In this task, you will be presented with a context from an academic paper and you have to write an answerable question based on the context. Your questions can be extractive, abstractive, or yes-no questions.

[Q]: We compare our model with other strong competitive methods on the SQuAD leaderboard and TriviaQA leaderboard.
[A]: What other solutions do they compare to?


[Q]: Experiments ::: Baselines
We evaluate MPAD against multiple state-of-the-art baseline models, including hierarchical ones, to enable fair comparison with the hierarchical MPAD variants.

doc2vec BIBREF37. Doc2vec (or paragraph vector) is an extension of word2vec that learns vectors for documents in a fully unsupervised manner. Document embeddings are then fed to a logistic regression classifier.

CNN BIBREF38. The convolutional neural network architecture, well-known in computer vision, is applied to text. There is one spatial dimension and the word embeddings are used as channels (depth dimensions).

DAN BIBREF39. The Deep Averaging Network passes the unweighted average of the embeddings of the input words through multiple dense layers and a final softmax.

Tree-LSTM BIBREF40 is a generalization of the standard LSTM architecture to constituency and dependency parse trees.

DRNN BIBREF41. Recursive neural networks are stacked and applied to parse trees.

LSTMN BIBREF42 is an extension of the LSTM model where the memory cell is replaced by a memory network which stores word representations.

C-LSTM BIBREF43 combines convolutional and recurrent neural networks. The region embeddings provided by a CNN are fed to a LSTM.

SPGK BIBREF44 also models documents as word co-occurrence networks. It computes a graph kernel that compares shortest paths extracted from the word co-occurrence networks and then uses a SVM to categorize documents.

WMD BIBREF45 is an application of the well-known Earth Mover's Distance to text. A k-nearest neighbor classifier is used.

S-WMD BIBREF46 is a supervised extension of the Word Mover's Distance.

Semantic-CNN BIBREF47. Here, a CNN is applied to semantic units obtained by clustering words in the embedding space.

LSTM-GRNN BIBREF26 is a hierarchical model where sentence embeddings are obtained with a CNN and a GRU-RNN is fed the sentence representations to obtain a document vector.

HN-ATT BIBREF27 is another hierarchical model, where the same encoder architecture (a bidirectional GRU-RNN) is used for both sentences and documents, with different parameters. A self-attention mechanism is applied to the RNN annotations at each level.
[A]: What is the state-of-the-art system?


[Q]:  We refer the reader to BIBREF10 for more details on the propaganda techniques; below we report the list of techniques:

Propaganda Techniques ::: 1. Loaded language.
Using words/phrases with strong emotional implications (positive or negative) to influence an audience BIBREF11.

Propaganda Techniques ::: 2. Name calling or labeling.
Labeling the object of the propaganda as something the target audience fears, hates, finds undesirable or otherwise loves or praises BIBREF12.

Propaganda Techniques ::: 3. Repetition.
Repeating the same message over and over again, so that the audience will eventually accept it BIBREF13, BIBREF12.

Propaganda Techniques ::: 4. Exaggeration or minimization.
Either representing something in an excessive manner: making things larger, better, worse, or making something seem less important or smaller than it actually is BIBREF14, e.g., saying that an insult was just a joke.

Propaganda Techniques ::: 5. Doubt.
Questioning the credibility of someone or something.

Propaganda Techniques ::: 6. Appeal to fear/prejudice.
Seeking to build support for an idea by instilling anxiety and/or panic in the population towards an alternative, possibly based on preconceived judgments.

Propaganda Techniques ::: 7. Flag-waving.
Playing on strong national feeling (or with respect to a group, e.g., race, gender, political preference) to justify or promote an action or idea BIBREF15.

Propaganda Techniques ::: 8. Causal oversimplification.
Assuming one cause when there are multiple causes behind an issue. We include scapegoating as well: the transfer of the blame to one person or group of people without investigating the complexities of an issue.

Propaganda Techniques ::: 9. Slogans.
A brief and striking phrase that may include labeling and stereotyping. Slogans tend to act as emotional appeals BIBREF16.

Propaganda Techniques ::: 10. Appeal to authority.
Stating that a claim is true simply because a valid authority/expert on the issue supports it, without any other supporting evidence BIBREF17. We include the special case where the reference is not an authority/expert, although it is referred to as testimonial in the literature BIBREF14.

Propaganda Techniques ::: 11. Black-and-white fallacy, dictatorship.
Presenting two alternative options as the only possibilities, when in fact more possibilities exist BIBREF13. As an extreme case, telling the audience exactly what actions to take, eliminating any other possible choice (dictatorship).

Propaganda Techniques ::: 12. Thought-terminating cliché.
Words or phrases that discourage critical thought and meaningful discussion about a given topic. They are typically short and generic sentences that offer seemingly simple answers to complex questions or that distract attention away from other lines of thought BIBREF18.

Propaganda Techniques ::: 13. Whataboutism.
Discredit an opponent's position by charging them with hypocrisy without directly disproving their argument BIBREF19.

Propaganda Techniques ::: 14. Reductio ad Hitlerum.
Persuading an audience to disapprove an action or idea by suggesting that the idea is popular with groups hated in contempt by the target audience. It can refer to any person or concept with a negative connotation BIBREF20.

Propaganda Techniques ::: 15. Red herring.
Introducing irrelevant material to the issue being discussed, so that everyone's attention is diverted away from the points made BIBREF11. Those subjected to a red herring argument are led away from the issue that had been the focus of the discussion and urged to follow an observation or claim that may be associated with the original claim, but is not highly relevant to the issue in dispute BIBREF20.

Propaganda Techniques ::: 16. Bandwagon.
Attempting to persuade the target audience to join in and take the course of action because “everyone else is taking the same action” BIBREF15.

Propaganda Techniques ::: 17. Obfuscation, intentional vagueness, confusion.
Using deliberately unclear words, to let the audience have its own interpretation BIBREF21, BIBREF11. For instance, when an unclear phrase with multiple possible meanings is used within the argument and, therefore, it does not really support the conclusion.

Propaganda Techniques ::: 18. Straw man.
When an opponent's proposition is substituted with a similar one which is then refuted in place of the original BIBREF22.
[A]:
What are the 18 propaganda techniques?