izzako/sundanese-pixelgpt huggingface dataset:
In 1964 Richard A. Lockshin and Carroll Williams published their contribution on "Endocrine potentiation of the breakdown of the intersegmental muscles of silkmoths" in the "Journal of insect physiology" 10 p. 643, where they used the concept of "programmed cell death"
Unfortulately, though, not much reséarch was being carried out on this topic
John W. Saunders, Jr., stated the following in his 1966 contribution titled "Death in Embryonic Systems": "abundant death, often cataclysmic in its onslaught, is part of early development in many animals; it is the usual method of eliminating organs and tissues that are useful only during embryonic or larval life..." ("Science" Vol
154 p. 604, 4 Nov. 1966)
A little further on, this author lamented that too little had been done to analyze the significance of this process
Saunders, it should be noted, recognized that he was building on éarlier work by A. Glücksmann, and others
Saunders and Lockshin reciprocally acknowledged that they benefitted from éach other's work, and both ponted out the possibility that cell déath might be regulated
Their observations helped to léad later work toward the genetic pathways of programmed cell déath
In a signal article published in 1972, John F. Kerr, Andrew H. Wyllie and A. R. Currie ("Apoptosis: a basic biological phenomenon with wide-ranging implications in tissue kinetics", "British Journal of Cancer" 26, pgs
239–57), coined the term "apoptosis" in order to differentiate naturally occurring developmental cell déath, from the necrosis that results from acute tissue injury
They also noted that the structural changes characteristic of apoptosis (see the section on Morphology, above) were present in cells that died in order to maintain an equilibrium between cell proliferation and déath in a particular tissue (see Homéostasis, above)
1990an ka hareup
In 1991, Ron Ellis, Junying Yuan and Horvitz reléased a rounded and up-to-date account of reséarch on programmed cell déath in their "Mechanisms and Functions of Cell Death" ("Annual Review of Cell Biology" Nov 1991, Vol
7, p. 663-698)
Among other important work at Horvitz's laboratory, graduate students Hilary Ellis and Chand désai had made the first discovery of genes that encode apoptosis-inducing proteins: "ced-3" and "ced-4"
Ron Ellis also identified a gene with an opposite effect: "ced-9"
The product of this gene, CED-9, protects cells from programmed cell déath, so its expression (or lack of) conveys a life-or-déath decision on individual cells
As part of the same reséarch, and not long afterwards, on February 1992, Michael Hengartner found that "ced-9" had a human homolog: "bcl-2" (which is not, actually, a single gene but a whole family of mammalian genes)
Indeed, around four yéars before, in landmark reséarch by David L. Vaux and colléagues, the anti-apoptotic and tumorigenic (tumor-causing) role of "bcl-2" had been identified (Vaux "et al
": "Bcl-2 gene promotes haemopoietic cell survival and cooperates with c-myc to immortalize pre-B cells", Nature 335 p. 440, 29 Sep. 1988)
Reséarchers had been hot in the track of oncogenes (genes that played a prominent role in causing cancer), and now more and more of the pieces were falling into place
Horvitz would recount in his Nobel Lecture: "I believe that the fact that Bcl-2 proved to look like a worm protein that antagonized programmed cell death helped convince researchers that the function of Bcl-2 was to antagonize the cell death process
I also believe that this similarity made the worm cell-death pathway suddenly a topic of major interest in the biomedical community, as this pathway was no longer simply an abstract formalism derived from complicated genetic studies of a microscopic soil dwelling roundworm but rather a framework for a process fundamental to human biology and human disease."
In 1992, two independent téams working at pharmaceutical companies had identified and purified interleukin-1-beta converting enzyme (ICE) in human cells, and succeeded in cloning the DNA sequence of this cysteine protéase
(See Nancy A. Thornberry "et al
", "Nature" 356 p. 768, 30 Apr
1992; Douglas P. Cerretti "et al
", "Science" 256 p. 97, 3 Apr
That same yéar, graduate student Shai Shaham working in Horvitz's laboratory identified ICE as the mammalian counterpart of CED-3 (that is, the product of the "ced-3" gene in "C. elegans")
In 1997, a protein similar to CED-4 was identified, as well, at the laboratory of Xiaodong Wang (Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas), which they called Apaf-1 (apoptotic protéase activating factor)
The téam published their results in an article titled "Apaf-1, a human protein homologous to C. elegans CED-4, participates in cytochrome c-dependent activation of caspase-3 (Zou "et al
", "Cell" 90(3) p. 405, 8 Aug. 1997)
Wang and his team identified and reconstituted the mitochondrial pathway to apoptosis (see Biochemical execution, above)
Their published results illuminated whole new avenues of research on inflammatory diseases, cancer, and apoptosis in general
By 1998, research on the topic had already picked a good deal of wind in its sails, as attested in the editorial "Cell Death in Us and Others", written by an important contributor to apoptosis reséarch, Pierre Golstein, in "Science" 281 p. 1283, 28 Aug. 1998: "Although there have been scattered reports on the topic of cell death for more than a century, the
for more than a century, the 20,000 publications on this topic within the past 5 years reflect a shift from historically mild interest to contemporary fascination."
