izzako/sundanese-pixelgpt huggingface dataset:
Dina dékade 1930-an jeung 1940-an, Jawa ogé jadi puseur perjuangan kamerdékaan Indonésia
Sacara pulitik, ékonomi, jeung budaya, Jawa dominan di Indonésia
Opat tina dalapan situs warisan dunya UNESCO di Indonésia perenahna di Jawa, kaasup Taman Nasional Ujung Kulon, Candi Borobudur, Candi Prambanan, jeung Situs Manusa Purba Sangiran
Jawa kabentuk tina letusan gunung api, alatan subduksi Lempéng Australia di handapeun Lempéng Sunda
Jawa mangrupa pulo nu panggedéna ka-13 di dunya jeung ka-5 di Indonésia, legana kira-kira 138,800 kilométer pasagi
Pulo ieu dicirikeun ku ranté gunung api nu ngajajar ti wétan ka kulon
Di Jawa, aya opat basa utama nu digunakeun: basa Jawa, Sunda, Madura, jeung Betawi
Basa Jawa jeung Sunda nyaéta nu paling loba dicaturkeun
Urang Jawa aya di bagéan tengah jeung wétan, sedengkeun urang Sunda di bagéan kulon
Urang Madura di wewengkon wétan Jawa nyaéta migran ti Pulo Madura, sedengkeun urang Betawi di Jakarta asalna tina campuran rupa-rupa suku di Indonésia
Lolobana padumuk di Jawa mah ngomong dua basa, nyaéta basa Indonésia (basa resmi Indonésia) salaku basa kahiji atawa kadua
Sanajan mayoritasna Muslim, padumuk Jawa téh rupa-rupa agama, suku, jeung budaya
Asal muasal nami "Jawa" téh tacan écés
Salah sahiji kamungkinanana, pulo ieu dinamian sanggeus tutuwuhan "jáwa-wut", nu dipikanyaho loba tumuwuh di pulo harita, sarta sateuacan pangaruh India, pulo ieu mibanda nami anu béda
Aya ogé sumber-sumber séjén: kecap "jaú" sareng variasina hartosna "di luar" atanapi "jauh"
Terus, dina Basa Sansekerta "yava" hartina jelai, tutuwuhan anu kawéntar di pulo ieu
"Yavadvipa" disebatkeun dina épik pangkolotna India, Ramayana
Sugriwa, pamingpin pasukan Rama, ngutus jalma-jalmana ka Yavadvipa, pulo Jawa, néangan Sita
Ku kituna, pulo ieu katelah di India ku nami Sansekerta "yāvaka dvīpa" (dvīpa = pulo)
Jawa ogé disebatkeun dina téks kuna Tamil "Manimekalai" karya Chithalai Chathanar, anu nyaritakeun yén Jawa mibanda karajaan jeung ibukota nu ngaranna Nagapuram
Sumber séjén nyebutkeun yén kecap "Jawa" asalna tina akar kecap Proto-Austronesia, hartina "imah"
Pulo gedé Iabadiu atawa Jabadiu disebat dina "Geographia" karya Ptolemy, anu ditulis kira-kira taun 150 M dina Karajaan Romawi
"Iabadiu" disebutkeun hartina "pulo jelai", beunghar ku emas, sarta mibanda kota perak nu ngaranna Argyra di tungtung kulon
Nami ieu nuduhkeun Java sarta sigana asalna tina nami Sansekerta Java-dvipa (Yavadvipa)
Jawa perenahna antawis Sumatra di kulon jeung Bali di wétan
Borneo aya di kalér, sedengkeun Pulo Natal aya di kidul
Éta mangrupa pulo ka-13 panggedéna di dunya
Jawa dikurilingan ku Laut Jawa di kalér, Selat Sunda di kulon, Samudra Hindia di kidul sarta Selat Bali jeung Selat Madura di wétan
Sacara ampir kabéh, Jawa téh asalna tina gunung seuneuan; aya tilu puluh dalapan gunung nu ngabentuk tulang tonggong ti wétan ka kulon nu kungsi aktip jadi gunung seuneuan
Gunung seuneuan pangluhurna di Jawa nyaéta Gunung Semeru, 3676 meter
Gunung seuneuan pangaktipna di Jawa jeung ogé di Indonésia nyaéta Gunung Merapi, 2930 meter
Sakabéhna, Jawa mibanda leuwih ti 150 gunung
Pulo Jawa mangrupa wewengkon anu ngandung kabeungharan kahirupan alam anu loba rupa-rupana
Lingkungan alam di Jawa nyaéta leuweung hujan tropis, kalayan ékosistem anu rupa-rupa, ti mimiti leuweung mangrove di basisir kalér, tepas basisir karang di basisir kidul, jeung leuweung tropis handap nepi ka leuweung hujan di luhur gunung api di pedalaman
Lingkungan jeung iklim di Jawa robah sacara bertahap ti kulon ka wétan; ti leuweung hujan nu lembab jeung baseuh di bagéan kulon, nepi ka lingkungan savana garing di wétan, anu cocog jeung iklim jeung curah hujan di daérah éta
Kahirupan satwa di Jawa asalna ngarojong kabeungharan biodiversity, dimana loba spésiés endemik tina flora jeung fauna nu mekar; saperti Badak Jawa, Banteng Jawa, Babi Tutul Jawa, Elang Jawa, Merak Jawa, Owa Jawa, Lutung Jawa, Kijang Jawa, Rusa Jawa, jeung Macan Jawa
Kalayan leuwih ti 450 spésiés manuk jeung 37 spésiés endemik, Jawa mangrupa surgana pikeun nu mikaresep ngimeutan manuk
Aya kira-kira 130 spésiés lauk cai tawar di Jawa
Aya ogé sababaraha spésiés amfibi endemik di Jawa, kaasup 5 spésiés bangkong tangkal
Ti jaman baheula, jalma-jalma geus muka leuweung hujan, ngarobah ékosistem, ngawangun bentang alam jeung nyiptakeun sawah padi jeung terasering pikeun ngarojong tumuwuhna populasi
Terasering sawah di Jawa geus aya leuwih ti sarébu taun sarta geus ngarojong karajaan tatanén kuna
Populasi manusa nu beuki ngaronjat geus méré tekanan nu beurat ka kahirupan satwa di Jawa, sabab leuweung hujan beuki ngurangan jeung ngan aya di lereng gunung luhur atawa semenanjung anu terasing
