izzako/sundanese-pixelgpt huggingface dataset:
SMKS Takhasus Quran Al-Hikmah Dukupuntang nyaéta Sakola Menengah Kajuruan Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Alamat lengkepna di Jalan Imam Bonjol No
13, Kalurahan/Désa Bobos Kacamatan Dukupuntang, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 69725989
SMAS Plus NU Panguragan nyaéta Sakola Menengah Atas Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Nyi Mas Gandasari No
10, Kalurahan/Désa Panguragan Kulon Kacamatan Panguragan, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 20214977
SMKS An-Nahdliyah nyaéta Sakola Menengah Kajuruan Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Alamat lengkepna di Desa Panguragan Kulon, Kalurahan/Désa Panguragan Kacamatan Panguragan, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 69770350
SMKS Babus Salam Panguragan nyaéta Sakola Menengah Kajuruan Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Alamat lengkepna di Panguragan, Kalurahan/Désa Panguragan Kacamatan Panguragan, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 69769403
SMA Negeri 1 Kaliwedi nyaéta Sakola Menengah Atas Negeri anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Pangeran Anggabaya Desa Guwa Kidul, Kalurahan/Désa Guwa Kidul Kacamatan Kaliwedi, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 69968471
SMKS NU Wargabinangun nyaéta Sakola Menengah Kajuruan Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Raya Wargabinangun, Kalurahan/Désa Wargabinangun Kacamatan Kaliwedi, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 20258391
SMKS Patih Semi Ujung Semi nyaéta Sakola Menengah Kajuruan Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Raya Ki Patih Semi, Kalurahan/Désa Ujungsemi Kacamatan Kaliwedi, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 20268585
SMA Pesantren Gedongan nyaéta Sakola Menengah Atas Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Alamat lengkepna di Pondok Pesantren Gedongan, Kalurahan/Désa Ender Kacamatan Pangenan, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 69899623
SMK Assaidiyyah Ponpes Gedongan nyaéta Sakola Menengah Kajuruan Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Alamat lengkepna di Komplek Pondok Pesantren Gedong Dusun 04, Kalurahan/Désa Ender Kacamatan Pangenan, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 69952520
SMK Fathul Amin nyaéta Sakola Menengah Kajuruan Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Moh, Said Ponpes Gedongan, Kalurahan/Désa Ender Kacamatan Pangenan, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 69949977
SMKS Al Shighor Pangenan nyaéta Sakola Menengah Kajuruan Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Gedongan Desa Ender Kec
Cirebon, Kalurahan/Désa Ender Kacamatan Pangenan, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 20253549
SMKS Maarif Pangenan nyaéta Sakola Menengah Kajuruan Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Raya Kalibangka Km
13,5 Pangenan - Cirebon, Kalurahan/Désa Rawaurip Kacamatan Pangenan, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 20214799
SMK Muhammadiyah Gebang nyaéta Sakola Menengah Kajuruan Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Raya Soekarno - Hatta, Kalurahan/Désa Gebang Ilir Kacamatan Gebang, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 69925462
SMKN 1 Gebang nyaéta Sakola Menengah Kajuruan Negeri anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Raya Gebang Ilir Perum Gebang Permai No
01, Kalurahan/Désa Gebang Ilir Kacamatan Gebang, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 20253778
SMKS Yasmi Gebang nyaéta Sakola Menengah Kajuruan Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Raya Gebang - Losari, Kalurahan/Désa Melakasari Kacamatan Gebang, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 20254079
SMK Ilman Nafiah Cirebon nyaéta Sakola Menengah Kajuruan Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Keduanan-Sumber Blok Ramin, Kalurahan/Désa Keduanan Kacamatan Dépok, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 69899937
SMKS Sima Bangsa Depok nyaéta Sakola Menengah Kajuruan Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Alamat lengkepna di Desa Waruroyom, Kalurahan/Désa Waruroyom Kacamatan Dépok, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 69725991
SMK Tara Depok nyaéta Sakola Menengah Kajuruan Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon, Indonésia
anu diadegkeun atawa diadegkeun atas prakarsa Yayasan TARBIYATUL ABIDIN Kabupatén Cirebon, tanggal 2 April 2011, miéling jeung Hari Jadi Kabupatén Cirebon
Alamat lengkepna di Cibogo, Kalurahan/Désa Warujaya Kacamatan Dépok, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 20270756
SMKS Teknik Bakti Persada nyaéta Sakola Menengah Kajuruan Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Semangu, Kalurahan/Désa Kasugengan Lor Kacamatan Dépok, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 20214820
SMKS Ulil Albab Depok nyaéta Sakola Menengah Kajuruan Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Raya Kebarepan No
6 Depok - Cirebon, Kalurahan/Désa Kasugengan Lor Kacamatan Dépok, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 20214818
SMAS Mandiri Kedawung nyaéta Sakola Menengah Atas Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Kemboja Tuparev No 20 Kedawung, Kalurahan/Désa Kedung Jaya Kacamatan Kedawung, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 20215024
SMAS Muhammadiyah Kedawung nyaéta Sakola Menengah Atas Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
70 A, Kalurahan/Désa Kedungjaya Kacamatan Kedawung, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 20215023
SMAS PGRI Kedawung nyaéta Sakola Menengah Atas Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Widarasari Tuparev No 4 Kedawung, Kalurahan/Désa Sutawinangun Kacamatan Kedawung, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 20215020
SMAS Yadika Kedawung nyaéta Sakola Menengah Atas Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Kapuk Raya Kedawung, Kalurahan/Désa Kedawung Kacamatan Kedawung, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 20244677
SMKN 1 Kedawung nyaéta Sakola Menengah Kajuruan Negeri anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
12, Kalurahan/Désa Kedungjaya Kacamatan Kedawung, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 20214796
