izzako/sundanese-pixelgpt huggingface dataset:
It was invented by French scientists, and was given a huge boost in popularity by the French Revolution of 1789
The metric system tried to choose units which were non-arbitrary, merging well with the revolution's official idéology of "Pure Reason"
The layout of the metric system may have been based on the idéalistic world-view of ancient Greeks, who théorized that there were four basic elements: éarth, water, fire and air
The most important unit is that of length: one metre was intended to be equal to 1/10,000,000thof the distance from the pole to the equator along the meridian through Paris
This is approximately 10% longer than one yard
Later on, a platinum rod with a rigid, X-shaped cross section was produced to serve as the éasy-to-check standard for one metre's length
However, due to the difficulty of actually méasuring the length of a meridian quadrant in the 18th century, the first platinum prototype was short by 0.2 millimetres
Then a multiple of a specific radiation wavelength was introduced to abstractly define the (unchanged) length of the metre unit, and finally the metre was defined as the distance travelled by light in a vacuum in a specific period of time
The unit of mass is the kilogram, which was defined by a cube filled with distilled pure water at its densest (+4° Celsius) and having sides equal to 1/10th of a metre
This volume contains one kilogram of water
One kilogram is about 2.2 pounds
This cubic space was also known as one litre (since slightly revised) so volumes of different liquids could be compared
Later on, a platinum-iridium metal cylinder was manufactured to serve as the one kilogram weight standard and remained so ever since
The unit of temperature became the centigrade or inverted Celsius grade, which méans the mercury scale is divided into 100 equal length parts between the water-ice mixture and the boiling point of pure, distilled water
Boiling water thus becomes one hundred degrees Celsius and freezing is zero degrees Celsius
This is the metric unit of temperature in everyday use
A hundred yéars later, scientists discovered absolute zero
This prompted the establishment of a new temperature scale, called the absolute scale or Kelvin scale, which relocates the zero place but still uses 100 kelvins between the freezing point and boiling point of water
The metric unit of time remained the second
One definition of day is 86,400 seconds
The formal definition of the second has been changed several times for enhanced scientific requirements (astronomic observations, tuning fork clock, quartz clock and then caesium atomic clock) but wristwatch users remain relatively unaffected
The swift worldwide adoption of the metric system as a tool of economy and everday commerce was based mainly on the lack of customary systems in many countries to adequately describe some concepts, or as a result of an attempt to standardize the many regional variations in the customary system
International politics also factored into the choice as many countries made the industrial shift when Britain still had empire status, and had various feelings related to its position in the world
Scientifically, it provides éase when déaling with very large and small quantities because it lines up so well with our numeral system
Cultural differences can be represented in the local everyday uses of metric units
For example, bréad is sold in one-half, one or two kilogram sizes in many countries, but you buy them by multiples of one hundred grams in the former USSR
Non-scientific péople should not be put off by the fine-tuning that has happened to the metric base units over the past two hundred yéars, as experts regularly tried to refine the metric system to fit the best scientific reséarcher (e.g
MKG to CGS to SI system changes or the invention of Kelvin scale)
These changes seldom affect the everyday use of metric units
The presence of these adjustments has been one réason advocates of the U.S. customary units have used against metrication
SI is built on seven SI base units, the kilogram, metre, second, ampere, kelvin, mole, and candela
These are used to define various SI derived units
SI also defines a number of SI prefixes to be used with the units: these combine with any unit name to give subdivisions and multiples
For example, the prefix "kilo" denotes a multiple of a thousand, so the "kilo"metre is 1 000 metres, the "kilo"gram 1 000 grams, and so on
Note that a millionth of a kilogram is a milligram, not a microkilogram
Gaya nulis SI
The system can legally be used in every country in the world, and many countries do not maintain definitions of other units
Those countries that still give official recognition to non-SI units (e.g
the US and UK) have defined the modérn in terms of SI units; for example, the common inch is defined to be exactly 0.0254 metres
Survey distances have, however, not been redefined due to the accumulation of error it would entail
It was adopted by the 11th General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) in 1960
(See weights and measures for a history of the development of units of méasurement.)
Di handap ieu unit-unit dasar ti mana nu séjén diturunkeun, they are dimensionally independent
The definitions stated below are widely accepted
Dimensionless derived units
The following SI units are derived from the base units and are dimensionless
Derived units with special names
Base units can be put together to derive units of méasurement for other quantities
Some have been given names
Non-SI units accepted for use with SI
The following units are not SI units but are "accepted for use with the International System."