Sababaraha spésiés endemik Jawa ayeuna kaayaanana kritis pisan, kalayan sababaraha geus punah; Jawa tadina mibanda Macan Jawa jeung Gajah Jawa, tapi duanana geus punah
Ayeuna, aya sababaraha taman nasional di Jawa anu ngajaga sésa-sésa kahirupan satwa anu rentan, saperti Ujung Kulon, Gunung Halimun-Salak, Gede Pangrango, Baluran, Meru Betiri, Bromo Tengger Semeru jeung Alas Purwo
Jawa mangrupa pulo pangpadetna sa-Indonésia, ampir 60% populasi Indonésia matuhna di pulo Jawa
Pangeusi ieu pulo utamana mah urang Sunda (di bagian kulon) jeung Jawa (di bagian wétan), ngan ku sabab laju migrasi ka ieu pulo nu luhur pisan, utamana ka wewengkon pakotaan, méh baé lengkep ku séké sélér ti mana baé
Pikeun ngimbangan ieu masalah, ti taun 1970 pamaréntah Indonésia ngampanyeukeun program transmigrasi: mindahkeun sabagian wargana sacara sukaréla ka pulo-pulo nu leuwih carang populasina (kayaning Sumatera, Kalimantan, jeung Sulawesi) sangkan pulo Jawa teu padet teuing
Pulo ieu dibagi kana genep Daérah Tingkat I: Sajarah
Pulo Jawa kawentar ku "manusa Jawa"-na, sakumpulan sésa fosil "Homo erectus" nu kapanggih deukeut walungan Brantas di Jawa Wétan
Kadieunakeun, kapanggih ogé sababaraha fosil ti wewengkon séjén, kayaning di situs Plawangan, guha Pawon, jeung sababaraha tempat séjénna
Karajaan Hindu jeung Buda
Karajaan Taruma sareng Sunda di kulon Jawa muncul dina abad ka-4 sareng ka-7, sedengkeun Kalingga mimiti ngirim utusan ka Cina ti mimiti taun 640
Nanging, karajaan utama nu munggaran téh nyaéta Mataram anu ngadeg di tengah Jawa dina awal abad ka-8
Ageman Mataram téh ngutamakeun déwa Hindu Shiva, sarta karajaan ieu ngahasilkeun sawatara candi Hindu pangkolotna di Jawa anu aya di Dataran Luhur Dieng
Kurang leuwih dina abad ka-8, dinasti Sailendra mucunghul di Kedu sareng janten pamayang agem Buddha Mahayana
Karajaan kuna ieu ngawangun monumen saperti Candi Borobudur sareng Prambanan anu diadegkeun dina abad ka-9 di tengah Jawa
Ku dipilihna Jakarta jadi ibukota, pulo Jawa jadi puseur kagiatan politik jeung ékonomi Indonésia
Ka dieunakeun, alatan teu walatrana pangwangunan, antara puseur dayeuh jeung pilemburan téh jungkrangna beuki lega
Dayeuh-dayeuh jadi puseur kabeungharan, sedengkeun pilemburan di pulo Jawa tetep sangsara
Sacara nasional, kanyataan jungkrang laju pangwangunan téh jadi masalah, antukna loba nu boga angen-angen hayang mindahkeun ibukota ka wewengkon nu leuwih tengah sacara nasional, misalna ka Kalimantan, kalawan harepan pangwangunan bisa leuwih walatra sa-Nusantara
Sacara umum, kabudayaan nu aya di pulo Jawa bisa dibagi dua: budaya Sunda di wewengkon kulon jeung budaya Jawa di wewengkon wétan
Wates dua kabudayaan ieu, dumasar pangaruh kakawasaan masing-masing bangsa dina sawatara sumber sajarah, kira aya di walungan Cipamali atawa Diéng
"Tempo ogé Budaya Indonésia" Ageman
Pangeusi pulo Jawa lolobana ngagem Islam, lajeng Kristen (utamana di pakotaan), Hindu di sabudeureun Banyuwangi jeung basisir nu deukeut ka Bali, Katolik di sababaraha lembur di wewengkon kidul Jawa Tengah, Sunda Wiwitan di sawatara kampung adat Sunda (misalna di Kanékés), Budha nu diaragem nu urang Cina, jeung ageman lianna
Propinsi (wangun baku dina basa Indonésia: Provinsi; Basa Inggris: "province") mangrupa sebutan pikeun pamaréntahan éntitas subnasional nu biasana sahambalan handapeun hambalan nasional
Di sababaraha nagara dipaké istilah séjén, misalna nagara bagian ("state") atawa "departemén"
Kecap ieu diwanohkeun ku urang Rumawi, nu ngabagi kakaisaranana kana "provinciae"
Sigana kecap ieu asalna tina kecap Latin "provincia" (wewengkon nu kapangaruhan/dikawasa)
Propinsi nu pangpadetna nyaéta Henan, Cina, populasina 93,000,000 urang, dituturkeun ku sababaraha propinsi di CIna kénéh, ogé Punjab, Pakistan, nu pangeusina 85,000,000 urang
Propinsi panglegana nyaéta Xinjiang, Cina (1,600,000 km2) jeung Quebec, Canada (1,500,000 km2)
Julmah propinsi di Indonésia tumuwuh tina 27 dina mangsa Orde Baru jadi 32 kiwari
Basa Sunda (ᮘᮞ ᮞᮥᮔ᮪ᮓ) nyaéta basa nu dipaké ku kurang leuwih 41 juta jalma di wewengkon kulon pulo Jawa atawa 13,6 persén ti populasi Indonésia
Basa Sunda kaasup kana kulawarga basa Austronésia - Malayo-Polinésia - Malayo Kulon-Polinésia - Sundik nu mibanda sababaraha dialék/logat dumasar padumukan jalmana: Parahiangan téh wilayah nu panglobana di Tatar Sunda, minangka dialék utama (basa lulugu) basa Sunda nu diajarkeun ti mimiti Sakola Dasar (SD) nepi ka SMA (Sekolah Menengah Atas) sanggeus kaluar kaputusan ti Gupernur Jawa Kulon
Kalungguhan Basa Sunda
Basa Sunda mangrupa basa indung urang Sunda, boh anu dumuk di Jawa Kulon, boh di saluareunana nu aya teureuh Jawa Kulon
Jumlah panyaturna ogé kaitung réa, malah kaasup basa daérah kadua panggedéna di Indonésia sanggeus basa Jawa
Sabada puseur dayeuh Karésidénan Priangan dipindahkeun ti Cianjur ka Bandung, Kalungguhan basa Sunda téh jadi "basa pribumi."
