I 118th CONGRESS 2d Session H. R. 8130 IN THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES April 26, 2024 Mr. Espaillat (for himself and Ms. Tlaib ) introduced the following bill; which was referred to the Committee on Foreign Affairs A BILL To establish a commission to address the fundamental repercussions of misguided interventions by the United States in multiple sovereign Western Hemisphere nations over the course of the twentieth century, including to study and consider an apology and proposals for the repairment of relations and reconciliation with the peoples of said nations, and for other purposes.

1. Short title This Act may be cited as the Commission on the United States Occupations in the Americas Act or the La Comisión de las Ocupaciónes Americanos Act . 2. Findings Congress finds the following as it relates to misguided United States military interventions in the following nations: (1) First occupation of Nicaragua On November 18, 1909, President William Howard Taft sent warships off the coast of Nicaragua to signal United States support for an uprising against Nicaraguan President José Santos Zelaya, whose Presidency was viewed as unfavorable to the interests of United States businesses operating in Nicaragua. While United States forces were not ordered to intervene directly, a small group of United States Marines nevertheless made landfall on the Nicaraguan coast and assisted in the successful rebellion against President Zelaya, who resigned on December 14, 1909, and later fled the country. A new pro-United States President of Nicaragua, Juan Estrada, was later installed in August 1910, due in large part to the pressure imposed by the continual presence of United States warships off the Nicaraguan coast. President Estrada’s pro-United States stances proved unpopular, and he was forced to resign in May of 1911 by the Nicaraguan Minister of War, Luis Mena. President Estrada was replaced by his Vice President, Adolfo Díaz. Nevertheless, Díaz’s close connections to the United States also made him unpopular, and in mid-1912, Nicaragua’s Constituent Assembly appointed Mena as the successor to the Presidency over Díaz. When the United States refused to recognize Mena’s Presidency as legitimate, Mena’s and Díaz’s forces clashed in July of 1912 in a full-scale civil war. Díaz requested the United States support in the war. Beginning on August 4, 1912, multiple contingents of United States Bluejackets and Marines arrived in Nicaragua and assisted Díaz’s forces, resulting in Díaz’s victory on October 6, 1912, when his forces captured the city of Leon, Nicaragua. Although only 7 members of the United States military died in the conflict, the war nevertheless resulted in approximately 2,000 total casualties. The United States withdrew most of its forces toward the end of October 1912. However, a smaller contingent of approximately 100 Marines would remain in Nicaragua’s capital city of Managua for over a decade before eventually withdrawing in August 1925. (2) First occupation of Mexico On April 21, 1914, at the order of President Woodrow Wilson, 500 Marines and 300 Navy personnel invaded the port city of Veracruz, Mexico, to seize control of the city. President Wilson’s pretext for this operation was to enforce a United States arms embargo against Mexico and prevent the arrival of an arms shipment in Veracruz that had been ordered by Mexican President Victoriano Huerta, who was viewed as an enemy of the United States at that time. The ensuing fighting saw United States forces destroy most of the Mexican Naval Academy in Veracruz. The United States military was eventually able to take full control of Veracruz by April 24, 1914, beginning a 6-month occupation by the United States of the city. The United States military suffered just shy of 100 casualties while approximately 550 Mexican soldiers and civilians died while defending the city. United States forces eventually withdrew from Veracruz on November 23, 1914. The United States occupation of Veracruz had broad negative consequences for the favorability of the United States amongst Mexican citizens and increased anti-American sentiment throughout Mexico and Latin America for decades to come. (3) Second occupation of Mexico From March 16, 1916, through February 14, 1917, an expeditionary force of more than 14,000 United States Army troops was sent into northern Mexico. These forces were instructed to engage in the singular pursuit of capturing Mexican revolutionary Francisco Pancho Villa. President Woodrow Wilson ordered this expedition in response to Villa’s army’s raid of Colombus, New Mexico, on March 9, 1916, which killed 17 United States citizens. Over the course of the next 11 months, multiple battles occurred in Mexico between Pancho Villa’s forces and United States forces, leaving a total 15 United States citizens and 251 Mexicans dead. Mexican President Venustiano Carranza viewed the United States expedition in pursuit of Villa as a clear violation of Mexican sovereignty. The expedition ended before Villa was ever captured, and United States forces eventually withdrew from Mexico on February 14, 1917, in order to consolidate forces to fight in World War I in Europe. (4) First occupation of the Dominican Republic On May 13, 1916, a contingent of the United States Marine Corps landed on the shores of the Dominican Republic with the goal of militarily occupying the island nation due to concerns about the possible German use of the Dominican Republic as a base for attacks on the United States during World War I. After 2 months of fighting, the United States military took control