izzako/sundanese-pixelgpt huggingface dataset:
Ti mimiti abad ka 16, mimiti asup pangaruh Eropa, sarta pangaruh dominan Amérika sanggeus Perang Dunya ka II
Sado mangrupakeun salah sahiji budaya Jepang anu loba dilakukeun ku sakumna masarakat Jepang nyaéta budaya nginum entéh anu baheulana datang ti karuhun
Masarakat Jepang ngalakukeun éta budaya dina hiji rohangan husus anu disebut "tantami."
Numutkeun kana sajarah, buaday sado geus aya ti abad ka-9 anu munggaran dina cutatan kuno "Nihon Koki" anu dicaritakeun ku biksu Buddha ngarana Eichu ti Cina
Maranéhna ngabogaan kayakinan yéh sado téh lain ngan sauukur nginum entéh hungkul tapi aya unsur etétika anu ngabogaan unsur spiritual
Jepang ngabogaan olahraga beladiri anu pohara populér, nyaéta Sumo
Sanajan digolongkeun kana gulat tradisional, sababaraha urang masih ngalaksanakeun ta nepi ka ayeuna
Biasana, sumo dilaksanakeun ku dua pegulat anu awakna kentel
Tapi sabenerna olahraga ieu teu nangtukeun aturan beurat
Kanyataanna, anu jadi atlét sumo maran.hna ngagedekeun awak ngarah dina gulat henteu babari éléh digubragkeun ku lawan
Urang Jepang resep ngayakeun festival
Dina basa Jepang, 'festival' disebut 'Matsuri'
Rupa-rupa festival diayakeun di Jepang, unggal taun, mimitian ti festival usun gugur, taun anyar, kaagamaan, usum panas, jeung saterusna
Matsuri dipigawé henteu ngan sauukur senang-senang hungkul, tapi ngandung unsur spiritual
Urang Jepang ngayakeun festival pikeun ngahormatan jeung nganyatakeun rasa syukur kana barokah anu diparin ku déwa
Unggal matsuri sok dibarengan ku mikoshi
Mikoshi mangrupakeun kuil miniatur
Pamilon festival bakal diarak ngurilingan miniatur
Maranéhna yakin yén mikoshi mangrupakeun tutumpakan anu dipaké ku déwa
Mangrupakeun kasenian kaligrafi masarakat Jepang, ieu budaya munggaran ti abad ka-6 anu asalna ti nagara Cina
Shodo ngabogaan loba ajén pikeun masarakat Jepang
Salian mangrupa seni, shodo dipaké pikeun komunikasi jeung neangan pangalaman nilai-nilai zen
Ku tulisan Shodo, maranehna diajar ngarti kasinambungan jeung hikmah dina kahirupan
Shodo dijieun tina gabungan puisi, sastra, jeung lukisan
Anu ngamumule ieu budaya Shodo kudu ngalakukeun latihan jiwa jeung raga
Nalika ngalukis, aranjeunna bakal ngatur émosi, wirahma, éstétika, jeung spiritualitas
Taiko nyaéta seni musik has Jepang dina wangun ketukan kendang
Seni musik ieu biasana dipidangkeun nalika féstival Jepang jeung upacara kaagamaan
Tabuh taiko pinuh ku sumanget
Salila pagelaran, pamaén taiko bakal ngagorowok kecap dorongan
Maranhanana surak nyaring kana iringan lagu
Salah sahiji tujuan wisata favorit di Jepang nyaeta pamandangan usum gugur jeung usum semi.Dina usum semi, pengunjung bisa ningali kaéndahan kembang sakura jeung kembang sakura anu mekar
Pananda usuman mangrupakeun hal anu penting pikeun masarakat Jepang
Urang Jepang boga adat husus disebut hanami
Hanami mangrupakeun tradisi ningali kembang mekar dina usum semi
Nalika kembang sakura mekar, éta mangrupakeun tanda yén usum semi geus datang
Kalayan éta, ogé dipercaya yén kahirupan anyar dimimitian deui
Kembangna boga waktu mekar salila dua minggu, teras saatos éta bakal murag
Préféktur Gifu (岐阜県 "Gifu-ken"), lokasi di wewengkon Chūbu bagian tengah Jepang
Ibukota Propinsina nyaéta Kota Gifu
Posisina di puseur Jepang, éta miboga hal penting minangka sisimpangan Jepang, nyambungkeun wétan ka kulon
Salila période Sengoku, réa nu nyebutkeun yen, "ngawasa Gifu hartina anjeun ngawasa Jepang."
Wewengkon Gifu kiwari mangrupa bagéan tina periode Yamato kira-kira panengah abad kaopat
Sabab ayana di tengah-tengah pulo Honshu, kawentar minangka tempat perang dina Sajarah Jepang, catetan perang pangkolotna nyaéta Perang Jinshin dina taun 672, nu ngajadikeun Kaisar Temmu salaku kaisar Jepang ka-40
Wewengkon di Préféktur Gifu nyaéta propinsi heubeul Hida jeung Mino, bagéan leutik ti Propinsi Echizen jeung Propinsi Shinano
Ngaran ieu préféktur asalna tina ngaran ibukota propinsi nyaéta, Gifu, ngaran kota nu dipaké ku Oda Nobunaga sawaktu kampanye ngahijikeun Jepang dina taun 1567
Karakter mungaran dina ngaran Gifu asalna tina Qishan (岐山), gunung legenda nu dipaké sawaktu Cina ngahiji, sedengkeun karakter kadua tina Qufu (曲阜), tempat lahirna Konghucu
Nobunaga milih ngaran éta alatan manéhna hayang ngahijikeun sakuliah Jepang sarta manéhna hayang dianggap boga pamikiran nu rongkah
Nurutkeun sajarah, Préféktur Gifu boga fungsi minangka puseur tempat nyieun pedang di sakumna Jepang, jeung Seki dipikanyaho tempat nyieun pedang pangalusna di Jepang
Kiwari, Gifu kawentar ogé dina mode (utamana di dayeuh Gifu) sarta téknik roket (inggris: "aerospace") di Kakamigahara
Dina tanggal 28 Oktober 1891, kiwari kota Motosu nyaéta tempat "epicenter" Lini Mino-Owari, lini panggedéna nu pernah kajadian di Jepang
Ditaksir kira-kira 8.0 skala Richter nu nyababkeun kabeulahna taneuh nu bisa ditempo nepi ka kiwari
Salah sahiji propinsi di Jepang nu aya di daratan bagéan jero, Propinsi Gifu diwatesan ku tujuh propinsi séjén nyaéta : Propinsi Aichi, Fukui, Ishikawa, Mie, Nagano, Shiga jeung Toyama
Kode pos di Jepang, dimimitian ku tilu nomer, antara 001 nepi ka 999
Bagéam Gifu mimiti ti 500, salah sahiji bukti yén Gifu ayana di tenah-tengah Jepang
Préféktur Gifu kabagi kana 5 wewengkon, nu mibanda wewenang sorangan keur ngamajukeun daérahna
Lima wewengkon ieu nyaéta Seinō (西濃), Gifu (岐阜), Chūnō (中濃), Tōnō (東濃) jeung Hida (飛騨)
Di beulah kaler nyaéta wewengkon Hida mangrupa gunung-gunung nu jangkung, bagéan ti Japanese Alps
Di beulah kidul nyaéta wewengkon Mino mengrupa daérah subur di Dataran Nobi, wewengkon nu hadé keur tatanen
Masarakat Gifu, lolobana hirup kumbuh di beulah kidul, deukeut ka kota metropolitan Nagoya
Gunung-gunung di wewengkon Hida kaasup kana Pagunungan Hida, nu disebut ogé "Northern Alps," jeung Pagunungan Kiso, nu disebut ogé "Central Alps" di Japan
Pagunungan Ryohaku ogé aya di wewengkon Hida
Nu séjénna nyaéta Pagunungan Ibuki jeung Pagunungan Yoro
Wewengkon Mino ditutupan ku dataran aluvium ti Tilu Walungan Kiso, nyaéta Walungan Ibi, Walungan Kiso jeung Walungan Nagara