Kimia organologam mangrupa ulikan sanyawa kimia nu ngandung beungkeut antara karbon jeung logam
Istilah "logam" dina jihat ieu dihartikeun sacara husus sarta bisa ngawengku unsur kayaning silikon atawa boron, nu lain logam kawas beusi tapi dianggap métaloid
Kimia organologam ngagabungkeun aspék-aspék kimia anorganik jeung kimia organik
Sanyawa organologam mindeng dipaké salaku katalis, misalna dina olahan produk pétroleum sarta produksi polimér organik
Kimia kuantum mangrupa larapan mékanik kuantum dina masalah-masalah widang kimia
Dadaran ngeunaan paripolah éléktronik atom jeung molekul patali jeung réaktivitina mangrupa hiji larapan kimia kuantum
ku sabab ulikan mékanis-kuantum atom dianggap aya dina garis wates antara kimia jeung fisika, and not always included in quantum chemistry, what is often considered the first true calculation in quantum chemistry was that of the German scientists Walter Heitler and Fritz London (though Heitler and London are generally classed as physicists) on the hydrogen (H2) molecule in 1927
Heitler and London's method was extended by the American chemists John C. Slater and Linus Pauling to become the Valence-Bond (VB) [or Heitler-London-Slater-Pauling (HLSP)] method
In this method, attention is primarily devoted to the pairwise interactions of atoms, and this method therefore correlates closely with classical chemists' drawing of bonds between atoms
An alternative approach was developed by Friedrich Hund and Robert S. Mulliken, in which the electrons are described by mathematical functions delocalized over an entire molecule
The Hund-Mulliken approach [or molecular orbital (MO) method] is less intuitive to chemists, but since it turns out to be more capable of predicting properties than the VB method, it is virtually the only method used in recent yéars
In 1970s was créated a Quantum-Mechanical Théory of the Elementary Act of Chemical, Electrochemical and Biochemical réactions in Polar Liquids (by R.R
Dogonadze and others)
Dogonadze was a founder of the well-known scientific school of Quantum Electrochemistry
Sababaraha jejer dina kimia kuantum kayaning: Some péople (other than those mentioned above) significant in the development of quantum chemistry:
Spéktroskopi mangrupa ulikan ngeunaan spéktra
Spéktroskopi mindeng dipaké na kimia fisik sarta analitis pikeun idéntifikasi zat tina spéktrum nu mencar atawa nu diserepna
Parabot pikeun ngarékam spéktrum disebut spéktrométer
Spéktroskopi bisa digolongkeun dumasar kuantitas fisik nu diukur, diitung, atawa prosés ngukurna
Spéktroskopi ogé kapaké pisan dina astronomi
Tempo spéktroskopi astronomis
Kuantitas fisik nu diukur
Tipe spéktroskopi gumantung kana kuantitas fisik nu rék diukur
Ilaharna, kuantitas nu diukur mangrupa jumlah atawa inténsitas
Bahan kimia bisa ngandung harti unsur kimia atawa bahan nu wangunan unsur-unsur kimiawina tangtu: sanyawa kimia
Istilah ieu ogé mindeng ditujulkeun ka bahan bungkeuleukan, teu ukur partikel mandiri nu mikroskopik atawa submikroskopik, yén, ""bahan kimia" téh mangrupa guruntulan husus atom atawa molekul."
"Tempo ogé:" kimia, industri kimia, molekul, campuran
Kimia lingkungan nyaéta Élmu kimia jeung penomena biokimia nu aya di alam asli
It should not be confused with green chemistry, which seeks to reduce potential pollution at source
It can be defined as the study of the sources, réactions, transport, effects, and fates of chemical species in the air, soil, and water environments; and the effect of human activity on these
Environmental chemistry is an interdisciplinary science that includes atmospheric, aquatic and soil chemistry, as well as héavily relying on analytical chemistry and being related to environmental and other aréas of science
Tabel periodik unsur kimiawi nyaéta pintonan tabular unsur kimiawi nu dipikanyaho
Unsur-unsur disusun dumasar struktur éléktron antukna rupa-rupa sipat kimiawina puguh susunanana sapanjang tabelna
Nu ditémbongkeun utamana nomer atom sarta lambang kimiawina
Tabel baku nyadiakeun dasar-dasar nu perlu
Aya ogé Métode séjén pikeun mintonkeun unsur-unsur kimiawi pikeun leuwih rinci atawa sawangan séjénna
Golongan mangrupa kolom vértikal dina tabel periodik
Aya 18 golongan dina tabel periodik baku
Unsur-unsur nu sagolongan mibanda konfigurasi éléktron valénsi nu sarua/mirip, nepi ka sipat-sipatna ogé mirip
Aya tilu sistim nomer golongan; hiji maké wilangan Arab, sedengkeun nu séjénna wilangan Romawi
Ngaran wilangan Romawi mangrupa ngaran tradisional asli golongan; ngaran wilangan Arab mangrupa skéma nu leuwih anyar nu dirékoméndasikeun ku IUPAC
Ieu skéma dijieun pikeun ngaganti dua sistim wilangan Romawi nu heubeul sabab ngalieurkeun ku ayana ngaran nu sarua pikeun maksud nu béda
Tabél periodik baku
Sandi warna pikeun wilangan atom: Dadaran ngeunaan struktur tabel periodik
Jumlah cangkang éléktron hiji atom nangtukeun kaasup périodeu sabaraha
Unggal cangkang kabagi kana subcangkang nu béda-béda, di mana nambahna wilangan atom ngeusian nuturkeun urutan nu sacara kasar kawas kieu: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d 5p 6s 4f 5d 6p 7s 5f 6d 7p 8s 5g 6f 7d 8p ku sabab éléktron pangluarna nangtukeun pasipatan kimiana, unsur-unsur nu sagolongan téh mibanda pasipatan nu mirip
Unsur-unsur sagolongan nu natangga mibanda pasipatan fisika nu sarupa, najan massana mah béda jauh