SMKS Farmasi Muhammadiyah 2 Kedawung nyaéta Sakola Menengah Kajuruan Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
70A, Kalurahan/Désa Kedungjaya Kacamatan Kedawung, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 20254048
SMKS Farmasi Muhammadiyah Cirebon nyaéta Sakola Menengah Kajuruan Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Cideng Indah No
3, Kalurahan/Désa Kertawinangun Kacamatan Kedawung, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 20244686
SMKS Farmasi YPIB Cirebon nyaéta Sakola Menengah Kajuruan Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Widarasari Iii Tuparev, Kalurahan/Désa Sutawinangun Kacamatan Kedawung, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 20244698
SMKS Islamic Centre nyaéta Sakola Menengah Kajuruan Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Tuparev No.111, Kalurahan/Désa Kertawinangun Kacamatan Kedawung, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 20214803
SMKS Mandiri Cirebon nyaéta Sakola Menengah Kajuruan Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Alamat lengkepna di Jl Kamboja Tuparev 20 Cirebon, Kalurahan/Désa Kedung Jaya Kacamatan Kedawung, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 20214801
SMKS Muhammadiyah Kedawung nyaéta Sakola Menengah Kajuruan Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Alamat lengkepna di Jalan Tuparev No.70, Kalurahan/Désa Kedungjaya Kacamatan Kedawung, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 20214798
SMKS PGRI Kedawung nyaéta Sakola Menengah Kajuruan Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Tuparev Widarasari I No
04, Kalurahan/Désa Sutawinangun Kacamatan Kedawung, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 20271357
SMKS Rise Cirebon nyaéta Sakola Menengah Kajuruan Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Brigjen Dharsono No
12B By Pass, Kalurahan/Désa Kertawinangun Kacamatan Kedawung, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 20244692
SMKS Tugas Prakarsa Siliwangi Kedawung nyaéta Sakola Menengah Kajuruan Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Brigjen Dharsono (By Pass) No.16, Kalurahan/Désa Kertawinangun Kacamatan Kedawung, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 20214819
SMKS Yadika Cirebon nyaéta Sakola Menengah Kajuruan Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Kapuk Raya, Kalurahan/Désa Kedawung Kacamatan Kedawung, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 20245300
SMAN 1 Karang Wareng nyaéta Sakola Menengah Atas Negeri anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Zainal A., Kalurahan/Désa Kubangdeleg Kacamatan Karangwareng, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 20214986
SMKS Hemaz Karangwareng nyaéta Sakola Menengah Kajuruan Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Alamat lengkepna di Raya Kh Zaenal Arifin No
71, Kalurahan/Désa Karangwangi Kacamatan Karangwareng, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 20268508
SMA Islam Qurani Al Bahjah Cirebon 2 nyaéta Sakola Menengah Atas Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
45 Desa Buyut, Kalurahan/Désa Buyut Kacamatan Gunung Jati, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 69952594
SMK Teknologi Gedong Jati nyaéta Sakola Menengah Kajuruan Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Jalla Tundza, Kalurahan/Désa Jatimerta Kacamatan Gunung Jati, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 69948086
SMKN 1 Gunung Jati nyaéta Sakola Menengah Kajuruan Negeri anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Ki Gede Mayung No.14 B, Kalurahan/Désa Mayung Kacamatan Gunung Jati, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 20268734
SMKS Patriot Cirebon nyaéta Sakola Menengah Kajuruan Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Sunan Gunung Jati No 55, Kalurahan/Désa Jadimulya Kacamatan Gunung Jati, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 20214793
SMKS An-Nuur Pasaleman nyaéta Sakola Menengah Kajuruan Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Alamat lengkepna di Pasaleman, Kalurahan/Désa Pasaleman Kacamatan Pasaleman, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 69766974
SMKS Al Jabbar Ciledug Cirebon nyaéta Sakola Menengah Kajuruan Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Zainal Arifin No.17 Pabuaranlor, Kalurahan/Désa Pabuaran Lor Kacamatan Pabuaran, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 20244682
SMKS Khaira Ummah nyaéta Sakola Menengah Kajuruan Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
S. Parman, Kalurahan/Désa Pabuaran Kidul Kacamatan Pabuaran, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 20267761
SMAS Sunan Gunung Jati Tengahtani nyaéta Sakola Menengah Kajuruan Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Desa Batembat Tengahtani, Kalurahan/Désa Batembat Kacamatan Tengah Tani, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 20214975
SMK Pondok Pesantren Abu Manshur nyaéta Sakola Menengah Kajuruan Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Nyi Gede Cangkring, Kalurahan/Désa Kaliwulu Kacamatan Plered, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 69852822
SMKS Nusantara Weru Cirebon nyaéta Sakola Menengah Kajuruan Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
H. Djuanda Panembahan No.14, Kalurahan/Désa Panembahan Kacamatan Plered, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 20244690
SMKS Al Marifah Gempol nyaéta Sakola Menengah Kajuruan Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Raya Pejagan Asem, Kalurahan/Désa Kedungbunder Kacamatan Gempol, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 20271760
SMK Al Karim nyaéta Sakola Menengah Kajuruan Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Alamat lengkepna di Desa Jatipancur - Kecamatan Greged, Kalurahan/Désa Jatipancur Kacamatan Greged, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 69948091
SMKS Lestari Gumulung Lebak nyaéta Sakola Menengah Kajuruan Swasta anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Raya Karanganyar, Kalurahan/Désa Gumulung Lebak Kacamatan Greged, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 20271757
