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{"text": "Coat-M\u00e9al (en bret\u00f3 Koz-Meal) \u00e9s un municipi franc\u00e8s, situat a la regi\u00f3 de Bretanya, al departament de Finisterre. L'any 2006 tenia 934\u00a0habitants. El consell municipal ha aprovat la carta Ya d'ar brezhoneg.\n\nDemografia\n\nAdministraci\u00f3\n\nRefer\u00e8ncies \n\nMunicipis del districte de Brest", "meta": {"title": "Coat-M\u00e9al", "url": "https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coat-M%C3%A9al", "language": "ca", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "Tenzin Tsundue is een Tibetaans dichter, schrijver en activist. In 2001 won hij de eerste Outlook-Picador Award voor non-fictie. Hij publiceerde drie boeken die werden vertaald in andere talen.\n\nAchtergrond\nZijn ouders ontvluchtten Tibet tijdens de Tibetaanse diaspora. Bij aankomst in India in 1959 werkten ze eerst in de wegenbouw van bergwegen in Masumari, Bir, Kullu en Manali. Honderden Tibetanen die naar India vluchtten kwamen in de eerste tijd om, omdat ze de hitte van de zomer en de vochtigheid van de moesson niet konden verdragen. Het kamp van de wegenbouw trok verder en ergens onderweg werd Tenzin Tsundue langs de kant van de weg geboren in een noodtent. Zijn geboortedatum is niet bevestigd en er bestaan drie verschillende registraties van. Hij ging naar school in Dharamsala en ging naar de universiteiten van Chennai en Mumbai.\n\nWerk\nZijn eerste boek, Crossing the Border, gaf hij uit met behulp van geld dat hij van medestudenten gekregen en geleend had, terwijl hij zijn voor zijn master studeerde aan de Universiteit van Mumbai. In 2001 won hij de eerste Outlook-Picador Award voor non-fictie. Zijn tweede boek Kora werd vertaald naar het Frans en Malayalam. Zijn derde boek, Semshook, is een compilatie van essays over de Tibetaanse vrijheidsbeweging. In 2005 vertegenwoordigde hij Tibet in New Delhi tijdens de tweede Zuid-Aziatische literatuurconferentie.\n\nMedia\nTenzin Tsundue wordt vaak gezien als een opinieleider binnen de Tibetaanse gemeenschap in ballingschap. Geschriften van Tenzin Tsundue verschijnen geregeld in Indiase en internationale tijdschriften en andere media. Hij schreef onder ander voor The International PEN, The Indian PEN, Sahitya Akademi\u2019s Indian Literature, The Little Magazine, Outlook, The Times of India, The Indian Express, Hindustan Times, Better Photography, The Economic Times, Tehelka, The Daily Star (Bangladesh), Today (Singapore), Tibetan Review en Gandhi Marg. In 2002 noemde de Indiase editie van het modeblad Elle hem een van de 50 best geklede mannen van India. Hij is onder meer te zien in de documentaire Tibet: 50 Years After the Fall uit 2009 van het regisseursduo Ritu Sarin en Tenzin S\u00f6nam.\n\nActivisme\n\nVanaf zijn studietijd was Tenzin Tsundue een voorvechter van de onafhankelijkheid van Tibet. Januari 2002 kreeg hij internationale aandacht van de media, omdat hij een banier uitrolde op de veertiende verdieping van het vijfsterrenhotel in Mumbai, toen de Chinese premier Zhu Rongji binnen was. April 2005 herhaalde hij dezelfde stunt, toen premier Wen Jiabao Bangalore bezocht. Hier ontrolde hij een grote rode banier met de tekst Free Tibet terwijl hij riep: \"Wen Jiaboa, you cannot silence us.\"\n\nTenzin Tsundue bracht Indiase bestuurders in verlegenheid en de Indiase politie gelastte hem Dharamsala niet te verlaten tijdens het bezoek van de Chinese president Hu Jintao aan India in november 2006. Sinds 2000 draagt hij een rode band om zijn hoofd waarmee hij wil uitdrukken dat hij werkt aan de vrijheid van zijn land en die hij niet eerder af wil doen dan Tibet vrij is.\n\nUitspraken\nIk ben een verknocht gelover in geweldloosheid.\nWe zijn bereid om te sterven, maar niet bereid om te doden.\nVrijheidsstrijd is mijn leven\n\nBibliografie\nTsundue, Tenzin & Woeser & Jampa & Bhuchung D Sonam & Jane Perkins (2006) Nyima Tsering's Tears\n?: Crossing the Border\n2007: Semshook\n2008: Kora\n\nTibetaans activist\nTibetaans schrijver", "meta": {"title": "Tenzin Tsundue", "url": "https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenzin%20Tsundue", "language": "nl", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "Kristian Hovde (6 December 1903 \u2013 19 August 1969) was a Norwegian cross-country skier who competed in the late 1920s in the early 1930s.\n\nHe was born in Vikersund.\n\nHovde won a silver in the 18\u00a0km event at the 1931 FIS Nordic World Ski Championships.\n\nAt the 1932 Winter Olympics he finished 13th in the 18 km cross-country skiing event.\n\nCross-country skiing results\nAll results are sourced from the International Ski Federation (FIS).\n\nOlympic Games\n\nWorld Championships\n 1 medal \u2013 (1 silver)\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n1903 births\nNorwegian male cross-country skiers\nOlympic cross-country skiers of Norway\nCross-country skiers at the 1932 Winter Olympics\n1969 deaths\nFIS Nordic World Ski Championships medalists in cross-country skiing\nPeople from Modum\nSportspeople from Viken (county)\n20th-century Norwegian people", "meta": {"title": "Kristian Hovde", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristian%20Hovde", "language": "en", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
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{"text": "Cochliomyia macellaria, also known as the secondary screwworm, is a species of blow fly in the family Calliphoridae. These screwworms are referred to as \"secondary\" because they typically infest wounds after invasion by primary myiasis-causing flies. While blow flies may be found in every terrestrial habitat, C. macellaria is primarily found in the United States, American tropics, and sometimes southern Canada. They are most common in the southeastern United States in states like Florida. C. macellaria have a metallic greenish-blue thorax and a red-orange head and eyes. These adult blowflies range from 5\u20138\u00a0mm in size. \n\nSince the fly larvae infect the wounds and dead tissue of animals, these flies pose a grave medical and economic risk to humans and livestock. C. macellaria are attracted to carrion and garbage and are often found in slaughterhouses and outdoor markets in the tropics. While these flies carry many various types of Salmonella and viruses like the swine influenza, C. macellaria can also serve as important decomposers in our ecosystem.\n\nDescription\nCochliomyia macellaria are classified as intermediate sized flies with a dull or bright metallic, blue-green coloration. On their thorax, there are three black longitudinal stripes that interrupt the blue-green color. The eye and head of these flies are orange-red in color. C. macellaria also has pale setae on the fronto-orbital plate outside of the frontal bristles. On C. macellaria the frontal row of bristles extend anteriorly to the base of the first antennal segment and consist of 12-14 bristles. The legs of the fly are orange brown to dark brown, and the coxae are orange brown to black with a green metallic luster. C. macellaria possess a dark reddish brown anterior femur and an orange-red anterior tibia. The anterior tibia also has four short bristles that are placed on the dorsal side. The color of the wings of the fly is orange brown tint towards the base. On these wings, the veins in the fly are orange brown to dark brown. The costal sessions 2 to 6 are in the proportions 78:56:96:30:6:6. The first genital section is black with a metallic green luster. On the fly, the scattered setae and a defined marginal row of bristles; the second segment is smaller with a dark brown to black tint with scattered setae.\n\nDistinguishing features\nCochliomyia macellaria is closely related to C. hominivorax but can be distinguished from C. hominivorax in three primarily ways: two of which are seen in adults and one which is seen in the larvae. In adults, the hairs on the fronto-orbital plate are black in C. hominivorax, but are pale in C. macellaria. Additionally, the central black stripe on the thorax extends only slightly in front of the mesonotal suture in C. hominivorax and well in front of the suture in C. macellaria. C. macellaria larvae, unlike like C. hominivorax larvae, do not have pigmented tracheal trunks but instead have V-shaped spines on the anal protuberance. C. macellaria also does not have an oral sclerite.\n\nDistribution and territory\nCochliomyia macellaria is most often found in the southeastern part of the United States, in states like Florida, Louisiana, and Georgia. Despite the high concentration in these states, these flies have been found as far north as Southern Canada and as south as the Neotropics, with the exclusion of countries like Chile and Argentina. While they have been found in this large expanse of areas, they have been shown to thrive most in warm and humid areas like the Southern United States, Caribbean Islands, Central America, and northern South America. In these areas, the population size typically increases during periods of extended rainfall.\n\nThe territories of these blowflies are relatively small, especially during the time of mating. In this period, these flies will stay within a couple meters of one another.\n\nLife cycle and history\n\nThe average life span of an adult C. macellaria is 2\u20136 weeks. In this time period, the females try to increase the chances of producing as many surviving offspring as possible. In a lifetime, C. macellaria may lay up to 1000 or more eggs. These eggs are typically laid in groups of 40 to 250. Females may also lay their eggs with other females, leading to an accumulation of thousands of eggs.\n\nEggs\nThe eggs of C. macellaria are laid in large groups (40\u2013250 eggs at one time) and typically hatch in about 24 hours. The time taken for eggs to hatch often depends on moisture, temperature, and precipitation. In favorable conditions, the eggs may hatch in just four hours. These eggs are about 1\u00a0mm long and appear white to pearl white in color.\n\nLarvae\nThe larval stage of C. macellaria is referred to by the common name of secondary screwworms; this is due to the presence of small spines on each body segment that resemble parts of a screw. The larval stage of C. macellaria immediately follows the egg stage and is typically broken down into three substages or instars. Upon hatching, the larve appear a cream color, have cylindrical bodies with 10 or more spines around the spiracular area, possess incomplete peritremes (an indistinct or absent button), and have bands of small spines on each segment. C. macellaria, unlike like C. hominivorax, do not have pigmented tracheal trunks; instead, they have V-shaped spines on the anal protuberance. C. macellaria also does not have an oral sclerite.\n\nCochliomyia macellaria larvae will feed on the decaying flesh of the animal that they have been laid on until they reach maturity. This stage of maturity is during the third instar and by this time point, the larvae may be as long as 17\u00a0mm. The entire larval stage is about four to seven days long, and afterwards, the larvae fall off the food source to pupate in the top layer of the soil.\n\nPupae\nThe C. macellaria larvae will typically burrow underneath the top layer of soil, leaves, garbage and begin to pupate there. During this stage, the outer layer begins to turn brown from the cream white that it used to be. The outer skin will begin to shrink and harden while the pupa develops entirely in the hardened shell. Based on the temperature, the length of this stage will vary greatly. In warmer temperatures, the stage may last as short as seven days, but in colder temperatures, it may last as long as two months.\n\nAdults\nAdult C. macellaria are considered to be medium-sized flies because they are about 6 to 9\u00a0mm in size and appear bright metallic blue-green to blueish purple in color. These adults typically spend one to two days maturing after leaving the pupae stage. Within four days of emerging from the pupa stage, the adult C. macellaria become sexually mature and start looking for mates. The males will typically mate rapidly and will spend most of their time eating nearby vegetation and nectar from flowers. The females, on the other hand, will feed on the fluids of live wounds from animals. Contrary to the males, the females will travel long distances to find mates.\n\nFood resources\n\nDepending on the gender and stage in their development, C. macellaria will utilize different resources for energy and nutrients. During the larval stage, the C. macellaria will dig deeper into the necrotic wounds of their host animal and feed on the dead tissue. Both males and females will feast through this method. This time period is extremely crucial to the flies, as they must gather enough nutrients in order to last through the pupal stage without any food sources. This is one reason why the larvae are much larger than the size of the adult C. macellaria.\n\nAs adults, the food specifications of the flies change. Female flies will continue to feed on tissues of animals; however, now they preferentially feed off of live tissue and tissue plasma. Males, at this point, will no longer consume tissue, but instead will eat nearby vegetation and intake nutrients from the nectar of flowers.\n\nMating\nAlthough there are few studies on the mating patterns of C. macellaria, there is some information on the interactions between the males and females. Adult female C. macellaria have been observed to will release pheromones that will stimulate the males copulatory attempts on contact. Even though depriving the C. macellaria adults of dietary proteins did not impact the potency of the female extracts, there was a reduced response in males for the pheromones.\n\nParental care\n\nMale C. macellaria do not provide parental care. The males will typically mate quickly and have the females bear the young. Since the females lay so many eggs, there is little care provided by the actual mothers after laying the eggs. The females do strategically lay the eggs in dead skin flesh so that once the eggs hatch into larvae, nutrition will be readily available.\n\nSocial behavior\nTraditional social behavior like lekking has not been observed in C. macellaria; however, other social behaviors have been observed.\n\nEgg laying\n\nIt is common for female C. macellaria to lay eggs with other females. Since females may lay up to 250 eggs, it is common for aggregations of thousands of eggs to infest entire animal carcasses.\n\nPheromone selectivity\nWhile C. hominivorax is closely related to C. macellaria, there are evolutionary developed methods that lead to reproductive isolation. One of these mechanisms is the interspecies response to the C. macellaria female pheromone. Studies on newly colonized C. hoinivorax males have demonstrated that the males do not response to the C. macellaria pheromone.\n\nEnemies\n\nLarval predation\nWhen studying the larval dispersal and predation for C. macellaria, studies have shown that there is interspecies competition and predation. It has been demonstrated that C. albiceps larvae attack C. macellaria larvae during their dispersal process. Additionally, C. macellaria showed higher aggregation level in single than in double species. This may be explained by an evolutionary mechanism used to conserve and protect C. macellaria from predation.\n\nHuman depredation\nDue to the medical and economic impact of the C. macellaria and other blowflies, an array of pesticides have been developed to reduce the C. macellaria population, including pyrethrin aerosol.\n\nMimicry and protective coloration\n\nWhile there are theories for protective coloration, there is no clear mimicry done by C. macellaria or by other insects specifically mimicking C. macellaria. The metallic green coloration may be a form of warding off predators, but this still in the process of being analyzed.\n\nImpact\n\nMedical\nCochliomyia macellaria has extensive medical and economic implications. When C. macellaria larvae infest the dead and decaying tissues of animals or humans, myiasis may often occur. Once infestation occurs, a dark brown discharge will start to leaking from the wound. As the infestation increases, there is more agitation and inflamed tissue, which is accompanied by unpleasant smells. After the process of clinical diagnosis begins and the myiasis is recognized, then the larvae are easier to identify. Treatment of these infestations can be time intensive and leads to increased chances of reoccurrences. The first step is manual removal of the larvae followed by an antibiotic smear.\n\nEconomic\nThe livestock industry considers the secondary screwworm an important pest because of the enormous economic losses caused by cases of myiasis and disease transmission. The medical and pesticide treatment costs the United States millions of dollars annually.\n\nForensic importance\n\nCochliomyia macellaria is the most common species of blow flies found on carrion in the southern United States.  C. macellaria has recently gained recognition in forensic entomology because of its occurrence on decomposing remains.  Since the analysis of the succession and occurrence has been well defined, it is possible to create postmortem interval estimations, which are crucial for forensic entomology. Adult C. macellaria in the southeastern United States are only attracted to the dead tissue on animals minutes after the death. In other regions of the United States, the adult flies are attracted to the dead flesh after a 24-hour delay.\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links\n \n\nCalliphoridae\nArticles created by Qbugbot\nInsects described in 1775\nTaxa named by Johan Christian Fabricius\nDiptera of North America\nInsects of the United States", "meta": {"title": "Cochliomyia macellaria", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cochliomyia%20macellaria", "language": "en", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "Opalenica \u2013 dawna gromada, czyli najmniejsza jednostka podzia\u0142u terytorialnego Polskiej Rzeczypospolitej Ludowej w latach 1954\u20131972.\n\nGromady, z gromadzkimi radami narodowymi (GRN) jako organami w\u0142adzy najni\u017cszego stopnia na wsi, funkcjonowa\u0142y od reformy reorganizuj\u0105cej administracj\u0119 wiejsk\u0105 przeprowadzonej jesieni\u0105 1954 do momentu ich zniesienia z dniem 1 stycznia 1973, tym samym wypieraj\u0105c organizacj\u0119 gminn\u0105 w latach 1954\u20131972.\n\nGromad\u0119 Opalenica z siedzib\u0105 GRN w mie\u015bcie Opalenicy (nie wchodz\u0105cym w sk\u0142ad gromady) utworzono 31 grudnia 1971 w powiecie krotoszy\u0144skim w woj. pozna\u0144skim z obszar\u00f3w zniesionych gromad Opalenica-Wsch\u00f3d i Opalenica-Zach\u00f3d w tym\u017ce powiecie; r\u00f3wnocze\u015bnie do nowo utworzonej gromady Opalenica w\u0142\u0105czono miejscowo\u015bci Bukowiec Stary i Pora\u017cyn-stacja ze zniesionej gromady Bukowiec tam\u017ce.\n\n1 stycznia 1972 do gromady Opalenica w\u0142\u0105czono cz\u0119\u015b\u0107 wsi Bia\u0142awie\u015b o nazwie Pora\u017cyn-Tartak z gromady Grodzisk Wielkopolski w tym\u017ce powiecie\n\n1 stycznia 1973 w powiecie nowotomyskim reaktywowano zniesion\u0105 w 1954 roku gmin\u0119 Opalenica.\n\nPrzypisy \n\nOpalenica", "meta": {"title": "Opalenica (gromada)", "url": "https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opalenica%20%28gromada%29", "language": "pl", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "Coleophora setipalpella \u00e9 uma esp\u00e9cie de mariposa do g\u00eanero Coleophora pertencente \u00e0 fam\u00edlia Coleophoridae.\n\nBibliografia \n Australian Biological Resources Study (ABRS) (2008): Australian Faunal Directory \u2014 Coleophoridae.\n Pitkin, Brian & Jenkins, Paul (2004): Butterflies and Moths of the World, Generic Names and their Type-species \u2014 Coleophora.\n Savela, Markku (2010): Markku Savela's Lepidoptera and some other life forms \u2014 Coleophoridae.\n Tree of Life Web Project (ToL) (2009): Coleophoridae.\n\nLiga\u00e7\u00f5es externas \n Natural History Museum Coleophoridae\n\nColeophora", "meta": {"title": "Coleophora setipalpella", "url": "https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coleophora%20setipalpella", "language": "pt", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "Los Machucambos sind eine Band, die sich im August 1959 im Pariser Quartier Latin gr\u00fcndete und die vor allem in den 1960er Jahren in Europa und in den USA gro\u00dfen Erfolg mit ihren Boleros, Cha-Cha-Chas, Rumba- und Merengue-Liedern hatte. \n\nDas Trio nannte sich urspr\u00fcnglich  Los Acapulcos. Der Name Los Machucambos entstammt dem s\u00fcdamerikanischen G\u00fcrteltier, dessen Schale zur Herstellung der Charango ben\u00f6tigt wird.\n\nVon der Originalformation mit der Costa-Ricanerin Julia Cortes, dem Spanier Rafa\u00ebl Gayoso und dem Peruaner Romano Zanotti sind noch die beiden Musiker und S\u00e4nger Gayoso und Zanotti dabei, zusammen mit zwei S\u00e4ngerinnen, die seit den 1970er Jahren dazugekommen sind: Mariana Gilbert und Maria Licata.\n\nDie Formation ver\u00f6ffentlichte bisher 19 Alben und 9 Kompilationen, zuletzt mit dem Titel Pepito im Jahre 2009.\n\nDiskografie\n\nAlben\n\nSingles\n\nWeblinks\n\nEinzelnachweise \n\nFranz\u00f6sische Band", "meta": {"title": "Los Machucambos", "url": "https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los%20Machucambos", "language": "de", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "El torillo moteado (Turnix maculosus) es una especie de ave charadriforme de la familia Turnicidae que habita en Ocean\u00eda.\n\nDistribuci\u00f3n  \n\nSe extiende por las islas menores de la Sonda, C\u00e9lebes, algunas Molucas, el norte y este de Australia, Nueva Guinea, las islas Bismarck y las Salom\u00f3n.\n\nReferencias\n\nEnlaces externos \n\nmaculosus\nAves de Australasia\nAnimales descritos en 1815\nTaxones descritos por Coenraad Jacob Temminck", "meta": {"title": "Turnix maculosus", "url": "https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turnix%20maculosus", "language": "es", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "Acanthoscurria natalensis \u00e4r en spindelart som beskrevs av Chamberlin 1917. Acanthoscurria natalensis ing\u00e5r i sl\u00e4ktet Acanthoscurria och familjen f\u00e5gelspindlar. Inga underarter finns listade i Catalogue of Life.\n\nK\u00e4llor \n\nF\u00e5gelspindlar\nnatalensis", "meta": {"title": "Acanthoscurria natalensis", "url": "https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acanthoscurria%20natalensis", "language": "sv", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "\u0410\u043d\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u043e\u0431\u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u044e\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430 \u043c\u0430\u0448\u0438\u043d\u0430 (\u0410\u041e\u041c) ()\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u0431\u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u044e\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430 \u043c\u0430\u0448\u0438\u043d\u0430, \u044f\u043a\u0430 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u043e\u0431\u043b\u044f\u0454 \u0456\u043d\u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0430\u0446\u0456\u044e, \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0443 \u0432 \u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0432\u0456\u0439 (\u043d\u0435\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043d\u0456\u0439) \u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0456.\n\n\u041e\u043f\u0438\u0441 \n\u0417\u0430\u0433\u0430\u043b\u043e\u043c, \u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0432\u0456 \u043c\u0430\u0448\u0438\u043d\u0438\u00a0\u2014 \u0441\u043f\u0435\u0446\u0456\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e 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\u041c\u041d-14, \u041c\u041d-17, \u0415\u041c\u0423-10\u00a0\u2014 \u0431\u0430\u0433\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0441\u0435\u043a\u0446\u0456\u0439\u043d\u0456, \u0440\u043e\u0437\u0440\u0430\u0445\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0456 \u043d\u0430 \u0432\u0438\u0440\u0456\u0448\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044f \u0441\u043a\u043b\u0430\u0434\u043d\u0438\u0445 \u0437\u0430\u0432\u0434\u0430\u043d\u044c. \u0422\u0430\u043a, \u041c\u041d-8 \u043c\u0430\u0454 80 \u043e\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0456\u0439\u043d\u0438\u0445 \u043f\u0456\u0434\u0441\u0438\u043b\u044e\u0432\u0430\u0447\u0456\u0432 \u0456 28 \u043d\u0435\u043b\u0456\u043d\u0456\u0439\u043d\u0438\u0445 \u0432\u0438\u0440\u0456\u0448\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u0445 \u0435\u043b\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0456\u0432; \u041c\u041d-14\u00a0\u2014 360 \u043f\u0456\u0434\u0441\u0438\u043b\u044e\u0432\u0430\u0447\u0456\u0432, 92 \u043d\u0435\u043b\u0456\u043d\u0456\u0439\u043d\u0438\u0445 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\u043a\u0435\u0440\u0443\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044f, \u0449\u043e \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0433\u0448\u0443\u0454 \u043d\u0430\u0431\u0456\u0440 \u0437\u0430\u0432\u0434\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044f \u0456 \u0443\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0443 \u043f\u043e\u0447\u0430\u0442\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0445 \u0443\u043c\u043e\u0432. \u0423 \u041c\u041d-14 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0431\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u043c\u043e\u0436\u043b\u0438\u0432\u0456\u0441\u0442\u044c \u043a\u0435\u0440\u0443\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044f \u0432\u0456\u0434 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0444\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0456\u0447\u043a\u0438. \u0415\u041c\u0423-10 \u0432\u0456\u0434\u0440\u0456\u0437\u043d\u044f\u0454\u0442\u044c\u0441\u044f \u0448\u0438\u0440\u043e\u043a\u043e\u044e \u0441\u043c\u0443\u0433\u043e\u044e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044f \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043d\u0438\u0445 \u0432\u0438\u0440\u0456\u0448\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u0445 \u0435\u043b\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0456\u0432 \u0456 \u0437\u0430\u0431\u0435\u0437\u043f\u0435\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u0432\u0438\u0440\u0456\u0448\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u043f\u0456\u0434\u0441\u0438\u043b\u044e\u0432\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0437 \u0442\u0440\u044c\u043e\u043c\u0430 \u043f\u0430\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u043a\u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0438\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044f.\n\n\u041b\u0456\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \n Kriloff A., Sur un int\u00e9grateur des \u00e9quations diff\u00e9rentielles ordinaires, \u00ab\u0406\u0437\u0432. \u0410\u043a\u0430\u0434\u0435\u043c\u0456\u0457 \u043d\u0430\u0443\u043a\u00bb, 1904, \u0441. 5, \u0442. 20 \u2116\u00a01;\n \u0413\u0443\u0442\u0435\u043d\u043c\u0430\u0445\u0435\u0440 \u041b. \u0406., \u0415\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0447\u043d\u0456 \u043c\u043e\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0456, \u041c.\u00a0\u2014 \u041b., 1949; \u0422\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0441\u0430 \u0412 \u0421., \u041e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438 \u0442\u0435\u043e\u0440\u0456\u0457 \u0456 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u044e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044f \u043c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0447\u043d\u0438\u0445 \u043c\u0430\u0448\u0438\u043d \u0431\u0435\u0437\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0457 \u0434\u0456\u0457, \u0441\u0442 1, \u041b., 1961;\n \u041a\u043e\u0433\u0430\u043d \u0411\u0438. \u042f., \u0415\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043d\u0456 \u043c\u043e\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044e\u044e\u0447\u0456 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0457 \u0456 \u0457\u0445 \u0432\u0436\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044f \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0434\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0456\u0434\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044f \u0441\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043c \u0430\u0432\u0442\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0443\u043b\u044e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044f, 2 \u0432\u0438\u0434., \u041c., 1963;\n \u041b\u044c\u043e\u0432\u0456\u043d \u041b., \u041c\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0434\u0438 \u0432\u0438\u0440\u0456\u0448\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044f \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0456\u0447\u043d\u0438\u0445 \u0437\u0430\u0432\u0434\u0430\u043d\u044c \u0437 \u0432\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044f\u043c \u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0445 \u043e\u0431\u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u044e\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u0445 \u043c\u0430\u0448\u0438\u043d, \u043f\u0435\u0440.(\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432.) \u0437 \u0430\u043d\u0433\u043b., \u041c., 1966;\n \u041a\u043e\u0440\u043d \u0420. \u0410., \u041a\u043e\u0440\u043d \u0422. \u041c., \u0415\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043d\u0456 \u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0432\u0456 \u0456 \u0430\u043d\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0433\u043e-\u0446\u0438\u0444\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0456 \u043e\u0431\u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u044e\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0456 \u043c\u0430\u0448\u0438\u043d\u0438, \u043f\u0435\u0440. \u0437 \u0430\u043d\u0433\u043b., \u0447. 1\u00a0\u2014 2, \u041c., 1967\u00a0\u2014 68;\n Buvh V. A., The differential analyzer, \u0430 new machine for solving differential equations, \u00abJournal of the Franklin Institute\u00bb, 1931, v. 212 \u2116\u00a010;\n Fifer St., Analogue computation, L., 1961.\n\n\u041f\u043e\u0441\u0438\u043b\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044f \n \u0410\u041d\u0410\u041b\u041e\u0413\u041e\u0412\u0410 \u041e\u0411\u0427\u0418\u0421\u041b\u042e\u0412\u0410\u041b\u042c\u041d\u0410 \u041c\u0410\u0428\u0418\u041d\u0410\n\n\u0414\u0438\u0432. \u0442\u0430\u043a\u043e\u0436 \n \u0413\u0456\u0434\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0456\u0447\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0456\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440\n \u041a\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0442\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f'\u044e\u0442\u0435\u0440", "meta": {"title": "\u0410\u043d\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u043e\u0431\u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u044e\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430 \u043c\u0430\u0448\u0438\u043d\u0430", "url": "https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%20%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%87%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D1%8E%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%20%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0", "language": "uk", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "La Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 de gymnastique de Caen est un club omnisports fond\u00e9 \u00e0 Caen le  par Armand Paris. C'est le premier club sportif de la ville.\n\nHistoire \n\nLa Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 de gymnastique, de tir, de pr\u00e9paration militaire de Caen est cr\u00e9\u00e9e . Son premier pr\u00e9sident est le d\u00e9put\u00e9 du Calvados Henri Legoux-Longpr\u00e9. Lui succ\u00e8dent messieurs Meunier puis Andr\u00e9 Detolle.\n\nElle est agr\u00e9\u00e9e par le minist\u00e8re de la guerre le  pour la pr\u00e9paration au brevet d'aptitude militaire. Elle compte des \u00e9quipes de gymnastique, de football (couleurs verte et blanche) - qui atteint la finale du championnat de Basse-Normandie en 1919 et de basket. En octobre 1918, des sections football et athl\u00e9tisme sont cr\u00e9\u00e9es. En 1919, une section f\u00e9minine est cr\u00e9\u00e9e.\nEn 1922, la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 compte 205 membres dont 60 filles ; dix ans auparavant, elle comptait 150 membres.\n\nSon cinquantenaire est f\u00eat\u00e9 au stade H\u00e9litas le  puis par un banquet \u00e0 l'h\u00f4tel de ville.\n\nPalmar\u00e8s \n\nLa section f\u00e9minine remporte le championnat de France de basket en 1920-1921, le championnat de France de hockey sur gazon en 1922 et s'adjuge en 1920 le record de France de saut en hauteur.\n\nNotes\n\nAnnexes\n\nArticles connexes \n Caen\n\nClub sportif \u00e0 Caen\nSport amateur\nAssociation sportive fond\u00e9e sous la Troisi\u00e8me R\u00e9publique\nClub de gymnastique", "meta": {"title": "Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 de gymnastique de Caen", "url": "https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9%20de%20gymnastique%20de%20Caen", "language": "fr", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "Karl Ortlob (auch: Carl Ortlob; * 17. Januar 1628 in Oels; \u2020 17. August 1678 in Breslau) war ein deutscher evangelischer Geistlicher und Kirchenlieddichter.\n\nWerke \n Siebenmahl sieben Geistliche Gedancken in gebundener Rede, 1651\n De variis Germanae Poeseos aetatibus exercitatio, 1657\n\nLiteratur \n \n Hanspeter Marti: Die Geschichte der deutschen Literatur als Thema einer Disputation in der Barockzeit. Die wiederaufgefundene Dissertation des Schlesiers Karl Ortlob (1628\u20131678). In: Wolfenb\u00fctteler Barock-Nachrichten 20/1, 1993, 5\u20139.\n\nKirchenlieddichter\nLutherischer Geistlicher (17. Jahrhundert)\nDeutscher\nGeboren 1628\nGestorben 1678\nMann", "meta": {"title": "Karl Ortlob", "url": "https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl%20Ortlob", "language": "de", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "Sydney Cecil Newman, f\u00f6dd den 1 april 1917, d\u00f6d den 30 oktober 1997, var en kanadensisk film- och TV-producent som spelade en stor roll f\u00f6r den brittiska dramaproduktionen under 1950- och 1960-talet. 1970 \u00e5terv\u00e4nde han till Kanada d\u00e4r han fortsatte sin karri\u00e4r.\n\nKarri\u00e4ren i Storbritannien \n\nHan arbetade f\u00f6rst med Associated British Corporation (ABC). D\u00e4refter b\u00f6rjade han 1962 att arbeta f\u00f6r BBC in 1962. Under \u00e5ren i Storbritannien initierade han tv\u00e5 popul\u00e4ra TV-serier, The Avengers och Doctor Who. Han arbetade ocks\u00e5 med socialrealistiska dramaproduktioner s\u00e5som Armchair Theatre och The Wednesday Play.\n\nKarri\u00e4ren i Kanada \n\nEfter \u00e5terkomsten till Kanada fick han en ledande tj\u00e4nst vid Canadian Radio and Television Commission (CRTC). D\u00e4refter arbetade som ledare f\u00f6r National Film Board of Canada (NFB). Han innehade ocks\u00e5 ledande positioner vid Canadian Film Development Corporation och Canadian Broadcasting Corporation och var r\u00e5dgivande till Secretary of State for Canada.\n\nReferenser \n\nM\u00e4n\nF\u00f6dda 1917\nAvlidna 1997\nKanadensiska TV-producenter", "meta": {"title": "Sydney Newman", "url": "https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney%20Newman", "language": "sv", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "Lu\u00eds Oliveira (* 24. M\u00e4rz 1969 in S\u00e3o Lu\u00eds, Maranh\u00e3o, Brasilien), mit vollem Namen Lu\u00eds Airton Barroso Oliveira, ist ein ehemaliger brasilianisch-belgischer, offensiver Fu\u00dfballspieler, der die meiste Zeit seiner bisherigen Laufbahn in Italien spielte. Nach dem Ende seiner aktiven Karriere startete er eine Laufbahn als Fu\u00dfballtrainer.\n\nKarriere\n\nIm Verein \nOliveira begann seine Laufbahn als Jugendspieler beim brasilianischen Klub Tupan, wechselte aber schon als Sechzehnj\u00e4hriger 1985 nach Belgien in die Jugendabteilung des RSC Anderlecht. 