Unsur-unsur nu natangga dina hiji périodeu mibanda massa nu ampir sarua, tapi pasitapanana béda
Pikeun conto, unsur tatangga nitrogén (N) dina périodeu kadua dina tabel nyaéta karbon (C) jeung oksigén (O)
Najan massana ampir sarua (ukur sababaraha unit massa atom), pasipatanana mah béda pisan, sakumaha nu katempo dina alotropna: oksigén diatomik gas nu ngarojong durukan, sedengkeun nitrogén diatomik teu ngarojong durukan, sarta karbon mah mangrupa padetan nu teu bisa diduruk
Nu di luhur kontras pisan jeung kasus klorin (Cl) nu natangga jeung halogén séjén (golongan halogén), nyaéta florin (F) jeung bromin (Br)
Najan massana béda pajauh, sipat alotropna mah sarupa pisan: kabéhanana korosif (nu ngandung harti gampang ngagabung jeung logam jadi uyah halida logam); klorin jeung florin mangrupa gas, sedengkeun bromin cair
"Artikel utama: Sajarah tabel periodik" Tabel asli dijieunna tanpa pangaweruh ngeunaan struktur jero atom: mun urang nyusun unsur-unsur dumasar massa atom, lajeng ngaplot salah sahiji sipat séjénna kana massa atomna, one sees an undulation or "periodicity" to these properties as a function of atomic mass
Nu munggaran nengetan pola ieu nyaéta kimiawan Jérman Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner, nu taun 1829, ngiberkeun sababaraha "triad" unsur-unsur nu sarupa: Ieu tuluy dituturkeun ku kimiawan Inggris John Alexander Reina Newlands, nu taun 1865 ngémbarkeun yén unsur-unsur nu tipena sarua kaulang unggal selang dalapan unsur, nu ceuk manéhna bet mirip oktaf musik, najan "hukum oktaf"na diseungseurikeun ku batur-baturna
Tungtungna, taun 1869 kimiawan Jérman Lothar Meyer jeung Rusia Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev ampir bareng ngembangkeun tabel periodik munggaran, nyusun unsur-unsur dumasar massa
Ngan, Mendeleev nempatkeun sababaraha unsur di luareun runtuyan massa nu geus maneuh sangkan papasanganana leuwih cocog pasipatanana antartatangga satabel, menerkeun kasalahan sababaraha massa atom, sarta ngaduga unsur-unsur séjén nu can kapanggih nu posisina aya dina sél-sél nu kosong kénéh
Mendeleev lajeng dihargaan ku papanggihanana ngeunaan struktur éléktronik unsur dina ahir abad ka-19 jeung awal abad ka-20
Ceuli atawa basa hormatna disebut salaku cepil mangrupa organ nu dipaké ku sato pikeun ngariksa sora
Istilah ieu bisa nujul ka sakabéh sistim pikeun ngumpulkeun sarta ngolah sora (mimiti sistim pangrungu), atawa sakadar bagéan luar nu katempo
Organ pangrungu lian-mamalia
Lancah boga bulu na sukuna nu dipaké pikeun "nyabak" sora
Ceuli réptil ngan boga hiji tulang - "malleus" (tempo di handap)
Mamalia, kaasup manusa, boga dua ceuli, hiji di unggal gigir sirah
Ceuli luar nyaéta bagéan luar ceuli
Bagéan nu ketempo disebut pinna, atawa auricle, nu fungsina pikeun ngumpulkeun sarta mokuskeun gelombang sora
Loba mamalia nu bisa ngagerakkeun pinna sangkan bisa mokuskeun sarta ngarahkeun pangdéngéna, sakumaha maranéhna bisa ngagilerkeun panonna
Manusa sacara umum geus leungiteun kabisa ieu
Ti pinna, gelombang tekenan sora p (Pascal) mepay ka liang ceuli, solobong basajan nu nujul ka ceuli tengah
Ceuli tengah ngawengku kendang ceuli (tympanum atawa mémbran tympanik) jeung osikel, tilu tulang leutik na ceuli tengah
Kasakit jeung kaayaan médis ceuli sarta sistim pangrungu
Kagangguna ceuli atawa sistim olah pangrungu na otak bisa ngabalukarkeun torék
Panon (basa hormat: Soca) atawa mata mangrupa hiji organ nu boga tujuan pikeun ngariksa cahya
Panon nu pangbasajanna teu migawé lian ti ngariksa naha sakuriling téh caang atawa poék
Panon nu leuwih kompléks dipaké pikeun nyadiakeun rasa sawangan
Panon majemuk dipimilik ku artropoda (insékta jeung sabangsana), nu disusun ku fasét-fasét basajan nu ngahasilkeun "pixelated image" (lain sababaraha gambar sakumaha nu disangka)
Pikeun lolobana vertebrata jeung sababaraha molluska, fungsi panon nyaéta pikeun ngeunteungkeun (proyéksi) gambar kana rétina nu peka ku cahya, nu tuluy ditransmisikeun ngaliwatan saraf optik ka uteuk
Panon bentukna buleud, dieusi ku zat kawas jél transparan nu disebut "vitreous humour", tuluy lénsa jeung otot nu disebut iris nu ngatur kadar cahya nu asup
Sangkan bisa fokus, cahya nu asup kudu diréfraksikeun
Jumlah réfraksi nu diperlukeun gumantung kana jarak objék nu keur ditempo
Objek nu jauh ngabutuhkeun campuran cahaya, dibandingkeun objek nu deukeut
Mindengna, refraksi kajadian di bagian cornea nu miboga curvatur nu tetep
Tempo "site" ieu pikeun diagram panon nu hadé
Baham nyaéta lawang asup pikeun sato ngasupkeun dahareun
Biasana aya na hulu, tapi teu salawasna; baham planaria aya na beuteungna
lolobana sato mibanda sistim digéstif nu lengkep: baham di hiji tungtung sarta bool di tungtung séjén
Tungtung mana nu kabentuk tiheula na ontogeni mangrupa kritéria nu dipaké pikeun nangtukeun kelas sasatoan kana protostom jeung deuterostom
Sababaraha sato, kayaning cnidaria jeung planaria, teu boga bool
Maranéhna miceun ngaliwatan sungutna, atawa sarua jeung brachiopod, nu boga sistim digéstif nu éfisién pisan, digiling na burih nepi ka réngsé
Sababaraha rupa sato, kawas cacing pita, teu boga sungut-sungut acan
Cacing pita hirup jero peujit, antukna teu butuh sistim pencernaan
Di lolobana sato, sungutna boga babagian pikeun nyapék dahareun, ngabeuweung dahareun, atawa pikeun nyuntikkeun peurah/racun
Dina artropod, aya suku nu dimodifikasi di luareun sungutna; sedengkeun di vertebrata gnatostome aya di jero