Basa Sunda di wewengkon Bandung leuwih luhung kalungguhanana tibatan basa Sunda wewengkon séjénna
Samalah dina Lambaran Nagara ("Staatsblad") No
125 Taun 1893, Ayat 6, ditetepkeun yén "basa pribumi anu diajarkeun di Jawa Kulon téh nyaéta "Basa Sunda Bandung"
Nya ti harita munculna sesebutan "basa sakola", nyaéta basa anu diajarkeun di sakola-sakola
Ti dinya sesebutan basa sakola téh robah deui jadi "basa lulugu" atawa "basa baku"
Atuh basa Sunda wewengkon Bandung ogé robah jadi "basa Sunda lulugu" atawa "basa Sunda baku."
Istilah basa lulugu (baku) téh kuduna mah dipateungteungkeun jeung "basa teu lulugu (teu baku)"
Ngan pédah dina kahirupan masarakat Sunda muncul istilah "basa Sunda wewengkon" minangka lalawanan tina basa Sunda lulugu
Ari basa wewengkon lumakuna ukur di wilayah-wilayah nu tangtu wungkul, kadang ku urang Bandung mah kurang ngarti lamun urang saluareun Bandung komunikasi ngagunakeun basa wewengkon
Dina basa wewengkon téh nu khasna lain ukur diksina wungkul, tapi lentong atawa lagu kalimahna ogé kadang béda-béda ungga wewengkonna
Nepi ka taun 1600 Maséhi, basa Sunda téh mangrupa basa nagara di karajaan Salakanagara, Galuh, Kawali, jeung Pajajaran
Dina ieu mangsa, basa Sunda kaasupan kana basa Sansakerta saperti anu katémbong dina prasasti titinggal Purnawarman, malah aksarana ogé maké aksara Pallawa
Basa Sunda alam harita dipaké dina widang kanagaraan, kasenian, jeung kahirupan sapopoé, loba kitab ageman anu ditulis dina basa Sunda sarta ngagunakeun aksara Sunda kuna saperti "Naskah Sanghyang Siksa Kandang Karesian", "Carita Parahyangan", "Amanat Galunggung", jeung "Guru Talapakan"
Mangsa II (sabada abad ka-16 M)
Dina ieu mangsa, tatar Sunda kacicingan ku Mataram
Nu kapangaruhan panggedéna dina widang pamaréntahan, basa, jeung kasusastraan
Dina ieu abad, mimiti aya konsép undak-usuk basa nu sarua jeung unggah-ungguh boso (Jawa)
Lian ti éta, basa Sunda loba dimekarkeun dina widang kasusastraan, utamana wangun puisi (pupuh)
Malah kasusastraan harita (pupuh) dianggap pangagungna ku sabab dipaké ku para ménak jeung cendikiawan alam harita
Mangsa III (1800-1900 M)
Dina ieu mangsa, basa Sunda mimiti kaseselan ku basa Walanda, ngaliwatan para bupati jeung pagawé Walanda
Mangsa IV (1900-1945 M)
Mangsa V (1945-kiwari)
Unggal basa diwujudkeun ku sora
Ku kituna, ulikan sora basa atawa tata sora sok dijadikeun dasar ulikan tulisan atawa tata aksara
Sora nu diulik téh teu sagawayah, tapi sora nu diwangun ku alat ucap, anu sok disebut "sora basa (fon)"
Sora basa aya nu béda kadéngéna, aya anu mirip
Sora basa anu kadéngé béda atawa mirip tur bisa ngabédakeun harti kecap disebut "foném"
Foném so ditulis di antara dua gurat condong /.../
Upamana baé, sora /a/, /i/, /u/, /o/, jeung /e/ dina basa Sunda mangrupa foném lantaran opatanana bisa ngabédakeun harti kecap
Geura tengetan contona dina pasangan minimal ieu di handap
/bat"a"k/ /bat"i"k/ /bat"u"k/ /bat"o"k/ /bat"e"k/ Foném dina basa Sunda bisa mibanda rupa-rupa ucapan luyu jeung tempatna dina engang atawa kecap, ilaharna teu ngabédakeun harti
Variasi ucapan foném anu teu ngadédakeun harti disebutna "alofon", sarta sok ditulis di antara dua kurung siku [...]
Upamana baé, sora /o/ dina kecap "boboko" jeung dina kecap "noong" aya bédana
Sora /o/ anu kahiji mah gembleng [o]; ari anu kadua mah teu gembleng, semu ngirung [ɔ]
Kiwari, sakumaha di sakabéh wewengkon Indonésia, basa Sunda ditulis dina aksara Latin
Aya tujuh sora vokal: a, e (pepet), é, i, o, u, jeung eu; tanpa diftong
Konsonan kawakilan ku aksara b, c, d, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, w, y, ny, jeung ng
Konsonan séjén nu datang ti basa deungeun, misalna basa Arab atawa basa Inggris, lolobana dialihbasakeun kana konsonan utama tadi: f -&gt; p, v -&gt; p, sy -&gt; s, sh -&gt; s, z -&gt; j, jeung kh -&gt; h. Tata Basa
Tata basa Sunda kaasup anu basajan dibandingkeun basa-basa lainna
Aya sawatara ciri basa Sunda, nyaéta: Sistem Tinulis
Dina sajarahna, basa Sunda kungsi ditulis ku rupa-rupa aksara, di antarana: Sacara resmi, pamaréntah Jawa Kulon ngaliwatan Perda taun 2014 geus ngarojong aksara Sunda pikeun pakéeun sapopoé
Tatakrama minangka hiji hal anu ogé leket dina basa Sunda, utamana dina dialék utamana (Parahiangan)
Sanajan sawatara nonoman Sunda kiwari nganggap yén diajar tatakrama basa Sunda téh hésé, tatakrama tetep diajarkeun di sakola-sakola lantaran ku tatakrama ieu diharepkeun sikep silihormat jeung silihajénan
Kawas basa Indonésia, dina basa Sunda ogé aya sababaraha gaya basa, contona: Sastra
Basa Sunda euyeub ku rupa-rupa karya sastra, boh anu "klasik" atawa anu "moderen", di antarana:
Matematik terapan mangrupa cabang matematik that concerns itself with the application of mathematical knowledge to other domains
Such applications include analisis numeris, mathematics of engineering, linear programming, optimization and operations research, continuous modelling, mathematical biology and bioinformatics, information theory, game theory, probability and statistics, financial mathematics, actuarial science, cryptography and hence combinatorics and even finite geometry to some extent, graph theory as applied to network analysis, and a gréat déal of what is called computer science
The question of what is applied mathematics does not answer to logical classification so much as to the sociology of professionals who use math
The mathematical methods are usually applied to the specific problem field by méans of a mathematical model of the system
Engineering math describes physical processes, and so is often indistinguishable from theoretical physics
Important subdivisions include:
"See Timeline of mathematics for a timeline of events in mathematics
See mathematician for a list of biographies of mathematicians."
