jasperyeoh2/new-methodology-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Claim: Yet clouds reflect about seventy-five watts per square meter.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: If the extraterrestrial solar radiation is 1367 watts per square meter (the value when the Earth–Sun distance is 1 astronomical unit), then the direct sunlight at Earth's surface when the Sun is at the zenith is about 1050 W/m2, but the total amount (direct and indirect from the atmosphere) hitting the ground is around 1120 W/m2.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: Dividing the irradiance of 1050 W/m2 by the size of the Sun's disk in steradians gives an average radiance of 15.4 MW per square metre per steradian.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: 100 watts per square meter ... 14,000 lux ... corresponds to ... daytime with overcast clouds Craig Bohren.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: Other sources indicate an "Average over the entire earth" of "164 Watts per square meter over a 24 hour day".

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: Total solar irradiance (TSI) – the amount of solar radiation received at the top of Earth's atmosphere – has been measured since 1978 by a series of overlapping NASA and ESA satellite experiments to be 1.365 kilo⁠watts per square meter (kW/m²).

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Of the ~340 W/m² of solar radiation received by the Earth, an average of ~77 W/m² is reflected back to space by clouds and the atmosphere and ~23 W/m² is reflected by the surface albedo, leaving ~240 W/m² of solar energy input to the Earth's energy budget.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Higher values indicate that a cloud reflects a larger amount of solar radiation and transmits a smaller amount of radiation.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Globally, over the course of the year, the Earth system—land surfaces, oceans, and atmosphere—absorbs and then radiates back to space an average of about 340 watts of solar power per square meter.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Thick clouds (such as stratocumulus) reflect a large amount of incoming solar radiation, meaning they have a high albedo.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: The SI unit of irradiance is watt per square metre (W/m, which may also be written Wm).

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: To quantify Earth's "heat budget" or "heat balance", let the insolation received at the top of the atmosphere be 100 units (100 units = about 1,360 watts per square meter facing the sun), as shown in the accompanying illustration.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: There are several other effects such as clouds.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Cloud cover may change in the future.
Claim: Increased atmospheric carbon dioxide has helped raise global food production and reduce poverty.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: While increased CO 2 levels help crop growth at lower temperature increases, those crops do become less nutritious.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas that increases radiative forcing and contributes to global warming along with ocean acidification.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Carbon dioxide () is an important trace gas in Earth's atmosphere.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Climate change has many potential impacts on the production of food crops—from food scarcity and nutrient deficiency to possible increased food production because of elevated carbon dioxide () levels—all of which directly affect human health.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Elevated CO2 increases crop yields and growth through an increase in photosynthetic rate, and it also decreases water loss as a result of stomatal closing.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: For example, lifting people out of poverty can increase consumption and drive climate change.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere is essential to life and to most of the planetary biosphere.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth's atmosphere.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: A higher amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere leads to higher global temperatures, which then results in thermal expansion of seawater and melting of glaciers and ice sheets.
Claim: A paper by Ross McKitrick, an economics professor at the  University of Guelph, and Patrick Michaels, an environmental studies  professor at the University of Virginia, concludes that half of the  global warming trend from 1980 to 2002 is caused by Urban Heat Island.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: For example, Ross McKitrick and Patrick J. Michaels conducted a statistical study of surface-temperature data regressed against socioeconomic indicators, and concluded that about half of the observed warming trend (for 1979–2002) could be accounted for by the residual UHI effects in the corrected temperature data set they studied—which had already been processed to remove the (modeled) UHI contribution.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: US National Academy of Sciences: "In the judgment of most climate scientists, Earth's warming in recent decades has been caused primarily by human activities that have increased the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Retrieved 2010-08-28. the leading international network of climate scientists has concluded for the first time that global warming is 'unequivocal' and that human activity is the main driver, 'very likely' causing most of the rise in temperatures since 1950 Stevens, William K. (2007-02-06).

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: The introduction includes this statement: There is strong evidence that the warming of the Earth over the last half-century has been caused largely by human activity, such as the burning of fossil fuels and changes in land use, including agriculture and deforestation.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fifth Assessment Report concluded, "It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century".