Sumber cai sakabéh ieu walungan aya di Préféktur Nagano tur ngalir ngaliwatan Préféktur Aichi jeung Mie saméméh ngamuara ka Basisir Ise
Walungan utama séjénna nyaéta walungan Jinzū, Takahara, Shō, Shōnai, Yahagi jeung Ishitoro
Sabab wewengkon Mino dikurilingan ku gunung-gunung nu pendek, naek turun suhu kajadian sapanjang taun, ti usum panas nepi ka usum tiris
Upamana, kota di beulah wetan nyaéta Tajimi, geus ilahar ngalaman hawa pangpanasna sa Jepang dina unggal taun, dina 16 August, 2007, kacatet hawa pangpanasna sa Jepang nu pernah kajadian nyaéta—40.9 degrees Celsius
Usum panas jadi leuwih panas sabab ieu wewengkon mangrupa tempat nu katutupan ku gunung-gunung, saterusna bakal leuwih panas sawaktu, angin foehn datang ngaliwatan Pagunungan Ibuki di wewengkon Kansai
Wewengkon Hida, nu mangrupa pagunungan, ilaharna leuwih tiris tinimbang wewengkon Mino, sanajan kadangkala leuwih panas oge
Shōkawa-chō, kacamatan di kota Takayama, aya di pagunungan tur ieu kacamatan mangrupa tempat pangtirisna di pulo Honshū
Gifu miboga réa atraksi wisatawan populer, nu aya di sakabéh bagian prefecture
Tempat anu pang populer nyaéta Gifu, Gero, Shirakawa sarta Takayama
Gifu kawentar pikeun nguseup make manuk, anu miboga sajarah leuwih 1.300 warsih, minangka sajarah panjang boh Oda Nobunaga atawa Saitō Dōsan
Gero dipikanyaho pikeun cinyusu panasna paragi santai, anu narik wisatawan sapanjang warsih
Désa sajarah Shirakawa nyaéta Tempat Titilar Dunya UNESCO
Takayama kawentar alatan kota aslina sarta mindeng disebut "Kyoto Leutik"
Salian ti wewengkon wisata internasional, Gifu ogé jadi tuan rumah sababaraha kagiatan internasional
World Event sarta Convention Complex Gifu biasa dipaké keur ngayakeun rupa-rupa kagiatan internasional
Widang séjén kagiatan internasional, kawas dina 2005 Kejuaraan Ngawelah Parahu Sadunya diayakeun di dayeuh Kaizu
Dua puluh hiji kota aya di Préféktur Gifu nyaéta:
Gifu City (岐阜市; "Gifu-shi") atawa Kota Gifu nyaéta ibu kota Propinsi Gifu di wewengkon Chubu Jepang Tengah
Kota Gifu dirancang jadi kota utama ku pamaréntah Jepang, sedengkeun saméméhna mangrupa bagéan ti Distrik Atsumi
Dumasar kana sajarah, lokasina aya di Jepang Tengah
Salila période Sengoku, Gifu minangka dayeuh kastil, mimitna dina panangtayungan Saitō Dōsan, tuluy dina panangtayungan Oda Nobunaga, sarta mindeng jadi tempat perang di usaha ngahijikeun Jepang
Salila période Edo, Gifu sarta sabudeureunna, Kanō-juku, jadi pusat istirahat sapanjang Nakasendō
Ahirna, ékonomi kota jadi didukung ku industri pakéan, tapi ayeuna kota nempo ka industri manufaktur pikeun ngawangun ékonomina
Lolobana wewengkon di Gifu ngahariji, tapi lolobana éta aya ngaliwatan ngahiji jeung kota sabeulahna, saperti Kanō (dina 1940) sarta Yanaizu (dina 2006)
Balukarna, géografi Gifu pohara rupa-rupa, ti mimiti puseur dayeuh nu réa gedong jeung paimahan nepi ka kebon buah kesemek sarta sawah di sisi kota
Dua tempat arkéologi di Gifu nembongkeun yén wewengkon Gifu kiwari geus aya ti zaman pra-sajarah sabab Gifu aya di wewengkon subur Dataran Nobi
Di wewengkon Ryomonji jeung Kotozuka kapanggih kuburan gedé nu umurna periode Yayoi-ahir, nyaéta mangsa pare mimiti dipelak di Jepang
Mangsa perabadan di Jepang mimiti tumuwuh, paimahan mimiti diwangun jeung ngahuripkeun Désa Inokuchi, cikal bakal kota Gifu kiwari
Tekstil Ti baheula Gifu salah sahiji pusat industri tekstil jeung dagang
Pusat balanja sapanjang jalan, Yanagase (柳ヶ瀬), ampir kana saratus toko pakéan, sapatu sarta aksesori séjénna boh produk lokal atawa impor
Pabrik Sabab deukeut ka propinsi Aichi, nu loba industri otomotif tur industri beurat saperti Toyota, loba industri nu ngadukungna diwangun di Gifu
Wewengkon pusat kota ilahar dianggap salaku komunitas paimahan nu deukeut ka Nagoya, ku sabab gampangna patali marga antara dua kota ieu jeung lobana apartemen nu diwangun
Teu jauh ti Stasion Gifu, di kalereunna aya Gifu City Tower 43, jangkungna 43 lantey geus dibuka dina usum semi 2007 mangrupa wangunan pangjangkungna di Préféktur Gifu
Tilu puluh lantey ka luhur mangrupa apartemen dua jeung tilu tempat sare, kaasup keur warga kota nu geus kolot
Lantai handapna dipaké keur kantor atawa toko nu nunjang kana ieu aktivitas saperti tempata parawatan kasehatan
Tambahanna, ruang umum disimpen di puncak gedung, nu ngamungkinkeun sakabéh penghuni keur nempo Kota Gifu 360-darajat
Kompleks apartemen tambahan ogé diwangun di sakuliah kota keur ngalayanan penduduk kota séjén
Wangunan tambahan ieu bakal rengse dumasar kana pindahna Kantor Pusat Toyota ti Tokyo ka Nagoya
Pagawe kantor Toyota ieu bakal pindah ngadeukeuteun kantorna di sakuriling Nagoya, kaasup ka Gifu
Pamaréntah Kota Gifu kampanye "Slow Life Gifu City", nu ngarancang masarakatna keur hirup lalalunan
Kampanye ieu jadi alternatif keur kahirupan nu gancang dina gaya hirup modérn
Sabagéan gedé ieu kampanye kaasup kana leuwih gumantung kana dahareun lokal, budaya jeung seni tradisional, sarta aktivitasna masarakat di komunitasna
Atikan di Gifu, mimiti ti barudak leutik kénéh, aya 48 tempat panitipan budak jeung 43 taman kanak-kanan
Barudak bakal neruskeun ka 49 sakola dasar jeung 27 SMP
Sanggeus tamat SMP, bakal neruskeun ka 18 SMA
Keur nu hayang neruskeun di kota Gifu, aya 5 lembaga atikan nu bisa dipilih nyaéta: Didirikeun taun 1946 sabage lembaga atikan tradisional, dibantuan ku pamarentah kota jadi "public junior college"
Didirikeun taun 1932 sabage "Gifu City Pharmaceutical College" tur masih aya nepi ka kiwari sarta jadi universita umum
Universitas swasta aya di Kota Yanaizu
Universitas nasional Gifu
Didirikeun taun 1968, universitas husus awewe, 4 taun jeung swasta
Stasion Gifu mangrupa stasion utama nu ngahubungkeun Kota Gifu jeung kota-kota séjén di Jepang, kota pangdeukeutna nyaéta Nagoya
Shinkansen (kareta cepet) teu ngaliwat ka Stasion Gifu
Sanajan kitu, stasion pangdeukeutna nyaéta Stasion Gifu Hashima (di Kota Hashima) jeung Stasion Nagoya
Baheula Meitetsu ogé boga trem nu ngaliwat kota Gifu ngan geus eureun ti tanggal 1 April 2005
Jalur jalan nasional nu ngaliwatan ka Gifu shi nyaéta
