izzako/sundanese-pixelgpt huggingface dataset:
Dina abad ka-18 jeung ka-19, Prancis ngawangun salah sahiji karajaan kolonial panggedéna, ngawengku sababaraha wewengkon di Afrika Kulon jeung Asia Tenggara, sarta méré pangaruh budaya jeung pulitik ka wilayah éta
Prancis kaasup nagara maju dibarengan ku ékonomi anu panggedéna kagenep di dunya
Prancis mangrupa nagara anu pang lobana didatangan ku turis di dunya, narima leuwih ti 79 yuta turis asing satiap taun (kaasup jelema anu arék bisnis, tapi henteu kaasup jelema anu cicing kurang ti 24 jam di Prancis)
Prancis téh salah sahiji anggota anu ngadegkeun Uni Éropa, jeung miboga wilayah daratan panggedéna diantara kabéh anggotana
Prancis ogé mangrupa anggota anu ngadegkeun Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa, sarta anggota Francophonie, G8, jeung Uni Latin
Prancis dina PBB jadi salah sahiji tina lima anggota tetep Déwan Kaamanan Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa
Ngaran Prancis dumasar tina Frank (Franc), urang Jermanik anu nempatan Eropa kalér saenggeus runtuhna Kakaisaran Romawi Kulon
Leuwih benerna, wilayah di sabudeureun Paris, anu disebat Île-de-France, nyaéta taneuh karajaan Prancis anu asli
Raja Frank kahiji, Clovis, dianggap salaku karuhun raja-raja Prancis
Pamaréntah Perancis Profil nagara Budaya
Sénsor nyaéta salah sahiji tipe transduser, gunana nyaéta pikeun ngarobah énerji tina hiji bentuk ka bentuk lainna, husuna ngarobah jadi énerji listrik
ku kituna, sénsor bisa dipasi jadi gumantung kana énerji anu bisa didetéksina
These require starting from a known distance and accumulate incremental changes in méasurements
Classification of measurement errors
A good sensor obeys the following rules: idéal sensors are designed to be linear
The output signal of such a sensor is linéarly proportional to the value of the méasured property
The sensitivity is then defined as the ratio between output signal and méasured property
For example, if a sensor méasures temperature and has a voltage output, the sensitivity is a constant with the unit [V/K]; this sensor is linéar because the ratio is constant at all points of méasurement
If the sensor is not idéal, several types of deviations can be observed: All these deviations can be classified as systematic errors or random errors
Systematic errors can sometimes be compensated for by méans of some kind of calibration strategy
Noise is a random error that can be reduced by signal processing, such as filtering, usually at the expense of the dynamic behaviour of the sensor
The "resolution" of a sensor is the smallest change it can detect in the quantity that it is méasuring
Often in a digital display, the léast significant digit will fluctuate, indicating that changes of that magnitude are only just resolved
The resolution is related to the precision with which the méasurement is made
For example, a scanning probe (a fine tip néar a surface collects an electron tunnelling current) can resolve atoms and molecules
All living organisms contain biological sensors with functions similar to those of the mechanical devices described
Most of these are specialized cells that are sensitive to: Artificial sensors that mimic biological sensors by using a biological sensitive component, are called biosensors
The human senses are examples of specialized neuronal sensors
Géodetic méasuring devices méasure géoreferenced displacements or movements in one, two or three dimensions
It includes the use of instruments such as total stations, levels and global navigation satellite system receivers
Transduser nyaéta hiji komponén éléktrik, éléktronik, éléktro-mékanik, éléktromagnetik, fotonik, atawa fotovoltaik nu bisa ngarobah wangun énérgi kana wangun énérgi séjénna
Ku sipatna ieu, transduser dipaké pikeun mindahkeun informasi atawa ngukur, contona sénsor dorong
Dina widang séjén, transduser disebut ogé salaku komponén nu bisa ngonversi sinyal tina hiji bentuk ka bentuk séjén, contona spiker audio anu ngarobah variasi tegangan listrik jadi sora (énergi akustik)
Wangunan Sunda nyaéta wangunan anu aya tur diaku salaku tempat cicing, usaha, tur pamaréntah di tatar Sunda
Cirina nyaéta konsép wangunan anu luyu jeung kaayaan alam jeung pangabutuh balaréa di tatar Sunda
Babagéan dina wangunan Sunda
Suhunan, kai nu dipasang manjang pangluhurna dina wawangunan minangka tempat patepungna hateup atanapi kenténg ti unggal bagianana
Dina luhureun suhunan sok dipasang wuwung atanapi tutup
Ukuran badagna suhuna ilaharna sami sareng ukuran tihang, 10x10 cm
Kaso-kaso (usuk, layeus), kai (awi guluntungan) nu dipasangna déngdék minangka pananggeuy eréng, panjangna salegana wawangunan ti lebah suhunan dugi kana panyawéran
Mérés sapanjangna suhunan ditanggeuy ku gordéng (panglari) di tengah, napel kana suhunan di luhur, dipageuhan kana pamikul di bagian béh tungtung handapna
Ukuranana ilaharna 4x6 cm
Eréng, kai (awi wilahan) kanggo numpangkeun kenténg atanapi talahab
Dipasangna dipageuhan ditumpangkeun luhureun kaso-kaso, panjangna sami sareng panjang suhunan
Ukuran eréng kai aya nu 2x3 cm aya ogé nu 3x4 cm
Gordéng atanapi panglari, kai (awi guluntungan) nu dipasangna ditumpangkeun dina kuda-kuda, manjang sapanjangna suhunan (babagian erénganeun)
Gunana kanggo nanggeuy bagian tengah jajaran kaso-kaso
Ukuranana satengaheun badagna bahan suhunan
Ilaharna 5x10 cm d.k 7x10 cm
Pangeret, kai (awi guluntungan) nu dipasang malang salegana bagian lebet wawangunan, sakantenan kanggo nyicingkeun adeg-adeg, ander, sareng kuda-kuda, katut nanggeuy pamikul
Ukuranana sami sareng suhunan
Pamikul, kai (awi guluntungan) nu dipasang di sisi luhur wawangunan di béh tungtung panggeret, minangka pananggeuy bagian béh tungtung handap kaso-kaso