The following SI prefixes can be used to prefix any of the above units to produce a multiple or submultiple of the original unit
Obsolete SI prefixes
The following SI prefixes are no longer in use
Several nations, notably the United States, typically use the spellings 'méter' and 'liter' instéad of 'metre' and 'litre'
This is in keeping with standard American English spelling (for example, Americans also use 'center' rather than 'centre,' using the latter on mostly office buildings; see also American and British English differences)
In addition, the official US spelling for the SI prefix 'deca' is 'deka'
The US government has approved these spellings for official use, but the BIPM only recognizes the British English spellings as official names for the units
In scientific contexts only the symbols are used; since these are universally the same, the differences do not arise in practice in scientific use
The unit 'gram' is also sometimes spelled 'gramme' in English-spéaking countries other than the United States, though that is an older spelling and use is declining
Méter nyaéta unit dasar panjang dina Sistim Internasional pikeun Unit, diwatesan minangka panjang lintasan nu kaliwatan ku cahaya dina vakum absolut dina selang waktu 1/299,792,458 detik
Saméter sarua jeung 10000/254 inci, kurang-leuwih 39,37 inci
Méter dilambangan ku aksara m. Sajarah
Kecap ieu asalna tina Basa Yunani "metron" (μετρον), "ukuran" nu ngaliwatan basa Prancis "métre"
Dina basa Inggris munggaran dipaké taun 1797
Dina abad ka-18, aya dua "pendekatan" kana watesan ngeunaan unit baku panjang
Aya nu nyarankeun watesan méter minangka panjang pendulum nu satengah-periodena sadetik
Nu séjén nyarankeun watesan méter minangka sapersapuluh juta panjang méridian Bumi sapanjang kuadran (saparapat jarak-kuriling Bumi)
Taun 1791, Akademi Élmu-élmu Prancis milih watesan méridian, ngagunakeun méridian Paris, batan watesan pendulum ku sabab ayana béda gaya graviti di unggal tempat di Bumi, nu bakal mangaruhan périodeu pendulum
Taun 1795, Prancis ngadopsi méter minangka unit panjang resmina
Najan prototipe watang méteran leuwih pondok saperlima miliméter alatan salah itung, panjang ieu jadi baku
Jadi, jarak-kuriling Bumi ngaliwatan kutub kurang leuwih opat puluh juta méter
Taun 1870-an saluyu jeung kamajuan présisi modérn, runtuyan sawala internasional lumangsung pikeun ngabaru baku métrik
Perjangjian Méter (1875) ngukuhkeun Biro Internasional Timbangan jeung Ukuran ("Bureau International des Poids et Mesures", BIPM) nu maneuh nu ditempatkeun di Sévres, Prancis
Organisasi anyar ieu bakal nyieun sarta nyimpen prototipe méter jeung kilogram anyar, sarta bakal mertahankeun babandinganana katut unit dasar séjénna, nonmétrik, timbangan, jeung ukuran
Organisasi ieu nyiptakeun watang prototipe anyar taun 1889, ngajadikeun "International Prototype Metre" minangka jarak antara dua garis na watang baku campuran salapan puluh persén platinum jeung sapuluh persén iridium
Taun 1893, méter baku munggaran diukur ngagunakeun interférométer ku Albert A. Michelson, nu manggihan alat katut nu ngajengkeun digunakeunana panjang gelombang cahaya minangka baku jarak
Taun 1925, interférométri geus dipaké resmi di BIPM
Najan kitu, "International Prototype Metre" masih tetep dipaké nepi ka taun 1960, nalika Sawala Umum Timbangan jeung Ukuran (Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures, CGPM) ngawatesan méter dina sistim SI anyar nu sarua jeung 1.650.763,73 panjang gelombang garis émisi oranyeu-beureum dina spéktrum atom kripton-86 dina vakum
Pikeun ngurangan kateupastian, CGPM ka-17 taun 1983 ngaganti watesan méter ku watesan kiwari, ngaropéa panjang méter dina jihat waktu jeung laju cahaya: "Méter nyaéta panjang lintasan cahaya dina vakum dina selang waktu 1/299792458 detik."
Catet yén watesan ieu kalawan tepat nangtukeun laju cahaya dina vakum 299.792.458 méter per detik
Watesan nu dumasar sipat fisik cahaya leuwih tepat jeung bisa diulang sabab sipat cahaya nu bisa dianggap konstan
Prototipe internasional méter asli disimpen kénéh di BIPM dina kaayaan nu dijéntrékeun taun 1889
Kilogram (lambangna kg) nyaéta unit dasar SI pikeun massa
Sa-gram diwatesan ku sapersaréwu kilogram
Konversi unit ngagambarkeun unit ékivalén massa dina sistim séjén
Émbohan SI dipaké pikeun méré ngaran tikelan atawa babagian tina kilogram
Nu ilahar dipaké nyaéta, ton = 1 000 kg (kuduna mah disebutna "mégagram", ngan jarang pisan dipaké) (kadé pahili jeung "US short ton", 2000 pon atawa kira 907 kg) gram = 1/1 000 kg milligram = sapersaréwu gram = sapersayuta kilogram mikrogram = sapersayuta gram = 1/(10^9) kg Watesan
Kilogram mangrupa hiji-hijina unit SI nu masih kénéh watesanana dihubungkeun jeung artéfak batan sipat fisik
Kilogram "pituinna" diwatesan salaku massa saléter cimurni dina temperatur 4 darajat Celsius jeung tekenan atmosfir baku
Watesan ieu hésé pisan diwujudkeun sacara akurat, salah sahijina sabab dénsitas cai gumantung kana tekenan, sedengkeun unit tekenan ngawengku massa salaku salah sahiji faktorna, antukna ngagasilkeun kagumantungan sirkular dina watesan kilogram
Pikeun nyingkahan masalah ieu, watesan kilogram dibaru deui sacara "tepat" massa hiji baku husus nu dijieun sasarua-saruana jeung watesan asalna
Saprak 1889, sistim SI ngawatesan unit ieu sarua jeung massa prototipe kilogram internasional, nu dijieun tina watang alloy platinum jeung iridium nu panjang jeung diaméterna 39 mm, sarta diteundeun di Biro Internasional Timbangan jeung Ukuran
Salinan resmi prototipe kilogram dijieun pikeun prototipe nasional, nu dibandingkeun jeung prototipe Paris ("Le Grand Kilo"), kasarna unggal 10 taun
Prototipe kilogram internasional dijieun taun 1880-an
