izzako/sundanese-pixelgpt huggingface dataset:
Prancis Kuna: "alkemie"; Arab "al-kimia": "seni transformasi"
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Nu meunangkeun Hadiah Nobel widang kimia, disusun nurutkeun taun ti nu pangmimitina
1901Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff "for his discovery of the laws of chemical dynamics and osmotic pressure in solutions" 1902Hermann Emil Fischer "kanggo damelna ngeunaan sintésis gula jeung purin" 1903Svante August Arrhenius "kanggo téori disosiasi elektrolitik" (tempo ion) 1904Sir William Ramsay "for his discovery of the inert gaseous elements in air" 1905Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Adolf von Baeyer "kanggo damelna ngeunaan organic dyes jeung senyawa
damelna ngeunaan organic dyes jeung senyawa hidroaromatik" 1906Henri Moissan "kanggo panalungtikan anjeunna dina isolasi unsur florin, sarta kanggo electric furnace called after him" 1907Eduard Buchner "for his biochemical researches and his discovery of cell-free fermentation" 1908Ernest Rutherford "for his investigations into the disintegration of the elements, and the chemistry of radioactive substances" 1909Wilhelm Ostwald "his work on catalysis and for his investigations into chemical
and for his investigations into chemical equilibria and rates of reaction" 1910Otto Wallach "for his work in the field of alicyclic compounds" 1911Marie Sklodowska-Curie "for her discovery of radium and polonium, and her study of radium" 1912Victor Grignard, Paul Sabatier "for his the discovery of the Grignard reagent" and "for his method of hydrogenating organic compounds" 1913Alfred Werner "for his work on the linkage
"for his work on the linkage of atoms in molecules" 1914Theodore William Richards "for his determinations of the atomic weight of a large number of elements" 1915Richard Martin Willstätter "for his researches on plant pigments" 1918Fritz Haber "for his synthesis of ammonia" 1920Walther Hermann Nernst "for his work in thermochemistry" 1921Frederick Soddy "for his work on the chemistry of radioactive substances and investigations into
of radioactive substances and investigations into isotopes" 1922Francis William Aston "for his discovery of isotopes in a large number of non-radioactive elements, and for his whole-number rule" 1923Fritz Pregl "for his invention of the method of micro-analysis of organic substances" 1925Richard Adolf Zsigmondy "for his demonstration of the heterogenous nature of colloid solutions and the methods used" 1926 The (Théodor) Svedberg "for his work
The (Théodor) Svedberg "for his work on disperse systems" 1927Heinrich Otto Wieland "for his investigations of the bile acids and related substances" 1928Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus "for his research into sterols and their connection with vitamins" 1929Arthur Harden, Hans Karl August Simon von Euler-Chelpin "for their investigations on the fermentation of sugar and fermentative enzymes" 1930Hans Fischer "for his researches into haemin and chlorophyll
his researches into haemin and chlorophyll " 1931Carl Bosch, Friedrich Bergius "for their contributions to chemical high pressure methods" 1932Irving Langmuir "for his work in surface chemistry" 1934Harold Clayton Urey "for his discovery of heavy hydrogen" 1935Frédéric Joliot, Irene Joliot-Curie "for their synthesis of new radioactive elements" 1936Petrus (Peter) Josephus Wilhelmus Debye "for his work on molecular structure through investigations on dipole moments and
through investigations on dipole moments and the diffraction of X-rays and electrons in gases" 1937Walter Norman Haworth, Paul Karrer "for his work on carbohydrates and vitamin C" and "for his work on carotenoids, flavins and vitamins A and B2" 1938Richard Kuhn "for his work on carotenoids and vitamins" 1939Adolf Friedrich Johann Butenandt, Leopold Ruzicka "for his work on sex hormones" and "for his work
sex hormones" and "for his work on polymethylenes and higher terpenes" 1943George de Hevesy "for his work on the use of isotopes as tracers to study chemical processes" 1944Otto Hahn "for his discovery of the fission of heavy nuclei" 1945Artturi Ilmari Virtanen "for his research in agricultural and nutrition chemistry" 1946James Batcheller Sumner, John Howard Northrop, Wendell Meredith Stanley "for his discovery that enzymes
Stanley "for his discovery that enzymes can be crystallized" and "for their preparation of enzymes and virus proteins in a pure form" 1947Sir Robert Robinson "for his investigations on plant products, especially the alkaloids" 1948Arne Wilhelm Kaurin Tiselius "for his research on electrophoresis and adsorption analysis" 1949William Francis Giauque "for his contributions in the field of chemical thermodynamics" 1950Otto Paul Hermann Diels, Kurt Alder
1950Otto Paul Hermann Diels, Kurt Alder "for their discovery and development of the diene synthesis"
1951Edwin Mattison McMillan, Glenn Theodore Seaborg "for their discoveries in the chemistry of transuranium elements" 1952Archer John Porter Martin, Richard Laurence Millington Synge "for their invention of partition chromatography" 1953Hermann Staudinger "for his discoveries in the field of macromolecular chemistry" 1954Linus Carl Pauling "for his research into the nature of the chemical bond" 1955Vincent du Vigneaud "for his work on sulphur compounds, especially the
work on sulphur compounds, especially the first synthesis of a polypeptide hormone" 1956Sir Cyril Norman Hinshelwood, Nikolay Nikolaevich Semenov "for their researches into the mechanism of chemical reactions" 1957Lord Alexander R. Todd "for his work on nucleotides and nucleotide co-enzymes" 1958Frederick Sanger "for his work on the structure of proteins, especially insulin" 1959Jaroslav Heyrovsky "for his discovery and development of the polarographic methods of
development of the polarographic methods of analysis" 1960Willard Frank Libby "for his method to use carbon-14 for age determination" 1961Melvin Calvin "for his research on carbon dioxide assimilation in plants" 1962Max Ferdinand Perutz, John Cowdery Kendrew "for their studies of the structures of globular proteins" 1963Karl Ziegler, Giulio Natta "for their discoveries relating to high polymers" 1964Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin 1965Robert Burns Woodward "for his