Panjangna sapanjangna wawangunan, badagna sami sareng ukuran suhunan
Tihang, kai (awi guluntungan) nu dipasang ajeg di unggal babagian kuda-kuda minangka deudeul kana panggeret boh di béh tungtung boh di tengahna
Panjangna sajangkungna rohang wawangunan
Upami pondok teuing tihangna, wawangunan téh katingal depek
Kana tihang sok dijugang-jugangkeun siku-siku tina pamikul sareng tina panggeret malar rangkay weweg
Darurung (dalurung), kai (awi guluntungan) nu dipasang di bagian sisi handap sakuriling wawangunan malebahan kana tihang
Darurung gunana mageuhan puhu tihang sareng nyicingkeun dolos katut nanggeuy pananggeuy
Dolos, kai (awi guluntungan) paranti nyicingkeun jajaran pananggeuy
Supados henteu ngemplad dolos sok ditunjel bagian tengahna ku tihang pondok nu disebat deudeul
Pananggeuy, kai (awi guluntungan) nu dipasang ditumpangkeun dina dolos di bagéan tengahna, kana darurung di bagéan tungtungna; gunana paranti numpangkeun jajaran lanté (papan)
Nu lanténa ku palupuh (talupuh) sok dipasang heula jajaran sarang
Balagbag, papan nu dipasang diamparkeun luhureun darurung minangka lanté
Aya ogé anu ku palupuh (talupuh) nyaéta awi guluntungan nu dibeulah, dicacag, dibébérkeun
Mung masangna kedah nganggo heula jajaran sarang
Tatapakan, batu diwangun pasagi minangka ganjel puhu tihang supados tihangna henteu napak langsung kana taneuh
Ukuran jangkungna 35 - 40 cm, 15 - 17 cm pasagian luhurna, 20 cm pasagian handapna
Lisplang, papan nu dipasang dina tungtung usuk
Siku-siku, kai (awi guluntungan) nu dipasang antara tihang sareng panggeret atanapi pamikul malar pageuh masékon
Aya ogé nu dipasang antara adeg-adeg sareng suhunan, deudeul sareng pananggeuy
Dadagel, kai pondok minangka dadampar adeg-adeg kana panggeret
Dadagel sok dicokrah saadeg-adegeun malar adeg-adegna teu ingkah
Simeut meuting, kai anu wangunna jiga awak simeut keur cicing, ditapelkeun di tengah kuda-kuda minangka ganjel gordéng sangkan papak kana suhunan katut pamikul
Adeg-adeg, kai (awi guluntungan) pangdeudeul suhunan
Nincakna kana panggeret didadamparan ku dadagel, ditunjel ku kuda-kuda
Di congona sok dicokrah kanggo merenahkeun suhunan, ari puhuna dipupurus kana dadagel
Kanggo ngawedelan nangtungna adeg-adeg disiku kana suhunan sarta disolémpang kana adeg-adeg peuntaseunana
Deudeul, kai (awi guluntungan) tunjel pananggeuy sangkan teu ngemplad
Galar (palang dada), kai (awi guluntungan) nu dipasang némprak dina lolongkrang tihang sareng tihang, jadi pamuntangan dinding (bilik, gedég) sareng merenahkeun jandéla
Ukuran galar ilaharna satengaheun badagna tihang
Kuda-kuda, kai (awi guluntungan) anu dipasang déngdék ti bagian luhur adeg-adeg dina tungtungna ka bagian tungtung panggeret palebah tihang wangunan dina tungtung nu sanésna
Di bagian tengahna ditunjel ku ander, dijugsngkeun kana puhu adeg-adeg
Laos (, , atawa ), resmina Républik Démokratik Rahayat Lao, nyaéta nagara nu singkur di Asia Tenggara, diwatesan ku Burma (Myanmar) jeung Cina di kulon kaler, Vietnam di béh wetan, Kamboja di kidul, sarta Thailand di béh kulonna
Laos nyukcruk sajarahna ka Karajaan Lan Xang atawa "Lemah Sayuta Gajah", nu aya ti saprak abad ka-14 tepi ka 18
Sanggeus sapériodeu minangka jajahan Perancis, Laos merfika taun 1949
Perang sipil resmi rengse nalika gerakan komunis Pathet Lao ngawasa taun 1975 tapi paketrok antar faksi masih lumangsung sababaraha taun lilana
Pausahaan pribadi geus nambahan saprak ahir 1990-an nalika reformasi ekonomi kaasup diwanohkeunnana idin bisnis nu gancang
Laos kaasup kénéh di antara nagara panghandapna sacara ekonomis katut pulitis
Sanajan kitu, ekonomi Laos tuwuh 7.2% dina taun 2006, ka-35 panggancangna sadunya
"80% of the employed practice subsistence agriculture"
Etnis nagara ieu béda-béda, kalayan 70%-na mangrupa kelompok etnis panggedéna nyaéta Lao
Pamingpin minoritas etnis di Laos
Hong Kong (), ngaran resmina Wewengkon Administratif Husus Hong Kong , nyaéta salah sahiji tina dua wewengkon administratif husus di Republik Rahayat Cina (RRC), hijina deui nyaéta Macau
Wewengkon ieu ngampar di béh wetan Delta Walungan Mutiara, wawatesan jeung propinsi Guangdong di béh kaler nyanghareupan Sagara Cina Kidul di béh wetan, kulon jeung kidulna
Dimimitian ku jadi palabuan dagang saprak abad ka-19, Hong Kong kiwari geus mekar jadi puseur finansial
Hong Kong tadina mangrupa jajahan makuta Karajaan Ngahiji ti saprak taun 1842 tepikeun ka dialihkeun kedaulatannana ka Républik Rahayat Cina taun 1997
Sino-British Joint Declaration katut Hukum Dasar Hong Kong netepkeun yén Hong Kong lumaku kalayan otonomi sahanteuna tepi ka taun 2047, lima puluh taun sanggeus alihan
Kalayan kawijakan "sanagara, dua sistim", Pamarentah Rahayat Puseur tanggung jawab kana pertahanan teritori katut urusan luar nagri, sedengkeun Hong Kongna sorangan ngaropéa sistim hukum, angkatan kapulisian, sistim moneter, kawijakan béa cukéy, kawijakan imigrasi, jeung delegasi keur organisasi jeung acara internasional
Pranata mangsa téh nyaéta péréléan ngaran usum-usuman dina jero sataun, pangpangna perlu dikanyahokeun ku patani baheula
Mangsa kahiji mimitina ti tanggal 21 Juni nepi ka 31 Juli, lilana 41 poé
Cicirénna: angin datangna ti kalér wétan, loba tatangkalan nu murag daunna, sato-sato laleutik kayaning jangkrik jeung sajabana endogna malegar, kaayaan hawa ti beurang karasana kacida panasna ari ti peuting tiris, lauk di walungan henteu laliar, kaayaan taneuh panas, béntang wuluku aya di beulah wétan, kalangkangna nepi ka kidul
Mangsa ieu mah lain waktu keur tatanén sabab usum halodo
Mangsa kadua mimitina tina tanggal 1 Agustus nepi ka tanggal 23 Agustus, lilana 23 poe
Perlambangna: beutule rengko tanah beulah
