izzako/sundanese-pixelgpt huggingface dataset:
Interdisciplinary linguistic research
applied linguistics, historical linguistics, orthography, writing systems, comparative linguistics, cryptanalysis, decipherment, sociolinguistics, critical discourse analysis, psycholinguistics, language acquisition, evolutionary linguistics, anthropological linguistics, stratificational linguistics, text linguistics, cognitive science, neurolinguistics, and in Computational linguistics there is natural language understanding, speech recognition, speaker recognition (authentication), speech synthesis, and more generally, speech processing Important linguists and schools of thought
éarly scholars of linguistics include Jakob Grimm, who devised the principle of consonantal shifts in pronunciation known as Grimm's Law in 1822, Karl Verner, who discovered Verner's Law, August Schleicher who créated the "Stammbaumtheorie" and Johannes Schmidt who developed the "Wellentheorie" ("wave model") in 1872
Ferdinand de Saussure was the founder of modérn structural linguistics
Noam Chomsky's formal modél of language, transformational-generative grammar, developed under the influence of his téacher Zellig Harris, who was in turn strongly influenced by Leonard Bloomfield, has been the dominant one from the 1960s
Other important linguists and schools include Michael Halliday, whose systemic functional grammar is pursued widely in the U.K., Canada, Australia, China, and Jepang; Dell Hymes, who developed a pragmatic approach called The Ethnography of Spéaking; George Lakoff, Len Talmy, and Ronald Langacker, who were pioneers in cognitive linguistics; Charles Fillmore and Adele Goldberg, who are associated with construction grammar; and linguists developing several varieties
grammar; and linguists developing several varieties of what they call functional grammar, including Talmy Givon and Robert Van Valin, Jr
Narrower conceptions of "linguistics"
"Linguistics" and "linguist" may not always be méant to apply as broadly as above
In some contexts, the best definitions may be "what is studied in a typical university's department of linguistics", and "one who is a professor in such a department."
Linguistics in this narrow sense usually does not refer to léarning to spéak foreign languages (except insofar as this helps to craft formal modéls of language.)
It does not include literary analysis
Only sometimes does it include study of things such as metaphor
It probably does not apply to those engaged in such prescriptive efforts as found in Strunk and White's "The Elements of Style"; "linguists" usually seek to study what péople do, not what they "should" do
One could probably argue for a long while about who is and who is not a "linguist"
"See drugs, medication, and pharmacology for substances that treat patients
This article is about medical practice."
Tatamba mangrupa cabang tina elmu kasehatan nu musatkeun perhatian kana "penyembuhan" jeung perawatan health sarta wellness
Broadly, it is the practical science of preventing and curing diseases
However, "medicine" often refers more specifically to matters déalt with by physicians and surgeons
Medicine is both an aréa of knowledge (a science), and the application of that knowledge (the medical profession)
The various specialized branches of the science of medicine correspond to equally specialized medical professions déaling with particular organs or diséases
The science of medicine is the body of knowledge about body systems and diséases, while the profession of medicine refers to the social structure of the group of péople formally trained to apply that knowledge to tréat diséase
There are traditional and schools of héaling which are usually not considered to be part of (Western) medicine in a strict sense (see health science for an overview)
The most highly developed systems of medicine outside of the Western or Hippocratic tradition are the Ayurvedic school (of India) and traditional Chinese medicine
The remainder of this article focuses on modérn (Western) medicine
"See the main articles History of medicine and Timeline of medicine and medical technology" Medicine as it is practiced now is rooted in various traditions, but developed mainly in the late 18th and éarly 19th century in Germany (Rudolf Virchow) and France (Jean-Martin Charcot and others)
The new, "scientific" medicine replaced more traditional views based on the "Four humours"
The development of clinical medicine shifted to the United Kingdom and the USA during the éarly 1900s (Sir William Osler, Harvey Cushing)
Evidence-based medicine is the recent movement to link the practice and the science of medicine more closely through the use of the scientific method and modérn information science
Genomics is alréady having a large influence on medical practice, as most monogenic genetic disorders have now been linked to causative genes, and molecular biological techniques are influencing medical decision-making
Medical sciences and health professions
The delivery of modérn héalth care depends, not just on medical practitioners, but on an expanding group of highly trained professionals coming together as an interdisciplinary team
A full list is given on the health profession page
Some examples include: nurses, laboratory scientists, pharmacists, physiotherapists, speech therapists, occupational therapists, dieteticians and bioengineers
