In this task, you're given a paragraph from the research paper and your task is to generate a suitable title for the research paper based on the given paper. Under 100 words is a good title length.

Ex Input:
In the last half century, significant attention has been given to animal diseases; however, our understanding of disease processes and how to manage them at the livestock-wildlife interface remains limited. In this study, we conduct a systematic review of the scientific literature to evaluate the status of diseases at the livestock-wildlife interface in the United States. Specifically, the goals of the literature review were three fold: first to evaluate domestic animal diseases currently found in the United States where wildlife may play a role; second to identify critical issues faced in managing these diseases at the livestock-wildlife interface; and third to identify potential technical and policy strategies for addressing these issues. We found that of the 86 avian, ruminant, swine, poultry, and lagomorph diseases that are reportable to the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE), 53 are present in the United States; 42 (79%) of these have a putative wildlife component associated with the transmission, maintenance, or life cycle of the pathogen; and 21 (40%) are known to be zoonotic. At least six of these reportable diseases-bovine tuberculosis, paratuberculosis, brucellosis, avian influenza, rabies, and cattle fever tick (vector control)-have a wildlife reservoir that is a recognized impediment to eradication in domestic populations. The complex nature of these systems highlights the need to understand the role of wildlife in the epidemiology, transmission, and maintenance of infectious diseases of livestock. Successful management or eradication of these diseases will require the development of cross-discipline and institutional collaborations. Despite social and policy challenges, there remain opportunities to develop new collaborations and new technologies to mitigate the risks posed at the livestock-wildlife interface. Published by Elsevier B.V.

Ex Output:
Diseases at the livestock-wildlife interface: Status, challenges, and opportunities in the United States


Ex Input:
Faeces samples from 218, 1 to 30-day-old, diarrheic dairy calves in 65 dairy herds were screened for the presence of Cryptosporidium and concurrent infections with rotavirus, coronavirus, F5 Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp. Calves were grouped according to their age as follows: 1±7, 8±14, 15±21 and 22±30 days. Cryptosporidium infection was detected in 43.8%, 71.9%, 63.2% and 6.9% of the calves in the respective age groups. Significant differences in the detection rate of Cryptosporidium were found between the age group 22±30 days and all other age groups, and between the age group 1±7 days and the age groups 8±14 days and 15±21 days. Cryptosporidium was the only enteropathogen detected in 60 of the 114 (52.6%) diarrheic calves. Concurrent infections with other enteropathogen(s) were detected in 64.3%, 46.3%, 39.5% and 0% of the Cryptosporidium-infected calves in the age groups 1±7, 8±14, 15±21 and 22±30 days, respectively. A significant age-associated decrease in the detection rate of mixed infections (p < 0.05) was found. The detection rates of the other enteropathogens considered in calves with Cryptosporidium infection were 87% for rotavirus, 11.1% for coronavirus, 27.8% for F5 E. coli and 1.8% for Salmonella. #

Ex Output:
Cryptosporidium and concurrent infections with other major enterophatogens in 1 to 30-day-old diarrheic dairy calves in central Spain


