izzako/sundanese-pixelgpt huggingface dataset:
Dun balik ka Amérika Sarikat taun 1883, tapi ka Jepang jadi sekretaris pamaréntah
William S. Clark dibéré tugas salila dalapan bulan ti taun 1876 nepi ka 1877 di Hokkaido pikeun ngadegkeun Sakola Tinggi Pertanian Sapporo (ayeuna jadi Universitas Hokkaido)
Saméméhna Clark jadi rektor Massachusetts Agricultural College (ayeuna jadi University of Massachusetts Amherst)
Manéhna ngajarkeun kuliah sains jeung Alkitab anu jadi dasar étika, sakaligus ngawanohkeun prinsip-prinsip Kristen ka mahasiswa angkatan munggaran
Di taun 1880, sakabéh wewengkon Sapporo dijadikeun hiji distrik kota anu ngaranna "Sapporo-ku" (Distrik Kota Sapporo), sarta jalur karéta api diwangun antara Sapporo jeung Témiya, Otaru
Di tahun nu sarua, Hotél Hōheikan diadegkeun di gigireun Taman Odori pikeun penginapan jeung resépsi pajabat sarta tamu penting
Di taun 1958, ieu hotél dipindahkeun ka Taman Nakajima
Di taun 1882 saenggeus Komisi Pangwangunan Hokkaido dihapus, Pulau Hokkaido dibagi jadi tilu préféktur: Hakodaté, Sapporo, jeung Némuro
Distrik kota di Sapporo ngaranna angger Sapporo-ku, samentara wewengkon lianna diganti jadi Sapporo-gun
Gedong kantor Sapporo-ku aya di distrik kota
Préféktur Sapporo, Préféktur Hakodate, dan Préféktur Nemuro dihapus taun 1886
Gedong Kantor Pamaréntah Hokkaido diwangun di taun 1888 kalawan arsitéktur gaya neobarok Amérika
Regu panungtung Tondén-héi, prajurit munggaran di Hokkaido, netep di lokasi anu kiwari disebut Tondén di Kita-ku, Sapporo
Distrik Sapporo-gun anu aya di sakuriling Sapporo-ku sacara administrasi diurus ku Sapporo-ku nepi ka sistem distrik anu anyar lumaku di taun 1899
Dumasar sistem nu anyar, distrik ("ku") boga otonomi anu leuwih gedé tibatan kota madya, tapi leuwih leutik ti kota
Harita di Hokkaido aya ogé Hakodate-ku jeung Otaru-ku
Sajarah modern (abad ka-20)
Sekolah Tinggi Pertanian Sapporo diasupkeun kana sistem Universitas Imperial Tohoku saenggeus diadegkeun di taun 1907 di Séndai, Préféktur Miyagi
Désa anu padeukeut saperti Désa Sapporo, Désa Naebo, Désa Kami Shiroishi, sarta distrik tempat nganjrekna Tondén-héi diasupkeun ka Sapporo-ku ddi taun 1910
Trém Sapporo diresmikeun di taun 1918 sarta Universitas Impérial Hokkaido diadegkeun di Sapporo-ku sarta jadi Universitas Imperial kalima di Jepang
Jalur Karéta Api Jōzankéi dioperasikeun di Sapporo nepi ka dihupusna di taun 1969
Di taun 1922, pamaréntah pusat ngumumkeun sistem kota anu anyar
Sapporo-ku sacara resmi dialihkeun ka Kota Sapporo
Sistem Bus Munisipal Sapporo diresmikeun di taun 1930
Di taun 1937, Sapporo kapilih jadi tuan rumah Olimpiade Usum Tiis 1940, tapi bedo ku sabab Perang Sino-Jepang II
Kota madya Maruyama dihijikeun jadi Chūō-ku di taun 1940, sarta Bandar Udara Okadama diwangun di taun 1942
Nalika poé panungtung Perang Dunya II, tanggal 14 Juli jeung 15 Juli 1945 30 pasawat pengebom B-29 Superfortress ngaragragkeun 889 ton E-46 500 lbs bom tandan pembakar jeung 500 lbs T4E4 bom tandan fragméntasi di luhur kota Sapporo pas keur beurang
Serangan udara Sekutu di Hokkaido nyababkeun badai seuneu anu matak tiwasna 190 warga sipil, 6.788 luka, 78.000 urang leungiteun panyicingan, sarta loba wangunan kaduruk nepi ka 17,5 persén kota hancur
Sapporo diwangun deui sabérésna perang
Féstival Salju Sapporo mimiti diayakeun di taun 1950
Di taun nu sarua, Désa Shiroishi diasupkeun ka Kota Sapporo, dijadikeun bagian ti Shiroishi-ku jeung Atsubetsu-ku
Di taun 1955, Kota Kotoni, sakabéh Désa Sapporo, sarta Désa Shinoro dilebur ka Kota Sapporo, anu kiwari jadi Chūō-ku, Kita-ku, Higashi-ku, Nishi-ku, jeung Téiné-ku
Kamekaran Kota Sapporo dituluykeun ku digabungna Kota Toyohira di taun 1961, sarta Kota Téiné di taun 1967, anu masing-masing disebut Toyohira-ku, Kiyota-ku, jeung Téiné-ku
Upacara miéling 100 taun ngadegna Sapporo jeung Hokkaido diayakeun di taun 1968
Sapporo jadi kota kaopat di Jepang anu boga karéta bawah tanah sabada Karéta Bawah Tanah Munisipal Sapporo diresmikeun taun 1971
Olimpiade Usum Tiis munggaran di Asia lumangsunng di Sapporo ti 3 Pébruari nepi ka 13 Pébruari 1972
Tanggal 1 April, Sapporo jadi kota pinilih, tuluy dibentuk 7 distrik kota
