet flows down to a coastline and onto the ocean surface.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Unusually rapid (up to 4.1 cm/year) present glacial isostatic rebound due to recent ice mass losses in the Amundsen Sea embayment region of Antarctica coupled with low regional mantle viscosity is predicted to provide a modest stabilizing influence on marine ice sheet instability in West Antarctica, but likely not to a sufficient degree to arrest it.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: However, rather than the warming itself melting the ice, it is possible that sea-level change associated with the warming destabilised ice shelves.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Ice shelves are not stable when surface melting occurs, and the collapse of Larsen Ice Shelf has been caused by warmer melt season temperatures that have led to surface melting and the formation of shallow ponds of water on the ice shelf.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Without a floating ice shelf to support them, continental ice sheets would flow out towards the oceans and disintegrate into icebergs and sea ice.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: It would be seabed if the ice sheet were not there.
Claim: While preventing global warming is relatively cheap, economists can't even accurately estimate the accelerating costs of climate damages if we continue with business-as-usual.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: Economists generally argue that carbon taxes are the most efficient and effective way to curb climate change, with the least adverse effects on the economy.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: This article is about the economics of climate change mitigation.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: The economic problem with climate change is that the emitters of greenhouse gases (GHGs) do not face the full cost implications of their actions (IMF, 2008, p. 6).

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: By addressing climate change, we can avoid the costs associated with the effects of climate change.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: According to the Stern Review, inaction can be as high as the equivalent of losing at least 5% of global gross domestic product (GDP) each year, now and forever (upto 20% of the GDP or more when including a wider range of risks and impacts), whereas mitigating climate change will only cost about 2% of the GDP.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Economists have different views over the cost estimates of climate change mitigation given in the Review.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: The total economic impacts from climate change are difficult to estimate.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: The Real Global Warming Disaster ("Is the Obsession with 'Climate Change' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History?")

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Economic debates weigh the benefits of limiting industrial emissions of mitigating global warming against the costs that such changes would entail.
Claim: When we do the calculations and include all radiative forcings and the amount of heat being absorbed by the oceans, it shows that the Earth has warmed almost exactly as much as we would expect.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean's heat content, until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: This effect is much less significant than the total energy change due to the axial tilt, and most of the excess energy is absorbed by the higher proportion of water in the Southern Hemisphere.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: Although the most common measure of global warming is the increase in the near-surface atmospheric temperature, over 90% of the additional energy stored in the climate system over the last 50 years has warmed ocean water.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: Most of this thermal radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere and warms it.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: Earth's surface, warmed to an "effective temperature" around −18 °C (0 °F), radiates long-wavelength, infrared heat in the range of 4–100 μm.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: The Earth's heat content is about .

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: In spite of the enormous transfers of energy into and from the Earth, it maintains a relatively constant temperature because, as a whole, there is little net gain or loss: Earth emits via atmospheric and terrestrial radiation (shifted to longer electromagnetic wavelengths) to space about the same amount of energy as it receives via insolation (all forms of electromagnetic radiation).

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: If Earth was to experience an equilibrium temperature change of (°C) due to a sustained forcing of (W/m), then:

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: This yields an apparent effective average earth temperature of .

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: This is because the above equation represents the effective "radiative" temperature of the Earth (including the clouds and atmosphere).

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Earth is very close to being in radiative equilibrium, the situation where the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space; under that condition, global temperatures will be relatively stable.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Radiative forcing or climate forcing is the difference between insolation (sunlight) absorbed by the Earth and energy radiated back to space.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Dependent on the radiative balance of incoming and outgoing energy, the Earth either warms up or cools down.
Claim: However, weather imposes its own dramatic ups and downs over the long term trend.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: All these effects can combine to produce a dramatic drop in sea surface temperature over a large area in just a few days.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: Kerry Emanuel stated, "Records of hurricane activity worldwide show an upswing of both the maximum wind speed in and the duration of hurricanes.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: Surface temperature differences in turn cause pressure differences.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: In some situations, the temperature actually increases with height.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: Aside from climatic changes that have caused the gradual drift of populations (for example the desertification of the Middle East, and the formation of land bridges during glacial periods), extreme weather events have caused smaller scale population movements and intruded directly in historical events.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Climate (from Ancient Greek "klima", meaning "inclination") is commonly defined as the weather averaged over a long period.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: The macroscopic climate often influences each of the above.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: The term is also used to describe the meteorological phenomenon associated.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Deviations from this equilibrium can also be affected by variated climate .