Cicirenna: Angin datangna ti kidul kaler nuju ka kulon, ti beurang tetep panas ti peuting tiris, taneuh gararing nepi ka beulah, solokan, walungan, jeung sumur caina orot, kadang-kadang aya anu saraat, tatangkalan barijil daun anyar (pucukan) saperti tangkal karet, atawa jeruk, isuk-isuk bentang wuluku aya di wetan, tatangkalan bungbuahan mimiti karembangan
Nu pepelakan palawija ngurangan, kajaba nu umurna pondok saperti bonteng, jaat, atawa oyong
Patani mimiti miara solokan pikeun kapentingan sawahna
Mangsa katilu mimitina ti tanggal 24 Agustus nepi ka tanggal 16 September, lilana 24 poe
Perlambangna: akar-akar mimiti barijil
Cicirenna: angin datangna ti kaler, hawa mimiti tiis tapi karasana seger, tatangkalan daraunan, palawija sedeng dipanen (diala hasilna), di sawah rata-rata nyurup caina tapi tempo-tempo geus aya anu tebar pare
Mangsa ieu waktuna pamupukan pepelakan anu umurna panjang saperti kalapa, kadu, rambutan, peuteuy, cau, jeung sabangsana
Mangsa kaopat mimitina ti tanggal 17 September nepi ka tanggal 11 Oktober, lilana 25 poe
Perlambangna: gumading resmi (gumbira)
Cicirenna: Angin datangna ti kulon niupna muter nimbulkeun hujan atawa datangna hujan, mimiti kadenge sora gugur, sasatoan anu sukuna opat baleger (birahi), manuk-manuk nyarieun sayang rek ngendog, lauk di walungan tina liang-liang leuwi kalaluar (liar), tangkal randu baruahan tempo-tempo geus aya anu kolot buahna, gadung mimiti nyareng, patani sibuk panen palawija jeung ngagarap sawahna
Mangsa kalima mimitina ti tanggal 12 Oktober nepi ka tanggal 7 Nopémber, lilana 27 poé
Perlambangna: pancuran sumawir ing jagat (usum hujan)
Cicirénna: Angin niupna tarik, datangna ti kalér kulon bareng jeung hujan, ari hujan datangna soré-soré atawa isuk-isuk, tatangkalan loba anu raruntuh kaanginan, siraru mimiti kalaluar tina hunyurna, ogé bongborosan mimiti jadi, tangkal asem mimiti bijil daun anyar, patani giat ngurus huma, sabangsa oray jeung ulam mimiti kalaluar, ogé laleur halaliber
Tebar paré jero bulan Nopémber
Sawah mimiti ditanduran, sabagian patani sibuk ngatur ngagarap sawahna, ogé tebar
Béntang wuluku katémbongna pasosoré
Mangsa ieu waktuna ngagarap sawah
Mangsa kagenep mimitina ti tanggal 8 Nopémber nepi ka tanggal 20 Désémber, lilana 43 poé
Perlambangna: nikmating rasa (ngarasakeun kanikmatan)
Cicirénna: Angin niupna tarik, datangna ti kulon, hujan loba, buah rambutan, kadu, dukuh, manggah geus arasak
Béntang wuluku katémbong pasosoré, sawah anu cukup caina waktuna dirambét munggaran, malah di pagunungan mah masih aya kénéh nu keur ngagarap sawahna, sabangsa kutu kuya getok, peupeundeuyan keur arendogan
Mangsa katujuh mimitina ti tanggal 21 Désémber nepi ka tanggal 1 Pébruari, lilana 43 poé
Perlambangna: guci pecah ing lautan (guci beulah di laut)
Cicirénna: Hujan loba nepi ka timbul banjir, di sawah pagunungan bisa ditanduran, angin datangna ti kulon sarta teu tetep, hawa tiis, cai di sawah ngarepér saperti ngagolak, hiji tanda yén taneuh masih panas, sabangsa manuk teu pati disarada, kini-kini, kuang-kuang, getok jeung peupeundeuyan aranakan, béntang wuluku katémbongna pasosoré
Biasana dina mangsa ieu usum panyakit
Di sawah pagunungan masih aya nu keur talandur; jagong jeung kacang di huma meujeuhna diala hasilna
Mangsa kadalapan mimitina ti tanggal 2 Pébruari nepi ka tanggal 28 Pebruari, lilana 27 poé
Perlambangna: puspo anjrah (jeroning kayung seungit sajeroning haté)
Cicirénna: angin datangna ti kalér kulon niupna muter, hujan mimiti rada ngurangan, sabangsa bangbung, légé, kutu kuya hihiberan ka ditu ka dieu, kuuk kalaluar, ucing balalegér
Dina mangsa ieu waktuna pepelakan umur panjang
Paré di huma mimiti bareukah
Mangsa kasalapan mimitina ti tanggal 1 Maret nepi ka tanggal 25 Maret, lilana 25 poé
Perlambangna: wedaling wacono (timbul babasaan)
Cicirénna: angin datangna ti kidul, témpo-témpo isuk-isuk sarta ngaruksak kana paré nu keur beukah, hujan beuki kurang tapi sora gugur loba, tonggérét, kasir disarada
Loba panyakit panas, koréng, atawa nyeri beuteung
Paré huma geus konéng sarta aya nu keur dipanén, nya kitu deui di sawah sawaréh geus mimiti dipanén
Mangsa kasapuluh mimitina ti tanggal 26 Maret nepi ka tanggal 17 April, lilana 23 poé
Perlambangna: gedong ukeb jeroning kalbu (gedong jero haté)
Cicirénna: angin datangna ti wétan kidul, sasatoan keur rareuneuh, sabangsa manuk récét disarada, sawaréhna nyarieun sayang
Di pagunungan paréna geus arasak sarta sawaréh paranén, anu subur ku cai mah sawahna keur digarap, sarta mimiti tebar
Mangsa kasawelas mimitina ti tanggal 18 April nepi ka tanggal 10 Méi, lilana 23 poé
Perlambangna: pamungkas sinorowedi (patani sibuk panén)
Cicirénna: angin datangna ti kidul wétan, hawa panas, jeung taneuh panas, hama kungkang mimiti ngaruksak pepelakan di sawah atawa di huma, tatangkalan mimiti daunna marurag
Mangsa ieu masih waktuna pepelakan palawija umur pondok
Di sawah sibuk tatandur atawa aya ogé anu malawija saperti melak bako,jagong, jeung sabangsana
Mangsa kaduawelas mimitina ti tanggal 11 nepi ka tanggal 21 Juni, lilana 41 poé
Perlambangna: tirta syaking saseno (cai ninggalkeun tempatna)
Cicirénna: angin datangna ti wétan, hawa ti beurang panas, ari ti peuting tiis (tiris) teu pati kaluar kesang, dangdaunnan lalayu teu tahan panas, loba panyakit malaria, jalan ngebul, ari watek jelema babari napsu, datang hama paré
Mangsa ieu waktuna tebar nyadon atawa melak palawija
Istilah hijian atawa "hijian ukuran" (basa Indonésia: satuan ukuran) digunakeun pikeun mastikeun kabeneran ukuran atawa sabagé harga baku (standar) pikeun ngabandingkeun alat ukur, alat naker, timbangan sarta pikeun nangtayungan kapentingan masarakat
Hijian digunakeun dina rupa-rupa widang élmu pikeun netepkeun rupa-rupa ukuran, rumus sarta data