Dumasar watesan, kasalahan dina kabisaulangan watesan kiwari téh enol; ngan, dina harti ilahar kecapna, aya dina rentang 2 mikrogram
Ieu bisa kapanggih mun urang ngabandingkeun baku jeung salinan resmina, nu dijieun tina bahan sarta diteundeun dina kaayaan nu sarua
euweuh nu bisa mastikeun mana nu leuwih stabil, naha nu asli aatawa nu salinanana
Ku kituna, prosedur ieu dipigawé unggal opat puluh taun
Prototipe internasional kilogram sigana ngahampangan kira 50 mikrogram salila saabad ieu, ku sabab nu tacan kanyahoan (dilaporkeun dina "Der Spiegel", 2003 #26)
Bébédaan nu kapanggih dina prototipena nyedek kana perluna néangan watesan anyar kilogram
Najan bener mun disebut yén sadaya objék di mayapada nambahan massana 50 mikrogram per kilogramna, sawangan ieu patojaiyah jeung ngéléhkeun tujuan unit baku massa
Watesan ka hareup nu diajengkeun
Aya sawatara usaha pikeun ngawanohkeun hiji watesan tina jalan fundaméntal atawa konstanta atomik: The kilogram is the mass which would be accelerated at precisely 2×10-7 m/s² if subjected to the per metre force between two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross section, placed 1 metre apart in vacuum, through which flow a constant current of exactly 6.241 509 629 152
of exactly 6.241 509 629 152 65 × 1018 elementary charges per second
Patalina jeung beurat
Nalika sipat hiji barang disebutkeun dina kilogram, sipat ieu nujul ampir salawasna ka massa, padahal sipat dina pamakéan sapopoé mindengna disebut "beurat", a usage much deprecated by those communities (physicists and engineers) that prefer "weight" always to méan "gravitational force"
Occasionally the gravitational force on an object is given in "kilograms", but the unit used is not a true kilogram: it is the deprecated kilogram-force (kgf), also known as the kilopond (kp)
An object of mass 1 kg at the surface of the Earth will be subjected to a gravitational force (that is to say, it will have a weight) of approximately: 1 kgf = 1 kg × 9,806 65 m/s² = 9.806 65 N nu mana N salaku Newton, unit gaya SI
Catet yén faktor 9,806 65 ngan disatujuan salaku rataan (CGPM ka-3 (1901), CR 70), salaku niléy tepat "g", laju gravitasi lokal, béda-béda gumantung luhur-handap sarta tempatna di Bumi
(Tempo graviti baku)
Kecap léter (tina litre atawa liter na basa Inggris) ngandung harti hiji unit métrik eusi
Léter lain mangrupa unit SI, tapi (sarua jeung unit jam sarta poé) kadaptar salaku salah sahiji "unit lian ti SI nu ditampa jeung dipaké babarengan jeung SI" (catetan NIST)
Unit SI pikeun volume nyaéta méter kubik (m3) catetan NIST ngeunaan unit SI
Unit léter dilambangkeun ku hurup l atawa L atawa ℓ. Dadaran
Saléter sarua jeung Aya 1.000 léter dina saméter kubik (1 m³)
Léter dibagi kana unit-unit nu leuwih leutik ku nambahkeun awalan SI, antukna saléter sarua jeung Volume nu leuwih badag bisa maké satuan kiloléter (kl, 1.000 léter) atawa mégaléter (Ml, 1.000.000 léter), tapi ilaharna mah maké méter kubik (m³, 1.000 léter)
mililéter « sétiléter « désiléter « léter Lambang
Lambang pikeun léter tadina mah l (aksara leutik "l"), tapi, sangkan teu pahili jeung angka hiji ("1"), mangga L (aksara badag "L") mimiti dipaké taun 1979
Hal ieu dirojong ku National Institute of Standards and Technology AS, ogé Kanada jeung Australia
Lambang pikeun unit turunanana nya dina bentuk µL, mL, kL, ML, jst
In 1793, the litre was introduced in France as one of the new "Republican Measures", and defined as one cubic decimetre
Its name derived from an older French unit, the "litron", whose name came from Greek via Latin
In 1879, the CIPM adopted the definition of the litre, and the symbol l (lowercase letter l)
In 1901, at the 3rd CGPM conference, the litre was redefined as the space occupied by 1 kg of pure water at the temperature of its maximum density (3.98 °C) under a pressure of 1 atm
This made the litre equal to about 1.000 028 dm³ (éarlier reference works usually put it at 1.000 027 dm³)
In 1964, at the 12th CGPM conference, the litre was once again defined in exact relation to the metre, as another name for the cubic decimetre, that is, exactly 1 dm³
NIST Reference In 1979, at the 16th CGPM conference, the alternative symbol L (uppercase letter L) was adopted
Étika mangrupa istilah umum anu nujul ka anu biasa didadarkeun salaku "élmu moralitas"
Dina filsafat, paripolah étis hartina naon-naon anu "hadé"
Tradisi étika di Kulon sok katelah filsafat moral ("moral philosophy")
Étika mangrupa cabang utama filsafat, sagigireun métafisika jeung épistémologi
Bias publikasi, ogé disebut bias hasil positif (Ing
"positive outcome bias"), nyaéta kacondongan panalungtik pikeun mublikasikeun percobaan nu mibanda hasil positif (manggihan lumangsungna hiji hal), sarta dina sisi séjén teu mublikasikeun percobaan nu hasilna négatif (manggihan teu lumangsungna hiji hal)
As such, this may distort meta-analysis of large numbers of studies
The problem is particularly significant when the reséarch is sponsored by entities that may have a financial interest in achieving favourable results
Séptémber 2004, éditor sababaraha jurnal poko widang médis (kaasup New England Journal of Medicine, The Lancet, Annals of Internal Medicine, jeung JAMA) ngabéwarakeun yén maranéhna moal deui mublikasikeun hasil panalungtikan nu dibobotohan ku maskapé farmasi iwal mun panalungtikanana geus didaptarkeun na basis data umum ti anggalna kénéh
Ku cara kieu, hasil négatif moal leungit kitu baé
Simulasi nyaéta tironan tina sababaraha alat atawa tina kaayaan nu sabenerna
Percobaan simulasi dipaké keur ngagambarkeun kaayaan nu penting tina paripolah sistim sacara fisik atawa abstrak ku paripolah sistim séjénna