Penampilan panungtung penyanyi opera Maria Callas di hareupeun balaréa dilaksanakeun di Hokkaido Koséinénkin Kaikan, Sapporo, 11 Nopémber 1974
Jalur Tōzai di Karéta Bawah Tanah Sapporo dibuka di taun 1976, tuluy Jalur Tōho dibuka taun 1988
Di tahn 1989, Atsubetsu-ku jeung Téiné-ku dipisah ti Shiroishi-ku jeung Nishi-ku
Féstival Musik Pasifik mmiti diayakeun taun 1990, sarta Yosakoi Sōran Féstival mimiti taun 1992 jadi acara taunan di Sapporo
Klub sépak bola profésional Consadole Sapporo diadegkeun di taun 1996
Di taun 1997, Kiyota-ku dipisah ti Toyohira-ku, tuluy Hokkaidō Takushoku Bank anu basisna di Hokkaido anu kantor pusatna di Odori bangkrut
Pangwangunan Sapporo Dome bérés di taun 2001, sarta geus tilu kali dijadikeun tempat pertandingan babak munggaran Piala Dunya FIFA 2002: Jerman vs Arab Saudi, Argéntina vs Inggris, sarta Italia vs Ékuador
Hokkaido Nippon-Ham Fighters mangrupa tim Nippon Professional Baseball anu basisna di Sapporo
Di taun 2004, Nippon-Ham Fighters meunangkeun Japan Series 2006
Sapporo nyaéta hiji kota di kidul-kuloneun Dataran Ishikari jeung kipas aluvial Walungan Toyohira anu asalna ti Walungan Ishikari
Jalan-jalan di pakotaan diwangun numutkeun jaringan rencana jalan
Di beulah kulon jeung kidul aya babaraha gunung, nyaéta Gunung Téiné, Gunung Maruyama, jeung Gunung Moiwa, tuluy aya babaraha walungan nyaéta Walungan Ishikari, Walungan Toyohira, sarta Walungan Sōséi
Sapporo kaasup kota taman, di antarana aya Taman Odori di pusat kota
Ieu taman sok pinuh ku lima rébu kekembangan anu unggal taunna megar
Di Taman Odori sok diayakan acara taunan sarta loba féstival unggal taunna
Arsiték lanskap Jepang-Amerika Isamu Noguchi ngadésain Taman Moerenuma, salasahiji taman panggedéna di Sapporo
Kota-kota anu boga wates jeung Sapporo di antarana: Ishikari, Ébétsu, Kitahiroshima, Éniwa, Chitosé, Otaru, Daté, sarta kota madya: Tōbétsu, Kimobétsu, Kyōgoku
Sapporo boga iklim lembap benua (Koppen "Dfa/Dfb"), kalawan beda suhu anu lumayan jauh antara usum panas jeung usum tiis
Usum panas biasana haneut tapi teu lembap, tuluy usum tiis jadi tiris pisan tur saljuan
Dengan curah salju rata-rata 630 cm (248 inci), Sapporo nyaéta salah sahiji ti babaraha métropolis di dunya anu boga curah salju anu lumayan gedé, jadi bisa ngayakeun féstival salju unggal tahunna
Présipitasi rata-rata taunan kira-kira 1,100 mm (43 inci), sarta suhu rata-rata taunan
Wilayah Kota Sapporo miboga 10 distrik kota ("ku")
nyaéta ibukota jeung panglobana populasi di Préféktur Saitama di Jepang, aya di beulah kidul-wetan préféktur
Kota ieu gabungan ti kota-kota Urawa, Ōmiya, Yono jeung Iwatsuki
Saitama salah sahiji kota metropolitan di Jepang
Kiwari aya dina Wewengkon Megapolitan Tokyo tur kurang leuwih 15 - 30 kilometer kalereun pusat Kota Tokyo, loba nu digawe di Tokyo
Saitama mibanda genep kota sobat
nyaéta ibukota jeung panglobana populasi di antara kota-kota di Préféktur Niigata, Jepang
Ayana di basisir kaler-kulon Pulo Honshū, pulo panggedéna di Jepang, nyanghareup ka Laut Jepang jeung Pulo Sado
Ti saprak Restorasi Meiji jadi hiji palabuan bebas
Niigata jadi kota ti kacamatan dina taun 1889, sarta dina 1 April 2007, jadi kota metropolitan munggaran di Basisir Laut Jepang di Pulo Honshū
"Ieu artikel ngeunaan kota-kota di Jepang
Keur pabrik motor, tempo Kawasaki Heavy Industries."
nyaéta hiji kota aya di Kanagawa, Jepang
Kawaasaki aya di antara Tokyo jeung Yokohama bagéan ti Megapolitan Tokyo, panglobana populasi di dunya
Kawasaki ogé kota panglobana populasi di Jepang nu teu boga sistim kareta bawah tanah, sanajan padet sacara rel kareta biasa
Wewengkon Kawasaki asalna bagéan ti Musashi Province, atawa Wewengkon Tokyo (lawan ti Sagami ngahiji jeung Kanagawa), as evidenced by the Nambu Line
Agus Basuki Bin Suwito Hadiwiryono (leuwih dipikawanoh minangka Basuki; Surakarta, Jawa Tengah, 5 Maret 1956 - Jakarta, 12 Désémber 2007) nyaéta saurang pelawak Indonésia
Manéhna ngaliwatan mangsa leutikna di Semarang
Bapana nyaéta Pete landian Suwito, urut anggota Srimulat
Pete sarta Basuki memang sarupa tapi teu sarua
Anu hiji bapa, hijina anak
Unikna, dina kancah wayang jelema anu mimiti diancruban ku maranéhanana, hususna Wayang Jelema (W.O.)