of the nation, established a government, and continued to occupy the island for 8 years before withdrawing on September 18, 1924. By the time United States forces withdrew, 144 marines had died and 50 were injured. The 8-year occupation also resulted in 950 Dominican casualties between those who died and those who were injured in the conflict. (5) Second occupation of Nicaragua On January 24, 1927, when Nicaragua was embroiled in another civil war that threatened United States business and diplomatic interests in the region, 3,000 United States Marines were deployed to Nicaragua by President Calvin Coolidge with the goal of disarming rebel groups, supervising the highly contentious 1928 Presidential election, and developing and training the Guardia Nacional de Nicaragua (Nicaraguan National Guard). While the Marines were successful in disarming various rebel groups throughout the country, Nicaraguan rebel leader César Augusto Sandino and his forces resisted due to Sandino’s ideological opposition to United States interventionism in his country. Sandino’s army and the United States Marines engaged in a 6-year-long military conflict through 1933. A total 136 Marines died and estimates of Nicaraguan casualties, although imprecise, were even larger. Sandino’s willingness to stand up to United States forces attracted sympathy and galvanized anti-American sentiment both in Nicaragua and throughout the Western Hemisphere. Despite Sandino’s resistance, the United States successfully supervised Nicaragua’s November 1928 elections, which saw President José María Moncada ascend to power. After the election, President Herbert Hoover, slowly withdrew troops from Nicaragua until the last Marines left Nicaragua on January 2, 1933. Sandino’s rebel forces continued to engage in periodic guerilla warfare against United States troops until these last Marines were evacuated. Today, Sandino is a popular folk hero amongst the Nicaraguan political left and his name provides the inspiration for the modern-day Sandinista political party that rules Nicaragua. (6) Guatemala air occupation On June 18, 1954, through June 27, 1954, as part of Operation PBSuccess , the United States Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) planned, designed, and led a successful coup in Guatemala, overthrowing the predominantly capitalist government of President Jacobo Árbenz, coinciding in time with President Arbenz’s plans to redistribute land owned by the United Fruit Company, a prosperous United States-based fruit company which controlled 42 percent of all land in Guatemala at that time. In justification for Operation PBSuccess, the United States spuriously alleged that President Árbenz’s government had been infiltrated by anti-American communists. The CIA provided both supplies and a small fleet of combat troops for the rebellion, during which United States pilots bombed fortresses and other areas of Guatemala City. Operation PBSuccess was successful, and on June 27, 1954, President Árbenz fled Guatemala. The 1954 coup is widely viewed by historians as ushering in an unprecedented era of civil war in Guatemala that lasted until 1996 and claimed the lives of over 200,000 Guatemalans, many of which were lost in connection with various additional covert CIA operations that operated in the nation during this time period. (7) Second occupation of the Dominican Republic On April 28, 1965, the second intervention and occupation of the Dominican Republic by the United States Armed Forces, called Operation Power Pack , commenced and provided United States air and ground troops to assist future Dominican President Donal Reid Cabral’s army in the Dominican 1965 civil war. Operation Power Pack took place between 1965 and 1966, after a period of political instability and military coup following the assassination of former Dominican dictator Rafael Leónidas Trujillo in 1961. In 1962, socialist politician Juan Bosch became the elected President of the Dominican Republic before being overthrown in a separate coup in 1963. From 1963 through April 1965, a 3-man military junta of General Antonio Imbert Barrera, General Luis Amiamo Tió, and General Victor Elby Viñas Román held power before growing dissatisfaction led to another rebellion on April 24, 1965. Four days later, President Lyndon Johnson sent a total of 42,000 United States troops from multiple branches of the military to the island, supplemented by an Inter-American Peace Force of 2,000 troops, to assist rebels led by Donald Reid Cabral. In what is now known as the 1965 Dominican Civil War or La Revolución del 65 Cabral’s forces prevailed due to the United States military backing. Shortly after the war ended, on July 1, 1966, democratically questionable elections were held in the Dominican Republic which resulted in the election of Joaquín Balaguer as President. United States troops withdrew from the island nation thereafter on September 21, 1966. In total, 44 United States combatants were killed in the conflict, alongside over 2,000 Dominicans, roughly half of whom were civilians. Following the withdrawal of United States troops, President Balaguer, a previous member of the Trujillo-led government, ruled the Dominican Republic for a 12-year period characterized by turmoil, the disappearances of Balaguer’s political opponents, and the deaths of hundreds of young political and social activists. In this manner, the United States intervention during Operation Power Pack played a key role in depriving Dominican citizens of a free and sovereign government for at least 12 additional years through 1978. (8) Grenada occupation From October 25, 