Définisi, perjangjian katut kagunaan hijian geus ngajalankeun pancén anu penting pisan dina kahirupan manusa ti bihari ka kiwari
Rupa-rupa sistem ukuran geus ilahar digunakeun
Kiwari aya standar anu lumaku sadunya, nyaéta sistem internasional pikeun ukuran, International System (SI), anu mangrupa wangunan moderén tina sistem métrik
SI geus diterapkeun di sakuliah dunya
Dina jual beuli, beurat jeung ukuran-ukuran lian mindeng jadi jejer aturan pamaréntah, pikeun ngajamin kaadilan jeung kaatraan
Bureau international des poids et mesures (BIPM) boga pancén ngajamin kasaragaman ukuran sadunya jeung ngajamin kamampuhan napaklacak (tracéability) hiji ukuran ka SI
Métrologi mangrupa élmu pikeun ngamekarkeun hijian beurat jeung ukuran lianna anu bisa ditarima sacara nasional jeung internasional
Dina fisika jeung métrologi, hijian mangrupa standar pikeun ukar-ukur kuantitas fisis anu merlukeun définisi kalayan jelas supaya boga mangfaat
Réproduksibilitas hasil-hasil ékspérimen penting pisan dina métoda ilmiah
Hiji sistem hijian ukuran anu baku ngagampangkeun hal lieu
Sistem hijian ilmiah mangrupa panyampurnaan tina konsép beurat jeung ukuran lian anu mekar bihari pikeun tujuan komérsial
Sains, élmu medis, sarta élmu teknik mindeng ngagunakeun hijian ukuran anu leuwih gedé atawa leuwih leutik batan anu digunakeun dina kahirupan sapopoé
Pamilihan hijian ukuran anu taliti bisa ngabantu para panalungtik dina méréskeun perkara
=Hijian ukuran dasar dina SI= =Hijian ukuran tradisional Sunda= Urang Sunda ogé geus ti bihari maké hijian ukuran dina kahirupanana pikeun mastikeun kabeneran ukuran boh keur ukuran panjang, boh ukuran beurat sarta waktu
Patempatan nyaéta lokasi atawa posisi
Biasana nujul kana lokasi atawa posisi géografis di muka bumi, sanajan bisa ogé di rohangan lianna
Di handap ieu béréndélan patempatan nu aya di muka bumi:
Aljir (, Basa Arab Standar: "Al Jaza'ir" , Basa Arab Aljazair: "Dzayer" ( (tina pronunsiasi Berber), Basa Berber: , "Ledzayer" , ) nyaéta ibu kota sarta kota panggedéna di Aljazair tur mangrupa kota panggedéna kadua di Afrika Kalér sanggeus Kasablangka, Moroko
Dumasar kana sensus taun 1998, populasi kota ieu aya 1,519,570; di wewengkon urban aya 2,135,630; di wewengkon metropolitan aya 3,518,083; sarta di Propinsi Aljir sakabéhna aya 5,723,749 (2006)
Ku kituna wewengkon urban "Aljazair Raya" mangrupa salah sahiji wewengkon panglegana di Maghreb (sanggeus Kasablangka)
Katelah "El-Bahdja" (البهجة) atawa "Alger la Blanche" ("Algiers the White") for the glistening white of its buildings as seen rising up from the séa, Algiers is situated on the west side of a bay of the Mediterranean Sea
The city name is derived from the Arabic word "al-jazā’ir", which translates as "the islands", referring to the four islands which laid off the city's coast until becoming part of the mainland in 1525
"Al-jazā’ir" is itself a truncated form of the city's older name "jazā’ir banī mazghannā", "the islands of (the tribe) Bani Mazghanna", used by éarly medieval géographers such as al-Idrisi and Yaqut al-Hamawi
Algiers is the only Algerian city with an English name different from its French name
The modérn part of the city is built on the level ground by the séashore; the old part, the ancient city of the deys, climbs the steep hill behind the modérn town and is crowned by the casbah or citadel, above the séa
The casbah and the two quays form a triangle
Algiers has sister relationships with a number of cities worldwide: "In addition, many of the wards and cities within Algiers maintain sister-city relationships with other foreign cities."
Istri nujul kana:
Myanmar (atawa Burma, Birma), resmina Uni Myanmar (Basa Burma: , ), nyaéta nagara panggedéna sacara géografis di daratan Asia Tenggara
Burma meunang kamerdikaan ti United Kingdom tanggal 4 Januari 1948, minangka Uni Burma.” Burma jadi ”Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma” tanggal 4 Januari 1974, saméméh balik deui ka “Uni Burma” tanggal 23 September 1988
Tanggal 18 Juni 1989, State Law and Order Restoration Council maké ngaran “Uni Myanmar.” Hal ieu diaku ku PBB, tapi henteu diaku ku Pamaréntah AS atawa UK
Burma kawates ku Cina di béh kaler, Laos di wetan, Thailand di tenggara, Bangladesh di kulon, jeung India di kulon kaler, katut Teluk Bengal di kulon kiduleunnana
Sapertilu periméter total Myanmar, 1,930 kilometers (1,199 mi), ngawangun gurat basisir nu henteu pegat
Populasi nu béda-béda di Myanmar geus ngamaenkeun peran nu gedé dina nangtukeun pulitik, sajarah sarta demografina dina wanci moderen kiwari
Sistim pulitik aya dina kadali nu "ketat" ti State Peace and Development Council, nu dipingpin ku pamaréntah militer, ti taun 1992, ku Jendral Senior Than Shwe
Militer Myanmar geus ngadominasi pamaréntahan saprak Jendral Ne Win mingpin kup taun 1962 ngalengserkeun pamaréntah sipil U Nu
Minangka bagéan Karajaan Britania tepi ka 1948, Burma neruskeun bajoang pikeun ngaropéa kategangan etnisna
Budaya nagara, kacida dipangaruhannana ku nagara tatangga, dumasar kana Buda Theravada nu nyampur jeung unsur lokal
Organisasi di Myanmar
http://www.usda.org.mm http://www.mwaf.org.mm http://www.ccdac.gov.mm http://www.mcf.org.mm http://www.mcpa.org.mm http://www.mcia.org.mm http://www.mosamyanmar.org http://www.umfcci.com.mm http://www.mmcwa.org
Nining Méida nyaéta tukang ngawih pop-sunda Indonésia taun 1980-an
Nining Méida réa ngahaleuankeun lagu-lagu nu diciptakeun ku Nano S., kawas lagu "Potrét Manéhna", "Kalangkang", "Anjeun", "Tibelat", sarta "Rangrang Panyawangan"
Sajaba ti ngawih, Nining ogé muka usaha ngajualan parsél ku cara nawarkeun ka rélasina
Nining Meida émang boga bakat dina tembang Sunda, padahal manéhna teu boga génré nyalira, nu ngabentuk urang lain urang sorangan tapi batur
