huutuan/long_squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
Question: Who contests the existence of the Armenian Genocide?
Answer: Turkish authorities
Question: Who put together a report about the Armenian Genocide?
Answer: Arnold J. Toynbee
Question: When was Toynbee's report put together?
Answer: 24th May 1916
Question: Who was in charge of the Russian Caucasus Army of Imperial forces?
Answer: Nikolai Yudenich
Question: Who was the leader of the Armenian militia?
Answer: Andranik Ozanian
Question: When was the Bolshevik Revolution? 
Answer: 1917
Question: Who formed the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic?
Answer: Eastern Armenia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan
Question: When did the Dashnaktsutyun declare independence?
Answer: May 1918
Question: When was the Treaty of Sevres signed?
Answer: 10 August 1920
Question: What is another name for Ottoman Armenia?
Answer: Wilsonian Armenia
Question: Which US president specified the new Armenian borders?
Answer: President Woodrow Wilson
Question: When did Cilicia declare independence?
Answer: 5 August 1920
Question: Who signed the Treaty of Sevres?
Answer: Allied and Associated Powers and Ottoman Empire
Question: When was the Treaty of Alexandropol sanctioned?
Answer: 2 December 1920
Question: What city did current day Gyumri used to be called?
Answer: Alexandropol
Question: Who led the Soviet Eleventh Army?
Answer: Grigoriy Ordzhonikidze
Question: When did the Armenian republic breakdown?
Answer: 4 December
Question: What year did Turkish nationalists seize the Armenian Republic?
Answer: 1920
Question: When was the Transcaucasian SFSR formed?
Answer: 4 March 1922
Question: The Soviet Union gained control over which city following the Treaty of Kars?
Answer: Batumi
Question: What did Turkey gain from the Treaty of Kars?
Answer: sovereignty over the cities of Kars, Ardahan, and Iğdır
Question: Who annexed Armenia?
Answer: Bolshevist Russia
Question: Who succeeded Vladimir Lenin?
Answer: Joseph Stalin
Question: Which three parts make up the TSFSR?
Answer: Armenian SSR, Azerbaijan SSR, and Georgian SSR
Question: When did the TSFSR break up into three parts?
Answer: 1936
Question: When did Stalin pass away?
Answer: 1953
Question: When did Vazgen acquire his position?
Answer: 1955
Question: Where is the memorial for the Armenian Genocide?
Answer: Yerevan
Question: When was the Armenian Genocide Memorial constructed?
Answer: 1967
Question: How man Armenians resided in Azerbaijan in 1970?
Answer: 484,000
Question: When was Nagorno-Karabakh removed from Armenia?
Answer: 1923
Question: Who partitioned Nagorno-Karabakh from Armenia?
Answer: Stalin
Question: When was the NAA formed?
Answer: May 1990
Question: Who started the fight between the MVD and the NAA in 1918?
Answer: the MVD
Question: How many people died as a result of the MVD and NAA clash in 1918?
Answer: five Armenians
Question: Continued fighting transpired between the Armenians and Soviets in which city?
Answer: Sovetashen
Question: Where did the Armenians living in Baku escape to during the January 1990 massacre?
Answer: Armenia
Question: When did Armenia reject the referendum proposing the retention of the Soviet Union?
Answer: 17 March 1991
Question: When did Turkey decide to become part of the blockade against Armenia?
Answer: 1993
Question: How does Armenia get most of it's commodities?
Answer: rail traffic
Question: Who did Armenia fight in teh Nagorno-Karabakh War?
Answer: Azerbaijan
Question: What prevented Armenia from getting it's commodities?
Answer: a railway and air blockade
Question: What percent of Armenias commodities were transported via rail traffic?
Answer: 85%
Question: What does OSCE stand for?
Answer: Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe
Question: Armenia has closed borders with which two countries?
Answer: Turkey and Azerbaijan
Question: How many people died as a result of the fighting betwen Armenia and Azerbaijan?
Answer: 30,000
Question: Who gained the most from the Karabakh War?
Answer: Karabakh Armenian forces
Question: What Democracy Score does Armenia have?
Answer: 5.21
Question: What does the Freedom House classify Armenia as?