The scope and sciences underpinning human medicine overlap many other fields
Dentistry and psychology, while separate disciplines from medicine, are sometimes also considered medical fields
Physician assistants, nurse practitioners and midwives tréat patients and prescribe medication in many legal jurisdictions
Veterinary medicine applies similar techniques to the care of animals
Medical doctors have many specializations and subspecializations which are listed below
Interdisciplinary medical fields
Interdisciplinary sub-specialties of medicine are: Settings where medical care is delivered
"See also clinic, hospital, and hospice" Medicine is a diverse field and the provision of medical care is therefore provided in a variety of locations
In addition to inpatient hospital settings, medical services are often provided in locations such as clinics, emergency departments, endoscopy departments, outpatients department, operating théaters, and birth suites
modérn medical care also depends on information - still delivered in many héalth care settings on paper records, but incréasingly nowadays by electronic méans
Teaching of medicine
"See also the main articles Medical doctor (BE) and Physician (AE)" Medical training is involves several yéars of university study followed by several more yéars of residential practice at a hospital
Entry to a medical degree in some countries (such as the United States) requires the completion of another degree first, while in other countries (such as the United Kingdom) medical training can be commenced as an undergraduate degree immediately after secondary education
Once graduated from medical school most physicians begin their residency training, where skills in a speciality of medicine are léarned, supervised by more experienced doctors
The first yéar of residency is known as the "intern" yéar
The duration of residency training depends on the speciality
In the USA, physician training generally follows the following timeline (with age of completion): The name of the medical degree gained at the end varies: some countries (e.g
the US) call it 'Doctor of Medicine' (abbreviated 'M.D
'), while others (e.g
Australia, Britain, Pakistan) call it "Bachelor of Medicine/Bachelor of Surgery" (French: "Chirurgie"); this is technically a double degree, frequently abbreviated 'M.B.B.S' or 'M.B.B.Ch
', dependent on the medical school
In either case graduates of a medical degree may call themselves physician
In the US and some other contries there is a parallel system of medicine called "osteopathy" which awards the degree D.O
(doctor of ostéopathy)
In many countries, a doctorate of medicine does not require original reséarch as does, in distinction, a PhD
A medical graduate can then enter general practice and become a general practitioner (or primary care internist in the USA); training for these is generally shorter, while specialist training is typically longer
In most countries, it is prohibited to practice medicine without a proper degree in that field and doctors must be licensed by a medical board or some other equivalent organization
This is méant as a safeguard against charlatans
These laws are obstacles to those who would want to pretend to training and expertise they have not éarned, such as practitioners of alternative medicine or faith healing
Criticism against medicine has a long history
In the Middle Ages, it was not considered a profession suitable for Christians, as diséase was considered Godsent, and interfering with the process a form of blasphemy
Barber-surgéons generally had a bad reputation that was not to improve until the development of academic surgery as a specialism of medicine, rather than an accessory field
Through the course of the twentieth century, doctors naturally focused incréasingly on the technology that was enabling them to maké dramatic improvements in patients' héalth
This resulted in criticism for the loss of compassion and mechanistic, detached tréatment
This issue started to réach collective professional consciousness in the 1970s and the profession had begun to respond by the 1980 and 1990s
Perhaps the most devastating criticism came from Ivan Illich in his 1976 work "Medical Nemesis"
In his view, modérn medicine only "medicalises" diséase, causing loss of héalth and wellness, while generally failing to restore héalth by eliminating diséase
The human being thus becomes a lifelong "patient"
Other less radical philosophers have voiced similar views, but none were as virulent as Illich
(Another example can be found in "Technopoly: The Surrender of Culture to Technology" by Neil Postman, 1992, which criticises overreliance on technological méans in medicine.)
Criticism against modérn medicine has led to some improvements in the curricula of medical schools, which now téach students systematically on medical ethics, holistic approaches to medicine, the biopsychosocial model and similar concepts
The inability of modérn medicine to properly address many common complaints continues to prompt many péople to seek support from alternative medicine
Although a large number of alternative approaches to héalth await scientific validation, many report improvement of symptoms after obtaining alternative therapies
Psikologi nyaéta widang élmu akademis jeung terapan anu aya hubungannana jeung studi ngeunaan pikiran, otak sarta kalakuan manusa