Sri Wanito Semarang, duanana pada-pada mindeng meunang peran minangka anggota punakawan Gareng
Keserupaan anu séjén, geus pasti nyaéta kaparigelan tari maranéhanana
Ditambah kalawan keluwesan ibu Basuki anu penari di Sriwedari Surakarta, ku kituna alatan singer menari saprak leutik, Basuki ogé jadi boga awak lentur anu salah sahijina ditampilkan jeung tambahan narasi "Wes-ewes-ewes" pariwara salah sahiji pausahaan jamu
Basuki mengidolakan bapana sorangan sarta almarhum Benyamin S. Réngsé berkarier di W.O
Sri Wanito, Basuki mecakan miluan di Srimulat
Ngaliwatan prosés penyesuaian sarta diajar sawatara lila, ahirna manéhna ditarima di Srimulat
Mangka, mimiti 1981 - 1986 Basuki ogé ngembangkeun karier di gudang para pelawak éta
Sanggeus kaluar ti Srimulat manéhna kungsi nyieun grup Merdika babarengan Kadir, Timbul, Nurbuat, sarta Rohana anu henteu tahan lila
Tilu urang anu tinggaleun nyaéta Basuki, Kadir, sarta Timbul tuluy ngawangun Batik Grup anu tétéla ogé ngan tahan 3 taun
Di taun1992, Tino Karno nepikeun tawaran Rano Karno dina Basuki pikeun ngarojong serial Si Doel Anak Sekolahan minangka inohong ngaranna Karyo
Berawal minangka béntang sémah ngan pikeun 2 atawa 3 épisodeu dina sinetron Si Doel Anak Sekolahan I, ahirna dina Si Doel III sarta IV manéhna dipercaya minangka pamaén tetep
Basuki maot dina tanggal 12 Désémber 2007 waktu ulin futsal jeung babaturanana
Taufik Savalas (Jakarta, 9 Juni 1966 – Purworejo, 11 Juli 2007) nyaéta saurang nu mawa acara sarta pelawak asal Indonésia
Manéhna terlahir kalawan ngaran Muhammad Taufik bin Muhammad Yusuf Masri
Ngaran Taufik Savalas dicokot ti ngaran saurang aktor Yunani anu dikaguminya, Telly Savalas (pemeran Detektif Kojak)
Lalampahan karir Taufik Savalas di dunya hiburan dimimitian kalawan jadi penyiar Radio Humor Sora Kejayaan (SK) dina taun1990
Di radio ieu, Taufik nyalurkeun kahayangna saprak leutik pikeun jadi komedian sarta menghibur batur
Di dieu, manéhna berkenalan jeung grup komedi Warkop DKI (anu dipelopori Dono (alm), Kasino (alm) sarta Indro), Dedi Gumelar (Miing), Mat Solar, Unang, Eman "Opat Sekawan", Ulfa Dwiyanti, sarta Eko Patrio
Ti méré kalah, Taufik réa diajar utamana kumaha jadi saurang komedian anu hébat
Pikeun meunang pagawéan di Radio SK lain hal anu gampang pikeun Taufik Savalas
Taufik anu pohara merlukeun pagawéan waktu éta kapaksa nelen pil pait, alatan sempet ditampik digawé di Radio SK
Sabot éta, manéhna diuji melawak di hareup pelawak senior, antara séjén Unang, Mat Solar, sarta Dedy Gumelar (Miing)
Alatan tampil tanpa ayana persiapan, penampilan Taufik pohara ngérakeun sarta dicela sanajan geus usaha melawak
Tapi, sawatara lila sanggeus éta Taufik ahirna bisa digawé di Radio SK
Dina taun1995, manéhna kaluar ti radio Sora Kejayaan anu geus mikeunana réa palajaran sarta pangalaman
Manéhna ogé mimiti merambah layar kaca kalawan jadi béntang sémah sarta MC di sagala rupa stasiun télévisi
Mimiti, manéhna melawak sacara profésional di Sogo, Plaza Indonésia
Taufik tampil dina pasanggiri jiga buuk Demi Moore anu gaya buukna memang keur mewabah mimiti taunan
Honor kahijina minangka pelawak profésional nyaéta sagedé Rp 250 rébu
Dina taun2006, manéhna ogé kungsi berperan minangka "Présidén" dina acara "Republik BBM"
Saméméh mitembeyan karirna, manéhna kungsi menganggur salila 15 taunsarta sempet jadi "office boy", kondektur, sarta pengamen
Saméméh kacilakaan di Purworejo anu ngadudut nyawana, Taufik ogé kungsi ngalaman kacilakaan di Jalan Tol Tomang-merak KM 15 dina 27 Pebruari 2003
Sabot éta Taufik numpakan mobil pribadina Peugéot 206 sanggeus syuting acara Laris Amis di Studio Penta, Kebon Jeruk, pikeun nganteur adina
Sanggeus éta, kira-kira jam 01.00 WIB Taufik melanjutan lalampahan ka imahna di Lippo Karawaci, Tangerang
Dina kaayaan sepi Taufik memacu tutumpakanana ngahontal kecepatan 120–130 km/jam
Tetempoanana waktu éta terhalang alatan kaca hareup mobilna pangsebrétna cai
Hal ieu nyieun Taufik panik sarta teu bisa ngawasa tutumpakan
Tutumpakanana ogé melaju zig-zag nepi ka menabrak pangwates jalan
Taufik salamet dina kacilakaan éta
Dina tanggal 11 Juli 2007, Taufik Savalas maot dina umur 41 taundina hiji kacilakaan patalimarga di Bagelen, Purworejo, Jawa Tengah
Waktu éta, manéhna rék nuju Purbalingga pikeun mengemban pancén minangka duta salah sahiji produk sabun kaséhatan
Tapi, mobil Toyota Kijang Kapsul bernomor pulisi B 2089 QH anu ngabawa ti Yogyakarta nuju Purbalingga, tabrakan jeung treuk boga muatan sanga
Kepergiannya ieu ninggalkeun saurang pamajikan, Rina Rosdiana sarta dua urang anak, Moch Abizard sarta Adinda Fatima
Manéhna dimakamkan di Tempat Pemakaman Keramat Tengkele di Désa Karundang, Kacamatan Cipocok Jaya, Serang, Banten
Pihak kulawarga ménta Taufik dimakamkan di tempat kasebut jeung alesan aya karuhunna anu dimakamkan di pemakaman éta
nyaéta ibukota Préféktur Hiroshima, tur kita panggedéna di Wewengkon Chūgoku bagéan kulon Honshū, pulo panggedéna di Jepang
Hiroshima kawentar sakuliah dunya nyaéta kota mimiti dina sajarah nu jadi korban perang nuklir ku dipake bom atom di Hiroshima jeung Nagasaki dina Perang Dunya II ku Amerika
Hiroshima meunang status kota dina 1 April, 1889 sarta dina tanggal 1 April, 1980 jadi kota metropolitan dumasar kana aturan pamarentah
Walikota Hiroshima kiwari nyaéta Tadatoshi Akiba nu diangkat dina tanggal 23 Pébruari, 1999
nyaéta hiji kota nu ayana di bagéan kulon Préféktur Shizuoka, Jepang
Kota panggedéna di Préféktur Shizuoka
Dina tanggal 1 Juli, 2005 kota ieu dihijikeun jeung 11 kota jeung kacamatan di sabudeureunna
Hamamatsu jadi kota metropolitan dina tanggal 1 April, 2007
Hamamatsu mibanda kota sobat dina "Music Culture Exchange Treaty" jeung sababaraha kota nyaéta:
nyaéta ibu kota Préféktur Chiba, Jepang
Aya kurangleuwih 40 km wetaneun pusat Kota Tokyo di Basisir Tokyo
Kota Chiba jadi kota metropolitan dina taun 1992, kiwari populasina ampir 930,000
Kota Chiba ogé salah sahiji palabuan laut utama di Wewengkon Kantō nyaéta Palabuan Chiba, salah sahiji palabuan laut nu pangsibukna di Jepang
Sabagéan gedé Kota Chiba mangrupa paimahan, sanajan aya sababaraha pabrik jeung gudang nu ayana sapanjang basisir
Aya sababaraha pusat karaméan utama, kaasup pusat bisnis kota basisir Makuhari, di Makuhari Messe jeung Pusat Chiba, tempat kantor pamaréntah kota jeung préféktur
Chiba kawentar ku Chiba Urban Monorail, monorail gantung pangpanjangna sadunya, asup kana Guinness Book of World Records
Tempat tujuan di Chiba nyaéta: Kasori Shellmound, "shellmound" panggedéna sadunya nu legana 134,000m², Basisir Inage, basisir jieunan munggaran jeung pangpanjangna di Jepang, Taman Zoologi Kota Chiba nu mibanda koleksi red panda Futa, nu jangkungna sarua jeung jalma
Dina carita fiksi, Kota masa depan Chiba kawentar dina William Gibson novel cyberpunk, Neuromancer
Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) nyaéta téknologi telepon sélulér generasi-katilu (3G)
Kiwari, bentuk UMTS anu pangilaharna, nu ngagunakeun W-CDMA salaku dadasar "air interface"na, distandardisasi ku 3GPP, hiji forum standardisasi Éropah, pikeun nohonan standar IMT-2000 pikeun sistem radio sélulér 3G anu dikaluarkeun ku ITU
Pikeun ngabédakeun UMTS ti téknologi jaringan sainganana, UMTS kadang dipasarkeun sabagé 3GSM, anu nyirikeun yén UMTS mangrupa gabungan tina sifat téknologi 3G jeung standar GSM
Artikel ieu medar téknologi, bisnis, kaguna katut aspék-aspék lianna ngeunaan UMTS, anu ngagunakeun air interface W-CDMA jeung infrastruktur GSM
UMTS, ku cara ngagunakeun W-CDMA, ngarojong laju transfer data sagancang 14,0 Mbit/s dina téori (lamun maké HSDPA), sanajan ayeuna para pamaké ieu teknologi bisa ngaharepkeun laju transfer nepi ka 384 kbit/s pikeun "héndsét R99", sarta 3.6 Mbit/s pikeun héndsét HSDPA dina konéksi downlink
Laju transfer ieu masih jauh leuwih gancang manan hiji "GSM error-corrected circuit switched data channel" anu ngan 9,6 kbit/s atawa sababaraha "channel" anu ngan 9.6 kbit/s dina HSCSD (14.4 kbit/s pikeun CDMAOne)
Laju transfer data ieu ogé leuwih gancang manan para pasaing téknologi jaringan lianna saperti CDMA2000, PHS atawa WLAN anu nawarkeun aksés ka World Wide Web dina alat télékomunikasi mobil
Precursors to 3G are 2G mobile telephony systems, such as GSM, IS-95, PDC, PHS and other 2G technologies deployed in different countries
In the case of GSM, there is an evolution path from 2G, called GPRS, also known as 2.5G
GPRS supports a much better data rate (up to a théoretical maximum of 140.8 kbit/s, though typical rates are closer to 56 kbit/s) and is packet switched rather than connection oriented (circuit switched)
It is deployed in many places where GSM is used
E-GPRS, or EDGE, is a further evolution of GPRS and is based on more modérn coding schemes
With EDGE the actual packet data rates can réach around 180 kbit/s (effective)
EDGE systems are often referred as "2.75G Systems"
Since 2006, UMTS networks in many countries have been or are in the process of being upgraded with High Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA), sometimes known as 3.5G
Currently, HSDPA enables downlink transfer speeds of up to 7.2 Mbit/s
Work is also progressing on improving the uplink transfer speed with the High-Speed Uplink Packet Access (HSUPA)
Longer term, the 3GPP Long Term Evolution project plans to move UMTS to 4G speeds of 100 Mbit/s down and 50 Mbit/s up, using a next generation air interface technology based upon OFDM
UMTS supports mobile videoconferencing, although experience in Japan and elsewhere has shown that user demand for vidéo calls is not very high
Other possible uses for UMTS include the downloading of music and vidéo content, as well as live TV
"See also: List of Deployed UMTS networks" Technology
"The following information does not apply to non-UMTS systems that use the W-CDMA air interface, such as FOMA" UMTS combines the W-CDMA, TD-CDMA, or TD-SCDMA air interfaces, GSM's Mobile Application Part (MAP) core, and the GSM family of speech codecs
In the most popular cellular mobile telephone variant of UMTS, W-CDMA is currently used
Note that other wireless standards use W-CDMA as their air interface, including FOMA
UMTS over W-CDMA uses a pair of 5 MHz channels
In contrast, the competing CDMA2000 system uses one or more arbitrary 1.25 MHz channels for éach direction of communication
UMTS and other W-CDMA systems are widely criticized for their large spectrum usage, which has delayed deployment in countries that acted relatively slowly in allocating new frequencies specifically for 3G services (such as the United States)
The specific frequency bands originally defined by the UMTS standard are 1885-2025 MHz for the mobile-to-base (uplink) and 2110-2200 MHz for the base-to-mobile (downlink)
In the US, 1710-1755 MHz and 2110-2155 MHz will be used instéad, as the 1900 MHz band was alréady utilized
Additionally, in some countries UMTS operators use the 850 MHz and 1900 MHz bands (independently, méaning uplink and downlink are within the same band), notably in the US by AT&amp;T Mobility
Also in Finland opened UMTS900 network, planned for more rural aréas and other hard coverage aréas over the GSM shared 900 MHz spectrum, supported currently by Elisa and Nokia (by modél 6121 classic) and also encouraged by the local regulatives
For existing GSM operators, it is a simple but costly migration path to UMTS: much of the infrastructure is shared with GSM, but the cost of obtaining new spectrum licenses and overlaying UMTS at existing towers can be prohibitively expensive
A major difference of UMTS compared to GSM is the air interface forming Generic Radio Access Network (GeRAN)
It can be connected to various backbone networks like the Internet, ISDN, GSM or to a UMTS network
GeRAN includes the three lowest layers of OSI model
The network layer (OSI 3) protocols form the Radio Resource Management protocol (RRM)
They manage the béarer channels between the mobile terminals and the fixed network including the handovers
3G external modems
Using a cellular router, PCMCIA or USB card, customers are able to access 3G broadband services, regardless of their choice of computer (such as a tablet PC or a PDA)
Some software installs itself from the modem, so that in some cases absolutely no knowledge of technology is required to get online in moments
Using a phone that supports 3G and Bluetooth 2.0, multiple Bluetooth-capable laptops can be connected to the Internet
The phone acts as a router, but via Bluetooth rather than wireless networking (802.11) or a USB connection
Interoperability and global roaming
At the air interface level, UMTS itself is incompatible with GSM
UMTS phones and UMTS data cards sold in Europe, the United States, much of Asia, and South Africa, are UMTS/GSM dual-mode devices, hence they are backwards compatible with regular GSM networks
If a UMTS customer travels to an aréa without UMTS coverage, a UMTS phone will automatically switch to GSM (roaming charges may apply)
If the customer travels outside of UMTS coverage during a call, the call will be transparently handed off to available GSM coverage
Regular GSM phones cannot be used on the UMTS networks
Softbank (formerly Vodafone Japan, formerly J-Phone) operates a 3G network based on UMTS compatible W-CDMA technology, that launched in December 2002
Lack of investment in the network through 2003 méant that coverage was slow to expand and subscriber numbers remained low
The network was publicly relaunched in October 2004 and again in 2005, and Vodafone now claims network coverage of 99% of the population, while 15% of their subscribers are 3G users
NTT DoCoMo's 3G network, FOMA, was the first commercial network using W-CDMA since 2002