Simulasi dipaké dina sababaraha hal, kaasup pa-model-an sistim alami, sarta sistim manusa keur mikanyaho leuwih teleb kana sistim operasina; sarta simulasi dina téhnologi sarta rékayasa kaamanan nu mana hasilna bakal dipaké keur nguji hal-hal nu pakait dina kaayaan nu sabenerna
Simulasi, maké hiji "simulator" atawa percobaan séjénna nu dijieun dina kaayaan fiktif ahirna bisa nembongkeun efek nu sabenerna tina sababaraha kaayaan nu mungkin
Simulasi fisik jeung interaktif
"Simulasi fisik" nujul ka simulasi nu ngaganti objék fisik pikeun nu nyaanna
Nu mindeng dipilih salaku objék fisik kalawan alesan leuwih leutik jeung leuwih murah batan objék atawa sistim nu enyaan
"Simulasi interaktif", nu mangrupa simulasi fisik anu husus sarta mindeng disebut salaku simulasi "human in the loop", hartina simulasi fisik nu ngaaubkeun manusa, kawas modél dina simulator pesawat hiber
"Main article:" Computer simulation&lt;br&gt; "Related article:" Model Computer simulation, has become a useful part of modeling many natural systems in physics, chemistry and biology, and human systems in economics and social science (the computational sociology) as well as in engineering to gain insight into the operation of those systems
In such simulations the model behaviour will change according to a set of initial paraméters such as a metéorological modél
Computer simulations are often considered "human out of the loop" simulations
Traditionally, the formal modéling of systems has been via a mathematical model, which attempts to find analytical solutions to problems which enables the prediction of the behaviour of the system from a set of paraméters and initial conditions
Computer simulation is often used an adjunct to, or substitution for, modéling systems for which simple closed form analytic solutions are not possible
There are many different types of computer simulation, the common féature they all share is the attempt to generate a sample of representative scenarios for a modél in which a complete enumeration of all possible states of the modél would be prohibitive or impossible
It is incréasingly common to héar simulations of many kinds referred to as "synthetic environments"
This label has been adopted to broaden the definition of "simulation" to encompass virtually any computer-based representation
Simulation in computer science
In computer science, simulation has an even more a specialized méaning: Alan Turing uses the term "simulation" to refer to what happens when a digital computer runs a state transition table (runs a program) that describes the state transitions, inputs and outputs of a subject discrete-state machine
The computer simulates the subject machine
In computer programming, a simulator is often used to execute a program that has to run on some inconvenient type of computer
For example, simulators are usually used to debug a microprogram
Since the operation of the computer is simulated, all of the information about the computer's operation is directly available to the programmer, and the speed and execution of the simulation can be varied at will
Simulators may also be used to interpret fault trees, or test VLSI logic designs before they are constructed
Many vidéo games are also simulators, implemented inexpensively
These are sometimes called "sim games"
In theoretical computer science the term "simulation" represents a relation between state transition systems
This is useful in the study of operational semantics
Téorema Cox, ngaran téorema nu dipaké keur ngahargaan ka ahli fisika Richard Threlkeld Cox, nyaéta turunan hukum téori probabiliti tina sababaraha susunan postulat penting
Turunan ieu méré alesan ku sabab kitu disebut intepretasi probabiliti "logika"
Salaku hukum probabiliti téorema Cox bisa dipaké keur sababaraha dalil, probabiliti logika mangrupa salah sahiji tina Bayesian probability
Bentuk séjén Bayesianism, saperti interpretasi subjektif, dijelaskeun dina kaca séjén
Cox hayang sistimna bisa nedunan "desiderata" di handap ieu Postulat nu dicutat di handap ieu disalin tina Arnborg &amp; Sjödin (1999)
"Common sense" includes consistency with Aristotelian logic when statements are completely plausible or implausible
The postulates as originally stated by Cox were not mathematically rigorous (although better than the informal description above), e.g., as noted by Halpern (1999a, 1999b)
However it appéars to be possible to augment them with various mathematical assumptions made either implicitly or explicitly by Cox to produce a valid proof
Cox's axioms and functional equations are: formula_1 saying that the function "f" that maps the probability of a proposition to the probability of the proposition's negation is an involution, i.e., it is its own inverse
formula_2 is an associative binary operation
All strictly increasing associative binary operations on the real numbers are isomorphic to multiplication of numbers in the interval [0, 1]
This function therefore may be taken to be multiplication
formula_3 where "f" is as above
Cox's théorem implies that any plausibility modél that meets the postulates is equivalent to the subjective probability modél, i.e., can be converted to the probability modél by rescaling
Implications of Cox's postulates
The laws of probability derivable from these postulates are the following (Jaynes, 2003)
Here "w"("A"|"B") is the "plausibility" of the proposition "A" given "B", and "m" is some positive number
It is important to note that the postulates imply only these genéral properties
These are equivalent to the usual laws of probability assuming some conventions, namely that the scale of méasurement is from zero to one, and the plausibility function, conventionally denoted "P" or Pr, is equal to "w""m"
(We could have equivalently chosen to méasure probabilities from one to infinity, with infinity representing certain falsehood.)