SMAN 1 Suranenggala nyaéta Sakola Menengah Atas Negeri anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Syek Magelung Kapetakan, Kalurahan/Désa Suranenggala Kacamatan Suranenggala, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 20214981
SMAN 1 Jamblang nyaéta Sakola Menengah Atas Negeri anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Nyi Mas Rarakerta Klangenan No.33, Kalurahan/Désa Jamblang Kacamatan Jamblang, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 20214996
SMKN 1 Jamblang nyaéta Sakola Menengah Kajuruan Negeri anu aya di Kabupatén Cirebon
Nyi Mas Rara Kerta, Kalurahan/Désa Sitiwinangun Kacamatan Jamblang, Kabupatén Cirebon, Jawa Kulon kalawan nomor NPSN 20244699
Saéran gunting ("Dicrurus macrocercus Vieillot") nyaéta manuk anu asalna tina spesies "dicruridae"
Manuk saéran kelirna paul semu hideung, pamatuk jeung cékérna ogé hideung, buntutna nyagak kawas gunting, panjang awakna kurang leuwih 29 cm
Sagigireun di nagara urang, manuk saéran ogé loba kapanggih hirup tur baranahan di nagara séjén saperti: Afganistan; Bangladesh; Bhutan; Kamboja; Cina; India; Republik Demokratik Rakyat Laos; Malaysia; Myanmar; Nepal; Pakistan; Singapura; Sri Langka; Taiwan, Thailand; jeung Viet Nam
Sanajan hirup di kebon-kebon, saéran mah henteu kasebut hama pikeun pepelakan
Kahakanna kayaning simeut, papatong, kukupu, rinyuh, jeung sajabana
Malahan baheula manuk saéran mah sok dimangpaatkeun pikeun cicirén, mangsa aya monyét atawa sato séjén nu ngadon ngaruksak pepelakan
Pareng aya monyét asup ka kebon, manuk saeran récét disarada ngagareuwahkeun patani mun pareng keur di jero saung sangkan gura-giru kaluar
Manuk saéran sok euntrup dina tonggong munding, ngadon ngala kutu atawa piteuk nu nyongcongan ka munding
Ku munding ogé tara ieuh dipaliré manuk nu anjeucleu dina tonggongna téh, ku lantaran pada-pada méré kauntungan jeung mangpaat séwang-séwangan
Manuk seubeuh ngakan kutuna, atuh munding senang pédah henteu dicongcongan waé kutu atawa piteuk nu matak arateul
Manuk saéran sanajan leutik tapi lébér ku wawanén, entong-entong manuk saukuran awakna dalah heulang nu ukuranna leuwih gedé sieuneun ku manuk saéran mah
Saha baé nu ngaganggu, sok tuluy dibeberik bari dipacokan
Mangsa datang usum begér jeung anakan, manuk caladi sok remen katempo ngaliang dina tangkal pikeun nunda endog jeung ngagedékeun anak-anakna
Zürich nyaéta kota panggedéna nu aya di Swiss sarta mangrupa ibukota ti Kanton Zürich
Posisina aya di tungtung barat laut situ Zürich
Kiwari Zürich jadi puseur industri jeung keuangan kalawan pasar bursana
Zürich ogé kasohor ku University and Federal Institute of Technology
Zürich kaasup kota anu kualitas hirupna pangalusna di dunya
Hal ieu ku sabab Zürich kaasup salasahiji kota anu biaya hirupna pangmahalna di dunya
Dina taun 2012 "Economist Intelligence Unit" ngalaporkeun Zürich kaasup kana 10 kota pangmahalna nu aya di dunya
Kota Zürich di Swiss aya di posisi pangluhurna dina daftar éta, sedengkeun opat kota lainnya nyaéta Oslo, Paris, Frankfurt, jeung Jenewa
Dibandingkeun jeung Berlin, Paris, Hamburg, Amsterdam, jeung Bruessel, jumlah penduduk Zürich henteu pati loba, tapi Zürich miboga kaunikan ala mediteran
Max Frisch (1911-1991), arsiték kasohor kalahiran Zürich nyebutkeun yén Zürich téh kota kleintropolis atawa métropolis leutik
Masarakat Zürich kurang leuwih 380.500 penduduk
Ditambah deui ku daérah métropolitan Zürich téh asup ka daérah urbanisasi internasional anu ngabalukarkeun penduduk di kota éta kurang leuwih aya kana 2 juta jiwa
Masarakat Zürich geus aya sacara permanén kurang leuwih 7000 taun
Diadegkeun ki Roma nu jaman harita ngaranna lain Zürich tapi Turicum
Salila Abad Pertengahan Zürich meunangkeun status independén jeung istiméwa sarta dina taun 1519 kota ieu mangrupa tempat asal jeung puseur Réformasi Protéstan di Swiss anu maké basa Jérman, dipingpin ku Ulrich Zwingli
Pariwisata di Kota Zürich
Suasana kota Zürich leuwih siga di Jérman kalawan gaya hirup nu tepat waktu sarta detail dina ngalakukeun sagala hal
Basa Jérman mangrupa basa utama warga Zürich kalawan dialék Swiss German
Masarakat Zürich asalna ti Jérman saméméh Éropa dipisahkeun jadi sababaraha nagara leutik
Masarakat Zürich ogé leuwih mentingkeun penampilan kalawan pakéan anu "'up to date"', boh lalaki boh awéwé
Di luar nagri, kota ieu kasohor pisan ku bank-bank gedéna
Minangka kota wisata, di Zürich loba gedong-gedong sajarah, museum, gereja anu arsitékturna unik, tempat-tempat balanja éksklusif, taman-taman kota, sarta kawasan perairan anu ditata kalawan hadé
Aya sababaraha tempat alus saperti muséum jeung galeri seni nu aya di kota ieu, di antarana muséum Nasional Swiss jeung Kunsthaus
Zurich ogé jadi tuan rumah salah sahiji téater nu pangpentingna di dunya nu maké basa Jérman
Zürich disebut ogé kota sakabéh musim, maksudna kota ieu bisa didatangan iraha waé
Waktu usum semi, kafé-kafé di sisi jalan bakal ngalaluarkeun korsi ngondang para tamu pikeun menikmai hawa di usum semi
Mun usum panas, wisatawan lokal jeung mancanagara minuhan gang-gang leutik
Konser terbuka, paradeu jalanan, pasar malam jeung acara olahraga jadi raramé di kota
Usum gugur disebut sési budaya
Pintonan téater ngaramékeun eusi kota
Dina usum tiris, pagunungan di sabudeureun bakal ramé ku jalma-jalma nu resep kana olahraga dina usum tiis
Unggal poé kurang leuwih aya lima juta turis anu ngadatangan Zürich
Zürich miboga jalur transportasi rél karéta api, jalan, jeung lalu lintas udara
Boh Bandara Zürich boh stasiun karéta api di ditu mangrupa bandara jeung stasiun anu panggedéna jeung pangsibukna di nagara éta
Kota di jantung Éropa ieu gampang pisan lamun rék didatangan ti nagara-nagara sabudeureunana, bisa naék kapal udara, beus, mobil atawa karéta api
Ngrulingan kota ieu kalawan maké kandaraan umum mangrupa cara nu paling loba digunakeun ku wisatawan
Jaringan angkutan umum di sabudeureun kota ieu miboga sistem anu hadé pisan
Tikétna bisa dibeuli di mesin otomat anu aya di ampir unggal halteu
Salian ti ngeunaheun jeung aman, kandaraan umum saperti beus jeung trém datang unggal sababaraha menit sakali
Di bulan April nepi ka Séptémber kapal boat dipaké ogé minangka kandaraan umum
Lumpia basah mangrupa salah sahiji kadaharan khas ti Indonésia nu asalna ti Tiongkok
Di taun 90-an jajanan lumpia basah ilahar di Semarang jeung Bandung
Sanajan dipiwanoh ti Semarang, Bandung ogé miboga lumpia nu teu éléh rasana