The first W-CDMA version used by NTT DoCoMo was incompatible with the UMTS standard at the radio level, however USIM cards used by FOMA phones are compatible with GSM phones, so that USIM card based roaming is possible from Japan to GSM aréas without any problem
Today the NTT DoCoMo network — as well as all the W-CDMA networks in the world — use the standard version of UMTS, allowing potential global roaming
Whether and under which conditions roaming can actually be used by subscribers depends on the commercial agreements between operators
All UMTS/GSM dual-mode phones should accept existing GSM SIM cards
Sometimes, you are allowed to roam on UMTS networks using GSM SIM cards from the same provider
In the United States, UMTS is currently offered by AT&amp;T Mobility on 850 MHz and 1900 MHz, due to the limitations of the spectrum available to them at the time they launched UMTS service
T-Mobile will be rolling out UMTS on the 2100/1700 MHz AWS frequencies, but has been delayed by a lack of spectrum availability
Because of the frequencies used, éarly modéls of UMTS phones designated for the US will likely not be operable overséas and vice versa; other standards, notably GSM, have faced similar problems, an issue déalt with by the adoption of multi-band phones
Most UMTS licensees seem to consider ubiquitous, transparent global roaming an important issue
Over 120 licenses have alréady been awarded to operators worldwide (as of December 2004), specifying W-CDMA radio access technology that builds on GSM
In Europe, the license process occurred at the end of the technology bubble, and the auction mechanisms for allocation set up in some countries resulted in some extremely high prices being paid, notable in the UK and Germany
In Germany, bidders paid a total 50.8 billion euros for six licenses, two of which were subsequently abandoned and written off by their purchasers (Mobilcom and the Sonera/Telefonica consortium)
It has been suggested that these huge license fees have the character of a very large tax paid on income expected 10 yéars down the road - in any event they put some Européan telecom operators close to bankruptcy (most notably KPN)
Over the last few yéars some operators have written off some or all of the license costs
The UMTS spectrum allocated in Europe is alréady used in North America
The 1900 MHz range is used for 2G (PCS) services, and 2100 MHz range is used for satellite communications
Regulators have however, freed up some of the 2100 MHz range for 3G services, together with the 1700 MHz for the uplink
UMTS operators in North America who want to implement a Européan style 2100/1900 MHz system will have to share spectrum with existing 2G services in the 1900 MHz band
2G GSM services elsewhere use 900 MHz and 1800 MHz and therefore do not share any spectrum with planned UMTS services
AT&amp;T Wireless launched UMTS services in the United States by the end of 2004 strictly using the existing 1900 MHz spectrum allocated for 2G PCS services
Cingular acquired AT&amp;T Wireless in 2004 and has since then launched UMTS in select US cities
Initial rollout of UMTS in Canada will also be handled exclusively by the 1900 MHz band
T-Mobile's roll-out of UMTS in the US will focus on the 2100/1700 MHz bands just auctioned
AT&amp;T Mobility is rolling out some cities with a UMTS network at 850 MHz to enhance its existing UMTS network at 1900 MHz and now offers subscribers a number of UMTS 850/1900 phones
In Australia, Telstra rolled out the NextG network, a 3G UMTS network operating in the 850 MHz band to replace the existing CDMA network (February 2008) and enhance its existing 2100 MHz UMTS network
The 850 MHz band provides gréater coverage compared to equivalent 1700/1900/2100Mhz networks, and is best suited to regional aréas where gréater distances separate subscriber and base station
Other competing standards
There are other competing 3G standards, such as FOMA, CDMA2000 and TD-SCDMA, though UMTS can use the latter's air interface standard
FOMA and UMTS similarly share the W-CDMA air interface system
On the Internet access side, competing systems include WiMAX and Flash-OFDM
Different variants of UMTS compete with different standards
While this article has largely discussed UMTS-FDD, a form oriented for use in conventional cellular-type spectrum, UMTS-TDD, a system based upon a TD-CDMA air interface, is used to provide UMTS service where the uplink and downlink share the same spectrum, and is very efficient at providing asymmetric access
It provides more direct competition with WiMAX and similar Internet-access oriented systems than conventional UMTS
Both the CDMA2000 and W-CDMA air interface systems are accepted by ITU as part of the IMT-2000 family of 3G standards, in addition to UMTS-TDD's TD-CDMA, Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE) and China's own 3G standard, TD-SCDMA
CDMA2000's narrower bandwidth requirements maké it éasier than UMTS to deploy in existing spectrum along with legacy standards
In some, but not all, cases, existing GSM operators only have enough spectrum to implement either UMTS or GSM, not both
For example, in the US D, E, and F PCS spectrum blocks , the amount of spectrum available is 5 MHz in éach direction
A standard UMTS system would saturate that spectrum
In many markets however, the co-existence issue is of little relevance, as legislative hurdles exist to co-deploying two standards in the same licensed slice of spectrum
Most GSM operators in North America as well as others around the world have accepted EDGE as a temporary 3G solution
AT&amp;T Wireless launched EDGE nationwide in 2003, AT&amp;T launched EDGE in most markets and T-Mobile USA has launched EDGE nationwide as of October 2005
Rogers Wireless launched nation-wide EDGE service in late 2003 for the Canadian market
Bitė Lietuva (Lithuania) was one of the first operators in Europe to launch EDGE in December 2003
TIM (Italy) launched EDGE in 2004
The benefit of EDGE is that it leverages existing GSM spectrums and is compatible with existing GSM handsets
It is also much éasier, quicker, and considerably chéaper for wireless carriers to "bolt-on" EDGE functionality by upgrading their existing GSM transmission hardware to support EDGE than having to install almost all brand-new equipment to deliver UMTS
EDGE provides a short-term upgrade path for GSM operators and directly competes with CDMA2000
Problems and issues
Some countries, such as the United States and Japan, have allocated spectrum differently from the ITU Recommendations, so that the spectrum bands most commonly used for UMTS (UMTS-2100) have not been available
In those countries, alternative bands are used, preventing the interoperability of existing UMTS-2100 equipment, and requiring the design and manufacture of different equipment for the use in these markets