Answer: Semi-consolidated Authoritarian Regime
Question: What makes Armenia's presidential elections faulty?
Answer: polling deficiencies, lack of cooperation by the Electoral Commission, and poor maintenance of electoral lists and polling places
Question: Is the border between Armenia and Azerbaijan open or closed?
Answer: closed
Question: When was the Nagorno-Karabakh War?
Answer: 1990s
Question: Which country claims the Armenian Genocide didn't occur?
Answer: Turkey
Question: When did Armenia gain independence from the USSR?
Answer: 1991
Question: Who wants the border between Turkey and Armenia opened?
Answer: Turkish business lobby
Question: When did Armenia and Turkey initiate an attempt to reopen their border?
Answer: 10 October 2009
Question: Who made it difficult to ratify the protocols to reopen the Armenian/Turkey border?
Answer: Turkey
Question: Who ratifies protocols in Armenia?
Answer: national parliaments
Question: How did Turkey thwart the ratification of these protocols?
Answer: continuously added more preconditions to its ratification
Question: How many Armenians reside in the United States?
Answer: 427,822
Question: Why does Russia have a miltary base In Gyumri?
Answer: as a deterrent against Turkey
Question: Who gave Russia permission to have a military base in Gyumri?
Answer: Armenian government
Question: How many of Armenias inhabitants approve of becoming part of the EU?
Answer: 64%
Question: What is KFOR?
Answer: a NATO-led international force in Kosovo
Question: What are some states join Armenia in the Council of Europe?
Answer: France and Greece
Question: When can the EU expect Armenia to attempt to join it?
Answer: in a few years
Question: What are the four branches of the Armenian Armed Forces?
Answer: The Armenian Army, Air Force, Air Defence, and Border Guard
Question: When was the Ministry of Defence founded?
Answer: 1992
Question: Who is in charge of the the Armenian military?
Answer: Colonel General Yuri Khatchaturov
Question: Who is in charge of the Ministry of Defence?
Answer: Colonel General Seyran Ohanyan
Question: What does EAPC stand for?
Answer: Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council
Question: Who else joins Armenia in the CSTO?
Answer: Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan
Question: When did Armenia remove its peacekeepers from Iraq?
Answer: October 2008
Question: How many districts does Yerevan have?
Answer: twelve
Question: Does Armenia have more rural or uban hamaynker?
Answer: rural
Question: What is the Armenian term for settlment?
Answer: bnakavayr
Question: As opposed to an industry-based economy, what industry is Armenia moving to?
Answer: technology industry
Question: The Arnmenian economy depends primarily on what?
Answer: investment and support from Armenians abroad
Question: What did Armenias industry-based economy consist of?
Answer: chemicals, electronics, machinery, processed food, synthetic rubber, and textile
Question: Why did agriculture become so significant for Armenia's economy?
Answer: food security needs
Question: How much of total employment did agriculture account for at the end of the 1990s?
Answer: 40%
Question: How much of the GDP has agriculture accounted for most recently?
Answer: 20%
Question: How many people died because of the Spitak earthquake?
Answer: more than 25,000
Question: When was the Spitak earthquake?
Answer: 1988
Question: How much did the Armenian GDP decrease from 1989-1993
Answer: 60%
Question: What is the national currency of Armenia?
Answer: the dram
Question: What did Armenia declare a cease-fire to in 1994?
Answer: Nagorno-Karabakh conflict
Question: Since when has Armenia experienced a positive growth in their economy?
Answer: 1995
Question: What is one of the newer sectors Armenia has in addition to agriculture?
Answer: precious-stone processing
Question: What helped Armenia decrease inflation and create study growth in the economy?
Answer: economic reforms
Question: What dos EBRD stand for?
Answer: European Bank for Reconstruction and Development
Question: What does IFI stand for?
Answer: international financial institutions
Question: How much in loans has Armenia received since 1993?
Answer: $1.1 billion
Question: When did Armenia become a part of the World Trade Organization?
Answer: 5 February 2003
Question: To what does Armenia attribute it's high unemployment rate?
Answer: refugees from the Karabakh conflict
Question: When did Armenia establish a foreign investment law?