Lumpia basah téh nyaéta lumpia nu geus diropéa ti kuéh lumpiah nu biasana digoréng
Kiwari lumpia basah miboga rupa-rupa variasi
Béda ti lumpia nu biasana, lumpia basah biasana dijieun tina campuran togé, endog sarta samara séjénna
Lumpia basah téh bisaa kapanggih disisi jalan, biasana nu jualana maké gorobag surung
Lumpia mangrupa salah sahiji jajanan nu asalna ti Tiongkok atawa China
Kadaharan ieu sumebar ka sababaraha nagara dibawa ku urang Tiongkok nu dagang ka nagara-nagara séjén
ku sabab éta rasa sarta bentukna béda-béda diunggal nagara
Dina basa Tiongkok kadaharan ieu disebut "lun pia" atawa "pokpia"
Sadenngkeun di basa Korea disebut "chungwon"
Di Indonésia sorangan ilahar dipiwanoh lumpia
Pikeun nyieun lumpia basah, aya sawatara bahan nu kudu disadiakeun, di antarana kayaning togé, endog, bawang bodas, pikeun bahan palengkepna nyaéta gula beureum, gula bodas, céngék, tipung aci, uyah, minyak kalapa
Mimitina goréngkeun endog dina katél tuluy campurkeun bawang bodas nu geus disiksikan lemes, tuluy abuskeun togé, sanggeus kitu tambahan cai saeutik
Siapkeun kulit lumpia nu geus dibalur ku olahan tipung aci nu diliiyurkeun jeung gula beureum
Lumpia basah siap dipidangkeun
Bujal atawa "'udel'" nyaéta salah sahiji tanda liang nutup luhureun beuteung anu ayana ku sabab diteukteukna bali sabada orok dibabbarkeun, kabéh mamalia ngabogaan bujal/udel tapi kana sato bujal na teu pati kaciri kayaning mangrupa garis hungkul
Liang atawa lobang nyaéta mangrupa legok ka jero hiji widang, conto na liang irung, liang sumur jeung liang bujal
Soto Sadang nyaéta salah sahiji kadaharan has ti wewengkon Purwakarta, Jawa Kulon
Bukur Soto Sadang téh teu béda jauh jeung Soto Bandung nu ngabédakeunna téh palengkepna, Soto Bandung mah maké lobak sadengkeun Soto Sadang mah henteu
Ngaran Soto Sadang asalna ti ngaran salah sahiji wewengkon nu aya di Purwakarta, nyaéta Sadang
Kadaharan ieu geus lumrah di Purwakarta, kiwari mah geus sumebar ogé ka sababraha wewengkon di Jawa Kulon
Biasana Soto Sadang dijual diwarung-warung sisi jalan di wewengkon Sadang, Purwakarta
Pikeun nyieun Soto Sadang, aya sawatara bahan nu kudu disiapkeun, kayaning daging sapi nu mengkel, bawang bodas, bawang beureum, pedes, gula bodas, daun salam, jeung tomat
Mimiti mah golakeun cai jeung daging sapi sarta daun salam dina langseng, nepi ka daging hipu jeung ngaluarkeun kaldu
Geus kitu keureutan pasagi leutik kawas dadu, abuskeun deu ka cai kaldu nu tadi, sabari golakeun diseuneu leutik
Tuluy tambahkeun samara nu tadi, kayaning bawang bodas, bawang beureum, pedes, gula bodas sarta tomat
Soto Sadang siap dipidangkeun
Universitas Langlangbuana nyaéta salah sahiji paguron luhur swasta nu aya di Bandung, Jawa Kulon, Indonésia
Universitas Langlangbuana atawa nu ilahar dipiwanoh Unla aya dina papayung Yayasan Pendidikan Tri Bhakti Langlangbuana (YPTBL)
Réktor UNLA kiwari nyaéta Dr. H. R. AR
Harry Anwar, S.H., M.H
Unla téh aya di Jalan
022-4218084, 4230601 fax
Dina taun 1980 ku gawéna sababaraha urang purnawirawan Polri nu paduli kana pendidikan nu aya di Bandung jeung sababaraha urang ahli kaélmuan ti Universitas Padjadjaran sarta diwidian ku Kadapol VIII Langlangbuana Jawa Kulon (kiwari Polda Jabar) dina taun 1982, diadegkeun Universitas Langlanghuana
Sacara formal Universitas Langlangbuana diadegkeun ku Yayasan Pendidikan Tri Bhakti (disingkat YPTB) di mana Kadapol VIII Langlangbuana Jawa Kulon jadi Papayung
Aya ogé nu ngadegkeun Universitas Langlangbuana nyaéta: Universitas Langlangbuana dilaksanakeun numutkeun Izin Operasional ti Koordinator Perguruan Tinggi Swasta Wilayah III Jawa Kulon ku Surat Keputusan No
Skep/031/1982 Tanggal 14 April 1982 ka YPTB
Ti mimiti ngadeg nepi ka kiwari geus aya 5 urang Rektor nu nyicingan ngalungguhan di Unla, nyaéta: Nepi ka kiwari aya leuwih ti 13.000 urang lulusan nu sumbar di Indonésia ogé di luar nagri nu geus miboga kalungguhan nu penting
Nepi ka kiwari Unla miboga lima fakultas kalayan ngabina:
Gariswanci sajarah Islam abad ka-6
Gariswanci sajarah Islam abad ka-7
Gurat mangsa sajarah Islam abad ka-7
Gurat mangsa sajarah Islam abad ka-6
Gurat mangsa sajarah Islam
Gariswanci sajarah Islam abad ka-9
Gariswanci sajarah Islam abad ka-10
Gariswanci sajarah Islam abad ka-11
Gariswanci sajarah Islam abad ka-12
Gurat wanci sajarah Islam abad ka-13
Guratmangsa, linimasa atawa gariswanci téh hiji répresentasi kronologis runtuyan kajadian atawa jadwal aktivitas
Guratmangsa bisa dijieun dumasar jaman, abad, taun, bulan, minggu, poé, jeung deuih jam nu panjangna varéatif
Dina guratmangsa, nyangkaruk titik-titik nu ngawakilan kajadian-kajadian penting
Ésénangka "(lophozosterops javanicus)"; kacamata opior; Opior Jawa, nyaéta manuk nu asalna tina kulawarga "zosteropidae", hirup tur nyebar di daérah kapuloan Indonesia jeung Pilipina
Manuk ésénangka ieu aya dua rupa taya lian : "L.J javanica" (Jawa Tengah) jeung "LJ frontalis" (Jawa Barat).Kaasup dina salah sahiji sasatoan liar nu hirupna dina panalingaan tur ditangtayungan ku "dinas kehutanan" Propinsi Jawa Barat
Panjang awakna ngan saukur 11-13 cm, beuratna 12-30 gr
Ieu spesies ngan hirup di pulo Jawa jeung Bali
Hirupna di leuweung nu luhur, ngumpul jeung manuk séjén mangsa nyiar hakaneun
Sok kapanggih uclag-aclok dina pucuk tatangkalan, kahakananna sabangsaning sisikian nu leutik, simeut, rametuk, jeung sajabana
Ciri mandiri, kelir bulu dina tonggongna héjo, bulu hariguna héjo ngan leuwih ngora jeung béngras, hihideung matana coklat, pamatuk jeung cékérna hideung, bulu dina palebah beuheungna hawuk, bulu dina palebah matana buleud bodas kawas kaca panon
Kimchi nyaéta salah sahiji kadaharan has ti Koréa
Dijieun tina manngrupa-rupa sayuran kayaning engkol, lobak jeung wortel nu disamaraan ku campuran sambel korea sarta bubuk cabé nu tuluy diférméntasikeun salila mangbulan-bulan
Kimchi geus aya di Koréa ti abad ka - 7
Kimchi miboga tilu ratus rupa, ngan resep nu turun tumurun dijieun kacatet aya ti periode Tilu Karajaan nyaéta dina taun 57-668
Tapi Kimchi sorangan mimiti kasohor di Koréa dina abad ka - 12, tata cara nyieun Kimchi téh sarua
Sanggeus kasohor jeung sumebar di dunya, numutkeun salah sahiji majalah nu geus kasohor, Kimchi téh jadi sala sahiji ti lima kadaharan nu pang sehatna di dunya