"Also see The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art for information about the development of mathematics in China."
Kecap "matematik" asalna tina basa Greek μάθημα ("máthema") hartina "elmu, pangaweruh, atawa diajar"; μαθηματικός ("mathematikós") hartina "resep diajar"
Sacara sajarah, widang utama dina matematik ningkat kacida keur digunakeun dina widang "perdagangan", ngukur taneuh jeung keur "prediksi" kajadian astronomi
Hal ieu merlukan tilu hal anu raket pakuat pakaitna nu mangrupa "pembagian dina widang matematik, nyaéta struktur, ruang jeung parobahan
Bandéra nasional bandéra Indonésia nyaéta bandéra basajan dua warna (katelah "dwiwarna") nu dibagi sacara horizontal, beureum (luhur) jeung bodas
Warna ieu dicokot ti Karajaan Majapahit abad la-14
Katelah "Sang Saka" ("dwiwarna nu luhung") "Merah Putih" ("beureum bodas") di Indonésia, munggaran dipaké ku para siswa jeung nasionalis mangsa awal abad ka-20 nalika dijajah kénéh ku Walanda
Nuturkeun Perang Dunya II, para nasionalis Indonésia mroklamirkeun kamerdikaanana 17 Agustus 1945, bari ngibarkeun bandéra ieu
Infrastruktur nyaéta sakumpulan unsur-unsur struktural nu silisambung nu nyadiakeun "framework" pikeun ngarojong struktur sacara gembleng
Istilah ieu mindeng ogé dipaké sacara abstrak
In national security, the term "critical infrastructure" is also extremely broad (although it should be less inclusive as not all infrastructure should be considered critical) and includes support, e.g
for banking, and other such processes of questionable merit
One issue is the necessity of means of protection, and of akuntansi, in incréasing ajen hirup
Advocates of a broad definition usually argue that without these "critical" systems, the rest of the infrastructure is looted, burned, or not safe to use
Another issue is whether means of persuasion, kawas tehnologi komputer or radio or televisi, can qualify as infrastructure in any sense, as it is more belief-sustaining than life-sustaining
The arguments parallel those for méans of protection, with conservatives generally asserting that belief in a common view of réality, especially in emergency response, is critical to survival
Urban planning usage
The term is used most often in an urban planning context to denote the facilities that support specific land uses and built environment
"This article focuses on those, to avoid the more political issues above."
Typically, infrastructure in this context denotes two general groups of support systems: transportation modalities (roads, rail, etc.)
These typically compose both public and private systems, and some ambiguously held in common
Infrastructure may also refer to necessary municipal services, whether provided by the government or by private companies
If provided by nature, e.g
the flow of a river, they are called nature's services and are distincted (at léast in economics) as the product of natural capital
This may be augmented or directed by infrastructural capital, e.g
a dam or canal or irrigation ditch
In general what is called infrastructure tends to be very embedded in the natural landscape and cannot be moved from place to place
Even municipal services rely necessarily on fixed locations, e.g
fire stations in central positions in a city, transmission towers on tall buildings, etc.. Infrastructure (in the civic sense) includes:
Arkéologi nyaéta élmu ngeunaan budaya manusa ngaliwatan "penemuan kembali", dokumentasi jeung analisis "material sisa", kaasup arsitéktur, artifak, biofak, sésa-sésa manusa, jeung "landscape"
Subbab séjén ti antropologi ngalengkepan papanggihan arkéologi, hususna antropologi budaya (nu ngulik diménsi budaya paripolah sarta perlambang) jeung antropologi fisik (nu ngawengku ulikan évolusi manusa jeung ostéologi)
Disiplin séjén ogé ngalengkepan arkéologi, kayaning paléontologi (ulikan kahirupan prasajarah), kaasup paléozoologi jeung paléobotani, géografi, géologi, sajarah, sajarah seni, jeung klasika
Arkéologi mangrupa hiji cara pikeun neuleuman kabudayaan nu geus leungit dina kahirupan sajarah manusa tanpa wates waktu: di Inggris, para ahli arkéologi mendakan pakampungan kuna nu narikolot sanggeus kajadian "Black Death" abad ka-14
Di New York para ahli mendakan ruruntuk pakuburan ti abad ka-18
Dina ulikan budaya nu rélatif anyar nu geus katalungtik jeung kaulik ku sarjana-sarjana Barat, arkéologi sok dipatalikeun raket pisan jeung étnografi
Marcapada (ᮙᮁᮎᮕᮓ), ogé disebut Bumi (ᮘᮥᮙᮤ), (Ing
"earth", atawa "Terra"), mangrupa planét tempat manusa hirup, planét katilu luareun Panonpoé
Marcapada mangrupa hiji-hijina planét téréstrial di Surya Mandala, sarta hiji-hijina planét nu mibanda kahirupan, sahanteuna kitu nu dipikanyaho élmu modérn
Planét ieu mibanda hiji satelit alam, bulan, nu kabentuk watara 4,5 milyar taun ka tukang
Biosfir Bumi sacara lalaunan beuki lila ngarobah atmosfir jeung kondisi fisik dasar séjénna, anu ngakibatkeun kembangbiakna organisme sarta kawangunna lapisan ozon, anu bareng jeung médan mahnit Marcapada ngahalangan radiasi surya nu pibahayaeun jeung ngawidian mahluk hirup mikroskopis ambéh terus kembang biak kalawan aman di daratan
Sifat fisik, sajarah géologi, jeung orbit Bumi ngakibatkeun kahirupan bisa terus laksana
Litosfir Marcapada kabagi jadi sawatara ségmén kaku, atawa lémpéng téhtonik, anu ngalaman unggutan di kabéh buntala Marcapada salila yutaan tahun
Leuwih ti 70% buntala Marcapada dilimpudan ku cai, jeung sésana diwangun ku buana jeung pulo-pulo anu mibanda loba pisan situ jeung sumber cai séjénna anu jadi bahan jang ngajieun Hidrosfir
Kutub Bumi sawaréhna kalimpudan ku és; és padet di Antartika jeung és sagara di és kutub