With these conventions, we obtain the laws of probability in a more familiar form: Rule 2 is a rule for negation, and rule 3 is a rule for conjunction
Given that any proposition containing conjunction, disjunction, and negation can be equivalently rephrased using conjunction and negation alone (the conjunctive normal form), we can now handle any compound proposition
The laws thus derived yield finite additivity of probability, but not countable additivity
The measure-theoretic formulation of Kolmogorov assumes that a probability méasure is countably additive
This slightly stronger condition is necessary for the proof of certain théorems, however, it is not cléar what difference countable additivity makes in practice
Interpretation and further discussion
Cox's théorem has come to be used as one of the justifications for the use of Bayesian probability théory
For example, in Jaynes (2003) it is discussed in detail in chapters 1 and 2 and is a cornerstone for the rest of the book
Probability is interpreted as a formal system of logic, the natural extension of Aristotelian logic (in which every statement is either true or false) into the réalm of réasoning in the presence of uncertainty
It has been debated to what degree the théorem excludes alternative modéls for réasoning about uncertainty
For example, if certain "unintuitive" mathematical assumptions were dropped then alternatives could be devised, e.g., an example provided by Halpern (1999a)
However Arnborg and Sjödin (1999, 2000a, 2000b) suggest additional "common sense" postulates, which would allow the assumptions to be relaxed in some cases while still ruling out the Halpern example
The original formulation of Cox's théorem is in Cox (1946), which is extended with additional results and more discussion in Cox (1961)
Jaynes (2003) cites Abel (1826) as first known instance of the associativity functional equation which is used in the proof of the théorem
Acz&amp;éacute;l (1966) refers to the "associativity equation" and lists 98 references to works that discuss it or use it, and gives a proof that doesn't require differentiability (pages 256-267)
Ayatrohaédi (Jatiwangi, Majalengka, 5 Désémber 1939–Sukabumi, 18 Pébruari 2006), jadi mahasiswa Fakultas Sastra taun 1959 Jurusan Ilmu Purbakala jeung Sejarah Kuna Indonésia (ayeuna Arkéologi)
Sanggeus lulus taun 1964, Ayatrohaédi damel di Lembaga Purbakala dan Peninggalan Nasional di Mojokerto
Kungsi ngajar di Fakultas Sastra Universitas Pajajaran Bandung salila lima taun, salajéngna taun 1972 balik deui ka Fakultas Sastra UI
Taun 1978 dileler gelar doktor ti UI kalawan disertasi nu judulna "Bahasa Sunda di Daerah Cirebon: Sebuah Kajian Lokabasa"
Numutkeun promotorna, Prof. Dr. Amran Halim, disertasi ieu mangrupa disertasi munggaran ngeunaan dialéktologi di Asia Tenggara
Ayatrohaédi kungsi ngajabat salaku Ketua Jurusan Arkéologi (1983-1987), Pembantu Dékan Bidang Akademik (1999-2000), Pembantu Réktor Institut Kesenian Jakarta (IKJ) salila lima taun (1989-1994)
Ayatrohaédi ogé loba aub dina kagiatan widang kabasaan, kasusastraan, kasajarahan, kabudayaan, jeung kapurbakalaan
Ayatrohaédi mimiti nulis karya sastra (sajak, prosa) dina basa Sunda taun 1955 sarta basa Indonésia taun 1956
Nepi ka ayeuna karyana nu geus medal di antarana "Hujan Munggaran" (1960), "Kabogoh Téré" (1967), jeung "Pamapag" (1972)
Karyana dina basa Indonésia di antarana "Panji Segala Raja" (1974), "Pabila dan di mana" (1976), "Senandung Ombak" (tarjamahan, 1976), "Kacamata Sang Singa" (tarjamahan, 1977)
Karya non-fiksina kayaning "Bahasa Sunda di Daerah Cirebon: Sebuah Kajian Lokabasa" (disertasi 1978, medal taun 1985), "Dialektologi: Sebuah Pengantar" (1979, 1981), "Tatabahasa Sunda" (tarjamah karya D. K. Ardiwinata, 1985), "Tatabahasa dan Ungkapan Bahasa Sunda" (tarjamah karya J. Kats jeung R. Suriadiraja, 1986)
Ajip Rosidi, dkk, 2000, "Ensiklopledi Sunda: Alam, Manusia, dan Budaya (Termasuk budaya Betawi dan Cirebon)"
26 Désémber nyaéta poé ka-360 dina sataun (ka-361 dina taun kabisat) dina kalénder Gregorian, sésana 5 poé
Komputer nyaéta hiji alat atawa mesin keur nyieun itungan atawa kontrol operasi nu bisa ditembongkeun dina watesan numeris sareng logis
Istilah "komputer" asalna tina bahasa latin nyaéta "computare" nu miboga arti "cacah"
Harti komputer nyaéta perangkat éléktronik nu bisa diprogram keur narima data atah salaku input jeung ngolah sakumpulan intruksi (program) keur ngahasilkeun hasil nyaéta nu disebut output
Komputer mangrupa alat perangkat éléktronik keur manipulasi inpormasi atawa data
Alat ieu miboga kamampuan ngajaga, nyokot, sareung ngolah data
Komputer dijieun keur ngajalankeun aplikasi sareung nyadiakeun rupa-rupa solusi maké runtuyan digit biner
Komputer ogé mangrupa dasar tina élmu teknologi informasi sareung komunikasi
Dasar téori keur itungan maké komputer disebut élmu komputer
Komputer desktop Komputer dekstop biasa digunakeun di kantor, imah, sareung sakola
Komputer dekstop dirancang keur diteundeun di luhur meja
Biasana, komputer dekstop miboga sababaraha bagian nu béda, contohna wadah komputer, keyboard, mouse, sareng monitor
Komputer laptop Komputer laptop biasa disebut laptop
Laptop miboga kakuatan batré nu lewih portabel dibanding desktop
Laptop ogé bisa dicandak sareng digunakeun di mana baé
Komputer tablet Komputer tablet atawa tablet nyaéta komputer genggam nu leuwih portabel dibanding laptop
Tablet ngagaduhan layar sentuh keur ngetik sareng navigasi
Contoh tina produk tablet nyaéta iPad
Server Server nyaéta komputer nu nyajikeun inpormasi ka komputer nu lain dina jaringan
Contona nyaéta internet