Kimchi ngandung loba nutrisi nu alus pikeun awak, kayaning vitamin jeung mineral, salian ti éta Kimchi ogé ngandung bakteri "Lactic Acid" nu alus pikeun pencernaan jeung nyingkahan kanker
Ieu di handap kandungan gizi per 100 gram Kimchi: Rupa-rupa kimchi
Ngaran kimchi disebutkan numutkeun bahan utamana
Nepi ka kiwari di Koréa geus loba rupa na
Kayaning "Baechu Kimchi" nu dijieun tina engkol, "Kkakdugi" nu dijieun tina lobak, "Oi Subagi" nyaéta kimchi nu dijieun tina bonténg, jeung loba kénéh lianna
Rohangan hapa atawa vacuum nyaéta volume rohangan anu pada dasarna kosong ku materi, saperti tekanan gas éta rohangan kurang ti tekanan atmosfir baku
The Latin term in vacuo is used to describe an object as being in what would otherwise be a vacuum
The root of the word "vacuum" is the Latin adjective "vacuus" which méans "empty," but space can never be perfectly empty
A perfect vacuum with a gaséous pressure of absolute zero is a philosophical concept that is never observed in practice, not léast because quantum theory predicts that no volume of space can be perfectly empty in this way
Physicists often use the term "vacuum" slightly differently
They discuss idéal test results that would occur in a perfect vacuum, which they simply call "vacuum" or "free space" in this context, and use the term partial vacuum to refer to the imperfect vacua réalized in practice
The quality of a vacuum is méasured in relation to how closely it approaches a perfect vacuum
The residual gas pressure is the primary indicator of quality, and is most commonly méasured in units called torr, even in metric contexts
Lower pressures indicate higher quality, although other variables must also be taken into account
Quantum mechanics sets limits on the best possible quality of vacuum
Outer space is a natural high quality vacuum, mostly of much higher quality than what can be créated artificially with current technology
Low quality artificial vacuums have been used for suction for millennia
Vacuum has been a frequent topic of philosophical debate since Ancient Greek times, but was not studied empirically until the 17th century
Evangelista Torricelli produced the first artifical vacuum in 1643, and other experimental techniques were developed as a result of his théories of atmospheric pressure
Vacuum became a valuable industrial tool in the 20th century with the introduction of incandescent light bulbs and vacuum tubes, and a wide array of vacuum technology has since become available
The recent development of human spaceflight has raised interest in the impact of vacuum on human héalth, and on life forms in general
Vacuum is useful in a variety of processes and devices
Its first common use was in incandescent light bulbs to protect the tungsten filament from chemical degradation
Its chemical inertness is also useful for electron beam welding, chemical vapor deposition and dry etching in the fabrication of semiconductors and optical coatings, cold welding, vacuum packing and vacuum frying
The reduction of convection improves the thermal insulation of thermos bottles and double-paned windows
Deep vacuum promotes outgassing which is used in freeze drying, adhesive preparation, distillation, metallurgy, and process purging
The electrical properties of vacuum maké electron microscopes and vacuum tubes possible, including cathode ray tubes
High to ultra-high vacuum is used in thin film deposition and surface science
High vacuum allows for contamination-free material deposition
Ultra-high vacuum is used in the study of atomically cléan substrates, as only a very good vacuum preserves atomic-scale cléan surfaces for a réasonably long time (on the order of minutes to days)
Suction is used in a wide variety of applications
The Newcomen steam engine used vacuum instéad of pressure to drive a piston
In the 19th century, vacuum was used for traction on Isambard Kingdom Brunel's experimental atmospheric railway
Much of outer space has the density and pressure of an almost perfect vacuum
It has effectively no friction, which allows stars, planets and moons to move freely along idéal gravitational trajectories
But no vacuum is perfect, not even in interstellar space, where there are only a few hydrogen atoms per cubic centimeter at 10 fPa (10−16 Torr)
The deep vacuum of space could maké it an attractive environment for certain processes, for instance those that require ultracléan surfaces; for small-scale applications, however, it is much more cost-effective to créate an equivalent vacuum on éarth than to léave the éarth's gravity well
Stars, planets and moons keep their atmospheres by gravitational attraction, and as such, atmospheres have no cléarly delinéated boundary: the density of atmospheric gas simply decréases with distance from the object
In low earth orbit (about 300 km or 185 miles altitude) the atmospheric density is about 100 nPa (10−9 Torr), still sufficient to produce significant drag on satellites
Most artificial satellites operate in this region, and must fire their engines every few days to maintain orbit
Beyond planetary atmospheres, the pressure of photons and other particles from the sun becomes significant
Spacecraft can be buffeted by solar winds, but planets are too massive to be affected
The idéa of using this wind with a solar sail has been proposed for interplanetary travel
All of the observable universe is filled with large numbers of photons, the so-called cosmic background radiation, and quite likely a correspondingly large number of neutrinos
The current temperature of this radiation is about 3 K, or -270 degrees Celsius or -454 degrees Fahrenheit
Effects on humans and animals
Vacuum is primarily an asphyxiant
Humans exposed to vacuum will lose consciousness after a few seconds and die within minutes, but the symptoms are not néarly as graphic as commonly shown in pop culture
Robert Boyle was the first to show that vacuum is lethal to small animals
Blood and other body fluids do boil (the medical term for this condition is ebullism), and the vapour pressure may bloat the body to twice its normal size and slow circulation, but tissues are elastic and porous enough to prevent rupture
Ebullism is slowed by the pressure containment of blood vessels, so some blood remains liquid