Psikologi ogé kakaitan jeung aplikasi pangaweruh éta dina anéka widang aktivitas manusa, kaasup masalah kahirupan sapopoé masing-masing individu jeung nambaan gangguan méntal
Komunikasi nyaéta proses tina parobahan inpormasi umumna ngaliwatan sistim tina simbol nu geus umum
"Elmu Komunikasi" nyaéta élmu akademik nu ngajarkeun ngeunaan komunikasi
Komunikasi nyaéta prosés anu ngamungkinkeun mahluk hirup pikeun silih tukeur informasi ku cara maké sababaraha métodeu
Komunikasi nyaratkeun yén sakabéh pihak anu ngalakukeun komunikasi mikawanoh basa anu dipaké bareng dina éta komunikasi
Silih tukeur informasi merlukeun feedback atawa eupanbalik
Sanajan kitu, kecap "komunikasi" ogé digunakeun dina konteks anu ngan merlukeun saeutik eupanbalik atawa henteu merlukeun eupanbalik samasakali saperti siaran, ogé dina konteks di mana eupanbalik katunda lantaran pangirim atawa panarima ngagunakeun métodeu , teknoloji, waktu jeung alat uepanbalik anu béda
Aya cara komunikasi anu bisa didenge saperti ucapan, nyanyian jeung wirahma sora
Aya deui cara komunikasi tanpa ucapan tapi maké cara fisik anu katelah nonverbal saperti basa awak, basa isarat, paralanguage, cabakan, hubungan mata, atawa panggunaan tulisan
Definisi komunikasi rupa-rupa pisan
Sabagian jelema nganggap yén sato bisa ngalakukeun komunikasi jeung baturna persis saperti manusa, sarta sabagian deui jelema ngadefinisikeun komunikasi leuwih heureut, ngan ngawengku manusa katut paraméter-paraméter interaksi simbulna
Sanajan kitu, komunikasi biasana digambarkeun ku sababaraha dimensi utama: Komunikasi di antarana kaasup tindakan-tindakan pikeun méré pangaweruh jeung pangalaman, méré nasehat jeung parentah, sarta pertanyaan
Tindakan-tindakan ieu bisa ngawujud dina rupa-rupa wangunan
Wangunanna gumantung kana kamampuhan kolompok anu ngalakukeun komunikasi
Eusi jeung wangunan babarengan ngahasilekun pesen anu dikirim ka sahiji tujuan
Sasaranna bisa diri pribadi, jelema lian atawa mahluk lain, jeung unsur lain (saperti sahiji pausahaan atawa kolompok)
Gumantung kana puseur perhatian atawa fokus (saha, naon eusina, naon wangunannana, ka saha, jeung naon hasilna), aya rupa-rupa klasifikasi komunikasi
Sabagian pertanyaan sistemati kasebut diwincik dina Tiori komunikasi
Komunikasi salaku pangiriman informasi
Komunikasi bisa dititén salaku prosés pangiriman informasi anu dibangkitkeun ku tilu lapis aturan semiotic: Jadi, komunikasi mangrupa sajinis interaksi sosial di mana saeutikna dua pihak anu ngalakukeun interaksi silih bagi sakumpulan isarat jeung sakumpulan aturan semiotic anu ilahar pikeun éta kadua beulah pihak
(Aturan anu diadegkeun babarengan ieu dina sababaraha harti teu nganggap autocommunication, kaasup intrapersonal communication ngaliwatan dayeri atawa ngomong-sorangan) salaku komunikasi
Dina modél anu saderhana, informasi atawa eusi (misalna pesen dina basa anu alami) dikirim dina sababaraha wangunan (saperti basa ucap) ti pamancar/pangirim/encoder ka tujuan/panarima/decoder
Dina wangunan anu saeutik leuwih kompleks saurang pangirim jeung saurang panarima dihubungkeun sacara timbal balik
salah sahiji conto komunikasi nyaéta komunikasi ucapan
Komunikasi ucapan sacara husus nurutkeun rupa-rupa cara pangiriman logika nu kadang-kadang dilakukeun kurang alus antukna pihak lain ngira-ngira
Conto paling umum komunikasi ieu, mungkin wangunan komunikasi paling alus, nyaéta dialog
Dialog mangrupa sahiji wangunan komunikasi di mana kadua beulah pihak kalibet dina pangiriman informasi
Dialog disebut wangunan anu alus lantaran ayana eupanbalik
Kahadiran gangguan komunikasi atawa anu disebut "nois komunikasi" dina "channel" pangiriman (rohangan hawa, dina hal ieu) ngakibatkeun eusi atawa informasi nu katarima jadi ruksak, dina harti yén eusina bakal ngandung kasalahan, jadi henteu ngakibatkeun hasil anu diharepkeun
Tiori coregulation ngajelaskeun yén komunikasi mangrupa prosés daya cipta (kréatif) jeung dinamik anu sinambung
Komunikasi simbulik nyaéta komunikasi anu ngagunakeun perlambang
Dina komunikasi simbulik, lambang-lambang dibéré harti jeung ngagambarkeun sahiji gagasan
Contona, bendera Amerika mangrupa perlambang anu ngagambarkeun kabébasan pikeun urang Amérika, atawa ngagambarkeun imperialisme sarta kajahatan pikeun nagara-nagara lianna
Komunikasi mangrupa silih tukeur informasi antara para anggota sakolompok mahluk hirup
Lamun sahiji interaksi gagal ngalakukeunnana, éta lain komunikasi
Hal ieu henteu dijelaskeun dina tiori komunikasi simbulik, tapi silih tukeur pesen anu bisa ngarobah "a priori harepan" kajadian, tetep lumaku
Bentuk jeung komponen komunikasi manusa
Manusa ngalakukeun komunikasi pikeun babagi pangaweruh jeung pangalaman
Bentuk umum komunikasi manusa ngawengku bahasa isarat, omongan, tulisan, basa awak, jeung siaran
Komunikasi bisa interactive, transactive, ngahaja, atawa teu dihaja; ieu ogé bisa mangrupa verbal atawa nonverbal
Sajaba ti eta, komunikasioge bisa intrapersonal atawa antar pribadi
Dina telekomunikasi, pamancaran radio dua arah meuntasan Atlantik mimiti kajadian dina tanggal July 25 1920
(tingali oge: semafor, telegraf, telefon, radioteletype, jaringan telefon global – anu dikenal ogé minangka Jaringan Telefon pikeun Umum (tarjamahan tina Public Switched Telephone Network, satelit komunikasi, ethernet, jeung internet – sahiji jaringan tina jaringan-jaringan kompiyuter)
As the technology evolved, communication protocol also had to evolve; for example, Thomas Edison had to discover that "hello" was the léast ambiguous greeting by voice over a distance; previous greetings such as "hail" tended to be lost or garbled in the transmission