Server ogé digunakeun keur nyimpeun sareng ngabagi data internal
Sarana komunikasi Komputer digunakeun kanggé alat komunikasi jarak jauh
Komputer kiwari tos tiasa ngirim sagala rupi pesan nu singkat ka nu séjén
Pengguna komputer tiasa ngagunakeun e-mail sareung sosial media saperti Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, sareung WhatsApp
Komputer ogé tiasa nyadiakeun layanan video call sareung video conference dina aplikasi Zoom sareng Google Meet
Ngabantos kagiatan diajar Komputer mangrupa alat nu bisa ngabantos kagiatan diajar
Murid tiasa néangan sagala rupi inpormasi tina Google lewat komputer
Ngabantos pagawéan Dina pagawéan, komputer dianggo ku sababaraha profési saperti resepsionis, programmer, akuntan, sareung nu lainna
Komputer digunakeun kanggé ngolah data-data nu penting keur perusahaan
Biasana, aplikasi komputer nu digunakeun nyaéta Microsoft Office, e-mail, nepi ka sistem SAP
Peluang bisnis Komputer tiasa ngamangpaatkeun komputer keur ngawanohkeun usaha sacara online
Biasana, pengguna ngagunakeun situs e-commerce keur ngalakukeun bisnis
Platform hiburan Komputer tiasa ogé dimanpaatkeun kanggé media hiburan
Pamaké tiasa ngaaksés hiburan saperti YouTube, film, musik, game, sareng nu lainna
Hardware Hardware nyaéta perangkat keras nu ngagaduhan bentuk fisik
Hardware bisa dioperasikeun sacara langsung sareung berfungsi salaku panghubung antara pamaké sareung sistem komputer
Hardware dibagi jadi opat bagian, nyaéta input device, output device, processing device, sareung storage device
Input device atawa perangkat masukkan mangrupa perangkat keras nu gaduh fungsi keur ngasupkeun perintah sareung data ka jero sistem komputer
Kata lainna nyaéta gerbang abus keur data nu rék diolah sistem komputer
Data nu tos asup bakal dikonversi jadi kode binary nepi bisa dibaca ku memori utama komputer
Conto input device nyaéta keyboard, mouse, webcam, jeung scanner
Data nu tos diasupkeun ngalewatan input device bakal diolah di bagian processing device kusabab processing device sorangan nyaéta hiji perangkat nu gaduh peran keur ngolah data
Proses ieu sacara spesifik dilakukeun ku Central Processing Unit (CPU) atawa nu dikenal uteuk sistem komputer
CPU gaduh tugas keur untuk narima sareung ngajalankeun perintah ka bagian software
Sababaraha komponen dina CPU nyaéta prosesor, RAM, kartu VGA, hard disk, mother board, sareung cooling fan
Saatos ngaliwatan processing device, data nu tos diolah bakal dikaluarkeun sareung ditembongkeun ka pamaké
Datana mangrupa dapat gambar, video, sarta audio (suara)
Proses ieu bakal berlangsung di bagian output device sareung bakal dikaluarkeun ngaliwatan monitor, printer, headphone, speaker, webcam sareung mikrofon
Proses paneundeunan ayana tina storage device atau perangkat paneundeunan
Storage device sorangan kabagi jadi dua jenis, nyaéta internal storage sareung eksternal storage
Internal storage mangrupa bagian paneundeunan nu nempel dina CPU sareung tina hard disk sareung RAM
Samentara eksternal storage, ngacu ka jenis paneundeunan nu bisa dilepas sareung teu terikat ku sistem hardware komputer
Paneundeunan jenis ieu praktis kusabab bisa dicandak ka mana waé
Sababaraha contoh tina eksternal storage nyaéta hard disk eksternal, CD, DVD, sareung flashdisk
Software Software atawa perangkat lunak nyaéta hiji komponen nu teu ngagaduhan wujud, alias abstrak
Perangkat jenis ieu kabagi tina program nu tugasna keur ngolah data nu tos dimasukkeun ka jero hardware
Software dibagi jadi tiga bagian nu beda, nyaéta: software sistem, software aplikasi, sareung software tambahan
Software sistem nyaéta perangkat lunak nu ngagaduhan tugas keur ngatur komponen dina komputer sacara taliti
Komponen ieu nyaéta sistem operasi (OS) saperti Windows XP, Windows 2000, Windows 7, Linux, macOS sareung nu lainna
Software aplikasi adalah rangkaian program aplikasi yang dapat digunakan pengguna untuk menyelesaikan sebuah tugas tertentu
Dapat dikatakan bahwa software aplikasi mangrupa program pelengkap pada komputer yang digunakan sebagai sarana pengolahan data
Beberapa contoh dari software aplikasi, yakni web browser (Chrome, Mozilla Firefox), Microsoft Office, game dan masih banyak lagi
Software tambahan nyaéta deretan program nu bisa ngajalankeun tugas-tugas khusus atau tambahan sakaligus ngalindungi perangkat hardware
Contona nyaéta data recovery, disk defragmenter, screensever, sareng backup
Brainware Istilah brainware nyaéta pamaké komputer
Pamaké miboga wewenang keur ngajalankeun sareng ngaoperasikeun komputer
Mun teu aya pamaké, komputer moal jalan sacara maksimal
Conto tina brainware sorangan nyaéta programmer, sistem analis, operator, dan administrator
Klasifikasi dokumén nyaéta hiji masalah dina élmu informasi
Tugasna taya lian pikeun nempatkeun hiji dokumén kana hiji atawa sababaraha kategori, dumasar eusina
Pancén klasifikasi dokumén bisa dibagi kana dua cara: supervised document classification where some external mechanism (such as human feedback) provides information on the correct classification for documents, and unsupervised document classification, where the classification must be done entirely without reference to external information
Téhnik klasifikasi dokumén ngawengku: and approaches based on natural language processing
A recent notable use of document classification techniques has been spam filtering which tries to discern E-mail spam messages from legitimate emails
Spamming nyaéta kalakuan ngirimkeun surelek electronik nu teu dipiharep
Hiji kaca article mangrupa masalah spam dina 1998 dumasar kana salaku pesen "text taya harti nu ngalir taya eureunna."