Agrikultur nyaéta prosés pikeun ngahasilkeun pangan, parab, benang, jeung hasil-hasil séjén nu dipiharep tina budidaya sarupaning tutuwuhan jeung sato ingon-ingon
Agrikultur na istilah urang sarua jeung tatanén
Tatanén ngawengku kana hiji sistim pikeun ngahasilkeun kabutuhan pangan boh tina pepelakan anapon sato ingon-ingon, ieu kabéh di mimitian tina hiji tarékah pikeun yumponan pangabutuh rumah tangga sapopoé
Kiwari tatanén geus jadi salah sahiji widang penting anu jadi bahan atikan di sakola-sakola, kumaha prak-prakan ngolah taneuh tur miarana, sangkan ngaronjat hasil sarta kauntunganna
Beuki ngaronjatna, kabutuhan kadaharan pikeun salian manusa ogé kadaharan sasatoan/fodder, tatanen ngahasilkeun barang-barang saperti kembang potong, jeung tatangkalan hiasan nursery, gemuk, kulit sasatoan, kulit, kimia industri (pati, éthanol, jeung plastik), benang (kapas, wol, rami, jeung linen/"flax"), "bahan bakar (méthané", "biodiésel", "biomass)", jeung naha meunang idin atawa henteu rupa-rupa ubar (biofarmasi, bako, marijuana, opium, cocaine)
Rekayasa génétik tutuwuhan jeung sasatoan anu bisa ngahasilkeun ubar husus
In the Western world, use of improved genetics, better management of soil nutrients, and improved weed control have gréatly incréased yields per unit aréa
At the same time, use of mechanization has decréased labor requirements, reléasing most of the populace from intense agricultural labor
The developing world is behind by Western méasures of productivity, because of unavailability of the education, capital and technology base needed to sustain these advances, and usually ecoregion with less optimal climates and soils
modérn agriculture depends héavily on engineering and technology and on the biological and physical sciences
Irrigation, drainage, conservation, and sanitary engineering—éach of which is important in successful farming—are some of the fields requiring the specialized knowledge of agricultural engineers
Agricultural chemistry déals with other vital farming concerns, such as the application of fertilizer, insecticides (see Pest control), and fungicides, soil makeup, analysis of agricultural products, and nutritional needs of farm animals
Plant breeding and genetics contribute imméasurably to farm productivity
Genetics has also made a science of livestock breeding
Hydroponics, a method of soilless gardening in which plants are grown in chemical nutrient solutions, may help meet the need for gréater food production as the world’s population incréases
The packing, processing, and marketing of agricultural products are closely related activities also influenced by science
Methods of quick-freezing and dehydration have incréased the markets for farm products (see Food Processing and Preservation; Méat Packing Industry)
Mechanization, the outstanding characteristic of late 19th- and 20th-century agriculture, has éased much of the backbréaking toil of the farmer
More significantly, mechanization has enormously incréased farm efficiency and productivity (see Agricultural Machinery)
Animals including horses, oxen, llamas, alpacas, and dogs, however, are still used to cultivate fields, harvest crops, and transport farm products to markets in many parts of the world
Airplanes and helicopters are used in agriculture for seeding, spraying operations for insect and diséase control, transporting perishable products, and fighting forest fires
Radio and television disseminate vital wéather reports and other information such as market reports that concern farmers
Computers have become an essential tool for farm management
Animal husbandry méans breeding and raising animals for méat or to harvest animal products (like milk, eggs, or wool) on a continual basis
In recent yéars, some aspects of industrial intensive agriculture have been the subject of incréasing discussion
The widening sphere of influence held by large seed and chemical companies and méat packers has been a source of concern both within the farming community and for the general public
The patent protection given to companies that develop new types of seed using genetic engineering has allowed seed to be licensed to farmers in much the same way that computer software is licensed to users
This has changed the balance of power in favor of the seed companies, allowing them to dictate terms and conditions previously unhéard of
Some argue these companies are guilty of biopiracy
Soil conservation and nutrient management have been important concerns since the 1950s, with the best farmers taking a stewardship role with the land they operate
Incréasing consumer awareness of agricultural issues has led to the rise of community-supported agriculture, local food movement, slow food, and commercial organic farming, though these yet remain fledgling industries
Nangtukeun asal-usul tatanén bisa disebut hésé sabab geus aya méméh budaya tulisan
Sababaraha ahli keukeuh nyebutkeun yén tatanén geus aya leuwih ti 10000 taun katukang, sedengkeun nu séjén yakin yén pepelakan nu sistimatis pangheubeulna teu leuwih ti 7000 taun katukang
Prakprakan tatanén mindeng dipaké pikeun ngabédakeun jaman néolitik ti jaman batu nu saméméhna
Palawija nu munggaran dibudidayakeun ku manusa di antarana gandum (einkorn jeung emmer) sarta barley
It is cléar that farming was invented at léast twice, probably more often: once in the Fertile Crescent during the Natufian culture, and the following Pre-Pottery Neolithic A and B periods, once in éast Asia (whéat and millet), and in Central America (maize)
Most likely, there was a gradual transition from a hunter-gatherer economy to an agricultural one, via a lengthy period when some crops were deliberately planted, and other foods were gathered from the wild
The réasons for the éarliest introduction of farming may have included climate change
Farming allows a much gréater density of population than can be supported by hunting and gathering
After 1492, the world's agricultural patterns were shuffled in the widespréad exchange of plants and animals known as the Columbian Exchange
Crops and animals that were previously only known in the Old World were now transplanted in the New, and vice versa