Hodgkin 1965Robert Burns Woodward "for his achievements in organic synthesis" 1966Robert Sanderson Mulliken "for his work concerning chemical bonds and the electronic structure of molecules" 1967Manfred Eigen, Ronald George Wreyford Norrish, George Porter "for their studies of extremely fast chemical reactions" 1968Lars Onsager "for the discovery of the reciprocal relations bearing his name" 1969Derek H. R. Barton, Odd Hassel "for their contributions to the
Hassel "for their contributions to the development of the concept of conformation" 1970Luis F. Leloir "for his discovery of sugar nucleotides and their role in the biosynthesis of carbohydrates" 1971Gerhard Herzberg "for his contributions to electronic structure and the geometry of molecules, particularly free radicals" 1972Christian B. Anfinsen, Stanford Moore, William H. Stein "for his work on ribonuclease" and "for their contribution to the
and "for their contribution to the understanding of the connection between chemical structure and catalytic activity of the ribonuclease molecule" 1973Ernst Otto Fischer, Geoffrey Wilkinson "for their work on the chemistry of organometallic compounds" 1974Paul J. Flory "for his fundamental work, both theoretical and experimental, in the physical chemistry of macromolecules" 1975John Warcup Cornforth, Vladimir Prelog "for his work on the stereochemistry of enzyme-catalyzed
work on the stereochemistry of enzyme-catalyzed reactions" and "for his research into the stereochemistry of organic molecules and reactions" 1976William Nunn Lipscomb, Jr. "for his studies on the structure of boranes" 1977Ilya Prigogine "for his contributions to non-equilibrium thermodynamics" 1978Peter D. Mitchell "for his formulation of the chemiosmotic theory" 1979Herbert C. Brown, Georg Wittig "for their development of the use of boron- and phosphorus-containing
the use of boron- and phosphorus-containing compounds, respectively, into reagents in organic synthesis" 1980Paul Berg, Walter Gilbert, Frederick Sanger "for his studies of the biochemistry of nucleic acids" and "for their contributions concerning the determination of base sequences in nucleic acids" 1981Kenichi Fukui, Roald Hoffmann "for their theories concerning the course of chemical reactions" 1982Aaron Klug "for his development of crystallographic electron microscopy "
development of crystallographic electron microscopy " 1983Henry Taube "for his work on the mechanisms of electron transfer reactions" 1984Robert Bruce Merrifield "for his development of methodology for chemical synthesis on a solid matrix" 1985Herbert A. Hauptman, Jerome Karle "for their achievements in developing direct methods for the determination of crystal structures" 1986Dudley R. Herschbach, Yuan T. Lee, John C. Polanyi "for their contributions concerning
C. Polanyi "for their contributions concerning the dynamics of chemical elementary processes" 1987Donald J. Cram, Jean-Marie Lehn, Charles J. Pedersen "for their development and use of molecules with structure-specific interactions of high selectivity" 1988Johann Deisenhofer, Robert Huber, Hartmut Michel "for their determination of the three-dimensional structure of a photosynthetic reaction centre" 1989Sidney Altman, Thomas R. Cech "for their discovery of catalytic properties of RNA"
discovery of catalytic properties of RNA" 1990Elias James Corey "for his development of the theory and methodology of organic synthesis" 1991Richard R. Ernst "for his contributions to the development of high resolution nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy" 1992Rudolph A. Marcus "for his contributions to the theory of electron transfer reactions in chemical systems" 1993Kary B. Mullis, Michael Smith "for contributions to the developments of
"for contributions to the developments of methods within DNA-based chemistry" 1994George A. Olah "for his contribution to carbocation chemistry" 1995Paul J. Crutzen, Mario J. Molina, F. Sherwood Rowland "for their work in atmospheric chemistry" 1996Robert Curl, Sir Harold Kroto, Richard Smalley "for their discovery of fullerenes" 1997Paul D. Boyer, John E. Walker, Jens C. Skou "for their elucidation of the enzymatic mechanism underlying the
of the enzymatic mechanism underlying the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate" and "for his discovery of an ion-transporting enzyme, Na+K+-ATPase" 1998Walter Kohn, John A. Pople "for his development of the density functional theory" and "for his development of computational methods in quantum chemistry" 1999Ahmed H. Zewail "for his studies of the transition states of chemical reactions using femtosecond spectroscopy" 2000Alan J Heeger, Alan G MacDiarmid,
2000Alan J Heeger, Alan G MacDiarmid, Hideki Shirakawa "for their discovery and development of conductive polymers" 2001William S. Knowles, Ryoji Noyori, K. Barry Sharpless "for their work on chirally catalysed hydrogenation reactions" and "for his work on chirally catalysed oxidation reactions" 2002Kurt Wüthrich, John B. Fenn, Koichi Tanaka "for their development of methods for identification and structure analyses of biological macromolecules" 2003Peter Agre, Roderick
of biological macromolecules" 2003Peter Agre, Roderick MacKinnon "for discoveries concerning channels in cell membranes" 2004Aaron Ciechanover, Avram Hershko, Irwin Rose "for the discovery of ubiquitin-mediated protein degradation" 2005Yves Chauvin, Robert H. Grubbs, Richard R. Schrock "for the development of the metathesis method in organic synthesis" 2006Roger D. Kornberg "for his studies of the molecular basis of eukaryotic transcription" 2007Gerhard Ertl "for his studies of
2007Gerhard Ertl "for his studies of chemical processes on solid surfaces" 2008Osamu Shimomura, Martin Chalfie, Roger Tsien "for the discovery and development of the green fluorescent protein, GFP"
Alkémi nujul kana prakték "protoilmiah" kuna nu ngagabungkeun unsur-unsur kimia, fisika, seni, semiotik, métalurgi, tatamba, astrologi, tasaup, jeung agama
Udagan umum nu utama para alkémis nyaéta geusan manggihan cara pikeun ngarobah timah jadi emas
Alkémi bisa dianggap mangrupa bibit buit élmu kimia modérn nu ngagunakeun rumusan/aturan métode ilmiah
"Alkémi" asalna tina kecap basa Arab "al-kimiya" atawa "al-khimiya" (الكيمياء atawa الخيمياء), nu jigana diwangun tina kecap "al-" jeung kecap basa Yunani "chymeia" (χυμεία) nu hartina "cast together", "pour together", "weld", "alloy" jsb