Tina panempo nu populer, spam ilaharnad dikirim ngaliwatan surelek saperti dina bentuk iklan
However, over the short history of electronic media, péople have done things comparable to spamming for many purposes other than the commercial, and in many media other than e-mail
In this article and those related, the term "spamming" is used broadly to refer to all of these behaviors, regardless of medium and commercial intent
This article provides a general overview of the spamming phenomenon
Separate articles discuss the techniques of spammers on particular media: Internet e-mail, instant messaging, Usenet newsgroups, Web search engines, weblogs, and mobile phone messaging
Another article describes ways of stopping e-mail abuse
One of the strengths of electronic communications media is that it costs virtually nothing to send a message
These media are not free of charge: setting up a cellular telephone network or an Internet e-mail service has substantial overhéad costs in equipment and connectivity
However, once these costs are paid for, the cost to transmit a message to a single recipient is minuscule when compared with older media such as postal mail
Electronic messaging is chéap and fast
It is also éasy to automate: computer programs can send out millions of messages via e-mail, instant message (IM), or Usenet netnews in minutes or hours at néarly no labor cost
From these economic réalities, a sort of tragedy of the commons emerges
Any communications mechanism which is chéap and éasy to automate is éasy to flood with bulk messages
To send instant messages to millions of users on most IM services, all one needs is a piece of scriptable software and those users' IM usernames
The ability to send e-mail from a computer program is built in to popular operating systems such as Microsoft Windows and Unix — the only added ingredient needed is the list of addresses to target
Sending bulk messages in this fashion, to recipients who have not solicited them, has come to be known as spamming, and the messages themselves as spam
The etymology of the term is discussed below
Traditional advertising methods, such as billboards, TV or newspaper ads are similar to spam in that they are usually unsolicited and sent in bulk
Pollution of public space by advertising is also quite similar to the problem of spam
However, traditional "legitimate" advertising is usually spared the "spam" label on the grounds that distribution costs are borne by the advertiser
Spamming has been considered by various commercial, government, and independent entities to be one of the foremost social problems facing electronic media today
All manner of attempts have been made to curb this problem: technical méasures such as e-mail filtering and the automated cancellation of netnews spam; contractual méasures such as Internet Service Providers' acceptable-use policies; laws such as the Can Spam Act of 2003; and market pressures such as boycotts of those who use or support spam
The growing importance of Search Engines has led to a new form of spam, Spamdexing, which aims at boosting a commercial site's Pagerank
Spamming in different media
E-mail spam is by far the most common form of spamming on the internet
It involves sending identical or néarly identical messages to a large number of recipients
Unlike legitimate commercial e-mail, spam is generally sent without the explicit permission of the recipients, and frequently contains various tricks to bypass e-mail filters
Spammers obtain e-mail addresses by a number of méans: "harvesting" addresses from Usenet postings, DNS listings, or Web pages; guessing common names at known domains (known as a "dictionary attack"); and "e-pending" or séarching for e-mail addresses corresponding to specific persons, such as residents in an aréa
Many e-mail spammers go to gréat lengths to concéal the origin of their messages
They might do this by spoofing e-mail addresses (similar to Internet protocol spoofing)
In this technique, the spammer modifies the e-mail message so it looks like it is coming from another e-mail address
However, many spammers also maké it éasy for recipients to identify their messages as spam by placing an ad phrase in the FROM field (i.e
chances are, very few péople you know have names like "GetMyCigs" or "Giving away playstation2s")
Among the tricks used by spammers to try to circumvent the filters is to intentionally misspell common spam filter trigger words, ie
"viagra" might become "vaigra", or by inserting other symbols within the word, i.e
Sometimes this intentional corruption backfires and léads to the advertiser's message becoming so obfuscated that it is illegible
The weird thing is that the human mind can handle the misspellings (see Wrod Illusinos ) and while one would think the misspellings maké it harder for email ISPs to trap the spam, it actually makes it éasier for them to recognize and stop the spam
The most dedicated spammers are often one step ahéad of the ISPs
The dedicated ones are those making a lot of money or engaged in illegal activities, such as the porn industry, casinos and Nigerian scammers
Report them éarly and often
Spambots are a big problem now
The worst spammers have créated various email viruses that will turn your PC into a zombie computer with a spambot; the zombie will inform a master spammer of its existence, and, and the spammer will command it to send a low volume of spam
This allows spammers to send spam without being caught by their ISPs or being tracked down by anti-spammers; the low volume makes it hard to detect
Dialup and DSL ISPs could stop spambots by blocking the SMTP port (port 25) - link éarthlink does
Messaging spam, sometimes termed "spim", is a type of spamming where the target of the spamming is instant messaging (IM)
Many IM systems offer a directory of users, including demographic information such as age and sex
Advertisers can gather this information, sign on to the system, and send unsolicited messages
A similar sort of spam can be sent with the Windows Messenger Service in Microsoft Windows
The Messenger Service is an SMB facility intended to allow servers to send pop-up alerts to a Windows workstation
When Windows systems are connected to the Internet with this service running and without an adequate firewall, it can be used to send spam
The Messenger Service can, however, be éasily disabled
Newsgroup spam is a type of spamming where the target of the spamming are Usenet newsgroups
Spamming of Usenet newsgroups actually pre-dates e-mail spam
Old Usenet convention defines spamming as "excessive multiple posting," that is, the repéated posting of a message (or substantially similar messages)
Since posting to newsgroups is néarly as éasy as sending e-mails, newsgroups are a popular target of spammers
The Breidbart Index was developed to provide an objective méasure of the "spamminess" of a multi-posted or cross-posted message on Usenet
Mobile phone spam
Mobile phone spam is a form of spamming directed at the text messaging service of a mobile phone
This can be especially irritating to consumers not only for the inconvenience but also because they sometimes have to pay to receive the text message
Internet telephony spam
It has been predicted that voice over IP (VoIP) communications will be vulnerable to being spammed by pre-recorded messages
Although there have been few reported incidents, some companies have alréady tried to sell defenses against it
Spam targeting search engines