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Climate is the long-term average of weather, typically averaged over a period of 30 years.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Climate change is a long-term, sustained trend of change in climate.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: The climate is a typically continental climate with extreme differences between winter and summer temperatures.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Weather is driven by air pressure, temperature and moisture differences between one place and another.
Claim: Previous studies have shown that weakening carbon sinks will add 0.25°C, forest dieback will add 0.11°C, permafrost thaw will add 0.9°C and increased bacterial respiration will add 0.02°C.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: The Woods Hole Research Center, citing two 2015 studies on permafrost carbon says there may be a self-reinforcing tipping point where an estimated equivalent of 205 gigatons of carbon dioxide in the form of methane could cause up to 0.5 °C (up to 0.9 °F) warming by the end of the century, which would trigger more warming.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Release of greenhouse gases from thawed permafrost to the atmosphere increases global warming.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Model projections showed that Arctic terrestrial ecosystems and the active layer (the top layer of soil or rock in permafrost that is subjected to seasonal freezing and thawing) would be a small sink for carbon (i.e., net uptake of carbon) over this century (p. 662).

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: It was judged that increased emissions of carbon from thawing of permafrost could occur.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: The permafrost carbon cycle (Arctic Carbon Cycle) deals with the transfer of carbon from permafrost soils to terrestrial vegetation and microbes, to the atmosphere, back to vegetation, and finally back to permafrost soils through burial and sedimentation due to cryogenic processes.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Additionally, the global warming induced thawing of the permafrost, which stores about two times the amount of the carbon currently released in the atmosphere, releases the potent greenhouse gas, methane, in a positive feedback cycle that is feared to lead to a tipping point called runaway climate change.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: the level of historic warming (±250 GtCO), potential additional carbon release from future permafrost thawing and methane release from wetlands (reducing the budget by up to 100 GtCO over the century), and the level of future non-CO2 mitigation (±400 GtCO).

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Estimates vary on how many tons of greenhouse gases are emitted from thawed permafrost soils.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: reported permafrost was thawing quicker than predicted, and was happening even to thousands years old soil; They estimated that abrupt permafrost thawing could release between 60 and 100 gigatonnes of carbon by 2300, they mentioned gaps in the research and that abrupt permafrost thawing should have priority research and urgency.
Claim: You're going to have an increase in the amount of ice in Antarctica because of global warming.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: Surface temperature increases are greatest in the Arctic, which has contributed to the retreat of glaciers, permafrost, and sea ice.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Under the influence of global warming, melt at the base of the ice sheet increases.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: In contrast to the melting of the Arctic sea ice, sea ice around Antarctica has been expanding as of 2013[update].

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: "Recently amplified arctic warming has contributed to a continual global warming trend".

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Global warming is increasing growth of algae on the ice sheet.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: This has led to increases in mean global temperature, or global warming.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Global climate change and fluctuation is causing an increasingly exponential melting of Earth's glaciers.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Climate change is expected to lead to latitudinal and altitudinal temperature increases.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Global warming refers to the long-term rise in the average temperature of the Earth's climate system.
Claim: Melting permafrost can release not just CO2, but also methane, a much stronger heat-trapping gas.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: Permafrost and clathrates degrade on warming, and thus, large releases of methane from these sources may arise as a result of global warming.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: It is thought that permafrost thawing could exacerbate global warming by releasing methane and other hydrocarbons, which are powerful greenhouse gases.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: It also contains gas hydrates in places, which are a "potential abundant source of energy" but may also destabilize as subsea permafrost warms and thaws, producing large amounts of methane gas, which is a potent greenhouse gas.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: The consequence is thawing soil, which may be weaker, and release of methane, which contributes to an increased rate of global warming as part of a feedback loop.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: When the permafrost melts, it releases carbon in the form of carbon dioxide and methane, both of which are greenhouse gases.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: "Methane release from melting permafrost could trigger dangerous global warming".

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Release of methane and carbon dioxide stored in permafrost could cause abrupt and severe global warming, as they are potent greenhouse gases.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Additionally, the global warming induced thawing of the permafrost, which stores about two times the amount of the carbon currently released in the atmosphere, releases the potent greenhouse gas, methane, in a positive feedback cycle that is feared to lead to a tipping point called runaway climate change.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Furthermore, permafrost melting will eventually cause methane release from melting permafrost peat bogs.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: The current Arctic warming is leading to ancient carbon being released from thawing permafrost, leading to methane and carbon dioxide production by micro-organisms.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: A potential abrupt feedback due to thermokarst lake formations in the Arctic, in response to thawing permafrost soils, releasing additional greenhouse gas methane, is currently not accounted for in climate models.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Release of greenhouse gases from thawed permafrost to the atmosphere increases global warming.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Arctic amplification also causes methane to be released as permafrost melts, which is expected to surpass land use changes as the second strongest anthropogenic source of greenhouse gases by the end of the century.