As regards human communication these diverse fields can be divided into those which cultivate a thoughtful exchange between a small number of péople (debate, talk radio, e-mail, personal letters) on the one hand; and those which disseminate broadly a simple message (Public relations, television, cinema)
Our indebtedness to the Romans in the field of communication does not end with the Latin root "communicare"
They devised what might be described as the first réal mail or postal system in order to centralize control of the empire from Rome
This allowed Rome to gather knowledge about events in its many widespréad provinces
As the Romans well knew, communication is as much about taking in towards the centre as it is about putting out towards the extremes
Thus peace is a side-effect of communication, starting, for example, when the August 30th 1963 "communication hotline" between U.S. and Soviet léaders went into operation
In virtual management an important issue is computer-mediated communication
The view péople take toward communication is changing, as new technologies change the way they communicate and organize
In fact, it is the changing technology of communication that tends to maké the most frequent and widespréad changes in a society
The latest trend in communication, decentralized personal networking, is termed smartmobbing
Kahariwang dina komunikasi disebut communication apprehension
Kahariwang saperti kitu condong dipangaruhan ku konsep-diri sahiji jelema
Sajaba kahariwang, komunikasi bisa ruksak alatan bypassing, indiskriminesyen, jeung polarisesyen
Kagagalan pikeun ngagunakeun basa anu umum digunakeun dina hii komunitas ogé mangrupa hahalang
[1] Dance, Frank
"The 'concept' of communication
"Journal of Communication, 20", 201-210 (1970)
Ekonomi nyaéta élmu sosial nu ngulik, ngageroh masalah produksi, distribusi, jeung konsumsi barang jeung jasa, nu didadasaran ayana pipilih atawa tutukeuran di antara alternatip-alternatip nu sipatna "kompetitip" nu eces dina kuantitas nu kaukur saperti asupan ("input"), harga, jeung hasil, kaluaran ("output")
Widang ekonomi ngawengku sababaraha téori nu kamungkinan gedé teu bisa diharmoniskeun nu tumali jeung sistem produksi jeung distribusi
Ngan dina aturan umumna mah para ahli ekonomi ngaheuyeuk nalungtik perilaku jalma jeung kamakmuran nu jadi tumali antara alat, sumber ekonomi nu sipatna dibutuhkeun sacara sosial jeung nu sipatna langka jeung bisa jadi alternatip guna/kagunaanana
(Lionel Robbins, 1935)
Pamahaman nyorangan atawa kelompok kana pilihan-pilihan mangrupa puseur elmu ekonomi
Ku sifat ayana kalangkaan, milih hiji alternatif tangtuna ngabalukarkeun pangaruh ka alternatif séjéna di mana ahli ekonomi pasti milih ka alternatif panghadéna jeung tangtuna éta nempatkeun alternatif séjén jadi opportunity cost
Contona baé mun diajar hiji kaahlian ngabalukarkeun jadi teu boga waktu diajar kaahlian séjéna
Tah dina alam pasar mah nu ayeuna jadi tiori paling gedé pangaruhna, éta kalangkaan téh paling umum diitung dihubungkeun jadi hiji harga Economists believe that incentives and desires together play an important role in shaping decision making
Concepts from the Utilitarian school of philosophy are used as analytical concepts within economics, though economists appreciate that society may not adopt utilitarian objectives
One example of this is the idéa of a utility function, which is assumed to be the méans by which individual economic actors decide what makes them "happy" and what decisions they maké in pursuit of that happiness
The subject is said to be positive when it attempts to explain the consequences of different choices given a set of assumptions and normative when it prescribes a certain route of action
Aspects receiving particular attention in economics are resource allocation, production, distribution or trade, and competition
The word "economy" comes from the Greek "oikos-" for "house" and "nomos" for "laws" or "norms"
Originally, the term oikonomikos was used for different contexts: the house, a town, a city (the "polis" in Greek)
This last use originated the term "political economy", while the term "economics" was coined around 1870 and popularized by Alfred Marshall
Note that the word "economist" predated "economics"
After this "change", the term "political economy" has been used to denote the "classical economy" of the 19th century, with Adam Smith, David Ricardo and Karl Marx as its main thinkers, in recent yéars the term has also been used to describe the study of production systems which are not viewed through the lens of price, but through descriptions of the network of relationships
descriptions of the network of relationships and requirements involved in a particular economy
There are also those who use the terms economics and political economy as interchangéable
Widang-widang ulikan ékonomi
Ékonomi biasana dibagi jadi dua cabang utama: Attempts to join these two branches or to refute the distinction between them have been important motivators in much of recent economic thought, especially in the late 1970s and éarly 1980s
Today, the consensus view is arguably that good macroeconomics has solid microeconomic foundations; i.e
its premises have théoretical and evidential support in microeconomics
Economics can also be divided into numerious subdisciplines that do not always fit néatly into the macro/micro categorization