Spamdexing (a combination of "spamming" and "indexing") refers to the practice on the World Wide Web of deliberately modifying HTML pages to incréase the chance of them being placed high on search engine relevancy lists
Péople who do this are called search engine spammers
In blog spam the targets are weblogs
In 2003, this type of spam took advantage of the open nature of comments in the blogging software Movable Type by repéatedly placing comments to various blog posts that provided nothing more than a link to the spammer's commercial web site
These link would in théory enhance the ranking of the target page in séarch engine indexes
Wikis are also a target of séarch engine spam, quite similar to blog spam
Though more "old-school" than blogs or wikis, guestbooks are still present on some sites, and are subject to the same sorts of spam
The most common purpose for spamming is advertising
Goods commonly advertised in spam include pornography, computer software, medical products such as Viagra, credit card accounts, and fad products
In part because of the bad reputation (and dubious legal status) which spamming carries, it is chiefly used to carry offers of an ill-reputed or questionably legal nature
Many of the products advertised in spam are fraudulent in nature, such as quack medications and get-rich-quick schemes
Spam is frequently used to advertise scams, such as diploma mills, advance fee fraud, pyramid schemes, stock pump-and-dump schemes and password phishing
It is also often used to advertise pornography indiscriminately, even in jurisdictions where it is illegal to transmit pornographic solicitations to minor children, or even for anyone to view it at all
The use of spamming in other countries is often different
For example, in Russia spamming is commonly used by many mainstréam legitimate businesses, such as travel agencies, printing shops, training centres, réal estate agencies, seminar and conference organisers and even self-employed electricians and garbage collection companies
In fact, the most prominent Russian spammer was American English Center, a language school in Moscow
That spamming sparked a powerful anti-spam movement, including enraging the deputy minister of communications Andrey Korotkov and provoked a wave of counter attacks on the spammer through non-internet channels, including a massive telephone DDOS attack
Comparison to postal "junk" mail
There are a number of differences between spam and junk mail: Non-commercial spam
E-mail and other forms of spamming have been used for purposes other than advertisements
Many éarly Usenet spams were religious or political in nature
Serdar Argic, for instance, spammed Usenet with historical revisionist screeds
A number of evangelists have spammed Usenet and e-mail media with préaching messages
Spamming has also been used as a denial of service tactic, particularly on Usenet
By overwhelming the réaders of a newsgroup with an inordinate number of nonsense messages, legitimate messages can be lost and computing resources are consumed
Since these messages are usually forged (that is, sent falsely under regular posters' names) this tactic has come to be known as sporgery (from "spam" + "forgery")
This tactic has for instance been used by partisans of the Church of Scientology against the alt.religion.scientology newsgroup (see Scientology vs. the Internet) and by spammers against news.admin.net-abuse.e-mail, a forum for mail administrators to discuss spam problems
Applied to e-mail, this is termed mailbombing
In a handful of cases, forged e-mail spam has been used as a tool of harassment
The spammer collects a list of addresses as usual, then sends a spam to them signed with the name of the person he wishes to harass
Some recipients, angry that they received spam and seeing an obvious "source", will respond angrily or pursue various sorts of revenge against the apparent spammer, the forgery victim
A widely known victim of this sort of harassment was Joe's CyberPost, which has lent its name to the offense: it is known as a "joe job"
Such joe jobs have been most often used against anti-spammers: in more recent examples, Steve Linford of Spamhaus Project and Timothy Walton, a California attorney, have been targeted
Spammers have also abused resources set up for purposes of anonymous speech online, such as anonymous remailers
As a result, many of these resources have been shut down, denying their utility to legitimate users
E-mail worms or viruses may be spammed to set up an initial pool of infected machines, which then re-send the virus to other machines in a spam-like manner
The infected machines can often be used as remote-controlled zombie computers, for more conventional spamming or DDoS attacks
Sometimes trojans are spammed to phish for bank account details, or to set up a pool of zombies without using a virus
The term "spam" is derived from the Monty Python SPAM sketch, set in a cafe where everything on the menu includes SPAM lunchéon méat
While a customer plaintively asks for some kind of food without SPAM in it, the server reiterates the SPAM-filled menu
Soon, a chorus of Vikings join in with a song, repéating "SPAM, SPAM, SPAM, SPAM" and singing "lovely SPAM, wonderful SPAM" over and over again, drowning out all conversation
Although the first known instance of unsolicited commercial e-mail occurred in 1978 (unsolicited electronic messaging had alréady taken place over other media, with the first recorded instance being on September 13th 1904 via telegram), the term "spam" for this practice had not yet been applied
In the 1980s the term was adopted to describe certain abusive users who frequented BBSs and MUDs, who would repéat "SPAM" a huge number of times to scroll other users' text off the screen
This act, previously termed "flooding" or "trashing", came to be called "spamming" as well
By analogy, the term was soon applied to any large amount of text broadcast by one user, or sometimes by many users
It later came to be used on Usenet to méan "excessive multiple posting" — the repéated posting of the same message
The first evident usage of this sense was by Joel Furr in the aftermath of the ARMM incident of March 31 1993, in which a piece of experimental software reléased dozens of recursive messages onto the "news.admin.policy" newsgroup
Soon, this use had also become established — to spam Usenet was to flood newsgroups with junk messages
Commercial spamming started in force on March 5, 1994 when a pair of lawyers, Laurence Canter and Martha Siegel, began using bulk Usenet posting to advertise immigration law services
The incident was commonly termed the "Green Card spam", after the subject line of the postings
The two went on to widely promote spamming of both Usenet and e-mail as a new méans of advertisement — over the objections of Internet users they labeled "anti-commerce radicals."
Within a few yéars, the focus of spamming (and anti-spam efforts) moved chiefly to e-mail, where it remains today
There are two popular fake etymologies of the word "spam"
The first, promulgated by Canter &amp; Siegel themselves, is that "spamming" is what happens when one dumps a can of SPAM lunchéon méat into a fan blade
The second is the backronym "shit posing as mail."
Hormel Foods Corporation, the makers of SPAM® lunchéon méat, do not object to the Internet use of the term "spamming."
However, they do ask that the capitalized word "SPAM" be reserved to refer to their product and trademark