Intérior Marcapada aktif kénéh nepi ka ayeuna, jeung miboga inti jero anu diwangun ku beusi padet, sedengkeun inti luarna mangrupa fluida anu mikacipta médan mahnit, jeung lapisan kandel anu rélatif padet dina bagéan mantél
Dina matematika, watesan optimisasi nujul kana pangajaran ngeunaan masalah nu mibanda bentuk Given: a fungsi "f" : "A" -&gt; R from some set "A" to the real numbers Sought: an element "x"0 in "A" such that "f"("x"0) ≥ "f"("x") for all "x" in "A" ("maximization") or such that "f"("x"0) ≤ "f"("x") for all "x" in "A" ("minimization")
Such a formulation is sometimes called a "mathematical program" (a term not directly related to computer programming, but still in use for example for linear programming - see history below)
Many réal-world and théoretical problems may be modéled in this general framework
Typically, "A" is some subset of Euclidean space R"n", often specified by a set of "constraints", equalities or inequalities that the members of "A" have to satisfy
The elements of "A" are called the "feasible solutions" and the function "f" is called the "objective function"
A féasible solution that maximizes (or minimizes, if that is the goal) the objective function is called an "optimal solution"
In general there will be several local maxima and minima, where a local minimum x* is defined as a point such that for some δ &gt; 0 and all x such that ||x - x* || ≤ δ the formula f(x) ≥ f(x*) holds; that is to say on some ball around x* all of the function values are gréater than the value at
are gréater than the value at that point
Local maxima are defined similarly
In general, it is éasy to find local minima, however additional facts about the problem (e.g
the function being convex) are required to ensure that the solution found is a global minimum
Masalah optimization biasa dilambangkeun ku notasi husus
Here are some examples: min"x" in R "x"2+1 Keur nyebutkeun nilai minimum dina rumus "x2"+1, nu mana "x" aya dina "rentang" real numbers R. Nilai minimum dina kasus ieu nyaéta 1, dina waktu x=0
max"x" in R 2x This asks for the maximum value for the expression 2"x", where "x" ranges over the réals
In this case, there is no such maximum as the expression is unbounded, so the answer is "infinity" or "undefined"
arg min"x" in [-∞,-1] "x"2+1 This asks for the value(s) of "x" in the interval [-∞,-1] which minimizes the expression "x"2+1
(The actual minimum value of that expression does not matter.)
In this case, the answer is "x" = -1. arg max"x" in [-∞,5], "y" in R "x" · cos("y") This asks for the ("x","y") pair(s) that maximize the value of the expression "x"·cos("y"), with the added constraint that "x" cannot exceed 5
(Again, the actual maximum value of the expression does not matter.)
In this case, the solutions are the pairs of the form (5,2π"k") and (-5,(2"k"+1)π), where "k" ranges over all integers
tehnik keur ngarengsekeun program matematik gumantung kana kondisi alami fungsi obyektif fungsi jeung constraint set
The following major subfields exist: For twice-differentiable functions, unconstrained problems can be solved by finding the places where the gradient of the function is 0 (i.e
the stationary points) and using the Hessian matrix to classify the type of point
If the hessian is positive definite, the point is a local minimum, if negative definite, a local maximum, and if indefinite it is some kind of saddle point
Should a function be convex over a region of interest (as defined by constraints) then any local minimum will also be a global minimum
Robust, fast numerical techniques exist for optimizing doubly differentiable convex functions
Outside of these functions, less idéal techniques must be used
Constrained problems can often be transformed into unconstrained problems with the help of the Lagrange multiplier
Several techniques exist for find a good local minimum in nonlinéar optimization problems with many poor local minima: Pamakean
Additionally, problems in rigid body dynamics (in particular articulated rigid body dynamics) often require mathematical programming techniques, since you can view rigid body dynamics as attempting to solve an ordinary differential equation on a constraint manifold; the constraints are various nonlinéar géometric constraints such as "these two points must always coincide", "this surface must not penetrate any other", or "this point must always lie
or "this point must always lie somewhere on this curve"
Also, the problem of computing contact forces can be done by solving a linear complementarity problem, which can also be viewed as a QP (quadratic programming problem)
Many design problems can also be expressed as optimization programs
This application is called design optimization
One recent and growing subset of this field is multidisciplinary design optimization, which, while useful in many problems, has in particular been applied to aerospace engineering problems
Another field that uses optimization techniques extensively is operations research
Historically, the first term to be introduced was linear programming, which was invented by George Dantzig in the 1940s
The term "programming" in this context does not refer to computer programming (although computers are nowadays used extensively to solve mathematical programs)
Instéad, the term comes from the use of "program" by the United States military to refer to proposed training and logistics schedules, which were the problems that Dantzig was studying at the time
(Additionally, later on, the use of the term "programming" was apparently important for receiving government funding, as it was associated with high-technology reséarch aréas that were considered important.)