1983, through October 29, 1983, the United States conducted Operation Urgent Fury , a full-scale military invasion of Grenada in which thousands of troops from the United States Army, Marines, Navy, and Air Force were deployed to Grenada and participated in active combat against native Grenadians and Cuban fighters. The United States invasion was authorized by President Ronald Reagan based on the asserted need to prevent a military coup and communist takeover of the small island nation, in addition to the need to protect the approximately 1,000 United States citizens who resided on the island at that time. United States forces achieved a swift victory in just 4 days, but the fighting resulted in the deaths of 45 Grenadian combatants, 25 Cuban combatants, and 19 United States combatants. The last United States troops eventually exited Grenada on June 13, 1985. (9) Panama occupation On December 20, 1989, approximately 27,000 United States troops invaded Panama at the order of President George Bush under the ignominiously named Operation Just Cause . The purpose of Operation Just Cause was to remove General Manuel Noriega, the country’s dictatorial ruler, from power and secure his extradition to the United States, where Noriega was wanted on charges of drug trafficking and money laundering (he was later found guilty on these charges upon his successful extradition). Relations between the United States and Panama’s Government soured over the course of 1988 and 1989 due to Noriega’s antidemocratic behavior and monopolization of power, Noriega’s 1988 indictment in the United States on drug smuggling charges, notably escalating tensions between Panamanian troops and United States troops stationed in the Panama Canal Zone, and United States concerns about maintaining physical control of the Panama Canal Zone. Tensions boiled over on December 15, 1989, when the Noriega-led Panamanian Assembly declared Panama to be in a state of war with the United States. On December 16, an off-duty United States Marine was shot and killed by Panamanian soldiers, prompting President George Bush to order Operation Just Cause in the aftermath of this incident. The United States would win the ensuing ground conflict, gain control of the Panama Canal, and force Noriega’s surrender on January 3, 1990. However, this operation came at a great cost, as according to the Pentagon’s official tally, 23 United States soldiers, 300 Panamanian soldiers, and 214 Panamanian civilians were killed during the United States invasion. Some human rights groups also estimate the death toll amongst Panamanian civilians to be far higher. Furthermore, the United States repeated bombing of the impoverished Panama City neighborhood El Churillo during Operation Just Cause destroyed approximately 4,000 homes and displaced thousands more civilians, resulting in Panamanians nicknaming the neighborhood Little Hiroshima following the war. 3. Establishment and duties (a) Establishment There is established a Commission to Study and Develop Reconciliation Proposals for Misguided Interventions in the Americas (in this Act referred to as the Commission ). (b) Duties The Commission shall be responsible for the following duties: (1) Identifying, documenting, examining, compiling, and synthesizing the relevant body of evidentiary documentation relating to the United States interest in intervening in— (A) the 9 conflicts in Nicaragua, Mexico, the Dominican Republic, Guatemala, Grenada, and Panama discussed in section 2 of this Act; and (B) any additional United States military involvement in nations in the Caribbean, Latin America, or South America that the Commission, via a majority vote at any meeting of the Commission containing a quorum, identifies as misguided and believes merits investigation and action by the Commission. (2) Identifying, documenting, examining, compiling, and synthesizing the relevant corpus of evidentiary documentation relating to the United States military occupations identified in paragraph (1) of this subsection, as it pertains to— (A) the United States involvement in these nations internal affairs and its financial and military support to different rebellions and regime changes in these nations; (B) the treatment of the native persons by both the United States military and under the regimes ushered in a result of United States military action, including any repressions of basic rights and freedoms by United States-supported governments; and (C) the lingering negative effects of these United States-supported regimes on each individual nation’s citizens, collective psyche, and society. (3) Recommending appropriate ways to educate the United States public on the Commission’s findings. (4) Recommending appropriate remedies in consideration of the Commission’s findings on the different United States military occupations described in paragraphs (1) and (2) of this subsection. In making such recommendations, the Commission shall address among other issues, the following questions: (A) How such recommendations comport with international standards of remedy for wrongs and injuries caused by the United States Government, including repair and reconciliation efforts, as understood by various relevant international protocols, laws, and findings. (B) How the United States Government may offer a formal apology on behalf of the people of the United States for the invasions and occupations studied by the Commission for those occupations which the Commission deems worthy of an apology. (C) How the repercussions resulting from matters described in paragraphs (1) and (2) of this subsection may be reversed and