imone/ARB huggingface dataset:
Question: Passage $\mathrm{V}$
For many years, researchers have been interested in developing edible vaccines that would provide protection against various bacterial and viral diseases. An edible vaccine is a genetically modified organism (GMO) that is created when genes from the bacteria or virus being vaccinated against are inserted into plant cells. As the plants grow, they produce proteins from the bacteria or virus that the researchers are attempting to vaccinate against. When a person eats the plant, the viral or bacteria proteins serve as antigens, which initiates a primary immune response.
Some of the plants that are of interest in edible vaccine development are bananas, potatoes, tomatoes, corn, rice, tobacco, and soybeans. While early research focused on growing crops that produced edible products such as bananas, the most recent research is focused on extracting material from the leaves and seeds of the plants, dehydrating it, and putting it into capsules that can be swallowed. This allows for a more predictable dosage of the vaccine and eliminates concerns that the crops containing the vaccine would be accidentally eaten by individuals who are not in need of the vaccine. The term edible vaccine has now been replaced with the term plantderived oral vaccine.
The development of plant-derived oral vaccines solves many problems associated with injectable vaccines. Because plant-derived oral vaccines are grown in crops, there is no problem with storage or refrigeration that is required of most traditional vaccines. These plant-derived vaccines also require no special training to administer. Additionally, when a vaccine is taken orally, it provides mucosal immunity due to the production of IgA antibodies by the immune system-in addition to systemic immunity. Since 90 percent of diseases enter the body through a mucus membrane, a vaccine that coerces mucosal immunity is of great benefit in the prevention of many diseases.
Plant-derived oral vaccines produce bacterial or viral proteins that serve as antigens in the body. Which of these events would occur first when a new antigen enters the body?

Options:
A. production of antibodies from plasma cells
B. presentation of the antigen by a macrophage
C. secretion of interleukin-2 from helper T cells
D. attack of the antigen by cytotoxic $T$ cells
Answer: This question requires an understanding of the specific defenses of the immune system. The ultimate goal of the specific defenses is to allow for the production of antibodies from plasma cells and the production of cytotoxic $\mathrm{T}$ cells. However, neither of these things can occur without the activation of a helper $\mathrm{T}$ cell. In order to activate the helper $\mathrm{T}$ cell, macrophages must phagocytize foreign antigens. The fragments of these antigens will be displayed on the surface of the macrophage. This antigen presenting cell will then activate the helper $\mathrm{T}$ cell. The correct answer is B.
Question: Genetically modified (GM) foods contain DNA from more than one source. The goal of creating GM foods is to modify the organisms to express new and useful traits. A few examples involve engineering crops to be resistant to bacterial or viral infections, to be resistant to herbicides, to ripen more slowly, to survive extreme temperature changes, to contain vaccines, or to create crops that are more nutritious.
One GM food that has received media attention over the years is golden rice. This GM product was first introduced in 2000 and was engineered to provide carotene that is a precursor to vitamin $\mathrm{A}$. The carotene in the rice provides the golden color. Vitamin A deficiency is a major problem in underdeveloped parts of the world, killing more than one million people a year, most of whom are children. This vitamin is critical for the development and maintenance of epithelial tissues, for vision, and for growth.
Rice plants normally produce carotene in the inedible parts of the plant. To be able to access and use the carotene, it was necessary to engineer the rice to produce it in the edible grains. In order to achieve this goal, two genes from daffodil plants, psy and $l y c$, and a bacterial gene called $c r t 1$ were added to the rice genome. These genes engineered a pathway that produces lycopene, which is eventually converted to carotene. Each of these genes was placed under the control of a grain-specific promoter so that the products were produced in the rice grains.
While golden rice was produced to provide carotene, which the human body can convert into the essential vitamin A, the rice provided much less carotene than was anticipated. Golden rice 2, a modified version released in 2005, contains a much larger amount of carotene and, as such, is a better source of the vitamin. Field tests were conducted in 2009, and human consumption trials were completed in 2012. However, neither version has been grown in large-scale quantities at this time.
Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) can be produced in a variety of ways. In the case of golden rice, genes from the daffodil plant and bacteria were added to the rice genome. Which of the following would be necessary to remove the genes from these other organisms so that they could be added to rice?