Kawijakan tatanén mokuskeun kana tujuan jeung cara produksi tatanén
Dina tingkat kawijakan, tujuna umum tatanén di antarana: Crops
World production of major crops in 2002
In millions of metric tons, based on USDA estimates: Maize 624 Wheat 570 Rice 381.1 Cotton 96.5 "Paddy rice" is rice in its as-harvested state
"Milled rice" is rice after it is processed to remove the husk and, sometimes, polish the kernel
California is the major US producer of rice
Domestication of plants is done in order to incréase yield, diséase resistance, drought tolerance, éase of harvest, and to improve the taste and nutritional value and many other characteristics
Centuries of careful selection and breeding have had enormous effects on the characteristics of crop plants
Plant breeders use greenhouses and other techniques to get as many as three generations of plants per yéar, so that they can maké improvements all the more quickly
Extensive radiation mutagenesis efforts (i.e
primitive genetic engineering) during the 1950s produced the modérn commercial varieties of grains such as whéat, corn and barley
For example, average yields of corn (maize) in the USA have incréased from around 2.5 tons per hectare (40 bushels per acre) in 1900 to about 9.4 t/ha (150 bushels per acre) in 2001, primarily due to improvements in genetics
Similarly, worldwide average whéat yields have incréased from less than 1 t/ha in 1900 to more than 2.5 t/ha in 1990
South American average whéat yields are around 2 t/ha, Afrika under 1 t/ha, Mesir and Arabia up to 3.5 to 4 t/ha with irrigation
In contrast, the average whéat yield in countries such as Perancis is over 8 t/ha
Higher yields are due to improvements in genetics, as well as use of intensive farming techniques (use of fertilizers, chemical pest control, growth control to avoid lodging)
[Conversion note: 1 bushel (q) of whéat = 60 pounds (lb) ≈ 27.215 kg
1 bushel of corn = 56 pounds ≈ 25.401 kg] Very recently, genetic engineering has begun to be employed in some parts of the world to speed up the selection and breeding process
The most widely used modification is a herbicide resistance gene that allows plants to tolerate exposure to glyphosate
A less frequently used but more controversial modification causes the plant to produce a toxin to reduce damage from insects (c.f
There are specialty producers who raise less common types of livestock or plants
Aquaculture, the farming of fish, shrimp, and algae, is closely associated with agriculture
Apiculture, the culture of bees, traditionally for honey, incréasingly for crop pollination
"See also" : botany, List of domesticated plants, List of vegetables, List of herbs, List of fruit, List of domesticated animals
Software engineering (SE) nyaéta profession nu mokuskeun kana nyieun sarta ngarawat aplikasi software ngagunakeun computer science, project management, domain knowledge, common sense sarta kamampu jeung teknologi séjén
Software applications (kaasup ATMs, compilers, databases, platforms, processes, standards, jeung tools) ngabantu "pengembang", ku ningkatkeun productivity jeung quality
SE community kaasup 630,000 praktisi jeung pendidik di U.S. sarta kira-kira 1,400,000 praktisi di E.U., Asia, jeung tempat séjénna; jeung kira-kira 60% dina rekayasa tradisional
American SE pioneers kaasup Kent Beck, Barry Boehm, Fred Brooks, Watts Humphrey, jeung David Parnas
There is considerable debate over whether software development should be considered a branch of traditional engineering, a branch of computer science, an independent scientific field, or a non-scientific craft
This article attempts to be neutral on this issue, but errs on the side of being independent to clarify the differences between fields
As of 2004, in common parlance the term "software engineering" is used with at léast three distinct méanings: Software Engineering matters
In the U.S., software drove about 1/4 of all increase in GDP during the 1990s (about $90 billion per yéar), and 1/6 of all productivity growth (efficiency within GDP) during the late 1990s (about $33 billion per yéar)
Software engineering drove $1 trillion of economic and productivity growth over the last decade
See also software engineering economics
Software engineering changes world culture, wherever péople use computers
Email, the world-wide web, and instant messaging enable péople to interact in new ways
Software lowers the cost and improves the quality of héalth-care, fire departments, and other important social services
Successful projects where software engineering methods have been applied include Linux, the space shuttle software, and automatic teller machines
When it is chéaper to run a business or agency with software applications than without, businesses and agencies often invest in computers, software, and personnel
Péople from many different educational backgrounds maké important contributions to SE
The fraction of practitioners who éarn computer science or software engineering degrees has been slowly rising
Today about 1/2 of all software engineers éarn computer science or software engineering degrees
For comparison, about 3/4 of all traditional engineers éarn engineering degrees
"Software:" About half of all practitioners today have computer science degrees, which are the most relevant degrees that are widely available
A small, but growing, number of practitioners have software engineering degrees
Today in the U.S., about 2,000 universities offer computer science degrees and about 50 universities offer software engineering degrees
Most SE practitioners will éarn computer science degrees for decades to come, though someday, this may change
"Domain:" Some practitioners have degrees in application domains, bringing important domain knowledge and experience to projects
In MIS, some practitioners have business degrees
In embedded systems, some practitioners have electrical or computer engineering degrees, because embedded software often requires a detailed understanding of hardware
In medical software, some practitioners have medical informatics degrees, or general medical or biology degrees
