jasperyeoh2/new-methodology-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Claim: Not only is there no scientific evidence that CO2 is a pollutant, higher CO2 concentrations actually help ecosystems support more plant and animal life.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: At very high concentrations (100 times atmospheric concentration, or greater), carbon dioxide can be toxic to animal life, so raising the concentration to 10,000 ppm (1%) or higher for several hours will eliminate pests such as whiteflies and spider mites in a greenhouse.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: Plants can grow as much as 50 percent faster in concentrations of 1,000 ppm CO 2 when compared with ambient conditions, though this assumes no change in climate and no limitation on other nutrients.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: Higher carbon dioxide concentrations will favourably affect plant growth and demand for water.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: While the full implications of elevated CO2 on marine ecosystems are still being documented, there is a substantial body of research showing that a combination of ocean acidification and elevated ocean temperature, driven mainly by CO2 and other greenhouse gas emissions, have a compounded effect on marine life and the ocean environment.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide affects plants in a variety of ways.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Plants require carbon dioxide to conduct photosynthesis.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: When CO levels rise in the atmosphere the temperature increases and plants grow.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological, chemical or physical processes.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Marine organisms are more sensitive to changes in (carbon dioxide) levels than terrestrial organisms are for a variety of reasons.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: The CO2 fertiliser effect has been greatly overestimated during Free-Air Carbon dioxide Enrichment (FACE) experiments where results show increased CO2 levels in the atmosphere enhances photosynthesis, reduce transpiration, and increase water use efficiency (WUE).

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: The reason for this is that human activities are adding CO2 to the atmosphere faster than natural processes can remove it (see carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere for a complete explanation).
Claim: El Niño drove record highs in global temperatures suggesting rise may not be down to man-made emissions.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: While ‘climate change’ can be due to natural forces or human activity, there is now substantial evidence to indicate that human activity – and specifically increased greenhouse gas (GHGs) emissions – is a key factor in the pace and extent of global temperature increases.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: This acceleration is due mostly to human-caused global warming, which is driving thermal expansion of seawater and the melting of land-based ice sheets and glaciers.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: El Niño generally tends to increase global temperatures.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon in the Pacific Ocean responsible for most of the global variability in temperature, and has a cycle between two and seven years.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: La Niña (, ) is a coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon that is the counterpart of El Niño as part of the broader El Niño Southern Oscillation climate pattern.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: "El Niño in a changing climate".

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a global coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is an irregularly periodic variation in winds and sea surface temperatures over the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean, affecting the climate of much of the tropics and subtropics.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: It has been proposed that the mechanism of increased Arctic surface air temperature anomalies during La Niña periods of ENSO may be attributed to the Tropically Excited Arctic Warming Mechanism (TEAM), when Rossby waves propagate more poleward, leading to wave dynamics and an increase in downward infrared radiation.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: The 2014–16 El Niño was a warming of the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean that resulted in unusually warm waters developing between the coast of South America and the International Date Line.
Claim: In 1946, PDO switched to a cool phase.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: There is evidence of reversals in the prevailing polarity (meaning changes in cool surface waters versus warm surface waters within the region) of the oscillation occurring around 1925, 1947, and 1977; the last two reversals corresponded with dramatic shifts in salmon production regimes in the North Pacific Ocean.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: 1945/1946: The PDO changed to a "cool" phase, the pattern of this regime shift is similar to the 1970s episode with maximum amplitude in the subarctic and subtropical front but with a greater signature near the Japan while the 1970s shift was stronger near the American west coast.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: 1924/1925: PDO changed to a "warm" phase.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: 1976/1977: PDO changed to a "warm" phase.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: The PDO is detected as warm or cool surface waters in the Pacific Ocean, north of 20° N. During a "warm", or "positive", phase, the west Pacific becomes cool and part of the eastern ocean warms; during a "cool" or "negative" phase, the opposite pattern occurs.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: The PDO is a pattern of Pacific climate variability that shifts phases on at least inter-decadal time scale, usually about 20 to 30 years.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: The Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) is a robust, recurring pattern of ocean-atmosphere climate variability centered over the mid-latitude Pacific basin.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: The PDO is detected as warm or cool surface waters in the Pacific Ocean, north of 20°N.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: By the early 1980s, the slight cooling trend from 1945–1975 had stopped.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: The 2014 flip from the cool PDO phase to the warm phase, which vaguely resembles a long and drawn out El Niño event, contributed to record-breaking surface temperatures across the planet in 2014.
Claim: "January 2008 capped a 12 month period of global temperature drops on all of the major well respected indicators.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: With average temperature +8.1 °C (47 °F).