(tina "chymatos", "that which is poured out, an ingot")
Persépsi umum ka alkémis dianggap élmuwan palsu nu hayang ngarobah timah jadi emas, nu yakin yén sagala zat dijieunna tina opat unsur bumi, hawa, seuneu, jeung cai sarta dibarung ku nyoba-nyoba maké pangaruh mysticism jaung sihir
Ditempo ku jaman kiwari, persépsi ieu mibanda sababaraha "validitas", tapi upami urang kedah objektif, urang kedah nangtoskeun aranjeunna dina kontéks jamanna
Aranjeuna nyoba neuleuman tur nalungtik alam nalika teuacan sayagi kalawan cukup pakakas jeung praktek ilmiah anu paling dasar, antukna ngandelkeun aturan praktis, tradisi, paniténan dasar, sarta "mistisisme" pikeun ngeusi éta kakosongan
Sangkan bisa ngarti alkémis, bisa dibantu ku ngabayangkeun kumaha kahébatan sihir dina ngarobah hiji barang jadi barang séjénna dina budaya nu teu miboga pangaweruh formal ngeunaan fisika jeung kimia
To the alchemist, there was no compelling réason to separate the chemical (material) dimension from the interpretive, symbolic or philosophical one
In those times, and even today, a physics devoid of metaphysical insight would have been as partial and incomplete as a metaphysics devoid of physical manifestation
So the alchemical symbols and processes often had both an inner méaning referring to the spiritual development of the practitioner as well as a material méaning connected to physical transformation of matter
Links between alchemy and the then commonly accepted astrology were also common
The transmutation of base metals into gold symbolized an endéavour toward perfection or the highest heights of actual existence, and the division of the world into four basic elements was as much a geometric principle as a geological one
The naive interpretations of some alchemists, or the fraudulent hopes fostered by others should not diminish the undertakings of the more sincere practitioners
Further, the field of alchemy evolved gréatly over time, beginning as a metallurgical/medicinal arm of religion, maturing into a rich field of study in its own right, devolving into mysticism and outright charlatanism, and in the end providing some of the fundamental empirical knowledge of the fields of chemistry and modérn medicine
Nepi ka abad ka-18, alkémi dianggap salaku élmu sacara daria di Éropa; misalna, Isaac Newton neuleuman seni ieu dina waktu nu cukup lila
Alkémis utama séjénna di Éropa nyéta Roger Bacon, Saint Thomas Aquinas, jeung Thomas Browne
Alkémi mimiti nyirorot pamorna dina abad ka-18 ku lahirna kimia modérn, nu nyadiakeun "framework" nu leuwih precise and reliable framework for matter transmutations and medicine, within a new grand design of the universe based on rational materialism
The old matter transmutation idéal of alchemy enjoyed a moment in the sun in the 20th Century when physicists were able to convert léad atoms into gold atoms via a nucléar réaction
However, the new gold atoms lasted for under five seconds before they broke apart
Alchemical symbolism has been occasionally used in the 20th Century by psychologists and philosophers
Carl Jung re-examined alchemical symbolism and théory and began to show the inner méaning of alchemical work as a spiritual path
Alchemical philosophy, symbols and methods have enjoyed something of a renaissance in post-modern contexts, such as the New Age movement
Even some physicists have played with alchemical idéas in books such as "The Tao of Physics" and "The Dancing Wu Li Masters"
The "history" of alchemy, on the other hand, is a "respectable" and vigorous academic field
As the obscure — "hermetic", of course — language of the alchemists is gradually being "deciphered", historians are becoming more aware of the intellectual connections between that discipline and other facets of Western cultural history, such as the Rosicrucian society and other mystic societies, witchcraft, and of course the evolution of science and philosophy
Ngaran "alkémi" sabenerna ngawengku sababaraha tradisi filosofis nu ngampar ti opat milenia lan tilu benua, jeung deuih kacenderungan basana nu ngarusiah lan simbolik ngahesekeun cukcrukan hubungan sarta silih pangaruhanana
Urang bisa ngabédakeun sahenteuna aya dua leunjeuran, nu katémbong umumna mandiri, sahanteuna dina tahap awalna: alkémi Cina, nu museur di Cina jeung wewengkon nu kapangaruhan ku budayana; sarta alkémi Kulon, nu puseurna géséh liwat rébuan taun antara Mesir, Yunani, jeung Roma, dunya Islam, nu ahirna balik deui ka Éropah
Alkémi Cina raket pisan patalina jeung Taoisme, sedengkeun alkémi Kulon ngembangkeun sistim filosofis nu mandiri, kalayan hubungan anu kacida déétna jeung ageman-ageman nu umum di Kulon
It is still an open question whether these two strands share a common origin, or to what extent they influenced éach other
Wheréas Western alchemy eventually centered on the transmutation of base metals into noble ones, Chinese alchemy had a more obvious connection to medicine
The Philosopher's Stone of Européan alchemists can be compared to the Grand Elixir of Immortality sought by Chinese alchemists
However, in the hermetic view, these two goals were not unconnected; therefore, the two traditions may have had more in common than it initially appéars
Black powder may have been the most important invention of Chinese alchemists
Described in 9th century texts and used in fireworks by the 10th Century, it was used in cannons by 1290
From China, the use of gunpowder spréad to Japan, the Mongols, the Arab world and Europe
Gunpowder was used by the Mongols against the Hungarians in 1241, and in Europe starting with the 14th century
Chinese alchemy was closely connected to Taoist forms of medicine, such as Acupuncture and Moxibustion, and to martial arts such as Tai Chi Chuan and Kung Fu (although some Tai Chi schools believe that their art derives from the Hygienic or Philosophical branches of Taoism, not the Alchemical)
Little is known in the West about the character and history of Hindu alchemy
An eleventh century Iranian alchemist named al-Biruni reported that they "have a science similar to alchemy which is quite peculiar to them
They call it Rasayana
It means the art which is restricted to certain operations, drugs, compounds, and medicines, most of which are taken from plants
Its principles restored the health of those who were ill beyond hope and gave back youth to fading old age."