Lagu anu kawentar nepi ka ayeuna nyaéta lagu nu judulna "Kalangkang"
Gending karesmén nyaéta pagelaran drama anu dialog-dialogna ditembangkeun atawa dikawihkeun, dibarengan gerak ibing, dipirig ku tatabeuhana
Anu dimaksud tatabeuhana téh nyaéta pirigan gamelan (karawitan) anu diluyukeun jeung pangabutuh téks carita anu dipidangkeun
Nurutkeun M. Atje Salmun (M.A
Salmun), nu mimiti maké istilah gending karesmén téh nyaéta R. Machyar Angga Kusumadinata dina Kongrés Basa Sunda ka-2 taun 1927 anu dilaksanakeun di "Societeit Ons Genoegen" (kiwari Yayasan Pusat Kebudayaan) (YPK) Bandung
Dina kamekaran kiwari, teu saeutik gending karesmén anu geus direkam tiasa disimpen waé kana kasét, upamana waé ”Gending Karesmén Lutung Kasarung” beunang Sayudi
Upama rék mintonkeun éta gending karesmén, kasét téh kari diputer, tuluy baé dipagelarkeun
Tangtu baé dina pintonan anu ngan ukur nunutur sora kasét mah, palakuna teu kudu ngapalkeun dialog anu ditembangkeun atawa dikawihkeun téa
Paling-paling pepeta, némbongkeun ékspresi beungeut, jeung bloking (pundah-pindah tempat, jeung sajabana)
Cinambo nyaéta salah sahiji kacamatan di Kota Bandung, Propinsi Jawa Kulon, Indonésia
Mandalajati nyaéta salah sahiji kacamatan di Kota Bandung, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia
Gedébagé nyaéta salah sahiji kacamatan di Kota Bandung, Propinsi Jawa Kulon, Indonésia
Panyileukan nyaéta salah sahiji kacamatan di Kota Bandung, Propinsi Jawa Barat, Indonésia
Antapani nyaéta salah sahiji kacamatan di Kota Bandung, Propinsi Jawa Kulon, Indonésia
Libanon () (Basa Arab: "Lubnān"; Basa Perancis: ), resmina Républik Libanon (; ), nyaéta hiji nagara leutik nu lolobananana mangrupakuen pagunungan di Asia Kulon, di basisir kidul Laut Tengah
Libanon diwatesan ku Syria di béh kaler jeung wetan, sarta Israel di kuduleunnana
Alatan rupa-rupana sektarian, Libanon nerapkeun hiji sistim pulitik husus, nu katelah konfesionalisme, pikuen nyebarkeun kakawasaan sarata-ratana ka seler-seler nu béda
Bandera Libanon féatures a cedar in green against a white backdrop, bounded by two horizontal red stripes along the top and bottom
This is a reference to the famous cedars of Lebanon, that were mentioned in the verses of the Old Testament (mostly in Psalms), which spoke of the "Arzei HaL'vanon," or "Cedars of Lebanon."
Until the Lebanese Civil War (1975-1990), the country enjoyed relative calm and prosperity, driven by the tourism, agriculture, and banking sectors of the economy
It is considered the banking capital of the Arab world and was widely known as the "Switzerland of Western Asia" due to its financial power
Lebanon also attracted large numbers of tourists, to the point that the capital Beirut became widely referred to as the "Paris of Western Asia."
Immediately following the end of the war, there were extensive efforts to revive the economy and rebuild national infrastructure
By éarly 2006, a considerable degree of stability had been achieved throughout much of the country, Beirut's reconstruction was almost complete, and an incréasing number of foreign tourists were pouring into Lebanon's resorts
The 2006 war between Israel and Hezbollah brought mounting civilian and military casualties, extensive damage to civilian infrastructure, and massive population displacement from July 12, 2006 until a céasefire went into effect on August 14, 2006
Kangaranan Urang Sunda
Standar ATSC ngadokumentasi hiji format televisi digital nu bakal ngaganti sistim televisi NTSC analog (di Amerika Sarikat) ti mimiti 17 Pebruari, 2009
Standar ieu dijieun ku Advanced Television Systems Committee
Standar televisi definisi luhur nu ditetepkeun ku ATSC ngahasilkeun gambar layar lega tepi ka ukuran 1920×1080 piksel — leuwih ti genep kalieun resolusi pidangan standar saméméhna
Ukuran gambar lianna ogé dirojong, antukna panglobana genep standard-definition "virtual channel" bisa disiarkeun dina hiji saluran TV tunggal 6 MHz
ATSC ogé ngarojong audio "kualitas theater" sabab maké format AC-3 Dolby Digital keur nyadiakeun "surround sound" 5.1 kanal
Sababaraha jasa datacasting tambahan bisa disadiakeun oge
Nu nyiarkeun maké ATSC, lamun hayang kénéh mertahankeun sinyal analog, kudu nyiarkeun dina dua saluran nu misah, sabab sistim ATSC kudu maké saluran sagemblengna
Sababaraha saluran bisa dipetakeun deui maké saluran virtual tina saluran RF fisik jadi nomer-nomer ti 1 nepi ka 99, antukna stasion ATSC bisa diasosiasikeun jeung nomer saluran NTSC nu patali, atawa bisa ogé sakabéh stasion dina hiji jaringan maké nomer nu sarua
Aya ogé hiji standar keur "transmisi nu sumebar" (DTx) nu ngidinan booster station
Standar ATSC dicirian ku A/x (x nyaéta nomer standarna) tur bisa dicokot kalayan bébas tina ramatloka ATSC (tempo tumbu luar di handap)
Loba aspek ATSC nu dipatenkeun, kaasup unsur koding vidéo MPEG, koding audio AC-3, sarta modulasi 8VSB
Kawas sistim lianna, ATSC gumantung kana sababaraha standar nu patula-patali, contona standar EIA-708 keur closed captioning digital, geus bareda dina implementasina
Sistim ATSC ngarojong sababaraha resolusi, rasio aspék, jeung frame rate pidangan nu béda
Formatna didaptar di dieu dumasar resolusi, wangun scanning (progresif atawa interlace), sarta jumlah frame (atawa field) per detikna (tempo ogé sawangan resolusi TV dina pungkasan artikel ieu): Resolusi nu béda bisa jalan dina mode "progressive scan" atawa "interlace", sanajan sistim 1080-gurat nu pangluhurna henteu bisa midangkeun gambar progresif dina laju 59.94 atawa 60 frame per detik oge
(Tehnologi kawas kieu katempona hadé teuing keur mangsa kiwari, katambah-tambah kualitas gambarna ogé goreng teuing lamun dibandingkeun jeung jumlah data nu bisa dikirimkeun.)