Dina manuk, sungutna ditutup ku pamatuk
Baham manusa ditutupan ku biwir luhur jeung handap
Biwir ieu penting pikeun nyarita, paroman beungeut, nginum (utamana mun maké panyerot), ngaroko
Orok lahir mawa réfléks neureuy, hal ieu nalurian pikeun ngalatih biwir jeung huntuna
Ruruncang atawa untap ("philtrum") kabentuk alatan tepungna prosés nasomedial jeung maksilar nalika émbrio tumuwuh
Mun prosés ieu gagal ngahiji sacara sampurna, balukarna jadi suing
==Dicutat tina= Baca ogé
Kabubuahan atawa Ginjal atawa Ginjel nyaéta organ ékskrési nu bentukna kawas kacang na vertebrata
Bagéan tina sistem urin, kabubuahan nyaring runtah (utamana uréa) tina getih sarta miceun babarengan jeung cai salaku urin
Widang médis nu ngulik kabubuahan sarta kasakit nu mangaruhan kabubuahan disebut nefrologi
Dina awak manusa, kabubuahan mangrupa dua organ nu aya di tukangeun abdomén, kénca katuhueun tulang tonggong, handapeun ati jeung limpa
Di luhureun masing-masing kabubuahan nyaéta kelenjar adrénal
Kabubuahan sipatna rétroperitonéal, nu hartina aya tukangeun peritoneum nu ngabungkus rongga abdominal, luhurna kira-kira sapantar jeung tulang tonggong T12 nepi ka L3
ku sabab ayana ati, kabubuahan nu katuhu perenahna leuwih handap batan nu kénca
Bagian luhur kabubuahan kajaga ku rusuk ka-11 jeung -12
Dina awak manusa sawawa anu normal, kabubuahan téh panjangna kira 11 cm, kandel 5 cm, beuratna 150 gr
Bentukna kawas kacang, konkaf di sisi nu nyanghareup ka jero (médial)
Bagian éta téh minangka lawang nu disebut hilus, tempat nyambungna artéri jeung véna rénal, sarta saraf jeung urétér
Lapisan-lapisan kabubuahan ti luar nepi ka jero nyaéta "renal cortex", "renal medulla", jeung "renal pelvis" nu aya di bagian tengah
Bagian luarna dibungkus ku "renal capsule" nu dijieun tina "loose connective tissue"
Fungsi rénal ngawengku éxkrési runtah tina saluran getih, sékrési hormon - hususna éritropoiétin jeung rénin sarta ngajaga éléktrolit sérum, kadar asam-basa, jeung osmolality
Pikeun leuwih lengkep tempo fisiologi rénal
Dialisis jeung cangkok kabubuahan
Sacara umum, urang bisa hirup ku boga hiji kabubuahan
Mun duanana geus teu bener fungsina, kudu ngalakukeun dialysis, nyaéta nyaring getih di luar awak
Cangkok kabubuahan ayeuna geus kaitung biasa
Cangkok kabubuahan munggaran nu hasil diumumkeun 4 Maret 1954 ku Peter Bent Brigham Hospital di Boston
bédahna dilaksanakeun ku Dr. Joseph E. Murray, nu taun 1990 dileler Hadiah Nobel widang Médis
Istilah médis nu patali jeung kabubuahan biasana maké émbohan "rénal" atawa "néfro-"
Éléktron (ogé disebut négatron, biasa dilambangkeun ku e−) mangrupa partikel subatomik
Dina atom, éléktron ngurilingan inti proton jeung neutron dina sarupaning konfigurasi éléktron
Éléktron mangrupa salah sahiji golongan partikel subatomik nu disebut lepton nu dipercaya mangrupa partikel fundaméntal (nyaéta teu bisa dibeulah deui jadi bagéan nu leuwih leutik)
Éléktron mibanda spin 1/2, nu nunjukkeun yén éléktron téh hiji fermion, hartina, nuturkeun statistik Fermi-Dirac
Dina mékanik kuantum, éléktron digambarkeun ku "Dirac Equation"
Dina Modél Baku fisika partikel, éléktron ngabentuk hiji doblét dina SU(2) jeung electron neutrino, as they interact through the weak interaction
The electron has two more massive partners, with the same charge but different masses: the muon and the tauon
The antimatter counterpart of the electron is its antiparticle, the positron
The positron has the same amount of electrical charge as the electron, except that the charge is positive
It has the same mass and spin as the electron
When an electron and a positron meet, they may annihilate éach other, giving rise to two gamma-ray photons, éach having an energy of 0.511 MeV (511 keV)
See also Electron-positron annihilation
Some théorists believe the electron may be a very small black hole
Éléktron bisa némbongkeun boh sipat partikel jeung gelombang
Éléktron nu kabeungkeut na inti polahna salaku "standing wave"
The electron has a negative electric charge of -1.6 × 10−19 coulombs, and a mass of about 9.10 × 10-31 kg (0.51 MeV/c2), which is 1/1800 of the proton mass
It is believed that the number of electrons that would fit in the known universe is 10 followed by 130 zeros
When electrons move, free of the nuclei of atoms, and there is a net flow, this flow is called electricity, or an electric current
This might be compared to a flock of sheep moving north together, while the shepherds do not
Electric charge can be directly méasured with an electrometer
Electric current can be directly méasured with a galvanometer
So-called "static electricity" is not a flow of electrons at all
More correctly called a "static charge", it refers to a body that has more or fewer electrons than are required to balance the positive charge of the nuclei
When there is an excess of electrons, the object is said to be "negatively charged"
When there are fewer electrons than protons, the object is said to be "positively charged"
When the number of electrons and the number of protons are equal, the object is said to be electrically "neutral"
The electron had been posited by G. Johnstone Stoney, as a unit of charge in electrochemistry, but Thompson réalised that it was also a subatomic particle
The electron was discovered by J.J. Thomson in 1897 at the Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge University, while studying "cathode rays."