"Other:" Some practitioners have mathematics, science, engineering, or other technical degrees
Some have philosophy, or other non-technical degrees
And, some have no degrees
Note that Barry Boehm éarned degrees in mathematics and Edsger Dijkstra éarned degrees in physics
Graduate software engineering degrees have been available from dozens of universities for a decade or so
Undergraduate software engineering degrees are being established at many universities
A new curriculum for undergraduate software engineering degrees is currently being defined by the CCSE
Practitioners specialize in many roles in industry (analysts, developers, testers, technical support, managers) and academia (educators, researchers)
Most software engineers work as employees or contractors
Software engineers work with businesses, government agencies (civilian or military), and non-profit agencies (a school or .org like Wikipedia)
Some software engineers work for themselves as free agents
There is considerable debate over the future employment prospects for Software Engineers and other IT Professionals
For example, an online futures market called the Future of IT Jobs in America attempts to answer the question as to whether there will be more IT jobs, including software engineers, in 2012 than there were in 2002
Many debates are raging within SE
As software becomes more pervasive, we all recognize the need for better software, but we disagree on how
"Technologies and Practices:" What is the best way to maké more and better software
SEs advocate many different technologies and practices, with much disagreement
This debate has gone on for 60 yéars and may continue forever
"Identity:" Is SE a branch of computer science, a branch of traditional engineering, or a field that stands on its own
Recently, software engineering has been finding its own identity and emerging as an important field
Yet, some advocate making SE a part of traditional engineering and others advocate keeping SE a part of computer science
"Professionalism:" What will SEs do about professionalism, licensing, and ethics
Licensing is a polarizing issue
Some fiercely advocate it
Others staunchly oppose it
"Success:" Is SE a success or a failure
Some look to the enormous economic growth and productivity gains enabled by software and claim that software engineering is a huge success
Others point to the ongoing problems with crashing operating systems and computer viruses and claim that software engineering has failed
How can we reconcile these points of view
For more details see Debates within software engineering
Current directions for software engineering
Aspect-oriented programming and agile methods are important emerging SE technologies and practices
Aspects help programmers déal with "ilities" by providing tools to add or remove boilerplate code from many aréas in the source code
Aspects describe how all objects or functions should behave in particular circumstances
For example, aspects can add debugging, logging, or locking control into all objects of particular types
Reséarchers are currently working to understand how to use aspects to design general-purpose code
Related concepts include generative programming and templates
Agile Methods guide software development projects that evolve rapidly with changing expectations and competitive markets
The héavy, document-driven processes (like CMM and ISO 9000) are fading in importance
Some péople believe that companies and agencies export many of the jobs that can be guided by héavy-weight processes
Related concepts include extreme programming and lean software development
The "Future of Software Engineering " conference (FOSE) held at the ICSE 2000 documented the state of the art of SE in 2000 and listed many problems to be solved over the next decade
The Feyerabend project attempts to discover the future of software engineering by seeking and publishing innovative idéas
Conferences dedicated to inform undergraduate students like the annual "Canadian University Software Engineering Conference " (CUSEC) are also very promissing for the future generation
It is completely organized by undergraduate students and let different Canadian Universities interrested in Software Engineering to host the conference éach yéar
Past guests includes Kent Beck, Joel Spolsky, Philippe Kruchten, Hal Helms, Craig Larman as well as university professors and students
Basa Latin atawa Latén baheulana mangrupa basa asli nu dipaké di wewengkon sabudeureun Roma nu disebut Latium
Boga pangaruh gedé nalika jadi basa formal Karajaan Romawi
Sadaya Basa Romawi diturunkeun tina basa Latin, sarta loba kekecapan nu asalna tina kecap Latin kapanggih ogé dina basa-basa modérn séjénna kayaning basa Inggris
Leuwih ti éta, di dunya Kulon, basa Latin geus jadi "lingua franca", basa nu diteuleuman sarta dilarapkeun pikeun kaperluan ilmiah sarta pulitik, salila leuwih ti sarébu taun, nu kalindih ku basa Prancis dina abad ka-18 sarta basa Inggris ahir abad ka-19
Kiwari jadi basa resmi Garéja Katolik Roma, kaasup salaku basa resmi nasional Kota Vatikan
Basa Latin ogé masih dipaké, bareng jeung basa Yunani, pikeun nangtukeun ngaran nu dipaké dina klasifikasi ilmiah mahluk hirup
Latin has an extensive flectional system, which mainly operates by appending strings to a fixed stem
Inflection of nouns and adjectives is termed "declension", that of verbs, "conjugation"
There are five declensions of nouns, and four conjugations for verbs
The six noun forms (or "cases") are: In addition, there exists in some nouns a locative case used to express place (normally expressed by the ablative with a preposition such as IN), but this hold-over from Indo-Européan is only found in the names of lakes, cities, towns, similar locales, and a few other words
Basa Latin jeung "Romans"
Saruntagna Karajaan Romawi, basa Latin robah jadi rupa-rupa basa Romans
These were for many centuries only spoken languages, Latin being still used for writing
Latin was the official language of Portugal until 1296 when it was replaced by Portuguese.)