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: The Iranian / Persian calendar, currently used in Iran and Afghanistan, also has 12 months.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: All of these events can have wide variations of more than a month from year to year.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: Its average duration is 365.256363004 days (365 d 6 h 9 min 9.76 s) (at the epoch J2000.0 = January 1, 2000, 12:00:00 TT).

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: It has a duration of approximately 354.37 days.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: During this period, a sharp drop in global temperatures took place.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: In climatology, the 8.2-kiloyear event was a sudden decrease in global temperatures that occurred approximately 8,200 years before the present, or c. 6,200 BC, and which lasted for the next two to four centuries.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Climate is the statistics (usually, mean or variability) of weather: the classical period for averaging weather variables is 30 years in accordance with the definition set by the World Meteorological Organization.Instrumental temperature records have shown a robust multi-decadal long-term trend of global warming since the end of the 19th century, reversing longer term cooling in previous centuries as seen in paleoclimate records.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: "Global Measured Extremes of Temperature and Precipitation".

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend, and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus: by January 2006, it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: During the last 20-30 years, world temperature has fallen, irregularly at first but more sharply over the last decade.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: "Estimating Changes in Global Temperature since the Preindustrial Period".

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Although the parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2 °C (3.6 °F) in the Paris Agreement of 2016, the Earth's average surface temperature has already increased by about half this threshold and current pledges by countries to cut emissions are inadequate to limit future warming.
Claim: Tree-ring proxy reconstructions are reliable before 1960, tracking closely with the instrumental record and other independent proxies.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: The deviation of some tree ring proxy measurements from the instrumental record since the 1950s raises the question of the reliability of tree ring proxies in the period before the instrumental temperature record.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: As there are few instrumental records before 1850, temperatures before then must be reconstructed based on proxy methods.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Individual proxy records, such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology, are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: The role of solar activity in climate change has also been calculated over longer time periods using "proxy" datasets, such as tree rings.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Solar irradiance before the 1970s is estimated using proxy variables, such as tree rings, the number of sunspots, and the abundances of cosmogenic isotopes such as Be, all of which are calibrated to the post-1978 direct measurements.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions: tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures (within the tropics trees do not form rings) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Since direct observations of climate are not available before the 19th century, paleoclimates are inferred from proxy variables that include non-biotic evidence such as sediments found in lake beds and ice cores, and biotic evidence such as tree rings and coral.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: By using that method, some areas have tree-ring records dating back a few thousand years.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: In the study of past climates ("paleoclimatology"), climate proxies are preserved physical characteristics of the past that stand in for direct meteorological measurements and enable scientists to reconstruct the climatic conditions over a longer fraction of the Earth's history.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: The value of tree rings for climate study was not solidly established until the 1960s.
Claim: Under the most ambitious scenarios, they found a strong likelihood that Antarctica would remain fairly stable.”

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: The sheet has been of recent concern because of the small possibility of its collapse.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to 1.7 °C (0.5 to 3.1 °F) in a moderate scenario, or as much as 2.6 to 4.8 °C (4.7 to 8.6 °F) in an extreme scenario, depending on the rate of future greenhouse gas emissions and on climate feedback effects.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: Pledges made as part of the Cancún Agreements are broadly consistent with cost-effective scenarios that give a "likely" chance (66-100% probability) of limiting global warming (in 2100) to below 3 °C, relative to pre-industrial levels.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: "Stability of the West Antarctic ice sheet in a warming world".

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: "Study concludes Antarctica is gaining ice, rather than losing it".

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Antarctica was not always cold, dry, and covered in ice sheets.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: "The projections and results presented in several peer-reviewed publications provide evidence to support a physically plausible GMSL rise in the range of 2.0 meters (m) to 2.7 m, and recent results regarding Antarctic ice-sheet instability indicate that such outcomes may be more likely than previously thought."

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Scientists consider such a scenario technically possible, but unlikely.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: "Mass gains of the Antarctic ice sheet exceed losses".

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Concern has been expressed about the stability of the West Antarctic ice sheet (WAIS).

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Unusually rapid (up to 4.1 cm/year) present glacial isostatic rebound due to recent ice mass losses in the Amundsen Sea embayment region of Antarctica coupled with low regional mantle viscosity is predicted to provide a modest stabilizing influence on marine ice sheet instability in West Antarctica, but likely not to a sufficient degree to arrest it.
Claim: When stomata-derived CO2 (red) is compared to ice core-derived CO2 (blue), the stomata generally show much more variability in the atmospheric CO2 level and often show levels much higher than the ice cores.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: One study using evidence from stomata of fossilized leaves suggests greater variability, with carbon dioxide mole fractions above 300 ppm during the period seven to ten thousand years ago, though others have argued that these findings more likely reflect calibration or contamination problems rather than actual CO 2 variability.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Stomatal density and aperture (length of stomata) varies under a number of environmental factors such as atmospheric CO2 concentration, light intensity, air temperature and photoperiod (daytime duration).