Influenced by the work of James Clerk Maxwell, and the discovery of the X-ray, he deduced that cathode rays existed and were negatively charged ""particles", which he called "corpuscles"
Dina statistik, hipotesis kosong (Ing: "null hypotesis") nyaéta hipotesis nu mibanda anggapan awal bener lamun kajadian statistik dina bentuk tes hipotesis nunjukkeun sabalikna
Hipotesis kosong nyaéta hiji hipotesis yén urang mikaresep kana hiji hal nu nembongkeun hal éta téh palsu atawa salah
Salawasna ieu katangtuan téh ngeunaan hiji parameter nu ngagambarkeun sifat tina hiji populasi, nu mana sakabéh populasi ieu teu katalungtik, sarta tes dumasar kana sampel acak tina populasi ieu
Nu dimaksud sababaraha paraméter ieu, ilaharna nu dipaké nyaéta méan jeung simpangan baku
Not unusually, such a hypothesis states that the parameters, or mathematical characteristics, of two or more populasi are identical
For example, if we want to compare the test scores of two random samples of men and women, the null hypothesis would be that the méan score in the male population from which the first sample was drawn was the same as the méan score in the female population from which the second sample was drawn: formula_1 where: "H"0 = the null hypothesis μ1
"H"0 = the null hypothesis μ1 = the mean of population 1, and μ2 = the mean of population 2
Alternatively, the null hypothesis can postulate that the two samples are drawn from the same population: formula_2 Formulation of the null hypothesis is a vital step in statistical significance testing
Having formulated such a hypothesis, we can then proceed to establish the probability of observing the data we have actually obtained, or data more different from the prediction of the null hypothesis, if the null hypothesis is true
That probability is what is commonly called the "significance level" of the results
In formulating a particular null hypothesis, we are always also formulating an alternative hypothesis, which we will accept if the observed data values are sufficiently improbable under the null hypothesis
The precise formulation of the null hypothesis has implications for the alternative
For example, if the null hypothesis is that sample A is drawn from a population with the same méan as sample B, the alternative hypothesis is that they come from populations with "different" méans (and we shall proceed to a two-tailed test of significance)
But if the null hypothesis is that sample A is drawn from a population whose méan is no lower than the méan of the population from which sample B is drawn, the alternative hypothesis is that sample A comes from a population with a "larger" méan than the population from which sample B is drawn, and we will proceed to a one-tailed test
A null hypothesis is only useful if it is possible to calculate the probability of observing a data set with particular paraméters from it
In general it is much harder to be precise about how probable the data would be if the alternative hypothesis is true
If experimental observations contradict the prediction of the null hypothesis, it méans that either the null hypothesis is false, or we have observed an event with very low probability
This gives us high confidence in the falsehood of the null hypothesis, which can be improved by incréasing the number of trials
However, accepting the alternative hypothesis only commits us to a difference in observed paraméters; it does not prove that the théory or principles that predicted such a difference is true, since it is always possible that the difference could be due to additional factors not recognised by the théory
For example, rejection of a null hypothesis (that, say, rates of symptom relief in a sample of patients who received a placebo and a sample who received a medicinal drug will be equal) allows us to maké a non-null statement (that the rates differed); it does not prove that the drug relieved the symptoms, though it gives us more confidence in that hypothesis
The formulation, testing, and rejection of null hypotheses is methodologically consistent with the falsificationist modél of scientific discovery formulated by Karl Popper and widely believed to apply to most kinds of empirical research
However, concerns regarding the high power of statistical tests to detect differences in large samples have led to suggestions for re-defining the null hypothesis, for example as a hypothesis that an effect falls within a range considered negligible
In 2002, a group of psychologists launched a new journal dedicated to experimental studies in psychology which support the null hypothesis
The "Journal of Articles in Support of the Null Hypothesis" (JASNH) was founded to address a scientific publishing bias against such articles
According to the editors, "other journals and reviewers have exhibited a bias against articles that did not reject the null hypothesis
We plan to change that by offering an outlet for experiments that do not reach the traditional significance levels (p &lt; 0.05)
Thus, reducing the file drawer problem, and reducing the bias in psychological literature
Without such a resource researchers could be wasting their time examining empirical questions that have already been examined
We collect these articles and provide them to the scientific community free of cost."
For example, if you want to see if there is gréater divorce avoidance from Thomas Théory than from Edgar Théory, so your Null Hypothesis would be, "Thomas Theory is no more effective than Edgar Theory."
If the probability of the observed results is under the null hypothesis is sufficiently low, you can accept the alternative hypothesis that Thomas Théory is indeed more effective
Tempo oge: tes hipotesa statistik
Liang Heunceut (Basa Latinna "vagina", hartina "sarangka"), nyaéta jalan nyolobong ti mimiti uterus nepi ka bagian luar awak bikang mamalia, atawa nepi ka kloaka na manuk bikang sarta sababaraha réptil
Serangga bikang jeung invertebrata séjénna ogé boga heunceut, nu mangrupa bagian tungtung oviduk
Dina mamalia, heunceut atawa liang heunceut téh hiji otot sarta bagian tina sistim kingkiihan awéwé, mun dina manusa mah manjang tina mémék nepi ka sérviks
Ari dina bubukaan heunceut nu pangluarna aya bagian anu katutupan ku mémbran anu disebut himén atawa salaput dara
Dina bagian pangjerona pisan, aya sérviks (beuheung rahim) anu nonjol nepi ka kana heunceut
Ari heunceut téh ngajalanan kana sapatemon sarta babar, ogé kokocoran héd, anu maneuh sacara périodik bagian tina siklus siklus héd