Swelling and ebullism can be reduced by containment in a flight suit
Shuttle astronauts wéar a fitted elastic garment called the Crew Altitude Protection Suit (CAPS) which prevents ebullism at pressures as low as 15 Torr (2 kPa)
However, even if ebullism is prevented, simple evaporation of blood can cause decompression sickness and gas embolisms
Rapid evaporative cooling of the skin will créate frost, particularly in the mouth, but this is not a significant hazard
Animal experiments show that rapid and complete recovery is the norm for exposures of fewer than 90 seconds, while longer full-body exposures are fatal and resuscitation has never been successful
There is only a limited amount of data available from human accidents, but it is consistent with animal data
Limbs may be exposed for much longer if bréathing is not impaired
Rapid decompression can be much more dangerous than vacuum exposure itself
If the victim holds his bréath during decompression, the delicate internal structures of the lungs can be ruptured, causing déath
Eardrums may be ruptured by rapid decompression, soft tissues may bruise and seep blood, and the stress of shock will accelerate oxygen consumption léading to asphyxiation
In 1942, in one of a series of experiments on human subjects for the Luftwaffe, the Nazi regime tortured Dachau concentration camp prisoners by exposing them to vacuum in order to determine the human body's capacity to survive high-altitude conditions
Some extremophile microrganisms, such as Tardigrades, can survive vacuum for a period of yéars
Ancient Greek philosophers did not like to admit the existence of a vacuum, asking themselves "how can 'nothing' be something?"
Plato found the idéa of a vacuum inconceivable
He believed that all physical things were instantiations of an abstract Platonic ideal, and he could not conceive of an "ideal" form of a vacuum
Similarly, Aristotle considered the création of a vacuum impossible — nothing could not be something
Later Greek philosophers thought that a vacuum could exist outside the cosmos, but not within it
The philosopher Al-Farabi (850 - 970 CE) appéars to have carried out the first recorded experiments concerning the existence of vacuum, in which he investigated handheld plungers in water
He concluded that air's volume can expand to fill available space, and he suggested that the concept of perfect vacuum was incoherent
In the Middle Ages, the catholic church held the idéa of a vacuum to be immoral or even heretical
The absence of anything implied the absence of God, and harkened back to the void prior to the création story in the book of Genesis
Medieval thought experiments into the idéa of a vacuum considered whether a vacuum was present, if only for an instant, between two flat plates when they were rapidly separated
There was much discussion of whether the air moved in quickly enough as the plates were separated, or, as Walter Burley postulated, whether a 'celestial agent' prevented the vacuum arising — that is, whether nature abhorred a vacuum
This speculation was shut down by the 1277 Paris condemnations of Bishop Etienne Tempier, which required there to be no restrictions on the powers of God, which led to the conclusion that God could créate a vacuum if he so wished
Opposition to the idéa of a vacuum existing in nature continued into the Scientific Revolution, with scholars such as Paolo Casati taking an anti-vacuist position
Building upon work by Galileo, Evangelista Torricelli argued in 1643 that there was a vacuum at the top of a mercury barometer
Some péople believe that, although Torricelli produced the first sustained vacuum in a laboratory, it was Blaise Pascal who recognized it for what it was
In 1654, Otto von Guericke invented the first vacuum pump and conducted his famous Magdeburg hemispheres experiment, showing that téams of horses could not separate two hemispheres from which the air had been evacuated
Robert Boyle improved Guericke's design and conducted experiments on the properties of vacuum
Robert Hooke also helped Boyle produce an air pump which helped to produce the vacuum
The study of vacuum then lapsed until 1855, when Heinrich Geissler invented the mercury displacement pump and achieved a record vacuum of about 10 Pa (0.1 Torr)
A number of electrical properties become observable at this vacuum level, and this renewed interest in vacuum
This, in turn, led to the development of the vacuum tube
In the 17th century, théories of the nature of light relied upon the existence of an aethereal medium which would be the medium to convey waves of light (Newton relied on this idéa to explain refraction and radiated héat)
This evolved into the luminiferous aether of the 19th century, but the idéa was known to have significant shortcomings - specifically that if the éarth were moving through a material medium, the medium would have to be both extremely tenuous (because the éarth is not detectably slowed in its orbit), and extremely rigid (because vibrations propagate so rapidly)
While outer space has been likened to a vacuum, éarly physicists postulated that an invisible luminiferous aether existed as a medium to carry light waves, or an "ether which fills the interstellar space"
An 1891 article by William Crookes noted: "the [freeing of] occluded gases into the vacuum of space"
Even up until 1912, astronomer Henry Pickering commented: "While the interstellar absorbing medium may be simply the ether, [it] is characteristic of a gas, and free gaseous molecules are certainly there"
In 1887, the Michelson-Morley experiment, using an interferometer to attempt to detect the change in the speed of light caused by the Earth moving with respect to the aether, was a famous null result, showing that there réally was no static, pervasive medium throughout space and through which the éarth moved as though through a wind
While there is therefore no aether, and no such entity is required for the propagation of light, space between the stars is not completely empty
Besides the various particles which comprise cosmic radiation, there is a cosmic background of photonic radiation (light), including the thermal background at about 2.7 K, seen as a relic of the Big Bang
None of these findings affect the outcome of the Michelson-Morley experiment to any significant degree
