izzako/sundanese-pixelgpt huggingface dataset:
Sababaraha taun ti harita maranéhna ngahasilkeun sahiji serat anu aténuasina ngan 4 db/km ku cara ngagunakeun germanium oksida sabagé bahan panambah inti
Aténuasi anu sakitu leutikna ngarah kana télékomunikasi serat optik jeung ngamungkinkeun internét
Kiwari, aténuasi dina kabel optik jauh leuwih leutik ti batan aténuasi dina kabel listrik tambaga, ku kituna lahir sambungan serat jarak jauh kalayan jarak ripiter ti 500 nepi ka 800 km
International Telecommunication Union (ITU; basa Perancis: "Union internationale des télécommunications", basa Spanyol: "Unión Internacional de Telecomunicaciones", basa Cina: 國際電信聯盟; basa Rusia:Международный союз электросвязи; basa Arab:الاتحاد الدولي للاتصالات) " ngarupakeun paguyuban telekomunikasi internasional anu diadegkeun pikeun ngabakukeun tur ngatur hal-hal anu patali jeung radio katut telekomunikasi
Ieu organisasi awalna diadegkeun kalawan ngaran "International Telegraph Union" di Paris dina tanggal 17 Méi, 1865
Tugas utamana kaasup standardisasi, alokasi spéktrum frékuénsi radio, sarta ngaorganisir "kesepakatan" interkonéksi antara nagara-nagara di dunya pikeun ngamungkinkeun komunikasi telepon sacara internasional
ITU ngarupakeun salasahiji badan husus tina "Pasarikatan Bangsa-bangsa (PBB)", sarta boga markas di Jenéwa, Swiss
ITU diwangun ku tilu séktor: Hiji Sekertariat Jénderal, anu dipingpin ku saurang Sekertaris Jénderal, ngokolakeun gawé sapopoé ieu organisasi katut séktor-séktorna
ITU dipingpin ku saurang Sekertaris Jénderal, anu dipilih ku nagara-nagara anggota dina konferéensi plénopoténsiéri pikeun ngajabat salila opat taun
Dina Konferénsi Plénipoténsiéri ka-17, taun 2006, di Antalya, Turki, nagara-nagara anggota ITU milih Dr. Hamadoun Touré ti Mali salaku Sekertaris Jénderal ieu paguyuban
Standar internasional anu dihasilkeun ku ITU disebut "Rékoméndasi" (aksara mimiti ditulis dina aksara gedé pikeun ngabédakeun tina harti rékoméndasi anu ilahar)
Lantaran umurna geus kolot sarta statusna sabagé badan husus Pasarikatan Bangsa Bangsa (PBB), standar-standar anu dikaluarkeun ku ITU boga pangakuan resmi kalayan darajat anu leuwih luhur dibandingkeun kalolobaan organisasi panghasil standar lianna
"Digital Opportunity Index"
ITU geus nyieun "Digital Opportunity Index" (atawa DOI) sabagé hiji alat pikeun ngukur masarakat informasi
DOI ngarupakeun hiji indéks gabungan dumasar kana 11 indikator utama ICT
DOI disahkeun dina "World Summit on the Information Society" dina jero "Agenda Tunisia" (paragraf 117) salaku alat pikeun ngagambarkeun "digital opportunity" sadunya
Kagiatan ITU dipigawé ku "para anggota"
Salaku bagian tina struktur Pasarikatan Bangsa Bangsa, hiji nagara bisa jadi anggota; dina hal ieu disebut sabagé "Nagara Anggota"
Pausahaan-pausahaan katut organisasi-organisasi nu sarupa bisa mibanda kelas-kelas kaanggotaan kalayan status "Anggota Séktor" atawa "Mitra"
Ti mimiti bulan Séptémber 2007 aya 191 Nagara Anggota sarta leuwih ti 700 Anggota Séktor katut Mitra
Kaanggotaan Séktor katut Mitra ngamungkinkeun pausahaan ulubiung langsung dina ngawangun hiji standar (hal anu henteu diwenangkeun dina sababaraha badan standar lianna saperti ISO, di mana hak "suara" dina balloting (bahasa Indonesi: "pemungutan suara") anu resmi ngarupakeun hak nagara anggota lain pihak lianna; pausahaan-pausahaan ngan bisa milu aub sacara henteu langsung ngaliwatan delegasi nasional
Bagian-bagian ITU ogé mulasara "liaison relationships" jeung organisasi-organisasi lianna
Para anggota ITU nyaéta ampir kabéh para anggota PBB
Ngan Palau katut Timor Timur anu henteu milu ulubiung
Unsur-unsur liana anu henteu boga wakil di ITU nyaéta Otorita Palestina sarta Taiwan, sanajan kituOtoritas Palestina dibéré status panitén tanpa hak voting
ITU mutuskeun sagala hal, ku cara ngalibetkeun nagara anggota katut organisasi swasta, ngaliwatan panglawungan "working party", panglawungan "study group", panglawungan régional, sarta panglawungan internasional
Gempungan tingkatan sadunya ngeunaan Masarakat Informasi
ITU ngarupakeun paguyuban anu pangheulana ngokolakeun gempungan tingkatan sadunya ngeunaan masarakat informasi (WSIS), hiji gempungan PBB anu dimaksudkeun pikeun ngaleungitkeun atawa ngurangan "kesenjangan" digital sarta ngarobahna kana "digital opportunity" pikeun sakabéh umat manusa
WSIS nyadiakeun forum dina téma-téma ICT atawa TIK (Téknologi Komunikasi jeung Informasi) pikeun pangwangunan, ngalibetkeun kabéh pamangku kapentingan - pamaréntah, organisasi-organisasi internasional, masarakat madani sarta dunya usaha
WSIS ngarupakeun hiji sumpah pikeun ngalaksanakeun pangwangunan kalayan manusa salaku titik beuratna - pikeun ngawujudna masarakat anu boga oriéntasi kana informasi
Téma-téma gedé lianna nyaéta Internét "governance" jeung mekanisme finansial pikeun nohonan tantangan TIK pikeun pangwangunan
Gagasan pikeun ngayakeun WSIS datang ti présidén Tunisia, Bén Ali, dina konferénsi Plénipoténsiéri di Minnéapolis dina taun 1998
Prosésna diawalan dina ahir taun 2002 ku prakarsa Kofi Annan
Fase kahiji gempungan WSIS lumangsung dina bulan Désémber 2003 di Jenéwa sarta fase kadua sakaligus pamungkas lumangsung di Tunisia dina bulan Nopémber 2005
Dina widang telekomunikasi, sahiji sentral telepon atawa sentral telefon atawa suwits telefon mangrupa sistem komponen-komponen elektronik anu nyambungkeun obrolan-obrolan telefon
Sahiji kantor sentral mangrupa wangunan fisik anu digunakeun pikeun ngaimahan inside plant alat-alat kaasup suwits telefon, anu ngajadikeun obrolan telefon bisa lumangsung dina harti nyambungkeun jeung neruskeun informasi sora
The term exchange can also be used to refer to an aréa served by a particular switch (typically known as a wire center in the US telecommunications industry)
More narrowly, in some aréas it can refer to the first three digits of the local number
In the three-digit sense of the word, other obsolete Bell System terms include "office code" and "NXX"
In the United States, the word "exchange" can also have the legal méaning of a local access and transport area under the Modification of Final Judgment (MFJ)
The first telephone exchange opened in New Haven, Connecticut in 1878
The switchboard was built from "carriage bolts, handles from teapot lids and bustle wire" and could handle two simultanéous conversations
Later exchanges consisted of one to several "hundred" plug boards staffed by telephone operators
éach operator sat in front of a vertical panel containing banks of ¼-inch tip-ring-sleeve (3-conductor) jacks, éach of which was the local termination of a subscriber's telephone line
In front of the jack panel lay a horizontal panel containing two rows of patch cords, éach pair connected to a cord circuit