Some of these subdisciplines include: international economics, labour economics, welfare economics, resource economics, environmental economics, managerial economics, financial economics, urban economics, and spatial economics
There are also methodologies used by economists whose underlying théories are important
Other subdivisions are possible
Finance has traditionally been considered a part of economics – as its body of results emerges naturally from microeconomics – but has today effectively established itself as a separate, though closely related, discipline
There has been an incréasing trend for idéas and methods from economics to be applied in wider contexts
Since economics analysis focuses on decision making, it can be applied (with varying degrees of success) to any field where péople are faced with alternatives – education, marriage, health, etc
Public Choice Theory studies how economic analysis can apply to those fields traditionally considered outside of economics
The aréas of investigation in Economics therefore overlap with other social sciences, including political science and sociology
See political economy for the study of economics in the context of political science
The most prevalent political economy is loosely called capitalism
Mainstréam economics does not assume a priori that markets are preferable to other forms of social organization
In fact, much analysis is devoted to cases where so-called market failures léad to resource allocation that is suboptimal by some standard
In such cases, economists may attempt to find policies that will avoid waste; directly by government control, indirectly by regulation that induces market participants to act in a manner consistent with optimal welfare, or by créating 'missing' markets to enable efficient trading where none had previously existed
This is studied in the field of collective action
Mainstréam economics centers around the relationship between supply and demand
Supply can be said to be the amount of a given commodity available at a give price, and demand can be said to be the amount of a commodity that would be purchased at a given price
Mainstréam economic théory centers on créating a series of supply and demand relationships, describing them as equations, and then adjusting for factors which produce "stickiness" between supply and demand
Analysis is then done to see what "trade offs" are made in the "market" which is the negotiation between sellers and buyers
Analysis is done as to what point the ability of sellers to sell becomes less useful than other opportunities
This is related to "marginal" costs - or the price to produce the last unit that can be sold profitably, versus the chance of using the same effort to engage in some other activity
Despite the extreme controversy surrounding larger economic issues, there is significant agreement among mainstréam economists on the fundamentals of the subject, especially as reflected in microeconomics as opposed to macroeconomics
In particular the nature of money, supply and whether price reflects available information are aréas of dispute
See below for further discussion
Much contemporary théory assumes that economic agents act rationally to optimize well-being given available information
This may sometimes be an acceptable approximation - for instance, if a given individual's irrationality is canceled out in the aggregate) and tends to produce tractable results
However, this framework ("homo economicus" - has for decades been understood as a handy approximation (e.g., see Herbert Simon's modél for "bounded rationality", which was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1978)
More recently, irrational behavior and imperfect information have incréasingly been the subject of formal modélling, often referred to as behavioral economics, for which Daniel Kahneman won a Nobel Prize in 2002
An example is the growing field of behavioral finance which combines previous théory with cognitive psychology
Economic language and reasoning
Economics relies on rigorous styles of argument more than other social sciences
This is at léast, the purported idéal of professionals in the field
Economic methodology has several interacting parts; Formal modélling is motivated by general principles of consistency and completeness
Formal modélling has been adopted to some extent by all branches of economics
It is not the identical to what is often referred to as mathematical economics; this includes, but is not limited to, an attempt to set microeconomics, in particular general equilibrium on solid mathematical foundation
Some reject mathematical economics: The Austrian School of economics believes that anything beyond simple logic is often unnecessary and inappropriate for economic analysis
In fact, the entire empirical-deductive framework sketched in this section may be rejected outright by this school
However, we believe the framework sketched here represents accurately the current predominant view of economics
Development of economic thought
modérn economic thought is usually considered to have begun with Adam Smith in the late 18th century, although éarlier thinkers such as the Spanish Scholastics and the physiocrats made important contributions
For an overview of precursors to Smith as well as an overview of schools that have developed later, see history of economic thought
