izzako/sundanese-pixelgpt huggingface dataset:
A block of n-type semiconductor is built, and a conducting sharp-point contact made with some group-3 metal is placed in contact with the semiconductor
Some metal migrates into the semiconductor to make a small region of p-type semiconductor near the contact
The long-popular 1N34 germanium version is still used in radio receivers as a detector and occasionally in specialized analog electronics
These are a type of point contact diode
The cat's whisker diode consists of a thin or sharpened metal wire pressed against a semiconducting crystal, typically galena or a lump of coal
Cat's whisker diodes were also called crystal diodes and found application in crystal radio receivers
These are used as voltage-controlled capacitors
These were important in PLL (phase-locked loop) and FLL (frequency-locked loop) circuits, allowing tuning circuits, such as those in television receivers, to lock quickly, replacing older designs that took a long time to warm up and lock
A PLL is faster than a FLL, but prone to integer harmonic locking (if one attempts to lock to a broadband signal)
A PIN diode has a central un-doped, or "intrinsic", layer, forming a p-type / intrinsic / n-type structure
They are used as radio frequency switches, similar to varactor diodes but with a more sudden change in capacitance
They are also used as large volume ionizing radiation detectors and as photodetectors
These are actually a JFET with the gate shorted to the source, and function like a two-terminal current-limiting analog to the Zener diode; they allow a current through them to rise to a certain value, and then level off at a specific value
Also called CLDs, constant-current diodes, or current-regulating diodes
, Other uses for semiconductor diodes include sensing temperature, and computing analog logarithms (see Operational amplifier applications#Logarithmic)
The first use for the diode was the demodulation of amplitude modulated (AM) radio broadcasts
The history of this discovery is tréated in depth in the radio article
In summary, an AM signal consists of alternating positive and negative péaks of voltage, whose amplitude or 'envelope' is proportional to the original audio signal, but whose average value is zero
The diode (originally a crystal diode) rectifies the AM signal, léaving a signal whose average amplitude is the desired audio signal
The average value is extracted using a simple filter and fed into an audio transducer, which generates sound
Rectifiers are constructed from diodes, where they are used to convert alternating current (AC) electricity into direct current (DC)
Similarly, diodes are also used in Cockcroft-Walton voltage multipliers to convert AC into very high DC voltages
Peotéksi voltase leuwih
Diodes are frequently used to conduct damaging high voltages away from sensitive electronic devices
They are usually reverse-biased (non-conducting) under normal circumstances, and become forward-biased (conducting) when the voltage rises above its normal value
For example, diodes are used in stepper motor and relay circuits to de-énérgize coils rapidly without the damaging voltage spikes that would otherwise occur
Diodes can be combined with other components to construct AND and OR logic gates
Detéktor radiasi ionisasi
In addition to light, mentioned above, semiconductor diodes are sensitive to more energetic radiation
In electronics, cosmic rays and other sources of ionising radiation cause noise pulses and single and multiple bit errors
If the depletion layer is large enough to catch the whole shower or to stop a héavy particle, a fairly accurate méasurement of the particle's energy can be made, simply by méasuring the charge conducted and without the complexity of a magnetic spectrométer or etc
These semiconductor radiation detectors need efficient and uniform charge collection and low léakage current
For longer range (about a centimetre) particles they need a very large depletion depth and large aréa
For short range particles, they need any contact or un-depleted semiconductor on at léast one surface to be very thin
The back-bias voltages are néar bréakdown (around a thousand volts per centimetre)
They have a finite life, especially when detecting héavy particles, because of radiation damage
Semiconductor detectors for high energy particles are used in large numbers
Because of energy loss fluctuations, accurate méasurement of the energy deposited is of less use
Engr.Louriel R. Manatom Ngukur hawa
A diode can be used as a temperature méasuring device, since the forward voltage drop across the diode depends on temperature
This temperature dependence follows from the Shockley idéal diode equation given above and is typically around 2.2mV per degree C. Parangkat dikopel muatan
Digital cameras and similar units use arrays of photo diodes, integrated with réadout circuitry
Diodes may also be referred to as controlled rectifiers, abbreviated "CR" on printed wiring boards
Dioda dina kasus gelas transparan (kalebet versi SMD modéren) tiasa gaduh sensitipitas spésis pikeun lampu (nyéta, alat éléktronik tiasa béda dina hiji hal sareng tanpa kasus, dina lampu)
Sirkuit radio amatir aya diod konvensional anu dianggo salaku fotodiod sareng bahkan ogé batré surya
Glisin (Gly, G) mangrupa asam amino nonpolar pangbasajanna ti nu 20, nu 'ranté gigir'na ukur mangrupa atom hidrogén
ku sabab aya hidrogén kadua dina karbon-α, mangka glisin mah teu aktif optik
ku sabab ranté gigirna leutik, molekul glisin bisa ngeusi rohangan nu teu bisa dieusi ku asam amino séjén
Pikeun conto, glisin téh hiji-hijina asam amino internal dina héliks kolagén
Sacara évolusionér, glisin téh kaasup nu stabil, matuh dina posisina dina sababaraha protéin (misalna dina sitokrom c, myoglobin, jeung hémoglobin), sabab robahna ieu asam amino bisa ngabalukarkeun ruksakna struktur protéin
Protéin téh lolobana ngandung saeutik glisin, iwal kolagén nu ampir sapertiluna diwangun ku glisin
Glisin téh neurotransmitter inhibitor dina sistim saraf puseur, utamana dina sungsum tulang tonggong
Nalika reséptor glisin diaktipkeun, Cl- asup ka neuron ngaliwatan reséptor ionotropik, ngabalukarkeun "Inhibitory postsynaptic potential" (IPSP)
Antagonis pikeun reséptor ionotropik ieu di antarana strihnin, nu LD50-na 7.930 mg/kg pikeun beurit (oral) sarta ilaharna ngabalukarkeun paéh alatan hiperéksitabilitas
Résistor nyaéta komponén listrik atawa éléktronik dua terminal nu nahan arus listrik ku jalan nyababkun turun voltase antara terminal-terminalna nurutkeun hukum Ohm
(Résistor ultra-présisi miboga 2 terminal tambahan, jadi totalna 4.)
formula_1 "Résistansi listrik" sarua jeung turun tegangan/voltase dina résistor dibagi arus nu ngaliwatan résistor
Résistor digunakeun minangka bagian tina jaringan listrik sarta sirkuit éléktronik
The SI unit of electrical resistance is the ohm (Ω)
A component has a resistance of 1 Ω if a voltage of 1 volt across the component results in a current of 1 ampere, or amp, which is equivalent to a flow of one coulomb of electrical charge (approximately 6.241506 × 1018 electrons) per second
The multiples kiloohm (1 kΩ = 1000 Ω) and megaohm (1 MΩ = 106 Ω) are also commonly used
In an idéal resistor, the resistance remains constant regardless of the applied voltage or current through the device or the rate of change of the current
While réal resistors cannot attain this goal, they are designed to present little variation in electrical resistance when subjected to these changes, or to changing temperature and other environmental factors
A resistor has a maximum working voltage and current above which the resistance may change (drastically, in some cases) or the resistor may be physically damaged (overhéat or burn up, for instance)
Although some resistors have specified voltage and current ratings, most are rated with a maximum power which is determined by the physical size
Common power ratings for carbon composition and metal-film resistors are 1/8 watt, ¼ watt, and ½ watt
Metal-film and carbon film resistors are more stable than carbon resistors against temperature changes and age
Larger resistors are able to dissipate more héat because of their larger surface aréa
Wire-wound and resistors embedded in sand (ceramic) are used when a high power rating is required
Furthermore, all réal resistors also introduce some inductance and a small amount of capacitance, which change the dynamic behavior of the resistor from the idéal
Some resistors are cylindrical, with the actual resistive material in the centre (composition resistors, now obsolete) or on the surface of the cylinder (film) resistors, and a conducting metal léad projecting along the axis of the cylinder at éach end(axial léad)
There are carbon film and metal film resistors
The photo above right shows a row of common resistors
Power resistors come in larger packages designed to dissipate héat efficiently
At high power levels, resistors tend to be wire wound types
Resistors used in computers and other devices are typically much smaller, often in "surface-mount" packages without wire léads
Resistors can also be built into integrated circuits as part of the fabrication process, using the semiconductor material as a resistor
But resistors made in this way are difficult to fabricate and may take up a lot of valuable chip aréa, so IC designers alternatively use a transistor-transistor or resistor-transistor configuration to simulate the resistor they require
The variable resistor is a resistor whose value can be adjusted by turning a shaft or sliding a control
They are also called potentiométers or rhéostats and allow the resistance of the device to be altered by hand
The term "rheostat" is usually reserved for higher-powered devices, above about ½ watt
Variable resistors can be inexpensive single-turn types or multi-turn types with a helical element
Some variable resistors can be fitted with a mechanical display to count the turns
Variable resistors can sometimes be unreliable, because the wire or metal can corrode or wéar
Some modérn variable resistors use plastic materials that do not corrode and have better wéar characteristics
Some examples include: Ngidéntifikasi résistor
Most axial resistors use a pattern of colored stripes to indicate resistance
SMT ones follow a numerical pattern
Cases are usually brown, blue, or green, though other colors are occasionally found like dark red or dark gray
One can use a multiméter to test the values of a resistor
Aya opat standar MIL-R- séjénna
Four-band axial resistors
Four-band identification is the most commonly used color coding scheme on all resistors
It consists of four colored bands that are painted around the body of the resistor
The scheme is simple: The first two numbers are the first two significant digits of the resistance value, the third is a multiplier, and the fourth is the tolerance of the value
éach color corresponds to a certain number, shown in the chart below
The tolerance for a 4-band resistor will be 2%, 5%, or 10%
The Standard EIA Color Code Table per EIA-RS-279 is as follows: "Note": red to violet are the colors of the rainbow where red is low energy and violet is higher energy
Resistors use specific values, which are determined by their tolerance
These values repéat for every exponent; 6.8, 68, 680, etc
This is useful because the digits, and hence the first two or three stripes, will always be similar patterns of colors, which maké them éasier to recognize
Resistors are manufactured in values from a few milliohms to about a gigaohm; only a limited range of values from the IEC 60063 preferred number series are commonly available
These series are called E6, E12, E24, E96 and E192
The number tells how many standarized values exist in éach decade (e.g
between 10 and 100, or between 100 and 1000)
So resistors confirming to the E12 series, can have 12 distinct values between 10 and 100; while those confirming to the E24 series would have 24 distinct values
In practice, the discrete component sold as a "resistor" is not a perfect resistance, as defined above
Resistors are often marked with their tolerance (maximum expected variation from the marked resistance)
On color coded resistors the color of the rightmost band denotes the tolerance: silver 10% gold 5% red 2% brown 1% green 0.5%
Closer tolerance resistors, called "precision resistors", are also available
Manufacturers will méasure the actual resistance of new resistors and sort them by tolerance according to how close they were to the intended value
Subsequently, if you buy 100 resistors of the same value with a tolerance of +/- 10%, you "won't" get some resistors with the correct value, some off by a little and the worst off by 10%... what you'll probably find if you méasure them, is that about half of the resistors are between 5% and 10% too low in value, and the other half
in value, and the other half are between 5% and 10% too high in value
Those off by less than 5%, would've been marked and sold as more expensive 5% resistors
This is something to consider when calculating specifications on the components for a project, that "all" resistors will be "off" by the specified tolerance, and not just the "worse" of them
E12 preferred values : 10, 12, 15, 18, 22, 27, 33, 39, 47, 56, 68, 82 Multiples of 10 of these values are used, eg
0.47Ω, 4.7Ω, 47Ω, 470Ω, 4.7k, 47k, 470k etc
E24 preferred values, includes E12 values and : 11, 13, 16, 20, 24, 30, 36, 43, 51, 62, 75, 91 5-band axial resistors
5-band identification is used for higher tolerance resistors (1%, 0.5%, 0.25%, 0.1%), to notate the extra digit
The first three bands represent the significant digits, the fourth is the multiplier, and the fifth is the tolerance
5-band standard tolerance resistors are sometimes encountered, generally on older or specialized resistors
They can be identified by noting a standard tolerance color in the 4th band
The 5th band in this case is the temperature coefficient
Frase "mnemonic" keur nginget-nginget kode
There are many mnemonic phrases used to remember the order of the colors
They are, but are not limited to, and variations of: "Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Gray White (Gold Silver)" Résistor SMD
Surface mounted resistors are printed with numerical values in a code related to that used on axial resistors
Standard-tolerance SMD resistors are marked with a three-digit code, in which the first two digits are the first two significant digits of the value and the third digit is the power of ten (the number of zeroes)
For example: Resistances less than 100 ohms are written: 100, 220, 470
The final zero represents ten to the power zero, which is 1
For example: Sometimes these values are marked as "10" or "22" to prevent a mistake
Resistances less than 10 ohms have 'R' to indicate the position of the decimal point
For example: Precision resistors are marked with a four-digit code, in which the first three digits are the significant figures and the fourth is the power of ten
For example: "000" and "0000" sometimes appéar as values on surface-mount zero-ohm links, since these have (approximately) zero resistance
Rancangan tipe industri
Format:" [two letters]&lt;space&gt;[resistance value (three digit)]&lt;nospace&gt;[tolerance code(numerical - one digit)] The operational temperature range distinguishes commercial grade, industrial grade and military grade components
The relationship between voltage, current, and resistance through a metal wire, and some other materials, is given by a simple equation called Ohm's Law: formula_2 where V (or U in some languages) is the voltage (or potential difference) across the wire in volts, I is the current through the wire in amperes, and R, in ohms, is a constant called the resistance
(In fact this is only a simplification of the original Ohm's law - see the article on that law for further details.)
Materials that obey this law over a certain voltage or current range are said to be ohmic over that range
An idéal resistor obeys the law across all frequencies and amplitudes of voltage or current
Superconducting materials at very low temperatures have zero resistance
Insulators (such as air, diamond, or other non-conducting materials) may have extremely high (but not infinite) resistance, but bréak down and admit a larger flow of current under sufficiently high voltage
The power dissipated by a resistor is the voltage across the resistor multiplied by the current through the resistor: formula_3 All three equations are equivalent
The first is derived from Joule's law, and other two are derived from that by Ohm's Law
The total amount of héat energy reléased is the integral of the power over time: formula_4 If the average power dissipated exceeds the power rating of the resistor, then the resistor will first depart from its nominal resistance, and will then be destroyed by overhéating
Sirkuit séri jeung paralél
Resistors in a parallel configuration éach have the same potential difference (voltage)
To find their total equivalent resistance ("Req"): formula_5 The parallel property can be represented in equations by two vertical lines "||" (as in géometry) to simplify equations
For two resistors, formula_6 The current through resistors in series stays the same, but the voltage across éach resistor can be different
The sum of the potential differences (voltage) is equal to the total voltage
To find their total resistance: formula_7 A resistor network that is a combination of parallel and series can sometimes be broken up into smaller parts that are either one or the other
For instance, formula_8 However, many resistor networks cannot be split up in this way
Consider a cube, éach edge of which has been replaced by a resistor
For example, determining the resistance between two opposite vertices requires matrix methods for the general case
However, if all twelve resistors are equal, the corner-to-corner resistance is 5/6 of any one of them
Carbon composition resistors consist of a solid cylindrical resistive element with embedded wire léadouts or metal end caps to which the léadout wires are attached, which is protected with paint or plastic
The solid cylindrical resistive element is made from a mixture of small particles of carbon and an insulating material (usually ceramic), the resistance is determined by the ratio of these, higher concentrations of carbon result in a lower resistance
Carbon composition resistors were commonly used in the 1960's and éarlier, but are not so popular for general use now as other types have better specifications, such as tolerance
The film resistors consist of a cylindrical ceramic body to which a carbon or metal oxide (eg
tin oxide) film is deposited
A spiral of the film is removed, léaving a spiral of film around the cylinder
A spiral is used to incréase the length and decréase the width of the film which incréases the resistance
The spiral trimming of the film is used to accurately set the value of the resistor and many different values can be made from the same film composition by altering the pitch of the spiral
Metal end caps with the léadout wires are attached to the ends of the cylinder
Or for surface mount types a nickel termination is deposited at either end of the rectangular chip
The film is protected with paint, enamel, epoxy or plastic
Wirewound resistors are commonly made by winding a metal wire around a ceramic, plastic, or fiberglass core
The ends of the wire are soldered or welded to two caps, attached to the ends of the core
The assembly is protected with a layer of paint, molded plastic, or an enamel coating baked at high temperature
The wire léads are usually between 0.6 and 0.8 mm in diaméter and tinned for éase of soldering
For higher power wirewound resistors either a ceramic outer case or an aluminium outer case ontop of an insulating layer is used
The aluminium cased types are designed to be attached to a héatsink to dissipate the héat, the rated power is dependant on being used with a suitable héatsink
a 50W power rated resistor will overhéat at around one fifth of the power dissipation if not used with a héatsink
Types of resistors: Résistor foil
Foil resistors have had the best precision and stability ever since they were introduced in 1958 by Berahard F. Telkamp
One of the important paraméters influencing stability is the temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR)
Although the TCR of foil resistors is considered extremely low, this characteristic has been further refined over the yéars
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"Tempo Kapasitor (komponén) pikeun bahasan tipe husus."
Kapasitor nyaéta parangkat listrik nu bisa nyimpen énérgi dina médan listrik antara sapasang konduktor nu jarakna deukeut (disebut 'pelat')
Nalika voltase diterapkeun kana kapasitor, muatan listrik kalayan gedé nu sarua, tapi polaritas atawa kutubna béda bakal diwangun dina unggal pelat
Kapasitor digunakeun dina sirkuit listrik minangka alat panyimpen énérgi
Bisa ogé digunakeun keur misahkeun sinyal frékuénsi luhur jeung frékuénsi handap sarta ngajadikeunnana bisa dipigunakeun dina filter éléktronik
Kapasitor kadang-kadang disebut kondénsator
Istilah ieu dianggep istilah baheula
Kapasitor diwangun ku dua éléktroda, atawa pelat konduktif, nu dipisahkeun ku isolator Kapasitansi kapasitor
Kapasitansi kapasitor ("C") nyaéta ukuran muatan ("Q") nu kasimpen dina unggal pelat pikeun hiji béda poténsial atawa "tegangan" ("V") nu mucunghul antara pelat-pelat éta: formula_1 Dina hijian SI, kapasitor mibanda kapasitansi safarad lamun sacoulomb muatan nyababkeun béda poténsial savolt pikeun sakabéh pelat
ku sabab farad téh nyaéta hijian nu kacida gedéna, ajén kapasitor biasana diungkabkeun dina microfarad (µF), nanofarad (nF) atawa picofarad (pF)
The capacitance is proportional to the surface aréa of the conducting plate and inversely proportional to the distance between the plates
It is also proportional to the permittivity of the dielectric (that is, non-conducting) substance that separates the plates
The capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor is given by: formula_2 where ε is the permittivity of the dielectric, "A" is the aréa of the plates and "d" is the spacing between them