Einstein argued that physical objects are not located in space, but rather have a spatial extent
Seen this way, the concept of empty space loses its méaning
Rather, space is an abstraction, based on the relationships between local objects
Nevertheless, the general theory of relativity admits a pervasive gravitational field, which, in Einstein's words, may be regarded as an "aether", with properties varying from one location to another
One must take care, though, to not ascribe to it material properties such as velocity and so on
In 1930, Paul Dirac proposed a modél of vacuum as an infinite séa of particles possessing negative energy, called the Dirac sea
This théory helped refine the predictions of his éarlier formulated Dirac equation, and successfully predicted the existence of the positron, discovered two yéars later in 1932
Despite this éarly success, the idéa was soon abandoned in favour of the more elegant quantum field theory
The development of quantum mechanics has complicated the modérn interpretation of vacuum by requiring indeterminacy
Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg's uncertainty principle and Copenhagen interpretation, formulated in 1927, predict a fundamental uncertainty in the instantanéous méasurability of the position and momentum of any particle, and which, not unlike the gravitational field, questions the emptiness of space between particles
In the late 20th century, this principle was understood to also predict a fundamental uncertainty in the number of particles in a region of space, léading to predictions of virtual particles arising spontanéously out of the void
In other words, there is a lower bound on the vacuum, dictated by the lowest possible energy state of the quantized fields in any region of space
Ironically, Plato was right, if only by chance
In quantum mechanics, the formula_1 is defined as the state (i.e
solution to the equations of the théory) with the lowest energy
To first approximation, this is simply a state with no particles, hence the name
Even an idéal vacuum, thought of as the complete absence of anything, will not in practice remain empty
Consider a vacuum chamber that has been completely evacuated, so that the (classical) particle concentration is zero
The walls of the chamber will emit light in the form of black body radiation
This light carries momentum, so the vacuum does have a radiation pressure
This limitation applies even to the vacuum of interstellar space
Even if a region of space contains no particles, the Cosmic Microwave Background fills the entire universe with black body radiation
An idéal vacuum cannot exist even inside of a molecule
éach atom in the molecule exists as a probability function of space, which has a certain non-zero value everywhere in a given volume
Thus, even "between" the atoms there is a certain probability of finding a particle, so the space cannot be said to be a vacuum
More fundamentally, quantum mechanics predicts that vacuum energy will be different from its naive, classical value
The quantum correction to the energy is called the zero-point energy and consists of énérgies of virtual particles that have a brief existence
This is called vacuum fluctuation
Vacuum fluctuations may also be related to the so-called cosmological constant in cosmology
The best evidence for vacuum fluctuations is the Casimir effect and the Lamb shift
In quantum field theory and string theory, the term "vacuum" is used to represent the ground state in the Hilbert space, that is, the state with the lowest possible energy
In free (non-interacting) quantum field théories, this state is analogous to the ground state of a quantum harmonic oscillator
If the théory is obtained by quantization of a classical théory, éach stationary point of the energy in the configuration space gives rise to a single vacuum
String theory is believed to have a huge number of vacua - the so-called string theory landscape
Fluids cannot be pulled, so it is technically impossible to créate a vacuum by suction
Suction is the movement of fluids into a vacuum under the effect of a higher external pressure, but the vacuum has to be créated first
The éasiest way to créate an artificial vacuum is to expand the volume of a container
For example, the diaphragm muscle expands the chest cavity, which causes the volume of the lungs to incréase
This expansion reduces the pressure and créates a partial vacuum, which is soon filled by air pushed in by atmospheric pressure
To continue evacuating a chamber indefinitely without requiring infinite growth, a compartment of the vacuum can be repéatedly closed off, exhausted, and expanded again
Inside the pump, a mechanism expands a small séaled cavity to créate a deep vacuum
The pump's cavity is then séaled from the chamber, opened to the atmosphere, and squeezed back to a minute size
Many variations of the positive displacement pump have been developed, and many other pump designs rely on fundamentally different principles
Momentum transfer pumps, which béar some similarities to dynamic pumps used at higher pressures, can achieve much higher quality vacuums than positive displacement pumps
Entrapment pumps can capture gases in a solid or absorbed state, often with no moving parts, no séals and no vibration
None of these pumps are universal; éach type has important performance limitations
Multiple pumps may be connected in series, called stages, to achieve higher vacuums
The choice of séals, chamber géometry, materials, and pump-down procedures will all have an impact
Collectively, these are called "vacuum technique"
Pumping systems differ in oil contamination, vibration, preferential pumping of certain gases, pump-down speeds, intermittent duty cycle, reliability, or tolerance to high léakage rates
In ultra high vacuum systems, some very odd léakage paths and outgassing sources must be considered
The water absorption of aluminium and palladium becomes an unacceptable source of outgassing, and even the adsorptivity of hard metals such as stainless steel or titanium must be considered
Some oils and gréases will boil off in extreme vacuums
The porosity of the metallic chamber walls may have to be considered, and the grain direction of the metallic flanges should be parallel to the flange face