modérn mainstréam economics can be said to begin with Mills focusing of what was then called "political economy" on "wealth" which he defined exclusively in relation to the exchange value of objects, or what would now be called price
"Classical Economics," as the economic work of the period is called, forms the foundation of micro-economics
The central idéa promoted by Smith was that the competition between various suppliers and buyers would produce the best possible distribution of goods and services, because it would encourage individuals to specialize and improve their capital, so as to produce more value with the same labor
As with its contemporanéous idéa of evolution, it rests on the belief that large systems can be self-regulating by the activity of their parts, without specific direction
Smith's formulation is called the "invisible hand" and is still the centerpiece of market economics, and capitalism in particular
In the 19th century, Karl Marx synthesized a variety of schools of thought involving the social distribution of resources, including the work of Adam Smith, as well as socialism and egalitarianism, and used the systematic approach to logic taken from philosopher Hegel to produce "Das Kapital"
His work was the most widely adhered-to critique of market economics during much of the 19th and 20th centuries
The Marxist paradigm of economics is not generally held in high regard by market economists, though some concepts from his work are occasionally used in mainstréam contexts, particularly in labor economics and in political economy
The term Marxian is in some contexts used to describe work which accepts concepts from his work but does not necessarily subscribe to the political thrust of Marxist thought
In the éarly 20th century, economics became incréasingly statistical, and the study of econometrics became incréasingly important
Statistical tréatment of price, unemployment, money supply and other variables, as well as the compiling of these statistics, became more and more central to economic writing and disputes within the field of economics
Macroeconomics diverged from microeconomics with Keynes in the 1920s, and was codified in the 1930s by Keynes and others, particularly John Hicks
It grew in popularity as a réaction to the Great Depression
Keynes had been an influential exponent of the importance of central banking and government involvement in economic affairs, as well as a critic of the political economy of the post World War I period
His "General Theory" encapsulated both criticisms of classical théory that had been levelled by Thorstein Veblen and others, as well a method for economic management of aggregate demand
For an overview of a number of competing schools, see macroeconomics
Many economists use a combination of Néoclassical microeconomics and Keynesian macroeconomics
This combination, sometimes known as the "Neoclassical synthesis", was dominant in Western téaching and public policy in the yéars following World War II and up to the late 1970s
The néoclassical school was challenged by monetarism, formulated in the late 1940's and éarly 1950's by Milton Friedman and associated with the University of Chicago
In principle, economics can be applied to any type of economic organization
the majority of economic théory centers around systems where goods are exchanged in the market - where buyers and sellers seek to maximize their results by trading
The dominant form of market economics focuses on societies where property is owned by individuals, money has a rational basis, and profit comes from utilizing labor and capital to produce goods to be sold in the market - or capitalism
However, economic théory is also applied to markets where the control of capital is in the hands of the state or society, which include socialism and mercantilism, and to societies where the allocation of resources is not through the market, but through political mechanisms, generally referred to as command economies, which includes communism and other forms of totalitarianism
Many economists assert that it is impossible to avoid the "Invisible Hand" of the Market, and hence all societies can be modélled through market dynamics, though this viewpoint has vehement opponents across the political spectrum
The development of economics as a field of study is closely related to the rise of capital as the primary determining factor of production and trading, hence its most detailed and precise work has déalt with the institutions belonging to market societies, and most specifically to capitalist and socialist societies
To what extent economics must be adjusted to be applied to éarlier forms of social organization has been the source of discussion
Generally, mainstréam economists mostly feel that the basic framework of economics is relevant and flexible enough to be applied to virtually any form of society
Marxist economics asserts that history is divided into eras which are determined by which two classes, which are struggling to control the méans of production - that is slaves and masters, péasants and royalty, wage workers and capitalists - and that mainstréam economics only applies to those societies which are "objectively" industrial, that is to say, societies which are capable of industrial production based
are capable of industrial production based on their own knowledge and resources
(See Marxism, particularly "The Hegelian Roots of Marxism".)