provide appropriate policies, programs, projects, and recommendations for the purpose of reversing the effects of the invasions and occupations. (c) Report to congress Not later than 4 years after the date of enactment of this Act, the Commission shall submit to Congress a written report of its findings and recommendations under this section. (d) Membership (1) In general (A) Stated members The following shall be members of the Commission: (i) The Under Secretary for Western Hemisphere Affairs of the Department of State. (ii) The current United States Ambassadors to each of the sovereign nations studied by the Commission. (B) Appointed members Not later than 90 days after the date of enactment of this Act, the following shall be members of the Commission, appointed as follows: (i) One member shall be appointed by the President of the United States. (ii) Two members shall be appointed by the Speaker of the House of Representatives, in consultation with the minority leader. (iii) Two members shall be appointed by the majority leader of the Senate, in consultation with the minority leader. (C) Members under international cooperation The President shall seek to negotiate with the governments of previously occupied nations to seek, to the extent practicable, the following as members of the Commission: (i) The Ambassador to the United States for each sovereign nation being studied by the Commission pursuant to subsection (b)(1). (ii) The Ambassador, Permanent Representative to the Organization of American States for each sovereign nation being studied by the Commission pursuant to subsection (b)(1). (2) Qualifications All members of the Commission shall be persons who are especially qualified to serve on the Commission by virtue of their education, training, activism, or experience, particularly in the fields of Western Hemisphere relations or reparatory justice. (3) Terms The term of office for members shall be for the life of the Commission. A vacancy in the Commission shall not affect the powers of the Commission and shall be filled in the same manner in which the original appointment was made. (4) Meetings The Commission shall conduct its initial meeting not later than 365 days after the date of enactment of this Act. The Commission shall establish rules of procedure at such meeting. All meetings of the Commission shall be public. The Commission should meet not less often than 4 times per year, including virtual meetings called to order by either the entire Commission or any member thereof. (5) Quorum More than half of the total members of the Commission shall constitute a quorum for the purposes of holding a meeting in compliance with subsection (d)(4), but a lesser number may hold hearings. (6) Chair and vice chair The Commission shall elect a Chair and Vice Chair from among its members. The term of office of each shall be for the life of the Commission. (7) Compensation Each member of the Commission who is not an officer or employee of the Federal Government shall be compensated at a rate equal to the daily equivalent of the annual rate of basic pay prescribed for level IV of the Executive Schedule under section 5315 of title 5, United States Code, for each day (including travel time) during which such member is engaged in the performance of the duties of the Commission. All members of the Commission who are officers or employees of the United States shall serve without compensation in addition to that received for their services as officers or employees of the United States. (8) Travel expenses The members of the Commission shall be allowed travel expenses, including per diem in lieu of subsistence, at rates authorized for employees of agencies under subchapter I of chapter 57 of title 5, United States Code, while away from their homes or regular places of business in the performance of the duties of the Commission. (e) Powers of the commission (1) Hearings and sessions The Commission may, for the purpose of carrying out the provisions of this section, hold such hearings and sit and act at such times and at such places in the United States, and request the attendance and testimony of such witnesses and the production of such books, records, correspondence, memoranda, papers, and documents, as the Commission considers appropriate. The Commission may invoke the aid of an appropriate United States district court to require, by subpoena or otherwise, such attendance, testimony, or production. (2) Powers of members Any member of the Commission may, if authorized by the Commission, take any action which the Commission is authorized to take by this subsection. (3) Obtaining official data The Commission may acquire directly from the head of any department, agency, or instrumentality of the executive branch of the United States Government, available information which the Commission considers useful in the discharge of its duties. All departments, agencies, and instrumentalities of the executive branch of the United States Government shall cooperate with the Commission with respect to such information and shall furnish all information requested by the Commission to the extent permitted by law. (f) Termination The Commission shall terminate 90 days after the date on which the Commission submits its report to Congress under subsection (c). (g) Authorization of appropriations (1) In general There is authorized to be appropriated $20,000,000 to carry out this Act. (2) Availability Amounts appropriated pursuant to the authorization under paragraph (1) are authorized to remain available until the termination of the Commission in accordance with subsection (f).