Pangan nyaéta zat naon baé nu ilahar didahar atawa diinum ku mahluk hirup
Istilah "pangan" ogé ngawengku inuman cair
Pangan mangrupa sumber utama énergi sarta mangrupa gizi pikeun sato, nu biasana sumberna ti sato ogé atawa ti tutuwuhan
Ulikan ngeunaan pangan disebut élmu pangan ("food science")
Hukum pangan di Kulon ngabédakeun pangan kana opat kategori: Kabiasaan dahar manusa
Manusa mangrupa omnivora nu ngadahar boh hasil tutuwuhan (nabati) atawa sato (héwani)
Saenggeusna ngarandapan usum es, kajurung ku hayang hirup dina kaayaan ayem tengtrem salahsahijina tarékah kujalan nyadiakeun kabutuhan sapopoé ku jalan melak tutuwuhan sarta ngingu sasatoan nu dipikabutuh
Kadieunakeun ieu tarékah ngarobah cara hirup manusa dina nyumponan sagala rupa kabutuhan hirupna saperti ayana tatanén
A selection of different complementary foods éaten together comprises a meal
Péople often choose to éat méals together with other family members or friends and this is seen as an important social occasion
Food éaten in smaller quantities between méals is regarded as snack food
The number of méals in a day, their size, composition, when and how they are prepared and éaten vary gréatly around the world
This is gréatly dependent on the local climate, ecology, economy, cultural traditions and industrialisation
Méals also plays an important role in the celebration of many key cultural and religious festivals
In societies where the availability of food has risen above subsistence levels and beyond staple foods, food is also sold pre-prepared for immediate consumption in restaurants and other similar retail premises
In industrial societies, méals often contain a higher proportion of food of animal origin
"See also: Appetite, Buddhist cuisine, Eucharist, Fast food, Fasting, Gault Millau restaurant guide, Halaal, I-tal, Kashrut, Michelin restaurant guide, Muslim dietary laws, Potluck, Totemism"
Food production or acquisition
Food is traditionally obtained through farming, ranching, and fishing, with hunting, foraging and other methods of subsistence locally important for some populations, but minor for others
In the modérn era, in developed nations, food supply is incréasingly dependent upon agriculture, industrial farming, aquaculture and fish farming techniques which aim to maximise the amount of food produced, whilst minimising the cost
These include a reliance on mechanised tools which have been developed, from the threshing machine, seed drill, through to the tractor and combine harvester, etc
These have been combined with the use of pesticides to promote high crop yields and combat those insects or mammals which reduce yield
More recently, there has been a growing trend towards more Sustainable agricultural practices
This approach - which is partly fuelled by consumer demand - encourages biodiversity, local self-reliance and Organic farming methods
Major influences on food production are international policy, "e.g
the World Trade Organization and Common Agricultural Policy", national government policy or law and war
Food for livestock is fodder and traditionally comprises hay or grain
"See also: mariculture, horticulture, agribusiness, gardening."
Whilst some food can be éaten without preparation, many foods undergo some form of preparation for réasons of safety, palatability, or flavour
At the simplest level this may involve washing, cutting, trimming or adding other foods or ingredients, such as spices
It may also involve mixing, héating or cooling, Pressure cooking, fermentation, or combination with other food
Most food preparation takes place in a kitchen
The preparation of animal-based food will usually involve slaughter, evisceration, hanging, portioning and rendering
"See also:" Barbecue, Eating utensils, Frankfurt kitchen, Hangi, Oven, Microwave oven, Refrigeration,
Human knowledge of cooking and preparation methods is often taught by parents to their children, largely based on the cuisine within their cultural traditions
Since the development, of mass-produced printing, this has been supplemented by written recipes
éarly examples of influential recipe books include De re coquinaria, Le Repertoire De La Cuisine, Larousse Gastronomique and Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Management
"See also: "Wikipedia cookbook
Food manufacturing, or food processing, arose during the industrialisation éra in the 19th century
This development took advantage of new mass markets and emerging new technology, such as milling, food preservation, packaging and labelling and transportation
It brought the advantages of pre-prepared time saving food to the bulk of ordinary péople who did not employ domestic servants
At the start of the 21st century, a two-tier structure has arisen, with a few international food processing giants controlling a wide range of well known food brands; with a populous number of small local or national food processing companies
"See also: Best before, Canning, Coloring, Food quality, Cook/chill, Additives, Flavoring, Enzymes, Genetically modified food, Packaging and labelling, Pasteurization, Preservation, Shelf-life, Ultra-high temperature processing."
Food is now traded on a global basis
The variety and availability of food is no longer restricted by the diversity of locally grown food or the limitations of the local growing season
Between 1961 and 1999 there has been a 400% incréase in worldwide food exports
Some countries are now economically dependant on food exports, which in some cases account for over 80% of all exports
In 1994 trade liberalisation began when over 100 countries became signatories to the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade which included an agreement to reduce subsidies paid to farmers
This is underpinned by the WTO enforcement of agricultural subsidy, tariffs, import quotas and settlement of trade disputes that cannot be bilaterally resolved
Where trade barriers are raised on the disputed grounds of public héalth and safety, the WTO refer the dispute to the Codex Alimentarius Commission, which was founded in 1962 by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization and the World Health Organization
The sale of surplus food traditionally took place once a week when farmers took their wares on market day, into the local village market place
Here food was sold to grocers for sale in their local shops for purchase by local péople
With the onset of industrialisation, and the development of the food processing industry, a wider range of food could be sold and distributed in distant locations
Typically éarly grocery shops would be counter-based shops, in which purchasers told the shop-keeper what they wanted, so that the shop-keeper could get it for them
In the 20th century supermarkets were born
Supermarkets brought with them a self-service approach to shopping using shopping carts (or Trollies in British English) and were able to offer quality food at lower cost, through economies of scale and reduced staffing costs
This was sometimes known as 'pile it high' In the latter part of the 20th century, this has been further revolutionised by the development of vast warehouse sized out-of-town supermarkets, selling an extraordinarily wide range of food from around the world
Alike with food processors, food retailing is a two-tier market in which a small number of very large companies control a large proportion of supermarkets
The supermarket giants wield gréat purchasing power over farmers and processors, and strong influence over consumers
Nevertheless, in 2000 only 19% of all US consumer expenditure spent on food went to farmers
Recent technological innovations such as point of sale technology - barcodes
This allows ordering of goods and food to be driven by actual sales
Pangan jeung kaséhatan
Deprivasi pangan ngakibatkeun malnutrisi nu antukna jadi kalaparan (Ing
Ieu biasana patali jeung "famine", kakurangan pangan di masarakat, nu mawa balukar kana kaséhatan jeung mortalitas manusa
Taun 2003 sataunna aya kira 40 juta urang nu maotr alatan kalaparan
Rationing is sometimes used to fairly the equal distribution of food in times of shortage, most notably during times of war
Food deprivation is regarded as a deficit need in Maslow's hierarchy of needs
Bantuan pangan bisa ngabantuan jalma-jalma nu kakurangan pangan
Sabalikna, bantuan pangan nu dikokolakeun sacara teu bener bisa ngaruksak pasar lokal, neken harga crop sarta ngalemahkeun produksi pangan
Its provision, or thréatened withdrawal, is sometimes used as a political tool to influence the politics of the destination country
International efforts to distribute food to the neediest countries are co-ordinated by the World Food Program
"Tempo ogé: Fair trade, food security"
Kasakit alatan pangan (Ing
"foodborne illness") atawa karacunan pangan, disababkeun ku baktéri, toxin, virus, jeung prion
Karacunan pangan geus kasebutkeun ti jaman Hipokratés
Nelasan ku jalan ngaracun dahareun geus aya ti jaman Karajaan Romawi
In the Middle Ages all Royal Courts had food tasters
The sale of rancid, contaminated or adulterated food was commonplace until introduction of hygiene and vermin controls in the 19th century
Discovery of techniques for killing bacteria using heat and other microbiological by scientists such as Louis Pasteur contributed to the modérn standards that we enjoy today
This was further underpinned by the work of Justus von Liebig whose work led to the development of modérn food storage and food preservation methods
Understanding of the causes of food-borne-illnesses and more systematic techniques for their elimination has led to the development of commercial systems such as HACCP which can, if properly implemented, identify and can eliminate all possible risks
Dietary habits play a significant role in the health and mortality of all humans
For example: Concerns about foodborne illness have long influenced diet
Traditionally humans have léant to avoid foods that induce acute illness
Some believe that this is the underlying rationale behind some traditional religious dietary requirements
Additionally, many péople choose to forgo food from animal sources to varying degrees; see vegetarianism, veganism, fructarianism , living foods diet, and raw foodism
The nutrient content of diets in industrialised countries contain more animal fat, sugar, energy, alcohol and less dietary fiber, carbohydrates and antidioxidants
Contemporary changes to work, family and exercise patterns, together with concerns about the effect of nutrition and obesity on human health and mortality are all having an effect on traditional éating habits
Physicians and alternative medicine practitioners may recommend changes to diet as part of their recommendations for tréatment
More recently, dietary habits have been influenced by the concerns that some péople have about the chronic impact on héalth that arise through the consumption of genetically modified food or beef infected with Bovine spongiform encephalopathy
Further concerns about the impact of indudtrial farming on animal welfare, human héalth and the environment are also having an effect on contemporary human dietary habits
This has led to the emergence of a counterculture with a preference for organic and local food
"See also: Food faddism, Health claims on food labels, list of diets, Slow Food."