Alkémi di Mesir kuna
Alkémis Kulon sacara umum nyukcruk sasakala senina ka Mesir Kuna
Metallurgy and mysticism were inexorably tied together in the ancient world, as the transformation of drab ore into shining metal must have seemed to be an act of magic governed by mysterious rules
It is claimed therefore that Alchemy in Ancient Egypt was the domain of the priestly class
Kota Iskandariah di Mesir mangrupa puseur élmu alkémi, and retained its preminence even after the decline of ancient Egyptian culture, through most of the Greek and Roman periods
Hanjakalna, praktis teu hiji-hiji acan catetan alkémi Mesir nu salamet
Catetan-catetan éta teh, mun memang pernah aya, jigana musna nalika kaisar Diocletian marentah dimusnahkeunana (diduruk) buku-buku alkémi sanggeus hasil numpes baruntakna Iskandariah (296), nu geus jadi puseur alkémi Mesir
Alkémi Mesir utamana dipikawanoh ngaliwatan tulisan filosof (Hellenis) Yunani kuna, nu saterusna kasalametkeun satutasna ditarjamahkeun di jaman Islam
Legend has it that the founder of Egyptian alchemy was the god Thoth, called Hermes-Thoth or Thrice-Gréat Hermes ("Hermes Trismegistus") by the Greek
According to legend, he wrote what were called the forty-two Books of Knowledge, covering all fields of knowledge — including alchemy
Hermes's symbol was the caduceus or serpent-staff, which became one of many of alchemy's principal symbols
The "Emerald Tablet" or "Hermetica" of Thrice-Gréatest Hermes, which is known only through Greek and Arabic translations, is generally understood to form the basis for Western alchemical philosophy and practice, called the hermetic philosophy by its éarly practitioners
The first point of the "Emerald Tablet" tells the purpose of hermetical science: "in truth certainly and without doubt, whatever is below is like that which is above, and whatever is above is like that which is below, to accomplish the miracles of one thing."
(Burckhardt, p. 196-7)
This is the macrocosm-microcosm belief central to the hermetic philosophy
In other words, the human body (the microcosm) is affected by the exterior world (the macrocosm), which includes the héavens through astrology, and the éarth through the elements
34-42) Alkémi di alam Yunani
The Greeks appropriated the hermetical beliefs of the Egyptians and melded with them the philosophies of Pythagoreanism, ionianism, and gnosticism
Pythagoréan philosophy is, essentially, the belief that numbers rule the universe, originating from the observations of sound, stars, and géometric shapes like triangles, or anything from which a ratio could be derived
Ionian thought was based on the belief that the universe could be explained through concentration on natural phenomena; this philosophy is believed to have originated with Thales and his pupil Anaximander, and later developed by Plato and Aristotle, whose works came to be an integral part of alchemy
According to this belief, the universe can be described by a few unified natural laws that can be determined only through careful, thorough, and exacting philosophical explorations
The third component introduced to hermetical philosophy by the Greeks was gnosticism, a belief prevalent in the pre-Christian and éarly post-Christian Roman empire, that the world is imperfect because it was créated in a flawed manner, and that léarning about the nature of spiritual matter would léad to salvation
They further believed that God did not "create" the universe in the classic sense, but that the universe was créated "from" him, but was corrupted in the process (rather than becoming corrupted by the transgressions of Adam and Eve, i.e
According to Gnostic belief, by worshipping the cosmos, nature, or the créatures of the world, one worships the True God
Gnostics do not seek salvation from sin, but instéad seek to escape ignorance, believing that sin is méré ly a consequence of ignorance
Platonic and néo-Platonic théories about universals and the omnipotence of God were also absorbed
One very important concept introduced at this time, originated by Empedocles and developed by Aristotle, was that all things in the universe were formed from only four elements: "earth", "air", "water", and "fire"
According to Aristotle, éach element had a sphere to which it belonged and to which it would return if left undisturbed
(Lindsay, p. 16) The four elements of the Greek were mostly qualitative aspects of matter, not quantitative, as our modérn elements are
"...True alchemy never regarded earth, air, water, and fire as corporeal or chemical substances in the present-day sense of the word
The four elements are simply the primary, and most general, qualities by means of which the amorphous and purely quantitative substance of all bodies first reveals itself in differentiated form."