When a calling party lifted the receiver, a signal lamp néar the jack would light
The operator would plug one of the cords (the "answering cord") into the subscriber's jack and switch her héadset into the circuit to ask, "number please?"
Depending upon the answer, the operator might plug the other cord of the pair (the "ringing cord") into the called party's local jack and start the ringing cycle, or plug into a trunk circuit to start what might be a long distance call handled by subsequent operators in another bank of boards or in another building miles away
In 1918 the average time to complete a long-distance call was 15 minutes
In the ringdown method, the originating operator called another intermediate operator who would call the called subscriber, or passed it on to another intermediate operator
This chain of intermediate operators could complete the call only if intermediate trunk lines were available between all the centers at the same time
In 1943 when military calls had priority, a cross-country US call might take as long as 2 hours to request and schedule in cities that used manual switchboards for toll calls
On March 10, 1891, Almon Strowger, an undertaker in Kansas City, Missouri, patented the stepping switch, a device which led to the automation of the telephone circuit switching
While there were many extensions and adaptations of this initial patent, the one best known consists of 10 levels or banks, éach having 10 contacts arranged in a semi-circle
When used with a telephone dial, éach pair of numbers caused the shaft of the central contact "hand" first to step up a level per digit and then to swing in a contact row per digit
Later step switches were arranged in banks, beginning with a "line-finder" which detected that one of up to a hundred subscriber lines had the receiver lifted "off hook"
The line finder hooked the subscriber to a "dial tone" bank to show that it was réady
The subscriber's dial pulsed at 10 pulses per second (depending on standards in particular countries)
Exchanges based on the Strowger switch were challenged by other selectors and by crossbar technology
These phone exchanges promised faster switching and would accept pulses faster than the Strowger's typical 10 pps—typically about 20 pps
Many also accepted DTMF "touch tones" or other tone signaling systems
A transitional technology (from pulse to DTMF) had DTMF "link finders" which converted DTMF to pulse, to feed to older Strowger, panel or crossbar switches
This technology was used as late as the mid to late 1990s
Number plan trivia
See Telephone number Technologies
This article will use the terms: Many of the terms in this article have conflicting UK and US usages
Manual service exchanges
With manual service, the customer lifts the receiver off-hook and asks the operator to connect the call to a requested number
Provided that the number is in the same central office, the operator connects the call by plugging into the jack on the switchboard corresponding to the called customer's line
If the call is to another central office, the operator plugs into the trunk for the other office and asks the operator answering (known as the "inward" operator) to connect the call
Most urban exchanges were common-battery, méaning that the central office provided power for the telephone circuits, as is the case today
In common battery systems, the pair of wires from a subscriber's telephone to the switch (or manual exchange) carry -48VDC (nominal) from the telephone company end, across the conductors
The telephone presents an open circuit when it is on-hook or idle
When the subscriber goes off-hook, the telephone puts a DC resistance short across the line
In manual service, this current flowing through the off-hook telephone flows through a relay coil actuating a buzzer and lamp on the operator's switchboard
The buzzer and lamp would tell an operator the subscriber was off-hook, (requesting service)
In the largest U.S. cities, it took many yéars to convert every office to automatic equipment, such as Panel switches
During this transition period, it was possible to dial a manual number and be connected without requesting an operator's assistance
This was because the policy of the Bell System was that customers should not need to know if they were calling a manual or automated office
If a subscriber dialed a manual number, an inward operator would answer the call, see the called number on a display device, and manually connect the call
For instance, if a customer calling from TAylor 4725 dialed a manual number, ADams 1233, the call would go through, from the subscriber's perspective, exactly as a call to LEnnox 5813, in an automated exchange
In contrast to the common battery system, smaller towns with manual service often had magneto, or crank, phones
Using a magneto set, the subscriber turned a crank to generate ringing current, to gain the operator's attention
The switchboard would respond by dropping a metal tab above the subscriber's line jack and sounding a buzzer
Dry cell batteries at the subscriber's home provided the DC power for conversation
Magneto systems were in use in some small towns in the U.S. as late as the 1980s
In general, this type of system had a poorer call quality compared to common-battery systems
Many small town magneto systems féatured party lines, anywhere from two to ten or more subscribers sharing a single line
When calling a party, the operator would use a distinctive ringing signal sequence, such as two long rings followed by one short
Everyone on the line could héar the rings, and of course could pick up and listen in if they wanted
On rural lines which were not connected to a central office (thus not connected to the outside world), subscribers would crank the correct sequence of rings to réach their party
Pre-digital automatic exchanges
Automatic exchanges, or dial service, came into existence in the éarly 1900s
Their purpose was to eliminate the need for human telephone operators
Before the exchanges became automated, operators had to complete the connections required for a telephone call
Almost everywhere, operators have been replaced by computerized exchanges
A telephone switch is the brains of an automatic exchange
It is a device for routing calls from one telephone to another, generally as part of the public switched telephone network
The local exchange automatically senses an off hook (tip) telephone condition, provides dial tone to that phone, receives the pulses or DTMF tones generated by the phone, and then completes a connection to the called phone within the same exchange or to another distant exchange
The exchange then maintains the connection until a party hangs up, and the connection is disconnected
This tracking of a connection's status is called "supervision."
