Hexavalent chromium availability and phytoremediation potential of Cichorium spinosum as affect by manure, zeolite and soil ageing. 
Cichorium spinosum (spiny chicory) is a wild edible vegetable, and a possible suitable species for Cr(VI)-phytoremediation.  There are three approaches for altering Cr(VI) dynamics: reduction to Cr(III) by organic matter addition, soil ageing, and Cr(VI) retention by high binding capacity materials added to soil, e.g., zeolite.  Our aim was to assess spiny chicory as a phytoremediation species in relation to these three methods of altering Cr(VI) soil dynamics.  There were 5 treatments: control (C); soil with 100 mg kg-1 Cr(VI) (S); soil with zeolite plus 100 mg kg-1 Cr(VI) (Z); soil with manure plus 100 mg kg-1 Cr(VI) (M); and soil added with 100 mg kg-1 Cr(VI) one year before this experiment (AS, "aged soil").  In soil, Cr(VI) was higher at S, while Z, M and AS were lower.  In plant, Cr(VI) at Z, S, and AS were similar and significantly higher than M. This indicates that added manure decrease Cr(VI) availability to chicory due to the formation of organometallic complexes.  However, chicory uptake amounted to 0.26-0.40 kg Cr(VI) ha-1 for Z, S, and AS, while uptake at M was lower.  In conclusion, manure addition was more successful in decreasing Cr(VI) bioavailability, but it also slowed Cr(VI)-phytoremediation process.