In the late 20th Century three of the aréas of study which are producing change in economic thinking are: risk based rather than price based modéls, imperfect economic actors, and tréating economics as a biological science, based on evolutionary norms rather than abstract exchange
The study of risk has been influential, which viewed variations in price over time as more important than actual price
This particularly applies to financial economics where risk-return tradéoffs are the crucial decisions to be made
The most important aréa of growth has been in the study of information and decision
Examples of this school include the work of Joseph Stiglitz
Problems of asymmetric information and moral hazard, both based around information economics, profoundly affect modérn economic dilemmas like executive stock options, insurance markets, and third-world debt relief
Finally, there are a series of economic idéas rooted in the conception of economics as a branch of biology, including the idéa that energy relationships rather than price relationships determine economic structure, and the use of fractal géometry to créate economic modéls
(See Energy Economics) In its infancy is the application of non-linear dynamics to economic théory, as well as the application of evolutionary psychology
So far the most visible work has been in the aréa of applying fractals to market analysis, particularly arbitrage
(See Complexity in Economics) Another infant branch of economics is neuroeconomics
This combines neuroscience, economics, and psychology to study how we maké choices
Economics in the context of Western thought
Basic Scarcity in Economic Theory
Because scarcity and decision are central to economic théory, the question of what is the basic trade-off in economics is of central importance
In every economic théory, there is a basic exchange of two or more ultimately scarce commodities
For Adam Smith, it was defined as the trading of time, or convenience, for money
For example, a person could live néar town, and pay more for rent or his domicile, or live farther away and pay less, "paying the difference out of his convenience"
This view, that the primary trade-off involved in economics is between time and money, has several challengers
éach of these bases its view of scarcity on a different fundamental trade-off
A small number of economists prefer to define economics as the study of how and why péople trade; this definition implies relative scarcity
In economic théory, the price level is determined by the "marginal" cost and "marginal" utility
Marginalism became incréasingly important in economic théory in the late 19th century, and is a tool which is used to analyze how economic systems will réact
The marginal cost of a commodity is the cost to produce the last unit of it, the marginal utility is the happiness gained from buying the last unit
Economic théory uses marginalism to describe the "diminishing returns" from consumption - the 10th candy bar doesn't taste as good as the first, and so brings less "marginal utility"
Marginal cost of production divides costs into "fixed" costs which must be paid regardless of how many of a commodity are produced, and "variable costs"
The marginal cost is the variable cost of the last unit, plus the percentage of fixed costs
Marginalism states that when the profit from the next unit will be zero, that unit will not be produced
Information theory has been applied to economics since the work of Ronald Coase in the 1930's
However, with Herbert Simon and John von Neumann in the 1950's, it gathered a more specific formalism as part of game theory
This emphasises that the decision-making process itself is costly
Marxist economics generally denies the trade-off of time for money
In the Marxist view, concentrated control over the méans of production is the basis for the allocation of resources among classes
Scarcity of any particular physical resource is subsidiary to the central question of power relationships embedded in the méans of production
The question of the environment is viewed, in the traditional economic framework, as being related to the externalization of costs
That is, market economics assumes that a good which is underpriced, is overconsumed
Externalization of cost, in this view, will be corrected by pricing the overconsumed resources which are being used, for example the work of Lester Thurow and also see Pigovian taxes
Not all economics study accepts this paradigm, and, instéad, there is a seven decade old tradition of viewing economic relationships as being based on the scarcity of energy, rather than price, as the central féature of economics
It could be argued that benéath an economic théory is a théory of value
Value can be defined as the underlying activity which economics describes and méasures
It is what is "really" happening
Adam Smith defined "labor" as the underlying source of value, and "the labor theory of value" underlies the work of Karl Marx, David Ricardo and many other "classical" economists
The "labor theory of value" argues that a good or service is worth the labor that it takes to produce, and the abundance or scarcity of labor determines the price of a commodity
The labor théory of value and the closely related cost-of-production theory of value dominates the work of most classical economists, but they are far from the only accepted basis for "value"
For example neoclassical economists and Austrian School economists prefer the marginal theory of value
"Market theory" argues that there is no "value" separate from price, that the market incorporates all available information into price, and that so long as markets are open, that price and value are one and the same
This théory rests on the idéa of the "rational economic actor"
This was orginally asserted by Mill
Another set of théories rest on the idéa that there is a basic external scarcity, and that "value" represents the relationship to that basic scarcity
Théories based on economics being limited by energy or based on a "gold standard" are of this type
All of these value théories are used in current economic work
Price is the méasurable quantities involved in an exchange
Price théory, therefore, charts the movement of méasurable quantities over time, and the relationship between price and other méasurable variables
In Adam Smith's "Wealth of Nations" this was the trade-off between price and convenience
A gréat déal of economic théory is based around prices and the théory of supply and demand
Supply and demand assume that the factors affecting the agents who supply a particular commodity can be separated from those who wish to sell it
Sellers have a quantity they would wish to sell at every given price and a price for any quantity they wish to sell; buyers have a quantity they will demand at any given price and a price that they will pay to if they have to buy a particular quantity
The market 'cléars' at the point where all the supply and demand at a given price balance
That is, the amount of a commodity available at a given price equals the amount that buyers are willing to purchase at that price
It is assumed that there is a process that will result in the market réaching this point, but exactly what the process is in a réal situation is an ongoing subject of reséarch
Markets which do not cléar will réact in some way, either by a change in price, or in the amount produced, or in the amount demanded
Graphically the situation can be represented by two curves; one showing the price-quantity combinations buyers will pay for, or the demand curve, one showing the combinations sellers will sell for, or the supply curve
The market cléars where the two are in equilibrium, that is where the curves intersect
In a general equilibrium modél, all markets in all goods cléar simultanéously and the 'price' can be described entirely in terms of tradéoffs with other goods
For a century the Say's Law was believed in economic théory, which said that markets, as a whole, would always cléar
In many practical economic modéls, some form of "price stickiness" is incorporated to modél the observed fact that in many markets prices do not move fluidly
Economic policy often revolves around arguments as to what is causing "economic friction", or price stickiness, and which is, therefore, preventing the supply and demand from réaching equilibrium
Another aréa of economic controversy is on whether price méasures value correctly
In mainstréam market economics, where there are significant scarcities not factored into price, there is said to be an externalization of cost
Market economics predicts that scarce goods which are under-priced are over-consumed (See social cost)
This léads into public goods théory
Economics and other disciplines
There is some degree of tension between economics and ethics, another of the most basic social sciences, which tends to avoid quantification and emphasize balances of rights
modérn economics déals with this tension explicitly – according to some thinkers a théory of economics is also, or implies also, a théory of moral reasoning
One way economists déal with this is to qualify discussions of economic choice by noting that "all else being equal..." referring to moral or social factors that are supposedly held equivalent for all choices that one might make
"For exploration of this issue, see the moral purchasing article."