Answer: June 1994
Question: When did Armenia establish a law on privatisation?
Answer: 1997
Question: What is Armenia's biggest University?
Answer: Yerevan State University
Question: When did the National Polytechnic University of Armenia open?
Answer: 1933
Question: How many students did Yerevan State University have in 1992?
Answer: 10,000
Question: How many teachers did Yerevan State University have in 1992?
Answer: 1,300
Question: Who founded the Armenian Medical school in Cilician Armenia?
Answer: Mkhitar Heratsi
Question: When was Yerevan State Medical University awarded the Order of Labor red Banner?
Answer: 1980
Question: When was the Medical Institute formed?
Answer: 1930
Question: When was Yerevan State Medical Institute renamed to Yerevan State Medical University?
Answer: 1995
Question: Which doctor did the YSMU rename itself after?
Answer: Mkhitar Heratsi
Question: When was the foreign student department for Armenian diaspora created?
Answer: 1957
Question: Armenian students attend YMSU with foreign students from where?
Answer: India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, the USA and Russian Federation
Question: What does OLPC stand for?
Answer: One Laptopschool Per child
Question: What are the names of some of the other higher education organizations in Armenia?
Answer: American University of Armenia and the QSI International School of Yerevan
Question: What are some of the graduate programs available at AUA?
Answer: Business and Law
Question: What are some examples of Armenian folk music instruments?
Answer: the duduk, the dhol, the zurna, and the kanun
Question: Who created the Armenian alphabet?
Answer: Saint Mesrop Mashtots
Question: Who composed the Sabre Dance?
Answer: Aram Khatchaturian
Question: What is known as one of the most prolific type of religious music in Armenia?
Answer: the Armenian chant
Question: What is kef?
Answer: Armenian dance music, using Armenian and Middle Eastern folk instruments
Question: What did kef help do?
Answer: preserved the folk songs and dances of Western Armenia
Question: Where did the Armenians emigrate from?
Answer: Turkey and other Middle Eastern countries
Question: What type of music had the biggest impact on the kef of the Vosbikian Band?
Answer: American Big Band Jazz
Question: Who were some Armenian pop artists?
Answer: Adiss Harmandian and Harout Pamboukjian
Question: When did Armenian pop music become popular?
Answer: the 1960s and 1970s
Question: What type of band was System of a Down?
Answer: heavy metal
Question: What type of songs do armenian youth prefer?
Answer: Armenian revolutionary songs
Question: What topics do armenian revolutionary songs usually encompass?
Answer: Armenian history and national heroes
Question: What is Obsidian used for?
Answer: jewellery and ornamental objects
Question: What are some examples of soviet memorabilia that can be purchased at Vernissage?
Answer: nesting dolls, watches, enamel boxes
Question: What types of crafts can be purchased at Vernissage?
Answer: woodcarving, antiques, fine lace, and the hand-knotted wool carpets and kilims
Question: What is Vernissage?
Answer: arts and crafts market
Question: How many pieces can be found in the Yerevan National Art Gallery?
Answer: more than 16,000
Question: Where other than the National Art Gallery can one find art on display in Yerevan?
Answer: The Modern Art Museum, the Children’s Picture Gallery, and the Martiros Saryan Museum
Question: What is the earliest period the National Art Gallery has pieces from?
Answer: the Middle Ages
Question: What international sports has Armenia done well at?
Answer: chess, weightlifting and wrestling
Question: What does IIHF stand for?
Answer: Ice Hockey Federation
Question: Which Games does Armenia hold?
Answer: Pan-Armenian Games
Question: What Olympic Sport did Hrant Shahinyan compete in?
Answer: gymnastics
Question: What medals did Hrant Shahinyan win at the 1952 Summer Olympics?
Answer: two golds and two silvers
Question: Where were the 1952 Summer Olympics held?
Answer: Helsinki
Question: What year did Armenia begin competiting in the Olympics seperate from the USSR?
Answer: 1992
Question: What team won the Soviet football Cup in 1973 and 1975?
Answer: FC Ararat Yerevan team
Question: Which team did the FC Ararat lose to in the European Cup?