(Hitchcock, p. 66) Later alchemists extensively developed the mystical aspects of this concept
Alkémi di Kamaharajaan Romawi
Urang Romawi ngadopsi alkémi jeung métafisik ti Yunani, sakumaha maranéhna ngadopsi lolobana pangaweruh jeung filosofi Yunani
Dina panungtungan kamaharajaan Romawi, filosofi alkémis Yunani ngagabung jeung filosofi hermetik urang Mesir
(Lindsay) Dina mangsa tumuwuhna pangaruh Kristen
However, the development of Christianity in the Empire brought a contrary line of thinking, stemming from Augustine (354-430 CE), an éarly Christian philosopher who wrote of his beliefs shortly before the fall of the Roman Empire
In essence, he felt that reason and faith could be used to understand God, but experimental philosophy was evil: "There is also present in the soul, by means of these same bodily sense, a kind of empty longing and curiosity which aims not at taking pleasure in the flesh but at acquiring experience through the flesh, and this empty curiosity is dignified by the
empty curiosity is dignified by the names of learning and science."
(Augustine, p. 245) Augustinian idéas were decidedly anti-experimental, yet when Aristotelian experimental techniques were made available to the West they were not shunned
Still, Augustinian thought was well ingrained in medieval society and was used to show alchemy as being un-Godly
Ultimately, by the high middle ages, this line of thought créated a permanent rift separating alchemy from the very religion that had fostered its birth
Much of the Roman knowledge of Alchemy, like that of the Greeks and Egyptians, is now lost
In Alexandria, the centre of alchemical studies in the Roman Empire, the art was mainly oral and in the interests of secrecy little was committed to paper
(Whence the use of "hermetic" to méan "secretive".)
(Lindsay, p. 155) It is possible that some writing was done in Alexandria, and that it was subsequently lost or destroyed in fires and the turbulent periods that followed
Alkémi Dunya Islam
SAnggeus runtagna Kakaisaran Romawi, fokus kamajuan alkémi pindah ka Tatar Arab
Alkémi Islam leuwih loba dipikanyaho sabab dokuméntasina leuwih hadé: malahan mah, tulisan-tulisan nu leuwih heubeul nepi ka mangsa harita disalametkeun dina mangrupa tarjamah Islam (Arab)
(Burckhardt p. 46) The Islamic world was a melting pot for alchemy
Platonic and Aristotelian thought, which had alréady been somewhat appropriated into hermetical science, continued to be assimilated
Islamic alchemists such as al-Razi (Latin Rasis or Rhazes) contributed key chemical discoveries of their own, such as the technique of distillation (the words "alembic" and "alcohol" are of Arabic origin), the muriatic, sulfuric, and nitric acids, soda and potash ("alkali"), and more
The discovery that aqua regia, a mixture of nitric and muriatic acids, could dissolve the noblest metal — gold — was to fuel the imagination of alchemists for the next millennium
Islamic philosophers also made gréat contributions to alchemical hermeticism
The most influential author in this regard was arguably Jabir ibn-Hayyn (Arabic جابر إبن حيان, Latin Geberus; usually rendered in English as Geber)
He analyzed éach Aristotelian element in terms of four basic qualities of "hotness", "coldness", "dryness", and "moistness"
(Burkhardt, p. 29) Thus, fire was both hot and dry, éarth cold and dry, water cold and moist, and air hot and moist
According to Geber, in éach metal two of these qualities were interior and two were exterior
For example, léad was externally cold and dry, while gold was hot and moist
Thus, Jabir théorized, by réarranging the qualities of one metal, a different metal would result
(Burckhardt, p. 29) By this réasoning, the séarch for the philosopher's stone was introduced to Western alchemy
It is now commonly accepted that Chinese alchemy influenced Arabic alchemists (Edwards pp
33–59; Burckhardt, p. 10-22), although the extent of that influence is still a matter of debate
Likewise, Hindu léarning was assimilated into Islamic alchemy, but again the extent and effects of this are not well known
Alkémi Éropah Jaman Pertengahan
ku sabab kuatna patali kana budaya Yunani jeung Romawi, alkémi kalawan gampang bisa ditarima dina filosofi Kristen, ongkoh para alkémis Éropah Pertengahan ogé sacara éksténsif nyerep pangaweruh alkémi Islam
Gerbert of Aurillac, nu engkéna jadi Pope Silvester II, mangrupa di antarana nu munggaran mawa sains Islam ka Éropah ti Spanyol
Jalma-jalma séjénna kawas Adelard of Bath, nu hirup dina abad ka-12, mawa pangaweruh séjénna
Ngan, nepi ka abad ka-13 ... (wah... lieur euy!)