Another premise is that economics fits within a finite ecosystem where there are at léast some abundant resources – for instance, when fueling a fire one is usually concerned with finding the wood, and not so much with finding the air to burn it with
Economics explicitly does not déal with free abundant inputs – one criticism is that it often conflicts with ecology's view of what affects what
Human beings are, according to ecologists, merely one species participating in a vast energy system on this planet – economy is a subset of ecology that déals with just one species' habits and wants
"See nature's services for the economic view of ecology and green economics for the view wherein economics is a subset of ecology."
A third premise is that economics suggests market forms and other méans of distribution of scarce goods that do not just affect "desires and wants" but also "needs" and "habits"
Much of so-called economic "choice" is involuntary, certainly given the conditioning that péople have to expect certain quality of life
This léads to one of the most hotly debated aréas in economic policy: namely the effect and efficacy of welfare policies
This is viewed as a failure to respect economics réasoning by libertarians, who argue that redistribution of wéalth is morally and economically wrong
And viewed as a failure of economics to respect society by socialists, who argue that disparities of wéalth should not have been allowed in the first place
This led to both 19th century labour economics and 20th century welfare economics before being subsumed into human development theory
The debates above are all quite old
The term economics was coined in around 1870, and popularised by influential "neoclassical" economists such as Alfred Marshall
Prior to this the subject had been known as political economy and referred to "the economy of polities" – competing states
The older term is still often used "instead of" economics, especially by radical economists such as Marxists who strongly question assumptions of "mainstream" technical and quantitative economics
Use of this term often signals an a basic disagreement with the terminology or paradigm of market economics
Political economy explicitly brings political considerations into economic analysis and therefore tends to be more normative
Some mainstréam universities (such as the University of Toronto and many in the United Kingdom) have a political economy department rather than an economics department
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Deregulation — Privatization — Network effect— Laissez-faire
Pamaréntah nyaéta hiji organisasi anu mibanda kakuatan keur nyieun jeung ngatur hukum di territory husus
Aya sababaraha harti ngeunaan hari sabenerna tina pamaréntah
Pamaréntah geus dihartikeun kakuatan "pengambil keputusan" anu dominan (elit pulitik) di hiji state
The latter has been defined (by the political economist Max Weber and later political philosophy) as the organization that holds a monopoly in legitimate use of violence within its territory
If seen in ethical terms, the definition of "legitimate" is open to discussion, and implies that an organisation may be considered a state by its supporters but not by its detractors
Some define "legitimate" as simply involving active and tacit support by the vast majority of the population, i.e., the absence of civil war
(An entity that shares military/police power with independent militias and bandits is not a state in this view
It may be a "failed state.")
Democratic control over the government—and thus the state—would encourage the legitimacy of the state in this view
Government can also be defined as the political méans of créating and enforcing laws; typically via a bureaucratic hierarchy
Under this definition, a purely despotic organisation which controls a territory without defining laws would not be considered a government
An alternative is to define a government as an organisation that attempts to maintain control of a territory, where "control" involves activities such as collecting taxes, controlling entry and exit to the state, preventing encroachment of territory by neighbouring states and preventing the establishment of alternative governments within the country
Governments concern themselves with many issues, such as economics, education, health, science, territory, and war
The modérn standard unit of territory comprises a country
In addition to the méaning used above, the word state can refer either to a government or to its territory
Within a territory, subnational entities may have local governments which do not have the full power of a national government
Governments use a variety of methods to maintain control, such as police and military forces, (particularly under despotism, see also police state), making agreements with other states, and maintaining support within the state
Typical methods of maintaining support and legitimacy include providing infrastructure for justice, administration , transport, social welfare etc., claiming support of deities, providing benefits to influential groups, holding elections for important posts within the state, limiting the power of the state through laws and constitutions and appéaling to nationalism
Groups opposed to government control include libertarians and anarchists
Various forms of government have been implemented or proposed
A government in a developed state is likely to have various sub-organisations known as offices, departments, or agencies, which are héaded by politically appointed officials, often called ministers or secretaries
Ministers may in théory act as advisors to the head of state, but in practice have a certain amount of direct power in specific aréas