Actually the Romance languages are not derived from Classical Latin but rather from the spoken Vulgar Latin
Latin and Romance differ (for example) in that Romance had distinctive stress wheréas Latin had distinctive length of vowels
In Italian and Sardo logudorese, there is distinctive length of consonants and stress, in Spanish only distinctive stress, and in French even stress is no longer distinctive
Another major distinction between Romance and Latin is that Romance languages, excluding Romanian, have lost their case endings in most words except for some pronouns
Romanian still has five cases (though the ablative is no longer represented)
Basa Latin jeung basa Inggris
Tatabasa Inggris teu sacara langsung diturunkeun tina tatabasa Latin
Attempts to maké English grammar fit Latin rules — such as the contrived prohibition against the split infinitive — have not worked successfully in regular usage
However, as many as half the words in English come to us through Latin, including many words of Greek origin first adopted by the Romans, not to mention the thousands of French, Spanish, and Italian words of Latin origin that have also enriched English
Nalika abad ka-16 nepi ka abad ka-18, panulis-panulis Inggris nyipta loba pisan kecap-kecap anyar nu diturunkeun tina akar kecap basa Latin jeung Yunani
Kecap-kecap ieu, euyeub ku rasa jeung harti
Loba kecap-kecapna nu kungsi dipaké terus kapopohokeun, tapi sabagian mah aya kénéh, kayaning "imbibe", "extrapolate", jeung "inebriation"
Topik di handap ieu biasana kaasup kana interpretasi data statistik
Istilah anu leuwih formal keur topik ieu nyaéta inferensi statistik
rencana panalungtikan statistik -- kasimpulan data statistik balik deui ka Statistik Inferensi statistical nyaéta kaputusan ngeunaan hiji populasi tina "pengambilan" sampel sacara acak atawa, leuwih umum, ngeunaan prosés acak tina hasil "observasi" dina périodeu waktu anu ditangtukeun
Di jerona kaasup: Aya sababaraha pamikirian anu béda ngeunaan "justifikasi" statistical inference
Didasarkeun kana sababaraha ide ngeunaan fénoménanyata leuwih kaharti lamun dimodélkeun minangka probability
Tingali ogé: Statistik
"Keur ngalarapkeun kecap "populasi" dina statistik, tempo populasi statistik."
Dina basa nu leuwih umum, populasi mangrupa kumpulan "masarakat" —atawa organisme spésiés tinangtu—nu hirup di hiji rohangan géografis
Populasi diulik ku rupa-rupa cara jeung disiplin
Dina dinamika populasi, struktur ukuran, umur, jeung jinis kelamin, mortality, paripolah reproduktif, sarta "pertumbuhan" hiji populasi diulik
Démografi mangrupa ulikan dinamika populasi manusa
Aspék séjén diulikna dina sosiologi, ékonomi, jeung géografi
Populasi tutuwuhan jeung sasatoan diulikna dina biologi, hususna dina cabang ékologi nu katelah biologi populasi sarta na genetika populasi
Dina biologi, "populasi" nujul ka kelompok kawin nu anggota-anggotana kawin jeung papada anggotana kénéh, utamana balukar tina isolasi fisik, najan sacara biologis masih bisa kawin ka nu saspésiés
Dénsitas populasi nyaéta ukuran jumlah jalma atawa organisme per unit lega
Varian bisa ngandung harti kaayaan wilayah nu bisa dicicingan, geus dicicingan, produktif, (atawa kaerong bakal produktif), atawa wewengkon pakebonan
A particular géographic aréa of land is said to have a carrying capacity, representing the maximum population which it can support
Some observers of human societies believe that the concept of carrying capacity also applies to human population, and that unchecked population growth can result in a "Malthusian catastrophe"
Others dispute this view
populasi adalah kumpulan sampel adalah contoh
Dina watesan modérn, téhnik sipil ngalegaan jadi rékayasa nu kabagi jadi sababaraha bagian nyaéta "perencanaan", konstruksi jeung perawatan struktur nu aya hubunganna jeung bumi, cai atawa peradaban jeung prosésna
Ayeuna téhnik sipil ogé nyakup jalan, struktur, sumber cai, cai kotor, kontrol banjir atawa lalu lintas
Rekayasa diwangun tina hasil panalungtikan pakaitna sistem alami jeung jieunan-manusa sarta diwangun ogé tina persamaaan empiris keur kaperluan désain
Rekayasa sipil mangrupa rekayasa nu ilahar dipaké dina widang rekayasa
Kanyataana, ngan aya dua rekayasa utama nyaéta sipil jeung militer
Sakabéh rekayasa husus mangrupa turunan tina rekayasa sipil
Rekayasa sipil mangrupa payung keur rekayasa-rekayasa husus séjénna
Widang dina Téhnik Sipil
Téhnik Sipil Umum
téhnik sipil umum museurkeun kana sakabéh hal nu pakait jeung proyék sacara umum
Dina migawe hiji proyék, téhnik sipil umum pakait jeung ahli survey sarta ahli sipil husus séjénna keur nyieun sarta nangtukeun tempat, komunitas sarta kaayaan nu hadé, drainase (kontrol banjir), sistem ngalirkeun cai, runtah, listrik sarta kaperluan komunikasi jeung lahan
téhnik sipil umum loba méakeun waktu keur datang ka lokasi, ngawangun komunitas atawa hubungan ka tatangga sarta nyiapkeun rencana pangwangunan
Rekayasa struktur museurkeun kana widang désain jembatan, wangunan, wangunan lepas pantai, waduk jst
Desain struktur sarta analisa struktur mangrupa bagéan tina widang rekayasa struktur sarta mangrupa konci utama dina prosés désain struktur
Kaasup ogé itungan tekanan jeung beban nu mangaruhan kana struktur
Salian ti éta ahli struktur ogé pakait jeung widang séjén saperti désain kapal udara, pesawat ruang angkasa sarta alat-alat kasehatan
Widang nu ngadukung rekayasa struktur nyaéta rékayasa géotéhnik
Pentingna widang rekayasa géotéhnik ku sabab wangunan geus pasti pakait raket jeung taneuh
Rékayasa géotéhnik museurkeun kana panalungtikan sifat taneuh, mekanika taneuh, pondasi, pakaitna taneuh jeung struktur sarta dinamika taneuh
Rekayasa lalulintas museurkeun kana teori antrian sarta perencanaan lalulintas, désain géometri jalan sarta pola paripolah supir
Simulasi operasi lalulintas dijieun ku maké turunan "perjalanan", algoritma lalulintas nu bisa dipaké keur masalah komputasi nu kaitung ruwet
Tehnik lingkungan pakait jeung pengolahan kimia, biologi atawa jeung limbah pasan, penjernihan cai jeung udara sarta jeung remediasi di tempat nu mana bakal dipaké keur tempat pamiceunan
Widang nu pakait jeung téhnik lingkungan di antarana water purification, sewage treatment, sarta manajemen hazardous waste