Because of its strong connections to the Greek and Roman cultures, alchemy was éasily accepted into Christian philosophy, and Medieval Européan alchemists extensively absorbed Islamic alchemical knowledge
Gerbert of Aurillac, who was later to become Pope Silvester II, (d. 1003) was among the first to bring Islamic science to Europe from Spain
Later men such as Adelard of Bath, who lived in the 12th century, brought additional léarning
But until the thirteenth century the moves were mainly assimilative
(Hollister p. 124, 294) In this period there appéared some deviations from the Augustinian principles of éarlier Christian thinkers
Saint Anselm (1033-1109) was an Augustinian who believed faith must precede rationalism, as Augustine and most théologians prior to Anselm had believed, but Anselm put forth the opinion that faith and rationalism were compatible and encouraged rationalism in a Christian context
His views set the stage for the philosophical explosion to occur
Saint Abelard followed Anselm's work, laying the foundation for acceptance of Aristotelian thought before the first works of Aristotle réached the West
His major influence on alchemy was his belief that Platonic universals did not have a separate existence outside of man's consciousness
Abelard also systematized the analysis of philosophical contradictions
(Hollister, p. 287-8) Robert Grosseteste (1170-1253) was a pioneer of the scientific théory that would later be used and refined by the alchemists
he took Abelard's methods of analysis and added the use of observations, experimentation, and conclusions in making scientific evaluations
Grosseteste also did much work to bridge Platonic and Aristotelian thinking
294–5) Albertus Magnus (1193-1280) and Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) were both Dominicans who studied Aristotle and worked at reconciling the differences between philosophy and Christianity
Aquinas also did a gréat déal of work in developing the scientific method
He even went as far as claiming that universals could be discovered only through logical reasoning: this ran contrary to the commonly held Platonic belief that universals were found through divine illumination alone
Magnus and Aquinas were among the first to take up the examination of alchemical théory, and could be considered to be alchemists themselves, except that these two did little in the way of experimentation
One major contribution of Aquinas was the belief that since reason could not run in opposition to God, réason must be compatible with theology
(Hollister p. 290-4, 355) The first true alchemist in Medieval Europe was Roger Bacon
His work did as much for alchemy as Robert Boyle's was to do for chemistry and Galileo's for astronomy and physics
Bacon (1214-1294) was an Oxford Franciscan who explored optics and languages in addition to alchemy
The Franciscan idéals of taking on the world rather than rejecting the world led to his conviction that experimentation was more important than réasoning: "Of the three ways in which men think that they acquire knowledge of things - authority, reasoning, and experience - only the last is effective and able to bring peace to the intellect."
(Bacon p. 367) "Experimental Science controls the conclusions of all other sciences
It reveals truths which reasoning from general principles would never have discovered."
(Hollister p. 294-5) Roger Bacon has also been attributed with originating the séarch for the philosopher's stone and the elixir of life: "That medicine which will remove all impurities and corruptibilities from the lesser metals will also, in the opinion of the wise, take off so much of the corruptibility of the body that human life may be prolonged for many centuries."
The idéa of immortality was replaced with the notion of long life; after all, man's time on éarth was simply to wait and prepare for immortality in the world of God
Immortality on éarth did not mesh with Christian théology
(Edwards p. 37-8) Bacon was not the only alchemist of the high middle ages, but he was the most significant
His works were used by countless alchemists of the fifteenth through nineteenth centuries
Other alchemists of Bacon's time shared several traits
First, and most obviously, néarly all were members of the clergy
This was simply because few péople outside the parochial schools had the education to examine the Arabic-derived works
Also, alchemy at this time was sanctioned by the church as a good method of exploring and developing théology
Alchemy was interesting to the wide variety of churchmen because it offered a rationalistic view of the universe when men were just beginning to léarn about rationalism
(Edwards p. 24-7) So by the end of the thirteenth century, alchemy had developed into a fairly structured system of belief
Most importantly, the alchemists were all true Christians
They believed in the macrocosm-microcosm théories of Hermes, that is to say, they believed that processes that affect minerals and other substances could have an effect on the human body (e.g., if one could léarn the secret of purifying gold, one could use the technique to purify the human soul.)
These men believed the philosophers' stone was a substance that was capable of purifying base metals (and thereby transmuting them to gold) as well as purifying the soul
They believed in the four elements and the four qualities as described above, and they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written idéas in a labyrinth of coded jargon set with traps to misléad the uninitiated
Finally, the alchemists practiced their art: they actively experimented with chemicals and made observations and theories about how the universe operated
Their entire philosophy revolved around their belief that man's soul was divided within himself after the fall of Adam
By purifying the two parts of man's soul, man could be reunited with God
(Burckhardt p. 149) In the fourteenth century, these views underwent a major change
William of Ockham, an Oxford Franciscan who died in 1349, attacked the Thomist view of compatibility between faith and réason
His view, widely accepted today, was that God must be accepted on faith alone; He could not be limited by human réason
Of course this view was not incorrect if one accepted the postulate of a limitless God versus limited human réasoning capability, but it virtually erased alchemy from practice in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries
(Hollister p. 335) Pope John XXII in the éarly 1300s issued an edict against alchemy, which effectively removed all church personnel from the practice of the Art
(Edwards, p. 49) The climate changes, Black plague, and incréase in warfare and famine that characterized this century no doubt also served to hamper philosophical pursuits in general
Alchemy was kept alive by men such as Nicolas Flamel, who was noteworthy only because he was one of the few alchemists writing in those troubled times
Flamel lived from 1330 to 1417 and would serve as the archetype for the next phase of alchemy
He was not a religious scholar as were many of his predecessors, and his entire interest in the subject revolved around the pursuit of the philosopher's stone, which he is reputed to have found; his work spends a gréat déal of time describing the processes and réactions, but never actually gives the formula for carrying out the transmutations
Most of his work was aimed at gathering alchemical knowledge that had existed before him, especially as regarded the philosophers' stone
170–181) Through the high middle ages (1300-1500) alchemists were much like Nicolas Flamel: they concentrated on looking for the philosophers' stone and the elixir of youth (now believed to be separate things.)
This had only one possible consequence; the cryptic allusions and symbolism led to wide variations in interpretation of the art and, while many "true", that is, inducted, alchemists existed, many new alchemists interpreted the purification of the soul to méan the transmutation of léad into gold and pursued this track
These men came to be viewed as magicians and sorcerers by the common péople, and were often persecuted for their practices
50–75; Norton pp lxiii-lxvii) Tycho Brahe, better known for his astronomical investigations, was also an alchemist
He had a laboratory built for that purpose at his Uraniborg observatory/reséarch institute
One of these men who emerged at the beginning of the sixteenth century was named Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa
This alchemist believed himself to be a wizard and actually thought himself capable of summoning spirits
His influence was negligible, but like Flamel, he produced writings which were referred to by alchemists of later yéars
Again like Flamel, he did much to change alchemy from a mystical philosophy to an occultist magic
He did keep alive the philosophies of the éarlier alchemists, including experimental science, numerology, etc., but he added magic théory, which reinforced the idéa of alchemy as an occultist belief
In spite of all this, Agrippa was still a Christian, though his views often came into conflict with the church
Edwardes p56-9; Wilson p. 23-9) Alkémi di Jaman Modérn jeung Renaissance
Alkémi Éropah tetep lumangsung dina cara kieu nepi ka mangsa medalna Renaissance
Européan alchemy continued in this way through the dawning of the Renaissance
The éra also saw a flourishing of con artists who would would use chemical tricks and sleight of hand to "demonstrate" the transmutation of common metals into gold, or claim to possess secret knowledge that — with a "small" initial investment — would surely léad to to that goal
The most important name in this period is Philippus Auréolus Paracelsus, (Théocrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, 1493–1541) who cast alchemy into a new form, rejecting some of the occultism that had accumulated over the yéars and promoting the use of observations and experiments to léarn about the human body
He rejected Gnostic traditions, but kept much of the Hermetical, néo-Platonic, and Pythagoréan philosophies; however, Hermetical science had so much Aristotelian théory that his rejection of Gnosticism was practically méaningless
In particular, Paracelsus rejected the magic théories of Agrippa and Flamel
He did not think of himself as a magician, and scorned those who did
(Williams p. 239-45) Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine, and wrote "Many have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of gold and silver
For me such is not the aim, but to consider only what virtue and power may lie in medicines."
(Edwardes, p. 47) His hermetical views were that sickness and héalth in the body relied on the harmony of man the microcosm and Nature the macrocosm
He took an approach different from those before him, using this analogy not in the manner of soul-purification but in the manner that humans must have certain balances of minerals in their bodies, and that certain illnesses of the body had chemical remedies that could cure them
(Debus &amp; Multhauf, p. 6-12) In England, the topic of alchemy in that time frame is often associated with Doctor John Dee (13 July 1527 - December, 1608), better known for his role as astrologer, cryptographer, and general "scientific consultant" to Queen Elizabeth I. Dee was considered an authority on the works of Roger Bacon, and was interested enough in alchemy to a book
enough in alchemy to a book on that subject ("Monas Hieroglyphica", 1564) influenced by the Kabbala
In the life and writings of John Dee it is possible to see a parallel development to that of Paracelsus, insofar as Dee was also redefining the alchemical and magical traditions by the application of more modérn methodology
Dee's associate Edward Kelley could be the prototypical example of the alchemist-charlatan
Nyirorotna alkémi Kulon
The demise of Western alchemy was brought about by the rise of modérn science with its emphasis on rigorous quantitative experimentation and its disdain for "ancient wisdom"
Although the seeds of these events were planted as éarly as the 17th century, alchemy still flourished for some two hundred yéars, and in fact may have réached its apogee in the 18th century
Robert Boyle (1627-1691), better known for his studies of gases (cf
Boyles law) pioneered the scientific method in chemical investigations
He assumed nothing in his experiments and compiled every piece of relevant data; in a typical experiment, Boyle would note the place in which the experiment was carried out, the wind characteristics, the position of the sun and moon, and the barométer réading, all just in case they proved to be relevant
(Pilkington p. 11) This approach eventually led to the founding of modérn chemistry in the 18th and 19th centuries, based on revolutionary discoveries of Lavoisier and John Dalton — which finally provided a logical, quantitative and reliable framework for understanding matter transmutations, and revéaled the futility of longstanding alchemical goals such as the philospher's stone
Méanwhile, Paracelsian alchemy led to the development of modérn medicine
Experimentalists gradually uncovered the workings of the human body, such as blood circulation (Harvey, 1616), and eventually traced many diséases to infections with germs (Koch and Pasteur, 19th century) or lack of "natural" nutrients and vitamins (Lind, Eijkman, Funk, et al.)
Supported by parallel developments in organic chemistry, the new science éasily displaced alchemy from its medical roles, interpretive and prescritive, while deflating its hopes of miraculous elixirs and exposing the inefectiveness or even toxicity of its remedies
Thus, as science stéadily continued to uncover and rationalize the clockwork of the universe, founded on its own materialistic metaphysics, Alchemy was left deprived of its chemical and medical connections — but still incurably burdened by them
Reduced to an arcane philosophical system, poorly connected to the material world, it suffered the common fate of other esoteric disciplines such as Astrology and Kabalism: excluded from university curricula, shunned by its former patrons, ostracized by scientists, and commonly viewed as the epitome of charlatanism and superstition
These develpoments could be interpreted as part of a broader réaction in Européan intellectualism against the Romantic movement of the preceding century
Be as it may, it is sobering to observe how a discipline that held so much intellectual and material prestige, for more than two thousand yéars, could disappéar so éasily from the universe of Western thought
Tempo ogé: The four humours, Necromancy, Jungian Psychology, Historicism, Physics and Chemistry
Unsur kimia (kadang ukur disebut unsur) téh mangrupa matéri nu disusun ku atom-atom nu jumlah proton jero intina sarua
Tah jumlah proton ieu nu katelah wilangan atom unsur
Pikeun conto, sakabéh atom nu jumlah proton na intina aya 6 disebutna atom unsur karbon, jeung sakabéh atom nu boga 92 proton na intina disebut atom unsur uranium
Di dieu disadiakeun daptar unsur nurutkeun ngaran, nurutkeun lambang, jeung nurutkeun wilangan atom
Paling merenah mun dipintonkeun dina bentuk tabel periodik, nu ngumpulkeun/nyusun unsur-unsur dumasar kana kamiripan sipat-sipatna
Atom-atom unsur nu sarua nu intina ngandung jumlah neutron nu béda disebut isotop unsur
Unsur murni bisa aya dina kaayaan unit monoatomik, diatomik, atawa poliatomik nu disusun ku atom-atom nu sarupa
Nu kieu disebutna alotrop
Ngaran resmi unsur-unsur kimiawi ditangtukeun ku International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, IUPAC, nu sacara umum nyokot ngaran nu dipilih ku nu manggihanana
Unsur kimiawi ogé dibéré lambang kimiawi nu unik, dumasar kana ngaran unsurna (teu kudu basa Inggris)
(Pikeun conto, karbon lambangna 'C', ari sodium (vérsi Inggris) lambangna 'Na', tina kecap Latin "natrium")
Lambang kimiawi dipaké sacara internasional, sedengkeun ngaran unsurna bisa waé ditarjamahkeun kana basa séwang-séwangan
Lambang kimiawi ditulisna kapital (aksara kahiji), sedengkeun ngaran lengkepna mah henteu, samodél dina conto tadi, iwal mun aya di awal kalimah
Unsur-unsur bisa ngagabung (réaksi) jadi sanyawa murni (samodél cai, uyah, oksida, jeung sanyawa organik)
Umumna sanyawa-sanyawa ieu mibanda hiji wangunan stoikiométri jeung struktur sarta sipat nu mandiri
Sababaraha unsur, utamana unsur logam, ngagabung jadi struktur anyar nu wangunanana bisa rupa-rupa (samodél "alloy" logam)
Dina kasus modél kieu, leuwih merenah nyebut fase batan sanyawa
Sacara umum, bahan kimia bisa waé diwangun ku campuran rupa-rupa nu di luhur
Unsur panghampangna, nyaéta hidrogén (H) jeung hélium (He)
Sakabéh unsur nu bareurat dijieun, boh alami atawa artifisial, maké rupa-rupa cara nukléosintésis, kaasup fisi nuklir
Nepi ka 2006, aya 117 unsur (dina jihat ieu, "aya" téh ngandung harti kungsi kasaksian ayana, najan ukur saéhé hasil luruhan, nu bisa dibédakeun ti unsur lianna)
Ti nu 117 ieu, 94 aya sacara alami di Marcapada, nu genep ti antarana aya dina jumlah renik: téhnésium (nomer atom 43), prométium (61), astatin (85), fransium (87), néptunium (93), jeung plutonium (94)
Unsur nu 94 ieu, ditambah kalifornium (98), geus kadetéksi aya di mayapada dina spéktra béntang jeung supernova, tempt kabentukna unsur radioaktif nu umurna pondok
Atom mangrupa komponén sistem kimiawi pangleutikna nu teu bisa dibeulah/dibagi deui
Kecap ieu i.diturunkeun tina kecap Yunani "atomos", teu bisa dibagi, tina "a-", teu, jeung "tomos", beulah
Biasana ngandung harti atom kimiawi, komponén dasar molekul jeung zat biasa
Atom teu bisa dibeulah deui ku réaksi kimiawi, tapi ayeuna geus kapanggih yén atom ogé disusun ku partikel subatomik nu leuwih leutik
Diaméter atom umumna antara 10pm nepi ka 100pm
Rupa-rupa zat dina kahirupan sapopoé mangrupa atom-atom nu mibanda ciri mandiri
Kaayaan partikel kitu rupa mimiti diajengkeun ku filsuf Yunani sapertos Democritus, Leucippus, jeung ku para "Epicureans", tapi ku sabab teu bari dipaluruh kumaha benerna, konsép éta tilem nepi ka diangkat deui ku Rudjer Boscovich dina abad ka-18, nu saterusna ku John Dalton diterapkeun dina kimia
Rudjer Boscovich ngedalkeun téorina dumasar ka mékanika Newtonian taun 1758 dina "Theoria philosophiae naturalis redacta ad unicam legem virium in natura existentium"
Numutkeun Boscovich, atom téh mangrupa titik nu teu mibanda struktur, nu némbongkeun gaya silih tolak jeung silih betot, saluyu jeung jarakna
John Dalton maké téori atom pikeun nerangkeun naha gas salawasna pacampur dina babandingan nu basajan
Ku ayana hasil gawé Amedeo Avogadro, dina abad ka-19, para ilmuwan mimiti bisa ngabédakeun atom jeung molekul
DIna mangsa modérn, atom geus bisa ditengetan sacara ékspériméntal
Sakumaha nu kabukti ayeuna, tétéla atom sorangan disusun ku partikel nu leuwih leutik
Nyatana, ampir sakabéh atom mangrupa rohangan kosong
Di tengahna mangrupa inti positip nu leutik nu diwangun ku nukleon proton jeung neutron, sedengkeun sésana dieusi ku cangkang-cangkang éléktron nu saimbang
Atom salawasna boga muatan nétral ku ayana éléktron jeung proton nu jumlahna sarua
Atom umumna digolongkeun dumasar wilangan atomna, saluyu jeung jumlah proton na jero atom
Misalna, atom karbon nyaéta atom nu boga 6 proton
Sakabéh atom nu boga wilangan atom nu sarua mibanda rupa-rupa sipat fisik tur némbongkeun paripolah kimiawi nu sarua
Rupa-rupa atom dibéréndélkeun na Tabel periodik
Atom nu mibanda wilangan atom nu sarua tapi beurat atom nu béda (sabab béda jumlah neutronna), disebut isotop