Pangiriman terestrial (ngaliwatan udara) mawa 19.39 megabit data per detik, bandingkeun jeung bitrate maksimm nu mungkin, 10.08 Mbit/s kabawa dina standar DVD
Pidangan "EDTV" bisa ngaréproduksi eusi progressive scan sarta sacara frekuentif boga format layar lega 16:9
Resolusi nu kawas kieu nyaéta 720×480 dina NTSC atawa 720×576 dina PAL, nu ngidinan 60 frame progresif per detik dina NTSC atawa 50 dina PAL
Aya tilu ukuran pidangan dasar keur ATSC
Ukuran gambar NTSC jeung PAL "basic" jeung "enhanced" aya dina hambalan handap 480 atawa 576 gurat
Gambar ukuran sedeng mibanda resolusi 720 gurat sarta legana 960 atawa 1280 piksel (rasio aspek, patuturut keur , versi tradisional, jeung , versi layar lega)
Pangluhurna boga 1080 gurat boh legana 1440 atawa 1920 piksel (di dieu oge, patuturut keur rasio aspek jeung )
Vidéo 1080 gurat sabenerna mah dienkode maké frame 1920×1088 piksel, tapi dalapan gurat pangpandeurina dipiceun dina pidangannana
Hl ieu alatan wawates format vidéo MPEG-2, nu nyaratkeun yén jumlah sampel luma nu dikodekeun (contona piksel) bisa dibagi ku 16
Keur transpor, ATSC maké spesifikasi sistim MPEG-2, nu katelah transport stream, keur nga-enkapsulasi data, maké wawates tinangtu
ATSC maké paket trnsport stréam 188 bita keur mawa data
saméméh ngadekode audio jeung vidéo, panarima kudu ngademodulasi jeung nerapkeun koreksi kasalahan kana sinyal
Tuluy, transport stréam bisa didemultipleks jadi stréam poko
Vidéo MPEG-2 dipaké minangka video codec, ogé kalayan wawates tinangtu
Dolby Digital AC-3 dipaké minangka audio codec, sanajan resmina distandarkeun minangka A/52 ku ATSC
Hal ieu ngidinan transpor nepi ka lima saluran sora kalayan hiji saluran kagenep keur efek frekuensi handap (nu katelah konfigurasi "5.1")
Sabalikna, siaran HDTV ISDB Jepang mah maké Advanced Audio Coding (AAC) MPEG minangka audio codec, nu ogé bisa ngaluarkeun audio 5.1
DVB (tempo di handap) bisa duanana
Modulasi jeung transmisi
Sinyal ATSC dirancang pikeun maké lega pita 6 MHz nu sarua jeung saluran televisi NTSC (sarat interferensi standar DTV A/53 jeung NTSC nu padeudeukeut atawa jeung saluran DTV lianna kacida ketatna)
Lamun sinyal vidéo jeung audio geus dikompresi sarta dimultipleks, transport stréamna bisa dimodulasi maké mangrupa-rupa cara gumantung kana cara pangirimannana
In recent yéars, cable operators have become accustomed to compressing standard-resolution vidéo for digital cable systems, making it harder to find duplicate 6 MHz channels for local broadcasters on uncompressed "basic" cable
Currently, the Federal Communications Commission requires cable operators in the United States to carry the analog or digital transmission of a terrestrial broadcaster (but not both), when so requested by the broadcaster (the "must-carry rule")
The Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission in Canada has similar rules in force with respect to carrying ATSC signals
However, cable operators in the US (and to a lesser extent Canada) can determine their own method of modulation for their plants
There is also a standard for transmitting ATSC via satellite; however, this is only used by TV networks
Very few teleports outside the US support the ATSC satellite transmission standard, but teleport support for the standard is improving
Mayoritas nagara di dunya geus milih pikeun maké standar DVB, kawas nu bisa ditingali dina daptar status ngeunaan ramatloka Proyek DVB
ATSC marengan ayana standar DVB-T, sarta ISDB-T nu diterapkeun di Jepang
(modulasi ISDB dipaké ogé minangka dasar standar SBTVD-T di Brazil.)
Standar nu ampir sarua nuu katelah ADTB dikembangkeun pikeun dipaké minangka bagéantina standar ganda DMB-T/H anyar bogana China
Sanajan resmina milih standar ganda, taya persaratan yén hiji panarima bisa cocog jeung dua standar sarta taya rojongan ogé keur modulasi ADTB ti panyiar atawa pabrik alat jeung panarima
Taiwan (Républik China) milih DVB-T COFDM minangka modulasi resmina
Sabab bisa dipaké di saluareun wewengkon NTSC nu aya kiwari, sistim ATSC mampuh mawa vidéo dina format PAL jeung SECAM (576 gurat nu bisa kapidangkeun, 50 field atwa 25 frame per detik) lian ti keur NTSC (486 gurat nu bisa kapidangkeun, 60 x 1000/1001 field atawa 30 x 1000/1001 frame per detik) jeung pilem (24 frame per detik)
While the ATSC system has been criticized as being complicated and expensive to implement and use, both broadcasting and receiving equipment are now comparable in cost with that of DVB
The ATSC signal is definitely more susceptible to changes in radio propagation conditions than DVB-T and ISDB-T
If ATSC were able to dynamically change its error correction modes, code rates, interléaver mode, and randomizer, the signal could be more robust even if the modulation itself did not change
It also lacks true hierarchical modulation, which allows the SDTV part of an HDTV signal to be received even in fringe aréas where signal strength is low
For this réason, an additional modulation mode, enhanced-VSB (E-VSB) has been introduced, allowing for a similar benefit
In spite of ATSC's fixed transmission mode, it is still a robust signal under various conditions
8VSB was chosen over COFDM in part because many aréas of North America are rural and have a much lower population density, thereby requiring larger transmitters and resulting in large fringe aréas
In these aréas, 8VSB was shown to perform better than other systems
COFDM is used in both DVB-T and ISDB-T, and for ISDB-H, as well as DVB-H and HD Radio in the United States
In metropolitan areas, where the gréat and incréasing majority of North Americans live, COFDM is said to be better at handling multipath
While ATSC is also incapable of true single-frequency network (SFN) operation, the distributed transmission mode, using on-channel repéaters, has been shown to improve reception under similar conditions
Thus, it may not require more spectrum allocation than DVB-T using SFNs
Because the FCC forced broadcasters to use 8VSB modulation instéad of COFDM, mobile reception of digital stations has (up till now) been difficult to impossible, especially when moving at vehicle speeds
To overcome this, there are now at léast three standards which claim to improve mobile reception: Samsung's A-VSB, Harris and LG's MPH, and now the ATSC's own ATSC-M/H
This is in addition to other proprietary standards like MediaFLO, and worldwide open standards like DVB-H and DMB-T. Like DVB-H and ISDB 1seg, the proposed ATSC mobile standards are backward-compatible with existing tuners, despite being added to the standard well after the original standard was in wide use
Mobile reception of some stations will still be more difficult because the FCC sold-off the rights to 18 of the UHF channels, forcing several broadcasters to stay on VHF