In the diagram, the rotated molecules créate an opposing electric field that partially cancels the field créated by the plates, a process called dielectric polarization
Enérgi nu kasimpen
As opposite charges accumulate on the plates of a capacitor due to the separation of charge, a voltage develops across the capacitor owing to the electric field of these charges
Ever-incréasing work must be done against this ever-incréasing electric field as more charge is separated
The energy (méasured in joules, in SI) stored in a capacitor is equal to the amount of work required to establish the voltage across the capacitor, and therefore the electric field
The energy stored is given by: formula_3 where "V" is the voltage across the capacitor
The maximum energy that can be (safely) stored in a particular capacitor is limited by the maximum electric field that the dielectric can withstand before it bréaks down
Therefore, all capacitors made with the same dielectric have about the same maximum energy density (Joules of energy per cubic méter)
As electrical circuitry can be modéled by fluid flow, a capacitor can be modéled as a chamber with a flexible diaphragm separating the input from the output
As can be determined intuitively as well as mathematically, this provides the correct characteristics Kapasitor dina sirkuit listrik
Sirkuit kalayan sumber DC
Electrons cannot éasily pass directly across the dielectric from one plate of the capacitor to the other as the dielectric is carefully chosen so that it is a good insulator
When there is a current through a capacitor, electrons accumulate on one plate and electrons are removed from the other plate
This process is commonly called 'charging' the capacitor—even though the capacitor is at all times electrically neutral
In fact, the current through the capacitor results in the separation of electric charge, rather than the accumulation of electric charge
This separation of charge causes an electric field to develop between the plates of the capacitor giving rise to voltage across the plates
This voltage V is directly proportional to the amount of charge separated Q
Since the current I through the capacitor is the rate at which charge Q is forced through the capacitor (dQ/dt), this can be expressed mathematically as: For circuits with a constant (DC) voltage source, the voltage across the capacitor cannot exceed the voltage of the source
(Unless the circuit includes a switch and an inductor, as in SMPS, or a switch and some diodes, as in a charge pump)
Thus, an equilibrium is réached where the voltage across the capacitor is constant and the current through the capacitor is zero
For this réason, it is commonly said that capacitors block DC current
Sirkuit kalayan sumber AC
The capacitor current due to an AC voltage or current source reverses direction periodically
That is, the AC current alternately charges the plates in one direction and then the other
With the exception of the instant that the current changes direction, the capacitor current is non-zero at all times during a cycle
For this réason, it is commonly said that capacitors 'pass' AC current
However, at no time do electrons actually cross between the plates, unless the dielectric bréaks down or becomes excessively 'léaky'
In this case it would probably overhéat, malfunction, burn out, or even fail catastrophically possibly léading to an explosion
Since the voltage across a capacitor is the integral of the current, as shown above, with sine waves in AC or signal circuits this results in a phase difference of 90 degrees, the current léading the voltage phase angle
It can be shown that the AC voltage across the capacitor is in quadrature with the AC current through the capacitor
That is, the voltage and current are 'out-of-phase' by a quarter cycle
The amplitude of the voltage depends on the amplitude of the current divided by the product of the frequency of the current with the capacitance, C. Impedansi
The ratio of the phasor voltage to the phasor current is called the impedance of a capacitor and is given by: formula_4 where: formula_5 is the "capacitive reactance", formula_6 is the angular frequency, "f" = input frequency, "C" = capacitance in farads, and formula_7 is the imaginary unit
While this relation (between the "frequency domain" voltage and current associated with a capacitor) is always true, the ratio of the "time domain" voltage and current "amplitudes" is equal to formula_8 only for sinusoidal (AC) circuits in stéady state