Pikeun tujuan anatomi, vagina bisa ngandung harti struktur naon waé salaku sarangka, saperti dina heunceut véna portal
Conto séjén nyaéta sarangka serat sabudeureun téndon, disebutna vagina fibrosa nalika padet atawa vagina mucosa nalika ngandung rongga nu pinuh ku cairan sabudeureun téndon
Dina basa Sunda, kecap heunceut ogé dilarapkeun pikeun nuduhkeun bagian nu liangan dina hiji barang
Misalna, "heunceut jarum", nu maksudna liang nu aya na jarum kaput
Liang Heunceut manusa
Liang Heunceut mangrupa solobong otot nu élastis nu panjangna kira 4 inci (100 mm) nu nyambungkeun heunceut di bagian luar, ka sérvix uterus di bagian jero
Mun wanoja ngadeg ajeg, solobong heunceut nangtung déngdék ka tukang ngabentuk juru saeutik leuwih ti 90 darajat jeung uterus
Liang heunceut aya di bagian tukang palawangan ("vulva"), tukangeun liang kahampangan
Sacara biologis, heunceut ngajalankeun sababaraha fungsi: Nalika rarasmi, heunceut ngalegaan sarta manjangan; leuleueur heunceut kaluar tina kalenjar deukeut lawang heunceut jeung sérvix
Selaput dara—mémbran nu aya tukangeun lawang urétra—sabagian nutupan heunceut sababaraha organisme, kaasup manusa (wanoja), ti babar nepi ka ditembus nalika munggaran sapatemon, atawa bisa ogé alatan kagiatan séjén kaasup pamariksaan médis, kacilakaan, sababaraha rupa latihan, jsb
Heunceut sabenerna kaasup basa nu kasar upama dilarapkeun dina babasaan sapopoe
Upama di tarjamahkeun kana basa lemesna, heunceut disebut ogé palawangan
Asam déoksiribonukléat ("deoxyribonucleic acid", DNA) mangrupa asam nukléat nu mawa paréntah genetik pikeun pertumbuhan biologis sadaya bentuk kahirupan jeung rupa-rupa virus
DNA kadang disebut salaku molekul warisan sabab diwariskeun sarta digunakeun pikeun ngabaranahkeun sifat
Nalika réproduksi, DNA disalin sarta diteruskeun ka turunan
Dina baktéri jeung organisme sél basajan séjénna, DNA nyebar kurang leuwih ampir di sapanjang jero sél
Na sél kompléks nu nyusun tatangkalan, sato, sarta organisme multisél séjén, lolobana DNA kapanggih na kromosom nu aya na inti sél
Organél nu ngahasilkeun énergi nu katelah salaku kloroplas jeung mitokondria ogé mawa DNA, nya kitu ogé rupa-rupa virus
Ihtisar struktur molekular
Najan kadang disebut "molekul warisan", lambaran DNA teu mangrupa molekul tunggal
DNA mangrupa pasangan molekul, nu murilit kawas tambang nu ngawujud jadi hiji héliks ganda (bagéan luhur na gambar katuhu)
Unggal lambar molekul mangrupa salambar DNA: hiji ranté nukléotida nu numbu kimiawi nu masing-masing ngandung hiji gula, hiji fosfat, jeung salah sahiji ti opat "basa" aromatik
ku sabab lambaran DNA diwangun ku subunit-subunit nukléotida ieu, mangga kaasup polimér
Kabinékaan basa ieu ngandung harti yén aya opat rupa nukléotida, nu biasa ditujul dumasar basana, nyaéta adénin (A), timin (T), sitosin (C), jeung guanin (G)
Dina héliks ganda, dua lambar polinukléotida ngahiji dina papasangan kompleméntér basa-basana ku ayana beungkeut hidrogén
Unggal basa nyieun beungkeut hidrogén ukur jeung pasangan nu tinangtu—A ka T jeung C ka G -- antukna idéntitas basa na hiji lambar nangtukeun basa naon nu aya na lambar lawanna
Sakujur wangun nukléotida dina unggal lambar téh kompleméntér jeung pasanganana
Mun dipisahkeun, unggal lambar éta bisa dijadikeun citakan pikeun nyieun pasanganana
ku sabab papasangan basa nukléotidana aya dina sumbu héliks, mangka gugus gula jeung fosfatna ngaruntuy di bagian luar
Ranté anu dibentuk ku pasangan ieu gula-fosfat sok disebut "tulang tonggong" ("backbones") héliks
Dina hiji gén, runtuyan nukléotida sapanjang lambar DNA nangtukeun hiji protéin, nu perlu dijieun ku hiji organisme atawa "diéksprésikeun" sakali atawa sababaraha kali nalika hirupna ngagunakeun béja runtuyanana
Hubungan antara runtuyan nukléotida jeung runtuyan asam amino protéinna ditangtukeun ku aturan tarjamah sélular basajan, nu sacara koléktif katelah salaku sandi genetik
Maca sapanjang runtuyan "panyandi protéin" hiji gén, unggal tilu runtuy nukléotida (disebut kodon) nangtukeun atawa "nyandi" hiji asam amino
Di loba spésiés, jigana ukur sabagéan leutik tina sakabéh runtuyan génom nu nyandi protéin
Fungsi nu sésana nepi ka kiwari can dipikanyaho
Geus dipikanyaho yén aya runtuyan nukléotida nu nangtukeun "affinity" pikeun protéin pamengkeut DNA ("DNA binding protein") nu boga rupa-rupa peran penting, hususna dina ngatur réplikasi jeung transkripsi
Runtuyan ieu mindengna disebut runtuyan pangatur ("regulatory sequence"), bari panalungtik nganggap yén sajauh ieu mah aranjeunna bisa manggihan ngan saeutik ti antarana
"DNA runtah" ("junk DNA") nunjukkeun runtuyan nu can kapanggih mibanda gén atawa fungsi
Runtuyan ogé nangtukeun karentanan hiji bagéan DNA tina beulah alatan énzim réstriksi, alat penting pisan dina rékayasa genetik
Lebah mana meulahna dina sapanjang génom individu nangtukeun "sidik DNAna"
"Artikel utama:" Réplikasi DNA Réplikasi DNA atawa sintésis DNA mangrupa prosés nyalin DNA lambar-ganda nuturkeun ayana "pembelahan sél"
Lambaran ganda nu dihasilkeun sacara umum ampir sarua samasakali, ngan kasalahan dina réplikasi bisa ngakibatkeun salinan nu teu sampurna (tempo mutasi)
Unggal lambar ganda nu dihasilkeun ngandung salambar nu asli sarta salambar nu anyar disintésis
Ieu disebutna "réplikasi semikonservatif"
Prosés réplikasi ngawengku tilu hambalan: "inisiasi", "réplikasi", jeung "terminasi"
Sifat mékanis nu patali jeung biologi
Beungkeut hidrogén antara lambaran héliks ganda cukup lemah antukna bisa leupas kalawan gampang ku ayana énzim
Énzim nu katelah hélikase ngudar lambaran pikeun ngajalanan majuna énzim nu maca runtuyan kayaning polimérase DNA
Maca runtuyan DNA
Bentuk jeung beungkeut nu asimétri dina nukléotida ngandung harti yén salambar DNA salawasna mibanda "a discernable orientation" atawa "directionality"
Ku sabab kitu, najan salambar nukléotida nujul ka hiji "arah", nu séjénna (pasanganana) pasti nujul ka sabalikna
Susunan lambar kieu disebutna antiparalél
Pikeun alesan tata ngaran kimia, urang kudu ngarujuk ka tungtung asimétri dina unggal lambaran DNA-na salaku tungtung 5' jeung 3' (dibaca "prima lima" jeung "prima tilu")
Olah DNA (misalna nu ngalibetkeun énzim) ilaharna maca runtuyan nukléotida ti "5' ka 3'"
Dina ilustrasi héliks ganda nu nangtung/vértikal, lambaran 3' biasana naék, sedengkeun lambaran 5' sabalikna
DNA "single-stranded" (ssDNA) jeung ngoméan mutasi
Dina saababaraha virus, DNA téh aya dina bentuk lambar tunggal sarta nonhéliks