1988 gelang ihm der Sprung in den Profikader des Br\u00fcsseler Vorortvereins, mit dem er 1991 Belgischer Meister wurde. 1992 zog es ihn nach Italien, wo er bis heute lebt und Fu\u00dfball spielt.\n\nSeine erste Station dort war der sardische Serie-A-Verein Cagliari Calcio. Die Jahre 1996 bis 1999 sahen ihn dann bei der Fiorentina, bevor er noch einmal f\u00fcr eine Saison nach Cagliari zur\u00fcckkehrte. Nach einer weiteren Spielzeit beim FC Bologna war seine Laufbahn in der Serie A beendet und Oliveira heuerte f\u00fcr die Saison 2001/2002 beim Serie-B-Verein Como Calcio an, mit dem er als Erstplatzierter der Serie B den Aufstieg in die Serie A erreichte. Oliveira aber verlie\u00df Como zum Ende der Saison, um in der Folgezeit f\u00fcr die Vereine Catania (Serie B, 2002\u20132004), Foggia (Serie C1, 2004/2005), Venezia (Serie B, 2005) und AS Lucchese Libertas (Serie C1, 2005/2006) zu spielen.\n\n2006 kehrte er in seine Wahlheimat Sardinien zur\u00fcck, wo er in der bis 2008 f\u00fcr Nuorese Calcio in der Serie C2 spielte. Nach weiteren Stationen bei FBC Derthona und Muravera beendete er 2011 seine Karriere als Aktiver, nachdem er zwischenzeitlich 2010 bereits als Spielertrainer bei Muravera im Einsatz war. 2012 wurde er als neuer Cheftrainer des unterklassigen Klubs vorgestellt.\n\nIn der Nationalmannschaft \nNach seiner Einb\u00fcrgerung in Belgien absolvierte er zwischen 1992 und 1999 31 Spiele f\u00fcr die belgische Nationalmannschaft und erzielte dabei 7 Tore. 1998 war er Weltmeisterschaftsteilnehmer, die belgische Mannschaft schied aber schon in der Vorrunde nach drei Unentschieden mit drei Punkten als Gruppendritter aus.\n\nErfolge \n 1991: Belgischer Meister mit dem RSC Anderlecht\n 1998: Weltmeisterschaftsteilnahme mit der belgischen Nationalmannschaft\n 2002: Aufstieg in die Serie A mit Como Calcio\n\nWeblinks \n Karrierestatistik bei tuttocalciatori.net\n \n Lu\u00eds Oliveira in der Datenbank des belgischen Fu\u00dfballverbands (englisch)\n\nFu\u00dfballnationalspieler (Belgien)\nTeilnehmer an einer Fu\u00dfball-Weltmeisterschaft (Belgien)\nFu\u00dfballspieler (Brasilien)\nFu\u00dfballspieler (AC Florenz)\nFu\u00dfballspieler (Cagliari Calcio)\nFu\u00dfballspieler (Como 1907)\nFu\u00dfballspieler (Catania Calcio)\nFu\u00dfballspieler (FC Bologna)\nFu\u00dfballspieler (Foggia Calcio)\nFu\u00dfballspieler (AC Venedig)\nFu\u00dfballspieler (AS Lucchese Libertas)\nFu\u00dfballspieler (FBC Derthona)\nFu\u00dfballspieler (RSC Anderlecht)\nFu\u00dfballtrainer (Italien)\nBelgier\nBrasilianer\nGeboren 1969\nMann", "meta": {"title": "Lu\u00eds Oliveira", "url": "https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lu%C3%ADs%20Oliveira", "language": "de", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "Timmins\u2014Baie James est une circonscription \u00e9lectorale f\u00e9d\u00e9rale et provinciale en Ontario (Canada).\n\nCirconscription f\u00e9d\u00e9rale \n\nLa vaste circonscription est constitu\u00e9e du quart nord-est de la province longeant les c\u00f4tes de la baie d'Hudson et la baie James, englobant des parties des districts territoriaux de Kenora, Cochrane et Timiskaming. Les villes principales sont Timmins et Kirkland Lake.\n\nLes circonscriptions limitrophes sont Kenora, Thunder Bay\u2014Superior-Nord, Algoma\u2014Manitoulin\u2014Kapuskasing, Nickel Belt, et Nipissing\u2014Timiskaming, ainsi que les circonscriptions f\u00e9d\u00e9rales d'Abitibi\u2014T\u00e9miscamingue, Abitibi\u2014Baie-James\u2014Nunavik\u2014Eeyou et Nunavut.\n\nR\u00e9sultats \u00e9lectoraux\n\nSource : \u00c9lections Canada \u2013 Candidats confirm\u00e9s dans Timmins\u2014Baie James (2015)\n\nSource : \u00c9lections Canada\n\nHistorique\nLa circonscription de Timmins\u2014Baie James a \u00e9t\u00e9 cr\u00e9\u00e9e en 1996 \u00e0 partir des circonscriptions de Cochrane\u2014Superieur et de Timiskaming\u2014Cochrane.\n\nCirconscription provinciale\n\nComme partout en Ontario, les circonscriptions provinciales se sont accord\u00e9es avec les f\u00e9d\u00e9rales depuis les \u00e9lections provinciales du .\n\nCirconscription f\u00e9d\u00e9rale en Ontario", "meta": {"title": "Timmins\u2014Baie James", "url": "https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timmins%E2%80%94Baie%20James", "language": "fr", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "Fujio Yamamoto (jap. , Yamamoto Fujio; * 27. Mai 1966 in der Pr\u00e4fektur Kanagawa) ist ein ehemaliger japanischer Fu\u00dfballspieler.\n\nKarriere \nYamamoto erlernte das Fu\u00dfballspielen in der Schulmannschaft der Odawara High School und der Universit\u00e4tsmannschaft der Universit\u00e4t Tsukuba. Seinen ersten Vertrag unterschrieb er 1990 bei Mitsubishi Motors. Der Verein spielte in der h\u00f6chsten Liga des Landes, der Japan Soccer League. Mit Gr\u00fcndung der Profiliga J.League 1992 und der damit verbundenen Neuorganisation des japanischen Fu\u00dfballs wurde der Mitsubishi Motors zu Urawa Reds. F\u00fcr den Verein absolvierte er f\u00fcnf Erstligaspiele. 1993 wechselte er zum Zweitligisten NKK SC. F\u00fcr den Verein absolvierte er 14 Spiele. 1994 wechselte er zum Erstligisten Bellmare Hiratsuka. 1994 gewann er mit dem Verein den Kaiserpokal. F\u00fcr den Verein absolvierte er 27 Erstligaspiele. Ende 1996 beendete er seine Karriere als Fu\u00dfballspieler.\n\nErfolge \nBellmare Hiratsuka\n Kaiserpokal\n Sieger: 1994\n\nWeblinks \n \n \n\nFu\u00dfballspieler (Urawa Red Diamonds)\nFu\u00dfballspieler (Shonan Bellmare)\nJapaner\nGeboren 1966\nMann", "meta": {"title": "Fujio Yamamoto", "url": "https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fujio%20Yamamoto", "language": "de", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "Tylorrhynchus chinensis \u00e4r en ringmaskart som beskrevs av Grube 1868. Tylorrhynchus chinensis ing\u00e5r i sl\u00e4ktet Tylorrhynchus och familjen Nereididae. Inga underarter finns listade i Catalogue of Life.\n\nK\u00e4llor \n\nHavsborstmaskar\nchinensis", "meta": {"title": "Tylorrhynchus chinensis", "url": "https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tylorrhynchus%20chinensis", "language": "sv", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "Xiamiangao \u00e4r en sockenhuvudort i Kina. Den ligger i provinsen Shanxi, i den norra delen av landet, omkring 180 kilometer norr om provinshuvudstaden Taiyuan. Antalet inv\u00e5nare \u00e4r . Befolkningen best\u00e5r av  kvinnor och  m\u00e4n. Barn under 15 \u00e5r utg\u00f6r  %, vuxna 15-64 \u00e5r  %, och \u00e4ldre \u00f6ver 65 \u00e5r  %.\n\nRunt Xiamiangao \u00e4r det ganska t\u00e4tbefolkat, med  inv\u00e5nare per kvadratkilometer. N\u00e4rmaste st\u00f6rre samh\u00e4lle \u00e4r Dongshentou,  km s\u00f6der om Xiamiangao. Trakten runt Xiamiangao best\u00e5r i huvudsak av gr\u00e4smarker.\n\nGenomsnittlig \u00e5rsnederb\u00f6rd \u00e4r  millimeter. Den regnigaste m\u00e5naden \u00e4r juli, med i genomsnitt  mm nederb\u00f6rd, och den torraste \u00e4r januari, med  mm nederb\u00f6rd.\n\nK\u00e4llor \n\nOrter i Shanxi\nWP:Projekt Kina", "meta": {"title": "Xiamiangao (sockenhuvudort i Kina, Shanxi Sheng, lat 39,50, long 112,51)", "url": "https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiamiangao%20%28sockenhuvudort%20i%20Kina%2C%20Shanxi%20Sheng%2C%20lat%2039%2C50%2C%20long%20112%2C51%29", "language": "sv", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "Walter Balmer (28. marts 1948 - 27. december 2010) var en schweizisk fodboldspiller (angriber). \n\nBalmer spillede 20 kampe og scorede to m\u00e5l for Schweiz' landshold, som han debuterede for i en venskabskamp mod Tyrkiet 24. september 1969. \n\nP\u00e5 klubplan startede Balmer sin karriere hos FC Thun i sin f\u00f8deby, inden han i 1969 skiftede til FC Basel. Her var han med til at vinde fire schweiziske mesterskaber.\n\nTitler \nSchweizisk mesterskab\n 1969, 1970, 1972 og 1973 med FC Basel\n\nSchweizisk pokal\n 1975 med FC Basel\n\nSchweizisk Liga Cup\n 1972 med FC Basel\n\nReferencer\n\nEksterne henvisninger \n\nFodboldspillere fra Schweiz\nPersoner fra Thun", "meta": {"title": "Walter Balmer", "url": "https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter%20Balmer", "language": "da", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "Kazuary (Casuariinae) \u2013 monotypowa podrodzina ptak\u00f3w z rodziny kazuarowatych (Casuariidae).\n\nWyst\u0119powanie \nPodrodzina obejmuje trzy gatunki l\u0105dowe, nielotne, zamieszkuj\u0105ce Now\u0105 Gwine\u0119 i p\u00f3\u0142nocno-wschodni\u0105 Australi\u0119, a tak\u017ce wyspy le\u017c\u0105ce pomi\u0119dzy nimi.\n\nMorfologia \nD\u0142ugo\u015b\u0107 cia\u0142a 100\u2013170 cm, masa cia\u0142a 17,6\u201358 kg. Samice s\u0105 wi\u0119ksze i ja\u015bniej ubarwione. Ptaki te charakteryzuj\u0105 si\u0119 znacznymi rozmiarami, ciemnym (czarnym) ubarwieniem, kr\u0119p\u0105 budow\u0105, uwstecznieniem skrzyde\u0142 i kostn\u0105 naro\u015bl\u0105 na czaszce w kszta\u0142cie he\u0142mu. Nogi masywne, z trzema palcami, przy czym \u015brodkowy zaopatrzony jest w pot\u0119\u017cny pazur, kt\u00f3ry jest gro\u017an\u0105 broni\u0105. \n\nPrzez d\u0142ugi czas zastanawiano si\u0119, do czego ptakom s\u0142u\u017cy naro\u015bl na g\u0142owie. Coraz wi\u0119cej dowod\u00f3w wskazuje na to, \u017ce s\u0142u\u017cy ona cz\u0119\u015bciowej regulacji ciep\u0142oty organizmu (w podobny spos\u00f3b dzia\u0142a dzi\u00f3b tukana wielkiego). Inne hipotezy zak\u0142adaj\u0105, \u017ce he\u0142m kazuara mo\u017ce s\u0142u\u017cy\u0107 obronie przed drapie\u017cnikami b\u0105d\u017a urazami od spadaj\u0105cych z drzew owoc\u00f3w. Sugerowano r\u00f3wnie\u017c, \u017ce by\u0107 mo\u017ce odgrywa on jak\u0105\u015b rol\u0119 w zwi\u0119kszeniu zasi\u0119gu oraz wzmocnieniu d\u017awi\u0119k\u00f3w wydawanych przez ptaka. Dot\u0105d jednak jedynie hipoteza dotycz\u0105ca regulacji temperatury organizmu ptaka zyska\u0142a solidniejsze naukowe podstawy.\n\nEkologia \nOd\u017cywiaj\u0105 si\u0119 g\u0142\u00f3wnie owocami, uzupe\u0142niaj\u0105c diet\u0119 grzybami, \u015blimakami i ma\u0142ymi kr\u0119gowcami. Jako jedne z nielicznych ptak\u00f3w maj\u0105 genitalia takie jak u ssak\u00f3w i niekt\u00f3rych gad\u00f3w. Zwierz\u0119ta te prowadz\u0105 samotniczy tryb \u017cycia i bardzo aktywnie broni\u0105 swego terytorium, tak\u017ce przed lud\u017ami i gro\u017anymi im drapie\u017cnikami.\n\nSystematyka\n\nEtymologia \n Cela:  kel\u0113s, \u03ba\u03b5\u03bb\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 kel\u0113tos \u201erumak, ko\u0144 wy\u015bcigowy\u201d, od \u03ba\u03b5\u03bb\u03bb\u03c9 kell\u014d \u201ep\u0119dzi\u0107\u201d. Gatunek typowy: Struthio casuarius Linnaeus, 1758.\n Casuarius (Casearius, Casoaris, Casoarius): malajska nazwa Kasuari dla kazuara he\u0142miastego. \n Cassowara: jak Casuarius. Gatunek typowy: Cassowara eximia Perry, 1811 (= Struthio casuarius Linnaeus, 1758).\n Oxyporus: gr. \u03bf\u03be\u03c5\u03c2 oxus \u201eostry, spiczasty\u201d; \u03c0\u03c9\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 p\u014dros \u201ekostnina\u201d. Nowa nazwa dla Casuaria.\n Thrasys: gr. \u03b8\u03c1\u03b1\u03c3\u03c5\u03c2 thrasus \u201e\u015bmia\u0142y, porywaj\u0105cy, zuchwa\u0142y\u201d. Nowa nazwa dla Casuaria.\n Hippalectryo: gr. \u1f31\u03c0\u03c0\u03b1\u03bb\u03b5\u03ba\u03c4\u03c1\u03c5\u03c9\u03bd hippalektru\u014dn \u201eko\u0144-kogut\u201d, ba\u015bniowy gryf, od \u1f31\u03c0\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2 hippos \u201eko\u0144\u201d; \u03b1\u03bb\u03b5\u03ba\u03c4\u03c1\u03c5\u03c9\u03bd alektru\u014dn \u201ekogut\u201d. Gatunek typowy: Casuarius indicus Voigt, 1819 (= Struthio casuarius Linnaeus, 1758).\n\nPodzia\u0142 systematyczny \nDo rodziny nale\u017cy jeden rodzaj i trzy gatunki:\n Casuarius bennetti  \u2013 kazuar mniejszy\n Casuarius unappendiculatus  \u2013 kazuar jednokoralowy\n Casuarius casuarius  \u2013 kazuar he\u0142miasty\n\nPrzypisy", "meta": {"title": "Kazuary", "url": "https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazuary", "language": "pl", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "Leucorchestris arenicola ist eine in der namibischen W\u00fcste endemische Spinnenart aus der Familie der Riesenkrabbenspinnen (Sparassidae). Ausgewachsene Tiere erreichen einen Durchmesser von etwa 10 cm und wiegen etwa 5 g. Die hei\u00dfen Sonnenstunden verbringen die Tiere gesch\u00fctzt am Ende von 30\u201340 cm langen Wohnr\u00f6hren unter der Sandoberfl\u00e4che. In den Nachtstunden verlassen sie die Wohnr\u00f6hren zur Nahrungs- und Partnersuche und entfernen sich dabei bis zu 100 Meter von ihrem Standort.\nDie Spinne kommuniziert durch Trommeln der Vorderbeine auf der Sandoberfl\u00e4che und kann diese Vibrationen \u00fcber mehrere Meter weit sp\u00fcren. Die rhythmischen Bewegungen verhalfen Leucorchestris arenicola zu ihrem Trivialnamen Dancing White Lady.\n\nWeitere Arten \nAls White Lady werden noch einige andere Spinnenarten bezeichnet. Oft wird die \u2013 ebenfalls aus der Namib stammende \u2013  Afrikanische Radspinne Carparachne aureoflava neben ihrem \u00fcblichen Trivialnamen Wheel Spider auch (Dancing) White Lady Spider genannt, und in der Terraristik werden auch die Arten der Gattung Cerbalus, die in Nordafrika und dem Nahen Osten vorkommen, als White Lady bezeichnet.\n\nLiteratur \n Hallan, Joel 2006: SYNOPSIS OF THE DESCRIBED ARANEAE OF THE WORLD Texas A&M University Department of Entomology.\n John R. Henschel: Long-distance wandering and mating by the Dancin White Lady Spider (PDF, 306 kB) The Journal of Arachnology 30, S. 321\u2013330, 2002\n Diemut Kl\u00e4rner: W\u00fcstenspinnen - Heimkehr in tiefer Nacht.. In: F.A.Z., 12. September 2006, Nr. 212 / Seite 34\n Senckenberg Naturkundemuseum: W\u00fcstent\u00e4nzern auf der Spur - Riesenkrabbenspinnen in der Namib\n Thomas Norgaard: Nocturnal Navigation in Leucorchestris arenicola, The Journal of Arachnology 33, 553-540\n\nEinzelnachweise\n\nWeblinks \n\nRiesenkrabbenspinnen\nSparassidae", "meta": {"title": "Leucorchestris arenicola", "url": "https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucorchestris%20arenicola", "language": "de", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "Behrouz Rahbar (, 23 September 1945 \u2013 22 March 2019) was an Iranian cyclist. He competed in three events at the 1972 Summer Olympics according to sports-reference.org and according to the-sports.org he rode in addition the men's sprint event. He also won gold medal in the 1974 Asian Games in Tehran.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n \n\n1945 births\n2019 deaths\nIranian male cyclists\nOlympic cyclists of Iran\nCyclists at the 1972 Summer Olympics\nPlace of birth missing\nAsian Games gold medalists for Iran\nAsian Games bronze medalists for Iran\nAsian Games medalists in cycling\nCyclists at the 1974 Asian Games\nMedalists at the 1974 Asian Games\n20th-century Iranian people", "meta": {"title": "Behrouz Rahbar", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behrouz%20Rahbar", "language": "en", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "Tetrasarus quadriscopulatus is a species of beetle in the family Cerambycidae. It was described by Thomson in 1868.\n\nReferences\n\nAcanthoderini\nBeetles described in 1868", "meta": {"title": "Tetrasarus quadriscopulatus", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrasarus%20quadriscopulatus", "language": "en", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
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\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e-\u043b\u0438\u0431\u043e \u0438\u0437 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043a\u043e\u0432, \u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440 \u043f\u043e\u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044f\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f.\n \u0415\u0441\u043b\u0438 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043a, \u0432\u044b\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0438\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440, \u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0447\u043d\u043e \u043a\u043e\u0441\u043d\u0451\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043c\u044f\u0447\u0430 (\u043d\u0435 \u0440\u0443\u043a\u0430\u043c\u0438) \u0434\u043e \u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e, \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0435\u0433\u043e (\u043c\u044f\u0447\u0430) \u043d\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u0441\u043d\u0451\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043a\u0442\u043e-\u043b\u0438\u0431\u043e \u0438\u0437 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0445 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043a\u043e\u0432, \u0442\u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0436\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043e \u043d\u0430 \u0432\u044b\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0430 \u0441 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0430, \u0433\u0434\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u043e\u0448\u043b\u043e \u043d\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435.\n \u0415\u0441\u043b\u0438 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043a (\u043d\u0435 \u0432\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044c), \u0432\u044b\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0438\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440, \u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0447\u043d\u043e \u043a\u043e\u0441\u043d\u0451\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043c\u044f\u0447\u0430 \u0440\u0443\u043a\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0434\u043e \u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e, \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0435\u0433\u043e (\u043c\u044f\u0447\u0430) \u043d\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u0441\u043d\u0451\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043a\u0442\u043e-\u043b\u0438\u0431\u043e \u0438\u0437 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0445 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043a\u043e\u0432, \u0442\u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0436\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043e \u043d\u0430 \u0432\u044b\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0448\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0444\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438\u043b\u0438 11-\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0430, \u0432 \u0437\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0441\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u043e\u0442 \u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e, \u0433\u0434\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u043e\u0448\u043b\u043e \u043d\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435.\n \u0415\u0441\u043b\u0438 \u0432\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044c, \u0432\u044b\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0438\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440, \u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0447\u043d\u043e \u043a\u043e\u0441\u043d\u0451\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043c\u044f\u0447\u0430 (\u043d\u0435 \u0440\u0443\u043a\u0430\u043c\u0438) \u0434\u043e \u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e, \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0435\u0433\u043e (\u043c\u044f\u0447\u0430) \u043d\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u0441\u043d\u0451\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043a\u0442\u043e-\u043b\u0438\u0431\u043e \u0438\u0437 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0445 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043a\u043e\u0432, \u0442\u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0436\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043e \u043d\u0430 \u0432\u044b\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0430 \u0441 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0430, \u0433\u0434\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u043e\u0448\u043b\u043e \u043d\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435.\n \u0415\u0441\u043b\u0438 \u0432\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044c, \u0432\u044b\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0438\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440, \u0432\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0447\u043d\u043e \u043a\u043e\u0441\u043d\u0451\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043c\u044f\u0447\u0430 \u0440\u0443\u043a\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0434\u043e \u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e, \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0435\u0433\u043e (\u043c\u044f\u0447\u0430) \u043d\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u0441\u043d\u0451\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043a\u0442\u043e-\u043b\u0438\u0431\u043e \u0438\u0437 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0445 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043a\u043e\u0432, \u0442\u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0436\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043e \u043d\u0430 \u0432\u044b\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0448\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0444\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0430 (\u0432 \u0441\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435 \u0435\u0441\u043b\u0438 \u043d\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u043e\u0448\u043b\u043e \u0437\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0448\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0444\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043b\u043e\u0449\u0430\u0434\u0438 \u0432\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044f) \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0430 (\u0432 \u0441\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0430\u0435, \u0435\u0441\u043b\u0438 \u043d\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u043e\u0448\u043b\u043e \u0432 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0445 \u0448\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0444\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u043b\u043e\u0449\u0430\u0434\u0438 \u0432\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044f) \u0441 \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0430, \u0433\u0434\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u043e\u0448\u043b\u043e \u043d\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435.\n\n\u041f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0447\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \n\n\u041f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0438\u043b\u0430 \u0444\u0443\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0430\n\u0424\u0443\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0442\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0438\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u044f", "meta": {"title": "\u0428\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0444\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0438 \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u044b (\u0444\u0443\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b)", "url": "https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B9%20%D0%B8%20%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9%20%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%20%28%D1%84%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BB%29", "language": "ru", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "Bleibur\u0161ka tragedija i Kri\u017eni put (vidi terminologiju) su naj\u010de\u0161\u0107i nazivi koji se koriste kako bi opisali doga\u0111anja koja su uslijedila nakon neuspje\u0161nog poku\u0161aja predaje pripadnika pora\u017eenih vojski Savezni\u010dkim Britanskim postrojbama u blizini koru\u0161kog gradi\u0107a Bleiburga u dana\u0161njoj Austriji, neposredno nakon zavr\u0161etka Drugog svjetskog rata. Pripadnici pora\u017eenih vojski su nakon neuspje\u0161nih pregovora s britanskim i partizanskim zapovjednicima bezuvjetno polo\u017eili oru\u017eje na Bleibur\u0161kom polju 15. svibnja 1945. nakon \u010dega su od Britanaca, zajedno s ve\u0107im brojem civila koji su im bili u pratnji, izru\u010deni jedinicama NOVJ, tada ve\u0107 zdru\u017eenim u JNA. Nakon predaje uslijedio je prisilni povratak zarobljenika u Jugoslaviju tijekom kojeg je dio zarobljenika ubijen na podru\u010dju dana\u0161nje Slovenije u masovnim pogubljenjima koja su proveli partizani, dio je ubijen ili je umro od iznemoglosti tijekom dugih mar\u0161eva smrti, a dio je umro kasnije u radnim logorima od raznih bolesti i lo\u0161ih uvjeta \u017eivota. Takvo postupanje partizana prema ratnim zarobljenicima predstavlja najve\u0107i ratni zlo\u010din u razdoblju neposredno nakon rata, a \u010desto se opravdava osvetni\u010dkim, ali i politi\u010dkim motivima koje su partizani pod zapovjedni\u0161tvom KPJ imali. \n\nPo\u010detkom svibnja 1945. osovinski hrvatski i manjim dijelom crnogorski vojnici iz sastava \u010detni\u010dkih postrojbi koje su poslije tzv. Bitke na Lijev\u010da polju u travnju 1945. god. do\u0161li pod zapovjedni\u0161tvo NDH, uz tisu\u0107e pripadnika slovenskih Belogardejaca i ruskih Kozaka iz sastava XV. SS koza\u010dkog konjani\u010dkog korpusa koji je bio stacioniran na podru\u010dju onda\u0161nje Jugoslavije jo\u0161 od 1943., zajedno s velikim brojem civila povla\u010dili su se pred napredovanjem Jugoslavenske armije i Bugarske carske vojske, te su doprli do teritorija Austrije koji je ve\u0107 tada bio pod okupacijom britanskih i ameri\u010dkih snaga kojima su se naumili predati. Suprotno njihovim o\u010dekivanjima, Britanske snage su im zaprije\u010dile put i nalo\u017eile predaju u ruke jugoslavenskih partizana \u0161to su na kraju pora\u017eeni vojnici u bezizlaznoj situaciji i prihvatili te su 15. svibnja 1945. polo\u017eili oru\u017eje na Bleibur\u0161kom polju. Prema slu\u017ebenim izvorima u zavr\u0161nim operacijama rata zarobljeno je ukupno preko 340.000 vojnika Sila Osovine, od \u010dega su oko 120.000 vojnika bili pripadnici kvislin\u0161kih vojski s teritorija biv\u0161e Jugoslavije (usta\u0161e i domobrani iz NDH, \u010detnici s teritorija dana\u0161nje Srbije, Crne Gore i Bosne i Hercegovine te slovenski belogardejci). Nakon zarobljavanja kod Bleiburga, snage Jugoslavenske armije su zarobljene vojnike i civile s Bleiburga povukle dublje na podru\u010dje pod svojom kontrolom, te su veliki broj tih ljudi pobili u masovnim zlo\u010dinima kod Teznog, u Barbarinu rovu, na Ko\u010devskom Rogu, Maceljskoj \u0161umi, te na mnogo drugih manjih strati\u0161ta diljem biv\u0161e Jugoslavije tijekom mar\u0161eva smrti koji su uslijedili nakon predaje partizanskim snagama. \n\nTo\u010dan broj ubijenih u doga\u0111anjima prije i nakon predaje na Bleibur\u0161kom polju ni do danas nije precizno utvr\u0111en. U komunisti\u010dkoj Jugoslaviji nakon rata, pa sve do raspada Jugoslavije, javno se nije govorilo o nikakvim masovnim ubojstvima i drugim zlo\u010dinima koje su u Drugom svjetskom ratu po\u010dinile snage pod kontrolom komunista. Takve teme su bile tabu, a o njima se nije pisalo niti ih se istra\u017eivalo sve do trenutka raspada Jugoslavije. \n\nNajpouzdanije procjene broja \u017ertava, zbog neprovo\u0111enja sveobuhvatnih forenzi\u010dkih istra\u017eivanja, smatraju se one napravljene na osnovu demografskih istra\u017eivanja. Prema istra\u017eivanjima demografa Vladimira \u017derjavi\u0107a koja su provedena i objavljena 1990., nakon osamostaljenja Republike Hrvatske, a \u010dije se procjene do boljeg utvr\u0111ivanja pojedinosti o gubili\u0161tima uzimaju kao najvjerodostojnije, ukupan broj \u017ertava u doga\u0111ajima prije i nakon predaje na Bleiburgu kre\u0107e se oko 65.000 - 67.00 pobijenih, od kojih 45.000 do 55.000 Hrvata i Bo\u0161njaka, 8.000 do 10.000 Slovenaca te oko 2.000 Srba i Crnogoraca. \u017derjavi\u0107 1995. iznosi dodatne procjene kako je 45.000 Hrvata i 4.000 Bo\u0161njaka \u017eivote izgubilo u blizini Bleiburga ili tijekom mar\u0161eva smrti koji su uslijedili nakon predaje. Od Hrvata, \u017derjavi\u0107 navodi da je 11.600 osoba izgubilo \u017eivote u akcijama prije predaje, a 33.300 nakon predaje. Druge procjene svih \u017ertava kre\u0107u se od 35.000 pa \u010dak do prijeko milijun pobijenih (prete\u017eno iz izvora bliskim hrvatskoj emigraciji, tradicionalno sklonom NDH re\u017eimu), a brojne rasprave o razmjerima Bleibur\u0161ke tragedije mjerene u ljudskim \u017eivotima traju i danas. Hrvatska dr\u017eavna komisija za utvr\u0111ivanje ratnih i poratnih \u017ertava 90-ih je poimeni\u010dno popisala 13.300 Hrvata iz Hrvatske i BiH stradalih vezano za Bleiburg, od kojih 11.096 vojnika NDH, te 2.204 \"ostalih ili neidentificiranih\". \n\nStradanje hrvatskih ratnih zarobljenika nakon predaje na Bleiburgu doga\u0111alo se u sklopu postupanja jugoslavenskih snaga s drugim zarobljenim osovinskim vojnicima. Procjenjuje se da je Jugoslavenska armija na kraju II. svjetskog rata zarobila 194.000 njema\u010dkih vojnika, od kojih je pobijeno i od bolesti narednih nekoliko mjeseci pomrlo njih izme\u0111u 80 i 100 tisu\u0107a; jugoslavenski slu\u017ebeni izvori su potom priznavali svega 15.028 njema\u010dkih ratnih zarobljenika pomrlih u jugoslavenskom zarobljeni\u0161tvu.\n\nTerminologija \nZa stradanja zarobljenih vojnika koji su se predali na Bleibur\u0161kom polju ili su se predali ili bili zarobljeni drugdje u podru\u010dju dana\u0161nje Koru\u0161ke, Slovenije i op\u0107enito na granici s Austrijom, gdje su bili zaustavljeni od savezni\u010dke britanske vojske, koriste se mnogi nazivi. Osim naziva Bleibur\u0161ka tragedija, u Hrvatskoj se koriste jo\u0161 i nazivi Kri\u017eni put, Bleibur\u0161ki pokolj, Bleibur\u0161ki masakr, Zlo\u010din u Bleiburgu, Slu\u010daj Bleiburg ili jednostavno Bleiburg. Kriti\u010dari prigovaraju kori\u0161tenju takvih naziva jer povijesni izvori ne pokazuju da je na samom Bleibur\u0161kom polju bilo masovnih likvidacija. Kri\u017eni put je tako\u0111er naziv za mar\u0161eve smrti koji su uslijedili nakon predaje pora\u017eene vojske NDH na Bleiburgu.\n\nU literaturi na engleskom jeziku koristi se \u010desto termin \"Bleiburg repatriations\" (\"Bleibur\u0161ke repatrijacije\"), koji naj\u010de\u0161\u0107e uklju\u010duje dio doga\u0111aja koji je klju\u010dan za ulogu britanskih snaga i zapovjedni\u0161tava, a manje se bavi onim \u0161to je nakon predaje vojnika na Bleiburgu uslijedilo. U Sloveniji se doga\u0111aji iz svibnja 1945. nazivaju Vetrinjska tragedija, po slovenskom nazivu za austrijski gradi\u0107 Viktring gdje je bio smje\u0161ten jedan od zarobljeni\u010dkih logora pod upravom savezni\u010dkih snaga.\n\nPovijesne okolnosti\n\nSporazum iz Jalte \nNa Konferenciji u Jalti na sovjetskom poluotoku Krimu, 4. velja\u010de 1945. sastali su se Staljin, Roosevelt i Churchill - vo\u0111e najve\u0107ih savezni\u010dkih dr\u017eava antihitlerovske koalicije. Trebalo se dogovoriti o zavr\u0161etku rata i novoj karti poslijeratnog svijeta. Osim o sudbini Njema\u010dke i odluci da se svi raseljeni ljudi podrijetlom iz SSSR-a moraju vratiti ku\u0107i - uklju\u010duju\u0107i tu i one koji su se tijekom rata borili protiv SSSR-a. O stanovnicima podru\u010dja Jugoslavije koji su se borili na strani sila Osovine nije se u Jalti ni\u0161ta odlu\u010dilo, pa je u primjenu dolazila \u017denevska konvencija o postupanju s ratnim zarobljenicima iz 1929. god., koje su propisivale da ratne zarobljenika valja za\u0161tititi \"od djela nasilja\", te prema kojima povratak zarobljenika u zemlju iz koje su do\u0161li predstavlja pravo zarobljenika, a ne njegovu obvezu. \n\nStaljin i Churchill su se u pogledu Jugoslavije bili dogovorili da na tom prostoru utjecaj zapada i istoka bude pola-pola, tj. o nastavku procesa dogovaranja izme\u0111u jugoslavenskih komunista i gra\u0111anskih snaga koji je bio ozna\u010den Sporazumima Tito-\u0160uba\u0161i\u0107 iz 1944. godine. Me\u0111utim su Tito i Staljin vodili ra\u010duna, kako da onemogu\u0107e obnovu starog poretka u Jugoslaviji i uspostave ondje komunisti\u010dku vladavinu.\n\nJugokomunisti\u010dka masovna ubijanja na podru\u010djima stavljenima pod svoju kontrolu 1944. i 1945. godine \n\u010cim su u snage NOVJ stavile pod snagu podru\u010dja Srbije u rujnu 1944. god., zapo\u010dele su ondje s masovnim ubijanjem osoba ozna\u010denih kao \"neprijatelji\". Strijeljanjima izvan ratnih operacija likvidirano je ondje vi\u0161e desetaka tisu\u0107a ljudi.  Slu\u017ebeni Registar \u017ertava Komisije za tajne grobnice ubijenih posle 12. septembra 1944. pri Ministarstvu pravde Republike Srbije sadr\u017ei (stanje 6. kolovoz 2022.) podatke o 59.554 \u017ertava pobijenih od komunisti\u010dkih vlasti krajem 1944. i tijekom 1945. godine.\n\nUbijanja civila i ratnih zarobljenika uslijedila su tako\u0111er i na podru\u010djima NDH, kako su dolazila pod kontrolu jugoslavenskih komunisti\u010dkih snaga. Tako su u Zagrebu u svibnju 1945. god. pobijeni svi ranjeni i bolesni pripadnici osovinskih vojnika koji su se nalazili na lije\u010denju u bolnicama; popisano je do danas poimeni\u010dno 4.791 tih pobijenih ranjenika i bolesnika.\n\nSusret nadiru\u0107ih savezni\u010dkih snaga u Austriji \nPo\u010detkom travnja 1945. savezni\u010dke armije zapo\u010dele su svoj kona\u010dan masovni napad na njema\u010dke polo\u017eaje u sjevernoj Italiji. Feldmar\u0161al Harold Alexander, vrhovni savezni\u010dki zapovjednik na Sredozemlju hrabrio je svoje armije rije\u010dima: \"\u2026potreban je samo jedan sna\u017ean udarac da ih (Nijemce) se izbri\u0161e zauvijek. Do\u0161ao je tren da krenemo u posljednju bitku koja \u0107e dokraj\u010diti rat u Europi\u2026\". Taj sna\u017ean udarac zapo\u010deo je 9. travnja, kada je Osma armija generala Richarda McCeerya strahovito bombardirala utvr\u0111ene polo\u017eaje njema\u010dke Desete armije, \u010dije je desno krilo dodirivalo Jadran. General von Vietinghoff potpisao je 29. travnja predaju svih snaga pod svojim zapovjedni\u0161tvom, a taj je sporazum stupio na snagu 2. svibnja. Nakon predaje pora\u017eena vojska bje\u017ei prema Austriji. Istodobno napreduju prema Be\u010du i Sovjetske snage. Situaciju dodatno komplicira Tito koji je ve\u0107 u\u0161ao u austrijsku pokrajinu Koru\u0161ku. Sa zapada dolazi u taj dio Austrije britanska Osma armija na \u010dijem se \u010delu nalazio general Sir Richard McCreery. Osma armija bila je sastavljena od dva korpusa: Trinaesti korpus bio je u blizini Titove vojske, a Peti korpus, na \u010delu s generalom Charlesom Keightleyem, okupirao je ju\u017enu Austriju preko jugoslavenske granice na sjeveru.\n\nMasovni bijeg s istoka Europe \nU taj se kraj sljevalo mno\u0161tvo njema\u010dke vojske i Folksdoj\u010dera izbjeglih s istoka Europe, ali i vojne formacije njema\u010dke vojske sastavljene od pripadnika drugih naroda, te pripadnika vojnih formacija s podru\u010dja istoka i jugoistoka Europe koje su se borile na njema\u010dkoj strani. Svi su oni - uz borbe s vojnim formacijama koje su ih progonile - bje\u017eali pred Rusima i jugoslavenskim komunistima, te su jedinu nadu u spas vidjeli u predaji Britancima i Amerikancima.\n\nZavr\u0161ne ratne operacije u Jugoslaviji \n\nUklju\u010divanje pje\u0161adijskih snaga Crvene armije u Beogradsku ofenzivu kao i logisti\u010dka podr\u0161ka zapadnih saveznika dovele su do poja\u010danja partizaniskih ofenzivnih akcija. Do kraja 1944., uz pomo\u0107 Crvene armije, partizani su preuzeli kontrolu na podru\u010dju Srbije, sjeverne Makedonije, Crne Gore i Dalmacije. Njema\u010dke snage, zajedno s Nedi\u0107evcima, pripadnicima srpskih kvislin\u0161kih snaga odanih njema\u010dkom okupatoru, povla\u010dile su se iz Srbije. Wermacht i vojska NDH uspostavili su front u Srijemu kako bi omogu\u0107ili povla\u010denje Grupe E njema\u010dke vojske s Balkana. Nakon \u0161to su preuzeli kontrolu u Srbiji, partizani su po\u010dinili masovna ubojstva ratnih zarobljenika i civila etni\u010dkih Nijemaca - Folksdoj\u010dera. Komunisti\u010dko vodstvo usvojilo je politi\u010dku odluku o progonu iz zemlje njema\u010dke etni\u010dke manjine (\"Folksdoj\u010dera\") koju su smatrali suodgovornom za nacisti\u010dke zlo\u010dine, kao i odluku o konfiskaciji njihove cjelokupne imovine. Zbog toga je Njema\u010dka poku\u0161ala provesti evakuaciju ukupnog njema\u010dkog stanovni\u0161tva iz Jugoslavije u Reich, ali krajem 1944. bilo je jo\u0161 uvijek oko 150.000 Nijemaca u Vojvodini koju su kontrolirali partizani. Do svibnja 1945. ve\u0107ina njih je internirana u preko 40 koncentracijskih logora u regiji u kojima je umrlo oko 46.000 ljudi. \n\nU svibnju 1944. Tito osniva obavje\u0161tajnu slu\u017ebu koju naziva Odjeljenje za za\u0161titu naroda (OZN ili OZNA) koju je ustrojio po uzoru na sovjetski NKVD. OZNA je bila vojna obavje\u0161tajna slu\u017eba i politi\u010dki motivirana tajna policija Komunisti\u010dke partije. U kolovozu 1944. utemeljio je i vojnu postrojbu naziva Korpus narodne obrane Jugoslavije (KNOJ) \u010dija je izri\u010dita zada\u0107a bila sigurnost i za\u0161tita na oslobo\u0111enim teritorijima tj. \"likvidacija \u010detni\u010dkih, usta\u0161kih, bjelogardejskih i drugih antinarodnih bandi\u2026obezbe\u0111enje centralnih organa vlasti\u2026\u010ci\u0161\u0107enje tek oslobo\u0111enog teritorija\".\n\nKako je snaga partizana, koji su narodu pru\u017eali alternativu i za koje se \u010dinilo da rade vi\u0161e u nacionalnom interesu Hrvata, ja\u010dala i kako je raslo nezadovoljstvo s usta\u0161kim i nacisti\u010dkim vlastima, NDH je imala velike probleme prilikom mobilizacije dodatnih vojnih snaga. Kada je u kolovozu 1944 u NDH propao poku\u0161aj dr\u017eavnog prevrata, poznat pod imenom Urota Lorkovi\u0107-Voki\u0107, svi urotnici su uhi\u0107eni i pogubljeni. Njihovi vo\u0111e zagovarali su prelazak NDH na stranu Saveznika. Takva doga\u0111anja dodatno su demoralizirala vojsku NDH, a kako se rat nastavljao stopa dezertiranja je porasla, posebno me\u0111u domobranima, pripadnicima regularne vojske NDH.\n\n30. kolovoza 1944. Tito je ponudio amnestiju hrvatskim i slovenskim domobranima kao i \u010detnicima, ako dezertiraju i priklju\u010de se partizanima do 15. rujna 1944. Nakon 15. rujna, svima koji se nisu priklju\u010dili partizanima \"sudit \u0107e narod\". Na dan isteka ponude za amnestiju, Tito je naredio podre\u0111enima da nastave primati kasne prebjege. Sli\u010dni pozivi ponavljani su i nakon isteka krajnjeg roka prvog ultimatuma iako su poznati i slu\u010dajevi ubojstva hrvatskih domobrana i nakon \u0161to su prebjegli partizanima. Samo dan prije isteka roka Kralj Petar II Kara\u0111or\u0111evi\u0107 pozvao je \u010detnike da se stave pod zapovjedni\u0161tvo partizana nakon \u010dega se veliki broj \u010detnika doista priklju\u010dio partizanima.\n\nU studenom 1944. provedena je reorganizacija vojske NDH kada su pod imenom Hrvatske oru\u017eane snage objedinjeni usta\u0161e i domobrani objedinjeni u jedinstvenu vojsku. Paveli\u0107 je 13. sije\u010dnja 1945. naredio spajanje Hrvatskih domobrana i Usta\u0161ke vojnice i time stvorio jedinstvenu vojsku koja je brojala do 280.000 ljudi, ako se tu ura\u010dunaju i vojne postrojbe sastavljene uglavnom od hrvatskih vojnih obveznika, koje su kao dijelovi Wehrmactha, Njema\u010dke policije u NDH i SS-a bile pod izravnim njema\u010dkim zapovjedni\u0161tvom. Do tada su partizani zarobljene domobrane obi\u010dno ismijavali, poni\u017eavali i nakon toga pu\u0161tali ku\u0107ama ako se nisu htjeli priklju\u010diti revoluciji, ali to se preko no\u0107i promijenilo pa je njihovo zarobljavanje od po\u010detka 1945. zna\u010dilo gotovo sigurnu smrt.\n\nI neki \u010detnici, kao oni iz Dinarske \u010detni\u010dke divizije pod zapovjedni\u0161tvom Mom\u010dila \u0110uji\u0107a, nastavili su sura\u0111ivati sa snagama Osovine. \u0110uji\u0107eve postrojbe borile su se rame uz rame s njema\u010dkom vojskom i usta\u0161ama krajem 1944. u Bitci za Knin protiv partizanskog 8. dalmatinskog korpusa. Bitka je zavr\u0161ila pobjedom partizana, a Dinarska \u010detni\u010dka divizija po\u010dela se povla\u010diti u smjeru Slovenije. Paveli\u0107 je osobno izdao nare\u0111enje o slobodnom prolasku te zloglasne \u010detni\u010dke divizije kroz teritorij pod kontrolom NDH i dao im je precizne naredbe o smjeru kretanja. Kako je predvi\u0111eni smjer kretanja prolazio kroz teritorij pod partizanskom kontrolom, a i zbog toga \u0161to \u0110uji\u0107 nije vjerovao Paveli\u0107u zbog ranijih slu\u010daja ubojstva \u010detnika koji su prolazili kroz NDH od strane usta\u0161a, \u0110uji\u0107 se povla\u010dio alternativnom rutom u dogovoru s lokalnim zapovjednicima Wermachta.\n\nDo po\u010detka 1945. partizanski odredi su se ve\u0107 ujedinili u Jugoslavensku narodnu armiju \u010dijih je 800.000 boraca bilo organizirano u pet korpusa. Njihovo djelovanje bilo je usmjereno na proganjanje ostataka pora\u017eene Njema\u010dke i vojske NDH. U o\u017eujku 1945. 4. korpus JNA napredovao je kroz Liku, Primorje i Kvarner. Najve\u0107i dio Bosne i Hercegovine bio je u partizanskim rukama jo\u0161 od kraja travnja. 12. travnja 1945. napravljen je proboj na Srijemskom frontu \u0161to je ubrzalo povla\u010denje njema\u010dke vojske koja se povla\u010dila s Balkana jo\u0161 od listopada 1944. pa su 1. i 3. korpus JNA po\u010deli napredovati kroz Slavoniju prema zapadu. Pod kontrolom vlasti NDH bio je jo\u0161 samo sjeveroisto\u010dni dio Hrvatske s glavnim gradom Zagrebom. U Zagreb su se slijevale brojne izbjeglice iz svih krajeva NDH koja je bila u raspadu, dok su nadiru\u0107i Partizani provodili osvetu nad zarobljenim pripadnicima HOS-a, kao i nad tisu\u0107ama civila za koje su sumnjali da bi im mogli biti politi\u010dki protivnici. U toj situaciji, poput pripadnika drugih vojski osovine, ni usta\u0161e se nisu namjeravale predati Crvenoj armiji, ali ni jugoslavenskim partizanima - za pripadnike oru\u017eanih snaga NDH i njima sklone civile, predaja zapadnim saveznicima je bila zadnja nada za spas.\n\nPovla\u010denje pora\u017eenih vojski Osovine prema Austriji \nKolaps Srijemskog fronta u travnju 1945. ubrzao je povla\u010denje njema\u010dke vojske pred nadiru\u0107im snagama NOVJ i Crvene armije. Iz straha od odmazde ni usta\u0161e se nisu njima \u017eeljeli predati, ve\u0107 su kroz Sloveniju poku\u0161ali doprijeti do Slovensko-Austrijske granice kako bi se predali Britanskim snagama koje su napredovale sjeverno od Italije. Vlasti NDH planirale su, organizirale i provele masovni zbijeg naroda iako za to nije bilo strate\u0161kih razloga niti je uop\u0107e postojalo ciljno odredi\u0161te koje je bilo u stanju primiti toliki broj izbjeglica. Odluka Vlade NDH o povla\u010denju je donesena 3. svibnja.\n\nPojedinci iz vrha NDH, ali i slovenski kvislinzi, vjerovali su kako \u0107e zapadni Saveznici prihvatiti vojsku u bijegu kako bi im pomogla u borbi protiv komunista i podr\u017eati ih u ponovnom osvajanju vlasti u Hrvatskoj i Sloveniji. Slovenski biskup Gregorij Ro\u017eman molio je Saveznike da okupiraju Sloveniju kako bi sprije\u010dili komuniste da preuzmu vlast u dr\u017eavi. Vodstvo NDH 6. svibnja ukinulo je rasne zakone i poslalo Saveznicima zahtjeve za suradnjom, ali ti poku\u0161aji prelaska na pobjedni\u010dku stranu nisu urodili plodom. Iako je mogu\u0107e kako je vodstvo NDH organiziralo zbijeg civila kako bi potkrijepilo njihove tvrdnje da partizani ubijaju nevine civile, sam broj civila koji se priklju\u010dio zbijegu je usporio povla\u010denje i onemogu\u0107io samu predaju vojske Saveznicima. Ve\u0107ina civila prema izvje\u0161tajima iz tog vremena su ili imali antikomunisti\u010dki svjetonazor ili su se pribojavali komunisti\u010dke osvete. Neki povjesni\u010dari smatraju da je veliki broj civila uklju\u010den u operaciju povla\u010denja kako bi se formirao ljudski \u017eivi \u0161tit koji bi omogu\u0107io usporavanje jugoslavenskog napredovanja i izvla\u010denje dr\u017eavnog vrha na vrijeme.\n\nVlada NDH pobjegla je iz Zagreba 6. svibnja 1945. i do\u0161la nadomak Klagenfurta u Austriji 7 svibnja. Paveli\u0107 je s vojnim vrhom napustio Zapre\u0161i\u0107 7. svibnja u ve\u010dernjim satima s namjerom da se pridru\u017ei ostatku vrha NDH u Austriji. Ve\u0107ina vojnog vrha NDH uspjela je pobje\u0107i prvo u Zapadnu Europu pa onda u Latinsku Ameriku dok su partizani uspjeli zarobiti samo jedan mali dio vi\u0161ih \u010dasnika vojske NDH.\n\nPredaja na Bleibur\u0161kom polju \n\nSjedi\u0161te brigadira Scotta, zapovjednika britanske 38. pje\u0161a\u010dke brigade, bilo je tada u Bleibur\u0161kom zamku, smje\u0161tenom na brijegu koji dominira cijelim gradi\u0107em Bleiburgom.\n\nBli\u017ee gradi\u0107a nalazi se prostrano otvoreno polje ome\u0111eno niskim \u0161umovitim bre\u017euljcima.\n\nPrema tom polju prilazilo je mno\u0161tvo ljudi, njih sad znatno vi\u0161e od sto tisu\u0107a. Ve\u0107inu tih ljudi \u010dinile su hrvatske trupe i civili, koji su kod Dravograda pre\u0161li granicu u nadi da \u0107e mo\u0107i nastaviti dalje na zapad, do Klagenfurta.\n\nNo, sad su im se na tom putu isprije\u010dile trupe brigadira Scotta, dok su se broj\u010dano jake skupine Titovih partizana raspr\u0161ile po \u0161umama i zauzele prijete\u0107e, iako jo\u0161 ne i aktivne borbene polo\u017eaje. Hrvatske su trupe bile naoru\u017eane, a britanski stav je bio nepoznat. Brigadir Scott je zatra\u017eio daljnje upute: \u00bb\u2026Tra\u017eimo da Osma armija hitno odlu\u010di ho\u0107emo li prihvatiti predaju tih snaga ili \u0107emo zahtijevati njihov povratak u Jugoslaviju\u2026\u00bb\n\nScott ubrzo dobiva odgovor i na temelju njega izdaje naredbu za izru\u010denje \u201cJugoslavena\u201c. Skupina vi\u0161ih hrvatskih generala krenula je u pratnji Britanaca na sastanak sa Scottom u Bleibur\u0161ki dvorac. Scott je u dvorcu primio i vo\u0111u partizanskih gonitelja, komesara Milana Bastu (\u00abodlu\u010dnog mladi\u0107a u ranim dvadesetim godinama \u017eeljnog borbe s lo\u0161e naoru\u017eanim i demoraliziranim Hrvatima\u00bb - prisje\u0107ao se Scott). \n\nScott je uspio nagovoriti Bastu kako je najprihvatljivije da uvjeri Hrvate neka odlo\u017ee oru\u017eje i dobrovoljno se predaju. Sljede\u0107i je razgovor Scott vodio s hrvatskim zapovjednikom, generalom Heren\u010di\u0107em, kojeg su Scott i Basta uspjeli prisiliti da prihvati bezuvjetnu predaju (u kojoj vojnici kojima zapovijeda Heren\u010di\u0107 ipak dobivaju status ratnih zarobljenika, koje se ne smije mu\u010diti ni ubijati), premda su Britanci sumnjali da \u0107e se sve rije\u0161iti pravedno kako je i obe\u0107ano.Basta je pregovore zaklju\u010dio ovim rije\u010dima: \u00bbZahtijevamo bezuvjetnu predaju cijele vojske za jedan sat. Ako prihvatite, \u017eene i djeca mogu se vratiti svojim ku\u0107ama. Vojnici i \u010dasnici ostat \u0107e ratni zarobljenici, te \u0107emo ih povesti u Maribor gdje \u0107e im se suditi. Ako ne prihvatite uvjete za petnaest minuta, zapo\u010deti \u0107e op\u0107i napad i vi se ne\u0107ete imati pravo pozivati na me\u0111unarodne konvencije Crvenog kri\u017ea.\u00bb Bitno je napomenuti kako su se pregovori u Bleibur\u0161kom dvorcu odvijali samo usmeno. Nije vo\u0111en nikakav zapisnik niti je potpisan bilo kakav dokument. General Basta uvjerava brigadira Scotta da \u0107e se sa svima koji se vrate u Jugoslaviju postupati ljudski i da se Hrvati nemaju \u010dega bojati.\n\nMakar se Heren\u010di\u0107u ta objava ultimatuma \u010dinila cini\u010dnom prijevarom, ocijeniv\u0161i da nema izbora, Heren\u010di\u0107 je kapitulirao. Heren\u010di\u0107 nare\u0111uje svojim trupama da bace oru\u017eje; sam uspijeva pobje\u0107i dublje u Austriju, i potom u Italiju.\n\nNakon predaje, vojnici i civili vra\u0107eni su na podru\u010dje Jugoslavije. Druge grupe HOS-a, slovenskih domobrana, te srpskih i crnogorskih \u010detnika predavale su se na podru\u010dju Koru\u0161ke tijekom prethodnih dana, a neke manje grupe i nakon 15. svibnja. Jugoslavenska armija je bila prisutna na podru\u010dju austrijske pokrajine Koru\u0161ke do 24. svibnja. Mnogi zarobljeni Hrvati, Slovenci, Crnogorci i Srbi, koji su se prethodnih dana bili predali Britancima ili Amerikancima, bili su smje\u0161teni u zarobljeni\u010dkim logorima u Koru\u0161koj ili u Italiji; ve\u0107ina njih predana je Jugoslaviji, tj. komunisti\u010dkoj vlasti.\n\nObra\u010dun s vojnicima koji su odbili predaju \nFranci Strle, slovenski partizan, novinar te vi\u0111eniji slovenski autor knjiga partizanske tematike u desetlje\u0107ima komunisti\u010dke vladavine, opisuje doga\u0111aje na Bleiburgu u svojoj knjizi \"Veliko finale u Koru\u0161koj\" iz 1977. god. Me\u0111u ostalim, Strle prenosi opis doga\u0111aja u kojem dio opkoljene vojske, pripadnika snaga Osovine, koji su se u velikoj masi nalazili ispod bre\u017euljaka koje su zaposjeli partizani, nisu u roku od 20 minuta koji su im ostavili Britanci istaknuli bijele zastave. Na njih je prema iskazima u Strleovoj knjizi otvorena vatra iz mitraljeza vatra u trajanju od 15 do 20 minuta. Podatke o broju \u017ertava tog masakra Strle ne iznosi. \n\nU knjizi Strle prenosi sadr\u017eaj intervja kojega je u pripremi knjige napravio (i o tome 1974. god. sa\u010dinio magnetofonski zapis) s generalom JNA Mi\u0107om Do\u0161enovi\u0107em, koji je u svibnju 1945. bio na\u010delnik \u0161taba 14. (slovenske) udarne divizije JA, \u010diji se jedan bataljun na\u0161ao na Bleiburgu (\"odbor 14. udarne divizije\" je pokrovitelj objavljivanja te Strletove knjige iz 1977. god.): \n\n\"Na pitanje mo\u017ee li se pucanje na usta\u0161ku kolonu shvatiti kao topni\u010dku pripravu, kako se navodi u knjizi 'Zavr\u0161ne operacije za oslobo\u0111enje Jugoslavije 1944. do 1945.' nasmijao se podrugljivo. 'Bo\u017ee sa\u010duvaj!', \u017eestoko je rekao. 'Nikakve topni\u010dke priprave nije bilo, nikakve. Taj masakr, da ga tako nazovem, u\u010dinili su pu\u0161komitraljezi \u0161arci. Nagla\u0161avam da smo imali idealne polo\u017eaje i malu udaljenost, a pred sobom gomilu. To nije bio borbeni raspored, to je bila gomila zbijenog ljudstva na cesti i blizu cesti, vozilo do vozila i \u010dovjek do \u010dovjeka ...\" \n\nPartizan Jo\u017ee Petrov\u010di\u0107 (kurir u \u0161tabu 14. divizije, koji se vozio uz \u010dasnike JA koji su sudjelovali u pregovorima i naredili otvaranje vatre na \"neprijatelja\") tako\u0111er govori o mitraljeskoj vatri koja je otvorena jer nisu sve postrojbe na Bleibur\u0161kom polju bile izvjesile bijele zastave to\u010dno u od Britanaca zakazanom (kratkom, 20 minuta) vremenu, i iznosi da se \"usta\u0161e\" nisu uop\u0107e branili. Mitraljeska vatra da je trajala \u010ditavih petnaest do dvadeset minuta, nakon \u010dega je glavnina \"usta\u0161a\" istaknula bijele zastave i predala se. Podatak o broju pobijenih u mitraljeskom masakru, F. Strle nije uspio pribaviti.\n\nKri\u017eni put \nMasovne likvidacije izvr\u0161ene su kod Maribora, Celja, Ko\u010devja i drugdje u Sloveniji, a u Hrvatskoj u okolici Krapine, Samobora, Karlovca, Siska, Bjelovara i drugdje. Znatan broj ljudi pomro je od iscrpljenosti i zaraznih bolesti u raznim logorima koje su osnovale komunisti\u010dke vlasti. Masovno stradanje trajalo je od svibnja do kolovoza 1945. godine. Op\u0107a amnestija progla\u0161ena je 3. kolovoza 1945., ali je ubijanja (iako u manjem obimu) bilo i kasnije. Postoje vrlo razli\u010dite procjene broja ubijenih tako da na primjer Hrvatska enciklopedija navodi brojeve od 45.000 do 200.000; Hrvatski obiteljski leksikon od istog izdava\u010da iz 2005. godine govori o nekoliko desetaka tisu\u0107a ubijenih. Najvjerojatniji broj Hrvata koje su pobile snage Jugoslavenske armije, prema stanju istra\u017eivanja 2007., je oko 60.000; daljnjih oko 20.000 je iz redova pripadnika drugih naroda - prvenstveno Slovenaca, Srba i Nijemaca.\n\nOdgovornost Josipa Broza Tita \n\nPitanje odgovornosti Josipa Broza Tita - koji je u vrijeme ovih zlo\u010dina dr\u017eao \u010dvrstu kontrolu nad svim vojnim snagama koje su izvr\u0161ile pokolje - ostaje do danas kontroverzno pitanje u javnom mnijenju: naposljetku do danas (2014. god.) sredi\u0161nji trgovi i najzna\u010dajnije ulice u mnogim hrvatskim gradovima nose njegovo ime. Kako su tijekom jugoslavenske komunisti\u010dke vladavine op\u0107enito skrivani dokazi o Bleiburgu i pokoljima koji su nakon njega uslijedili, tako tada\u0161nja historiografija ba\u0161 ni\u0161ta nije rekla niti o ulozi Josipa Broza Tita u uspostavi brojnih strati\u0161ta za na Bleiburgu i drugim obli\u017enjim mjestima zarobljene vojnike pora\u017eenih vojski i civile koji su ih slijedili na putu prema zapadu: naprosto jugoslavenski histori\u010dari uop\u0107e nisu spominjali bilo koji zlo\u010din kojega su tijekom rata i u pora\u0107u skrivili partizani, Jugoslavenska armija ili bilo koja organizacija jugoslavenske vlasti. U propagandi jugoslavenskog re\u017eima, prikazivalo se da je on nastao na moralno besprijekoran na\u010din, i da njegovo djelovanje nije okaljano ba\u0161 nikakvim moralnim negativnostima. Neki od autora skloni J. B. Titu priznaju danas zlo\u010dine, ali nalaze \"dobre razloge\" da se pristupi masovnom ubijanju: naime da je postojala \"opasnost\" da vojne snage NDH prije\u0111u na stranu zapadnih saveznika, \u010dime bi bila ugro\u017eena obnova Jugoslavije i uspostava komunisti\u010dke vladavine. \n\nVladimir Geiger u vi\u0161e znanstvenih radova ukazuje na Josipa Broza Tita kao naredbodavca zlo\u010dina. Neki drugi autori analiziraju iskaze o\u010devidaca i literaturu iz \"partizanskih\" izvora koji smje\u0161taju Josipa Broza Tita (koji se prema dnevnim izvje\u0161tajima iz \"Vjesnika\" nije u vrijeme pokolja nalazio u Beogradu, nego je obilazio gradove i vojne postrojbe na podru\u010dju sjeverozapada Hrvatske i Slovenije) izravno na strati\u0161ta i u aktivnosti usmjerene na ubijanje tisu\u0107a vojnih i civilnih zarobljenika.\n\nDa je Josip Broz Tito nalo\u017eio ubijanja, iznosi i Simo Dubaji\u0107, major Jugoslavenske armije koji je neposredno organizirao ubijanje barem 23.000 zarobljenika u pokolju na Ko\u010devskom Rogu, te koji je o nizu zlo\u010dina koje je po\u010dinio krajem II. svjetskog rata otvoreno progovorio u svojoj knjizi \"\u017divot, grijeh i kajanje\" iz 2006. godine, a potom i u vi\u0161e intervjua za TV i pisane medije.\n\nTito je 26. svibnja 1945. u govoru pred gra\u0111anstvom okupljenima na Kongresnom trgu u Ljubljani prili\u010dno jasno poru\u010dio: \u201e\u0160to se ti\u010de onih izdajnika koji su se na\u0161li unutar na\u0161e zemlje, u svakom narodu posebice \u2013 to je stvar pro\u0161losti. Ruka pravde, ruka osvetnica na\u0161eg naroda dostigla ih je golemu ve\u0107inu, a samo jedan mali dio uspio je pobje\u0107i pod krilo pokrovitelja izvan na\u0161e zemlje. Ta manjina vi\u0161e nikad ne\u0107e gledati na\u0161e divne planine, na\u0161a rascvjetala polja. Ako bi se to ipak dogodilo, trajat \u0107e kratko.\u201c\n\nDominik Vuleti\u0107 u radu \u201cKazenopravni i povijesni aspekti bleibur\u0161kog zlo\u010dina\u201c pi\u0161e: \u201cOdgovornost zapovjednika i ostalih najodgovornijih \u010dasnika na terenu poput Baste, Ostoji\u0107a ili Dubaji\u0107a nikako se ne smije promatrati izolirano. Oni su bili kota\u010di u velikom represivnom stroju jugoslavenskoga komunisti\u010dkog aparata. Pritom nisu postupali na svoju ruku, bez obzira na to \u0161to su neki od njih poput Baste imali dosta prostora za autonomiju, ve\u0107 su izvr\u0161avali nare\u0111enja i slijedili op\u0107i re\u017eimski smjer najokrutnijeg obra\u010duna s neprijateljem... Organizacija koja je bila zadu\u017eena u najve\u0107oj mjeri za provo\u0111enje totalitarne i represivne politike jest OZNA odnosno Odjeljenje za za\u0161titu naroda. Ta organizacija bila je glavni nositelj i provoditelj zlo\u010dina. OZNA je osnovana odlukom Josipa Broza Tita od 13. svibnja 1944. god. Vrlo brzo stvorena je \u0161iroka mre\u017ea suradnika OZNE sa svim jugoslavenskim postrojbama. Pritom se oslanjalo na vojno ustrojstvo jugoslavenskih snaga gdje je svaka jedinica uz redovnoga vojnog zapovjednika imala i politi\u010dkog komesara. Takvo ustrojstvo preneseno je iz Staljinova modela reorganizacije Crvene armije tridesetih godina... Na \u010delu OZNE nalazio se na\u010delnik koji je bio sve od njezina utemeljenja Aleksandar Rankovi\u0107... Rankovi\u0107 u funkciji na\u010delnika OZNE izravno je podre\u0111en Josipu Brozu Titu i izme\u0111u njih nema posrednika. Govore\u0107i o odgovornosti samog Josipa Broza treba spomenuti da je on u vrijeme bleibur\u0161kih doga\u0111aja te mar\u0161eva smrti koji su uslijedili bio predsjednik Vlade (DFJ), ministar obrane u toj Vladi, generalni sekretar partije (KPJ) te vrhovni zapovjednik svih jugoslavenskih oru\u017eanih snaga (prvo NOVJ a poslije Jugoslavenske armije), dakle de facto i de iure imao je kontrolu nad svim snagama te je bio najodgovornija osoba u zemlji. Jugoslavenske snage koje su sudjelovale u bleibur\u0161kim doga\u0111ajima postupale su po Titovim nare\u0111enjima i bile su pod njegovom kontrolom... O postojanju te kontrole svjedo\u010di i stalna komunikacija izme\u0111u Josipa Broza i zapovjednika III. jugoslavenske armije Koste Na\u0111a... 51. divizija, postrojba koja se na\u0161la u Bleiburgu dio je III. armije... 51. divizija i Milan Basta zajedno s cijelom III. jugoslavenskom armijom dobili su 17. i 18. svibnja nakon izvr\u0161enja bleibur\u0161kih zlo\u010dina i sprovo\u0111enja izru\u010denih vojnika i civila natrag u Sloveniju od samog Tita nove vojne zadatke (jer je bila rije\u010d o najisturenijim jugoslavenskim postrojbama) glede napetosti sa zapadnim saveznicima te su ih odmah izvr\u0161ile. Dakle, ne mo\u017ee biti sumnje da je Josip Broz Tito imao punu efektivnu kontrolu nad postrojbama koje su sudjelovale u zlo\u010dinima.\u201c\n\nOdgovornost Paveli\u0107a i usta\u0161a \nNeki zapadni povjesni\u010dari pi\u0161u da, pored komunisti\u010dkih jugoslavenskih vlasti, Paveli\u0107 i usta\u0161e tako\u0111er snose odgovornost za Bleiburg. Tako npr. \u0161vicarski povjesni\u010dar Michael Portmann pi\u0161e: \u201cOdgovornost za Bleiburg u velikoj mjeri le\u017ei na Paveli\u0107u i samom usta\u0161kom re\u017eimu: krvavi usta\u0161ki teror nad srpskim stanovni\u0161tvom (prisilni prijelazi, protjerivanja i masovna ubijanja), odlu\u010dno savezni\u0161tvo hrvatske dr\u017eave s nacisti\u010dkom Njema\u010dkom i \u2013 posljednje ali ne i najmanje va\u017eno \u2013 kao razloge za doista brutalnu partizansku odmazdu potrebno je navesti naredbu Paveli\u0107a da se ne preda, nego da se u borbi povu\u010de do austrijske granice\". \n\nTomasevich pak ocjenjuje: \"Sada moramo postaviti stvarno fundamentalno pitanje, tj. tko je odgovoran za Bleiburg... O problemu Bleiburga o\u010dito se ne mo\u017ee raspravljati izdvojeno, kao \u0161to to usta\u0161ki i prousta\u0161ki pisci redovno \u010dine. On je tijesno povezan s uspostavom i op\u0107om politikom NDH, s usta\u0161kim terorom usmjerenim protiv srpskoga stanovni\u0161tva, s odlu\u010dnim savezom NDH s nacisti\u010dkom Njema\u010dkom i sa zavr\u0161nim nastojanjima usta\u0161a da pobjegnu i da se pove\u017eu sa Zapadom protiv komunista. Stoga moramo zaklju\u010diti da je odgovornost za Bleiburg kolektivna odgovornost Paveli\u0107a i usta\u0161koga re\u017eima.\" Tomasevich dodaje, o odgovornosti koja stoji na jugoslavenskom komunisti\u010dkom vodstvu: \"Uni\u0161tenje ve\u0107ega dijela kvislin\u0161kih snaga zarobljenih na kraju rata - \u0161to je \u010dinjenica - bio je \u010din masovnoga terora i realizacija okrutne politi\u010dke kon\u00adcepcije, sli\u010dnog onome koji su prakticirale usta\u0161e i \u010detnici tijekom rata.\" Ivo Goldstein pak navodi da je razlika u tome \u0161to su usta\u0161e po\u010dinile genocide, u kojima su masovno ubijani \u017eene, djeca i stariji ljudi, po \u201cgrijehu\u201d ro\u0111enja u drugoj vjeri ili nacionalnosti. Po drugoj strani Bleiburg je bio ratni zlo\u010din ubijanja gotovo isklju\u010divo razoru\u017eanih zarobljenika pora\u017eenih neprijateljskih vojski koje su \u010detiri godine ratovale na strani nacista i fa\u0161ista. \"To nimalo ne anulira zlo\u010din Bleiburga, ali ga \u010dini ipak razli\u010ditim od Jasenovca\".\n\nKontroverze oko uloge savezni\u010dkih vojski u izru\u010denju ratnih zarobljenika vojsci NOVJ \nOkolnosti britanskog izru\u010divanja \u017ertava kod Bleiburga jugoslavenskim po\u010diniteljima dugo su predstavljale dobro \u010duvanu tajnu, o \u010dijim neugodnim detaljima najinformiraniji sudionici trajno \u0161ute, a dokumentacija - makar je rije\u010d o akciji koja uklju\u010duje veliki broj vojnih postrojbi, koje su na dnevnoj bazi stvarale mnogo dokumentacije o vojnim zadatcima, o kretanju postrojbi, o vojnicima, o raspolaganju streljivom, gorivom, hranom i drugim sredstvima i drugim aspektima svojeg djelovanja - je izrazito manjkava. Historiografija me\u0111utim prepoznaje da su se u zbivanjima 1945. na prostoru Austrije dogodile 'dvije kobne pogre\u0161ke' - izru\u010divanje Kozaka Crvenoj armiji, te istovremeno izru\u010divanje \"Jugoslavena\" snagama JA koje su notorno ubijale zarobljene \"kvislinge\". Obje 'kobne pogre\u0161ke' vezane su uz istu osobu, Harolda Macmillana, tada\u0161njeg opunomo\u0107enog ministra pri glavnom \u0161tabu savezni\u010dkih snaga (kasnije promoviran u lorda Stocktona; Macmillan je 1957. godine postao premijerom Velike Britanije).\n\nPrema istra\u017eivanju grofa Tolstoja, bitnu ulogu u provo\u0111enju odluke o izru\u010denju odigrao je Harold Macmillan, tada\u0161nji britanski ministar za Sredozemlje pri glavnom \u0161tabu savezni\u010dkih snaga, kojeg je na to mjesto 1942. god. postavio Winston Churchill. O va\u017enosti te svoje slu\u017ebe Macmillan kasnije govori:\n\nMacmillan, kako se bli\u017eilo prolje\u0107e 1945. godine, postaje sve vi\u0161e zaokupljen problemom odnosa s novim re\u017eimom mar\u0161ala Tita u Jugoslaviji. \u010cetvrtog je svibnja zabilje\u017eio u svoj dnevnik da se \u00abnaglo razvija nova glavobolja - Jugoslavenske armije prodiru u Julijsku krajinu i Austriju - u \u017eestokoj utrci s Osmom armijom\u00bb. Macmillan je bio iskusan politi\u010dki savjetnik War Officea (Britansko ministarstvo rata), te \u010dovjek u izravnom dodiru s premijerom, kabinetom i Foreign Officeom (Britansko ministarstvo vanjskih poslova).\n\nPrije bleibur\u0161ke krize, britanske su snage su prihva\u0107ale predaju manjih vojnih postrojbi koje su dolazile s jugoslavenskog podru\u010dja, a britanski su stra\u017eari sprje\u010davali partizane u njihovim poku\u0161ajima da se dokopaju Hrvata. No, od 15. svibnja nadalje, politika britanskog 5. korpusa prema zarobljenim Hrvatima drasti\u010dno se promijenila. Politika po\u0161tovanja ratnih zakona pretvorila se u politiku suradnje i podr\u0161ke komunisti\u010dkom re\u017eimu.\n\nZaokret je po\u010deo 13. svibnja kada je Harold Macmillan stigao u Glavni sto\u017eer Petog korpusa britanske Osme armije. Macmillan je prije toga 12.svibnja otputovao u sjeveroisto\u010dnu Italiju, u sjedi\u0161te Osme armije, kako bi se s generalom McCreeryjem konzultirao o sve lo\u0161ijim odnosima s Titom. Namjera mu je, navodno, bila obavijestiti McCreeryja o politi\u010dkoj situaciji, te od stru\u010dnjaka na licu mjesta dobiti vojnu procjenu situacije.\n\nU tom trenutku nastaje preokret u Macmillanovu planu. Umjesto da je, kao \u0161to je bilo predvi\u0111eno, otputovao u Napulj, on iznenada avionom dolazi u Austriju. Tamo je proveo dva sata u razgovoru s Keightleyem i suradnicima. Taj susret poznat je pod nazivom Klagenfurtska zavjera. \u0160to se dogodilo na tom sastanku, mo\u017ee se zaklju\u010diti samo iz doga\u0111aja koji su uslijedili, jer Macmillan nikada nije otkrio razloge iznenadne promjene plana glede puta, kao ni teme diskusija koje su vo\u0111ene s Petim korpusom. Prije Macmillanova dolaska zapisi ukazuju da Peti korpus nije imao ni namjeru, ni \u017eelju bilo koga predati. Po povratku u Napulj 14.svibnja Macmillan je uspio uvjeriti Alexanderovog izvr\u0161nog administrativnog \u010dasnika generala Robertsona da izda zapovijed o repatrijaciji Jugoslavenskih dr\u017eavljana jugoslavenskim a Kozaka sovjetskim komunistima.\n\nOdluka Amerikanaca i Britanaca da predaju zarobljenike komunisti\u010dkim saveznicima \nKasno te no\u0107i 14. svibnja ameri\u010dki politi\u010dki savjetnik Kirk - nakon konzultacija s MacMillanom - poslao je svom Ministarstvu u Washington izvje\u0161taj sljede\u0107eg sadr\u017eaja:\n\nRobertson je zapovijed zaklju\u010dio uputom:\n\nKopije zapovijedi poslane su \u0161efu Glavnog sto\u017eera, generalu Morganu, koji je upravo krenuo na du\u017eu misiju u sjevernu Italiju i Austriju.\n\nKirk nije znao da je tog popodneva (14. svibnja) u 14:30 general Robertson ve\u0107 odaslao zapovijed (FX 75383) Petom korpusu, odnosno Keightleyu da se 'Rusi' tj. Kozaci \u0161to hitnije predaju Staljinovim snagama. Ni jedna kopija te zapovijedi nije poslana na znanje Kirku, \u0161to zna\u010di da je cijela akcija provedena bez ameri\u010dkog pristanka. Ta je zapovijed slu\u017eila kao temelj \u010dasnicima Petog korpusa za izvr\u0161enje repatrijacije zarobljenika i izbjeglica, koje su se provodile tijekom cijele druge polovice svibnja. \n\nState Department nala\u017ee Kirku 16. svibnja da ulo\u017ei slu\u017ebeni protest AFHQ-u. Od Glavnog je sto\u017eera, Alexander tra\u017eio daljnje upute i pomo\u0107 pri \u00abkona\u010dnom ra\u0161\u010di\u0161\u0107avanju prenatrpanog ljudstva u ju\u017enoj Austriji. Hitno tra\u017eimo uputstva za kona\u010dno razmje\u0161tanje Jugoslavena i Kozaka. Ako bi ih se vratilo u zemlju podrijetla ,bilo bi fatalno za njihovu dobrobit\u2026\u00bb Ministarstva vanjskih poslova Amerike i Velike Britanije potom se usugla\u0161uju da je najbolje da postrojbe koje se \u017eele predati britanskim i ameri\u010dkim snagama budu razoru\u017eane i poslane u logore u sjevernoj Italiji u kojima \u0107e biti podvrgnuti ispitivanjima. Sukladno tom stavu, upravo je sam Alexander 17.svibnja izdao zapovijed, poznata jo\u0161 pod nazivom 'Distone zapovijed' kojom se nala\u017ee smje\u0161tanje \u010detnika i drugih jugoslavenskih zarobljenika i 'disidenata' iz Austrije u kampove u sjevernoj Italiji, kod Distonea, naravno ako se oni ne \u017eele sami predati 'svojim' vlastima, tj. Titu. Kirk je smatrao da je sada sve rije\u0161eno i da je sve u skladu s odlukama, te da ne postoji mogu\u0107nost repatrijacije bjegunaca. Stoga on 18.svibnja javlja ameri\u010dkom Ministarstvu vanjskih poslova da je Alexander izdao zapovijed koja je zamijenila Robertsonovu, te da jugoslavenski zarobljenici vi\u0161e nisu ugro\u017eeni.\n\nNo ameri\u010dki politi\u010dki savjetnik je prevaren. Tek nakon dva mjeseca Kirk \u0107e otkriti da su zarobljenici ve\u0107 16. svibnja 1945. godine predani Titovim snagama.\n\nU me\u0111uvremenu se u Sloveniji provode masovni pokolji Hrvata, a oni koji tek sti\u017eu upu\u0107eni su \u0160estom odredu specijalnih snaga, posebnoj postrojbi koja je bila sposobna ispuniti osjetljive i tajne zadatke koji \u0107e ostati nepoznati uobi\u010dajenoj vojnoj liniji zapovijedanja. Jedinica je bila stacionirana na austrijsko-jugoslavenskoj granici, te je osigurala suradnju u predaji zarobljenika snagama JA na na\u010din da regularne britanske snage ni\u0161ta ne doznaju o pokoljima. Umjesto u Italiju, zarobljenici su se slali Titovim trupama koje su potom preuzele 'po\u0161iljku'. Za transport, kao i za sporazum s Ivanovi\u0107em bio je zadu\u017een brigadir Toby Low (kasnije proizveden za lorda Aldingtona).\n\nKada je 21. svibnja general McCreery zatra\u017eio obja\u0161njenje je li Robertsonova zapovijed u skladu s politikom Glavnog sto\u017eera, feldmar\u0161al Alexander po prvi puta - tako proizlazi iz slu\u017ebene korespondencije - doznaje za njezino postojanje. Iz toga bi proizlazilo da su MacMillan i general Robertson na svoju ruku donijeli zapovijed kojom su Petom korpusu nala\u017ee da izru\u010di jugoslavenske zarobljenike Titovim partizanima i Kozake Staljinu, usprkos tome \u0161to su upute koje je MacMillan dobio od vlada Velike Britanije i Sjedinjenih Dr\u017eava] izri\u010dito zabranjivale takvo postupanje. Me\u0111utim je rasvjetljavanje doga\u0111aja jako ote\u017eano, jer je \u010ditav arhiv MacMillanovog ureda u Glavnom \u0161tabu savezni\u010dkih snaga (AFHQ) nestao pod nerazja\u0161njenim okolnostima.\n\nStatus predanih Hrvata prema me\u0111unarodnom ratnom pravu \nU zapovijedi generala Robertsona, napisano je bilo sljede\u0107e: \u00bbSvi predani vojnici jugoslavenske nacionalnosti, koji su slu\u017eili njema\u010dku vojsku, trebaju se razoru\u017eati i predati jugoslavenskim postrojbama\u00bb. Priznata interpretacija \u017denevske konvencije je da uniforma odre\u0111uje nacionalnu pripadnost. Ako su Hrvati smatrani pripadnicima njema\u010dke vojske - a neporecivo je da je bilo i takvih Hrvata koji su slu\u017eili u postrojbama njema\u010dke vojske poput 369. divizije Wehrmachta, onda su trebali biti i tretirani kao njema\u010dki ratni zarobljenici. Me\u0111utim, Aldington nije poku\u0161ao saznati dr\u017eavnu pripadnost ili status nijedne ruske i jugoslavenske zarobljene \u010dete.\n\nCivili su imali status izbjeglica, civila kojima treba pru\u017eiti za\u0161titu od progonitelja. Britanci za\u0161titu izbjeglicama s Bleiburga nisu pru\u017eili.\n\nZa vrijeme su\u0111enja povjesni\u010daru Nikolaju Tolstoju 1989. u Londonu, lord Aldington i njegov suradnik iz 5. korpusa 1945. godine, brigadir Tryon-Wilson, opravdavali su se Tyron-Wilsonovom tvrdnjom da su ubijeni civili bili tretirani kao simpatizeri tada\u0161nje hrvatske vojske. Namjera te tvrdnje bila je opravdati uklju\u010denje civila me\u0111u vojnike NDH koji su bili izru\u010deni Titovim \u010detama, iako civili nisu bili spomenuti u zapovijedi koju je navodno 5. korpus izvr\u0161io. Iako je taj plan Aldingtonu slu\u017eio za ostvarenje cilja u to vrijeme, u stvarnosti samo je pogor\u0161ao prekr\u0161aj me\u0111unarodnog prava. \u010clanak 81. u \u017denevskoj konvenciji 1929. g. govori o tome da i civili koji su simpatizeri odre\u0111ene vojske imaju pravo biti tretirani kao ratni zarobljenici.\n\nHrvatska stradanja u brojkama \n\nTu\u0111man citira savezni\u010dke izvje\u0161taje po kojima je novim vlastima s Bleiburga i iz ostalih dijelova Austrije do 1. lipnja 1945 sveukupno izru\u010deno 26.399 pripadnika \u201cjugoslavenskih kvislin\u0161kih postrojbi\u201d (kasnije se taj broj pove\u0107ao na 29.792 zarobljenika), od tih 12.196 Hrvata, 5.480 Srba, 8.263 Slovenaca, te 400 Crnogoraca. Kosta Na\u0111, zapovjednik 3. armije, koja je vodila sve bitke na austrijskoj granici, navodi da je bilo ukupno 109.000 zarobljenika, od \u010dega 40.000 usta\u0161a i domobrana. Ivan Dolni\u010dar, koji je 1945. bio poli\u010dki komesar jedne slovenske brigade, u slu\u017ebenom glasilu KPJ \"Borba\" 1949. god., u kojemu se citira Saop\u0161tenje Ministarstva unutra\u0161njih poslova FNRJ iz iste godine: prema tom izvoruu, u operacijama na kraju rata je bilo \"zarobljeno 341.405 neprijateljskih vojnika, od kojih je: '221.287 okupatorskih vojnika\u2026 i 120.150 kvislin\u0161kih vojnika'. Grahek-Ravan\u010di\u0107 pi\u0161e kako Dolni\u010darove tvrdnje nisu potvr\u0111ene u dokumentima.Prema izvje\u0161\u0107u opunomo\u0107enika OZNA-e Dimitrija Georgijevi\u0107a na\u010delniku te slu\u017ebe zamjeniku mar\u0161ala Tita Aleksandru Rankovi\u0107u od 12. srpnja 1945. godine, u tada uspostavljenim logorima u Jugoslaviji bilo je vrlo mnogo zarobljenih vojnika pora\u017eenih vojski, me\u0111u kojima bilo 81 tisu\u0107a Nijemaca, po ne\u0161to manje od tisu\u0107u Austrijanaca i Ma\u0111ara, 12 tisu\u0107a Talijana, oko 500 \u010detnika i oko 20 tisu\u0107a Hrvata - usta\u0161a i domobrana.\n\nFranjo Tu\u0111man, koji je tokom Bleiburga bio jedan od Hrvatska koji su djelovali pri Vhovnom \u0161tabu JNA u svojoj knjizi Bespu\u0107a povijesne zbiljnosti, u poglavlju \"Bleibur\u0161ki mit\", navodi da je kod Bleiburga do\u0161lo do \"paroksizma uveli\u010davanja\" \u017ertvi na 500.000 i vi\u0161e, sli\u010dno Jasenovcu. Tu\u0111man u svojim radovima iz 1980.-ih godina navodi 35 do 40 tisu\u0107a \u017ertvi u svemu vezano za Bleiburg. Tu\u0111man tako\u0111er citira savezni\u010dke izvje\u0161taje po kojima je novim vlastima s Bleiburga i iz ostalih dijelova Austrije do 1. lipnja 1945 sveukupno izru\u010deno 26.399 pripadnika \u201cjugoslavenskih kvislin\u0161kih postrojbi\u201d (kasnije se taj broj pove\u0107ao na 29.792 zarobljenika), od tih 12.196 Hrvata, 5.480 Srba, 8.263 Slovenaca, te 400 Crnogoraca. \n\nMartina Grahek-Ravan\u010di\u0107 iz Hrvatskog instituta za povijest, smatra da su (2005. god.) najpreciznije i naj\u0161ire prihva\u0107ene brojke o hrvatskim \u017ertvama, procjene hrvatskog demografa Vladimira \u017derjavi\u0107a; koji navodi 33.300 \u017ertava nakon predaje, plus 11.600 \u017ertvi tokom vojnih akcija prije predaje. Tako\u0111er pi\u0161e da su tvrdnje o izme\u0111u 200.000 i 600.000 \u017ertvi sigurno pretjerane, te su vi\u0161ekratno ve\u0107e od procjena sveukupnih hrvatskih \u017ertvi rata i pora\u0107a na sve strane - to jest 192.000 - od demografa \u017derjavi\u0107a.\n\n1991. nove hrvatske vlasti su osnovale Komisiju za utvr\u0111ivanje ratnih i poratnih \u017ertava, s Vicom Vukojevi\u0107em na \u010delu. Komisija je u svom radu \"stavila naglasak na \u017ertve komunisti\u010dkog re\u017eima.\" Crkva u Hrvatskoj i BiH je naveliko sudjelovala u radu Komisije, brojni \u017eupnici su prikupili podatke o \u017ertvama rata i pora\u0107a u svojim mjestima. Uklju\u010dili su se znanstvene institucije kao Hrvatski institut za povijest, te emigratske organizacije i istra\u017eiva\u010di. Koristili su i rad sve\u0107enika te biv\u0161eg usta\u0161kog potpukovnika Krunoslava Draganovi\u0107a, koji je pomogao brojnim usta\u0161ama i Nacistima u bijegu iz Europe, te se 20 godina bavio prikupljanjem dokumentacije o Bleiburgu. Komisija je djelovala 11 godina, u zadnjem izvje\u0161taju navodi popis ukupno 13.300 Hrvata iz Hrvatske i BiH stradalih u doga\u0111ajima povezanima s Bleiburgom, \u0161to je ujedno i najopse\u017eniji popis. Popis uklju\u010duje 5.503 pripadnika usta\u0161ke milicije, 3.101 hrvatskog domobrana, 2.492 nerazvrstana pripadnika Oru\u017eanih snaga te 2.204 ostalih ili neidentificiranih.\n\nU nekim slu\u010dajevima postoje temeljitija forenzi\u010dka istra\u017eivanja o pobijenima: tako je prigodom izgradnje autoceste kod strati\u0161ta u Teznom prona\u0111eni na potezu du\u017eine 70 m posmrtni ostaci 1179 \u017ertava, za koje se u najve\u0107em dijelu mo\u017ee re\u0107i da su vojnici NDH, te su zasigurno me\u0111u \u017ertvama i crnogorski \u010detnici. Stru\u010dnjaci utvr\u0111uju da je rov popunjen posmrtnim ostacima u du\u017eini od 940 m, i Mitja Ferenc procjenjuje broj ondje zatrpanih tijela na oko 15.000. Usprkos slabe o\u010duvanosti kostiju, Mitja Ferenc navodi da bi neke \"mogle pripadati, osobama \u017eenskog spola\u201d (svjedoci koje Ferenc citra navode da je me\u0111u zrtvama bilo \u010dlanova \u017eenskih usta\u0161kih postrojbi). Istra\u017eivanjem se ustanovljuje da su u ubijanju zarobljenika sudjelovali vojnici 6. (isto\u010dnobosanske) brigade 17. divizije JA. U zatvorenom rudni\u010dkom oknu Huda Jama kod La\u0161kog ekshumirano je 726 kostura, koji prete\u017eno pripadaju ratnim zarobljenicima - Hrvatima, koji su bili \u017eivi zazidani u rudnik; pretpostavlja se da se ondje nalaze ostaci ukupno oko 3000 \u017ertava. I za neka druga strati\u0161ta poput Ko\u010devskog Roga i Maceljske \u0161ume tako\u0111er postoje relativno utemeljene procjene, s visokim brojem \u017ertva.\n\nZdravko Dizdar prema stanju literature 2005. godine govori o ukupno 62.000 do tada poimeni\u010dno utvr\u0111enih hrvatskih \u017ertava poratnih pokolja. Za te brojke Vladimir Geiger pak 2012. godine navodi da \"iako statisti\u010dki mogu\u0107e, o\u010dito su grube procjene, jer (Dizdar) nije naveo koji su popisi \u017ertava i sli\u010dne publikacije konzultirani, koliko je smrtnih slu\u010dajeva navedeno u pojedina\u010dnim popisima i kako je izvr\u0161ena provjera i revizija podataka.\" Geiger dodaje kako smatra da su \u017derjavi\u0107eve procjene o 55.000 Hrvata i muslimana pobijenih u Bleibur\u0161kim doga\u0111ajima ipak preniske.\n\nU vrijeme kada su kod Bleiburga jugoslavenske snage zarobile oko 100 tisu\u0107a pripadnika pora\u017eenih snaga NDH i njima sklonih civila, izme\u0111u 8 i 11 tisu\u0107a zarobljenika Britanci su privremeno bili smjestili u logor \u0161to su ga bili osnovali u mjestu Viktringu: me\u0111utim su i oni poslije predani Jugoslavenskoj armiji (JA) i skoro svi pobijeni. Prema izvje\u0161taju \u0161taba 12. divizije JA sa\u010dinjenom odmah nakon doga\u0111aja, 15. svibnja se na Bleiburgu predalo 93.000 \"neprijateljskih vojnika\", a njih 27 (ne 27 tisu\u0107a: 27 vojnika) je ubijeno.\n\nMilan Basta - tada politi\u010dki komesar 51. vojvo\u0111anske divizije (ina\u010de podrijetlom s podru\u010dja Like, gdje je 1941. godine bio pristupio partizanima) i sudionik pregovora o predaji na Bleiburgu - pi\u0161e 1980. godine o \"predaji 100.000 Paveli\u0107evih vojnika\"; jo\u0161 oko 20.000 vojnika NDH da se predalo na drugim mjestima. O ubijanju zarobljenih \"Paveli\u0107evih vojnika\" Basta ne govori ba\u0161 ni\u0161ta: on dodu\u0161e u svojoj knjizi koja se u prvom redu bavi zavr\u0161nim operacijama u travnju i svibnju 1945. godine na \u010dak 89 mjesta koristi on rije\u010d \"pokolj\" - ali svaki pojedini put govore\u0107i o zlo\u010dinima koje su ranije tijekom ratnih godina \u010dinili \"Paveli\u0107evi vojnici\".\n\nOtkrivanje istine o Bleiburgu nakon rata \nZa \u010ditavo vrijeme trajanja komunisti\u010dke Jugoslavije, Bleiburg i Kri\u017eni put se uop\u0107e nisu smjeli spominjati, te su za javnost u Hrvatskoj bili potpuna nepoznanica. Poneki pre\u017eivjeli bi ne\u0161to u povjerenju ispri\u010dali bliskim osobama, te se eventualno moglo na\u010duti potihu glasinu kako je veliki broj zarobljenih usta\u0161a i domobrana bio pobijen 1945. godine.\n\n1963. godine je u Buenos Airesu na \u0161panjolskom jeziku \u201eBleibur\u0161ka tragedija hrvatskog naroda\u201c. Urednik te knjige Ivo Bogdan je navodno ba\u0161 zbog prikupljanja i objavljivanja dokumenata u Blaiburgu ubijen 1971. godine od strane agenata Udbe. 1975. godine su agenti Udbe ubili i Nikolu Martinovi\u0107a, 65 godi\u0161njeg poduzetnika iz Klagenfurta i pre\u017eivjelog vojnika s Kri\u017enog puta, zbog iniciranja postavljanja spomenika bleibur\u0161kim \u017ertvama i pokretanj prvog tzv. Mar\u0161a mira u Bleiburgu koji je trebao upoznati austrijsku i svjetsku javnost o zlo\u010dinima Titova diktatorskog re\u017eima. Makar je taj mar\u0161 ubojstvom Nikole Martinovi\u0107a 1975. godine bio sprije\u010den, ve\u0107 sljede\u0107e 1976. godine skupina pre\u017eivjelih Hrvata okupila se na bleibur\u0161kom polju, gdje je \"svaki u\u010desnik bio \u010duvan od \u010detiri austrijska policajca iako im se prethodno preko prijete\u0107ih pisama prijetilo smr\u0107u. Istina se ipak vi\u0161e nije mogla zaustaviti.\u201c\n\nKrajem 1988. godine je o sudbini Hrvata koje su Britanci predali Jugoslavenskoj armiji na Bleiburgu, te Kozaka koje su Britanci 1945. godine predali Crvenoj armiji po\u010deo pisati britanski autor grof Nikolaj Tolstoj. Odlukom suda bila ubrzo zabranjena i povu\u010dena iz prodaje, pa \u010dak i iz knji\u017enica, a nakon \u0161to ga je umirovljeni britanski \u010dasnik Lord Aldington, raniji na\u010delnik sto\u017eera felmdar\u0161ala Alexandera (te, kasnije, predsjednik britanske Konzervativne partije) tu\u017eio za klevetu, Tolstoj je zbog navodno neistinitih tvrdnji o ulozi britanskih snaga i njihovih zapovjednika bio osu\u0111en platiti od\u0161tetu od \u010dak 1,5 milijuna britanskih funti. U srpnju 1995. godine je Europski sud za ljudska prava jednoglasno odlu\u010dio da je takva presuda predstavljala povredu prava na slobodu izra\u017eavanja.\n\nBleiburg danas \n\nUdruga Po\u010dasni bleibur\u0161ki vod nastoji podr\u017eati i njegovati sje\u0107anje na \u017ertve odavanjem dostojne po\u010dasti svim nedu\u017enim \u017ertvama komunisti\u010dkog pokolja u Bleiburgu. Udruga je osnovana po\u010detkom 1950.-ih godine: 1950. god. je prva grupa hrvatskih emigranata predvo\u0111enih Mirkom Kara\u010di\u0107em posjetila Bleibur\u0161ko polje i ondje dala prisegu da \u0107e njegovati spomen na poginule vojnike Hrvatskih oru\u017eanih snaga i hrvatske civile.\n\nNa 6. je znanstvenom skupu Dani dr Franje Tu\u0111mana odr\u017eanom 2013. godine, profesor Nedjeljko Mihanovi\u0107 ocijenio je kako je Bleiburg te\u017eak teret za britansku politiku. Tu \u010dinjenicu smatra razlogom \u0161to je Hrvatski sabor bio 2012. godine donio odluku kako vi\u0161e ne\u0107e biti pokrovitelj obilje\u017eavanja spomena na bleibur\u0161ku tragediju.\n\n2015. godine, pokroviteljstvo nad obilje\u017eavanjem 70. obljetnice bleibur\u0161ke tragedije preuzela je Predsjednica Republike Hrvatske Kolinda Grabar Kitarovi\u0107; vjerske obrede u Bleiburgu predvodili su kardinal Josip Bozani\u0107 i zagreba\u010dki muftija dr. Aziz ef. Hasanovi\u0107. Politi\u010dke podjele u Hrvatskoj potaknule su tada\u0161njeg premijera Zorana Milanovi\u0107a, predsjednik Hrvatskog sabora Josipa Leku (svi iz SDP) i ministra obrane Antu Kotromanovi\u0107a da dan ranije iska\u017eu po\u010dast \u017ertvama Kri\u017enog puta u Teznom kraj Maribora, na mjestu masovne grobnice snaga NDH i civila pobijenih u svibnju 1945. Premijer i predsjednik Hrvatskog sabora su poru\u010dili da su zlo\u010dini koje su komunisti\u010dke vlasti po\u010dinile na kraju Drugoga svjetskog rata, kazali su premijer i predsjednik parlamenta, okaljali su \"pravednu borbu\", a dana\u0161nja Hrvatska osu\u0111uje sve zlo\u010dine po\u010dinjene u ime bilo koje ideologije. \"Ovdje smo da odamo pijetet \u017ertvama komunisti\u010dkog terora.\"\n\nZbog isticanja usta\u0161kih simbola na komemoracijama u Bleiburgu, desna austrijska vlada je 2019. zabranila usta\u0161ke, uz isilovske i druge teroristi\u010dke simbole, a 2021. je k tome dodala i zabranu HOS-ovih obilje\u017eja s bijelim prvim poljem na \u0161ahiranom grbu, jer su fa\u0161isti\u010dki. Austrijske vlasti su tako\u0111er uhitile i osudile sudionike skupa na Bleiburgu, zbog usta\u0161kih i nacisti\u010dkih pozdrava.\n\nU o\u017eujku 2019. godine je katoli\u010dka biskupija u Klangenfurtu otkazala gostoprimstvo hrvatskim biskupima, koji godinama predvode misna slavlja prigodom godi\u0161njih komemoracija na Bleibur\u0161kom polju, uz obja\u0161njenje da \"ukupna slika ove manifestacije \u0161teti ugledu Katoli\u010dke crkve i mogla bi s pravom poslu\u017eiti kao osnova da se, u slu\u010daju da se izda dozvola za odr\u017eavanje mise, Katoli\u010dkoj crkvi u Koru\u0161koj predbaci instrumantalizacija jedne mise u politi\u010dke svrhe i nedostatak distance prema fa\u0161isti\u010dkom svjetonazoru\u201c. Hrvatska biskupska konferencija reagirala je na taj \u010din priop\u0107enjem, u kojem iznosi da je \"sa \u017ealjenjem je primila tu odluku i izra\u017eava svoje duboko neslaganje s razlozima koji se navode za takvu odluku i u cijelosti ih odbacuje.\" Nakon \u0161to je spomen misa na bleibur\u0161kom polju 2019. godine ipak odr\u017eana, zbog protivljenja austrijskih politi\u010dkih krugova, 2020., 2021. i 2022. god. komemoraciju Bleibur\u0161ke tragedije se odr\u017eavaju u Hrvatskoj.\n\nKrajem 2021. grupa stru\u010dnjaka koju je ovlastilo austrijsko ministarstvo vanjskih poslova, preporu\u010dilo je trajnu zabranu komemoracije na Bleiburgu. Tada\u0161nji ministar unutranjih poslova iz redova kr\u0161\u0107ansko-demokratskih konzervativaca, Karl Nehammer, tim je povodom izjavio: \u201cU Austriji je veli\u010danje teror-re\u017eima nedopustivo. Mi \u0107emo sprije\u010diti svaki poku\u0161aj \u0161irenja desno-ekstremnih i revizionisti\u010dkih svjetonazora na skupovima.\u201d\n\nU travnju 2022. lokalne vlasti austrijske savezne pokrajine Koru\u0161ke, uklonile su hrvatski grb s prvim bijelim poljem sa spomenika na Bleiburgu.\n\nFilmovi \n \u010cetverored, igrani film\n Bleiburg: Titova dozvola za genocid, dokumentarni film\n\nLiteratura \n\nKnjige\n\n Prvo objavljeno djelo s podacima o Bleiburgu i Kri\u017enom putu bila je knjiga \"La tragedia de Bleiburg\" objavljena na \u0161panjolskom jeziku 1963. godine kod Instituto Croata Latinoamericano de Cultura.\n\n Mitja Ferenc i \u017delimir Ku\u017eatko: Prikrivena grobi\u0161ta Hrvata u Republici Sloveniji\n Dusper, Zvonimir: U vrtlogu Bleiburga, Rijeka: Vitagraf, 1996. (2. nadopunjeno izdanje)\n Marko Gr\u010di\u0107 i dr: Otvoreni dossier: Bleiburg, Zagreb: 1990. Prva knjiga koja je u Hrvatskoj javno govorila o toj temi. Pripremila ju je grupa novinara nakon serije intervjua sa sudionicima Kri\u017enog puta koji su bili objavljivani u \u010dasopisu Start.\n\n Jur\u010devi\u0107, Josip: Bleiburg, Zagreb: Dokumentacijsko informacijsko sredi\u0161te - DIS, 2005. Najnovija opse\u017ena studija hrvatskog povjesni\u010dara, koji istra\u017euje \u0161ire okolnosti i uzroke Bleibur\u0161kog pokolja (pri \u010demu je \"Bleiburg\" samo simbol za sveukupni komunisti\u010dki teror 1945. godine).\n\n Marevi\u0107, Jozo (urednik): Od Bleiburga do na\u0161ih dana. Zbornik radova o Bleiburgu i Kri\u017enom putu s drugog me\u0111unarodnog znanstvenog simpozija u Zagrebu 14. i 15. svibnja 1994, Zagreb: Marabu, 1994. Zbornik tekstova vrlo \u0161arolikog oblika: svjedo\u010denja, znanstveni radovi, eseji. Prvi simpozij odr\u017ean je 1993. i s njega je tako\u0111er tiskan zborni U Bleiburgu iskra.\n\n Nikoli\u0107, Vinko: Tragedija se dogodila u svibnju\u2026, Zagreb: 1995. (Prvo izdanje u Barceloni i M\u00fcnchenu 1984)\n Peri\u0107, Miljenko: 1945-1995. Bleiburg. Svjedo\u010danstvo, Zagreb: autor, 1995. .\n\n Prcela, John Ivan (ur.) i \u017divi\u0107, Dra\u017een (ur.): Hrvatski holokaust - dokumenti i svjedo\u010danstva o poratnim pokoljima u Jugoslaviji, Hrvatsko dru\u0161tvo politi\u010dkih zatvorenika, Zagreb, 2001. Dopunjeno hrvatsko zdanje zna\u010dajne knjige, koja je pod naslovo Operation Sloughterhouse iza\u0161la u SAD 1970.\n\n Tolstoj, Nikolaj: Ministar i pokolji. Bleiburg i Ko\u010devski rog 1945, Zagreb: Nakladni zavod Matice Hrvatske, 1991.\n\n \u017derjavi\u0107, Vladimir: Opsesije i megalomanije oko Jasenovca i Bleiburga. Gubici stanovni\u0161va Jugoslavije u drugom svjetskom ratu, Zagreb: Globus, 1992. (2. izd.). Najopse\u017enija studija o \u017ertvama Drugog svjetskog rata na podru\u010dju Jugoslavije, na temelju statisti\u010dkih izra\u010dunavanja i dokumenata.\n\n An\u0111elko Mijatovi\u0107, Prof. dr. \u0160imun \u0160ito \u0106ori\u0107: Bleibur\u0161ka tragedija i Kri\u017eni put hrvatskoga naroda godine 1945. , Hrvatski svjetski kongres, Zagreb, 2007.\n\n\u010clanci\n\n Jela\u010di\u0107, Ivan pl.: Predgovor, u zborniku Od Blaiburga do na\u0161ih dana, 1994, str. 108-121. Autor daje neke podrobnije podatke o planu povla\u010denje HOS-a, te procjene brojnog stanja HOS-a i broja \u017ertava.\n\n \u0160klopan, Vladimir: Povla\u010denje hrvatskih oru\u017eanih snaga u svibnju 1945, u: Od Bleiburga do na\u0161ih dana : zbornik radova o Bleiburgu i kri\u017enom putu s drugog me\u0111unarodnog simpozija u Zagrebu 14. i 15. svibnja 1994 str. 77-88. Detaljni prikaz organizacije povla\u010denja HOS-a u razdoblju 5. do 15. svibnja 1945. \n\n\u017derjavi\u0107, Vladimir: \u017drtve oko Bleiburga i na Kri\u017enom putu, u: Od Bleiburga do na\u0161ih dana : zbornik radova o Bleiburgu i kri\u017enom putu s drugog me\u0111unarodnog simpozija u Zagrebu 14. i 15. svibnja 1994, str. 151-159. U ovom \u010dlanku autor odgovara nekim kriti\u010darima njegovih izra\u010dunavanja iznesenih u gore navedenoj knjizi.\n\n \n Svjedo\u010denje dominikanca o. Drage Kolimbatovi\u0107a o blajbur\u0161kom zlo\u010dinu : : \u00bbUmjesto uto\u010di\u0161ta, u Englezima na\u0111osmo krvnike\u00ab , u: Glas Koncila 19/07, str. 25\n Mr. Martina Grahek-Ravan\u010di\u0107 : Na kri\u017enom putu po Hrvatskoj : Masovne grobnice - svjedo\u010danstva o \u00bbopreznosti i predostro\u017enosti\u00ab, u: Glas Koncila 30/09, str. 25\n Izlaganje prof. dr. Branimira Luk\u0161i\u0107a u Splitu 22. svibnja 2007. : Bleiburg - mrlja na britanskoj savjesti u: Glas Koncila 22/07, str. 25\n\nVanjske poveznice \n\n\"Izru\u010denja i sudbine zarobljenika smje\u0161tenih u savezni\u010dkim logorima u svibnju 1945.\", Martina Grahek Ravan\u010di\u0107, \"\u010casopis za suvremenu povijest\" br. 2/2009, str. 391. \u2013 416\n U de\u017eeli grob do groba...\n \"Partizanska i komunisti\u010dka represija i zlo\u010dini u Hrvatskoj 1944. \u2013 1946.\" - Dokumenti: Zagreb i Sredi\u0161nja Hrvatska, Hrvatski institut za povijest 2008\n Prilog istra\u017eivanju problema Bleiburga i kri\u017enih putova (u povodu 60. obljetnice), Zdravko Dizdar\nMartina Grahek Ravan\u010di\u0107: Razmi\u0161ljanja o broju pogubljenih i stradalih na Bleiburgu i kri\u017enom putu, Hrvatski institut za povijest, Zagreb\nV. \u017derjavi\u0107: Manipulacije brojem \u017ertava 2. svjetskoga rata (engleski) \nOperation Slaughterhouse - Bleibur\u0161ki masakr kroz o\u010di svjedoka (engleski) \n \"Kaznenopravni i povijesni aspekti bleibur\u0161kog zlo\u010dina\", \"Pravnik\" Vol 41. Br. 85/2007, Dominik Vuleti\u0107, Sveu\u010dili\u0161te u Zagrebu, 2007.\nNikolai Tolstoy:Bleibur\u0161ki pokolj \n'We will demand the truth about the Bleiburg massacre', intervju s Nikolajem Tolstoyem, Executive Intelligence Review, Volume 21, Number 27, July 1, 1994., pristupljeno 18. svibnja 2021.\nZapisnik saslu\u0161anja kod OZNE 24. sije\u010dnja 1946. ravnatelja GRAVSIGUR-a Eriha Lisaka, bliskog suradnika Ante Paveli\u0107a koji je sura\u0111ivao u planiranju povla\u010denja HOS-a prema Bleiburgu, te u najbli\u017eoj Paveli\u0107evoj grupi uspio izbje\u0107i u Austriju (uredio \u017deljko Karaula). Pristupljeno 3. travnja 2022.\n\nIzvori\n\nPartizanski zlo\u010dini u Drugom svjetskom ratu i pora\u0107u\nHrvatska povijest\nJugoslavija u Drugom svjetskom ratu\nKozaci\nBleiburg", "meta": {"title": "Bleibur\u0161ka tragedija", "url": "https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bleibur%C5%A1ka%20tragedija", "language": "hr", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "BrahMos \u00e9 um m\u00edssil de cruzeiro supers\u00f3nico que pode ser lan\u00e7ado de submarinos, barcos, avi\u00f5es ou em terra.\nO nome BrahMos vem da jun\u00e7\u00e3o dos nomes de dois rios: o rio Brahmaputra na \u00cdndia e o rio Moskva, na R\u00fassia. O m\u00edssil viaja a velocidades de Mach 2.8 a 3.0 e um tem um alcance de 290\u00a0km.\n\nM\u00edsseis de cruzeiro antinavio da \u00cdndia\nM\u00edsseis de cruzeiro antinavio da R\u00fassia\nMotores ramjet\n\nLiga\u00e7\u00f5es externas", "meta": {"title": "BrahMos", "url": "https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/BrahMos", "language": "pt", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "Doctor Victor is a Czech rock trio formed in Prague in 2012. The band consists of Victor on vocals and lead guitar, Al on bass, and Tom on drums. Doctor Victor's music is based primarily on the legacy of traditional rock from the late 1960s and early 1970s, with elements of blues music.\n\nIn 2016, they released their debut album, 1st Prescription. The band's 2018 single \"StandUP\" was included in the Czech selection for the Eurovision Song Contest.\n\nHistory\n\nFounding and early days: 2012\u201315\nDoctor Victor was founded in 2012 by Victor, a graduate of the Jaroslav Je\u017eek Conservatory in Prague and holder of a scholarship at the Berklee College of Music in Boston. The band won the Hard Rock Rising 2013 contest in Czechia as well as the  Czech Global Battle of the Bands contest in 2014. In the contest's worldwide finals in Chiang Mai, Thailand, the band placed second.\nIn April 2014, they were on the cover of the Czech music magazine Muzikus, and their single \"Beautiful Age\" got into the top 70 rock songs in the Unsigned Only Music Competition in the United States in 2015. They continued to perform, opening for popular Czech bands such as Lucie and Chinaski.\n\nDebut album, touring, and Eurovision Song Contest: 2016\u201318\nDoctor Victor's debut album, 1st Prescription, was released on 21 March 2016 and two months later, they were chosen by AC/DC as their support band for the Prague show of their Rock or Bust World Tour. In February 2017, they launched their first official tour, named Music Is My Drug Tour, at clubs and festivals across Czechia. In May, they were on the cover of the magazine Rock & All. In the summer of 2017, they performed in the United Kingdom for the first time, playing six cities, including London. In October, the band revealed that they would be collaborating on the upcoming solo album of Dan McCafferty, original lead singer of Nazareth. The album, titled Last Testament, was released in 2019 and featured Doctor Victor on the track \"My Baby\".\n\nThe band's single \"StandUP\" was released in January 2018, together with an announcement of its inclusion in the Czech national selection for the Eurovision Song Contest. The song was chosen out of more than 400 submissions from all over the world. Doctor Victor went back on tour in 2018 and travelled to the UK as well as other European countries, including Germany, the Netherlands, and Austria. After finishing their summer tour, they were selected among the top ten semi-finalists in the KISS KRUISE 2018 competition. Also in 2018, the band opened for The Dead Daisies in Prague.\n\n2019\u2013present\nIn 2019, the band toured the UK and USA, performing at the NAMM Show in California, among other venues and events.\n\nBand members\n Victor \u2013 vocals, lead guitar\n Muddy \u2013 bass guitar, vocals\n Karpa \u2013 drums, vocals\n\nDiscography\n 1st Prescription (2016)\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n \n\nCzech rock music groups\nMusical groups established in 2012\n2012 establishments in the Czech Republic", "meta": {"title": "Doctor Victor", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor%20Victor", "language": "en", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "\u0421\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0436\u043d\u0456 \u043c\u043e\u043b\u0456 ()\u00a0\u2014 \u0440\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u043c\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0434\u043d\u0438\u0445 \u043b\u0443\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043a\u0440\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0445. \u042f\u043a \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0438\u043b\u043e, \u0432\u0456\u0434 \u0434\u0440\u0456\u0431\u043d\u0438\u0445 \u0434\u043e \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0456\u0445 \u0440\u043e\u0437\u043c\u0456\u0440\u0456\u0432 (\u0440\u043e\u0437\u043c\u0430\u0445 \u043a\u0440\u0438\u043b 7-30\u00a0\u043c\u043c, \u0434\u043e 37-46\u00a0\u043c\u043c \u0443 Scardia, \u044f\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0456\u043d\u043e\u0434\u0456 \u0432\u0438\u0434\u0456\u043b\u044f\u044e\u0442\u044c \u0432 \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0443 \u0440\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0443). \u0429\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043f\u043d\u0456 \u0449\u0443\u043f\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u0442\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0456, \u0441\u043a\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0430\u044e\u0442\u044c\u0441\u044f \u0437 5 \u0447\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0456\u0432. \u0413\u0443\u0441\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0456 \u0445\u0430\u0440\u0447\u0443\u044e\u0442\u044c\u0441\u044f \u0433\u0440\u0438\u0431\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0456 \u0440\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0438\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043c \u0434\u0435\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0442\u043e\u043c, \u043a\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043c\u0456\u0441\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u0442\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0438\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u0437\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0448\u043a\u0430\u043c\u0438 (\u043f\u0443\u0445, \u043f\u0456\u0440'\u044f, \u0448\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0442\u044c), \u043d\u0435\u0440\u0456\u0434\u043a\u043e \u0437\u0443\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0456\u0447\u0430\u044e\u0442\u044c\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u0433\u043d\u0456\u0437\u0434\u0430\u0445 \u043f\u0442\u0430\u0445\u0456\u0432 \u0456 \u043d\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0445 \u0442\u0432\u0430\u0440\u0438\u043d. \u041d\u0430\u0439\u0432\u0456\u0434\u043e\u043c\u0456\u0448\u0456 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u0448\u043a\u043e\u0434\u0436\u0443\u044e\u0442\u044c \u0432\u043e\u0432\u043d\u044f\u043d\u0456 \u0432\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0431\u0438 (\u043d\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0438\u043a\u043b\u0430\u0434, \u0441\u0443\u043a\u043d\u044f\u043d\u0430, \u0448\u0443\u0431\u043d\u0430 \u0456 \u043a\u0438\u043b\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u043c\u043e\u043b\u0456) \u0442\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043a\u0442\u0438 \u0445\u0430\u0440\u0447\u0443\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044f (\u043d\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0438\u043a\u043b\u0430\u0434, \u0437\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u043c\u0456\u043b\u044c). \u0423 \u0441\u0432\u0456\u0442\u043e\u0432\u0456\u0439 \u0444\u0430\u0443\u043d\u0456, \u0437\u0430 \u0440\u0456\u0437\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u043e\u0446\u0456\u043d\u043a\u0430\u043c\u0438, \u0431\u0430\u0433\u0430\u0442\u043e \u0432 \u0447\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u0437\u0430\u043b\u0435\u0436\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u0432\u0456\u0434 \u0440\u043e\u0437\u0443\u043c\u0456\u043d\u043d\u044f \u043e\u0431\u0441\u044f\u0433\u0443 \u0440\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0438, \u0432\u0456\u0434 \u0434\u0432\u043e\u0445 \u0434\u043e \u0442\u0440\u044c\u043e\u0445 \u0442\u0438\u0441\u044f\u0447 \u0432\u0438\u0434\u0456\u0432. \u041f\u0430\u0440\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0456\u0432 \u0440\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0438 \u0431\u0443\u043b\u0430 \u0437\u043d\u0430\u0439\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u0432 \u0431\u0430\u043b\u0442\u0456\u0439\u0441\u044c\u043a\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u0431\u0443\u0440\u0448\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0456.\n\n\u041a\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0438\u0444\u0456\u043a\u0430\u0446\u0456\u044f \n357 \u0440\u043e\u0434\u0456\u0432 \u0456 \u043f\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0434 2300 \u0432\u0438\u0434\u0456\u0432.\n\n\u0420\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0443 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0456\u043b\u044f\u044e\u0442\u044c \u043d\u0430 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0456 \u043f\u0456\u0434\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0438:\n\n Dryadaulinae\n Erechthiinae\n Euplocaminae\n Hapsiferinae\n Harmacloninae\n Hieroxestinae\n Meessiinae\n Myrmecozelinae\n Nemapogoninae\n Perissomasticinae\n Scardiinae\n Setomorphinae\n Siloscinae\n Stathmopolitinae\n Teichobiinae\n \u0422\u0456\u043d\u0435\u0457\u043d\u0438 (Tineinae)\n\n\u041f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0456\u0442\u043a\u0438\n\n\u041b\u0456\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \n \n \u041e\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0435\u043a\u043e\u043c\u044b\u0445 \u0435\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0435\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420. \u0422. IV. \u0427\u0435\u0448\u0443\u0435\u043a\u0440\u044b\u043b\u044b\u0435. \u0412\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430\u044f \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c // (\u0413\u0435\u0440\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0437\u043e\u043d \u0417. \u0421. \u0438 \u0434\u0440.) / \u043f\u043e\u0434 \u043e\u0431\u0449. \u0440\u0435\u0434. \u0413.\u00a0\u0421.\u00a0\u041c\u0435\u0434\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u0432\u0430.\u00a0\u2014 \u041b.: \u041d\u0430\u0443\u043a\u0430, 1981.\u00a0\u2014 788\u00a0\u0441.\u00a0\u2014 (\u041e\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0438 \u043f\u043e \u0444\u0430\u0443\u043d\u0435 \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420, \u0438\u0437\u0434\u0430\u0432\u0430\u0435\u043c\u044b\u0435 \u0417\u043e\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c \u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0443\u0442\u043e\u043c \u0410\u041d \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420; \u0432\u044b\u043f. 130).\u00a0\u2014 3650 \u044d\u043a\u0437.\n\n\u041f\u043e\u0441\u0438\u043b\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044f \n Global Taxonomic Database of Tineidae  \n\n\u0420\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0438 \u043b\u0443\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043a\u0440\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0445\n\u0421\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0436\u043d\u0456 \u043c\u043e\u043b\u0456", "meta": {"title": "\u0421\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0436\u043d\u0456 \u043c\u043e\u043b\u0456", "url": "https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B6%D0%BD%D1%96%20%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%96", "language": "uk", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "\u00c1cstesz\u00e9r \u00e4r ett mindre samh\u00e4lle i provinsen Kom\u00e1rom-Esztergom i Ungern. \u00c5r 2019 hade \u00c1cstesz\u00e9r totalt 710 inv\u00e5nare.\n\nK\u00e4llor\n\nOrter i Kom\u00e1rom-Esztergom", "meta": {"title": "\u00c1cstesz\u00e9r", "url": "https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81cstesz%C3%A9r", "language": "sv", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "\u0417\u0430\u043a\u0441\u0435\u043d\u0434\u043e\u0440\u0444 () \u2014 \u0434\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043d\u044f \u0432 \u0413\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438, \u0432 \u0437\u0435\u043c\u043b\u0435 \u0421\u0430\u043a\u0441\u043e\u043d\u0438\u044f-\u0410\u043d\u0445\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0442. \u0412\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442 \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0411\u0430\u0440\u0431\u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u0430 \u0417\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0446\u043b\u0430\u043d\u0434.\n\n\u041d\u0430\u0441\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u044f\u0435\u0442 313 \u0447\u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0435\u043a (\u043d\u0430 31 \u0434\u0435\u043a\u0430\u0431\u0440\u044f 2006 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430). \u0417\u0430\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u043f\u043b\u043e\u0449\u0430\u0434\u044c 9,67 \u043a\u043c\u00b2.\n\n\u0412\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u0443\u043f\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0432 1100 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443.\n\n\u0414\u043e 31 \u0434\u0435\u043a\u0430\u0431\u0440\u044f 2009 \u0438\u043c\u0435\u043b\u0430 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0441 \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0438\u043d\u044b (\u043a\u043e\u043c\u043c\u0443\u043d\u044b). 1 \u044f\u043d\u0432\u0430\u0440\u044f 2010 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0432\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0435 \u0441 \u0440\u044f\u0434\u043e\u043c \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0445 \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0435\u043b\u0451\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0443\u043d\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u0432\u043e\u0448\u043b\u0430 \u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0411\u0430\u0440\u0431\u0438.\n\n\u041f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0447\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \n\n\u0413\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0421\u0430\u043a\u0441\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0438-\u0410\u043d\u0445\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0442", "meta": {"title": "\u0417\u0430\u043a\u0441\u0435\u043d\u0434\u043e\u0440\u0444 (\u0411\u0430\u0440\u0431\u0438)", "url": "https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%84%20%28%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B8%29", "language": "ru", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "Poneridia limbata es una especie de insecto cole\u00f3ptero de la familia Chrysomelidae.\n\nFue descrita cient\u00edficamente en 1913 por Weise.\n\nReferencias \n\nPoneridia", "meta": {"title": "Poneridia limbata", "url": "https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poneridia%20limbata", "language": "es", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "\n\nDas Bronzedreieck von Heddernheim ist ein r\u00f6merzeitliches Votivblech aus Bronze f\u00fcr Jupiter Dolichenus, dessen Kult auf den Wettergott von Aleppo zur\u00fcckgef\u00fchrt werden kann. Es wurde beim Nordwestzentrum, Frankfurt am Main gefunden und stammt aus der R\u00f6mersiedlung Nida. Das Bronzedreieck kam Anfang des 19. Jahrhunderts in den Kunsthandel. Heute befindet es sich in der Sammlung Nassauischer Altert\u00fcmer in Wiesbaden.\n\nBeschreibung und Deutung \nDas Bronzedreieck gliedert sich bildlich in drei Register, in denen verschiedene Gottheiten dargestellt werden. Die Ikonographie weist deutlich Parallelen zu syrischen und anatolischen Darstellungen der Bronze- und Eisenzeit auf. Es ist offensichtlich, dass der K\u00fcnstler gute Kenntnisse der orientalische Symbolik besa\u00df.\n\nIm unteren Register steht Juno Dolichena auf einer Hinde, links und rechts stehen zwei b\u00e4rtige Bergg\u00f6tter mit erhobenen H\u00e4nden und je einer Menschenb\u00fcste dar\u00fcber. Die Darstellung der Bergg\u00f6tter gleicht erstaunlich stark hethitischen Darstellungen, wo diese mit einem Schuppenrock dargestellt werden, die Felsen symbolisieren. Auf dem Bronzedreieck werden diese als f\u00fcnf Kugeln dargestellt, der urspr\u00fcngliche Rock wurde durch die r\u00f6mische Milit\u00e4runiform ersetzt. Die Menschenb\u00fcsten und Juno Dolichena haben keine direkten Parallelen in der anatolischen und syrischen Ikonographie.\n\nIm mittleren Register steht der b\u00e4rtige Jupiter Dolichenus auf einem Stier. Wie bei vielen eisenzeitlichen Darstellungen des luwischen Wettergottes Tarhunza aus Syrien hat er den typischen Zopf. In der rechten h\u00e4lt er eine Doppelaxt und in der linken ein Blitzb\u00fcndel, w\u00e4hrend die syrischen Vorg\u00e4nger eine einfache Axt und ein einfaches nach oben gerichtetes Blitzb\u00fcndel halten. Das Schwert und der kurze Schurz sind ebenfalls orientalisches Erbe, nur dass die Kleidung, wie bei den Bergg\u00f6ttern, der r\u00f6mischen Milit\u00e4runiform angepasst wurde.\n\nIm oberen Register sind die Siegesg\u00f6ttin Victoria und die B\u00fcste des Sonnengottes Sol abgebildet, deren unterer Rand eine Mondsichel bildet. Diese Darstellung ist eine Neuerung gegen\u00fcber der f\u00fcr Jupiter Dolichenus \u00fcblichen Begleitung von Sol, Luna und einem Adler. Diese Dreiheit hat ihr Vorbild in der altorientalischen Fl\u00fcgelsonne, die ein Zeichen der Herrschaft und bei G\u00f6ttern auch der himmlischen Macht darstellt. Urspr\u00fcnglich ein Symbol der Sonne konnte sie in sp\u00e4terer Zeit mit der Mondsichel kombiniert werden und wurde dann in der R\u00f6merzeit in Sonne, Mond und Adler aufgel\u00f6st.\n\nEine Auff\u00e4lligkeit des Bronzedreiecks von Heddernheim ist die Darstellung der beiden Bergg\u00f6tter unterhalb des Gottes. Dies erinnert stark an die Darstellung des Wettergottes Te\u0161\u0161ub im hethitischen Felsheiligtum von Yaz\u0131l\u0131kaya, der auf zwei Bergg\u00f6ttern stehend dargestellt wird. Auch auf hethitischen Siegeln findet sich dieses Motiv h\u00e4ufig.\n\nBronze- und eisenzeitliche Vorl\u00e4ufer\n\nLiteratur \n Guy Bunnens: The Storm-God in Northern Syria and Southern Anatolia from Hadad of Aleppo to Jupiter Dolichenus. In: Manfred Hutter: Offizielle Religion, lokale Kulte und individuelle Religiosit\u00e4t. Ugarit-Verlag (2004). ISBN 3-934628-58-3. S. 57\u201382\n\nEinzelnachweise \n\nArch\u00e4ologischer Fund (Frankfurt am Main)\nArch\u00e4ologischer Fund (Klassische Antike)\nFrankfurt-Heddernheim\nBronzeskulptur in Hessen\nR\u00f6misches Relief\nSkulpturengruppe\nSkulptur (Religion)\nMuseum Wiesbaden\nBronzerelief\nJupiter (Mythologie)\nVotivgabe\nSkulptur (Frankfurt am Main)\nArch\u00e4ologischer Fund in Europa", "meta": {"title": "Bronzedreieck von Heddernheim", "url": "https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronzedreieck%20von%20Heddernheim", "language": "de", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "Asclepias pseudoamabilis \u00e4r en oleanderv\u00e4xtart som beskrevs av Goyder. Asclepias pseudoamabilis ing\u00e5r i sl\u00e4ktet siden\u00f6rter, och familjen oleanderv\u00e4xter. Inga underarter finns listade i Catalogue of Life.\n\nK\u00e4llor \n\nSiden\u00f6rter\npseudoamabilis", "meta": {"title": "Asclepias pseudoamabilis", "url": "https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asclepias%20pseudoamabilis", "language": "sv", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "Marie-Louise F\u00e9bronie Chass\u00e9 Leclerc Meilleur (Kamouraska, 29 augustus 1880 \u2013 North Bay, 16 april 1998) was een Canadese supereeuwelinge die de leeftijd van 117 jaar en 230 dagen bereikte. Vanaf 4 augustus 1997 tot aan haar overlijden, ruim acht maanden later, was zij de erkende oudste levende persoon op aarde. Zij volgde hiermee de 122-jarige Fran\u00e7aise Jeanne Calment (1875-1997) op. Meilleur was destijds de op \u00e9\u00e9n na oudste persoon ooit (na Calment) en is anno 2021 nog altijd de oudste persoon die ooit in Canada heeft geleefd.\n\nTwee dagen voordat Marie-Louise overleed, stierf ook de 118-jarige Amerikaanse Felicie Young Cormier. Deze laatste zou zijn geboren op 9 november 1879. Cormier had echter geen offici\u00eble geboorteakte, waardoor de claim niet hardgemaakt kon worden. Daardoor werd Meilleur officieel als oudste aangewezen.\n\nBiografie\nMeilleur werd geboren als dochter van Pierre Chass\u00e9 (1849-1911) en F\u00e9bronie L\u00e9vesque (1852-1912). In 1900 huwde Marie-Louise met G\u00e9rard-Etienne Leclerc (1872-1911), en samen kregen ze zes kinderen. Haar man overleed aan longontsteking. Twee jaar na zijn dood vertrok ze richting Ontario, waar ze ging werken bij haar zuster Albertine. In 1915 hertrouwde ze met Hector Meilleur (1880-1972). Het stel verhuisde naar Rapide des Joachims en kreeg in totaal nog eens zes kinderen. Na het overlijden van Hector trok ze in bij een van haar dochters.\n\nIn 1989 ging Meilleur naar een rusthuis. Ze was inmiddels vrijwel doof en blind, maar kwam nog wel in het nieuws toen zij in het rusthuis op zoek ging naar een vrouw voor haar 81-jarige zoon.\n\nZij overleed in het rusthuis in 1998 op 117-jarige leeftijd. Een van haar kinderen was toen ook al 90 jaar oud geworden. Marie-Louises zoon Ernie woonde in hetzelfde rusthuis als zijn moeder. Haar achterkleinkind was in 1998 zelf reeds grootouder.\n\nZie ook\n Oudste mens\n Lijst van oudste mensen \n\nCanadees honderdplusser\nOudste mens\nSupereeuweling", "meta": {"title": "Marie-Louise Meilleur", "url": "https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie-Louise%20Meilleur", "language": "nl", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "Helle Degn, n\u00e9e le , est une femme politique danoise membre des Sociaux-d\u00e9mocrates, ancien ministre et ancienne d\u00e9put\u00e9e au Parlement (le Folketing) entre 1971 et 1975 puis entre 1977 et 2000.\n\nBiographie \n\nElle est l\u2019ancienne pr\u00e9sidente du Centre Mandela du Danemark, et actuellement sa vice-pr\u00e9sidente (Rikke Forchhammer la remplace \u00e0 la t\u00eate de l'institution).\n\nD\u00e9coration \n Ordre de Dannebrog\n\nAnnexes\n\nNotes et r\u00e9f\u00e9rences\n\nSources\n\nArticles connexes \n Cabinet Poul Nyrup Rasmussen I\n Liste des ministres danoises\n\nMinistre danoise\nMinistre danois de la Coop\u00e9ration pour le d\u00e9veloppement\nNaissance en octobre 1946\nOrdre de Dannebrog", "meta": {"title": "Helle Degn", "url": "https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helle%20Degn", "language": "fr", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "\u041f\u0451\u0442\u0440 \u041f\u0435\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u0411\u0435\u0440\u0433 (1897\u20141974)\u00a0\u2014 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0443\u0447\u0451\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0432 \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0439\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0446\u0435\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0432, \u0437\u0430\u0441\u043b\u0443\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u043d\u0430\u0443\u043a\u0438 \u0438 \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u0420\u0421\u0424\u0421\u0420, \u0434\u043e\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u043d\u0430\u0443\u043a, \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0444\u0435\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0440.\n\n\u0411\u0438\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u044f \n\u0420\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043b\u0441\u044f 25 \u0434\u0435\u043a\u0430\u0431\u0440\u044f 1897 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0432 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\u0434\u0435\u0444\u0435\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0432.\n\n\u0412 \u043c\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0435 1941 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0437\u0430\u0449\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043b \u0434\u0438\u0441\u0441\u0435\u0440\u0442\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044e \u043d\u0430 \u0441\u043e\u0438\u0441\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0442\u0435\u043f\u0435\u043d\u0438 \u0434\u043e\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430 \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u043d\u0430\u0443\u043a \u043f\u043e \u0442\u0435\u043c\u0435 \u00ab\u041e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0442\u0435\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0446\u0430\u0435\u043c\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0432\u00bb .\n\n\u0412 1945\u20141948 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043b \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043c 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\u0433\u043e\u0434 \u0437\u0430\u0432. \u043a\u0430\u0444\u0435\u0434\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u00ab\u0422\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u044f \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u043e\u0432\u00bb \u041c\u0410\u0414\u0418. \u0421\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043b \u0432 \u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0443\u0442\u0435 \u0438\u0441\u0441\u043b\u0435\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u0443\u044e \u043b\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044e \u043f\u043e \u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0447\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0441\u043c\u0435\u0441\u044f\u043c. \u0432 1967 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u043d\u0430 \u043a\u0430\u0444\u0435\u0434\u0440\u0443 \u043f\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0433\u043b\u0430\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044e \u041f.\u041f. \u0411\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0448\u0435\u043b \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u043a, \u043a\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0438\u0434\u0430\u0442 \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u043d\u0430\u0443\u043a \u0410\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440 \u041f\u0435\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u041f\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432 . \u0421 1971 \u043f\u043e 1974 \u0433\u043e\u0434 \u0432 \u0430\u0441\u043f\u0438\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0435 \u041c\u0410\u0414\u0418 \u043d\u0430 \u043a\u0430\u0444\u0435\u0434\u0440\u0435 \u00ab\u0422\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u044f \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u043e\u0432\u00bb \u0443\u0447\u0438\u043b\u0441\u044f \u0431\u0443\u0434\u0443\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u0440\u0435\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440 \u041c\u0410\u0414\u0418 (2001\u20142016) \u0412.\u041c. \u041f\u0440\u0438\u0445\u043e\u0434\u044c\u043a\u043e, \u0437\u0430\u0449\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u0432 1975 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0434\u0438\u0441\u0441\u0435\u0440\u0442\u0430\u0446\u0438\u044e \u043d\u0430 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\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0438 \u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0439\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0437\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 .\n\n\u0417\u0430\u0441\u043b\u0443\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0434\u0435\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u043d\u0430\u0443\u043a\u0438 \u0438 \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u0420\u0421\u0424\u0421\u0420. \u041d\u0430\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0434\u0451\u043d \u043c\u0435\u0434\u0430\u043b\u044f\u043c\u0438.\n\n\u0421\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0447\u0430\u043b\u0441\u044f \u0432 1974 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443. \u041f\u043e\u0445\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0435\u043d \u043d\u0430 \u0412\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u043a\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0431\u0438\u0449\u0435 (4 \u0443\u0447.).\n\n\u041d\u0430\u0443\u0447\u043d\u043e-\u043c\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0442\u0440\u0443\u0434\u044b\n\n\u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438 \n \u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f, \u041a\u0430\u0444\u0435\u0434\u0440\u0430 \u00ab\u0422\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0443\u043a\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0432\u00bb\n \u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0432 \u043b\u0438\u0446\u0430\u0445, \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u0441\u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043c\u0430\u0448\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0443\u043d\u0438\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0442 (\u041c\u0410\u041c\u0418)\n\n\u041f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0447\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\n\n\u041b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430 \n \n \n \n\n\u0412\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u0421\u0430\u043d\u043a\u0442-\u041f\u0435\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0431\u0443\u0440\u0433\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0443\u043d\u0438\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0442\u0430\n\u041f\u0440\u0435\u043f\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0438 \u0421\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0443\u043d\u0438\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0442\u0430\n\u041f\u043e\u0445\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043d\u0430 \u0412\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u043a\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0431\u0438\u0449\u0435\n\u041f\u0440\u0435\u043f\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0438 \u041c\u0410\u0414\u0418\n\u041f\u0440\u0435\u043f\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0438 \u041c\u0410\u041c\u0418", "meta": {"title": "\u0411\u0435\u0440\u0433, \u041f\u0451\u0442\u0440 \u041f\u0435\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447", "url": "https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%2C%20%D0%9F%D1%91%D1%82%D1%80%20%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87", "language": "ru", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "Der Kia Geuraento war ein mittelschwerer Lkw, den Kia Motors zwischen 1995 und 2000 als Nachfolger des Asia AM produzierte. Der Geuraento entstand in technischer Zusammenarbeit mit Hino Motors und war im Wesentlichen ein Mix aus Komponenten des Hino Ranger III+IV. So war das Chassis und das F\u00fchrerhaus vom Ranger III, Die Front und das Armaturenbrett wiederum vom Ranger IV. Ebenso wie der 7,4-Liter-Dieselmotor mit 370\u00a0PS. Neben der Antriebsformel 6x4 gab es ihn auch als 8x8. Die Nutzlast betrug zun\u00e4chst 11,5 Tonnen. Ab 1996 gab es ein Kipperfahrzeug, Sattelzugmaschine und Betonmischer mit jeweils 15 Tonnen Nutzlast.\n1997 wurde dann eine eigens entwickelte 430-PS-Variante des in Lizenz gebauten Hino Motors ins Programm mit aufgenommen, wodurch Kia nun auch Versionen bis 23\u00a0Tonnen Nutzlast anbieten konnte. Im s\u00fcdkoreanischen Marktsegment f\u00fcr Baufahrzeuge wurde Kia dadurch Marktf\u00fchrer. Durch die Fusion mit der Hyundai Motor Company wurde 2000 beschlossen k\u00fcnftig alle Nutzfahrzeuge von Kia und Asia Motors oberhalb des Kia Bongo einzustellen oder als Hyundai zu vermarkten. Da der urspr\u00fcngliche Hino Motor die Abgasvorschriften f\u00fcr 2001 nicht einhalten konnte wurde die Produktion Ende 2000 zugunsten des Hyundai Super Truck, der bis dahin ein Konkurrenzmodell war, eingestellt.\n\nEinzelnachweise\n\nWeblinks \n\nGeuraento\nLkw-Modell", "meta": {"title": "Kia Geuraento", "url": "https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kia%20Geuraento", "language": "de", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "\u00c4rke\u00e4ngeln Sankt Mikaels kyrka (ukrainska:\u00a0\u0426\u0435\u0440\u043a\u0432\u0430 \u0441\u0432. \u0410\u0440\u0445\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0433\u0430 \u041c\u0438\u0445\u0430\u0457\u043b\u0430) \u00e4r en tr\u00e4kyrka v\u00e4ster om byn Uzhok i Transkarpatiens oblast i v\u00e4stra Ukraina.\n\nDen byggdes 1745, \u00e4r till\u00e4gnad \u00e4rke\u00e4ngel Mikael och anv\u00e4nds som f\u00f6rsamlingskyrka. En sakristia har byggts i tegel och 1927 byggdes ett klocktorn.\n\n\u00c5r 2013 uts\u00e5gs den, som en av 16 tr\u00e4kyrkor i Karpaterna, till v\u00e4rldsarv under samlingsnamnet Tr\u00e4kyrkor i Karpatiska regionen i Polen och Ukraina av Unesco.\n\nK\u00e4llor\n\nV\u00e4rldsarv i Ukraina\nV\u00e4rldsarv inskrivna 2013\nKyrkobyggnader i Ukraina\nKyrkobyggnader invigda 1745\nByggnader i Zakarpatska oblast\nKategori_Kyrkobyggnader till\u00e4gnade \u00e4rke\u00e4ngeln Mikael", "meta": {"title": "\u00c4rke\u00e4ngeln Sankt Mikaels kyrka", "url": "https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%84rke%C3%A4ngeln%20Sankt%20Mikaels%20kyrka", "language": "sv", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "Eudarcia ornata \u00e4r en fj\u00e4rilsart som beskrevs av Reinhardt Gaedike 2000. Eudarcia ornata ing\u00e5r i sl\u00e4ktet Eudarcia och familjen \u00e4kta malar. Inga underarter finns listade i Catalogue of Life.\n\nK\u00e4llor\n\nExterna l\u00e4nkar \n\n\u00c4kta malar\nornata", "meta": {"title": "Eudarcia ornata", "url": "https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eudarcia%20ornata", "language": "sv", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "In economia lutilit\u00e0 \u00e8 la misura della felicit\u00e0 o soddisfazione individuale. Un bene \u00e8 dunque utile se considerato idoneo a soddisfare una domanda.\n\nSecondo l'utilitarismo, la massimizzazione dell'utilit\u00e0 sociale dovrebbe essere il fine ultimo della societ\u00e0, che dovrebbe quindi tendere ad ottenere \"la felicit\u00e0 maggiore per il maggior numero di individui\".\n\nUtilit\u00e0 cardinale e ordinale \n\nIn economia, l'utilit\u00e0 individuale era implicitamente assunta come una quantit\u00e0 misurabile e addizionabile. Il principio di massima felicit\u00e0 sopra accennato era infatti commisurato alla possibilit\u00e0 di:\n misurare l'utilit\u00e0 di ciascun individuo ricollegabile a qualsiasi evento, ed in particolare al consumo di quantit\u00e0 date di beni e servizi;\n sommare le utilit\u00e0 individuali per ottenere l'utilit\u00e0 totale della collettivit\u00e0.\n\nQuesta nozione di utilit\u00e0, come una quantit\u00e0 misurabile e aggregabile tra gli individui, \u00e8 stata poi denominata utilit\u00e0 cardinale. Secondo tale nozione ciascun individuo \u00e8 in grado di assegnare un valore esatto a ciascun bene su una scala cardinale.\n\nPer superare le critiche mosse da pi\u00f9 parti, a partire dai contributi di Vilfredo Pareto, gli economisti neoclassici svilupparono il concetto di utilit\u00e0 ordinale, per la quale si argoment\u00f2 che l'unica cosa realmente necessaria alla fondazione della teoria del valore e della teoria del consumo neoclassiche era la possibilit\u00e0 che gli individui potessero disporre su una scala ordinale i diversi beni in base alle loro preferenze, quindi contava solo l'ordine, non la grandezza assoluta dell'utilit\u00e0.\n\nCos\u00ec, ad esempio, se l'utilit\u00e0 fosse intesa in senso cardinale e un individuo attribuisse utilit\u00e0 10 ad una tazza di caff\u00e8 e utilit\u00e0 2 ad un bicchiere di aranciata, questo starebbe a significare che l'individuo preferisce cinque volte di pi\u00f9 la tazza di caff\u00e8 all'aranciata; laddove l'utilit\u00e0 venisse invece intesa in senso ordinale, l'unica cosa che potrebbe essere detta circa le preferenze dell'individuo in questione, sarebbe che egli preferisce il caff\u00e8 all'aranciata, senza con questo quantificare in termini assoluti tale preferenza.\n\nFunzione di utilit\u00e0 \n\nSi consideri un insieme di consumo , cio\u00e8 l'insieme di tutte le possibili combinazioni di consumo individuale, e una relazione , detta di preferenza debole, su :  significa cio\u00e8 che un consumatore le cui preferenze sono rappresentate da , posto di fronte alla scelta tra  e , preferir\u00e0  o sar\u00e0 indifferente tra le due opzioni. Si stabilisce cos\u00ec un ordinamento degli elementi dell'insieme . Sia inoltre  caratterizzata dalle seguenti propriet\u00e0:\n Completezza:  si ha  oppure ;\n Transitivit\u00e0: , .\nSotto tali ipotesi,  si definisce una relazione di preferenza razionale (in linguaggio matematico preordine totale); si dimostra inoltre che, sotto l'ulteriore ipotesi di continuit\u00e0 di detta relazione, \u00e8 possibile rappresentare  attraverso una funzione di utilit\u00e0, una funzione cio\u00e8 che leghi il consumo di beni al livello di utilit\u00e0. \u00c8 banale osservare che l'ipotesi di completezza implica la riflessivit\u00e0 della relazione : ossia  si ha .\n\nIn termini formali, sotto l'ipotesi che ci siano  beni di consumo, l'insieme di consumo si riduce allo spazio euclideo . Qualsiasi paniere consumato  \u00e8 un vettore di dimensione . Una generica funzione di utilit\u00e0 \u00e8 definita come:\n\ntale che  se e solo se .\n\nIn particolare, tale funzione  sar\u00e0 unica a meno di una trasformazione monotona crescente; in altri termini, se  \u00e8 una funzione di utilit\u00e0 che rappresenta le preferenze  e  \u00e8 una funzione monotona crescente, allora anche  rappresenta le preferenze . Tale propriet\u00e0 implica la natura ordinale dell'ordinamento stabilito in termini di utilit\u00e0 - per cui non ha significato affermare che un consumatore trae dal consumo del paniere  un'utilit\u00e0 doppia rispetto a quella che ottiene dal consumo del paniere .\n\nNella teoria economica vengono utilizzate diverse specificazioni della funzione di utilit\u00e0:\n funzioni di utilit\u00e0 Cobb-Douglas;\n funzioni di utilit\u00e0 CES (Constant Elasticity of Substitution);\n funzioni di utilit\u00e0 CRRA (Constant Relative Risk Adversion);\n funzioni di utilit\u00e0 CARA (Constant Absolute Risk Adversion).\n\nNote\n\nBibliografia \n  (traduzione italiana:)\n French, Simon (1993): Decision Theory, Ellis Horwood, New York, 1993.\n Kreps, David Mark (1998) Notes on the Theory of Choice, Underground Classics in Economics, Westview Press, Boulder (CO), USA.\n Fishburn, Peter C. (1979): Utility Theory for Decision Making, Krieger, Huntington (NY). Prima edizione (1970): Wiley, New York, in inglese.\n\nVoci correlate \n Marginalismo\n Microeconomia\n Ofelimit\u00e0\n Utilit\u00e0 attesa\n Utilit\u00e0 marginale\n\nAltri progetti\n\nCollegamenti esterni \n \n\nMicroeconomia\nEconomia della produzione", "meta": {"title": "Utilit\u00e0 (economia)", "url": "https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utilit%C3%A0%20%28economia%29", "language": "it", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "\u0421\u043f\u0443\u043d\u0435\u0440 () \u0433\u0440\u0430\u0434 \u0458\u0435 \u0443 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0447\u043a\u043e\u0458 \u0441\u0430\u0432\u0435\u0437\u043d\u043e\u0458 \u0434\u0440\u0436\u0430\u0432\u0438 \u0412\u0438\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0438\u043d.\n\n\u0414\u0435\u043c\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u0458\u0430 \n\u041f\u043e \u043f\u043e\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0443 \u0438\u0437 2010. \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0435 \u0431\u0440\u043e\u0458 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0458\u0435 2.682, \u0448\u0442\u043e \u0458\u0435 29 (1,1%) \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430 \u0432\u0438\u0448\u0435 \u043d\u0435\u0433\u043e 2000. \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0435.\n\n\u0420\u0435\u0444\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0446\u0435\n\n\u041b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u0430\n\n\u0412\u0438\u0434\u0438 \u0458\u043e\u0448 \n \u0421\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043a \u0433\u0440\u0430\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0430 \u0443 \u0421\u0410\u0414 \u043f\u043e \u0431\u0440\u043e\u0458\u0443 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430\n \u041d\u0430\u0458\u0432\u0435\u045b\u0438 \u0433\u0440\u0430\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0438 \u0443 \u0421\u0410\u0414 \u043f\u043e \u0434\u0435\u0446\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0458\u0430\u043c\u0430\n\n\u0421\u043f\u043e\u0459\u0430\u0448\u045a\u0435 \u0432\u0435\u0437\u0435 \n\n -{United States Census Bureau}-\n\n\u0413\u0440\u0430\u0434\u043e\u0432\u0438 \u0443 \u0412\u0438\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0438\u043d\u0443\n\u0412\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0458\u0435\u043a\u0442 \u0433\u0435\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u0458\u0430/\u041d\u0430\u0441\u0435\u0459\u0430 \u0443 \u0421\u0410\u0414", "meta": {"title": "\u0421\u043f\u0443\u043d\u0435\u0440 (\u0412\u0438\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0438\u043d)", "url": "https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%20%28%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD%29", "language": "sr", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "Gerd Faltings (Gelsenkirchen, 28 juli 1954) is een Duits wiskundige die bekend is door zijn werk in de rekenkundige algebra\u00efsche meetkunde. Hij slaagde erin het vermoeden van Mordell te bewijzen.\n\nBiografie \nFaltings werd geboren in het Gelsenkirchense stadsdeel Buer. Van 1972 tot 1978 studeerde hij wiskunde en natuurkunde aan de Universiteit van M\u00fcnster. In 1978 ontving hij zijn doctoraat in de wiskunde en in 1981 verkreeg hij de venia Legendi (Habilitatie) in de wiskunde, beide aan de Universiteit van M\u00fcnster. Gedurende deze tijd was hij assistent-professor aan de Universiteit van M\u00fcnster. Van 1982 tot 1984 was hij hoogleraar aan de Bergische Universit\u00e4t Wuppertal. Daarna was hij hoogleraar aan de Universiteit van Princeton (1985-1994).\n\nHij werd in 1986 gelauwerd met de Fields-medaille voor zijn bewijs van het vermoeden van Mordell; dit vermoeden stelt dat elke niet-singuliere projectieve kromme van genus g > 1, gedefinieerd over een getallenveld K slechts eindig veel K-rationale punten bevat. Het vermoeden van Mordell heet sedertdien de stelling van Faltings.\n \nSinds 1995 is hij directeur van het Max-Planck-Institut voor Wiskunde in Bonn. In 1996 ontving hij de Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz-prijs van de Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, de belangrijkste prijs in de Duitse wetenschap.\n\nPrijzen \n Fields-medaille (1986)\n Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz-prijs (1996)\n Cantor-medaille (2017)\n\nExterne links \n Gerd Faltings op MacTutor\n Faltings' thuispagina aan de Universiteit van Bonn\n\nDuits wiskundige\nGetaltheoreticus\nWinnaar van de Fieldsmedaille", "meta": {"title": "Gerd Faltings", "url": "https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerd%20Faltings", "language": "nl", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "Za druge osebe glej Thomas Wright (razlo\u010ditev).\n\nThomas Wright, angle\u0161ki u\u010denjak, astronom, matematik, filozof, izdelovalec in\u0161trumentov, arhitekt in oblikovalec vrtov, * 1711, Byers Green, grofija Durham, Anglija, \u2020 1786.\n\n\u017divljenje in delo \n\nOd leta 1730 je Wright pou\u010deval matematiko in navigacijo na \u0161oli v Sunderlandu. Kasneje se je preselil v London, kjer je delal za svoje bogate pokrovitelje. Nazadnje se je umaknil v County Durham kjer je v Westertonu zgradil majhen observatorij.\n\nWright je najbolj znan po poskusu pojasnitve nastanka Oson\u010dja. Leta 1750 je trdil, da so zvezde v Rimski cesti razporejene v disk, kar je objavil v delu Izvirna teorija ali nova domneva Vesolja (An original theroy or new hypothesis of the universe). Njegovo zamisel je prevzel in naprej razvil Kant.\n\nPriznanja \n\n Poimenovanja\n\nPo njem, Fredericku Eugeneu Wrightu in Williamu Hammondu Wrightu se imenuje krater Wright na Luni.\n\nSklici\n\nGlej tudi \n\n seznam angle\u0161kih arhitektov\n seznam angle\u0161kih astronomov\n seznam angle\u0161kih matematikov\n\nAngle\u0161ki arhitekti\nAngle\u0161ki astronomi\nAngle\u0161ki matematiki\nAngle\u0161ki filozofi\nLjudje, po katerih so poimenovali krater na Luni", "meta": {"title": "Thomas Wright (astronom)", "url": "https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Wright%20%28astronom%29", "language": "sl", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "Thomas \u201eTom\u201c Davison (* 3. Januar 1988) ist ein britischer Springreiter und ehemaliger Bassist der Band Dakota.\n\nPrivates \nDavison entstammt einer Reiterfamilie, sein Vater ist der ber\u00fchmte Dressurreiter Richard Davison, seine Mutter Gillian ritt fr\u00fcher Vielseitigkeit, heute reitet auch sie Dressur. Sein j\u00fcngerer Bruder Joseph ist Springreiter.\n\nDavison studierte Business Management an der University of Manchester.\n\nPferde \n Egano Star, Schimmel, Besitzer: Richard Davison\n Kindalton Holly, Fuchs\n\nWeblinks \n Davison Equestrian\n\nEinzelnachweise \n\nSpringreiter\nReiter (Vereinigtes K\u00f6nigreich)\nMusiker (Vereinigtes K\u00f6nigreich)\nBrite\nGeboren 1988\nMann", "meta": {"title": "Tom Davison (Reiter)", "url": "https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%20Davison%20%28Reiter%29", "language": "de", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "Subglacial eruptions, those of ice-covered volcanoes, result in the interaction of magma with ice and snow, leading to meltwater formation, j\u00f6kulhlaups, and lahars. Flooding associated with meltwater is a significant hazard in some volcanic areas, including Iceland, Alaska, and parts of the Andes. J\u00f6kulhlaups (glacial outburst floods) have been identified as the most frequently occurring volcanic hazard in Iceland, with major events where peak discharges of meltwater can reach 10,000 \u2013 100,000\u00a0m3/s occurring when there are large eruptions beneath glaciers.\n\nIt is important to explore volcano-ice interactions to improve the effectiveness of monitoring these events and to undertake hazard assessments. This is particularly relevant given that subglacial eruptions have demonstrated their ability to cause widespread impact, with the ash cloud associated with Iceland's Eyjafjallaj\u00f6kull eruption in 2010 resulting in significant impacts to aviation across Europe.\n\nExamples\n\nDeception Island, Antarctica (1969)\nGiven that subglacial eruptions occur in often sparsely populated regions, they are not commonly observed or monitored; thus timings and sequences of events for an eruption of this type are poorly constrained.\nResearch of the 1969 Deception Island eruption demonstrates that the impact of a subglacial eruption is not limited purely by glacier thickness, but that the pre-volcanic ice structure and densification (proportion of impermeable ice) play a role as well. In this case, even though the glacier was thin, a large j\u00f6kulhlaup was observed as the glacier was largely made up of impermeable (unfractured) ice with a sudden supraglacial flood once the cavity has reached capacity. The resulting flood severely damaged buildings on the island, with complete destruction of a British scientific station.\n\nGr\u00edmsv\u00f6tn, Iceland (1996)\nOver a period of 13 days in 1996, 3\u00a0km2 of ice was melted with erupted magma fracturing into glass to form a 7\u00a0km long and 300\u00a0m high hyaloclastite ridge under 750\u00a0m of ice at Gjalp fissure vent of Gr\u00edmsv\u00f6tn volcano in Iceland. Meltwater flowed along a narrow basal glacier bed into a subglacial lake for five weeks, before being released as a sudden flood, or j\u00f6kulhlaup. Although it has been proposed that subglacial volcanism may play a role in the dynamics of West Antarctic ice streams by supplying water to their base, for the Gjalp eruption, no rapid basal sliding was observed at the regional scale, with the formation of ice cauldrons over eruptive fissures due to the sudden removal of mass at the base.\n\nResearch demonstrated that for warm-based glaciers, the effects of subglacial volcanic eruptions are localised, with eruptions forming deep depressions and causing j\u00f6kulhlaups. For there to be significant changes in the extent and shape of an ice sheet, extensive subglacial volcanism would be required, melting a considerable fraction of the total ice volume over a short period of time.\n\nEyjafjallaj\u00f6kull, Iceland (2010)\n\nIn the first two days of the eruption, ice cauldrons were formed over the volcanic vents. Radar images reveal the development of these cauldrons in a 200\u00a0m thick ice cover within the summit caldera. They can also be used to document the subglacial and supraglacial passage of meltwater away from the eruption site. Research shows the eruption breached the ice surface four hours after the initial eruption onset, whilst meltwater release was characterised by accumulation and subsequent drainage, with most of the volcanic material in the ice cauldrons being drained in hyperconcentrated floods.\n\nSee also\n Pillow lava\n Subaqueous volcano\n Subglacial mound\n Subglacial volcano\n Submarine volcano\n Tuya\n Types of volcanic eruptions\n\nReferences\n\nPhreatomagmatic eruptions\nGlaciovolcanism\nVolcanic eruption types", "meta": {"title": "Subglacial eruption", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subglacial%20eruption", "language": "en", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "Youngblood - Spalle larghe (Youngblood) \u00e8 un film drammatico statunitense del 1986, interpretato da Rob Lowe, Patrick Swayze, Cynthia Gibb, Keanu Reeves e Ed Lauter.\n\nTrama  \nIl diciassettenne americano Dean Youngblood ha il pallino dell'hockey, e sogna di giocare nella squadra del National Hockey League. Ci riuscir\u00e0, ma non sar\u00e0 facile sia cavarsela nel duro e violento allenamento del gioco, sia farsi accettare dai componenti della nuova squadra gi\u00e0 ben affiatati e pi\u00f9 grandi di lui, guidati dal capitano e leader Derek Sutton. Inoltre, Dean passa fin troppo tempo seduto in panchina, forse a causa della gelosia dell'allenatore Murray Chadwick, padre della bella e giovane Jessie (figlia del Coach) che tifa sempre per lui.\n\nIl momento di difficolt\u00e0 pi\u00f9 grande arriva quando proprio il leader del gruppo viene gravemente ferito durante una partita dallo scorretto Carl Racki, al punto di compromettere definitivamente la sua carriera. Dean, ferito e scoraggiato, decide di tornare nella fattoria paterna dove lo attendono il padre Blane, e il fratello Kelly, entrambi ex giocatori professionisti. Lo alleneranno sia nella tattica sportiva che nella difesa contro la brutalit\u00e0 di alcuni giocatori, fino al far riemergere nel ragazzo il coraggio necessario ad affrontare l'importante partita, il Memorial Cup playoff tra la sua squadra e il Thunder Bay Bombers, e vendicare l'amico Derek.\n\nProduzione \nLa storia del film \u00e8 la quasi totale autobiografia del regista Peter Markle. Le riprese del film si sono svolte nella citt\u00e0 di Toronto. Gli interni sono stati girati nel Ted Reeve Arena, la Hamilton Mustangs e lo Scarborough Gardens Arena. I diritti televisivi di Youngblood sono detenuti dal canale tv Versus, che mand\u00f2 in onda il film durante i playoff della Stanley Cup.\n\nCollegamenti esterni \n \n\nFilm drammatici\nFilm sull'hockey su ghiaccio", "meta": {"title": "Spalle larghe", "url": "https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spalle%20larghe", "language": "it", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "\u0418\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u042d\u0434\u0432\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043d\u0430 \u041c\u0438\u043d\u0445 (\u0440\u043e\u0434. 16 \u0430\u043f\u0440\u0435\u043b\u044f 1964, \u0427\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043f\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e, \u041d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0441\u0438\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c, \u0420\u0421\u0424\u0421\u0420, \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420)\u00a0\u2014 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0431\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043a\u0430. \u0418\u0437 \u0441\u0435\u043c\u044c\u0438 \u0434\u0435\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0432 \u0421\u0438\u0431\u0438\u0440\u044c \u043d\u0435\u043c\u0446\u0435\u0432. \u0417\u0430\u0441\u043b\u0443\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043c\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0440 \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0430 \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420 (1991).\n\n\u0411\u0438\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u044f \n\u041e\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0447\u0438\u043b\u0430 \u041d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0441\u0438\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0443\u0442, \u041d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0441\u0438\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0433\u043e\u0441\u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0433\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0442\u0443\u0442, \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043f\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c.\n\n\u0412\u044b\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u0432 1982\u20141992 \u0437\u0430 \u00ab\u0414\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043c\u043e\u00bb (\u041d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0441\u0438\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0441\u043a). \u0412 \u0441\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0443\u044e \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0443 \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420/\u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 \u0432\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043b\u0430 \u0432 1985\u20141992. \u0412 1992 \u0443\u0435\u0445\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u0432 \u0418\u0437\u0440\u0430\u0438\u043b\u044c, \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u0437\u0430 \u043a\u043b\u0443\u0431 \u00ab\u0425\u0430\u043f\u043e\u044d\u043b\u044c\u00bb (\u041a\u0438\u0448\u043e\u043d). \u0421 1994 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u0432 \u0413\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438 (\u00ab\u0411\u043e\u0445\u0443\u043c\u00bb). \u0412 90-\u0445 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u0441\u0435\u0437\u043e\u043d \u0432 \u0410\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0438. \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0435\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0443\u044e \u043a\u0430\u0440\u044c\u0435\u0440\u0443 \u0437\u0430\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0448\u0438\u043b\u0430 \u0432 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0435 \u00ab\u0420\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043f\u00bb (\u0411\u043e\u043d\u043d, \u0413\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f).\n\n\u0412 2004 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u0437\u0430 \u00ab\u0414\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043c\u043e-\u042d\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0438\u044f\u00bb (\u041d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0441\u0438\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0441\u043a).\n\n\u0420\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0442\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440\u043e\u043c \u00ab\u0414\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043c\u043e-\u042d\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0438\u044f\u00bb (\u041d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0441\u0438\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0441\u043a) (\u043d\u043e\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044c 2004\u00a0\u2014 \u043c\u0430\u0440\u0442 2005). \u0412 \u0441\u0435\u0437\u043e\u043d\u0435 2005-06\u00a0\u2014 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u0442\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440 \u00ab\u0414\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043c\u043e-\u042d\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0438\u0438-2\u00bb, \u0432 \u0441\u0435\u0437\u043e\u043d\u0435 2006-07\u00a0\u2014 \u0442\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440-\u0441\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0435\u0440 \u043a\u043b\u0443\u0431\u0430.\n\n\u0421 2007\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u0433\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043c\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0434\u0436\u0435\u0440 \u00ab\u0414\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043c\u043e-\u042d\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0438\u044f\u00bb.\n\n\u0421 2016 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u00a0\u2014 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0437\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0442 \u043a\u043b\u0443\u0431\u0430 \u00ab\u0414\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043c\u043e\u00bb (\u041d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0441\u0438\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0441\u043a).\n\n4 \u043e\u043a\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f 2018\u00a0\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043e \u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0410\u043d\u0430\u0442\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0439 \u041b\u043e\u043a\u043e\u0442\u044c \u043d\u0430\u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0438\u043b \u0418\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0443 \u041c\u0438\u043d\u0445 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0442\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043c \u043c\u044d\u0440\u0430 \u041d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0441\u0438\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0430 \u043f\u043e \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0443.\n\n\u0414\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \n \u0427\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0430 \u041e\u0418 1992\n \u0411\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0437\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0437\u0435\u0440 \u041e\u0418 1988\n \u0421\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0431\u0440\u044f\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0437\u0435\u0440 \u0427\u041c 1986\n \u0427\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0430 \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u044b 1987, 1991\n \u0427\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0430 \u0412\u0441\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0423\u043d\u0438\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u0430\u0434\u044b 1985\n \u0427\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0430 \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420 1986\u20141988\n \u0421\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0431\u0440\u044f\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0437\u0435\u0440 \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0442\u0430 \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420 1985\n \u0411\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0437\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0437\u0435\u0440 \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0442\u0430 \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420 1981\u20141983\n \u041e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u041a\u0443\u0431\u043a\u0430 \u0420\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0442\u0438 1986\n \u0414\u0432\u0443\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0431\u0440\u044f\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0437\u0435\u0440 \u041a\u0443\u0431\u043a\u0430 \u0435\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u0435\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432 1987, 1988\n\n\u041d\u0430\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0434\u044b \n \u041c\u0435\u0434\u0430\u043b\u044c \u043e\u0440\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0430 \u00ab\u0417\u0430 \u0437\u0430\u0441\u043b\u0443\u0433\u0438 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434 \u041e\u0442\u0435\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u043c\u00bb II \u0441\u0442\u0435\u043f\u0435\u043d\u0438 (5 \u043d\u043e\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f 2020 \u0433\u043e\u0434) - \u0437\u0430 \u0437\u0430\u0441\u043b\u0443\u0433\u0438 \u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0438\u0438 \u0444\u0438\u0437\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0443\u0440\u044b \u0438 \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0430, \u043c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0442\u043d\u044e\u044e \u0434\u043e\u0431\u0440\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u0443\u044e \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0443.\n\n\u041f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0447\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\n\n\u0421\u0441\u044b\u043b\u043a\u0438 \n \u041f\u0440\u043e\u0444\u0438\u043b\u044c\n \u0418\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044c\u044e: \u00ab\u0421 \u0410\u043b\u043b\u043e\u0439 \u041f\u0443\u0433\u0430\u0447\u0451\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043c\u044b \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0433\u0434\u0430 \u0433\u0434\u0435-\u0442\u043e \u0440\u044f\u0434\u043e\u043c\u00bb\n \u0418\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u041c\u0438\u043d\u0445: \u00ab\u0422\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e \u0432 \u041d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0441\u0438\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0435 \u044f \u0447\u0443\u0432\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443\u044e \u0441\u0435\u0431\u044f \u0434\u043e\u043c\u0430!\u00bb\n\n\u041f\u0435\u0440\u0441\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u043e \u0430\u043b\u0444\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0442\u0443\n\u0412\u0438\u043a\u0438\u043f\u0435\u0434\u0438\u044f:\u0411\u0438\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u0438 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432\n\u0420\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0435\u0441\u044f 16 \u0430\u043f\u0440\u0435\u043b\u044f\n\u0420\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0435\u0441\u044f \u0432 1964 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443\n\u0420\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0435\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u0427\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043f\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0435\n\u0411\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u044b \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420\n\u0417\u0430\u0441\u043b\u0443\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043c\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0430 \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0430 \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420\n\u0418\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043a\u0438 \u0441\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420 \u043f\u043e \u0431\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0443\n\u041e\u043b\u0438\u043c\u043f\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u044b \u043f\u043e \u0431\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0443\n\u041e\u043b\u0438\u043c\u043f\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0447\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u044b \u043e\u0442 \u041e\u0431\u044a\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0451\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u044b\n\u0427\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u044b \u043b\u0435\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0445 \u041e\u043b\u0438\u043c\u043f\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0438\u0433\u0440 1992 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\n\u0411\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u044b \u043d\u0430 \u043b\u0435\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0445 \u041e\u043b\u0438\u043c\u043f\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0445 1992 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\n\u0411\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0437\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0437\u0451\u0440\u044b \u043b\u0435\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0445 \u041e\u043b\u0438\u043c\u043f\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0438\u0433\u0440 1988 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\n\u0411\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u044b \u043d\u0430 \u043b\u0435\u0442\u043d\u0438\u0445 \u041e\u043b\u0438\u043c\u043f\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0445 1988 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\n\u0427\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u044b \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u044b \u043f\u043e \u0431\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0443\n\u0427\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0438\u043e\u043d\u044b \u0421\u0421\u0421\u0420 \u043f\u043e \u0431\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u0443\n\u0418\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043a\u0438 \u0416\u0411\u041a \u00ab\u0414\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043c\u043e\u00bb \u041d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0441\u0438\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0441\u043a\n\u0411\u0430\u0441\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0442\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0440\u044b \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438\n\u0412\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u041d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0441\u0438\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0443\u043d\u0438\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0442\u0430\n\u0412\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u041d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0441\u0438\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0433\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0443\u043d\u0438\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0442\u0430", "meta": {"title": "\u041c\u0438\u043d\u0445, \u0418\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u042d\u0434\u0432\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043d\u0430", "url": "https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%85%2C%20%D0%98%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%20%D0%AD%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0", "language": "ru", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "Cancer Letters, abgek\u00fcrzt Cancer Lett., ist eine wissenschaftliche Fachzeitschrift, die vom Elsevier-Verlag ver\u00f6ffentlicht wird. Die Zeitschrift erscheint derzeit mit 28 Ausgaben im Jahr. Es werden Arbeiten ver\u00f6ffentlicht, die sich mit den Grundlagen und translationaler Onkologie besch\u00e4ftigen.\n\nDer Impact Factor lag im Jahr 2016 bei 6,375. Nach der Statistik des ISI Web of Knowledge wird das Journal mit diesem Impact Factor in der Kategorie Onkologie an 25. Stelle von 217 Zeitschriften gef\u00fchrt.\n\nEinzelnachweise \n\nOnkologische Zeitschrift\nEnglischsprachige 14-t\u00e4gliche Zeitschrift\nErsterscheinung 1975\nMedizinische Fachzeitschrift (Niederlande)\nElsevier", "meta": {"title": "Cancer Letters", "url": "https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancer%20Letters", "language": "de", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "Henri Vallette, n\u00e9 le  \u00e0 B\u00e2le en Suisse et mort le  dans le  arrondissement de Paris, est un sculpteur animalier suisse, install\u00e9 \u00e0 Paris d\u00e8s 1907 et enseignant \u00e0 l'\u00c9cole nationale sup\u00e9rieure des arts d\u00e9coratifs \u00e0 partir de 1929.\n\nBiographie \n\nHenri Vallette na\u00eet le 16 septembre 1877 \u00e0 B\u00e2le, en Suisse du mariage de Oscar Vallette et Anna Fran\u00e7oise Am\u00e9lie Bonnet. Il est le cinqui\u00e8me d'une fratrie de six enfants. Son p\u00e8re est pasteur suffragant \u00e0 l\u2019\u00c9glise fran\u00e7aise de B\u00e2le (1870-1877) et pasteur de l'\u00c9glise de la Confession d'Augsbourg.\n\nLe 18 juillet 1907, il se marie avec C\u00e9cile Ad\u00e8le Diertelen, fille d\u2019un pasteur missionnaire au Lesotho, \u00e0 la mairie du  arrondissement de Paris. De ce mariage naissent trois enfants: Laure (1908), Catherine (1912) et Claude (1914).\n\nIl passe sa jeunesse \u00e0 Montpellier et entame une licence de  lettres option langues vivantes (bilingue allemand) et honore une ann\u00e9e de service militaire. \u00c0 partir de 1900, \u00e0 la suite de sa rencontre avec Eug\u00e8ne Burnand, il se sp\u00e9cialise dans la sculpture des animaux de campagne et du quotidien et entre comme \u00e9l\u00e8ve dans l\u2019atelier parisien du sculpteur Jean Dampt qui sera d'ailleurs t\u00e9moin de son mariage. Il rencontre \u00e9galement un certain Louis de Monard avec qui il tisse un fort lien d'amiti\u00e9.\n\nLors de la grande guerre, il est affect\u00e9 \u00e0\u00a0son unit\u00e9 le 5 ao\u00fbt 1914, d\u2019abord en garnison,\u00a0puis rejoint le front en d\u00e9cembre 1915 avec le grade de sous-lieutenant au  d'Infanterie. Il reste 28 mois dans les tranch\u00e9es, et participe \u00e0 la Bataille de Verdun (1917) et au chemin des Dames (1917).\n\nEn 1929 il est nomm\u00e9 professeur de sculpture \u00e0 l\u2019\u00c9cole nationale sup\u00e9rieure des arts d\u00e9coratifs.\n\n\u0152uvres notables \n\n Buste de Paul Val\u00e9ry,1926, biblioth\u00e8que Paul-Doucet. \nLes merlots, Bronze, collection priv\u00e9e. \nLe daim, Bronze, collection priv\u00e9e. \nLe coq, Bronze, collection priv\u00e9e. \n Le chat couch\u00e9, 1929, Bronze, centre Georges-Pompidou. \nLe monument aux m\u00e8res, square Ferdinand-Brunot, 14\u00e8me arrondissement de Paris. \nMonument aux morts de Nogent-le-Rotrou.\n\nR\u00e9f\u00e9rences\n\nLiens externes \n\nSculpteur suisse\nNaissance en septembre 1877\nD\u00e9c\u00e8s en mai 1962\nD\u00e9c\u00e8s \u00e0 84 ans", "meta": {"title": "Henri Vallette", "url": "https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri%20Vallette", "language": "fr", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "\u0411\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0442\u043e \u041c\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0435\u0441 (, \u0440\u043e\u0434. 28 \u0438\u044e\u043d\u044f 1971, \u0410\u043b\u044c\u0431\u0443\u043a\u0435\u0440\u043a\u0435, \u041d\u044c\u044e-\u041c\u0435\u043a\u0441\u0438\u043a\u043e, \u0421\u0428\u0410)\u00a0\u2014 \u0430\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0430\u043a\u0442\u0451\u0440, \u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0431\u043b\u0430\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0440\u044f \u0440\u043e\u043b\u044f\u043c \u043d\u0430 \u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438.\n\n\u0416\u0438\u0437\u043d\u044c \u0438 \u043a\u0430\u0440\u044c\u0435\u0440\u0430 \n\u041c\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0435\u0441 \u0440\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043b\u0441\u044f \u0438 \u0432\u044b\u0440\u043e\u0441 \u0432 \u0410\u043b\u044c\u0431\u0443\u043a\u0435\u0440\u043a\u0435, \u0448\u0442\u0430\u0442 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\u041d\u0430 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u043e\u043c \u044d\u043a\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0435 \u0443 \u043d\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u0440\u043e\u043b\u0438 \u0432 \u00ab\u042d\u043f\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043c\u0438\u044f\u00bb (1995), \u00ab\u041f\u0438\u043b\u0430: \u0418\u0433\u0440\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u0432\u044b\u0436\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0435\u00bb (2004) \u0438 \u00ab\u041c\u0430\u043b\u044b\u0448\u043a\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u043c\u0438\u043b\u043b\u0438\u043e\u043d\u00bb (2004).\n\n\u041c\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0435\u0441 \u0437\u0430 \u0441\u0432\u043e\u044e \u043a\u0430\u0440\u044c\u0435\u0440\u0443 \u0441\u044b\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043b \u043d\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e \u0434\u0435\u0441\u044f\u0442\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0440\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0439, \u043d\u043e \u043d\u0430\u0438\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0435\u0439 \u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 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\u0430\u043d\u0430\u0440\u0445\u0438\u0438\u00bb (2011-2012) \u0438 \u00ab\u041a\u0430\u0440\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0434\u043e\u043c\u0438\u043a\u00bb (2014-2015). \u0412 2015 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u041c\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0435\u0441 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0438\u043b \u043f\u043e\u0445\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0443 \u043e\u0442 \u043a\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0437\u0430 \u0440\u043e\u043b\u044c \u043e\u0442\u0446\u0430 \u043e\u0431\u0432\u0438\u043d\u044f\u0435\u043c\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0432 \u0443\u0431\u0438\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043a\u0430 \u0432 \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0438\u0430\u043b\u0435 ABC \u00ab\u0410\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u00bb.\n\n\u041f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0447\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f\n\n\u0421\u0441\u044b\u043b\u043a\u0438 \n \n\n\u0410\u043a\u0442\u0451\u0440\u044b \u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0432\u0438\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0421\u0428\u0410\n\u0412\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u041b\u043e\u043d\u0434\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0430\u043a\u0430\u0434\u0435\u043c\u0438\u0438 \u043c\u0443\u0437\u044b\u043a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438 \u0434\u0440\u0430\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0438\u0441\u043a\u0443\u0441\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430", "meta": {"title": "\u041c\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0435\u0441, \u0411\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0442\u043e", "url": "https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%2C%20%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE", "language": "ru", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "Ransom \u00e9 uma cidade localizada no estado americano de Kansas, no Condado de Ness.\n\nDemografia \nSegundo o censo americano de 2000, a sua popula\u00e7\u00e3o era de 338 habitantes.\nEm 2006, foi estimada uma popula\u00e7\u00e3o de 286, um decr\u00e9scimo de 52 (-15.4%).\n\nGeografia \nDe acordo com o United States Census Bureau tem uma \u00e1rea de\n0,8\u00a0km\u00b2, dos quais 0,8\u00a0km\u00b2 cobertos por terra e 0,0\u00a0km\u00b2 cobertos por \u00e1gua. Ransom localiza-se a aproximadamente 766 m acima do n\u00edvel do mar.\n\nLocalidades na vizinhan\u00e7a \nO diagrama seguinte representa as localidades num raio de 32\u00a0km ao redor de Ransom.\n\nLiga\u00e7\u00f5es externas \n \n\nCidades do Kansas", "meta": {"title": "Ransom (Kansas)", "url": "https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ransom%20%28Kansas%29", "language": "pt", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "\u0412\u043e\u0301\u0437\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u041a\u043e\u0301\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0413\u043d\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 (1887\u00a0\u2014  5 \u0447\u0435\u0440\u0432\u043d\u044f 1919, \u0416\u0438\u0442\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0440)\u00a0\u2014 \u0443\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0432\u0456\u0439\u0441\u044c\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0439 \u0434\u0456\u044f\u0447, \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043d\u0438\u043a, \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0438\u0440 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043a\u0443 \u0414\u0456\u0454\u0432\u043e\u0457 \u0410\u0440\u043c\u0456\u0457 \u0423\u041d\u0420, \u0432\u0456\u0439\u0441\u044c\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0442 \u043c\u0456\u0441\u0442\u0430 \u0416\u0438\u0442\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0440.\n\n\u0416\u0438\u0442\u0442\u0454\u043f\u0438\u0441 \n\u041a\u043e\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0442 \u0416\u0438\u0442\u043e\u043c\u0438\u0440\u0430 \u0432 \u0441\u0456\u0447\u043d\u0456\u2014\u043b\u044e\u0442\u043e\u043c\u0443 1918\u00a0\u0440. \u0442\u0430 \u0437 \u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043f\u0430\u0434\u0430 1918\u00a0\u0440. \u0434\u043e \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0438 \u043a\u0432\u0456\u0442\u043d\u044f 1919\u00a0\u0440. 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{"text": "Melanie Pfeifer (* 25. August 1986 in Frankfurt am Main) ist eine deutsche Kanutin, die im Kanuslalom antritt.\n\nBei den Kanuslalom-Europameisterschaften 2009 in Nottingham belegte Melanie Pfeifer den vierten Platz in der Einzelwertung und erhielt mit der Mannschaft die Bronzemedaille. Im Jahr darauf gewann sie in \u010cunovo den Europameistertitel mit der Mannschaft, bei den Weltmeisterschaften im gleichen Jahr erhielt sie in der Mannschaftswertung die Silbermedaille. 2011 erhielt sie mit der Mannschaft die Bronzemedaille bei den Weltmeisterschaften. 2012 fanden die Europameisterschaften auf ihrer Heimstrecke in Augsburg statt, Pfeifer gewann den Titel mit der Mannschaft und belegte in der Einzelwertung den zweiten Platz. Zwei Jahre sp\u00e4ter erhielt sie bei den Europameisterschaften in Wien ebenfalls Silber im Einzelwettbewerb, mit der Mannschaft belegte sie in Wien den vierten Platz. Bei den Weltmeisterschaften 2014 auf dem Deep Creek Lake in Maryland erreichte Melanie Pfeifer den dritten Platz in der Einzelwertung, mit der Mannschaft belegte sie den f\u00fcnften Platz. 2015 fanden die Europameisterschaften in Markkleeberg statt, die deutsche Mannschaft belegte den achten Platz, in der Einzelwertung kam Melanie Pfeifer auf den neunten Rang. Bei den Weltmeisterschaften 2015 in London erhielt Pfeifer die Bronzemedaille in der Einzelwertung. Ihren bis dahin gr\u00f6\u00dften Erfolg erreichte Melanie Pfeifer bei den Europameisterschaften 2016 in Liptovsk\u00fd Mikul\u00e1\u0161, sie gewann in der Einzelwertung und erhielt mit der Mannschaft Silber. Bei den Olympischen Spielen 2016 belegte sie den siebten Platz. Ihr Trainer Stefan Henze starb w\u00e4hrend der Olympischen Spiele 2016 infolge eines Verkehrsunfalls.\n\nMelanie Pfeifer startet f\u00fcr den Verein Kanu Schwaben Augsburg. 2009, 2011, 2013 und 2014 gewann sie jeweils die deutschen Meistertitel im Einzel. In den Jahren 2009 und 2011 wurde sie in der Mannschaft Deutsche Meisterin.\n\nWeblinks \n Homepage\n Portr\u00e4t bei der deutschen Olympiamannschaft\n\nKanute (Deutschland)\nEuropameister (Kanu)\nDeutscher Meister (Kanu)\nOlympiateilnehmer (Deutschland)\nTeilnehmer der Olympischen Sommerspiele 2016\nSportler (Augsburg)\nDeutscher\nGeboren 1986\nFrau", "meta": {"title": "Melanie Pfeifer", "url": "https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanie%20Pfeifer", "language": "de", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "Strogij juno\u0161a (\u0421\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0439 \u044e\u043d\u043e\u0448\u0430) \u00e8 un film del 1936 diretto da Abram Matveevi\u010d Room.\n\nTrama\n\nNote\n\nCollegamenti esterni", "meta": {"title": "Strogij juno\u0161a", "url": "https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strogij%20juno%C5%A1a", "language": "it", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "Interferon alpha-14 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the IFNA14 gene.\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading", "meta": {"title": "IFNA14", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IFNA14", "language": "en", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "Chandernagor bezeichnet:\n Chandannagar, indischen Stadt\nFran\u00e7oise Chandernagor (* 1945), franz\u00f6sische Schriftstellerin", "meta": {"title": "Chandernagor", "url": "https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandernagor", "language": "de", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "\u041c\u0438\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0301\u0442 \u0412\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0301\u043a\u0442 (, \u0432 \u043c\u0438\u0440\u0443 \u0413\u0435\u043e\u0301\u0440\u0433\u0438\u043e\u0441 \u0426\u0435\u043a\u0443\u0301\u0440\u0430\u0441, ; )\u00a0\u2014 \u0435\u043f\u0438\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043f \u0418\u0435\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0430\u043b\u0438\u043c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0446\u0435\u0440\u043a\u0432\u0438, \u043c\u0438\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442 \u0414\u0438\u043e\u043a\u0435\u0441\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 (\u0441 2019), \u043f\u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0430\u0440\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u044d\u043f\u0438\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043f \u0412\u0438\u0444\u043b\u0435\u0435\u043c\u0430 (\u0441 2021).\n\n\u0411\u0438\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u044f \n\u0420\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043b\u0441\u044f \u0432 1957 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0432 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\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e.\n\n\u0412 1983 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0445\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0442\u043e\u043d\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043d \u0432\u043e \u0438\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0430\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0430, \u0430 \u0432 1986 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443\u00a0\u2014 \u0432\u043e \u0438\u0435\u0440\u043e\u043c\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0445\u0430 \u0441 \u0432\u043e\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0432 \u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0438\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u0430\u0440\u0445\u0438\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430.\n\n\u0421\u043b\u0443\u0436\u0438\u043b \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043c \u041c\u043e\u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044b\u0440\u044f \u0421\u0432\u044f\u0442\u043e\u0439 \u0415\u043a\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043d\u044b, \u0437\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043c \u0446\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043c\u043e\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043e\u043c \u0438 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\u0418\u043e\u0440\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0438, \u0445\u0440\u0430\u043c \u0421\u0432\u044f\u0442\u044b\u0445 \u041a\u043e\u043d\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u0438 \u0415\u043b\u0435\u043d\u044b \u0432 \u041c\u0430\u0440\u0433-\u044d\u043b\u044c-\u0425\u0430\u043c\u0430\u043c\u0435, \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u043a\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430, \u0434\u0435\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u0430\u0434 \u0438 \u043c\u0443\u0437\u0435\u0439 \u043c\u0438\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0438. \u0422\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u0431\u044b\u043b \u043e\u0441\u0432\u044f\u0449\u0435\u043d \u0434\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043d\u0438\u0439 \u0425\u0440\u0430\u043c \u0421\u0432\u044f\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0413\u0435\u043e\u0440\u0433\u0438\u044f \u0432 \u0421\u0430\u043b\u0442\u0435 \u0438 \u0443\u0447\u0440\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0451\u043d \u043a\u043d\u0438\u0436\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043c\u0430\u0433\u0430\u0437\u0438\u043d \u041c\u0438\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0438. \u0412 2005 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u043e \u0437\u0430\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0448\u0435\u043d\u043e \u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u0447\u0430\u0441\u043e\u0432\u043d\u044f \u0421\u0432\u044f\u0442\u043e\u0433\u043e \u041d\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0432 \u0421\u0432\u044f\u0449\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u041c\u0438\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0438.\n\n15 \u043c\u0430\u044f 2018 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0440\u0435\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0421\u0432\u044f\u0449\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0431\u044b\u043b \u043d\u0430\u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043d \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043c \u00ab\u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0430 \u043f\u0430\u043b\u043e\u043c\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u041a\u0440\u0435\u0449\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0413\u043e\u0441\u043f\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u0432\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0431\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0433\u0443 \u0418\u043e\u0440\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0430\u00bb.\n\n8 \u043e\u043a\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f 2018 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0440\u0435\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0421\u0432\u044f\u0449\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0431\u044b\u043b \u043d\u0430\u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0435\u043d \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043c \u0426\u0435\u0440\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0430\u043f\u0435\u043b\u043b\u044f\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u0443\u0434\u0430.\n\n25 \u0441\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044f\u0431\u0440\u044f 2019 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u0440\u0435\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0421\u0432\u044f\u0449\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0441\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0434\u0430 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d \u0432 \u043c\u0438\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0430 \u0414\u0438\u043e\u043a\u0435\u0441\u0430\u0440\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e.\n\n\u041f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0447\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \n\n\u041f\u0435\u0440\u0441\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u0438\u0438:\u0412\u0435\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0430\u044f \u041b\u0430\u0432\u0440\u0430\n\u041c\u0438\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0442\u044b \u0418\u0435\u0440\u0443\u0441\u0430\u043b\u0438\u043c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0430\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0446\u0435\u0440\u043a\u0432\u0438", "meta": {"title": "\u0412\u0435\u043d\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043a\u0442 (\u0426\u0435\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0430\u0441)", "url": "https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82%20%28%D0%A6%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%29", "language": "ru", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "Nerlin Alexis Membre\u00f1o Flores (Tegucigalpa, 24 de enero de 1972) es un exfutbolista y director t\u00e9cnico hondure\u00f1o. Actualmente es asistente t\u00e9cnico del Marath\u00f3n de la Liga Nacional de Honduras.\n\nTrayectoria\n\nComo jugador \nComo jugador, desarroll\u00f3 gran parte de su carrera en el Olimpia, club con el que milit\u00f3 durante doce a\u00f1os y conquist\u00f3 diez t\u00edtulos nacionales e internacionales. Posteriormente, fich\u00f3 por el Victoria, con el cual alcanz\u00f3 a ser subcampe\u00f3n del f\u00fatbol hondure\u00f1o, en el Clausura 2006. Una vez finalizado ese torneo, firm\u00f3 contrato por un a\u00f1o con el Atl\u00e9tico Olanchano, en donde finalmente se retir\u00f3.\n\nSelecci\u00f3n nacional \nFue internacional con la Selecci\u00f3n de f\u00fatbol de Honduras en diecisiete ocasiones y marc\u00f3 un gol.\n\nComo entrenador \nEl 3 de diciembre de 2013, la directiva del Olimpia nombr\u00f3 al argentino H\u00e9ctor Vargas como director t\u00e9cnico y a Membre\u00f1o como asistente t\u00e9cnico. Como mano derecha de Vargas, Membre\u00f1o conquist\u00f3 cinco t\u00edtulos nacionales (la Liga, la Copa y la Supercopa de Honduras), siendo uno de los \u00fanicos cuerpos t\u00e9cnicos en la historia del f\u00fatbol hondure\u00f1o que ganaron las tres competiciones. \n\nEl 8 de septiembre de 2017, el Honduras Progreso lo nombr\u00f3 como entrenador en reemplazo de Wilmer Cruz, con un contrato por lo que restaba del Torneo Apertura 2017. Al mando del cuadro arrocero, dirigi\u00f3 catorce partidos, sumando: cuatro triunfos, un empate y nueve derrotas. El 12 de diciembre fue separado de su cargo y, dos meses despu\u00e9s, el 2 de febrero de 2018, demand\u00f3 al club ante el Tribunal Nacional Arbitral de F\u00fatbol (TNAF) por adeudo de dos meses de salario.\n \nEn 2019 fue nombrado entrenador del Olancho de la Liga de Ascenso de Honduras, con el objetivo de ascender a la m\u00e1xima categor\u00eda. Con el cuadro olanchano se consagr\u00f3 campe\u00f3n del Torneo Clausura 2019, pero perdi\u00f3 la final\u00edsima de ascenso ante Real Sociedad.\n\nEl 18 de agosto de 2020 fue anunciado como asistente t\u00e9cnico de Ram\u00f3n Maradiaga en el Vida, como relevo del cuerpo t\u00e9cnico liderado por el uruguayo Fernando Ara\u00fajo. El 21 de noviembre de 2020, tras la renuncia de Maradiaga y faltando pocas fechas para terminar el Torneo Apertura 2020, Membre\u00f1o fue designado como entrenador del club.\n\nClubes\n\nComo jugador\n\nComo asistente t\u00e9cnico\n\nComo entrenador\n\nPalmar\u00e9s\n\nComo jugador\n\nComo entrenador\n\nReferencias\n\nEnlaces externos \n Ficha de jugador\n\nFutbolistas de Honduras\nFutbolistas del Club Deportivo Olimpia en los a\u00f1os 1990\nFutbolistas del Club Deportivo Olimpia en los a\u00f1os 2000\nFutbolistas del Club Deportivo Victoria\nFutbolistas del Atl\u00e9tico Olanchano\nFutbolistas de la selecci\u00f3n de f\u00fatbol de Honduras\nEntrenadores de f\u00fatbol de Honduras\nEntrenadores del Club Deportivo Honduras Progreso\nEntrenadores del Olancho F\u00fatbol Club\nEntrenadores del Club Deportivo Vida", "meta": {"title": "Nerlin Membre\u00f1o", "url": "https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nerlin%20Membre%C3%B1o", "language": "es", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "La storia dell'Uzbekistan ha conosciuto importanti migrazioni di popoli, parallelamente all'ascesa e caduta di potenti dinastie e imperi che si sono qui alternati, che hanno causato significativi cambiamenti nella composizione etnica del paese. Gli uzbeki, di lingua turca, sono solo tra gli ultimi di questi popoli che si stabilirono in queste terre. L'Uzbekistan si trova nel cuore dell'Asia centrale, tra le steppe, i deserti e le montagne, all'incrocio delle grandi vie di comunicazione e del commercio tra occidente e oriente. Oggi questo paese indipendente, il pi\u00f9 popoloso della regione, cerca di fare il suo cammino verso le grandi potenze e di affermare la propria identit\u00e0 che si sta forgiando.\n\nPreistoria \nRecenti studi genetici hanno dimostrato che gli uomini sono giunti per la prima volta nel territorio del moderno Uzbekistan tra i 40.000 e i 50.000 anni fa, questo lo rende uno dei pi\u00f9 antichi territori abitati. Le evidenze archeologiche di questa presenza, tuttavia, sono contrastanti a differenza di alcune regioni dell'Africa e dell'Australia. Gli studi hanno qui identificato la regione di origine delle popolazioni che abiteranno in seguito l'Europa, la Siberia e il Nord America. Questa zona \u00e8 anche considerata da alcuni come l'Urheimat delle lingue indoeuropee.\n\nL'eta del bronzo \n\nTra il 2200 e 1700 a.C., una civilt\u00e0 molto avanzata dell'et\u00e0 del bronzo, chiamata civilt\u00e0 battriano-margiana o civilt\u00e0 dell'Oxus (Amu Darya), esistette nel sud dell'Uzbekistan e del Turkmenistan. Era in contatto con la civilt\u00e0 della Valle dell'Indo e, nel periodo pi\u00f9 tardo, venne infiltrata da popoli Indoari, originari del Kazakhstan occidentale, che si mischiarono con i pi\u00f9 avanzati popoli indigeni non-indoeuropei, oggi scomparsi. I siti archeologici, come Djarkoutan o Mollali Tepe rivelano l'esistenza di uno stile di vita gi\u00e0 urbano, con una pratica sviluppata di irrigazione e la coltivazione di grano e orzo. Nessuna traccia di scrittura \u00e8 stata ancora scoperta. Dal 1700 a.C., gli Indoari cominciarono a migrare verso l'India. Essi furono sostituiti in Uzbekistan da trib\u00f9 di pastori nomadi iranici come i Sogdiani, che si sedentarizzarono.\n\nSi conosce anche un'altra cultura archeologica, chiamata di Tazabagyab, che apparve intorno al 1500 a.C. nei pressi Khw\u0101rezm a sud del lago d'Aral, da dove potrebbero essere arrivati gli iranici del Turkestan occidentale. Questa cultura mostra una commistione di elementi della cultura di Srubna e dalla cultura di Andronovo, che si estendeva dagli Urali a ovest fino al lago Bajkal a est, e il Syr Darya sud. La cultura di Andronovo \u00e8 stata la prima ad aver utilizzato il carro da guerra, trainato da due cavalli. Le genti Andronovo vivevano in villaggi, coltivavano la terra e allevavano gli animali. Erano esperti nella fabbricazione di armi e strumenti in bronzo.\n\nI persiani, i greci e i nomadi\n\nBactriani, Sogdiani e Impero achemenide \nI due principali popoli iraniani dell'Uzbekistan sono stati i Sogdiani nella regione di Samarcanda e Bukhara, e i Battriani pi\u00f9 a sud, a cavallo tra l'Uzbekistan meridionale e l'Afghanistan settentrionale. Gli indiani hanno dato il nome alla Bactriana di Bahlik\u00e2 e i cinesi di Daxia. La sua capitale era Battra (l'attuale Balkh). La citt\u00e0 di Samarcanda (Marakanda in greco) \u00e8 stata fondata dai Sogdiani probabilmente nel V secolo a.C. Sogdiani e Battriani non sono mai stati unificati in uno Stato: il loro territorio \u00e8 stato diviso in principati incentrati intorno alle loro citt\u00e0.\n\nLo Zoroastrismo, religione puramente iranica, \u00e8 stata forse sviluppata in Battriana. L'Avesta, il testo sacro, conosciuto come Sughda - \"i sogdiani, la sogdiana\", ma \u00e8 molto difficile una datazione. Esso risale almeno a una lontana antichit\u00e0. I Sogdiani sembrano essere stati sedentari come sciti-Sakas.\n\nPi\u00f9 a nord, intorno al Lago d'Aral, sono vissute le trib\u00f9 nomadi Saka (o Sakas, relative agli Sciti) e i Massageti, del tutto iranici. Questi erano dei guerrieri coraggiosi che, sotto il regno della regina Tomiri, assassinarono il re persiano Ciro I. Come per i Sogdiani e i Bactriani, le donne hanno giocato un ruolo importante.\n\nLa gente della Battriana e Sogdiana, nonch\u00e9 della Corasmia che si trova a nord-ovest, erano per lo pi\u00f9 contadini perfettamente padroni delle tecniche di irrigazione nelle valli del Syr Darya, Amu Darya e Zeravshan. Essi sono stati raggruppati in grandi comunit\u00e0, praticando attivamente il mestiere della metallurgia e del commercio. Il nomadismo si svilupp\u00f2 principalmente nel deserto e nella montagna.\n\nLa citt\u00e0 di Afrasiab, vicino a Samarcanda, \u00e8 stata fondata solo nel 500 a.C. Il museo del sito archeologico contiene i pi\u00f9 antichi pezzi degli scacchi conosciute. I murales di Afrasiab sono famosi e la citt\u00e0 \u00e8 considerata un focolaio della moderna lingua persiana. Secondo Ferdowsi, autore del Shah-nama, che raccoglie i poemi epici persiani, il personaggio Afrasiab, leggendario fondatore della citt\u00e0, sarebbe un re di tutti i Turanici, antenato degli Eftaliti e probabilmente anche Karakhanidi.\n\nDal 545 al 540 a.C. Ciro II, fondatore dell'impero persiano, intraprese la conquista dell'Asia Centrale, e annett\u00e9 la Battriana, la Sogdiana, il Khw\u0101rezm e la Partia all'impero achemenide come province (XI, XV e XVI satrapia).\n\nAlessandro il Grande e i Seleucidi \n\nAlessandro Magno conquist\u00f2 la Sogdiana e la Battriana nel 327 a.C., mentre stava conducendo una campagna contro Dario III, che mise termine alla dinastia achemenide. Due anni dopo, sull'Oxus (Amu Darya), fond\u00f2 una citt\u00e0 che si sarebbe chiamata Termez (Tirmidh nell'adattamento iranico del nome greco-battriano del re Demetrio I), attualmente la citt\u00e0 pi\u00f9 a sud dell'Uzbekistan.\n\nStabilitosi a Maracanda (Samarcanda), spos\u00f2 Rossane, la figlia di Ossiarte, capo della Battriana locale, che aveva catturato nel 327 a.C. Poi prese, mentre cadeva una neve fitta, la fortezza sogdiana chiamata \"Roccia\", fino ad allora considerata inespugnabile. Offr\u00ec al capo, Ariamazes una capitolazione onorevole che fu respinta. La citt\u00e0 (nei pressi dell'attuale citt\u00e0 di Derbent) venne presa e Ariamaz\u00e8s fu ucciso.\n\nIl suo matrimonio costitu\u00ec un aiuto prezioso per sedare la forte resistenza popolare in Sogdiana, guidata da Spitamene, che ferm\u00f2 l'avanzata del suo esercito, per quanto la conquista della Battriana fosse relativamente facile per Alessandro. Questo matrimonio fu anche il preludio alle nozze di Susa, dove 10.000 greci si unirono in matrimonio con 1.000 donne orientali nel 324 a.C.\n\nDopo aver sposato, e prima di intraprendere la campagna in India, Alessandro lasci\u00f2 nel 323 a.C. il suo quartier generale di Samarcanda per conquistare la cittadella dell'attuale Tashkent (attuale Uzbekistan), a sud della quale, sullo Iassarte (Syr Darya), ordin\u00f2 la costruzione di una citt\u00e0-fortificata che avrebbe chiamato Alessandria Eschate (la lontanissima).\n\nDopo la morte di Alessandro nel 323 a.C. il regno nella parte nord-orientale del suo impero fu chiamato dai geografi greci Transoxiana (\"Il paese al di l\u00e0 dell'Oxus\") che fu assegnata al generale di Alessandro Seleuco I Nikator, fondatore della dinastia seleucide. Sotto Seleuco I, la Battriana registrarono una massiccia immigrazione di greci in esilio e fu ellenizzata pi\u00f9 di ogni altra regione conquistata.\n\nSotto il governo di Seleuco II, i Seleucidi, troppo preoccupati per i loro problemi in Siria, non erano nella possibilit\u00e0 di garantire il controllo dei loro possedimenti orientali. Il regno indipendente greco-battriano venne fondato da Diodoto I verso il 250 a.C. come Battriana, dopo essersi liberato facilmente dalla tutela dei Seleucidi. Sotto il regno di Eutidemo I, il secondo successore di Diodoto, il seleucide Antioco III cerc\u00f2 di riappropriarsi della Battriana, ma non vi riusc\u00ec venendo costretto a riconoscere l'indipendenza del regno. Un'importante caratteristica dello sviluppo urbano di questo periodo \u00e8 il sincretismo greco-orientale nel campo delle arti che raggiunse il suo picco attraverso l'arte del Gandhara.\n\nLa dinastia seleucide si spense definitivamente nel 64 a.C., sotto Antioco XIII, quando i resti del suo impero, una volta il pi\u00f9 grande regno ellenistico, venne annesso all'Impero Romano.\n\nLe invasioni dei nomadi e la creazione della Via della Seta \n\nTra il primo secolo a.C. e il II secolo d.C., il territorio del regno greco-battriano fu invaso da popolazioni nomadi provenienti dalla Cina, il Yuezhi e i Sakas. Il centro del regno fu poi spostato a sud-est per diventare, verso 190 a.C., il regno indo-greco.\n\nI Parti hanno occupato nel 115 a.C. la parte occidentale della Battriana (tra l'Uzbekistan e il Turkmenistan attuali), sostituendo i Sakas che erano migrati pi\u00f9 a sud di quello che oggi \u00e8 l'Afghanistan. Condivisero cos\u00ec questa terra con gli Yuezhi che regnarono dal 126 a.C.\n\nA quel tempo, il sincretismo religioso, perpetuato dai Parti, gradualmente si evolve verso il monoteismo e il concetto di religione universale si diffuse tra i popoli dell'attuale Uzbekistan. Attraverso l'influenza dei sacerdoti (magi), lo zoroastrismo diventer\u00e0 la religione ufficiale sotto Sasanidi.\n\nPi\u00f9 a est, l'Impero Kusana si era formato da diversi principati distinti, verso l'inizio del primo millennio, oltre un centinaio di anni dopo il regno greco-battriano venne distrutto dalle popolazioni nomadi. Gradualmente occup\u00f2, tra 105 e 250 d.C., la Bactriana e parte della Sogdiana e della Corasmia. Questo impero \u00e8 stato creato dai Kusani una trib\u00f9 degli Yuezhi, un popolo dello Xinjiang, nell'attuale Cina e forse in relazione con i Tocari. Per molti secoli la civilt\u00e0 Kusana si trov\u00f2 al centro degli scambi tra Oriente (Cina) e occidente (Impero Romano), sul percorso della Via della Seta. I Kusani importarono il Buddismo in Asia centrale e svilupparono le arti ellenistiche d'Oriente.\n\nCon l'apertura della Grande Via della Seta, la pi\u00f9 lunga via commerciale terrestre e marittima dell'antichit\u00e0, nel II secolo a.C. (?), e soprattutto grazie alla sua sicurezza garantita dai Kusani, dopo che era rimasta a lungo alla merc\u00e9 di banditi e saccheggiatori, il centro di gravit\u00e0 del mondo iranico venne spostato tra le rive del Tigri e quelle dell'Amu Darya. La Persia dei Parti distolse lo sguardo dalle rive dell'Eufrate, per guardare ben oltre il Syr Darya: ai loro occhi il commercio con la Cina assumeva un'importanza che non aveva mai avuto con la Grecia, e la Transoxiana divenne il crocevia di rotte commerciali. La Via della Seta non fu solo utilizzata per il trasporto di seta in Europa - spezie, t\u00e8, carta e porcellana passati da questa strada - ma gioc\u00f2 un ruolo importante nella diffusione delle credenze (ad esempio del buddismo), di idee e cultura. La strada durante la sua esistenza arricch\u00ec tutti i punti delle citt\u00e0 coinvolte, come Samarcanda, Kokand e Fergana. La famosa strada rimarr\u00e0 in uso fino alla met\u00e0 del Medioevo.\n\nIn breve, la storia della Transoxiana tra il II secolo a.C. e il III secolo d.C. \u00e8 complessa, differenti regni pi\u00f9 o meno effimeri e di origini incerte si sono succeduti prima d'essere spazzati via dalla potenza crescente dei Sasanidi zoroastriani. Allo stesso tempo, a Ferghana a est vi \u00e8 un passaggio fondamentale della Via della seta, che ha conservato la sua indipendenza.\n\nI Sasanidi persiani \n\nI Sasanidi erano una dinastia persiana originaria del Fars, fondata intorno al 224 d.C. da un presunto discendente di Dario III. Sotto i Sasanidi, l'arte e la cultura persiana raggiunsero un livello notevole e la forza militare della dinastia poteva sfidare anche la potente Roma. Il regno sasanide \u00e8 stato caratterizzato da un accentuato accentramento del potere, una pianificazione urbana ambiziosa e un'agricoltura con tecniche avanzate.\n\nGi\u00e0 tra il III e il IV secolo, i Sasanidi intrapresero tentativi di conquista della Transoxiana, ma la loro espansione graduale provoc\u00f2 rivolte tra i nomadi Kusani, che rifiutarono di cedere il loro territorio e impegnarono in molte battaglie i Sasanidi. Pi\u00f9 tardi, alla fine del IV secolo, saranno gli Unni, Chioniti (gli Unni rossi) e poi Kidariti, che sfideranno i Sasanidi per mantenere le loro posizioni in Transoxiana. Essi irromperanno anche sull'Iran.\n\nNel 427, il re sasanide Bahram V (\"Vahram Ghur\"), schiacciato le truppe nomadi degli Unni bianchi (Heptaliti) che provenivano dall'Asia centrale e dalla Cina ripristinarono il dominio persiano. Suo figlio Yazdgard II Sipahdost consolida la sua presenza nel 442, eliminando il successore dell'impero Kusana, il regno kidarita, apparentato agli Unni, ex alleato dei Persiani.\n\nLa dinastia sasanide controller\u00e0 per pi\u00f9 di quattro secoli un vasto territorio tra cui la Transoxiana, sviluppando una sontuosa arte di corte, intraprendendo grandi opere civili, e, approfittando della sua posizione unica sulla via della seta, ha condotto vittoriosamente per quasi tutto il periodo le guerre sul fronte orientale, contro gli Unni e i turchi, e a ovest, contro l'impero romano.\n\nGli Unni bianchi \n\nL'imperatore sasanide Yazdgard II dovette affrontare gli attacchi delle trib\u00f9 nomadi degli Unni bianchi nel 442.  A quanto pare, al fine di escludere i Sogdiani, gli Unni hanno dovuto adottare il loro linguaggio. In seguito iniziarono a stabilirsi. \u00c8 generalmente considerato che gli Unni bianchi siano i primi antenati del popolo uzbeko attuale.\n\nCon l'aiuto ottenuto dagli Unni, Peroz I divenne imperatore di Persia nel 459-484. Per ringraziarli, diede loro quartiere Taliqan, a sud est dell'attuale Turkmenistan. E non si attese troppo che cominciasse un  conflitto tra loro.\n\nPeroz I fu ucciso nel 484 durante una nuova battaglia contro gli Unni. La sua morte comport\u00f2 conflitti interni tra i Sasanidi, costringendoli ad abbandonare il territorio dell'attuale Uzbekistan e a rendere omaggio agli Unni.\n\nLa conquista del bacino del Tarim fece alleare gli Unni bianchi e il Khaganato di Rouran. Dopo aver inflitto un colpo fatale al Khaganato nel 552, i G\u00f6kt\u00fcrk cercarono di allearsi con i Persiani contro gli Unni. Tra il 560 e il 563, furono sconfitti in una grande battaglia che dur\u00f2 otto giorni, nei pressi di Bukhara. Pi\u00f9 tardi, vennero divisi in principati che pagavano tributi ai Persiani e ai Turchi.\n\nI G\u00f6kt\u00fcrk dell'Ovest \n\nI Turchi avevano istituito il loro impero nel 552. Nel 576, Mugan (Muhan) (553-572), figlio del khan turco Bumin, succedette al padre affidando l'ala occidentale dell'impero dei G\u00f6kt\u00fcrk a suo zio Ist\u00e4mi. Quest'ultimo si alle\u00f2 con i Sasanidi persiani per combattere gli Unni bianchi. Dopo essersi sbarazzati di questi ultimi verso il 563, i due alleati si spartirono l'odierno Uzbekistan, incluso il territorio dei Sogdiani, ma presto entrarono in urto. Nonostante le guerre condotte insieme fino al 630, i Turchi e i Bizantini non potevano superare i Persiani.\n\nIl Khan dei G\u00f6kt\u00fcrk Tardu, succeduto al padre Ist\u00e4mi, era stato incoraggiato dai Cinesi, che volevano eliminare l'impero turco. Le sue politiche portarono a una separazione definitiva dell'impero dei G\u00f6kt\u00fcrk in due entit\u00e0, una dei Turchi orientali in Mongolia, diretta da Nivar, fratello di Mugan, e una dei Turchi occidentali nel Tian Shan, Uzbekistan e Kazakistan orientale, guidata da Tardu.\n\nLa sconfitta di Tardu provocata dal suo ambizioso nipote Apa Khaghan (Daluobian), port\u00f2 al caos i Turchi occidentali, fin quando costoro trovarono nuovi comandanti nella persona di Shigui e di suo fratello Tong (secondo l'onomastica cinese). Quest'ultimo era un sovrano potente, che estes3 il suo potere su una parte dell'Afghanistan e nell'India settentrionale. Pochi mesi dopo, le trib\u00f9 vassalle dei Qarluq si ribellarono e Tong fu ucciso. I Turchi occidentali persero ancora una volta la loro unit\u00e0. Nell'anno 640, i Cinesi s'impadronirono delle ricche oasi del bacino del Tarim, lungo la via della seta, che si trovavano appena a sud del loro territorio. Nel 651, i Turchi occidentali si schierarono sotto l'autorit\u00e0 del Khan cinese Helu. Dopo aver ottenuto il sostegno degli Uiguri, i Cinesi si mossero contro di lui e lo sconfissero nel 657. Praticamente tutta l'Asia centrale poi cadde nelle mani cinesi.\n\nSotto i Turchi, in particolare grazie alle loro esigenze di armi e gioielli, i popoli dell'attuale Uzbekistan svilupparono attivamente l'artigianato dei metalli (oro, argento, ferro, piombo, rame, e cos\u00ec via), cos\u00ec come la scrittura. La crescita del commercio sulla Via della seta tra Cina ed Europa ebbe un impatto significativo sulla produzione locale di cotone e seta.\n\nIl famoso pellegrino cinese Xuanzang pass\u00f2 verso il 631 da Tashkent e Samarcanda durante il suo viaggio in India alla ricerca di manoscritti sacri buddisti.\n\nGli Arabi \n\nDopo il primo tentativo parzialmente riuscito di conquistare e islamizzare Samarcanda e Ferghana nel 706, gli Arabi, guidati dalle truppe del generale Qutayba ibn Muslim, conquistarono verso il 712 i territori degli attuali Uzbekistan e Kirghizistan. Essi entrarono in contatto con i Cinesi durante il regno del primo califfo abbaside Abu l-\u02bfAbb\u0101s con la battaglia del Talas. Affermarono con la forza l'Islam tra i popoli dell'Asia centrale che avevano praticato fino a quel momento lo zoroastrismo.\n\nI Sogdiani, che avevano accettato di convertirsi all'Islam, furono esentati dal pagamento delle tasse. Data l'ampiezza delle conversioni e la conseguente riduzione delle entrate fiscali, gli Arabi decretarono che i nuovi convertiti dovessero essere circoncisi (malgrado ci\u00f2 non abbia mai costituito un obbligo per i musulmani) e avere una buona conoscenza del Corano. Questa misura comport\u00f2 una vasta rivolta.\n\nNel 720 e 721 i Sogdiani distrussero la guarnigione araba di Samarcanda, con l'aiuto dei Turchi. Un nuovo governatore del Khorasan fu nominato nella persona di Sa\u02bf\u012bd b. \u02bfAmr al-\u1e24arash\u012b. I ribelli sogdiani scelsero questa volta una strategia prudente, arretrando verso oriente. Guidati da Divashtich re della citt\u00e0 orientale di Panjikand, alcuni di loro si rifugiarono nella fortezza di Abargar, situata sul monte Mug. L\u00ec, sulla riva sinistra del Zeravshan, gli archeologi hanno trovato molti documenti ricchi di insegnamenti sulla societ\u00e0 sogdiana. Gli Arabi quindi assediarono la fortezza e Divashtich si dovette arrendere.\n\nNel 728, il governatore della Corasmia, Ashras ibn \u02bfAbd All\u0101h al-Sulam\u012b, offr\u00ec un'esenzione fiscale per i nuovi convertiti, che produsse tuttavia esattamente gli stessi effetti precedenti. Con l'aiuto dei Turchi, Bukhara divenne il centro della rivolta sogdiana. Venne sottomessa nell'estate del 729, dopo diversi mesi di duri combattimenti. Samarcanda, guidata dal re Ghurak (successore di Tarkhun), non si ribell\u00f2. Nonostante la repressione degli Arabi, la resistenza dei Sogdiani non si ferm\u00f2 e divenne particolarmente forte nel 733 e 734. Il governatore Na\u1e63r b. Sayy\u0101r (738-748) decise quindi di condurre una politica pi\u00f9 conciliante verso le \u00e9lite locali.\n\nIl controllo arabo dell'Asia centrale si consolid\u00f2 dopo la battaglia del Tal\u0101\u1e63 (nel Kirghizistan, nei pressi dell'attuale citt\u00e0 di Taraz del Kazakistan) contro i Cinesi nel 751. Questa vittoria segn\u00f2 l'avanzata pi\u00f9 a oriente degli eserciti arabi e dette la possibilit\u00e0 di acquisire una serie di tecniche cinesi, tra cui quella della fabbricazione della carta. Nella battaglia del Tal\u0101\u1e63, gli Arabi vittoriosi fecero prigionieri molti Cinesi, carpendo cos\u00ec il loro segreto. Capirono subito il valore di questo nuovo mezzo per diffondere l'Islam, e Samarcanda sar\u00e0 il primo centro di produzione della carta nel mondo musulmano. Inoltre, miglioreranno la sua fabbricazione, incorporando nella preparazione degli stracci. Il califfo H\u0101r\u016bn al-Rash\u012bd impose l'uso della carta in tutta l'amministrazione del Califfato. La carta arriver\u00e0 poi nel resto del mondo conosciuto e, attraverso le conquiste arabe, nell'Occidente e in Asia centrale. Si trover\u00e0 a Baghdad nel 793, nel 900 al Cairo, a X\u00e0tiva (San Felipe, Spagna) nel 1056 e, infine, in Francia nei primi anni del XIV secolo.\n\nIl popolo dell'Uzbekistan organizz\u00f2 numerose rivolte contro gli Arabi, la pi\u00f9 importante delle quali avvenne in Sogdiana nel 720-722, ma essa si verific\u00f2 ancora nel 734-737 in Sogdiana e Corasmia e, infine, nel 747-750 sotto la guida di Abu Muslim, che contribu\u00ec potentemente alla caduta degli Omayyadi e alla presa di potere degli Abbasidi. Altre rivolte ebbero luogo nel 801-802 e nel 806 in tutto il M\u0101 war\u0101\u02be al-nahr (nome che gli Arabi diedero alla Transoxiana).\n\nL'annessione della Transoxiana al Califfato abbaside contribuir\u00e0 alla crescita delle grandi citt\u00e0 di Samarcanda, Tashkent, Termez e Bukhara, allo sviluppo dell'artigianato, del commercio (in particolare quello di confine) e alle tecniche di irrigazione. Dal 750 al 850, la scienza arabo-musulmana abbaside conobbe la sua acme. I governanti pagavano, a volte a peso d'oro, qualsiasi libro recentemente tradotto in arabo e, quindi, a partire dal IX secolo, la maggior parte degli scritti della Grecia classica ed ellenistica erano disponibili in arabo. Il filosofo al-Farabi (nato in Transoxiana), il \"secondo maestro\" (in riferimento al primo maestro, Aristotele), svolse un ruolo importante in questa dinamica.\n\nIl grande matematico al-Khwarizmi, che elabor\u00f2 i principi algebrici e che dette il suo nome all'algoritmo, nacque verso il 783 a Khiva. Il famoso astronomo al-Fargh\u0101n\u012b (805-880) era nativo di Ferghana, mentre l'Im\u0101m Mu\u1e25ammad al-Bukh\u0101r\u012b (810-870), famoso tradizionista musulmano sunnita di origine persiana, nacque nella citt\u00e0 di Bukhara.\n\nI Samanidi persiani \n\nI Samanidi furono la prima dinastia persiana a riconquistare il potere in Uzbekistan dopo la conquista araba.\n\nNell'819, il califfo al-Ma\u02bem\u016bn (813-833) aveva ricompensato i quattro figli dei territori persiani Saman Khoda (N\u016b\u1e25, A\u1e25mad, Ya\u1e25y\u0101 e Ily\u0101s) per il loro fedele servizio, dando a ciascuno di loro una provincia. Ism\u0101\u02bf\u012bl I (892-907), figlio di Ahmad, prese rapidamente il controllo della Transoxiana e della Corasmia persiana e vi si stabil\u00ec come un governatore semi-indipendente, scegliendo Bukhara come sua capitale. La Valle dello Zeravshan, la regione di Shash (Tashkent) e le citt\u00e0 di Samarcanda e Termez sono state anche al centro dello sviluppo del territorio samanide, il suo artigianato e il suo commercio fiorente (vetro, carta, pelle, tessuto, seta, bestiame ecc).\n\nNel 900, A\u1e25mad sconfisse il Saffaride \u02bfAmr b. al-Layth che voleva invadere la provincia. Da allora in poi, fino all'anno 1005, i Samanidi rimasero padroni di gran parte dei loro territori.\n\nPer reggere il confronto con i loro vicini meridionali (Tahiridi, Ghaznavidi e Ghuridi) con i quali si trovano a competere per il potere nel X secolo, i Samanidi non solo usavano la forza militare, ma anche l'arte. Essi sviluppano l'architettura urbana e funeraria, creano dei pezzi di ceramica molto diversi con uno scenario caleidoscopico, disegni in marmo, ecc.\n\nIl grande medico e filosofo Avicenna (Ab\u016b \u02bfAl\u012b b. S\u012bn\u0101), nacque vicino a Bukhara nel 980, mentre l'enciclopedista scienziato al-B\u012br\u016bn\u012b, che era il suo corrispondente, nacque nel 973 in un sobborgo di Kath, nei pressi della citt\u00e0 attuale uzbeka di Urgen\u010d.\n\nI Karakhanidi, i turchi Selgiuchidi e l'Impero corasmio \n\nLa dinastia turca dei Karakhanidi, considerati gli antenati dei moderni uzbeki, governarono sull'attuale Uzbekistan dalla fine del IX secolo al 1212. Nel 920, i Karakhanidi  si convertirono collettivamente all'Islam. Sotto il regno di Harun I (982-993), hanno preso Bukhara nel 992 dai Samanidi. Sotto il regno dei suoi successori, i Karakhanidi completarono la conquista della Transoxiana cacciando definitivamente i Samanidi nel 999.\n\nDopo la sconfitta dei Karakhanidi sui Selgiuchidi (1040), un'altra dinastia turca dell'Asia centrale e avversari tra i pi\u00f9 pericolosi, il Khanato dei Karakhanidi venne tagliato in due: il regno occidentale, la cui capitale era Bukhara, si \u00e8 trasferito nel 1042 Samarcanda, e il regno orientale con Kashgar come centro. Nel 1089, i Selgiuchidi sconfissero definitivamente il regno occidentale poi sotto il regno di A\u1e25mad I (1081-1095) occuparono Bukhara e Samarcanda. Nonostante le difficolt\u00e0, i Karakhanidi della Transoxiana riuscirono a sviluppare un'intensa attivit\u00e0 architettonica. Cos\u00ec, sotto Maometto II (1102 - 1130) venne eretto a Bukhara il minareto Kalyan. Pi\u00f9 tardi, nel 1124-1218, nella Valle di Ferghana avvennero le conquiste delle trib\u00f9 proto-mongole cinesi dei Kara Khitai. Il sovrano della Corasmia \u02bfAl\u0101\u02be al-D\u012bn Tekish (Takash) (1172-1200) conquist\u00f2 la Persia nel 1194 e deposto lo stesso anno l'ultimo sultano turco della dinastia dei Grandi Selgiuchidi Tu\u011frul ibn Arslan che ha regnato su una parte della Transoxiana. Ma \u00e8 dallo sci\u00e0 della Corasmia \u02bfAl\u0101\u02be al-D\u012bn Mu\u1e25ammad che lo Stato dei Karakhanidi con la capitale Samarcanda fu distrutto nel 1212.\n\nL'ascesa della Corasmia come grande potenza non poteva aver luogo senza l'alleanza della dinastia con i Cumani e gli Oghuz. Ma le campagne e le incursioni di questi ebbero conseguenze devastanti per l'agricoltura in Asia centrale in quanto, oltre alla distruzione a causa delle guerre, molti campi furono trasformati in pascolo per gli armenti dai nomadi cumani.\n\nIl regno dell'Impero corasmio fu di breve durata. Nel 1219, il governatore corasmio di Otrar sul Syr Darya attacc\u00f2 una carovana di mercanti-spia inviati da Gengis Khan e ne uccise i componenti. Gli ambasciatori inviati da quest'ultimo per chiedere spiegazioni incontrarono lo stesso destino: ci\u00f2 provoc\u00f2 una terribile repressione.\n\nNel 1220, i Mongoli conquistarono l'odierno Uzbekistan, le principali citt\u00e0 come Samarcanda, Bukhara e Tashkent subirono gravi distruzioni.\n\nI mongoli e i turco mongoli\n\nGengis Khan, i Chagataidi e Barlas \nLa presa di Samarcanda ebbe luogo per opera del Khan mongolo Gengis Khan (1220), che aveva rovesciato l'Impero corasmio. Ha poi lasciato il suo impero ai suoi quattro figli, sotto l'autorit\u00e0 del terzo, il Khan supremo \u00d6g\u00f6dei. L'attuale Uzbekistan fin\u00ec nelle mani del suo secondo figlio Chagatai, che dette origine alla dinastia dei Chagataidi.\n\nIl Khanato Chagatai, fu fondato nel 1219 come regno turco-mongolo, e copriva gli attuali quattro paesi dell'Asia centrale, Kazakistan meridionale, Xinjiang occidentale cinese e Afghanistan settentrionale. Ha agito dal 1229 al 1571 come regno autonomo all'interno dell'Impero mongolo.\n\nNella prima met\u00e0 del XIV secolo, l'impero di Chagataidi si divise in due, quello mongolo nomade orientale, e il M\u0101 war\u0101\u02be al-Nahr, un khanato (ulus) occidentale, per lo pi\u00f9 sedentario. Il regno di Chagatai dur\u00f2 fino al 1347 quando il leader della trib\u00f9 di Karnau, Kazaghan (Qazghan) assassin\u00f2 l'ultimo grande Khan di Chagatai, Kazan (Qazan Khan ibn Yasaur) e proclam\u00f2 l'emiro.\n\nL'emiro Kazaghan e dopo di lui suo figlio \u02bfAbd All\u0101h regnarono sull'attuale Uzbekistan fino ai primi anni del 1360, ma dopo l'assassinio di quest'ultimo, il paese cadde nel caos. I nomadi del Mongolistan, meglio addestrati militarmente, approfittarono della situazione, organizzando numerosi attacchi che indebolirono e impoverirono la regione. Poi la trib\u00f9 mongola-turca dei Barlas, spregiativamente chiamati \"asini\", al comando di Haji Barlas, cominciarono a crescere d'importanza nella regione. Dopo la fuga di Haji Barlas in Persia, fu il nipote Timur (Tamerlano), che prese il comando.\n\nTamerlano e i timuridi \n\nTamerlano (1336-1405), noto anche come Am\u012br T\u012bm\u016br, nato a Kesh attuale Shakhrisabz (Shahr-e Sabz) nei pressi di Samarcanda, da una trib\u00f9 turco-mongola di Barlas, fu un grande lcondottiero e studioso di arte e lettere. Era un lontano parente di Gengis Khan. Orgoglioso comandante e spietato, disabile di gambe (il suo nome Tamerlano deriva dal persiano \"Teim\u016br Lang\" o \"Timur lo Zoppo\", in turco \"Timur Aqsaq\"), fino alla fine della sua vita non fu in grado di camminare, \u00e8 sempre andato a battaglia ordinando ai suoi uomini di portarlo nella mischia, armato della sua spada.\n\nGrazie a un complesso sistema di alleanze, fu eletto Grande Emiro di Samarcanda nel 1369, dove install\u00f2 la sua capitale, fece risorgere questa prestigiosa citt\u00e0 che i Mongoli di Gengis Khan avevano devastato nel 1220, facendovi convergere ricchezza e talento di artisti, artigiani, studiosi e letterati, catturati durante le sue campagne.\n\nDopo aver sposato Aldja\u00ef, una nipote dell'emiro di Qazghan, morta prima del 1370, spos\u00f2 diverse vedove del fratello Mir Hussein, fra cui Saray Malik Katun, conosciuta con il titolo di Bibi Khanum (\"maggiore principessa\"), era figlia del defunto khan Qazan che gli aveva conferito l'ambito titolo di g\u00fcregen (\"figlio imperiale\"). Una famosa moschea a Samarcanda prende il nome dalla principessa.\n\nTamerlano, impegnato in una rapida conquista del mondo islamico, s'impadron\u00ec della Corasmia e del Grande Khorasan nel 1371, dell'Iran e della Mesopotamia cinque anni pi\u00f9 tardi, e poi delle pianure dei Kipchak, dove regnava l'Orda d'Oro, per poi andare nel 1395 a colpire diverse citt\u00e0 in Russia prima di avviare la campagna per la conquista dell'India (1398-1399), in cui saccheggi\u00f2 la citt\u00e0 di Delhi.\n\nIn Anatolia nel 1402, cattur\u00f2 il sultano ottomano Bayazid II e in pi\u00f9 combatt\u00e9 in Siria, prese Damasco, dirigendosi verso l'Egitto, ma la dinastia mamelucca si dichiar\u00f2 sua vassalla, evitando l'annessione del suo territorio. A settantuno anni, stava per trasferirsi in Cina quando la morte lo colse.\n\nIl suo impero, che comprendeva diversi paesi attuali dell'Asia centrale, gli sopravvisse per un secolo. La successione fu organizzata gi\u00e0 nel corso della sua vita, e fu suo figlio Shah Rukh che sal\u00ec al trono. Ma il territorio era stato spezzettato in fretta, e fu il successore di Timur a prendere le armi per riconquistare l'impero ereditato dal padre. Nel 1420, guid\u00f2 l'Iran e l'Iraq, e domin\u00f2, almeno nel nome, l'India e la Cina. Suo figlio, Ulugh Beg, famoso astronomo e governatore di Samarcanda, gli succedette nel 1447. Ma, attaccato da tutte le parti, conobbe un periodo di declino territoriale che prosegu\u00ec fino alla fine del regno di Sul\u1e6d\u0101n \u1e24usayn M\u012brz\u0101 Bayqar\u0101 (r. 1469-1506), con cui si chiuse la dinastia.\n\nL'Impero timuride cadde nel 1507 per mano della dinastia degli Uzbeki shaybanidi. Le grandi conquiste culturali, artistiche e scientifiche ebbero come luogo privilegiato soprattutto Samarcanda e Herat, durante il XV secolo, chiamato Rinascimento timuride, in particolare durante i regni di Shah Rukh (1377-1447), di Ulugh Beg (1394-1449) e Sul\u1e6d\u0101n \u1e24usayn M\u012brz\u0101 Bayqar\u0101 (1438-1506).\n\nUlugh Beg, essendo un grande studioso, costru\u00ec una madrasa a Samarcanda, inaugurata nel 1420, dove probabilmente insegn\u00f2, ed edific\u00f2 un osservatorio, aperto nel 1429, dove lavorarono circa 70 matematici e astronomi, compresi Qadi-zade-i Rumi, al-Kashi e \u02bfAl\u012b al-Qushj\u012b, che portarono a conclusione lo zij-i Sultani (Z\u012bj-e Sol\u1e6d\u0101n\u012b, in persiano), la cui accuratezza \u00e8 rimasta insuperata per due secoli. Alla morte di Shah Rukh nel 1447, sal\u00ec al trono dei Timuridi, ma entr\u00f2 in conflitto con i figlio maggiore, Abd al-La\u1e6d\u012bf, che lo assassin\u00f2 nel 1449 per salire poi al trono, prima di essere ucciso stesso nel 1450. \u02bfAl\u012b al-Qushj\u012b ha lasciato una copia dello Z\u012bj-e Sol\u1e6d\u0101n\u012b a Tabriz e Istanbul, da dove raggiunse poi l'Europa.\n\nLa Madrasa di Ulugh Beg continu\u00f2 a funzionare fino al XVII secolo, ma la vita culturale dei Timuridi si concentr\u00f2 a Herat, nella seconda met\u00e0 del XV secolo, quando il famoso poeta e filosofo uzbeko Ali-Shir Nava'i, fondatore della lingua uzbeka moderna, condusse la sua vita e il suo lavoro.\n\nI primi uzbeki (shaybanidi) \n\nGli Shaybanidi, dinastia mongola musulmana discendente da Shibani Khan, figlio di Joci, originariamente composta da 15.000 famiglie, era stato un piccolo Batu Khan (Canato) all'interno dell'Orda d'Oro chiamata Orda Grigia nell'attuale Kazakhstan occidentale. Per diversi secoli, gli shaybanidi hanno notevolmente moltiplicato, senza riuscire a mantenere un'unit\u00e0 delle trib\u00f9.\n\nIl possente Khan Abu l-Khayr \u00e8 riuscito a unire le trib\u00f9 nomadi shaybanide che abitavano tra Tobol, Ural e Syr Darya nel 1429 sotto il nome di Ulus uzbeko. Questa \u00e8 la prima volta il nome \"uzbeko\" \u00e8 apparso nella storia; senza avere un significato etnico, che prende il nome da Uzbek Khan, principe mongolo del XIV secolo che ha impiantato l'Islam in seno all'Orda d'Oro.\n\nAbu l-Khayr, conquistando la Corasmia nel 1447, ha cercato di creare un forte stato uzbeko, ma \u00e8 stato ucciso nel 1468 dalle trib\u00f9 dell'attuale Kazakistan. Suo nipote, il principe Mu\u1e25ammad Shayb\u0101n\u012b rifond\u00f2 con il fratello Ma\u1e25m\u016bd, il Khanato dell'Uzbekistan e conquist\u00f2 nel 1500, usando mercenari di Astrakhan, le citt\u00e0 di Bukhara e Samarcanda. Rovesci\u00f2 cos\u00ec facilmente i Timuridi nel 1507, ma venne ucciso in una battaglia con i persiani nel 1510.\n\nGli altri sultani shaybanidi, Ilbars e Bilbars, presero possesso di Khiva nel 1511. Tuttavia, il khanato non ebbe assicurato il suo territorio che nel 1512, dopo la sua vittoria contro il Moghul Babur, ma senza essere in grado di consolidare in uno Stato unico e solido. Verso il 1512, il Khanato uzbeco era governato da quattro khan che vi hanno regnato separatamente.\n\nIl Khanato uzbeko ha cercato di approfittare del traffico delle carovane che attraversavano la regione, ma nel lungo periodo, rimase tagliato fuori dal commercio internazionale. Inoltre, durante il regno di \u02bfAbd All\u0101h II di Bukhara, il Khanato speriment\u00f2 una stagnazione intellettuale a causa di una maggiore presa religiosa sullo Stato.\n\nLa dinastia dei Shaybanidi si estinse nel 1598 con l'assassinio da parte dell'entourage del Khan di Bukhara e Samarcanda di \u02bfAbd al-Mu\u02bemin. Durante la seconda met\u00e0 del XVII secolo, il Canato di Bukhara ha sperimentato un cambiamento dinastico e fu governato da un lignaggio nativo di Astrakhan, i Janidi, discendenti di Jochi. Gran parte della trib\u00f9 uzbeka discendente da Abu l-Khayr si trover\u00e0 pi\u00f9 a nord, in particolare nella valle del fiume Chu, per formare l'etnia dei kazaki.\n\nNel XVI secolo sui vasti territori dell'Asia centrale, in particolare dalle parti dell'Uzbekistan, la poesia del grande poeta iraniano Giami era estremamente popolare, e ha arricchito l'arte della pittura di nuovi temi. Ci\u00f2 ha segnato l'inizio dello sviluppo di molte scuole d'arte, le pi\u00f9 grandi delle quali erano in Iran.\n\nIl regno di Babur nel Fergana \n\nLa culla della religione zoroastriana, Fergana, ha giocato nel Medioevo un ruolo centrale nella storia del potente impero Mogul in Asia meridionale e l'India, Babur ne \u00e8 stato il fondatore.\n\nAlla morte di Omar Sheikh Mirza II, re di Fergana nel 1498, suo figlio Zahiruddin Muhammad B\u0101bur (1483-1530), anche se ancora minorenne, fu il capo di quella regione della parte orientale dell'attuale Uzbekistan. Un discendente di Tamerlano tramite certo Miran Shah e Gengis Khan attraverso sua madre, una volta assicurato il suo trono, pens\u00f2 ossessivamente di espandere i suoi territori.\n\nCos\u00ec nel 1497, attacc\u00f2 e prese Samarcanda, su cui pensava di avere un legittimo diritto ereditario. Ma una ribellione tra i suoi nobili determin\u00f2 il sequestro del suo regno, le sue truppe lo hanno abbandonato e lui perse le sue conquiste. \u00c8 arrivato a riprendere Samarcanda pi\u00f9 tardi, ma \u00e8 stato presto scacciato nel 1501 dal suo principale nemico, Mu\u1e25ammad Shayb\u0101n\u012b, il potente Khan degli Uzbeki. Per tre anni si aggir\u00f2 invano tentativo di recuperare i suoi beni perduti. Nel 1504, raccolte alcune truppe di fedeli, Babur attraversa l'Hindu-Kush e prende con la forza la citt\u00e0 di Kabul, trovandosi a capo di un ricco regno.\n\nAncora una volta, nel 1510, dopo la morte di Mu\u1e25ammad Shayb\u0101n\u012b, Babur ha reclamato i suoi possedimenti originali ricevendo l'aiuto decisivo del turkmeno Ism\u0101\u02bf\u012bl Safav\u012b. Con la nuova forza, fece nel 1511 un ingresso trionfale a Samarcanda. Ma nel 1514 \u00e8 stato nuovamente sconfitto dai khan uzbeko e dovendo tornare con difficolt\u00e0 a Kabul.\n\nI tre Khanati usciti dalla divisione del Khanato di Chagatai\n\nKhanato di Khiva \n\nIl Khanato di Khiva, chiamato anche \"Stato di Khwarezm (Corasmia),\" \u00e8 stato il pi\u00f9 anziano dei tre khanati uzbeki, tra il 1512 e il 1920 a sud del lago d'Aral. Avendo inizialmente la sua capitale a Gurganj (Urgench), a seguito del brusco cambiamento nel corso dell'Amu Darya (Oxus) nel 1598, che \u00e8 stato fatale, Khorezm trasfer\u00ec la capitale a Khiva piccola fortezza del tempo. Per alcuni secoli Khiva diventa la mecca del mondo sunnita dell'Asia centrale, prima di diventare un protettorato dell'Impero russo nel 1873.\n\nKhanato (Emirato) di Bukhara \nIl Khanato di Bukhara (1599-1920), era uno Stato dell'Asia centrale prevalentemente persiano, con capitale a Bukhara, e che comprendeva anche la citt\u00e0 di Samarcanda.\n\nLa dinastia dei Janidi govern\u00f2 il Khanato di Bukhara dal 1599 al 1785 dopo aver deposto gli altri discendenti di Joci della dinastia uzbeka degli shaybanidi. Nel XVII secolo, i membri della dinastia hanno costruito due delle tre madrase nella piazza Registan di Samarcanda (nel 1646 e il 1660).\n\nIl Khanato di Bukhara \u00e8 stato ribattezzato \"emirato\" nel 1785, in seguito alla conquista dello Sci\u00e0 di Persia, Nadir Shah. Nel 1868, l'Emirato di Bukhara divenne protettorato della Russia. Poco dopo la Rivoluzione d'Ottobre, dopo la cattura di Bukhara da parte dell'Armata Rossa il 2 settembre 1920, perse definitivamente la sua indipendenza per formare la Repubblica popolare sovietica di Bukhara prima di entrare nel 1924 nel RSS uzbeko (nella sua grande parte) e nel RSS Tagika.\n\nKhanato di Kokand \nIl Khanato di Kokand, che ha avuto origine nella valle di Fergana, era uno Stato esistente tra il 1709 e il 1876 in un territorio compreso entro i limiti Orientali dell'Uzbekistan odierno e parti dell'attuale Tagikistan e Kirghizistan. La vasta orda di nomadi kirghisi e kazaki, attiva nel Kazakistan orientale, divenne ben presto sua vassalla.\n\nNei primi anni del XIX secolo, Kokand viene annessa alla citt\u00e0 di Tashkent. Sotto la minaccia di un attacco del Khanato di Bukhara che si apprestava ad annettere Tashkent, il generale russo Michail Grigor'evi\u010d \u010cernjaev colse l'occasione per fare un'offensiva sul Khanato di Kokand. A seguito di pesanti combattimenti nel 1876 Kokand fu annessa alla Russia aprendo la strada ai russi per il resto dell'Asia centrale.\n\nSotto l'Impero Russo \n\nI russi compaiono nella regione alla fine del XIX secolo, dopo una vittoria lampo delle truppe del generale Michail Grigor'evi\u010d \u010cernjaev a Shymkent (nell'attuale Kazakhstan) nel 1864. In primo luogo sostennero i kazaki nomadi e il Khan di Bukhara e Khiva, e poi a est dell'attuale Uzbekistan, tra cui Tashkent (1865). I territori conquistati sono stati raggruppati in un'unit\u00e0 amministrativa chiamata Governo Generale del Turkestan. Nel 1867 Tashkent divenne la capitale del Turkestan, che svolger\u00e0 un ruolo importante nella storia della coltivazione del cotone.\n\nLe autorit\u00e0 zariste hanno favorito la cultura del cotone nel Turkestan invece dell'allevamento tradizionale estensivo. La produzione e la distribuzione erano controllate dai russi, che hanno portato significativi conflitti tra la popolazione locale e i coloni. Nel dominio linguistico, la Russia ha adottato varie misure per diffondere il russo nei territori conquistati in Asia centrale.\n\nNel mese di marzo del 1876, il Khanato di Kokand cade a sua volta sotto le mani dei russi, dopo aspri combattimenti di Pulad Khan contro le truppe comandate dal generale russo von Kaufmann e Skobelev. I khanati di Bukhara (che comprende anche Samarcanda) e Khiva, divennero protettorati russi nel 1868, perdendo completamente la loro sovranit\u00e0 nel 1920 quando sono stati incorporati nel Turkestan russo.\n\nNel 1916, gli uzbeki si ribellarono contro le autorit\u00e0 russe, ma la rivolta fu duramente repressa dalle autorit\u00e0 imperiali.\n\nTuttavia, queste annessioni russe permettono l'introduzione di nuove relazioni socio-culturali, il commercio intenso tra i russi e i commercianti uzbeki, cos\u00ec come lo sviluppo dell'istruzione, l'industria e le ferrovie, che porta allo sviluppo socio-economico veloce della regione.\n\nL'epoca sovietica\n\nGenesi della moderna nazione uzbeka \n\nI bolscevichi presero il potere in Russia dopo la rivoluzione d'ottobre del 1917 incontrando una forte resistenza dei nazionalisti uzbeki (basmachi). Una volta soppressa la resistenza, i comunisti cercarono alleati tra i musulmani progressisti perch\u00e9 si resero rapidamente conto che il rischio di una spietata repressione avrebbe gettato i musulmani del Turkestan nelle braccia dei bianchi. Uno di loro, Sultan Galiev, non appena il pericolo di nuove rivolte era passato, venne rimosso dal cerchio del potere e espulso dal Partito Comunista. Una cosa preoccupava in realt\u00e0 i bolscevichi: il panturchismo - l'unione di tutti i popoli turchi -, che avrebbero voluto rimuovere il nome di \"Turkestan\".\n\nL'Uzbekistan come repubblica e come nazione unica e distinta esiste solo dal 27 ottobre 1924, quando diverse entit\u00e0 territoriali esistenti in Asia centrale (parte del Turkestan, della Repubblica di Bukhara e Repubblica del Khorezm, gli ultimi due sono ex khanati) sono stati raggruppati nella Repubblica socialista Sovietica (RSS) dell'Uzbekistan - la Repubblica autonoma Sovietica del Tagikistan originariamente costruita nel RSS uzbeko \u00e8 costituita come una repubblica costituente separata nel 1929. Le cinque repubbliche dell'Asia centrale sono nate dalla divisione territoriale condotta sotto l'egida del Commissario per le nazionalit\u00e0 dell'epoca, Joseph Stalin, secondo la ripartizione etnica della popolazione. Pertanto, le diverse enclave uzbeke sui territori kirghiso e Tagiko e viceversa sono stati creati (Barak Sarvan, Vorukh, Kairagach, Sokh, Shakhimardan, Qalacha e Khalmion). Nel 1936, la RSS uzbeca \u00e8 stata ampliata con l'integrazione della Repubblica autonoma di Karakalpakstan, separata dal RSS kazako.\n\nSotto Stalin \nNel 1928, Stalin ordin\u00f2 la collettivizzazione delle terre in tutta l'Unione Sovietica. La rivolta dei basmachi (principalmente di origine contadina) Uzbeki, inizi\u00f2 nel 1916 e soppressa intorno 1926, riprender\u00e0 poi e durer\u00e0 fino al 1940.\n\nNegli anni 1937-1938, durante le \"Grandi Purghe\" staliniste, sono stati uccisi diversi funzionari statali uzbeki, tra cui l'ex primo ministro Fayzulla Khodzhayev. L'Islam \u00e8 stato uno dei bersagli della repressione stalinista dovendo rendere completamente atea l'Unione Sovietica. Gran parte delle moschee vennero chiuse e la maggior parte delle chiese, diversi attivisti musulmani giustiziati e i sacerdoti inviati al Gulag.\n\nDurante la seconda guerra mondiale, l'Uzbekistan ha accolto centinaia di migliaia di famiglie sovietiche provenienti dall'occidente, tra cui molti orfani di guerra, accelerando la russificazione della Repubblica, soprattutto nella capitale Tashkent. Alcune delle industrie pesanti della parte europea dell'Unione Sovietica sono state evacuate. Gli impianti sono rimasti in Uzbekistan dopo la guerra, contribuendo alla industrializzazione della repubblica.\n\nNel 1943, nel bel mezzo della guerra, i tedeschi del Volga e le altre minoranze tedesche dell'URSS, furono falsamente accusati di simpatia per gli invasori tedeschi e vennero deportati in Uzbekistan - anche se in misura minore rispetto alla vicina Kazakhstan - alfine di essere lontani dalle linee nemiche.\n\nDopo la guerra \nLa lotta dei bolscevichi per l'emancipazione delle donne uzbeke ha dato i suoi frutti: alla fine del 1960, quasi nessuna donna indossava il chador e tutte le ragazze ricevevano l'istruzione pubblica cos\u00ec come i ragazzi. L'analfabetismo, quasi totale nel 1924, \u00e8 stato completamente sradicato intorno all'anno 1950. Con lo sviluppo delle attivit\u00e0 di estrazione e lo sfruttamento della monocoltura di cotone decine di migliaia di lavoratori qualificati in tutta l'URSS vennero in Uzbekistan negli anni 1960-1980.\n\nIl 4 gennaio 1966 a Tashkent si \u00e8 tenuta la conferenza Indo-Pakistana che ha portato al ripristino delle relazioni diplomatiche tra i due paesi.\n\nIl 26 aprile 1966 a Tashkent e la sua regione sono stati gravemente colpiti da un terremoto, dopo un vasto programma di ricostruzione \u00e8 stato lanciato grazie alla partecipazione di tutte le repubbliche sovietiche. Questo evento ha rafforzato la quarta ondata di immigrazione di lingua russa gi\u00e0 in corso nel paese (dopo quella del periodo coloniale e poi sotto i bolscevichi, e poi durante la seconda guerra mondiale).\n\nDopo il 1966 la capitale uzbeka \u00e8 cresciuta in modo significativo diventando la pi\u00f9 grande e moderna citt\u00e0 in Asia centrale. Negli anni 1960-1980 Tashkent ha ospitato un prestigioso festival internazionale di film provenienti da Asia, Africa e America Latina.\n\nLa questione del cotone \n\nUn fenomeno che ha in gran parte fatto la storia dell'Uzbekistan negli anni 1960-1980 \u00e8 stato lo sviluppo intensivo della raccolta di cotone, ordinata da Mosca come parte della specializzazione delle repubbliche sovietiche. L'obiettivo \u00e8 stato pubblicizzato dai pianificatori sovietici per la produzione di 6 milioni di tonnellate di \"oro bianco\" dell'Uzbekistan. Questo rapido sviluppo, con una gara per i rendimenti nelle condizioni di deficit di terra irrigata a disposizione, ha avuto un impatto catastrofico sull'ecologia della regione: l'uso eccessivo di fertilizzanti chimici e defolianti avvelen\u00f2 l'acqua e il suolo, mentre il drenaggio accelerato delle risorse dei fiumi Amu Darya e Syr Darya per l'irrigazione ha portato al prosciugamento del lago d'Aral su cui scorrono. La superficie di questo mare interno \u00e8 diminuita della met\u00e0 in 40 anni e le attivit\u00e0 di pesca connesse sono state distrutte.\n\nSotto pressione di Mosca per produrre pi\u00f9 cotone, i leader uzbeki hanno sviluppato un sistema corrotto di falsificazioni statistiche. Il leader del partito (e della Repubblica) del tempo, Sharof Rashidov, il suo entourage e il figlio di L\u00e9onid Brejnev, sono stati coinvolti nel caso del cotone immaginario (diverse centinaia di migliaia di tonnellate), che hanno procurato guadagni d'oro per il bilancio dello Stato uzbeko, e nelle tasche dei principali soggetti interessati. Alla fine del 1983, quando la pi\u00f9 grande frode nella storia dell'Unione Sovietica \u00e8 stato smascherata, Rashidov \u00e8 morto per un attacco di cuore.\n\nNonostante la grandezza di questo caso e la volont\u00e0 del potere uzbeko di mettere a tacere il suo passato sovietico, Rashidov \u00e8 stato apprezzato ufficialmente come un leader che ha investito molto nello sviluppo della repubblica (alcuni importanti complessi architettonici e la sontuosa metropolitana sono stati eretti a Tashkent durante il suo regno) ed \u00e8 stato in grado di ottenere una certa autonomia da Mosca grazie a un sottile gioco di influenze e l'utilizzo dei guasti nell'apparato sovietico in favore dell'Uzbekistan.\n\nIl \"Caso uzbeko\" e le sue conseguenze politiche \nDopo lo scandalo del cotone del 1983, le gravi accuse di corruzione sono state portati da parte di Mosca su tutto lestablishment uzbeko, a seguito di un'indagine federale condotta dai principali investigatori antifrode Gdlian e Ivanov (\"Caso uzbeko\"). Risultato: la quasi totalit\u00e0 dell'apparato statale uzbeko \u00e8 stato sostituito, parte del quale \u00e8 stato anche imprigionato. Il controllo diretto di Mosca \u00e8 stato rafforzato (in particolare sotto l'ex capo del KGB Yuri Andropov). Ai leader uzbeki che si sono succeduti l'uno dopo l'altro fino al 1990, Mosca non voleva dare loro il tempo di sviluppare possibili nuove strutture e reti familiari corrotte. Ousmankhodjaev (1983), Salimov (1983-1986), Nichanov (1986-1988), Khabiboullaev (1988-1989), Ibragimov (1989-1990) sono stati i leader effimeri del gruppo dello Stato uzbeko in quel periodo.\n\nI pogrom dei turchi-Mescheti nel 1989 \nNel giugno del 1989, nel bel mezzo della perestroika, nella valle di Fergana, violenti scontri degenerano in deportazioni verso i pogrom dei turchi-mescheti provenienti dalla regione della Georgia da parte di Stalin nel settembre 1944. In totale, quasi 40.000 turchi mescheti fuggirono dall'Uzbekistan di cui 15.000 sono stati accolti come rifugiati in Russia. L'origine dei pogrom rimane poco chiara: era l'ascesa del nazionalismo uzbeko o i drammatici scontri interetnici verificatisi in tutta l'Unione alla fine del 1990? Infine, solo poche migliaia di mescheti sono rimasti in Uzbekistan, decine di migliaia sono fuggiti in Russia, Azerbaigian e Ucraina.\n\nI negoziati sull'Unione \nBeneficiari di significativi contributi dal centro (miliardi di rubli di trasferimenti annuali nel 1989), chiamati in causa a risolvere l'handicap della sua specializzazione nel settore primario, l'Uzbekistan \u00e8 stato un forte sostenitore del mantenimento dell'URSS quando le tendenze centrifughe si sono fatte sentire a seguito delle tendenze liberaliste fornite dalla perestroika e dalla glasnost. Nel referendum sul mantenimento dell'URSS organizzato da Michail Gorba\u010d\u00ebv nel 1991, la stragrande maggioranza degli Uzbeki ha risposto \"s\u00ec\".\n\nDopo una trattativa, di nove delle quindici repubbliche sovietiche, tra cui l'Uzbekistan, \u00e8 stato accettato un nuovo trattato che costituiva una nuova URSS (Unione delle Repubbliche Sovrane Sovietica) che ha ridato sovranit\u00e0 in seno a una federazione con un presidente, una politica estera e militare comune. Il trattato doveva essere firmato il 20 agosto 1991, ma la riluttanza di Ucraina e il putsch di Mosca durante il quale i leader uzbeki hanno preferito aspettare e vedere l'atteggiamento, lo ha portato a saltare. La Russia ha poi dichiarato la supremazia delle leggi russe su quelle sovietiche. Anticipando un crollo di ci\u00f2 che rimaneva dell'URSS, il Soviet Supremo del RSS uzbeko, infine, ha dichiarato la propria indipendenza il 31 agosto 1991 (celebrata il 1\u00ba settembre), approvata successivamente da un nuovo referendum in cui la stragrande maggioranza, questa volta ha votato per l'indipendenza.\n\nDopo l'indipendenza \n\nDurante i primi anni di indipendenza, il governo uzbeko si consolida sotto una stretta tutela presidenziale. Il nuovo paese rafforza la sua presenza sulla scena internazionale, apre i collegamenti aerei diretti con diversi paesi, ha iniziato la grande opera di ricostruzione urbana e su strada, adotta misure destinate ad accogliere gli investitori stranieri. Ma l'apertura delle frontiere provoca nel decennio 1990-2000 la partenza di massa di forza lavoro qualificata russofona.\n\nIl 21 dicembre 1991 l'Uzbekistan \u00e8 diventato membro associato della Comunit\u00e0 degli Stati indipendenti (Trattato di Alma-Ata), attualmente composto da 12 delle 15 ex repubbliche dell'URSS. Il 2 marzo 1992 l'Uzbekistan ottiene un seggio alle Nazioni Unite, \u00e8 diventato anche un membro dell'UNESCO. Il 27 gennaio 2006 entra a far parte della Comunit\u00e0 Economica Eurasiatica.\n\nLa presidenza Karimov \n\nDopo l'indipendenza, l'Uzbekistan ha avuto una presidenza forte, persino autoritaria. Il paese \u00e8 gestito dal 1989 al 2016 da Islam Karimov, un ex leader del partito comunista della Repubblica, fondatore del Partito Popolare Democratico dell'Uzbekistan. Sotto il regno di Karimov, tutti i partiti di opposizione, anche moderati (che sono i pi\u00f9 influenti Erk (volont\u00e0) e Birlik (Unit\u00e0)) sono stati vietati, nessuna corrente dissenziente, e il carattere islamico represso. I media e tutti gli aspetti della vita sociale, politica ed economica e anche culturale sono sotto lo stretto controllo e dell'apparato statale di censura.\n\nLe elezioni legislative del 26 dicembre 2004 permettono al presidente di estendere il suo mandato, ma le elezioni sono state fortemente criticate dai venti osservatori dell'Organizzazione per la Sicurezza e la Cooperazione in Europa (OSCE), di cui l'Uzbekistan \u00e8 membro.\n\nIl 23 dicembre 2007 Karimov \u00e8 stato nuovamente eletto per sette anni. Nonostante le disposizioni costituzionali gli vietino di correre per pi\u00f9 di due mandati consecutivi, grazie a un sottile gioco di interpretazioni, \u00e8 stato in grado di restare a capo dello Stato uzbeko per oltre 25 anni.\n\nLe riforme economiche \nDopo l'indipendenza, il presidente Karimov ha scelto una strategia di riforme economiche graduali volte in particolare al raggiungimento dell'autosufficienza energetica e alimentare del paese nonch\u00e9 di attirare gli investitori stranieri. A un certo livello, questa politica ha dato effetto - alcune aziende locali hanno firmato contratti di joint venture con partner stranieri, i pi\u00f9 importanti sono quelli del gruppo delle auto coreane Daewoo o i trattori Case degli USA. Tuttavia, la crescita economica \u00e8 rimasta soggetta a fluttuazioni periodiche delle materie prime da cui dipende pesantemente il paese. La dipendenza da proventi da esportazione, che rappresentano oltre il 40% del PIL del paese (cotone e oro per la maggior parte), lo sviluppo dell'economia uzbeka \u00e8 stato frenato dai poco brillanti risultati della raccolta di cotone di cui l'Uzbekistan \u00e8 il quarto pi\u00f9 grande produttore.\n\nInoltre, senza nessuna strategia di riforma vera e propria, le autorit\u00e0 del paese hanno intensificato gli errori (come ad esempio nel regime degli scambi, hanno rifiutato la convertibilit\u00e0 della moneta nazionale fino al 2003 che ha causato attriti con il FMI) e le misure restrittive e dirigiste nei confronti delle piccole e medie imprese, che hanno portato a una stagnazione del settore. Solo il piccolo commercio ambulante e le societ\u00e0 con il diritto privilegiato di importare riuscirono prosperare mentre il tessuto economico generale \u00e8 rimasto di fatto sotto uno Stato forte.\n\nIn realt\u00e0, il governo ha ritardato la liberalizzazione dell'economia e la privatizzazione per paura delle sue conseguenze sull'ambiente sociale gi\u00e0 fortemente degradato (il 27% della popolazione vive sotto la soglia di povert\u00e0 e il reddito medio \u00e8 in calo dal 1997) e per proteggere gli interessi di alcuni attori economici influenti, parenti delle \u00e9lite dominanti. L'offensiva, a partire dall'estate del 2004, contro l'economia sommersa \u00e8 stata fonte di grande disagio sociale.\n\nIl terrorismo islamico \nLa repressione delle autorit\u00e0 uzbeke contro i movimenti estremisti islamici provoca l'impulso all'azione. Il 16 febbraio 1999 la capitale Tashkent ha subito sei esplosioni, di cui una fuori dal Parlamento, poco prima l'arrivo del presidente Islam Karimov. Le bombe hanno causato la morte di 16 persone, 130 feriti e gravemente distrutti alcuni edifici governativi e la sede della Banca Nazionale dell'Uzbekistan (NBU). Le autorit\u00e0 lo ritennero un attacco contro il presidente e accusarono le forze islamiche. Nel 2004, altri due atti terroristici attribuiti al movimento islamista Hizb ut-Tahrir sono avvenuti a Tashkent: alla fine di marzo un'esplosione che prende di mira le forze di sicurezza si \u00e8 verificata al bazar Chorsu a fine luglio, degli attentati suicidi erano contemporaneamente perpetrati contro le ambasciate degli Stati Uniti e Israele. Da allora, la polizia (militsia) \u00e8 diventata pervasiva: i controlli sono stati rafforzati in luoghi popolari e fuori della citt\u00e0. Il clima politico \u00e8 ora tornato alla normalit\u00e0 e le elezioni parlamentari (26 dicembre 2004 e 9 gennaio 2005) sono state condotte in modo pacifico e senza incidenti.\n\nI movimenti radicali islamici sono rappresentati dal Movimento islamico dell'Uzbekistan, registrato nella lista delle organizzazioni terroristiche in molti paesi, e fondato nel 1997. Il movimento Akramia, branca radicale del movimento Hizb ut-Tahrir con sede a Londra che sostiene un ritorno al regime islamico rigoroso e la ricostruzione del califfato.\n\nIl massacro di Andijan \nVenerd\u00ec 13 maggio 2005, alcuni uomini presero d'assalto una prigione di Andijan per liberare centinaia di persone, tra cui 23 uomini d'affari accusati di terrorismo islamico. Gli stessi hanno poi preso d'assalto il municipio e creato una riunione dove molte persone hanno parlato e criticato i servizi governativi e di sicurezza sulle loro pressioni che esercitavano. Per sedare la rivolta, le autorit\u00e0 hanno mandato l'esercito che ha aperto il fuoco sulla manifestazione pacifica. Questa versione \u00e8 stata respinta dalle autorit\u00e0, che lo consideravano come un tentativo di destabilizzazione.\n\nAlcune ONG come il Comitato internazionale della Croce Rossa (CICR), hanno segnalato da 500 a 1000 morti, mentre il governo uzbeko ne riconosce solo 187. Le organizzazioni che difendono la libert\u00e0 di stampa e di condizioni umane hanno suonato un campanello d'allarme su questi eventi per sollecitare la comunit\u00e0 internazionale ad agire.\n\nDiversi osservatori e ONG, tra cui Human Rights Watch hanno ribadito le loro accuse di parodia della giustizia e di uso della tortura per estorcere confessioni agli accusati. Dopo il verdetto, l'UE ha vietato il soggiorno sul suo suolo per un periodo di un anno diversi funzionari uzbeki, tra cui i ministri degli Interni e della Difesa, che sono accusati di essere \"direttamente responsabili\" della repressione di Andijan.\n\nLe relazioni con gli Stati Uniti e la Russia \nPoco dopo gli attentati dell'11 settembre 2001, il presidente Islam Karimov ha deciso di sostenere gli Stati Uniti nella sua \"guerra contro il terrorismo\" e che il suo paese poteva essere utilizzato come base per le operazioni nella guerra in Afghanistan. Le strutture militari Uzbeke, tra cui la base aerea K2 a Khanabad, sono state utilizzate dalla coalizione. Con questo approccio, le autorit\u00e0 uzbeke hanno contato sulla cooperazione economica e militare strategica con gli Stati Uniti per aiutare Tashkent a risolvere i suoi problemi economici e politici.\n\nTuttavia, verso la fine del 2002, Tashkent ha cominciato a mal sopportare la sua eccessiva dipendenza alla realizzazione di siti militari statunitensi sul suolo uzbeko.\n\nDopo il tentativo di ribellione di Andijan, gli stati occidentali e le varie organizzazioni per i diritti umani hanno lanciato una grande guerra mediatica contro l'Uzbekistan nel chiedere il rafforzamento della pressione economica e politica sul regime.\n\nIn seguito al deterioramento delle relazioni e la fuoriuscita di oltre 450 rifugiati uzbeki dalle Nazioni Unite (ONU) partendo dalle basi degli Stati Uniti; il 30 luglio 2005, Tashkent ha reagito chiudendo le basi militari dispiegate sul suo territorio, riorientando la sua politica estera verso la Russia, che ha scelto di criticare la sanguinosa repressione di Andijan, aderendo all'organizzazione della Comunit\u00e0 economica eurasiatica sotto l'egida di Mosca. Tuttavia, il 13 novembre 2008 l'Uzbekistan ha sospeso la sua appartenenza a questa organizzazione, un segno di un'inversione di tendenza con la Russia.\n\nNell'agosto 2006 l'Uzbekistan ha inoltre aderito all'Organizzazione del Trattato di Sicurezza Collettiva, un'altra organizzazione sotto l'egida russa.\n\nI rapporti con i vicini dell'Asia centrale \nLe relazioni con i vicini dell'Asia centrale rimangono tesi a causa di dispute storiche, economiche e politiche (la questione della demarcazione dei confini in particolare nella valle di Fergana). Nel febbraio 1999 dei gruppi islamici provenienti dal Tagikistan causano dei problemi (16 morti) a Tashkent. L'incontro, nel novembre 2004, tra il Presidente Karimov e il suo omologo turkmeno ha contribuito a rilanciare un dialogo che era in fase di stallo dal 2002. Tashkent aspira come il suo vicino Kazakistan alla leadership regionale e conosce i rapporti a volte tesi con i suoi vicini tagiki e kirghisi. Tashkent ha sempre coltivato stretti rapporti con gli Uzbeki dell'Afghanistan, ha comunque vicina a Kabul e partecipa con Teheran a dei progetti stradali di un percorso tra paesi .Tashkent partecipa anche allo Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), un'organizzazione per garantire la sicurezza (coordinamento della lotta al terrorismo e sorveglianza delle frontiere), che riunisce i paesi dell'Asia centrale (con l'esclusione del Turkmenistan), Russia e Cina. Il centro regionale per la lotta al terrorismo \u00e8 stato inaugurato a Tashkent nel gennaio 2004.\n\nDopo Karimov \nCon la morte di Karimov avvenuta il 2 settembre 2016 il nuovo presidente \u00e8 Shavkat Mirziyoyev che sembra voler apportare delle novit\u00e0 rispetto al passato. Un primo segnale \u00e8 la volont\u00e0 di allentare il regime dei visti turistici dapprima promesso per il 2017 poi procrastinato al 2021. Ma anche l'allentamento della repressione nei confronti degli oppositori politici e di coloro che si battono per i diritti civili nel paese.\n\nNote\n\nBibliografia\n\nIn russo \n  Dizionario Enciclopedico Brockhaus ed Efron. San Pietroburgo, 1887-1907.\n  Grande enciclopedia sovietica. Mosca, 1969-1978\n\nIn francese \n C. E. Bosworth, Les dynasties musulmanes, trad. Y. Thoraval, Actes sud, coll. Sinbad, 1996, \n Jean-Paul Roux, L'Asie centrale. Histoire et civilisations, Fayard, 1997, \n \u00abBactriane\u00bb, Marie-Nicolas Bouillet et Alexis Chassang [sous la dir. de], Dictionnaire universel d\u2019histoire et de g\u00e9ographie, 1878 \n Johannes Kalter and Margareta Pavaloi, Uzbekistan. Heirs to the Silk Road, Thames and Hudson, 1997,  \n Fran\u00e7oise Spiekermeier, Asie centrale: Kirghizistan, Ouzb\u00e9kistan, Arthaud, 2001, \n Calum MacLeod et Bradley Mayhew, Ouzb\u00e9kistan: Samarcande, Boukhara, Khiva, Olizane, Gen\u00e8ve, 2002,  \n Catherine Poujol, Ouzb\u00e9kistan: la crois\u00e9e des chemins, Belin / La Documentation fran\u00e7aise, 2005, \n Jean Sellier et Andr\u00e9 Sellier, Atlas des peuples d'Orient. Moyen-Orient, Caucase, Asie centrale, La D\u00e9couverte, 1993,  \n Vincent Fourniau, Histoire de l'Asie centrale, Presses universitaires de France, Paris, 1992, \n Jacques Anquetil, Routes de la soie: des d\u00e9serts de l'Asie aux rives du monde occidental, vingt-deux si\u00e8cles d'histoire, J.-C. Latt\u00e8s, 1992, \n Emmanuel Choisnel, Les Parthes et la route de la soie, L'Harmattan / IFEAC, 2004, \n Bradley Mayhew, Paul Clammer, Michael Kohn, Asie centrale, la route de la soie, Lonely Planet, 2004, \n Sergio Cozzi, Didier Labouche, Ouzb\u00e9kistan, au c\u0153ur des routes de la soie, G\u00e9orama, 2001, \n Ren\u00e9 Grousset, Empire des steppes: Attila, Gengis-Khan, Tamerlan, Payot, 2001,\n\nVoci correlate \n Storia dell'Iran\n Espansione islamica\n Scienza e tecnica islamiche\n Arte islamica\n Primi ministri dell'Uzbekistan\n Inno nazionale della Repubblica dell'Uzbekistan\n Politica dell'Uzbekistan\n\nAltri progetti\n\nCollegamenti esterni \n Les steppes d'Asie centrale. Histoire et civilisation\n Liste du patrimoine mondial de l'UNESCO en Ouzb\u00e9kistan\n Divers liens sur les \u00e9v\u00e9nements de mai 2005 en Ouzb\u00e9kistan\n Fiche sur l'Ouzb\u00e9kistan sur le site de l'universit\u00e9 de Laval, au Qu\u00e9bec \n  Torture in Uzbekistan", "meta": {"title": "Storia dell'Uzbekistan", "url": "https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia%20dell%27Uzbekistan", "language": "it", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "\u0422\u0438\u0442\u0443\u0432\u0435\u043d\u0430\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u0430\u043f\u0438\u043b\u0438\u043d\u043a\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e ()\u00a0\u2014 \u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e \u0438\u0437 11 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0432 \u041a\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u0430, \u0428\u044f\u0443\u043b\u044f\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0443\u0435\u0437\u0434\u0430 \u041b\u0438\u0442\u0432\u044b. \u0410\u0434\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0446\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0440\u00a0\u2014 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0434 \u0422\u0438\u0442\u0443\u0432\u0435\u043d\u0430\u0439.\n\n\u0413\u0435\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u044f \n\u0420\u0430\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u043e \u043d\u0430 \u0412\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e-\u0416\u0435\u043c\u0430\u0439\u0442\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043c \u043f\u043b\u0430\u0442\u043e \u0416\u0435\u043c\u0430\u0439\u0442\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0432\u043e\u0437\u0432\u044b\u0448\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438, \u0432 \u0446\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e-\u0437\u0430\u043f\u0430\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u041b\u0438\u0442\u0432\u044b, \u043d\u0430 \u0432\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043a\u0435 \u041a\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u0430.\n\n\u0413\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0438\u0442 \u0441 \u041a\u0443\u043a\u044f\u0447\u044f\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c \u0438 \u041b\u0451\u043b\u044f\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u043d\u0430 \u0437\u0430\u043f\u0430\u0434\u0435, \u0422\u0438\u0442\u0443\u0432\u0435\u043d\u0430\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c \u2014 \u043e\u043a\u0440\u0443\u0436\u0430\u044f \u0435\u0433\u043e, \u0411\u0443\u0431\u044f\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c \u0438 \u0428\u044f\u0443\u043b\u044f\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c \u0441\u0435\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0428\u044f\u0443\u043b\u044f\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u0430 \u2014 \u043d\u0430 \u0441\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0435, \u0422\u0438\u0440\u0443\u043b\u044f\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c, \u0428\u044f\u0443\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0430\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c \u0438 \u0428\u0430\u0443\u043a\u043e\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0420\u0430\u0434\u0432\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0448\u043a\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u0430, \u0430 \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0436\u0435 \u0428\u0438\u043b\u0443\u0432\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e\u043c \u0420\u0430\u0441\u0435\u0439\u043d\u044f\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u0430 \u2014 \u043d\u0430 \u044e\u0433\u0435.\n\n\u041d\u0430\u0441\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \n\u0422\u0438\u0442\u0443\u0432\u0435\u043d\u0430\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u0430\u043f\u0438\u043b\u0438\u043d\u043a\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u0432\u043a\u043b\u044e\u0447\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0432 \u0441\u0435\u0431\u044f 103 \u0434\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0432\u043d\u0438, 7 \u0445\u0443\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u0438 3 \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0435\u043b\u0451\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0443\u043d\u043a\u0442\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u0436\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0437\u043d\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0438\u0438 ().\n\n\u041f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0447\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \n\n\u0421\u0442\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u041a\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0440\u0430\u0439\u043e\u043d\u0430", "meta": {"title": "\u0422\u0438\u0442\u0443\u0432\u0435\u043d\u0430\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u0430\u043f\u0438\u043b\u0438\u043d\u043a\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e", "url": "https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5%20%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5%20%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE", "language": "ru", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "Limenitis panthalis \u00e4r en fj\u00e4rilsart som beskrevs av Hans Fruhstorfer. Limenitis panthalis ing\u00e5r i sl\u00e4ktet Limenitis och familjen praktfj\u00e4rilar. Inga underarter finns listade i Catalogue of Life.\n\nK\u00e4llor \n\nPraktfj\u00e4rilar\npanthalis", "meta": {"title": "Limenitis panthalis", "url": "https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limenitis%20panthalis", "language": "sv", "timestamp": "20230320"}}
{"text": "Habrophlebia is a genus of pronggilled mayflies in the family Leptophlebiidae. There are about nine described species in Habrophlebia.\n\nSpecies\nThese nine species belong to the genus Habrophlebia:\n Habrophlebia antoninoi Alba-Tercedor, 2000 c g\n Habrophlebia consiglioi Biancheri, 1959 c g\n Habrophlebia eldae Jacob & Sartori, 1984 c g\n Habrophlebia fusca (Curtis, 1834) i c g\n Habrophlebia gilliesi Peter, 1963 g\n Habrophlebia lauta McLachlan, 1884 c g\n Habrophlebia tenella Kang & Yang, 1994 g\n Habrophlebia vaillantorum Thomas, 1986 c g\n Habrophlebia vibrans Needham, 1907 i c g b\nData sources: i = ITIS, c = Catalogue of Life, g = GBIF, b = Bugguide.net\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\nMayfly genera\nInsects of Europe\nMayflies", "meta": {"title": "Habrophlebia", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habrophlebia", "language": "en", "timestamp": "20230320"}}