téhnik lingkungan ogé pakait jeung hydrology, geohydrology sarta meteorology utamana pangaweruh cai jeung ngalirna diperlukeun keur ngarti kana "pollutant transport"
Ahli téhnik lingkungan ogé nalungtik ngeunaan "pengurangan polusi", green engineering sarta industrial ecology
Tehnik lingkungan ogé mangrupa watersan anyar keur Sanitary engineering
Sababaraha watesan ogé digunakeun saperti public health engineering jeung environmental health engineering
Rekayasa hidrolika museurkeun kana aliran sarta ngalirna aliran, utamana aliran cai
Widang rekayasa ieu pakait raket keur jembatan, waduk, saluran cai, kanal, sarta tanggul ogé pakait jeung rekayasa lingkungan jeung sanitary
Manajemen konstruksi kaasup rencana jeung mutuskeun désain keur ahli transportasi, planologi, hidrolika, lingkungan, struktur jeung géotéhnik
Rekayasa sipil ngawengku ogé elmu material
Ahli material kasaaup beton, baja, polimer jeung keramik nu pakait jeung pamakena dina widang rekayasa
Kasalahan konsép nu ilahar nyaéta yén rekayasa sipil teu merlukeun kamampu nu cukup dina widang matematika jeung elmu komputer
Dina kanyataanna, ayeuna loba maké elmu komputer keur migawe rekayasa sipil, nu mana struktur jeung analisa masalah merlukeun komputasi jeung ngawangun algortima tingkat luhur
Ahli sipil nu digawe dina widang rekayasa kasalametan, maké metoda probalilitas keur désain struktur, analisa kaamanan sarta ngitung karugian akibat bencana alam jeung jieunan manusa
Kecap probabilitas asalna tina basa Latin "probare" (ngabuktikeun, atawa nyoba)
Sacara teu resmi, "probable" mangrupa salah sahiji kecap anu digunakeun keur kajadian jeung kanyaho anu teu pasti, kecap séjénna atawa anu rada bisa ngagantina nyaéta ku "likely", "risky", "hazardous", "uncertain", and "doubtful", gumantung kana konteksna
"Chance", "odds", jeung "bet" mangrupa kecap séjén anu ngagambarkeun kaayaan anu sarua
Heunteu saperti dina theory of mechanics nu nangtukeun harti pasti tina saperti dina watesan "gawe" jeung "gaya", dina tiori probabiliti nyobaan keur ngitung dina notasi "probable"
Téori probabilitas mangrupa élmu matematik ngeunaan probabilitas atawa kamungkinan
Matematikawan mikirkeun yén probabiliti salaku angka dina interval tina 0 ka 1 keur nangtukeun "kajadian" nu mana bener-bener kajadian atawa henteu kajadian dina bentuk acak
Probabilitas formula_1 nangtukeun kajdian formula_2 dumasa kana aksioma probabilitas
Panonpoé (ᮕᮔᮧᮔ᮪ᮕᮧᮆ) nyaéta béntang na tatasurya urang
Planét Marcapada jeung sakabéh dulurna, boh planét terestrial atawa raksasa gas, ngurulingan Panonpoé
Nu séjénna nu ngurilingan Panonpoé kayaning astéroid, météoroid, komét, objék Trans-Neptunius, jeung, tangtu bae, kebul
Panonpoé salah sahiji barang langit anu jadi asal cahya alatan bisa ngahasilkeun sarta mancarkeun cahya sorangan
Panonpoé kaasup salah sahiji béntang ti mangmilyar-milyar béntang anu aya di angkasa
Sacara kimiawi, kira-kira tilu parapat massa panonpoé diwangun tina hidrogén, sedengkeun sésana lolobana mah diwangun ku Hélium.Sésa massana (1,69%, sarua jeung 5.629 kali massa Marcapada) diwangun ku élemén-élemén beurat siga oksigén, karbon, néon, jeung beusi
Panonpoé kajieun kira-kira 4,6 miliar taun katukang kusabab luruhna gravitasi hiji wilayah dina jero méga molekul badag
Sabagéan badagna matéri kakumpul di tengah, samentara sésana ngaipisan jadi cakram nu medar nu engkéna jadi Surya Mandala
Massa puseurna beuki panas jeung padet anu matak ahirna ngamimitian fusi térmonuklir dina jero intina
Dikira-kira lamun kabéh béntang anu lianna kawangun ku prosés anu sarua
Klasifikasi béntang panonpoé, dumasar kana kelas spéktrumna, nyaéta béntang dérét utama G (G2V) jeung ogé osok diasupkeun kana "katai konéng" kusabab radiasi katempona téh leuwih katénjo dina porsi spéktrum konéng-beureum
Masingkeun warnana bodas, tina permukaan Marcapada, panonpoé katempo konéng kusabab nyampurna cahaya paul/biru di atmosfir
Numutkeun kana lébel kelas spéktrum,"G2" nandakeun suhu permukaanna kira-kira 5778 K (5505 °C) jeung "V" nandakeun lamun panonpoé, jeung bararéntang anu lianna, mangrupa béntang dérét utama, anu matak energina kacipta ku fusi nuklir nukleus hidrogén ka jero hélium
Dina jero intina, panonpoé ngafusikeun 620 yuta ton métrik hidrogén satiap detik
Ciri fisik jeung nu séjénna
Panonpoé mangrupa béntang nu kaasup kelas spéktral G2, nu hartina béntang ieu téh leuwih badag sarta leuwih panas batan rata-rata, tapi ukuranana leuwih leutik batan béntang raksasa biru
Béntang G2 mibanda umur runtuyan utama kira 10 milyar taun; Panonpoé téh umurna kira geus 5 milyar taun, dumasar nukléokosmokronologi
Panonpoé geus dimangpaatkeun di loba belahan dunya sarta lamun diéksplotasi kalayan pas, énergi ieu miboga poténsi sanggup nyadiakeun kaperluan konsumsi énergi dunya ayeuna dina waktu anu leuwih lila
Panonpoé bisa dipaké sacara langsung pikeun mroduksi listrik atawa pikeun manaskan komo pikeun niiskeun
Poténsi mangsa ka hareup énergi surya ngan diwatesan ku kahayang urang pikeun néwak kasempetan
Aya loba cara pikeun ngamangpaatkeun énergi ti panonpoé
Tumbuhan ngarobah sinar panonpoé jadi énergi kimia kalayan ngagunakeun fotosintésis
Urang ngamangpaatkeun énergi ieu kalayan ngadahar sarta ngabeuleum kai
Najan kitu, istilah “tanaga surya” miboga harti ngarobah cahya panonpoé sacara langsung jadi panas atawa énergi listrik pikeun pamakéan urang
Dua tipe dasar tanaga panonpoé nyaéta “cahya panonpoé” sarta “photovoltaic” (photo- cahya, voltaic=tegangan)Photovoltaic tanaga panonpoé: ngalibatkeun pembangkit listrik ti cahya
Rusiah ti prosés ieu téh pamakéan bahan semi konduktor anu bisa disaluyukeun pikeun ngalepas éléktron, partikel boga muatan négative anu nyieun dasar listrik
Bahan semi konduktor anu pangumumna dipaké dina sél photovoltaic nyaéta silikon, hiji élemén anu umum kapanggih di keusik
Kabéh sél photovoltaic miboga sahenteuna dua lapisan semi konduktor kawas éta, hiji boga muatan positif sarta hiji boga muatan négatif
Sabot cahya bersinar dina semi konduktor, lading listrik menyeberang sambungan di antara dua lapisan ngabalukarkeun listrik nyérélék, membangkitkan arus DC
Beuki kuat cahya, beuki kuat aliran listrik