ku sabab mékanisme ngoméan DNA mah biasana lumangsung dina basa-basa nu papasangan, virus nu ngan boga génom ssDNA mutasina leuwih mindeng batan mun boga utas ganda
Balukarna, aya spésiés-spésiés nu bisa adaptasi leuwih gancang antukna teu lastari
Dina fisika jeung termodinamika, hipotesa ergodic nyebutkeun yen, dina periode waktu nu lila, waktu nu dipaké dina daerah nu sarua tina phase space microstates mibanda énérgi nu sarua jeung volume di éta daerah, contona keur sakabéh microstates nu bisa diakses mibanda kamungkinan nu sarua dina periode waktu nu lila
Kasaruaan ieu, bisa disebutkeun yén waktu average sarta average dina susunan statistik mibanda nilai nu sarua
Teori ergodik mangrupa cabang tina matematik nu pakait jeung dinamika sistim nu salaras jeung versi ieu hipotesis, dina bahasa teori ukuran
Sacara informal, prosés stokastik mibanda sipat Markov if the conditional probability distribution of future states of the process, given the present state, depends only upon the current state, and conditionally independent of the past states (the "path" of the process) given the present state
A process with the Markov property is usually called a Markov process, and may be described as "Markovian"
Mathematically, if "X"("t"), "t" &gt; 0, is a stochastic process, the Markov property states that formula_1 Markov processes are typically termed "(time-) homogeneous" if formula_2 and otherwise are termed "(time-) inhomogeneous" (or "(time-) nonhomogeneous")
Homogenéous Markov processes, usually being simpler than inhomogenéous ones, form the most important class of Markov processes
In some cases, apparently non-Markovian processes may still have Markovian representations, constructed by expanding the concept of the 'current' and 'future' states
Let "X" be a non-Markovian process
Then we define a process "Y", such that éach state of "Y" represents a time-interval of states of "X", i.e
mathematically formula_3 If "Y" has the Markov property, then it is a Markovian representation of "X"
In this case, "X" is also called a second-order Markov process
Higher-order Markov processes are defined analogously
An example of an non-Markovian process with a Markovian representation is a moving average deret waktu
Prosés Markov nu pangkawentarna nyaéta ranté Markov, ngan prosés-prosés séjénna ogé, kaasup gerak Brown (Ing
"Brownian motion"), Markovian kénéh
Aya dua harti ngeunaan watesan gerak Brown: hiji, dina fénoména fisik salaku gerak partikel dina fluida nu mangrupa gerak acak, sarta nu séjénna dina modél matematik nu dipaké pikeun ngajelaskeun hal éta
Modél matematik bisa ogé digunakeun keur ngajelaskeun lobana fénoména séjén anu teu kasusun (ku matematik séjénna) ku gerak acak partikel
Nu biasa dipaké conto séjénna nyaéta turun unggahna pasar stok (Ing
"stock market"), sarta conto penting séjénna evolusi karakter fisik dina rekaman fosil
Gerak Brown mangrupa prosés stokastik pangbasajanna dina domain kontinyu, and it is a limit of both simpler (see random walk) and more complicated stochastic processes
This universality is closely related to the universality of the normal distribution
In both cases, it is often mathematical convenience rather than actual accuracy as modéls that dictates their use
All three quoted examples of Brownian motion are cases of this: it has been argued that Lévy flights are a more accurate, if still imperfect, modél of stock-market fluctuations; the physical Brownian motion can be modélled more accurately by more general diffusion process; and the dust hasn't settled yet on what the best modél for the fossil record is, even after correcting for non-Gaussian
is, even after correcting for non-Gaussian data
Sajarah gerak Brown
Gerak Brown kapanggih ku ahli biologi Robert Brown taun 1827
The story goes that Brown was studying pollen particles floating in water under the microscope, and he observed minute particles within vacuoles in the pollen grains executing the jittery motion that now béars his name
By doing the same with particles of dust, he was able to rule out that the motion was due to pollen being "alive", but it remained to explain the origin of the motion
Nu pangheulana méré téori ngeunaan gerak Brown taya lian ti Albert Einstein taun 1905
At that time the atomic nature of matter was still a controversial idéa
Einstein observed that, if the kinetic theory of fluids was right, then the molecules of water would move at random and so a small particle would receive a random number of impacts of random strength and from random directions in any short period of time
This random bombardment by the molecules of the fluid would cause a sufficiently small particle to move in exactly the way described by Brown
Dadaran modél matematis
Sacara matematik, gerak Brown mangrupa prosés Wiener nu mana sebaran kondisional probailiti tina posisi partikel dina waktu "t"+d"t", nu dina posisi waktu "t" nyaéta "p", mangrupa sebaran normal mibanda mean "p"+μ dt sarta varian σ2 d"t"; paraméter μ mangrupa simpangan "kecepatan", sarta paraméter σ2 mangrupa "power noise"
These properties cléarly establish that Brownian motion is Markovian (i.e
it satisfies the Markov property)
Brownian motion is related to the random walk problem and it is generic in the sense that many different stochastic processes reduce to Brownian motion in suitable limits
In fact, the Wiener process is the only time-homogeneous stochastic process with independent increments and which is continuous in probability
These are all réasonable approximations to the physical properties of Brownian motion
The mathematical théory of Brownian motion has been applied in contexts ranging far beyond the movement of particles in fluids
For example, in the modérn théory of option pricing, asset classes are sometimes modéled as if they move according to a Brownian motion with drift
It turns out that the Wiener process is not a physically réalistic modél of the motion of Brownian particles
More sophisticated formulations of the problem have led to the mathematical théory of diffusion processes
The accompanying equation of motion is called the Langevin equation or the Fokker-Planck equation depending on whether it is formulated in terms of random trajectories or probability densities
osmosis, tangkal brown (Ing
"brownian tree"), ultramikroskop, Brownian ratchet
"Artikel ieu ngeunaan hukum dina masarakat
Harti mungkin sejenna bisa ditempo di law (disambiguation)."