Options:
A. reverse transcriptase
B. a viral vector
C. restriction enzymes
D. polymerase chain reaction
Answer: Restriction enzymes are known to cut DNA at specific recognition sequences and are valuable tools for excising genes to be transferred from one source to another. Reverse transcriptase is used to copy RNA to DNA. Viral vectors can carry DNA of interest into other cells, but they are not used to remove genes from an organism. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is used to produce multiple copies of a target DNA sequence. The correct answer is C.
Question: The discovery and development of various types of anesthesia have revolutionized modern medicine, allowing many medical procedures to be performed with minimal discomfort to the patient. Local anesthesia is used to induce loss of sensation in a particular area, while general anesthesia is used to induce loss of sensation along with loss of consciousness. Both procaine (also known as novocaine) and lidocaine are drugs used for local anesthesia, and they have similar mechanisms of action. The drugs affect neurons in the local areas to which they are applied by preventing the opening of $\mathrm{Na}^{+}$gated channels in the neurons.
Procaine and lidocaine have their own advantages and disadvantages. For example, procaine has the ability to cause vasoconstriction in addition to its analgesic properties. However, lidocaine induces anesthesia faster and for a longer period of time than procaine. In addition to being used as an anesthetic, lidocaine is often used in the treatment of ventricular fibrillation, a condition where the cardiac muscle displays rapid, uncoordinated, and weak rhythms. The drug causes decreased excitability of the ventricles by blocking $\mathrm{Na}^{+}$gated channels, while the sinoatrial node in the right atrium is unaffected by the drug.
Procaine has a half-life of up to $0.5$ hours in patients. When procaine is metabolized in the body, it is converted to para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) in the plasma by the enzyme pseudocholinesterase, and PABA is then excreted by the kidneys. Lidocaine is twice as potent as procaine, but lidocaine is also twice as toxic. The half-life of lidocaine in patients is typically between $1.5$ and 2 hours. Lidocaine is metabolized in the liver by two enzymes that produce the metabolites monoethylglycinexylidide and glycinexylidide. What benefits would come from using an anesthetic such as novocaine, which causes vasoconstriction in addition to analgesic effects, during a surgical procedure?

Options:
A. to keep blood pressure low
B. to prevent infection
C. to minimize bleeding during the procedure
D. to prevent inflammation following the surgery
Answer: Vasoconstriction means that vessel diameter narrows, restricting blood flow to the area. The question introduces the idea of using novocaine during surgery. Since the drug causes vasoconstriction, this would actually increase blood pressure, eliminating choice A. The best choice is C. Bleeding is likely to occur during surgery, so vasoconstriction should slow the blood flow, which results in less blood loss. The correct answer is C.
Question: An endocrinologist has been studying an enzyme that she suspects is the rate-limiting step in the conversion of cholesterol to estrogen. It is reported in the literature that female mice with a mutation in the gene coding for this enzyme reach sexual maturity earlier than mice without the mutation. Controlled experiments are completed using breeding pairs of wild-type mice and the mutant strain of mice. The plasma estrogen concentration is measured in female offspring at 3 weeks of age, prior to sexual maturity, which typically occurs by 6 weeks of age. The results, in estrogen $\mathrm{pg} / \mathrm{mL}$ of plasma, are seen in the following table.   \begin{tabular}{ccc} line Trial & Wild Type* & Mutant Strain* \\ line 1 & $2.3$ & $8.5$ \\ 2 & $8.1$ & $4.5$ \\ 3 & $4.4$ & $16.2$ \\ 4 & $7.6$ & $5.5$ \\ 5 & $3.2$ & $3.8$ \\ 6 & $8.2$ & $12.5$ \\ 7 & $5.5$ & $10.7$ \\ 8 & $6.3$ & $8.6$ \\ \hline \end{tabular}. The rate-limiting step in a metabolic pathway: 