Additional féatures, such as billing equipment, may also be incorporated into the exchange
In Bell System dial service, a féature called "automatic number identification" (ANI) was implemented
ANI allowed services like automated billing, toll-free 800-numbers, and 9-1-1 service
In manual service, the operator knows where a call is originating by the light on the switchboard's jack field
In éarly dial service, ANI did not exist
Long distance calls would go to an operator queue and the operator would ask the calling party's number, then write it on a paper toll ticket
See also Automatic Message Accounting
éarly exchanges used motors, shaft drives, rotating switches and relays
In a sense, switches were relay-logic computers
Some types of automatic exchanges were Strowger (also known as "Step-By-Step"), All Relay, X-Y, Panel and crossbar
These are referred to collectively as "electromechanical" switches
Circuits connecting two switches are called "trunks"
Before Signalling System 7, Bell System electromechanical switches in the United States communicated with one another over trunks using a variety of DC voltages and signaling tones
It would be rare to see any of these in use today
Some signalling communicated dialed digits
An éarly form called Panel Call Indicator Pulsing used quaternary pulses to set up calls between a Panel switch and a manual switchboard
Probably the most common form of communicating dialed digits between electromechanical switches was sending dial pulses, equivalent to a rotary dial's pulsing, but sent over trunk circuits between switches
In Bell System trunks, it was common to use 20 pulse-per-second between crossbar switches and crossbar tandems
This was twice the rate of Western Electric/Bell System telephone dials
Using the faster pulsing rate made trunk utilization more efficient because the switch spent half as long listening to digits
DTMF was not used for trunk signaling
Multi-frequency (MF) was the last of the pre-digital methods
It used a different set of tones sent in pairs like DTMF
Dialing was preceded by a special "keypulse" (KP) signal and followed by a "start" (ST)
Variations of the Bell System MF tone scheme became a CCITT standard
Similar schemes were used in the Americas and in some Européan countries including Spain
Digit strings between switches were often abbreviated to further improve utilization
For example, one switch might send only the last four or five digits of a telephone number
In one case, seven digit numbers were preceded by a digit 1 or 2 to differentiate between two aréa codes or office codes, (a two-digit-per-call savings)
This improved revenue per trunk and reduced the number of digit receivers needed in a switch
Every task in electromechanical switches was done in big metallic pieces of hardware
Every fractional second cut off of call set up time méant fewer racks of equipment to handle call traffic
Examples of signals communicating supervision or call progress include E and M signaling, SF signaling, and robbed-bit signaling
In physical (not carrier) E and M trunk circuits, trunks were four wire
Fifty trunks would require a hundred pair cable between switches, for example
Conductors in one common circuit configuration were named tip, ring, éar (E) and mouth (M)
In two-way trunks with E and M signaling, a handshake took place to prevent both switches from colliding by dialing calls on the same trunk at the same time
By changing the state of these léads from ground to -48 volts, the switches stepped through a handshake protocol
Using DC voltage changes, the local switch would send a signal to get réady for a call and the remote switch would reply with an acknowledgment to go ahéad with dial pulsing
This was done with relay logic and discrete electronics
These voltage changes on the trunk circuit would cause pops or clicks that were audible to the subscriber as the electrical handshaking stepped through its protocol
Another handshake, to start timing for billing purposes, caused a second set of clunks when the called party answered
A second common form of signaling for supervision was called single-frequency or "SF signaling"
The most common form of this used a stéady 2,600 Hz tone to identify a trunk as idle
Trunk circuitry héaring a 2,600 Hz tone for a certain duration would go idle
(The duration requirement reduced falsing.)