Gizi dina pangan
Kanyaho ngeunaan kandungan gizi jeung interaksi antarkomponén na métabolisme manusa pikeun asupan/diet idéal kiwari jadi ladang kaweruh nu terus tumuwuh
Kaséhatan nyaéta kaayaan sajahtra tina awak, jiwa, jeung sosial anu ngamanwakeun sakabéh jalma hirup produktif sacara sosial jeung ékonomis
Miara kaséhatan nyaéta tarékah sasadiaan jeung panyegah tina sagala wabah kaséhatan anu merlukeun pamariksaan, pangubaran jeung/atawa pangawulaan kaasup reuneuh jeung kalahiran
Pangajaran kaséhatan nyaéta prosés mantuan hiji jalma, ku ngalakonan boh sorangan boh sacara babarengan, pikeun nyieun kaputusan dumasar kana nu dipikanyaho ngeunaan perkara-perkara anu mangaruhan kaséhatan pribadina ogé jalma séjén
Harti anu malah leuwih basajan diajukeun ku Larry Green jeung réngrénganna anu nulis yén pangajaran kaséhatan nyaéta campuran pangalaman diajar anu dirarancang sangkan adaptasi sukarela kana parilaku anu kondusif leuwih gampang pikeun kaséhatan
Data panungtungan némbongkeun yén kiwari leuwih ti 80 persén rahayat Indonésia henteu mampuh meunangkeun jaminan kaséhatan ti lembaga atawa pausahaan di widang pangurusan kaséhatan, saperti Akses, Taspen, jeung Jamsosték
Golongan masarakat anu dianggep "dianaktérékeun" dina perkara jaminan kaséhatan nyaéta maranéhanana tina golongan masarakat leutik jeung tukang dagang
Dina pangawulaan kaséhatan, masalah ieu jadi leuwih jangar, lantaran dina manajemén pangawulaan kaséhatan henteu patula-patali jeung sawatara jinis jalma hungkul, tapi ogé watek anu husus dina pangawulaan kaséhatan éta sorangan
Kaséhatan Nurutkeun Undang-Undang
Dina Undang-Undang anu dimaksud kaséhatan téh ditataan ieu di handap: Tujuan kaséhatan dina sakabéh aspék
Salah sahiji tujuan nasional nyaéta ngamajukeun kasajahtraan bangsa, anu hartina nyumponan kabutuhan dasar manusa, nyaéta pangan, sandang, papan, atikan, kaséhatan, lapangan gawé jeung katingtriman hirup
Tujuan pangwangunan kaséhatan nyaéta cumponna kamampuh hirup séhat pikeun unggal masarakat, jadi tanggung jawab pikeun ngawujudna darajat kaséhatan anu optimal téh aya dina sakumna masarakat Indonésia, pamaréntah, jeung swasta kalawan babarengan
Tujuan jeung wengkuan kaséhatan lingkungan
Tujuan jeung wengkuan kaséhatan lingkungan bisa dibagi jadi dua, sacara umum jeung sacara husus
"Harti lain tina imah tempo di Imah (disambiguasi)"
Imah dina harti nu geus umum nyaéta struktur wangunan beunang manusa nu dihalangan atawa dipindingan ku "dingding" jeung diiuhan hateup
Imah mangrupa hiji tempat keur nyingkahan présipitasi, kaanginan, kapanasan, katiisan, gangguan manusa jeung sato
Masarakat sakapeung indit ti imah dina waktu sababaraha poé keur kaperluan digawé jeung rékréasi, tapi umumna balik deui ka imah nu boga fungsi utama keur saré.Imah disebut ogé bumi; rorompok kagunaan utamana pikeun tempat jelema cicing beurang – peuting
Sacara umum imah mibanda hiji jalan asup, nu ilaharna mangrupa panto atawa gapura, kalawan bisa waé mibanda sababaraha jandéla atawa leuwih tihiji
Tapi jaman kiwari mah, geus loba imah anu teu ngan ukur miboga hiji panto
Konsep imah urang Sunda aya 3: Carita
Dina tradisi jeung adat masyarakat Sunda, imah panggung hartina henteu napel kana taneuh maksudna pikeun ngahormat ka jalma nu tos teuaya dikieuna
Imah geus dipaké tempat cicing ku manusa ti zaman pra-sajarah, mimiti dipaké salaku alternatif pikeun guha
Bahan, gaya, sarta cara nyieun wangunan geus robah-robah sajalan jeung waktu
Imah urang Éropah barétona ukur mangrupa saung nu kamarna hiji nu ditempatan ku sakabéh kulawarga sarta ingon-ingon, keur ngajaga imah jeung pangeusina tetep haneut salila usum salju
di antara conto tiheula (nurutkeun umur pangira-ngira nu ditéangan ku para arkéolog), imah nu has waktu harita nyaéta "palafitte"
Wangun séjén imah nyaéta apartemén (atawa flat), nu mangrupa salah sahiji tina sababaraha "unit" nu aya dina sababaraha tingkat, sarta dipisahkeun ku "lantéy", pinding jeung panto tapi dihijikeun pikeun ngawangun hiji wangunan nu leuwih gedé tapi aya dina sahandapeun hiji hateup
Hiji imah nu eusina ukur dua apartemén disebut dupléks
Di Inggris, flat nu boga dua lantéy disebut maisonette
Mansion nyaéta hiji imah nu kacida gedéna, mindengna mah kacida pinuhna ku hiasan tur hargana mahal
Bentuk pangiuhan ("shelter") nu leuwih basajan batan imah di antarana dugout, ténda (tempo ogé kémah), camper, saung, hateup tanpa pinding, atawa struktur kalayan hateup jeung satengah pinding, saperti mindeng katemu dina halte beus, jeung gazébo
Téknik konstruksi imah kiwari anu populér tanya lain ngagunakeun rangka baja ringan, utamanya di daérah anu susah kai keur bahan wangunan
Bagian-bagian imah mibanda maksud jeung tujuanna, sanajan kiwari geus laleungitan alatan robahna bahan-bahan anu dipaké dina nyieun imah
Ditempo tina kagunaanna, bagian-bagian dina imah téh kayaning: Jeung sajabana &lt;ref name=”Mua”_&gt;
Linguistik nyaéta élmu pangaweruh anu ngulik jeung medar basa, selang surupna, asal-muasalna, parobahan, katut kamekaranana
Minangka ulikan ilmiah basa, linguistik geus dumuk objékna, boga padika maluruhna, jeung écés gunana
Dina istilah filsafat, linguistik ogé puguh ontologi, pistemologi, jeung aksiologina
Ulikan linguistik wisa dipikirkeun sapanjang tilu hal utami, nu tungtungna tiasa dijéntrékeun saperti di handap: Kalawan dikotomi ieu, sarjana nu nyebut dirina ngan ahli basa atawa ahli basa téoritis baé, kalawan tanpa kualifikasi deui, condong ka independen, linguistik sinkronis anu téoritis, nyaéta ngaku ayana sabot inti ti disiplin élmu