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: A retired journalist for The New York Times, William K. Stevens wrote: "The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change said the likelihood was 90 percent to 99 percent that emissions of heat-trapping greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, spewed from tailpipes and smokestacks, were the dominant cause of the observed warming of the last 50 years.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: GHG emissions due to anthropogenic (human) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming (climate change) since the mid-20th century.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change said the likelihood was 90 percent to 99 percent that emissions of heat-trapping greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, spewed from tailpipes and smokestacks, were the dominant cause of the observed warming of the last 50 years.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Residential demographics affect perceptions of global warming.
Claim: While volcanic eruptions are natural events, it was the timing of these that had such a noticeable effect on the trend

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: The amount of gas and ash emitted by volcanic eruptions has a significant effect on the Earth's climate.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: External forcings include natural phenomena such as volcanic eruptions and variations in the sun's output.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Volcanoes are a large natural source of aerosol and have been linked to changes in the earth's climate often with consequences for the human population.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: In addition to human activities, some natural mechanisms can also cause climate change, including for example, climate oscillations, changes in solar activity, and volcanic activity.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: IPCC AR4 WG1 Ch9 2007, p. 690: "Recent estimates indicate a relatively small combined effect of natural forcings on the global mean temperature evolution of the second half of the 20th century, with a small net cooling from the combined effects of solar and volcanic forcings."

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: increased emissions of greenhouse gases and dust) or natural (e.g., changes in solar output, the earth's orbit, volcano eruptions).

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: While ‘climate change’ can be due to natural forces or human activity, there is now substantial evidence to indicate that human activity – and specifically increased greenhouse gas (GHGs) emissions – is a key factor in the pace and extent of global temperature increases.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Some sources of catastrophic risk are natural, such as meteor impacts or supervolcanoes.
Claim: Water vapour is the most dominant greenhouse gas.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: Water vapor is the most abundant greenhouse gas and is the largest contributor to the natural greenhouse effect, despite having a short atmospheric lifetime (about 10 days).

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: The dominant contributor to the greenhouse effect is water vapour (~50%), with clouds (~25%) and CO 2 (~20%) also playing an important role.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: While water vapour (~50%) and clouds (~25%) are the biggest contributors to the greenhouse effect, they increase as a function of temperature and are therefore considered feedbacks.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: After water vapour (concentrations of which humans have limited capacity to influence) carbon dioxide is the most abundant and stable greenhouse gas in the atmosphere (methane rapidly reacts to form water vapour and carbon dioxide).

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Water vapor is the most potent greenhouse gas owing to the presence of the hydroxyl bond which strongly absorbs in the infra-red region of the light spectrum.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone are the primary greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: The primary greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere are water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and ozone (O3).

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: One of the products of burning hydrocarbons with oxygen is water vapour, a greenhouse gas.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth's atmosphere.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Though water is responsible for most (about 36-70%) of the total greenhouse effect, the role of water vapor as a greenhouse gas depends on temperature.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Carbon dioxide is the primary greenhouse gas that is contributing to recent climate change.
Claim: Past Australian droughts occurred when global temperatures were lower than now and wetter years occurred when such temperatures were rising.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: Overall, higher temperatures bring more rain and snowfall, but for some regions droughts and wildfires increase instead.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Australia's climate has warmed by more than one degree Celsius over the past century, causing an increase in the frequency and intensity of heatwaves and droughts.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: In 2014, the Bureau of Meteorology released a report on the state of Australia's climate that highlighted several key points, including the significant increase in Australia's temperatures (particularly night-time temperatures) and the increasing frequency of bush fires, droughts and floods, which have all been linked to climate change.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Scientific experts and land management agencies agree that severely below average fuel moisture attributed to record-breaking temperatures and drought, accompanied by severe fire weather, are the primary causes of the 2019-20 Australian bushfire season, and that these are likely to have been exacerbated by long-term trends of warmer and dryer weather observed over the Australian land mass.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Some evidence suggests that droughts have been occurring more frequently because of global warming and they are expected to become more frequent and intense in Africa, southern Europe, the Middle East, most of the Americas, Australia, and Southeast Asia.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: According to the Bureau of Meteorology's 2011 Australian Climate Statement, Australia had lower than average temperatures in 2011 as a consequence of a La Niña weather pattern; however, "the country's 10-year average continues to demonstrate the rising trend in temperatures, with 2002–2011 likely to rank in the top two warmest 10-year periods on record for Australia, at 0.52 °C (0.94 °F) above the long-term average".