Ex Input:
Self-replicating single-stranded RNA viruses such as alphaviruses, flaviviruses, measles viruses, and rhabdoviruses provide efficient delivery and high-level expression of therapeutic genes due to their high capacity of RNA replication. This has contributed to novel approaches for therapeutic applications including vaccine development and gene therapy-based immunotherapy. Numerous studies in animal tumor models have demonstrated that self-replicating RNA viral vectors can generate antibody responses against infectious agents and tumor cells. Moreover, protection against challenges with pathogenic Ebola virus was obtained in primates immunized with alphaviruses and flaviviruses. Similarly, vaccinated animals have been demonstrated to withstand challenges with lethal doses of tumor cells. Furthermore, clinical trials have been conducted for several indications with self-amplifying RNA viruses. In this context, alphaviruses have been subjected to phase I clinical trials for a cytomegalovirus vaccine generating neutralizing antibodies in healthy volunteers, and for antigen delivery to dendritic cells providing clinically relevant antibody responses in cancer patients, respectively. Likewise, rhabdovirus particles have been subjected to phase I/II clinical trials showing good safety and immunogenicity against Ebola virus. Rhabdoviruses have generated promising results in phase III trials against Ebola virus. The purpose of this review is to summarize the achievements of using self-replicating RNA viruses for RNA therapy based on preclinical animal studies and clinical trials in humans. Molecules 2018, 23, 3310 2 of 22 in the areas of cancer immunotherapy [4,5], vaccine development against infectious diseases [6,7], protein replacement [8], and gene editing [9]. Related to mRNA-based drug approaches, the employment of self-replicating RNA viruses has provided an interesting and attractive alternative to further enhance delivery and efficacy [10] . The unique feature of high-rate cytoplasmic replication combined with extreme transgene expression has made these RNA viruses the system of choice for RNA therapeutics. In this review, self-replicating vectors are described and their applications for preclinical studies and clinical trials are discussed. The common feature of self-replicating RNA viruses relates to their single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) genome surrounded by a capsid core structure and a protein envelope. Alphaviruses [11] and flaviviruses [12] possess a genome of positive polarity, whereas the genome of measles viruses (MVs) [13] and rhabdoviruses [14] as negative strand ssRNA. Expression vectors serving as templates for RNA transcription and recombinant viral particles have been engineered. Moreover, alphavirus vectors providing RNA replication can be utilized as plasmid DNA. 2.1. Alphaviruses Alphaviruses belong to the family of Togaviridiae [15]. The most common alphaviruses engineered as expression vectors are based on Semliki Forest virus (SFV) [15], Sindbis virus (SIN) [16], and Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEE) [17]. The alphavirus genome consists of four nonstructural genes (nsP1-4), responsible for RNA self-replication and the genes for the capsid and envelope proteins [11] (Figure 1A-C). Engineered alphavirus vectors generate replication-deficient and -proficient recombinant particles suitable for transgene expression in cell lines and in vivo [18]. Introduction of a CMV promoter upstream of the nsP genes allows direct transfection of plasmid DNA with self-replicating RNA capacity [19]. Due to the design of these alternative alphavirus vectors it is possible to conduct studies with naked RNA replicons, recombinant viral particles and layered DNA-RNA vectors. Molecules 2018, 23, 3310 2 of 21 cancer immunotherapy [4,5], vaccine development against infectious diseases [6,7], protein replacement [8], and gene editing [9]. Related to mRNA-based drug approaches, the employment of self-replicating RNA viruses has provided an interesting and attractive alternative to further enhance delivery and efficacy [10] . The unique feature of high-rate cytoplasmic replication combined with extreme transgene expression has made these RNA viruses the system of choice for RNA therapeutics. In this review, self-replicating vectors are described and their applications for preclinical studies and clinical trials are discussed. The common feature of self-replicating RNA viruses relates to their single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) genome surrounded by a capsid core structure and a protein envelope. Alphaviruses [11] and flaviviruses [12] possess a genome of positive polarity, whereas the genome of measles viruses (MVs) [13] and rhabdoviruses [14] as negative strand ssRNA. Expression vectors serving as templates for RNA transcription and recombinant viral particles have been engineered. Moreover, alphavirus vectors providing RNA replication can be utilized as plasmid DNA. Alphaviruses belong to the family of Togaviridiae [15]. The most common alphaviruses engineered as expression vectors are based on Semliki Forest virus (SFV) [15], Sindbis virus (SIN) [16], and Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEE) [17]. The alphavirus genome consists of four nonstructural genes (nsP1-4), responsible for RNA self-replication and the genes for the capsid and envelope proteins [11] (Figure 1A-C). Engineered alphavirus vectors generate replication-deficient and -proficient recombinant particles suitable for transgene expression in cell lines and in vivo [18]. Introduction of a CMV promoter upstream of the nsP genes allows direct transfection of plasmid DNA with self-replicating RNA capacity [19] . Due to the design of these alternative alphavirus vectors it is possible to conduct studies with naked RNA replicons, recombinant viral particles and layered DNA-RNA vectors.

Ex Output:

molecules Self-Replicating RNA Viruses for RNA Therapeutics