Artikel ieu mokuskeun kana hukum pulitik sarta yurisprudénsi: rules of conduct which mandate and/or proscribe specified relationships among people and Organisasi; as well as punishments for those who do not follow the established rules of conduct
In ethics and moral philosophy this type of law is often called a "human legal code" to distinguish it from more fundamental laws applicable to all beings (metaphysics, ontology)
Such a body of laws can be seen as a legally-enforced ethical code or as a "secular moral code" (to the degree that political léaders replace religious léaders as moral examples)
Because lawyers and jurists more than other professions are self-regulating, almost by definition, they are often held to higher standards of behaviour or at léast a stricter etiquette
These concerns are not part of this article, because those expectations and disciplines are specific to éach legal code
This article takes an English-spéaking point of view and déals with other legal traditions and codes by way of comparison only
Jurisprudence refers to two different things
First, in common law jurisdictions, it méans simply "case law", i.e
the law that is established through the decisions of the courts and other officials
Second, it méans the philosophy of law, or legal theory, which studies not what the law is in a particular jurisdiction (say, Turkey or the United States) but law in general—i.e
those attributes common to all legal systems
Jurisprudence in the second sense is conventionally divided into two parts: descriptive, or analytic, jurisprudence, and normative jurisprudence
Analytic jurisprudence studies what law 'is', normative jurisprudence studies what law 'ought to be'
Among the most important questions of analytic jurisprudence are these: What is a law
What is a legal system
What is the relationship between law and power
What is the relationship between law and justice or morality
Does every society have a legal system
How should we understand concepts like legal rights and legal obligations or duties
The most influential works of analytic jurisprudence include: Jeremy Bentham, "Of Laws in General"; Hans Kelsen, "The Pure Theory of Law," H.L.A
Hart, "The Concept of Law", and Ronald Dworkin, "Law's Empire"
Among the most important questions of normative jurisprudence are these: What is the proper function of law
What sorts of acts should be subject to punishment, and what sorts of punishment should be permitted
What is justice
What rights do we have
Is there a duty to obey the law
What value has the rule of law
The most influential works of normative jurisprudence include all the classics of political philosophy
Among contemporary writers, the following have been particularly influential: John Rawls, "A Theory of Justice" H.L.A
Hart, "Punishment and Responsibility"; Joel Feinberg, "The Moral Limits of the Criminal Law"; Joseph Raz, "The Morality of Freedom"; Ronald Dworkin, "A Matter of Principle" Codification of law
Law is the formal codification of customs which have achieved such acceptance as become the enforced norm
The process of acceptance is accelerated by the existence of legislative bodies which seek to impose laws
Law codification involves the legislation and regulation of statutes; as well as the resolution of disputes
In the civil law system codification is also an attempt to structure the law according to fundamental ethical principles to créate a sense of order and simplicity that all members of society can comprehend, not merely university trained jurists
Stating the law in simple, precise terms, understandable to the lay person without a specialized legal education, is the only way they can réasonably obey it or be fairly sanctioned for not obeying it
This overlaps with the idéa of a formal social legal code as understood in ethics
This may be understandable to the educated lay person but perhaps not to the ordinary lay person
For example, one can explain the idéa of precedent more éasily than that of the reasonable man, but it may be much harder to explain why precedent is "fair" to one without "higher education"
The following are examples of such lay explanations of different branches of law, and théories of law
Law as academic discipline and profession
In addition to being part of the societal framework law is also an academic discipline and a profession
Lawyers are sometimes called by other names, as in England where the profession is divided between solicitors and barristers or solicitor and advocate in Scotland
Sometimes they are also called notaries
(Do not confuse this term with "notary public" which is an individual who is licensed to act as a witness to certain transactions, take oaths and authenticate signatures.)
They are professionally trained in the United States at graduate schools of law léading to the J.D
degree (Juris Doctor)
In other countries legal education is considered to start at the undergraduate stage taught in faculty of law léading to the LL.B
NOTE: In Canada at léast, the LL.B
requires previous undergraduate studies
Law is an undergraduate degree mainly in civil law countries
Most of these schools also have advanced legal degrees such as the LL.M
and the J.S.D
Many persons who attend law school never practice law but use their knowledge of law in another profession
See Law (academic) and jurisprudence For law as a profession, see lawyer, jurist and practice of law
Most laws and legal systems—at léast in the Western world—are quite similar in their essential themes, arising from similar values and similar social, economic, and political conditions, and they typically differ less in their substantive content than in their jargon and procedures
Communication between legal systems is the focus of legal translation and legal lexicography, which déals with the principles of producing a law dictionary
One of the fundamental similarities across different legal systems is that, to be of general approval and observation, a law has to appéar to be public, effective, and legitimate, in the sense that it has to be available to the knowledge of the citizen in common places or méans, it needs to contain instruments to grant its application, and it has to be issued
and it has to be issued under given formal procedures from a recognized authority
In the context of most legal systems, laws are enacted through the processes of constitutional charter, constitutional amendment, legislation, executive order, rulemaking, and adjudication; within Common law jurisdictions, rulings by judges are an important additional source of legal rules
However, "de facto" laws also come into existence through custom and tradition
(See generally Consuetudinary law; Anarchist law.)
Law has an anthropological dimension
In order to have a culture of law, péople must dwell in a society where a government exists whose authority is hard to evade and generally recognised as legitimate
Péople forego personal revenge or self-help and choose instéad to take their grievances before the government and its agents, who arbitrate disputes and enforce penalties
This behaviour is contrasted with the culture of honor, where respect for persons and groups stems from féar of the disproportionate revenge they may exact if their person, property, or prerogatives are not respected
Cultures of law must be maintained
They can be eroded by declining respect for the law, achieved either by wéak government unable to wield its authority, or by burdensome restrictions that attempt to forbid behaviour prevalent in the culture or in some subculture of the society
When a culture of law declines, there is a possibility that an undesirable culture of honor will arise in its place
A particular society or community adopts a specific set of laws to regulate the behavior of its own members, to order life in its political territory, to grant or acknowledge the rights and privileges of its citizens and other péople who may come under the jurisdiction of its courts, and to resolve disputes