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Overall, global warming will result in increased world rainfall.. Activities resulting in global climate change are expected to trigger droughts with a substantial impact on agriculture throughout the world, and especially in developing nations.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Drought is a recurring feature of the climate in most parts of the world.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Well-known historical droughts include:
Claim: Theory, models and direct measurement confirm CO2 is currently the main driver of climate change.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: Following Le Chatelier's principle, the chemical equilibrium of the Earth's carbon cycle will shift in response to anthropogenic CO2 emissions.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: Scientists have determined that the major factors causing the current climate change are greenhouse gases, land use changes, and aerosols and soot.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: Models are typically used when it is either impossible or impractical to create experimental conditions in which scientists can directly measure outcomes.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Carbon dioxide is the primary greenhouse gas that is contributing to recent climate change.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Network of African Science Academies: "A consensus, based on current evidence, now exists within the global scientific community that human activities are the main source of climate change and that the burning of fossil fuels is largely responsible for driving this change."

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: There is a scientific consensus that climate is changing and that greenhouse gases emitted by human activities are the primary driver.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: A consensus, based on current evidence, now exists within the global scientific community that human activities are the main source of climate change and that the burning of fossil fuels is largely responsible for driving this change...

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: AIBS Position Statements "Observations throughout the world make it clear that climate change is occurring, and rigorous scientific research demonstrates that the greenhouse gases emitted by human activities are the primary driver."

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: As stated by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the largest contributor to global warming is the increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO) since 1750, particularly from fossil fuel combustion, cement production, and land use changes such as deforestation.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: ...Carbon dioxide removal strategies address a key driver of climate change, but research is needed to fully assess if any of these technologies could be appropriate for large-scale deployment.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Cumulative anthropogenic (i.e., human-emitted) emissions of CO 2 from fossil fuel use are a major cause of global warming, and give some indication of which countries have contributed most to human-induced climate change.
Claim: There is no statistical evidence that global warming is intensifying[…] droughts

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: Some evidence suggests that droughts have been occurring more frequently because of global warming and they are expected to become more frequent and intense in Africa, southern Europe, the Middle East, most of the Americas, Australia, and Southeast Asia.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: Overall, higher temperatures bring more rain and snowfall, but for some regions droughts and wildfires increase instead.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: Climate change also increases droughts and heat waves that inhibit plant growth, which makes it uncertain whether this balancing feedback will persist in the future.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: Since the 1950s, droughts and heat waves have appeared simultaneously with increasing frequency.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Overall, global warming will result in increased world rainfall.. Activities resulting in global climate change are expected to trigger droughts with a substantial impact on agriculture throughout the world, and especially in developing nations.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: The warming has not been globally uniform.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Although some studies have reported an increase in frequency and intensity of extremes in rainfall during the past 40–50 years, their attribution to global warming is not established."

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: There is no convincing scientific evidence that human contribution to greenhouse gases is causing dangerous global warming.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: There is less evidence that precipitation is changing.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: To some extent moisture in the atmosphere accelerates the probability of a global warming event.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Evidence for warming accumulated.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: There is also evidence that global warming is leading to increased precipitation to the eastern portions of North America, while droughts are becoming more frequent in the tropics and subtropics.
Claim: CO2 emissions from all commercial operations in 2018 totaled 918 million metric tons—2.4% of global CO2 emissions from fossil fuel use.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 1
Passage: In 2018, global commercial operations emitted 918 million tonnes (Mt) of CO₂, 2.4% of all CO₂ emissions: 747 Mt for passenger transport and 171 Mt for freight operations.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: CO 2 currently forms about 410 parts per million (ppm) of earth's atmosphere, compared to about 280 ppm in pre-industrial times, and billions of metric tons of CO 2 are emitted annually by burning of fossil fuels.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: Coal fires in China burn an estimated 120 million tons of coal a year, emitting 360 million metric tons of CO, amounting to 2–3% of the annual worldwide production of CO from fossil fuels.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: In the modern era, emissions to the atmosphere from volcanoes are approximately 0.645 billion tonnes of CO 2 per year, whereas humans contribute 29 billion tonnes of CO 2 each year.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: The burning of fossil fuels produces around 21.3 billion tonnes (21.3 gigatonnes) of carbon dioxide (CO2) per year.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: In 2018, CO2 emissions totalled 747 million tonnes for passenger transport, for 8.5 trillion revenue passenger kilometres (RPK), giving an average of 88 gram CO2 per RPK.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: In 2016 world gross carbon dioxide emissions from coal usage were 14.5 giga tonnes.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: In the United States, electric power plants emit about 2.4 billion tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) each year, or roughly 40 percent of the nation's total emissions.

Relevance (1 = gold evidence, 0 = mined hard negative): 0
Passage: The United States produced 5.14 billion metric tons of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in 2017, the lowest since the early 1990s, but still the second largest in the world after greenhouse gas emissions by China and amongst the worst countries by greenhouse gas emissions per person.