Options:
A. A. requires the lowest activation energy
B. B. is the fastest step in a metabolic pathway
C. C. is always the last reaction in the pathway
D. D. is the slowest step in a metabolic pathway
Answer: Rate-limiting steps generally require the highest activation energies and are the slowest steps in a metabolic pathway. The correct answer is D.
Question: The discovery and development of various types of anesthesia have revolutionized modern medicine, allowing many medical procedures to be performed with minimal discomfort to the patient. Local anesthesia is used to induce loss of sensation in a particular area, while general anesthesia is used to induce loss of sensation along with loss of consciousness. Both procaine (also known as novocaine) and lidocaine are drugs used for local anesthesia, and they have similar mechanisms of action. The drugs affect neurons in the local areas to which they are applied by preventing the opening of $\mathrm{Na}^{+}$gated channels in the neurons.
Procaine and lidocaine have their own advantages and disadvantages. For example, procaine has the ability to cause vasoconstriction in addition to its analgesic properties. However, lidocaine induces anesthesia faster and for a longer period of time than procaine. In addition to being used as an anesthetic, lidocaine is often used in the treatment of ventricular fibrillation, a condition where the cardiac muscle displays rapid, uncoordinated, and weak rhythms. The drug causes decreased excitability of the ventricles by blocking $\mathrm{Na}^{+}$gated channels, while the sinoatrial node in the right atrium is unaffected by the drug.
Procaine has a half-life of up to $0.5$ hours in patients. When procaine is metabolized in the body, it is converted to para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) in the plasma by the enzyme pseudocholinesterase, and PABA is then excreted by the kidneys. Lidocaine is twice as potent as procaine, but lidocaine is also twice as toxic. The half-life of lidocaine in patients is typically between $1.5$ and 2 hours. Lidocaine is metabolized in the liver by two enzymes that produce the metabolites monoethylglycinexylidide and glycinexylidide. Which type of neuron would be affected by lidocaine?

Options:
A. motor neurons
B. interneurons
C. sensory neurons
D. glial cells
Answer: The passage indicates that lidocaine is an analgesic (prevents pain) by blocking $\mathrm{Na}^{+}$gates channels in neurons. Since glial cells are not neurons, choice D can immediately be eliminated. In order to prevent pain from being processed, the messages must be prevented from entering the central nervous system where interneurons are located. Therefore, sensory neurons must be blocked. If these are blocked, the interneurons do not receive the pain messages and motor neurons will not act on them. The correct answer is C.
Question: Osteomyelitis is a bone infection often caused by the bacterium Staphylococcus aureus, which spreads through the blood to the bones. The infection is quite common after surgeries when soft tissues become infected and the infection moves to the adjacent bones. The long bones of children are particularly susceptible as they have excellent circulation to them during the growth period. In adults, the best circulation is to the vertebrae, and these are the bones that are most likely to develop osteomyelitis.
Osteomyelitis is treated with various antibiotics, but some patients have chronic infections that are not eradicated by antibiotic therapy due to a unique feature of S. aureus. S. aureus can be internalized by osteoblasts where the bacteria can continue to survive in the intracellular environment. Inside the osteoblasts, bacteria can induce apoptosis, killing their host cell. Surgical debridement is often required to remove the damaged and dead bone tissue created by the infection.
A major research question deals with how an S. aureus infection induces apoptosis in the host osteoblasts. In order for apoptosis to initiate in osteoblasts, the enzyme capsase-8 must be activated. This enzyme serves as a protease that cleaves critical proteins in the cell, causing cell death. Capsase-8 is only expressed under certain circumstances. In the case of osteomyelitis, the S. aureus bacteria cause the induction of tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) in the osteoblasts. Then TRAIL activates capsase-8, which triggers a series of events leading to apoptosis and death of osteoblasts.
The strains of $S$. aureus associated with osteomyelitis have a variety of cell adhesion molecules called adhesins that help them to attach to and be internalized by osteoblasts. These molecules are likely found in which of the following bacterial structures?