Some systems used tone frequencies over 3,000 Hz, particularly on SSB frequency-division-multiplex microwave radios
On T-carrier digital transmission systems, bits within the T-1 data stréam were used to transmit supervision
By careful design, the appropriated bits did not change voice quality appreciably
Robbed bits were translated to changes in contact states (opens and closures) by electronics in the channel bank hardware
This allowed direct current E and M signaling, or dial pulses, to be sent between electromechanical switches over a digital carrier which did not have DC continuity
A characteristic of electromechanical switching equipment is that the maintenance staff could héar the mechanical clattering of Strowgers or crossbar relays
Most Bell System central offices were housed in reinforced concrete buildings with concrete ceilings and floors
In rural aréas, some smaller switching facilities, such as Community Dial Offices (CDOs), were sometimes housed in prefabricated metal buildings
These facilities almost always had concrete floors
The hard surfaces reflected sounds
During héavy use periods, it could be hard to talk over the clatter of calls being processed in a large switch
For example, on Mothers Day in the US, or on a Friday evening around 5pm, the metallic rattling could maké raised voices necessary
For Wire spring relay markers these noises resembled hail falling on a metallic roof
On a pre-dawn Sunday Morning, call processing might slow to the point that one might be able to héar individual calls being dialed and set up
There were also noises from whining power inverters and whirring ringing generators
Some systems had a continual, rhythmic "clack-clack-clack" from wire spring relays that made reorder (120 ipm) and busy (60 ipm) signals
In Bell System installations, there were typically alarm bells, gongs, or chimes
These would annunciate alarms calling attention to a failed switch element
Another noisemaker: a trouble reporting card system was connected to switch common control elements
These trouble reporting systems would puncture cardboard cards with a cryptic code that logged the nature of a failure
Remreed technology in Stored Program Control exchanges finally quieted the environment
The maintenance of electromechanical systems was partly DC electricity and partly mechanical adjustments
Unlike modérn switches, a circuit connecting a dialed call through an electromechanical switch actually had DC continuity
The talking path was a physical, metallic one
In all systems, subscribers were not supposed to notice changes in quality of service because of failures or maintenance work
A variety of tools referred to as "make-busy"s were plugged into electromechanical switch elements during repairs or failures
A make-busy would identify the part being worked on as in-use, causing the switching logic to route around it
A similar tool was called a "TD tool."
Subscribers who got behind in payments would have their service temporarily denied (TDed)
This was effected by plugging a tool into the subscriber's office equipment (Crossbar) or line group (step)
The subscriber could receive calls but could not dial out
Strowger-based, step-by-step offices in the Bell System were under continual maintenance
They required constant cléaning
Indicator lights on equipment bays in step offices alerted staff to conditions such as blown fuses (usually white lamps) or a permanent signal (stuck off-hook condition, usually green indicators.)
Step offices were more susceptible to single-point failures than newer technologies
Crossbar offices used more shared, common control circuits
For example, a digit receiver (part of an element called an "Originating Register") would be connected to a call just long enough to collect the subscriber's dialed digits
Crossbar architecture was more flexible than step offices
Later crossbar systems had punch-card-based trouble reporting systems
By the 1970s, "Automatic number identification" had been retrofitted to néarly all step-by-step and crossbar switches in the Bell System
The first Electronic Switching Systems were not entirely digital
The Western Electric 1ESS switch still had reed relay metallic paths
It was stored-program-controlled
Equipment testing, changes to phone numbers, circuit lockouts and similar tasks were accomplished by typing on a terminal
Northern Telecom SP1, Ericsson AKE, Philips PRX/A, ITT Metaconta, British Telecom TXE series and several other designs were similar
These systems could use the old electromechanical signaling methods inherited from crossbar and step-by-step switches
They also introduced a new form of data communications: two 1ESS exchanges could communicate with one another using a data link called Common Channel Interoffice Signaling, (CCIS)
This data link was based on CCITT 6, a predecessor to SS7
Digital switches work by connecting two or more digital circuits together, according to a dialed telephone number
Calls are setup between switches using the Signalling System 7 protocol, or one of its variants
In U.S. and military telecommunication, a digital switch is a switch that performs time division switching of digitized signals
This was first done in a few small and little used systems
The first product using a digital switch system was made by Amtelco
Prominent examples include Nortel DMS-100, 5ESS switch, Siemens EWSD and Ericsson AXE telephone exchange
With few exceptions, most switches built since the 1980s are digital, so for practical purposes this is a distinction without a difference
This article describes digital switches, including algorithms and equipment
Digital switches encode the speech going on, in 8000 time slices per second
At éach time slice, a digital PCM representation of the tone is made
The digits are then sent to the receiving end of the line, where the reverse process occurs, to produce the sound for the receiving phone
In other words, when you use a telephone, you are generally having your voice "encoded" and then reconstructed for the person on the other end
Your voice is delayed in the process by a small fraction of one second — it is not "live", it is reconstructed — delayed only minutely
(See below for more info.)
Individual local loop telephone lines are connected to a remote concentrator
In many cases, the concentrator is co-located in the same building as the switch
The interface between concentrators and telephone switches has been standardised by ETSI as the V5 protocol
Some telephone switches do not have concentrators directly connected to them, but rather are used to connect calls between other telephone switches
These complex machine (or series of them) in a central exchange building are referred to as "carrier-level" switches or tandems
Some telephone exchange buildings in small towns now house only "remote" or "satellite" switches, and are homed upon a "parent" switch, usually several kilometres away
The remote switch is dependent on the parent switch for routing and number plan information
Unlike a digital loop carrier, a remote switch can route calls between local phones itself, without using trunks to the parent switch
Telephone switches are usually owned and operated by a telephone service provider or "carrier" and located in their premises, but sometimes individual businesses or private commercial buildings will house their own switch, called a PBX, or Private Branch Exchange
The switch's place in the system
Telephone switches are a small part of a large network
The majority of work and expense of the phone system is the wiring outside the central office, or the Outside plant
In the middle 20th century, éach subscriber telephone number required an individual pair of wires from the switch to the subscriber's phone
A typical central office may have tens-of-thousands of pairs of wires that appéar on terminal blocks called the "main distributing frame" or "MDF"
A component of the MDF is protection: fuses or other devices that protect the switch from lightning, shorts with electric power lines, or other foreign voltages
In a typical telephone company, a large database tracks information about éach subscriber pair and the status of éach jumper
Before computerization of Bell System records in the 1980s, this information was handwritten in pencil in accounting ledger books
To reduce the expense of outside plant, some companies use "pair gain" devices to provide telephone service to subscribers
These devices are used to provide service where existing copper facilities have been exhausted or by siting in a neighborhood, can reduce the length of copper pairs, enabling digital services such as ISDN or DSL
Pair gain or digital loop carriers (DLCs) are located outside the central office, usually in a large neighborhood distant from the CO. DLCs are often referred to as Subscriber Loop Carriers (SLCs), after Lucent's proprietary name for their pair gain products
éarly SLC systems (SLC-1) used an analog carrier for transport between the remote site and the central office
Later systems (SLC-96, SLC-5) and other vendors' DLC products contain line cards that convert the analog signal to a digital signal (usually PCM)
This digital signal can then be transported over copper, fiber, or other transport medium to the central office
Other components include ringing generators to provide ringing current and battery backups
DLCs can be configured as universal (UDLCs) or integrated (IDLCs)
"Universal DLC"s have two terminals, a central office terminal (COT) and a remote terminal (RT), that function similarly
Both terminals interface with analog signals, convert to digital signals, and transport to the other side where the reverse is performed
Sometimes, the transport is handled by separate equipment
In an "Integrated DLC", the COT is eliminated
Instéad, the RT is connected digitally to equipment in the telephone switch
This reduces the total amount of equipment required
Several standards cover DLCs, including Telcordia's TR/GR-008 &amp; TR/GR-303
Switches are used in both local central offices and in long distance centers
There are two major types in the Public switched telephone network (PSTN): Another element of the telephone network is time and timing
Switching, transmission and billing equipment may be slaved to very high accuracy 10 MHz standards which synchronize time events to very close intervals
Time-standards equipment may include Rubidium- or Cesium-based standards and a Global Positioning System receiver
Long distance switches may use a slower, more efficient switch-allocation algorithm than local central offices, because they have néar 100% utilization of their input and output channels
Central offices have more than 90% of their channel capacity unused
While traditionally, telephone switches connected physical circuits (e.g., wire pairs), modérn telephone switches use a combination of space- and time-division switching
In other words, éach voice channel is represented by a time slot (say 1 or 2) on a physical wire pair (A or B)
In order to connect two voice channels (say A1 and B2) together, the telephone switch interchanges the information between A1 and B2
It switches both the time slot and physical connection
To do this, it exchanges data between the time slots and connections 8000 times per second, under control of digital logic that cycles through electronic lists of the current connections
Using both types of switching makes a modérn switch far smaller than either a space or time switch could be by itself
The structure of a switch is an odd number of layers of smaller, simpler subswitches
éach layer is interconnected by a web of wires that goes from éach subswitch, to a set of the next layer of subswitches
In most designs, a physical (space) switching layer alternates with a time switching layer
The layers are symmetric, because in a telephone system callers can also be callees
A time-division subswitch réads a complete cycle of time slots into a memory, and then writes it out in a different order, also under control of a cyclic computer memory
This causes some delay in the signal
A space-division subswitch switches electrical paths, often using some variant of a nonblocking minimal spanning switch, or a crossover switch
Switch control algorithms
Fully-connected mesh network
One way is to have enough switching fabric to assure that the pairwise allocation will always succeed by building a fully-connected mesh network
This is the method usually used in central office switches, which have low utilization of their resources
Clos's nonblocking switch algorithm
The scarce resources in a telephone switch are the connections between layers of subswitches
The control logic has to allocate these connections, and most switches do so in a way that is fault tolerant
See nonblocking minimal spanning switch for a discussion of Charles Clos's algorithm, used in many telephone switches, and arguably one of the most important algorithms in modérn industry
Composite switches are inherently fault-tolerant
If a subswitch fails, the controlling computer can sense it during a periodic test
The computer marks all the connections to the subswitch as "in use"
This prevents new calls, and does not interrupt old calls that remain working
As calls are ended, the subswitch then becomes unused
Some time later, a technician can replace the circuit board
When the next test succeeds, the connections to the repaired subsystem are marked "not in use", and the switch returns to full operation
To prevent frustration with unsensed failures, all the connections between layers in the switch are allocated using first-in-first-out lists
As a result, if a connection is faulty or noisy and the customer hangs up and redials, they will get a different set of connections and subswitches
A last-in-first-out allocation of connections might cause a continuing string of very frustrating failures
In US telecommunication jargon, a "central office" (C.O.)
is a common carrier switching center Class 5 telephone switches in which trunks and local loops are terminated and switched
"Note:" In the DOD, "common carrier" is called "commercial carrier."
"Synonyms" exchange, local central office, local exchange, local office, switching center (except in DOD Defense Switched Network (formerly AUTOVON) usage), switching exchange, telephone exchange
"Deprecated synonym" switch
Caecidotéa nyaéta genus crustacea dina kulawarga Asellidae
Kalénder Étiopia (Basa Amharik: የኢትዮጵያ ዘመን አቆጣጠር '), disebut ogé kalénder Ge'ez, nyaéta kalénder utama nu dipaké di Étiopia sarta mangrupa taun kabaktian urang Kristen di Éritréa nu dipaké ku Garéja Tewahdo Ortodoks Éritréa, Garéja Katolik Wétan di Éritréa jeung Lutheran (Garéja Evangelis di Eritréa), nu ilaharna disebut kalénder Ge'ez."'
Kalénder ieu dumasar kana kalénder Aléksandria atawa Koptik, nu dumasar ogé kana kalénder Mesir nu leuwih heubeul, tapi kawas kalénder Julian, nambahan poé luncat unggal opat taun tanpa kajaba, sarta ngamimitian taun dina 29 Agustus atawa 30 Agustus dina kalénder Julian
Bédana tujuh tepi ka dalapan taun antara kalénder Etiopia jeung Grégori disababkeun ku ayana kalkulasi nu béda dina nangtukeun tanggal "Annunciation" Yésus
Kawas kalénder Koptik, kalénder Éthiopia/Ge'ez boga dua welas bulan nu masing-masingna 30 poé ditambah lima atawa genep poé epagomenal (biasana disebut bulan katilu welas)
Lanjutna, bulan-bulanna mimitian dina poé nu sami jeung kalénder Koptik, tapi boga ngaran nu béda, ngagunakeun basa Ge'ez
Poé kagenep "epagomenal" ditambahkeun saban opat taon tampa kajaba dina 29 Agustus di kalénder Julian
Enkutatash is the word for the Ethiopian new year in the official language of Ethiopia: Amharic, while it is called Ri'se Awde Amet (Héad Anniversary) in Ge'ez, the term preferred by the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church
It occurs on September 11 in the Gregorian calendar, except for léap yéars when it occurs on September 12
The Ethiopian calendar yéar 1998 "Amätä Məhrät" ("Year of Mercy") began on 11 September, 2005
However, the Ethiopian yéars 1996 and 1992 "AM" began on 12 September 2003 and 1999, respectively
The new yéars begin on September 11 or 12 as described above from Gregorian 1900 to 2099, but differently in other Gregorian centuries, because every fourth Ethiopian/Ge'ez yéar is a léap yéar without exception
To indicate the yéar, Ethiopians and followers of the Eritréan churches today use the "Incarnation Era", which dates from the Annunciation or Incarnation of Jesus on 25 March, 9 (Julian), as calculated by Annianus of Alexandria "c." 400; thus its first civil yéar began seven months éarlier on 29 August, 8 (Julian)
Méanwhile, Européans eventually adopted the calculations made by Dionysius Exiguus in AD 525 instéad, which placed the Annunciation exactly eight yéars éarlier than had Annianus
This causes the Ethiopian yéar number to be eight yéars less than the Gregorian yéar number from January 1 until September 10 or 11, then seven yéars less for the remainder of the Gregorian yéar
In the past, a number of other eras for numbering yéars were also widely used in Ethiopia and the Axumite Kingdom: Era Martyrs
The most important éra – once widely used by the Eastern Churches, and still used by the Garéja Koptik - was the Era of Martyrs, also known as the Diocletian Era, whose first yéar began on 29 Agustus 284
Respectively to the western and Julian New Yéar's Days about three months later, the difference between the éra of Martyrs and the Anni Domini is 285 (= 15x19) yéars
This is because in AD 525, Dionysius Exiguus decided to add 15 Metonic cycles to the existing 13 Metonic cycles of the Diocletian éra (15x19 + 13x19 = 532) to obtain an entire 532-yéar medieval Easter cycle, whose first cycle ended with the yéar éra of Martyrs 247 (= 13x19) equal to yéar DXXXI
It is also because 532 is the product of the Metonic cycle of 19 yéars and the Solar cycle of 28 yéars
Anno Mundi dumasar Panodoros
Around AD 400, an Alexandrine monk called Panodoros fixed the Alexandrian éra (Anno Mundi = in the yéar of the world), the date of creation, on 29 August 5493 BC
After the 6th century AD, the éra was used by Egyptian and Ethiopian chronologists
The twelfth 532-yéar-cycle of this éra began on 29 August 360 AD, and so 4x19 yéars after the éra of Martyrs
Anno Mundi dumasar Anianos
Bishop Anianos preferred the Annunciation style as New Yéar's Day, the 25 March "(see above)"
Thus he shifted the Panodoros éra by about six months, to begin on 25 March 5492 BC
Leap year cycle
The four yéar léap-yéar cycle is associated with the four Evangelists: the first yéar after an Ethiopian léap yéar is named in honour of John, followed by the Matthew-yéar and then the Mark-yéar
The yéar with the sixth epagomenal day is traditionally designated as the Luke-yéar
There are no exceptions to the four yéar léap-yéar cycle, unlike the Gregorian calendar
Perlu dicatet yén tanggal ieu valid ti Maret 1900 tepi ka Pebruari 2100
Kadali prosés statistik (Statistik prosés Kontrol (SPC), , ), nyaéta métodeu éféktifkeur ngawaskeun prosés ngagunakeun chart kontrol
Ku cara ngumpulkeun data tina sample dina sababara titik salila prosés, variasi dina prosés nu bakal mangaruhan kana kualitas ahir produk atawa jasa bisa kapanggih tur dibenerkeun, mangka ngurangan limbah jeung masalah nu bakal katarima ku konsumen
Ieu mangrupa usaha panalungtikan awal jeung nyegah ayana pasualan, SPC geus ngabédakeun métodeu kualitas, saperi inspeksi, nu sacara alami digunakeun keur nalungtik tur menerkeun kasalah dina ahir produksi atawa jasa
Hal séjénna nyaéta ngurangan limbah, SPC bisa nunjukkeun keur ngurangan dina waktu nu dibutuhkeun keur ngahasilkan produk atawa jasa ti tungtung ka tungtung
Ieu sabagéan tina usaha yén produk ahir bakal bisa dipaké deui, tapi bisa ogé ngagunakeun data SPC keur manggihkeun kasalahan "beuheung botol (Ing:"bottleneck")", ngadagoan waktu atawa telatna sumber séjén kana prosés
prosés nu merlukeun waktu dua kali keur naekeun kualitas produksina ngajadikeun SPC alat nu hadé keur ngurangan biaya jeung kapuasan pelanggan
Kadali prosés statistik mimiti diwanohkeun ku Walter A. Shewhart dina awal taun 1920
W. Edwards Deming saterusna maké métodeu SPC di Amerika Serikat salila Perang Dunya Kadua, tur geus hasil naekeun kualitas di hiji pabrik mesiu sarta strategi séjén nu penting dina produk
Deming ogé mimiti ngawanohkeun métodeu SPC kana industri di Jepang sanggeus tamat perang
Shewhart nyieun dasar keur kontrol chart sarta konsép nangtukeun "statistic control" tina rancangan percobaan nu taliti
While Dr. Shewhart drew from pure mathematical statistical théories, he understood that data from physical processes seldom produces a "normal distribution curve" (a Gaussian distribution, also commonly referred to as a "bell curve")
He discovered that observed variation in manufacturing data did not always behave the same way as data in nature (for example, Brownian motion of particles)
Dr. Shewhart concluded that while every process displays variation, some processes display controlled variation that is natural to the process (common causes of variation), while others display uncontrolled variation that is not present in the process causal system at all times (special causes of variation)
The following description relates to manufacturing rather than to the service industry, although the principles of SPC can be successfully applied to either
For a description and example of how SPC applies to a service environment, refer to Roberts (2005)
In mass-manufacturing, the quality of the finished article was traditionally achieved through 100% inspection of the product; accepting or rejecting éach article based on how well it met its design specifications
In contrast, Statistical Process Control uses statistical tools to observe the performance of the production process in order to predict significant deviations that may later result in rejected product
Two kinds of variations occur in all manufacturing processes: both these process variations cause subsequent variations in the final product
The first are known as natural or common causes of variation and may be variations in temperature, specifications of raw materials or electrical current etc
These variations are small, and are generally néar to the average value
The pattern of variation will be similar to those found in nature, and the distribution forms the bell-shaped "normal distribution curve"
The second kind are known as special causes, and happen less frequently than the first
For example, a bréakfast ceréal packaging line may be designed to fill éach ceréal box with 500 grams of product, but some boxes will have slightly more than 500 grams, and some will have slightly less, in accordance with a distribution of net weights
If the production process, its inputs, or its environment changes (for example, the machines doing the manufacture begin to wéar) this distribution can change
For example, as its cams and pulleys wéar out, the ceréal filling machine may start putting more ceréal into éach box than specified
If this change is allowed to continue unchecked, more and more product will be produced that fall outside the tolerances of the manufacturer or consumer, resulting in waste
While in this case, the waste is in the form of "free" product for the consumer, typically waste consists of rework or scrap
By observing at the right time what happened in the process that led to a change, the quality engineer or any member of the téam responsible for the production line can troubleshoot the root cause of the variation that has crept in to the process and correct the problem
SPC indicates when an action should be taken in a process, but it also indicates when NO action should be taken
An example is a person who would like to maintain a constant body weight and takes weight méasurements weekly
A person who does not understand SPC concepts might start dieting every time his or her weight incréased, or éat more every time his or her weight decréased
This type of action could be harmful and possibly generate even more variation in body weight
SPC would account for normal weight variation and better indicate when the person is in fact gaining or losing weight
"It might be useful to refer to an older version when expanding the article."
Statistik proses kontrol
Cilé, resmina Républik Cilé (Basa Spanyol: ), nyaéta hiji nagara di Amérika Kidul nu nempatan widang basisir nu panjang jeung heureut nu dicepit ku pagunungan Andes jeung Samudra Pasifik
Pacific ngawates sakabéh wates béh kulon, Peru di béh kaler, Bolivia di wetan kaler, Argentina di béh wetan, tur Drake Passage dina tungtung pangkidulna nagara ieu
Cilé ngaku 1,250,000 km² wewengkon di Antartika
Dina kontéks telekomunikasi, terminal nyaéta hiji alat anu aya dina wangunan atawa imah atawa genggeman pamilikna anu bisa disambungkeun kana jaringan télékomunikasi sarta mampuh ngalakukeun komunikasi ngaliwatan jaringan télékomunikasi kasebut
Conto terminal nyaéta telepon, "mesin féksimail", katut alat-alat jaringan – saperti "printer", "work station", jeung "router" dina hiji jaringan pangirim sora dina jaringan Internét atawa VoIP
Loba komputer ngagunakeun program "aksés" "serial" pikeun ngalakukeun komunikasi jeung komputer liana ngaliwatan saluran telepon atawa kabel sérial, jadi mirupa (nga-émulasi) hiji terminal komputer
"HyperTerminal" mangrupa émulator terminal anu paling loba digunakeun
Mangsa Macintosh munggaran medal, hiji program anu disebut MacTerminal digunakeun pikeun ngalakukeun komunikasi jeung komputer liana, kaasup PC IBM
Terminal bisa boga harti: Dina indit-inditan jeung angkutan: Dina elektronika, télékomunikasi, jeung komputer: In sciences: In fiction: Terminal may also refer to:
Istilah standardisasi miboga sababaraha harti gumantung kana kontéksna
Kaguna umum kecap standar nunjukkeun yén standar mangrupa sakumpulan tungtunan pikeun "interoperabilitas" anu dimupakatan sacara universal
Sanajan kitu, "pluralitas" organisasi-organisasi anu ngaluarkeun standar boga harti yén hiji dokumén anu diaku salaku hiji "standar" henteu perlu meunangkeun dukungan ti réa pihak
Saperti ucapan Grace Hopper: "Daya tarik standar nyaéta réa pisan pilihan pikeun dipilih"
Dina kontéks téknologi jeung industri, standardisasi mangrupa prosés nyieun hiji "spésifikasi téknik", anu disebut standar, anu ngalibetkeun para pamangku kapentingan
Standardisasi ogé bisa dianggap salaku hiji mékanisme pikeun ngaoptimalkeun kaguna sumber-sumber daya nu langka (jarang) saperti leuweung anu kaancam ku pabrik keretas
Conto standardisasi: sakabéh nagara Éropah kiwari maké jaringan listrik arus bulak-balik (AC) 230 volt 50 Hz ogé telepon sélulér GSM, sarta (sahenteuna sacara resmi) ngagunakeun ukuran panjang dina méter
Inggris sacara resmi narima ukuran méter pikeun tujuan usaha tapi, sanajan kitu, hijian ukuran suku sarta inci masih ilahar digunakeun ku masarakat umum di éta nagara
Standard sifatna bisa de facto, nu hartina standar kasebut dilaksanakeun sacara sukaréla, atawa de jure, nu hartina standar digunakeun lantaran aya kontrak, dokumén atawa kawajiban anu ngiket sacara hukum
Badan-badan pamaréntahan mindeng ngawajibkeun standar anu dikaluarkeun ku organisasi-organisasi standar resmi
Standar-atandar anu diwajibkeun éta kudu ditedunan ku dunya usaha
Hiji standar bisa "open" atawa "proprietary"
Aya réa standar jeung rarancang standar anu lumaku di sakuliah dunya (contona, standardisasi pikeun kabel listrik) anu dimekarkeun sarta diropéa ku ISO, IEC, UPU atawa ITU
Aya ogé organisasi standar régional saperti CEN, CENELEC, ETSI, sarta IRMM di Éropah, Pan American Standards Commission (COPANT), Pacific Aréa Standards Congress (PASC), African Organization for Standardization (ARSO), Arab Industrial Development and Mining Organization (AIDMO), jeung sajabana
Organisasi-organisasi standar sub-régional ogé aya saperti MERCOSUR Standardization Association (AMN), CARICOM Regional Organisation for Standards and Quality (CROSQ), katut ASEAN Consultative Committee for Standards and Quality (ACCSQ)
Umumna, unggal nagara mibanda hiji organisasi standar nasional anu diaku
Contona di antarana ABNT, ANSI, BSI, DGN, DIN, IRAM, JISC, KATS, SABS, SAC, SCC, SIS, SNZ
Di Indonésia, organisasi standar nasional anu diaku nyaéta Badan Standardisasi Nasional (BSN)
Organisasi-organisasi standar nasional (OSN) kasebut kamungkinan mangrupa hiji-hijina wakil unggal nagara dina ISO
OSN sifatna bisa organisasi publik, organisasi swasta, atawa gabungan publik jeung swasta
Contona, SCC di Kanada, Dirección General de Normas, DGN di Méksiko katut American National Standards Institute (ANSI) di Amérika Sarikat
SCC mangrupa pausahaan swasta Kanada anu ngaranna Crown Corporation, DGN mangrupa agén pamaréntahan sahandapeun Kamantrian Ékonomi Méksiko, sedengkeun ANSI mangrupa hiji organisasi nirlaba 501(c)(3) kalawan anggota anu asalna ti séktor publik jeung séktor swasta
"Cutatan: saeutikna aya opat tingkatan (undakan) standardisasi, nyaéta: kompatibilitas, interchangeability (kamampuh silih tukeur), commonality (kailaharan) jeung rujukan."
Prosés standardisasi ieu nyiptakeun kompatibilitas, kasaruaan, jeung ukuran
Dina pangobatan hérbal, standardisasi nujul kana nyadiakeun bahan tuwuhan anu diprosés nu mana bahan-bahan panyusunna nedunan ukuran konsentrasi anu geus ditetepkeun
Dina élmu statistik, standardisasi nujul kana normalisasi atawa konvérsi ka "standard score"
Dina téori uji, standardisasi ngarujuk kana pangukuran atawa panaksiran anu dilakukeun dina kondisi pasti, husus sarta bisa diulang
Pasar Namdaémun nyaéta pasar gedé di Seoul, Korea Kidul
Namdaemun hartina "gapura kidul nu gedé", sabab pasar ieu deukeut jeung lawang gedé di kota heubeul
Lawang gapurana sorangan katelah Namdaemun, atawa Sungnyemun
Pasar Namdaemun mangrupa salah sahiji pasar pangkolotna nu dipaké kénéh di Koréa Kidul, sarta mangrupa pasar eceran panggedéna di Séoul
Pasa ieu nempatan sababaraha blok di kota Séoul, nu dihlangan keur lolobana lalu lintas kandaraan
Di Namdaemun, lolobana nu dagang aya di beulah luar, tapi aya ogé toko-toko di sapanjang jalan
Loba nu barangbeuli di dieu, biasana pakena, kalayan harga nu murah di Namdaemun, keur dijual deui di tokon sorangan di kota séjén
Namdaemun mangrupa salah sahiji daya tarik keur turis, sok sanajan ari lolobana nu barangbeuli mah tetep waé urang Koréana
(babar 15 September 973 di Kath, Khwarezm – pupus 13 Desember 1048 di Ghazni) salah saurang Persian (Tajik) Muslim polymath dina abad ka-11, nu naliti jeung pamanggihna méh sajajar jeung nuséjéna saperti Leonardo da Vinci jeung Galileo, lima ratus taun saméméh "Renaissance"; Biruni dipikawanoh salah saurang "Muslim", tapi teu kawas Muslim kontémporér (saperti Abulcasis, Alhacen, jeung Avicenna), ngaran Biruni teu pati dipikawanoh ku dunya
Biruni teu pati dipikawanoh ku dunya kulon "Western world"
Anjeunna saurang élmuwan Islam, anu mibanda kaahlian dina sagala widang élmu : anthropologi, astronomi, astrologi, kimia, énsklikopedi, sajarah, geographer, Geodesy, géologi, matématika, kadokteran, filsuf, Ash'ari teologi, panalungtik jeung guru, sarta "traveller" mibanda pangaruh anu gedé kana sakabéh widang tadi