instruction:
In this task, you are given a part of an article. Your task is to generate headline (title) for this text. Preferred headlines are under fifteen words.
question:
© Scott A. Hale 2016. This is the author’s version of the work. It is posted here for your personal use. Not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in CHI EA 2016, http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/2851581.2892466. Abstract The number of user reviews of tourist attractions, restaurants, mobile apps, etc. is increasing for all languages; yet, research is lacking on how reviews in multiple languages should be aggregated and displayed. Speakers of different languages may have consistently different experiences, e.g., different information available in different languages at tourist attractions or different user experiences with software due to internationalization/localization choices. This paper assesses the similarity in the ratings given by speakers of different languages to London tourist attractions on TripAdvisor. The correlations between different languages are generally high, but some language pairs are more correlated than others. The results question the common practice of computing average ratings from reviews in many languages.
answer:
User Reviews and Language: How Language Influences Ratings


question:
The EM-algorithm is a general procedure to get maximum likelihood estimates if part of the observations on the variables of a network are missing. In this paper a stochastic version of the algorithm is adapted to probabilistic neural networks describing the associative dependency of variables. These networks have a proba­ bility distribution, which is a special case of the distribution generated by proba­ bilistic inference networks. Hence both types of networks can be combined al­ lowing to integrate probabilistic rules as well as unspecified associations in a sound way. The resulting network may have a number of interesting features including cycles of probabilistic rules, hidden 'un­ observable' variables, and uncertain and contradictory evidence.
answer:
Integrating Probabilistic Rules into Neural Networks: A Stochastic EM Learning Algorithm


question:
This paper deals with the problem of esti­ mating the probability that one event was a cause of another in a given scenario. Us­ ing structural-semantical definitions of the probabilities of necessary or sufficient cau­ sation (or both), we show how to optimally bound these quantities from data obtained in experimental and observational studies, making minimal assumptions concerning the data-generating process. In particular, we strengthen the results of Pearl (1999) by weakening the data-generation assumptions and deriving theoretically sharp bounds on the probabilities of causation. These results delineate precisely how empirical data can be used both in settling questions of attribution and in solving attribution-related problems of decision making.
answer:

Probabilities of Causation: Bounds and Identification