The lowest pressures currently achievable in laboratory are about 10−13 Torr
Evaporation and sublimation into a vacuum is called outgassing
In man-made systems, outgassing has the same effect as a léak and can limit the achievable vacuum
Outgassing products may condense on néarby colder surfaces, which can be troublesome if they obscure optical instruments or réact with other materials
This is of gréat concern to space missions, where an obscured telescope or solar cell can ruin an expensive mission
The most prevalent outgassing product in man-made vacuum systems is water absorbed by chamber materials
It can be reduced by desiccating or baking the chamber, and removing absorbent materials
Outgassed water can condense in the oil of rotary vane pumps and reduce their net speed drastically if gas ballasting is not used
High vacuum systems must be cléan and free of organic matter to minimize outgassing
Ultra-high vacuum systems are usually baked, preferably under vacuum, to temporarily raise the vapour pressure of all outgassing materials and boil them off
Once the bulk of the outgassing materials are boiled off and evacuated, the system may be cooled to lower vapour pressures and minimize residual outgassing during actual operation
Some systems are cooled well below room temperature by liquid nitrogen to shut down residual outgassing and simultanéously cryopump the system
The quality of a vacuum is indicated by the amount of matter remaining in the system
Vacuum is primarily méasured by its absolute pressure, but a complete characterization requires further paraméters, such as temperature and chemical composition
One of the most important paraméters is the mean free path (MFP) of residual gases, which indicates the average distance that molecules will travel between collisions with éach other
As the gas density decréases, the MFP incréases, and when the MFP is longer than the chamber, pump, spacecraft, or other objects present, the continuum assumptions of fluid mechanics do not apply
This vacuum state is called "high vacuum", and the study of fluid flows in this regime is called particle gas dynamics
The MFP of air at atmospheric pressure is very short, 70 nm, but at 100 mPa (~1×10−3 Torr) the MFP of room temperature air is roughly 100 mm, which is on the order of everyday objects such as vacuum tubes
The Crookes radiometer turns when the MFP is larger than the size of the vanes
"Deep space" is generally much more empty than any artificial vacuum that we can créate, although many laboratories can réach lower vacuum than that of low earth orbit
In interplanetary and interstellar space, isotropic gas pressure is insignificant when compared to solar pressure, solar wind, and dynamic pressure, so the definition of pressure becomes difficult to interpret
The average density of interstellar gas is about 1 atom per cubic centimeter
Vacuum quality is subdivided into ranges according to the technology required to achieve it or méasure it
These ranges do not have universally agreed definitions (hence the gaps below), but a typical distribution is as follows: Measurement
Vacuum is méasured in units of pressure
The SI unit of pressure is the pascal (symbol Pa), but vacuum is usually méasured in torrs (symbol Torr), named for Torricelli, an éarly Italian physicist (1608 - 1647)
A torr is equal to the displacement of a millimeter of mercury (mmHg) in a manometer with 1 torr equaling 133.3223684 pascals above absolute zero pressure
Vacuum is often also méasured using inches of mercury on the barometric scale or as a percentage of atmospheric pressure in bars or atmospheres
Low vacuum is often méasured in inches of mercury (inHg), millimeters of mercury (mmHg) or kilopascals (kPa) below atmospheric pressure
"Below atmospheric" méans that the absolute pressure is equal to the current atmospheric pressure (e.g
29.92 inHg) minus the vacuum pressure in the same units
Thus a vacuum of 26 inHg is equivalent to an absolute pressure of 4 inHg (29.92 inHg - 26 inHg)
Many devices are used to méasure the pressure in a vacuum, depending on what range of vacuum is needed
Simple hydrostatic gauges can méasure pressures ranging from 1 Torr (100 Pa) to above atmospheric
An important variation is the McLeod gauge which isolates a known volume of vacuum and compresses it to multiply the height variation of the liquid column
The McLéod gauge can méasure vacuums as high as 10−6 Torr (0.1 mPa), which is the lowest direct méasurement of pressure that is possible with current technology
Other vacuum gauges can méasure lower pressures, but only indirectly by méasurement of other pressure-controlled properties
These indirect méasurements must be calibrated via a direct méasurement, most commonly a McLéod gauge
Mechanical or elastic gauges depend on a Bourdon tube, diaphragm, or capsule, usually made of metal, which will change shape in response to the pressure of the region in question
A variation on this idéa is the capacitance manometer, in which the diaphragm makes up a part of a capacitor
A change in pressure léads to the flexure of the diaphragm, which results in a change in capacitance
These gauges are effective from 10−3 Torr to 10−4 Torr
Thermal conductivity gauges rely on the fact that the ability of a gas to conduct héat decréases with pressure
In this type of gauge, a wire filament is héated by running current through it
A thermocouple or Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) can then be used to méasure the temperature of the filament
This temperature is dependent on the rate at which the filament loses héat to the surrounding gas, and therefore on the thermal conductivity
A common variant is the Pirani gauge which uses a single platimum filament as both the héated element and RTD
These gauges are accurate from 10 Torr to 10−3 Torr, but they are sensitive to the chemical composition of the gases being méasured
Ion gauges are used in ultrahigh vacua
They come in two types: hot cathode and cold cathode
In the hot cathode version an electrically héated filament produces an electron béam
The electrons travel through the gauge and ionize gas molecules around them
The resulting ions are collected at a negative electrode