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: New approaches retrieve data such as CO 2 content of past atmospheres from fossil leaf stomata and isotope composition, measuring cellular CO2 concentrations.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: New approaches retrieve data such as content of past atmospheres from fossil leaf stomata and isotope composition, measuring cellular CO concentrations.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: The isotopic signature of plants shows higher degree of C depletion than the plants, due to variation in fractionation of carbon isotopes in oxygenic photosynthesis across plant types.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: While standard gas exchange photosynthesis systems can measure Ci, or substomatal CO levels, the addition of integrated chlorophyll fluorescence measurements allows a more precise measurement of C to replace Ci.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: The ice core data shows that temperature change causes the level of atmospheric CO2 to change - not the other way round.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Many desert plants have a special type of photosynthesis, termed crassulacean acid metabolism or CAM photosynthesis, in which the stomata are closed during the day and open at night when transpiration will be lower.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: During active photosynthesis, plants can absorb more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere than they release in respiration.
Claim: 195 countries signed the 2015 Paris Agreement, agreeing to limit global warming and adapt to climate change, partly by protecting nature.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: In 2015, all (then) 196 parties to the convention came together for the UN Climate Change Conference in Paris 30 November - 12 December and adopted by consensus the Paris Agreement, aimed at limiting global warming to less than two degrees Celsius, and pursue efforts to limit the rise to 1.5 degrees Celsius.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: The Paris Agreement is an agreement within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) dealing with greenhouse gases emissions mitigation, adaptation and finance starting in the year 2020.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: The Paris Agreement aims to combat global climate change by keeping a global temperature rise this century well below 2 degrees Celsius and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase even further to 1.5 degrees Celsius.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Efforts to resolve this include the Kyoto Protocol (1997) and the Paris Agreement (2015), international governmental agreements aiming to reduce harmful climate impacts, which a number of nations have signed.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: On the final day under the presidency of Laurent Fabius the 195 governments which are Parties to the Climate Change Convention unanimously adopted Paris Agreement, accelerating the intentional transformation of the global economy toward low carbon and high resilience.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: In 2015 all UN countries negotiated the Paris Agreement, which aims to keep climate change well below 2 °C.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: The main current international agreement on combating climate change is the Kyoto Protocol (which is now succeeded by the Paris agreement).

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: The Paris Agreement explicitly recognises nature’s role in helping people and societies address climate change, calling on all Parties to acknowledge “the importance of ensuring the integrity of all ecosystems, including oceans, and the protection of biodiversity, recognised by some cultures as Mother Earth”; its Articles include several references to ecosystems, natural resources and forests.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: The Paris Agreement, which was brought to discussion on November 12, 2016, was made with a goal in mind to unite all countries against the threat of climate change.
Claim: Mars, Triton, Pluto and Jupiter all show global warming, pointing to the Sun as the dominating influence in determining climate throughout the solar system."

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: It is a major aspect of climate change and has been demonstrated by direct temperature measurements and by measurements of various effects of the warming.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: Another line of evidence for the warming not being due to the Sun is how temperature changes differ at different levels in the Earth's atmosphere.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: The largest human influence has been the emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: As the Sun is the Earth's primary energy source, changes in incoming sunlight directly affect the climate system.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: As Neptune orbits the Sun, Triton's polar regions take turns facing the Sun, resulting in seasonal changes as one pole, then the other, moves into the sunlight.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: The most prominent planetary rings in the Solar System are those around Saturn, but the other three giant planets (Jupiter, Uranus, and Neptune) also have ring systems.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: These changes can influence the planetary climate.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: "Sun's Shifts May Cause Global Warming".

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: He stated that warming on Mars was evidence that global warming on Earth was being caused by changes in the sun.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: The large amount of CO2 in the atmosphere together with water vapour and sulfur dioxide create a strong greenhouse effect, trapping solar energy and raising the surface temperature to around 740 K (467 °C), hotter than any other planet in the Solar System, even that of Mercury despite being located farther out from the Sun and receiving only 25% of the solar energy (per unit area) Mercury does.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: These included Neptune's moon Triton, Jupiter, Pluto and Mars.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Than (2007) provided alternative explanations of why warming had occurred on Triton, Pluto, Jupiter and Mars.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Three mechanisms are proposed by which solar activity affects climate: