In this task you will be given a text passage from a trivia quiz. You should choose the category this question belongs to from these categories: History, Science, Social Science, Fine Arts, Literature. You can only choose one category, so if in doubt, please choose the closest match.

Founder-flush models of this phenomenon propose that it may result from repeated bottlenecks. Changes of ploidy in plants can cause this process due to the frequent sterility of the resulting offspring. The(*) sympatric version of this phenomena occurs between populations in the same region, and punctuated equilibria are a sign of the allopatric variety of this process in the fossil record. For 10 points, name this biological process, in which populations become reproductively isolated and diverge, leading to the formation of new species.
Social Science

The Clausius-Clapeyron equation assumes the change in this to be zero. Because this quantity is most useful when the substance in question is both isothermal and isobaric, a different quantity is used for explosive substances. An equation partially due to the namesake of this quantity gives the temperature dependence of this quantity for an ideal gas. A zero change in this quantity for a system implies that the system is in equilibrium, but a negative value for this quantity implies that a reaction is spontaneous. One may derive this by utilizing the Legendre transform on the internal energy of a system. For ten points, name this state function named for its American inventor, which measures the maximum amount of work attainable from a system, defined as enthalpy minus the product of temperature and entropy.
Science

A law that improves on this one is formed by summing permeability times concentration over ion species that are positive and outside, negative and inside, positive and inside, and negative and outside, then diving the sum of the first two terms by the sum of second two and taking a logarithm. This equation can be derived by considering that the reaction quotient for a system of Arrhenius conjugates is the exponential of a standard chemical potential; it is thus a one-species approximation to the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz equation. This equation can also be derived by balancing partial current densities. This equation contains a constant, k T over q, that measures the deviation from standard potential. For 10 points, name this equation that computes reduction potentials for electrochemical cells and that is named for a German chemist.

Science