Data mining, ogé dipikanyaho salaku pangaweruh-pamanggih dina database (KDD), nyaéta kabiasaan néangan sacara otomatis tina simpenan data nu loba keur pola
Keur migawekeun ieu, data mining maké téhnik komputer tina statistik sarta pola rekonstruksi
Data mining has been defined as "The nontrivial extraction of implicit, previously unknown, and potentially useful information from data" [1] and "The science of extracting useful information from large data sets or databases" [2]
Although it is usually used in relation to analysis of data, data mining, like artificial intelligence, is an umbrella term and is used with varied méaning in a wide range of contexts
Used in the technical context of data warehousing and analysis data mining is neutral
However, it sometimes has a more pejorative usage that implies imposing patterns (and particularly causal relationships) on data where none exist
This imposition of irrelevant, misléading or trivial attribute correlation is more properly criticized as "data dredging" in the statistical literature
Used in this latter sense, data dredging implies scanning the data for any relationships, and then when one is found coming up with an interesting explanation
(This is also referred to as "overfitting the model".)
The problem is that large data sets invariably happen to have some exciting relationships peculiar to that data
Therefore any conclusions réached are likely to be highly suspect
In spite of this, some exploratory data work is always required in any applied statistical analysis to get a feel for the data, so sometimes the line between good statistical practice and data dredging is less than cléar
A more significant danger is finding correlations that do not réally exist
Investment analysts appéar to be particularly vulnerable to this
In his book Where Are the Customers' Yachts
ISBN 0471119792 (1940), Fred Schwed, Jr, wrote: "There have always been a considerable number of pathetic people who busy themselves examining the last thousand numbers which have appeared on a roulette wheel, in search of some repeating pattern
Sadly enough, they have usually found it."
Most data mining efforts are focused on developing a finely-grained, highly detailed modél of some large data set
In Data Mining For Very Busy People [3], reséarchers at West Virginia University and the University of British Columbia discuss an alternate method that involves finding the minimal differences between elements in a data set, with the goal of developing simpler modéls that represent relevant data
There are also privacy concerns associated with data mining
For example, if an employer has access to medical records, they may screen out péople with diabetes or have had a héart attack
Screening out such employees will cut costs for insurance, but it créates ethical and legal problems
Data mining government or commercial data sets for national security or law enforcement purposes has also raised privacy concerns
[4] There are many legitimate uses of data mining
For example, a database of prescription drugs taken by a group of péople could be used to find combinations of drugs with an adverse réactions
Since the combination may occur in only 1 out of 1000 péople, a single case may not be apparent
A project involving pharmacies could reduce the number of drug réactions and potentially save lives
Unfortunately, there is also a huge potential for abuse of such a database
Basically, data mining gives information that wouldn't be available otherwise
It must be properly interpreted to be useful
When the data collected involves individual péople, there are many questions concerning privacy, legality, and ethics
The a priori algorithm is the most fundamental algorithm used in data mining
[1] W. Frawley and G. Piatetsky-Shapiro and C. Matheus, Knowledge Discovery in Databases: An Overview
AI Magazine, Fall 1992, pgs 213-228
[2] D. Hand, H. Mannila, P. Smyth: Principles of Data Mining
MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 2001
[3] T. Menzies, Y. Hu, Data Mining For Very Busy People
IEEE Computer, October 2003, pgs 18-25
Taipale, Data mining and Domestic Security: Connecting the Dots to Make Sense of Data , Center for Advanced Studies in Science and Technology Policy
5 Columbia Sci
L. Rev 2 (December 2003)
"Alternate uses: See Data (disambiguation)" Data nyaéta catetan-catetan tina sakumpuleun fakta
Data ngabogaan bentuk tunggal nyaéta datum
Hal nu penting dina kelas nu gedé nyaéta ukuran atawa panalungtikan tina variabel
Hal ieu saperti wilangan, kecap atawa gambar
The word "data" is the plural of Latin "datum", neuter past participle of "dare", "to give", hence "something given"
The past participle of "to give" has been used for millennia, in the sense of a statement accepted at face value; one of the works of Euclid, circa 300 BC, was the "Dedomena" (in Latin, "Data")
In discussions of problems in géometry, mathematics, engineering, and so on, the terms "givens" and "data" are used interchangéably
Such usage is the origin of "data" as a concept in computer science: "data" are numbers, words, images, etc., accepted as they stand
Pamakéan dina basa Inggris
In English, the word "datum" is still used in the general sense of "something given", and more specifically in cartography, geography, and geology to méan a reference point, reference line, or reference surface
The Latin plural "data" is also used as a plural in English, but it is also commonly tréated as a mass noun and used in the singular
For example, "This is all the data from the experiment"
This usage is inconsistent with the rules of Latin grammar, which would suggest "These are the data ...", éach méasurement or result being a single "datum"
However, given the variety and irregularity of English plural constructions, there seem to be no grounds for arguing that "data" is incorrect as a singular mass noun in English
Mangpaat data dina komputasi
"Raw data" are numbers, characters, images or other outputs from devices to convert physical quantities into symbols, in a very broad sense
Such data are typically further processed by a human or input into a computer, stored and processed there, or transmitted (output) to another human or computer