As is the case with GSM today, this presumably will méan that standard UMTS equipment will not work in those markets, and some will work only in them, while some more-expensive equipment may be available that works in all markets
It also diminishes the economy of scale and benefit to users and network providers from the network effect that would have existed if these countries and the ITU had been able to agree on universally-applicable frequencies
In the éarly days of UMTS there were issues with rollout: Some of these issues may still be ongoing; for instance, Apple, Inc. cited UMTS power consumption as the réason that the iPhone only supports EDGE
Other, non-UMTS, 3G and 4G standards: UMTS is an evolution of the GSM mobile phone standard
2G (dibaca: tuji, asalna tina kecap-kecap basa Inggris "2nd Generation") nyaéta téknologi telepon nirkabel generasi kadua
Hal utama anu ngabédakeun 2G tina sistem telepon mobil lianna dina mangsa ka tukang, anu dingaranan 1G, nyaéta kanyataan yén sinyal radio anu digunakeun dina jaringan 1G ngagunakeun sinyal analog, sedengkeun jaringan 2G ngagunakeun sinyal digital
Téknologi 2G bisa dipilah kana sababaraha standar dumasar kana wanda métoda aksés atawa multiplexing anu digunakeunana, anu ngawengku Time division multiple access (TDMA) jeung Code division multiple access
Standar-standar utama dina 2G nyaéta: Layanan 2G mindeng disebut Personal Communications Service atawa PCS di Amérika Sarikat
Layanan 2.5G ngamungkinkeun pangiriman data kalayan laju nu gancang dina jaringan 2G nu aya
Saenggeus 2G, aya 3G, anu boga laju data leuwih gancang, sarta 4G, anu laju datana leuwih gancang deui, anu ngamungkinkeun layanan anyar pikeun palanggan, saperti pesen gambar sarta telepon vidéo
Kamampuh, kaunggulan, sarta kalemahan
Digunakeunana sinyal digital antara "héndsét" jeung sél anu aya di munara bisa ningkatkeun kapasitas sistem dina dua cara: Kaunggulan
Sistem digital diboro ku para palanggan kalawan sababaraha alesan: Kauntungan utama telepon sélulér digital anu henteu mindeng disabit-sabit nyaéta telepon ieu jauh leuwih susah pikeun di"sadap" ku "radio scanner"
Sanajan algoritma kaamanan anu digunakeun kabukti henteu saaman saperti mimiti diémbarkeun, telepon 2G jauh leuwih pribadi batan telepon 1G anu henteu boga palindung samasakali tina "penyadapan"
Sisi goréng sistem 2G, anu jarang disebut-sebut, nyaéta:
3G (dibaca: triji, asalna tina kecap-kecap basa Inggris "3rd Generation") nyaéta standar katut téknologi telepon sélulér generasi-katilu, anu hadir saenggeus lahirna 2G
3G téh dijieun dumasar kana kulawarga standar anu dikaluarkeun ku "International Telecommunication Union" (ITU) hasil tina kagiatan "International Mobile Telecommunications programme", "IMT-2000"
Téknologi 3G ngamungkinkeun "operator jaringan" pikeun nawarkeun ka palangganna rupa-rupa layanan anu leuwih "canggih" bari ngahasilkeun kapasitas jaringan anu leuwih gédé ku cara ningkatkeun éfisiénsi spéktrum frékuénsi
Layanan-layanan ieu di antarana "wide-area wireless voice telephony" jeung "broadband wireless data", anu dijalankeun dina "lingkungan" bagerak (usik)
Biasana, 3G nawarkeun layanan anu gancangna laju ngirimkeun datana 5-10 Mb per detik
Henteu jiga jaringan IEEE 802.11, jaringan 3G mah mangrupa jaringan telepon sélulér anu ngawengku daérah anu lega" sarta mampuh nyadiakeun aksés internét jeung telepon vidéo dina laju pangiriman data nu gancang
Sedengkeun jaringan IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi) mah mangrupa jaringan pitarubak anu wewengkonna leutik (radius pancaranana pondok) sarta dimekarkeun utamana pikeun ngirim data
Nurutkeun "Global mobile Suppliers Association", dina bulan Désémber 2005, 100 jaringan 3G dijalankeun di 40 nagara
Di Asia, Éropah, Kanada jeung Amérika Sarikat, pausahaan-pausahaan télékomunikasi ngagunakeun téknologi W-CDMA anu narima kira-kira 100 désain terminal pikeun ngajalankeun jaringan sélulér 3G
Di Éropah, layanan 3G munggaran ditawarkeun di Inggris jeung Italia dina bulan Maret 2003
Harita Déwan Uni Éropah ngusulkeun yén sakumna "operator" 3G kudu ngalayanan 80% populasi nasional masing-masing nagara anggota dina tungtung taun 2005
Pangwangunan jaringan 3G ditunda saheulaanan di sabagian nagara di dunya lantaran biaya idin spéktrum frékuénsi anu mahal
Baca ogé Telecoms crash
Di réa nagara, jaringan 3G henteu ngagunakeun frékuénsi radio anu sarua jeung 2G, antukna "operator-operator" kudu ngawangun jaringan anu samasakali anyar sarta merlukeun idin pikeun ngagunakeun frékuénsi anu ogé anyar; anu mahiwal mah kajadian di Amérika Sarikat di mana sakumna operator ngajalankeun layanan 3G dina frékuénsi anu sarua jeung layanan sélulér lianna
Sedengkeun di Éropah, biaya idin di sawaréh nagara anggota mahal pisan
Alesan lain nu ngabalukarkeun layanan 3G ieu ditunda saheulaanan nyaéta waragad pikeun ngaronjatkeun kamampuan alat-alat nu aya supaya bisa jadi "sistem" anu anyar
Nepi ka bulan Juni 2007, aya 200 juta langganan anu geus kasambungkeun kana layanan 3G
Dibandingkeun jeung palanggan telepon sélulér sadunya anu jumlahna 3 triliun, angka éta ngan 6.7%
Di nagara-nagara tempat 3G munggaran disadiakeun – Jepang jeung Koréa Kidul – leuwih ti satengah langganan telepon sélulér ngagunakeun 3G
Di Éropah, Italia mangrupa nagara anu rahayatna panglobana ngagunakeun layanan 3G; sapertilu jumlah langganan telepon sélulérna pindah ngagunakeun éta layanan
Nagara lianna anu mingpin dina migrasi ka 3G di antarana Inggris, Austria jeung Singapura anu ngahontal angka 20% tina jumlah langganan telepon sélulér
EMTEL Ltd, pausahaan télékomunikasi sélulér kadua panggedéna di Mauritius, geus ngamparkeun jaringan 3G UMTS komérsial munggaran di Afrika (percobaan telepon munggaran dilakukeun dina tanggal 16 Oktober 2004)
Layanan komérsial anu sapinuhna mitembeyan dina bulan Nopémber 2004, anu ngajadikeun jaringan 3G boga ieu pausahaan sabagé jaringan 3G komérsial munggaran di Afrika
Di Afrika beulah kalér, Wana di Moroko nyadiakeun layanan 3G dina ahir Maret 2006
Operator lianna di éta nagara ngamimitian ngajalankeun jaringan 3G dina patengahan taun 2007
Vodafone Mesir (anu katelah ogé CLICK GSM) nyadiakeun layanan 3G dina patengahan taun 2006
Dina awal taun 2007, Vodacom Tanzania mimiti migrasi kana sistem 3G High-Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA) di Dar Es Salaam
Tanzania mangrupa nagara kadua di Afrika anu ngagunakeun téknologi kasebut saenggeus Afrika Kidul
Dina bulan Maret 2007, Nigeria méré idin 3G ka tilu pausahaan GSM panggedéna sarta ka hiji pausahaan anu teu kasohor, Alheri Engineering Co. Ltd, pikeun ngaréaan rupa layananana
Rogers Wireless mimiti nawarkeun layanan 3G HSDPA di Kanada Beulah wétan dina awal taun 2007
