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Recently identified broadly neutralizing antibodies (bnAbs) show great potential for clinical interventions against HIV-1 infection. However, resistant strains may impose substantial challenges. Here, we report on the identification and characterization of a panel of HIV-1 strains with broad and potent resistance against a large number of bnAbs, particularly those targeting the CD4-binding site (CD4bs). Site-directed mutagenesis revealed that several key epitope mutations facilitate resistance and are located in the inner domain, loop D, and β23/loop V5/β24 of HIV-1 gp120. The resistance is largely correlated with binding affinity of antibodies to the envelope trimers expressed on the cell surface. Our results therefore demonstrate the existence of broadly resistant HIV-1 strains against CD4bs neutralizing antibodies. Treatment strategies based on the CD4bs bnAbs must overcome such resistance to achieve optimal clinical outcomes. Recently identified broadly neutralizing antibodies (bnAbs) show great potential for clinical interventions against HIV-1 infection. Among the bnAbs isolated to date, those targeting the CD4bs are the most abundant and thoroughly studied as they disrupt the crucial step of viral interaction with the cellular receptor molecule CD4. Despite the superior potency and breadth of these CD4bs bnAbs, each fails to neutralize a small but significant portion of pseudotyped virus panels. Here, we report on the identification and characterization of a panel of HIV-1 strains with broad and potent resistance against a large number of bnAbs, particularly those targeting the CD4bs. Resistance is largely attributed to mutated residues within the epitopes or steric hindrance imposed by the bulky side-chain or glycan shield of the mutated residues, and is largely correlated with reduced binding avidity of the antibody to the quaternary trimeric envelope protein expressed on the PLOS Pathogens | https://doi.surface of the transfected cells. Treatment strategies based on the CD4bs bnAbs therefore must overcome such resistance to achieve optimal clinical outcomes. Recent scientific advances have identified a growing number of broadly neutralizing antibodies (bnAbs) against human immunodeficiency virus type I (HIV-1), providing promising candidates for HIV-1 prevention and treatment [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] . Compared with bnAbs isolated in earlier studies, these bnAbs demonstrated broader and more potent activity against global HIV-1 panels and displayed impressive safety and efficacy profiles for therapeutic applications in a number of animal models and human clinical trials [1, [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] . These results also offer the opportunity to tailor these antibodies and maximize their prevention and treatment potential. Broadly speaking, these bnAbs recognize six major "vulnerable sites" on the HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein gp160 (gp120 and gp41), which are (1) the CD4-binding site (CD4bs), (2) the V1V2 apex, (3) the V3 glycan, (4) the fusion peptide (FP), (5) subunit interface and (6) membrane proximal external region (MPER) of gp41[1-5]. These bnAbs neutralize HIV-1 by blocking viral entry into the target cells, although additional effector functions are likely at play, particularly in the context of in vivo infection and clinical application[1, 12-16]. Among the bnAbs isolated to date, those targeting the CD4bs are the most abundant and thoroughly studied as they disrupt the first and crucial step of viral interaction with the cellular receptor CD4 [3, 4, 17, 18] . In this step, the trimeric envelope glycoprotein, composed of gp120 and gp41, binds with the target cell through the receptor CD4, with either CCR5 or CXCR4 as co-receptor [19] [20] [21] . This triggers a cascade of conformational changes that fuses the viral envelope with the target membrane and releases the viral genome into the cell [22, 23] .More than two dozen CD4bs bnAbs have been isolated to date. This number is likely to grow with the advent of more specific and high-throughput techniques for isolating antibodies.For instance, the prototype VRC01 and its close relative VRC03, which effectively neutralize a panel of diverse pseudotyped viruses,were isolated from a clade-B infected individual [24] [25] [26] . The more recently isolated CD4bs bnAbs, such as 3BNC117, N6, N49P7, 3BNC60, VRC-PG04, VRC-PG20, NIH45-46, VRC-CH31, 12A12, CH103, 8ANC131, VRC13, and VRC16, have shown similar or even enhanced potency and breadth compared with VRC01 [1-5, 27, 28].The CD4bs bnAbs are classified into two groups based on their mode of recognition and heavy chain characteristics, such as the VRC01 class(3BNC117, N6, N49P7, 3BNC60, VRC-PG04, VRC-PG20, NIH45-46, VRC-CH31 and 12A12) and non-VRC01 classes (CH103, 8ANC131, VRC13 and VRC16) [17, 18] . Structurally, these bnAbs recognize residues within the inner domain, the Loop D, the CD4 binding loop, and the β23/loop V5/β24 region [17, 18, [29] [30] [31] .The V1V2 and V3 loop also impact recognition,particularly in the context of the quaternary trimeric envelope protein [32] [33] [34] [35] [36] .The primary mechanism of neutralization mimics and competes with the CD4 receptorto bind HIV-1 gp120, thereby preventing bound trimers from transitioning to the subsequent steps required for membrane fusion, although evidence indicates that there are differences in the fine details of this process [17, 18, 35, 36] . Despite the superior potency and breadth of these CD4bs bnAbs, each fails to neutralize a small but significant portion of pseudotyped virus panels [17, 25, 27, 28, 37, 38].For instance, VRC01 is unable to neutralize about 10% of tested viruses [25] , and resistant strains have been isolated from patients infected with subtype B, subtype C, CRF07_BC, and CRF08_BC[29, [39] [40] [41] [42] . Furthermore, reports show thatVRC01-, 3BNC117-and N6-resistant strains have emerged in both animal models and human clinical trials [11, 15, [43] [44] [45] [46] [47] , indicating that resistant virus Broadly resistant HIV-1 against CD4bs antibodies PLOS Pathogens | https://doi.org/10.
Broadly resistant HIV-1 against CD4-binding site neutralizing antibodies

Advances in free radical research show that reactive oxygen and nitrogen oxide species, for example superoxide, nitric oxide (NO) and peroxynitrite, play an important role in the pathogenesis of different viral infections, including dengue virus. The pathogenic mechanism of dengue haemorrhagic fever (DHF) is complicated and is not clearly understood. The hallmarks of the dengue disease, the antibody-dependent enhancement, the shift from T-helper type 1 (Th1) to Th2 cytokine response and the cytokine tsunami resulting in vascular leakage can now be explained much better with the knowledge gained about NO and peroxynitrite. This paper makes an effort to present a synthesis of the current opinions to explain the pathogenesis of DHF/shock syndrome with NO on centre stage.
Nitric oxide in dengue and dengue haemorrhagic fever: necessity or nuisance?

The neurotropic murine coronavirus, MHV-JHM (JHMV) causes encephalitis and paralytic-demyelinating disease in susceptible strains of mice and rats, serving as a model for human demyelinating diseases such as multiple sclerosis. In this communication, we report that a single intracerebral administration of the naturally occurring neuropeptide, fl-endorphin, reduced the incidence of JHMV-induced paralytic-demyelinating disease 40-50% in C57B1/6 mice. Protection from disease was accompanied by significantly reduced virus replication in the brain as early as 3 days post-infection and did not occur in irradiated, or immunoincompetent mice. The data suggest that fl-endorphin engages immune mechanisms of host resistance to JHMV infection to protect the mice from disease.

/3-Endorphin protects mice from neurological disease induced by the murine coronavirus MHV-JHM