This band requires larger antennas for reception, and is more prone to electromagnetic interference from engines and rapidly-changing multipath conditions, aréas where ATSC's 8VSB is inferior to the COFDM of other standards
Pilipina (basa Pilipina: "Pilipinas"), ngaran resmina Républik Pilipina ("Republika ng Pilipinas"; RP), nyaéta hiji nagara kapuloan nu perenahna di Asia Tenggara, ibu kotana Manila
Kapuloan Pilipina ngawengku 7,107 pulo-pulo di Samudra Pasifik béh kulon
Pilipina mangrupa nagara pangpadetna ka-12 sadunya, Ekonomi nasionalna ka-45 sadunya kalayan gross domestic product (GDP) taun 2006 leuwih ti US$117 miliar
Urang Pilipina lolobananana turunan urang Austronesia, tapi aya ogé minoritas urang Amérika, Arab, Cina, Hispanik jeung India
Aya leuwih ti 11 juta urang Pilipina di luar nagri sadunya, kurang leuwih 11% tina total populasi urang Pilipina
Pilipina jadi jajahan Spanyol dina abad ka-16, tuluy jadi jajahan AS sanggeusna Perang Spanyol-Amerika jeung Perang Pilipina-Amérika
Pilipina boga loba sasaruanana jeung dunya Kulon, nu utamana asalna tina budaya Spanyol, Amérika Latén, jeung Amérika Sarikat
Katolik Roma jadi ageman nu dominan, sok sanajan aya ogé prakték ageman pribumi pra-Hispanik katut Islam
Dua basa resmi Pilipina nyaéta basa Filipino, nu dumasar kana basa Tagalog, jeung basa Inggris
Resmi Peta Lianna
Rarangkén barung nyaéta rarangkén anu dipakéna babarengan pikeun ngawangun guna (fungsi) jeung harti kecap
Ciri utama rarangkén barung nyaéta: upama salasahiji rarangkénna dilaan, éta kecap téh teu bisa madeg mandiri
Rarangkén barung béda jeung rarangkén gabung
Ari rarangkén gabung mah mangrupa gabungan dua rarangkén atawa leuwih anu ngawangun guna jeung harti kecapna henteu babarengan
Cirina: upama salasahiji rarangkénna dilaan, tetep mibanda harti mandiri
Bisa disebutkeun kieu: rarangken anu digabungkeun kana wangun dasar anu geus dirarangkénan
Jadi henteu babarengan cara dina rarangkén barung
Rarangkén barung dina basa Sunda di antarana: ka-an
Pa-an, pang-keun, pi-keun, pika, pika-eun, jeung sa-eun
Rarangkén ka-an Guna jeung harti rarangken burung ka-an, di antarana: (1) ngawangun kecap barang nu hartina ”anu patali jeung ...”a Conto: kaamanan, kaendahan, kageulisan (2) ngawangun kecap barang nu hartina ”anu di ...” Conto: kaolahan (3) ngawangun kecap barang nu hartina ”teu dihaja kakeunaan ku ...” Conto: kadiukan, kakotoran, kacaahan, kaancikan (4) ngawangun kecap barang nu hartina ”ani di- ...-keun” Conto: kapentingan, kaperluan (5)
di- ...-keun” Conto: kapentingan, kaperluan (5) ngawangun kecap barang nu hartina ”anu sifatna ...” Conto: kanyataan, kajayaan, kaagungan (6) ngawangun kecap pagawean (pasif) nu hartina ”teu dihaja kakeunaan ku pagawean ...” Conto: kacopetan, kabangsatan, kapalingan (7) ngawangun kecap pagawean (pasif) nu hartina ”teu dihaja aya dina kaayaan ...” Contona: kalaparan, kakurangan (8) ngawangun kecap pagawean (pasif) nu hartina ”bisa di-...-an Contona: kacumponan, katedunan (9)
”bisa di-...-an Contona: kacumponan, katedunan (9) ngawangun kecap sifat nu hartina ”bisa di-...-keun” Contona: kabuktian, kapastian (10) ngawangun kecap sifat nu hartina ”teu dihaja” Conto: (11) ngawangun kecap sifat nu hartina ”teu dihaja kakeunaan ...” Contona: kabeurangan, kapeutingan, kapanasan, katiisan (12) ngawangun kecap barang nu hartina ”tempat nu patali jeung ...” Conto: kacamatan, kadaleman, kabupatian
Tanda CE (resmina waktu munggaran disebut "EC Mark") satuluyna sacara resmi diganti ku istilah "CE Marking" anu ditetepken dina undang-undang Uni Éropah Nomer 93/68/EEC taun 1993
Istilah "EC mark" kiwari masih kénéh digunakeun, tapi lain dina kontéks resmi
Ku cara némpélkeun tanda CE, pabrik, wakil resmina, atawa saurang jelema anu ngajual barang atawa jasa di pasar Éropah ngumumkeun yén barang atawa jasa kasebut nyumponan sakabéh sarat penting anu diwajibkeun di Éropah
Conto produk nu asup ka Eropah tur kudu maké tanda CE nyaéta produk keur kaulinan "(toy safety)", mesin, parabot tegangan leutik, R&amp;TTE, katut kompatibilitas EM
Kurang leuwih aya 25 hal nu ngawajibkeun dipakéna tanda CE.. Tanda CE mangrupa tanda anu wajib ditémpélkeun kana sakumpulan barang nu tangtu pikeun nunjukkeun yén barang dimaksud luyu jeung sarat kaséhatan jeung kasalametan anu ditetepkeun dina undang-undang Uni Éropa
Pikeun ngidinan dipakéna tanda CE dina hiji produk, kudu dibuktikeun heula yén barang nu geus luyu jeung sarat nu patali éta kudu didokumentasikeun
Kadang-kadang hal ieu karek kacumponan lamun geus diuji di tempat séjén "(external test house)" nu husus nguji produk katut dokumentasina
Mindeng ogé hal ieu kacumponan ku cara proses sertifikasi sorangan di jero pausahaan "(company-internal self-certification process)"
Dina sababaraha kajadian, organisasi nu tanggung jawab (pabrik, wawakil, sarta importirna) kudu ngaluarkeun EC-Declaration of Conformity (EC-DoC) nu netelakeun identitasna (lokasi, jsb
), daptar "European Directive" nu geus dideklarasikeun ku manéhna yén cocog jeung CE, daptar standar nu netelakeun ka mana produkna nyaluyuan, sarta tanda tangan resmi minangka wawakil organisasina
EC-DoC negeskeun tanggung jawab pabrik
Bagéan tina proses sertifikasi keur tanda CE bisa dijieun ku tempat nguji séjén minangka pihak katilu atawa badan sertifikasi; dina kajadian yén hal ieu téh mangrupa parentah, lambang CE sok ngasupkeun ogé nomer nu ngidentifikasikeun "Notified Body"
To be strictly accurate, there are two forms of Declaration, either a "Declaration of Conformity" or a "Declaration of Incorporation"
Generally spéaking this is only the case under the Machinery Directive, for example, a stand alone machine, which requires only a power source to operate would be issued with a Declaration of Conformity
Wheréas, a machine which requires additonal systems, attachments, feed conveyors etc, before it can provide it's intended function, must be issued with a Declaration of Incorporation
In this latter case it is illegal to CE Mark such a machine
This can only be achieved once the machine has been finally installed and all other elements incorporated into the system, then a final Risk Assessment is performed to verify compliance of the system and a final Declaration of Conformity is then issued
Further more, these directives are based upon what the Européan Commission calls a New Approach, wherby if any of the Article 100A Directives apply to your product, then you must apply them
Further assistance about these and other directives can be found at or
Directives providing the requirements for the CE marking are créated by the European Union (EU), but the markings are required throughout the European Economic Area (Eéa)
According to information provided by the Swiss Government for Swiss Exporters the CE Mark is not compulsory in Switzerland except for products for export to the Européan Union.)