Kaistiméwaan téknologi sélulér 3G nyaéta ieu téknologi téh bisa narima jumlah pamaké anu leuwih réa
– hususna di daérah pakotaan – sarta laju data anu leuwih gancang kalawan waragad pangwangunan anu leuwih murah tibatan 2G
3G ngagunakeun pamawa "sinyal" kalayan "kanal" anu rubakna 0,6 MHz pikeun ngirimkeun data dina laju anu jauh leuwih gancang sarta kapasitas anu jauh leuwih gedé batan jaringan 2G
Pamawa sinyal anu kanalna 0.5 MHz ngoptimalkeun pamakéan sumber daya frékuénsi radio pikeun para operator anu geus dibéré loba lahan (blok) spéktrum frékuénsi nu paréndéng
Sajaba ti éta, hal ieu ogé ngabantu pikeun ngurangan waragad nu dibutuhkeun sarta mampuh nyadiakeun pangiriman data kalayan laju anu kacida gancangna pikeun langganan
Ieu téknologi ogé ngamungkinkeun ngirimkeun data dina laju 384 kbit/det pikeun "sistem" anu pindah-pindah (usik) sarta 2 Mb/s pikeun sistem anu cicing
Sakumna pamaké layanan 3G dibéré harepan bisa ngarasakeun kapasita anu leuwih gedé sarta éfisiénsi spéktrum anu leuwih alus, anu ngamungkinkeun "roaming" ti hiji jaringan 3G ka jaringan 3G lianna
International Telecommunications Union (ITU): IMT-2000 kawangun ku genep antarmuka radio: Évolusi ka 3G
"Jaringan" télékomunikasi "mobile" "Séllular" geus rinjatkeun pikeun pamakéan téknologi 3G ti mimiti taun 1999 nepika 2010
Jepang mangrupikeun nagara munggaran anu ngalarapkeun 3G sacara nasional, sareng di Jepang ngalih ka 3G parantos réngsé dina taun 2006
Disusul ku Koréa teras ngadopsi Jaringan 3G teu lami saatosna sareng mimiti ngalih dilaksanakeun awal taun 2004
Operators and UMTS networks
As of 2005, the evolution of the 3G networks was on its way for a couple of yéars, due to the limited capacity of the existing 2G networks
2G networks were built mainly for voice data and slow transmission
Due to rapid changes in user expectation, they do not meet today's wireless needs
"2.5G" (and even 2.75G) are technologies such as i-mode data services, camera phones, high-speed circuit-switched data (HSCSD) and General packet radio service (GPRS) were créated to provide some functionality domains like 3G networks, but without the full transition to 3G network
They were built to introduce the possibilities of wireless application technology to the end consumers, and so incréase demand for 3G services
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) defined the demands for 3G mobile networks with the IMT-2000 standard
An organization called 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) has continued that work by defining a mobile system that fulfills the IMT-2000 standard
This system is called Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS)
The evolution of the system will move forward with so called reléases
éach reléase will introduce new féatures
The following féatures are examples of many others in these new reléases
3G evolution (pre-4G)
There are several different paths from 2G to 3G
In Europe the main path starts from GSM when GPRS is added to a system
From this point it is possible to go to the UMTS system
In North America the system evolution will start from Time division multiple access (TDMA), change to Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE) and then to UMTS
In Japan, two 3G standards are used: W-CDMA (compatible with UMTS) used by NTT DoCoMo and Softbank, and CDMA2000, used by KDDI
Transition to 3G was completed in Japan in 2006
Advantages of a layered network architecture
Unlike GSM, UMTS is based on layered services
At the top is the services layer, which provides fast deployment of services and centralized location
In the middle is the control layer, which helps upgrading procedures and allows the capacity of the network to be dynamically allocated
At the bottom is the connectivity layer where any transmission technology can be used and the voice traffic will transfer over ATM/AAL2 or IP/RTP
When converting a GSM network to a UMTS network, the first new technology is General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)
It is the trigger to 3G services
The network connection is always on, so the subscriber is online all the time
From the operator's point of view, it is important that GPRS investments are re-used when going to UMTS
Also capitalizing on GPRS business experience is very important
From GPRS, operators could change the network directly to UMTS, or invest in an EDGE system
One advantage of EDGE over UMTS is that it requires no new licenses
The frequencies are also re-used and no new antennas are needed
From GPRS to UMTS
From GPRS network, the following network elements can be reused: From Global Service for Mobile (GSM) communication radio network, the following elements cannot be reused They can remain in the network and be used in dual network operation where 2G and 3G networks co-exist while network migration and new 3G terminals become available for use in the network
The UMTS network introduces new network elements that function as specified by 3GPP: The functionality of MSC and SGSN changes when going to UMTS
In a GSM system the MSC handles all the circuit switched operations like connecting A- and B-subscriber through the network
SGSN handles all the packet switched operations and transfers all the data in the network
In UMTS the Media gateway (MGW) take care of all data transfer in both circuit and packet switched networks
MSC and SGSN control MGW operations
The nodes are renamed to MSC-server and GSN-server
UMTS and 3G terminals
3G handsets usually have cameras, music players, video players, contactless smartcards for payment functions (wallet phones), Web browsers, email clients and more
This shows that the UMTS system is based on layered services and future applications can be supported without too much impact to the underlying radio access network
The technical complexities of a 3G phone or handset depends on its need to roam onto legacy 2G networks
In the first countries, Japan and South Koréa, there was no need to include roaming capabilities to older networks such as GSM, so 3G phones were small and lightweight
In Europe and America, the manufacturers and network operators wanted multi-mode 3G phones which would operate on 3G and 2G networks (e.g., WCDMA and GSM), which added to the complexity, size, weight, and cost of the handset
As a result, éarly Européan WCDMA phones were significantly larger and héavier than comparable Japanese WCDMA phones
Japan's Vodafone KK experienced a gréat déal of trouble with these differences when its UK-based parent, Vodafone, insisted the Japanese subsidiary use standard Vodafone handsets
Japanese customers who were accustomed to smaller handsets were suddenly required to switch to Européan handsets that were much bulkier and considered unfashionable by Japanese consumers
During this conversion, Vodafone KK lost 6 customers for every 4 that migrated to 3G