Options:
A. the nucleoid
B. the ribosomes
C. the capsule
D. spores
Answer: This question relies on your knowledge of bacterial cell structures and functions. The nucleoid is the region of the cell where the one circular loop of chromosomal DNA is located. The ribosomes are responsible for protein synthesis. Bacteria can convert themselves to spores when environmental conditions are poor, allowing them to survive for extended periods of time in harsh conditions. The capsule is a sticky layer surrounding the cell that helps in the attachment of the cell to a surface. It is likely that the adhesins are located here. The correct answer is C.
Question: The process of quorum sensing is observed in a variety of species. It involves a system of communication between organisms that is dependent on population density. Bacteria are notorious for using quorum sensing (QS) via the secretion of secreted signaling molecules, called autoinducers (AI), to coordinate their gene expression once a threshold density of population is reached. Not only can bacteria communicate via QS within their species, but they can also cross-talk through QS between different species. In order to participate in quorum sensing, bacteria require a way to produce an autoinducer and a way to respond to autoinducers via binding to specific receptors.
One example of how bacteria use quorum sensing to their advantage is to regulate the gene expression of virulence factors. During infection, if a small number of bacteria were to express their virulence factors, this would largely have no impact on the host. Instead, bacteria wait until a quorum is reached in terms of population size, indicating that the population is large enough to express virulence factors. These virulence factors relate to such abilities as escaping the immune response, invasion, and spreading within the host.
We know that we are facing a current healthcare crisis related to the loss of effectiveness of many traditional types of antibiotics based on bacterial resistance. This provides a major impetus for identifying novel ways to target bacterial pathogens that avoid the use of antibiotics. Several chemical compounds and molecules have been identified as facilitators of quorum sensing inhibition. Typically, these factors can serve as signal-targeting enzymes or small-molecule inhibitors of signal synthases and receptors.
Quorum sensing is used frequently within populations of bacteria such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa that form biofilms within their host. Once a quorum is reached, expression of the genes required for biofilm formation occurs. From the bacterial perspective, what direct advantage does the formation of biofilms provide?

Options:
A. It provides a strong attachment to surfaces of the host.
B. It enhances virulence expression of the organisms involved in the biofilm.
C. It provides increased resistance to antibiotics.
D. It enhances the secretions of toxins.
Answer: The advantage of biofilm formation is that it provides a direct and strong attachment to its host. Biofilms are notoriously difficult to eradicate, and the bacteria within them are provided protection against many variables, sometimes including antibiotics. The correct answer is A.
Question: The discovery and development of various types of anesthesia have revolutionized modern medicine, allowing many medical procedures to be performed with minimal discomfort to the patient. Local anesthesia is used to induce loss of sensation in a particular area, while general anesthesia is used to induce loss of sensation along with loss of consciousness. Both procaine (also known as novocaine) and lidocaine are drugs used for local anesthesia, and they have similar mechanisms of action. The drugs affect neurons in the local areas to which they are applied by preventing the opening of $\mathrm{Na}^{+}$gated channels in the neurons.
Procaine and lidocaine have their own advantages and disadvantages. For example, procaine has the ability to cause vasoconstriction in addition to its analgesic properties. However, lidocaine induces anesthesia faster and for a longer period of time than procaine. In addition to being used as an anesthetic, lidocaine is often used in the treatment of ventricular fibrillation, a condition where the cardiac muscle displays rapid, uncoordinated, and weak rhythms. The drug causes decreased excitability of the ventricles by blocking $\mathrm{Na}^{+}$gated channels, while the sinoatrial node in the right atrium is unaffected by the drug.
Procaine has a half-life of up to $0.5$ hours in patients. When procaine is metabolized in the body, it is converted to para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) in the plasma by the enzyme pseudocholinesterase, and PABA is then excreted by the kidneys. Lidocaine is twice as potent as procaine, but lidocaine is also twice as toxic. The half-life of lidocaine in patients is typically between $1.5$ and 2 hours. Lidocaine is metabolized in the liver by two enzymes that produce the metabolites monoethylglycinexylidide and glycinexylidide. A neuron under the influence of an anesthetic such as lidocaine would MOST likely:

Options:
A. display decreased neurotransmitter release at the synapse
B. show increased enzymatic degradation of neurotransmitters in the synapse
C. show increased reuptake of neurotransmitters in the synapse
D. display a more negative charge outside the neuron as compared to inside the neuron
Answer: Since lidocaine blocks $\mathrm{Na}^{+}$gated channels, we have already established that it prevents the initiation of action potentials in the affected neurons. Normally, as action potentials propagate, they eventually cause the release of neurotransmitters into the synapse. Since action potentials are impaired in lidocaine-treated neurons, we should expect that there will be fewer neurotransmitters released into the synapse. The correct answer is A.
Question: During pulmonary gas exchange, oxygen and carbon dioxide always move:

Options:
A. into the alveoli
B. into the blood
C. from high to low concentration
D. out of the blood
Answer: Pulmonary gas exchange is always based on simple diffusion. Diffusion allows for the movement of a substance from an area of high concentration of the substance to an area of low concentration of the substance. Depending on the concentrations, oxygen and carbon dioxide will move in variable directions. Choices $\mathrm{A}, \mathrm{B}$, and $\mathrm{D}$ indicate that the movement of gases always occurs in a fixed direction, which is incorrect. The correct answer is C.
Question: An endocrinologist has been studying an enzyme that she suspects is the rate-limiting step in the conversion of cholesterol to estrogen. It is reported in the literature that female mice with a mutation in the gene coding for this enzyme reach sexual maturity earlier than mice without the mutation. Controlled experiments are completed using breeding pairs of wild-type mice and the mutant strain of mice. The plasma estrogen concentration is measured in female offspring at 3 weeks of age, prior to sexual maturity, which typically occurs by 6 weeks of age. The results, in estrogen $\mathrm{pg} / \mathrm{mL}$ of plasma, are seen in the following table.   \begin{tabular}{ccc} line Trial & Wild Type* & Mutant Strain* \\ line 1 & $2.3$ & $8.5$ \\ 2 & $8.1$ & $4.5$ \\ 3 & $4.4$ & $16.2$ \\ 4 & $7.6$ & $5.5$ \\ 5 & $3.2$ & $3.8$ \\ 6 & $8.2$ & $12.5$ \\ 7 & $5.5$ & $10.7$ \\ 8 & $6.3$ & $8.6$ \\ \hline \end{tabular}. What conclusion can be made based on the data?

Options:
A. A. The presence of the wild-type enzyme increases estrogen concentration.
B. B. The presence of the wild-type enzyme increases cholesterol concentration.
C. C. The presence of the mutant enzyme increases estrogen concentration.
D. D. The presence of the mutant enzyme increases cholesterol concentration.
Answer: The data report estrogen concentration. From reviewing the data, it can be seen that the mutant strain generally has a higher estrogen concentration than the wild-type strain. The correct answer is C.
Question: With which theoretical paradigm is the German political philosopher Karl Marx MOST associated?

Options:
A. conflict theory
B. functionalism
C. symbolic interactionism
D. avoidance theory
Answer: Conflict theory states that society is fundamentally in conflict when there is an uneven distribution of resources, and that power struggles between groups of people create divisiveness across gender, race, and socioeconomic status. The correct answer is A.
Question: The major constituent of blood plasma is:

Options:
A. protein
B. $\mathrm{NaCl}$
C. water
D. cholesterol
Answer: Blood is a fluid made up of liquid plasma (55\%), the primary component of which is water, and floating cells (45\%). The plasma is richly endowed with dissolved proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates. The correct answer is C.