Given these dichotomies, scholars who call themselves simply "linguists" or "theoretical linguists", with no further qualification, tend to be concerned with independent, théoretical synchronic linguistics, which is acknowledged as the core of the discipline
Linguistic inquiry is pursued by a wide variety of specialists, who may not all be in harmonious agreement; as Russ Rymer flamboyantly puts it: "Linguistics is arguably the most hotly contested property in the academic realm
It is soaked with the blood of poets, theologians, philosophers, philologists, psychologists, biologists, and neurologists, along with whatever blood can be got out of grammarians."
1 Widang linguistik téoritis
Théoretical linguistics is often divided into a number of separate aréas, to be studied more or less independently
The following divisions are currently widely acknowledged: The independent significance of éach of these aréas is not universally acknowledged, however, and néarly all linguists would agree that the divisions overlap considerably
Nevertheless, éach subaréa has core concepts that foster significant scholarly inquiry and reséarch
Wheréas the core of théoretical linguistics is concerned with studying languages at a particular point in time (usually the present), diachronic linguistics examines how language changes through time, sometimes over centuries
Historical linguistics enjoys both a rich history (the study of linguistics grew out of historical linguistics) and a strong théoretical foundation for the study of language change
In American universities, the non-historic perspective seems to have the upper hand
Many introductory linguistics classes, for example, cover historical linguistics only cursorily
The shift in focus to a non-historic perspective started with Saussure and became predominant with Noam Chomsky
Explicitly historical perspectives include historical-comparative linguistics and etymology
Wheréas théoretical linguistics is concerned with finding and describing generalities both within languages and among all languages, as a group, applied linguistics takes the results of those findings and "applies" them to other aréas
Usually "applied linguistics" refers to the use of linguistic reséarch in language téaching, but linguistics is used in other aréas, as well
Speech synthesis and Speech recognition, for example, use linguistic knowledge to provide voice interfaces to computers
Contextual linguistics is that réalm where linguistics interacts with other academic disciplines
Wheréas core théoretical linguistics studies languages for their own sake, the inder-disciplinary aréas of linguistic consider how language interacts with the rest of the world
But that rather depends upon their world-view
Sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, and linguistic anthropology are where the social sciences that consider societies as whole and linguistics interact
Critical discourse analysis is where rhetoric and philosophy interact with linguistics
Psycholinguistics and neurolinguistics is the where the medical sciences meets linguistics
Other cross-disciplinary aréas of linguistics include language acquisition, evolutionary linguistics, stratificational linguistics, and cognitive science
Individual speakers, language communities, and linguistic universals
Linguists also differ in how broad a group of language users they study
Some analyze a given spéaker's language or language development in gréat detail
Some study language pertaining to a whole speech community, such as the language of all those who spéak Black English Vernacular
Others try to find linguistic universals that apply, at some abstract level, to all users of human language everywhere
This latter project has been most famously advocated by Noam Chomsky, and it interests many péople in psycholinguistics and cognitive science
It is thought that universals in human language may revéal important insight into universals about the human mind
Description and prescription
Most work currently done under the name "linguistics" is purely descriptive; the linguists seek to clarify the nature of language without passing value judgments or trying to chart future language directions
Nonetheless, there are many professionals and amateurs who also prescribe rules of language, holding a particular standard out for all to follow
Wheréas prescriptivists might want to stamp out what they perceive as "incorrect usage", descriptivists seek to find the root of such usage; they might describe it simply as "idiosyncratic", or they may discover a regularity that the prescriptivists don't like because it is perhaps too new or from a dialect they don't approve of
Speech versus writing
Most contemporary linguists work under the assumption that spoken language is more fundamental, and thus more important to study, than writing
réasons for this standpoint include: Of course, linguists agree that that the study of written language can be worthwhile and valuable
For linguistic reséarch that uses the methods of corpus linguistics and computational linguistics, written language is often much more convenient for processing large amounts of linguistic data
Large corpuses of spoken language are difficult to créate and hard to find
Furthermore, the study of writing systems themselves falls under the aegis of linguistics
Research areas of linguistics
phonetics, phonology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, etymology, lexicology, lexicography, theoretical linguistics, historical-comparative linguistics and descriptive linguistics, linguistic typology, computational linguistics, corpus linguistics, semiotics