Soon theréafter, Vodafone sold the subsidiary (now known as Softbank)
The general trend to smaller and smaller phones seems to have paused, perhaps even turned, with the capability of large-screen phones (similar to the Apple iPhone - interestingly EDGE, not 3G) to provide more vidéo, gaming and internet use on the 3G networks
Although 3G was successfully introduced to users in Europe, Asia, South America, North America (U.S.A.) and Africa, some issues are debated by 3G providers and users:
Paguyuban Telekomunikasi Internasional
Uni Telekomunikasi Internasional
Dina fisika, magnétisme téh nyaéta fénoména di mana bahan ngeprakkeun gaya narik atawa nolak ka bahan lianna
Some well known materials that exhibit éasily detectable magnetic properties (called magnets) are nickel, iron, cobalt, and their alloys; however, all materials are influenced to gréater or lesser degree by the presence of a magnetic field
Magnetism also has other manifestations in physics, particularly as one of the two components of electromagnetic waves such as light
Aristotle attributes the first of what might be called a scientific discussion on magnetism to Thales, who lived from about 625 BC to about 545 BC
In China, the éarliest litérary reference to magnetism lies in a 4th century BC book called "Book of the Devil Valley Master" (鬼谷子): "The lodestone makes iron come or it attracts it."
The éarliest mention of the attraction of a needle appéars in a work composed between 20 and 100 AD ("Louen-heng"): "A lodestone attracts a needle."
The ancient Chinese scientist Shen Kuo (1031-1095) was the first person to write of the magnetic needle compass and that it improved the accuracy of navigation by employing the astronomical concept of true north "(Dream Pool Essays", 1088 AD), and by the 12th century the Chinese were known to use the lodestone compass for navigation
Alexander Neckham, by 1187, was the first in Europe to describe the compass and its use for navigation
In 1269 Peter Peregrinus wrote the "Epistola de Magnete", the first extant tréatise describing the properties of magnets
An understanding of the relationship between electricity and magnetism began in 1819 with work by Hans Christian Oersted, a professor at the University of Copenhagen, who discovered more or less by accident that an electric current could influence a compass needle
This landmark experiment is known as Oersted's Experiment
Sevéral other experiments followed, with André-Marie Ampére, Carl Friedrich Gauss, Michael Faraday, and others finding further links between magnetism and electricity
James Clerk Maxwell synthesized and expanded these insights into Maxwell's equations, unifying electricity, magnetism, and optics into the field of electromagnetism
In 1905, Einstein used these laws in motivating his théory of special relativity, in the process showing that electricity and magnetism are fundamentally interlinked and inseparable
Electromagnetism has continued to develop into the twentieth century, being incorporated into the more fundamental théories of gauge theory, quantum electrodynamics, electroweak theory, and finally the standard model
Physics of magnetism
Magnets and magnetic materials
Every electron is, by its nature, a small magnet (see Electron magnetic dipole moment)
Ordinarily, the countless electrons in a material are randomly oriented in different directions, léaving no effect on avérage, but in a bar magnet the electrons are aligned in the same direction, so they act coopératively, créating a net magnetic field
In addition to the electron's intrinsic magnetic field, there is sometimes an additional magnetic field that results from the electron's orbital motion about the nucleus
This effect is analogous to how a current-carrying loop of wire genérates a magnetic field (see Magnetic dipole)
Again, ordinarily, the motion of the electrons is such that there is no avérage field from the material, but in certain conditions, the motion can line up so as to produce a méasurable total field
The ovérall magnetic behavior of a material can vary widely, depending on the structure of the material, and particularly on its electron configuration
Sevéral forms of magnetic behavior have been observed in different materials, including: Magnetism, electricity, and special relativity
As a consequence of Einstein's théory of special relativity, electricity and magnetism are understood to be fundamentally interlinked
Both magnetism lacking electricity, and electricity without magnetism, are inconsistent with special relativity, due to such effects as length contraction, time dilation, and the fact that the magnetic force is velocity-dependent
However, when both electricity and magnetism are taken into account, the resulting théory (electromagnetism) is fully consistent with special relativity
In particular, a phenomenon that appéars purely electric to one observer may be purely magnetic to another, or more genérally the relative contributions of electricity and magnetism are dependent on the frame of reference
Thus, special relativity "mixes" electricity and magnetism into a single, inseparable phenomenon called electromagnetism (analogously to how special relativity "mixes" space and time into spacetime)
Magnetic fields and forces
The phenomenon of magnetism is "mediated" by the magnetic field—i.e., an electric current or magnetic dipole créates a magnetic field, and that field, in turn, imparts magnetic forces on other particles that are in the fields
To an excellent approximation (but ignoring some quantum effects---see quantum electrodynamics), Maxwell's equations (which simplify to the Biot-Savart law in the case of stéady currents) describe the origin and behavior of the fields that govern these forces
Therefore magnetism is seen whenever electrically charged particles are in motion---for example, from movement of electrons in an electric current, or in certain cases from the orbital motion of electrons around an atom's nucleus
They also arise from "intrinsic" magnetic dipoles arising from quantum effects, i.e
from quantum-mechanical spin
The same situations which créate magnetic fields (charge moving in a current or in an atom, and intrinsic magnetic dipoles) are also the situations in which a magnetic field has an effect, créating a force
Following is the formula for moving charge; for the forces on an intrinsic dipole, see magnetic dipole
When a charged particle moves through a magnetic field "B", it feels a force "F" given by the cross product: formula_1 where formula_2 is the electric charge of the particle, formula_3 is the velocity vector of the particle, and formula_4 is the magnetic field
Because this is a cross product, the force is perpendicular to both the motion of the particle and the magnetic field