The mark was designed by Arthur Eisenmenger according to an article in The Guardian 2001-12-23
The various components of the CE marking must have substantially the same vertical dimension, which may not be less than 5mm
The similar "e mark", rather than the CE logo, is used on motor vehicles and components for motor vehicles (The "e mark" for motor vehicles is not to be confused with the estimated sign on food labels )
Federal Communications Commission (FCC) nyaéta hiji badan pamarentah Amerika Sarikat, nu dijieun, diatur, jeung dibéré wewenang ku Congressional statute (tempo jeung ), kalayan mayoritas komisionerna ditunjuk ku présidén nu keur ngajabat
FCC diadegkeun ku Communications Act of 1934 minangka gagantina Federal Radio Commission sarta boga tugas keur ngatur pamakéan sakabéh spéktrum radio nu dipaké lian ti ku Pamaréntah Federal (kaasup siaran radio jeung televisi), sarta sakabéh telekomunikasi antar nagara bagéan (kawat, satelit jeung kabel) katut sakabéh komunikasi internasional ti atawa ka AS
Ieu mangrupa faktor penting dina kawijakan telekomunikasi AS
FCC nyokot palaturan komunikasi kawat ti Interstate Commerce Commission
The FCC's jurisdiction covers the 50 states of the United States of America, the District of Columbia, and U.S. possessions
It is organized into seven Buréaus and ten Staff Offices
'The Buréaus’ include processing applications for licenses and other filings, analyzing complaints, conducting investigations, developing and implementing regulations, and participating in hearings
The FCC's Offices provide support services to the Buréaus
Even though the Buréaus and Offices have their individual functions, they regularly work together on FCC issues
Communications Act of 1934
In 1934 Congress passed the Communications Act, which abolished the Federal Radio Commission and transferred jurisdiction over radio licensing to a new Federal Communications Commission
Title III of the Communications Act contained provisions very similar to the Radio Act of 1927, and the new FCC largely took over the operations and precedents of the FRC
Report on Chain Broadcasting
In 1940 the Federal Communications Commission issued the "Report on Chain Broadcasting."
The major point in the report was the bréakup of NBC (See National Broadcasting Company), but there were two other important points
One was network option time, the culprit here being CBS
The report limited the amount of time during the day, and what times the networks may broadcast
Previously a network could demand any time it wanted from an affiliate
The second concerned artist buréaus
The networks served as both agents and employees of artists, which was a conflict of interest the report rectified
Telecommunications Act of 1996
In 1996 Congress enacted the Telecommunications Act of 1996, in the wake of the bréak-up of AT&amp;T resulting from the U.S. Justice Department's antitrust suit against AT&amp;T. In part, the 1996 legislation attempted to créate more competition in local telephone service by requiring Incumbent Local Exchange Carriers to provide access to their facilities for Competitive Local Exchange Carriers
This policy has thus far had limited success and much criticism
Robert crandall The development of the internet, cable services and wireless services has raised questions whether new legislative initiates are needed as to competition in what has come to be called 'broadband' services
Congress has monitored developments but not as of 2007 undertaken a major revision of applicable regulation
Consolidation permissivity, indecency crackdowns
The inauguration of Ronald Reagan as présidént of the United States in 1981 accelerated an alréady on-going shift in the FCC towards a decidedly more market-oriented stance
A number of regulations felt to be outdated were removed, most controversially the Fairness Doctrine in 1987
The FCC also took steps to incréase competition to broadcasters, fostering broadcast alternatives such as cable television
In the éarly 2000s, the FCC began stepping up censorship and enforcement of indecency regulations again, most notably following the Janet Jackson "wardrobe malfunction" that occurred during the halftime show of Super Bowl XXXVIII
However, the FCC's regulatory domain with respect to indecency remains restricted to the public airwaves, notably VHF and UHF television and AM/FM radio
On June 15, 2006, President George W. Bush signed into law the Broadcast Decency Enforcement Act of 2005 sponsored by Senator Sam Brownback, a former broadcaster himself, and endorsed by Congressman Fred Upton of Michigan who authored a similar bill in the United States House of Representatives
The new law stiffens the penalties for éach violation of the Act
The Federal Communications Commission will be able to impose fines in the amount of $325,000 for éach violation by éach station, which violates decency standards
The legislation raises the fine by a tenfold incréase
FCC commissioners since inception in 1934
The FCC is directed by five Commissioners appointed by the présidént and confirmed by the Senate for 5-yéar terms, except when filling an unexpired term
The présidént designates one of the Commissioners to serve as Chairperson
Only three Commissioners may be members of the same political party
None of them can have a financial interest in any Commission-related business
Chairman Kevin Martin (R-NC), Commissioner Michael Copps (D-WI), Commissioner Jonathan Adelstein (D-SD), Commissioner Deborah Taylor Tate (R-TN), Commissioner Robert M. McDowell (R-VA)
Three of them are Republicans and two are Democrats
All are appointed by the présidént
A complete list of commissioners is available on the FCC website
Notable commissioners have included: Regulatory powers
As to radio and television broadcasting, the Federal Communications Commission has one major regulatory wéapon, revoking licenses, but short of that has limited leverage
(see FCC MB Docket 04-232)
Sanctions run a report-basis system
Additionally, broadcast licenses are supposed to be renewed if the station meets the "public interest, convenience, or necessity."
The Federal Communications Commission rarely checks except for some obvious and outstanding réason; burden of proof would be on the complainant
Fewer than 1% of station renewals are not immediately granted, and only a small fraction of those are ultimately denied
The Federal Communications Commission also licenses amateur radio operators and stations, and does use its power to fine amateur radio operators who flagrantly violate its rules
It also licenses commercial operators who operate and repair certain radiotelephone, television, radar, and Morse code radio stations
In recent yéars it has also licensed péople who maintain or operate GMDSS stations
While the FCC maintains control of the written and Morse testing standards, it no longer administers the exams, having delegated that function to private organizations