Answer: FC Bayern Munich
Question: What FIFA ranking did Armenia hold in 2011?
Answer: 44th
Question: How many teams does the Armenian Premier League have?
Answer: eight teams
Question: What year did Yerevan create a cyclying center?
Answer: 2005
Question: What prize do Armenians receive from the government if they win a gold medal?
Answer: $700,000
Question: How much money was spent to revamp Tsaghkadzor for winter sports?
Answer: $9.3 million
Question: How much did Armenia spend to fix up their sports schools?
Answer: $1.9 million
Question: What type of food is Armenian food most similair to?
Answer: eastern and Mediterranean cuisine
Question: What does Armenian cuisine place an emphasis on?
Answer: quality of the ingredients
Question: What does Armenian cuisine use to create its distinctive dishes?
Answer: various spices, vegetables, fish, and fruits
Question: What different uses does fruit have in Armenian food?
Answer: main ingredient as well as to sour food
Question: What configurations can bacteria can bacteria take?
Answer: spheres to rods and spirals
Question: When is the typical lenght  for bacteria?
Answer: few micrometres
Question: What environments can bacteria live?
Answer: present in most of its habitats
Question: What is the relationships between plants animals and bacteria?
Answer: symbiotic and parasitic relationships
Question: What amount of bacteria can be found in a gram of soil?
Answer: 40 million bacterial cells
Question: How many bacteria cells can be in a milliltre of fresh water?
Answer: million bacterial cells
Question: How does bacteria help to sustain life in hydrothermal vents and cold seeps?
Answer: by converting dissolved compounds
Question: What deepest part of the ocean was bacteria found?
Answer: Mariana Trench
Question: Can bacteria survive inside rocks under the sea level?
Answer: thrive inside rocks
Question: What is the ratio of human/bacteria cells in human flora?
Answer: ten times as many bacterial cells
Question: What keeps bacteria at bay in human body?
Answer: the immune system
Question: What type of bacteria can cause infectious diseases?
Answer: pathogenic
Question: What are the deadliest diseases caused by bacteria?
Answer: respiratory infections
Question: What makes bacteria resistant to antibiotic treatment?
Answer: farming
Question: What vital part is missing in bacteria to eukaryotes?
Answer: nucleus
Question: When did the scientific classification change?
Answer: 1990s
Question: What are two main groups prokaryotes can be divided into?
Answer: Bacteria and Archaea
Question: When did the first antecedents of bacteria appear on Earth?
Answer: 4 billion years ago
Question: Why were bacteria and archaea dominant forms of life?
Answer: most organisms were microscopic
Question: What are Stromatolites?
Answer: bacterial fossils
Question: What pre-historic group did bacteria evolve from?
Answer: archaeal/eukaryotic lineage
Question: How did chloroplast appear in first vegetation?
Answer: mitochondria also engulfed cyanobacterial-like organisms
Question: What is the common name for shapes and forms of bacteria?
Answer: morphologies
Question: Are bacteria cells smaller than eukaryotic cells?
Answer: one-tenth the size
Question: How big is Epulopiscium bacteria?
Answer: 0.7 mm
Question: What are one of the smallest bacteria?
Answer: genus Mycoplasma
Question: Is ultramicrobacteria is well examined?
Answer: not well-studied
Question: What type of bacteria usually takes rod-shaped form?
Answer: bacilli
Question: What shape Spirochaetes are?
Answer: tightly coiled
Question: What shape was newly discovered bacteria from deep under Earth?
Answer: branching filamentous types with a star-shaped cross-section
Question: Can shape of bacteria be beneficial to their survival?
Answer: can influence the ability of bacteria to acquire nutrients
Question: What is the usual form for Neiserria bacteria?
Answer: diploids (pairs)
Question: What well known bacteria structure chains?
Answer: Streptococcus
Question: What does typically Staphylococcus look like?
Answer: clusters
Question: What type of bacteria is surrounded by a capsule?
Answer: Filamentous bacteria
Question: Formation of what can be related to fungal mycelia?
Answer: branched filaments
Question: How extent can biofilm be?
Answer: up to half a meter in depth
Question: What is part of secondary structure in the complex formation of bacteria?
Answer: microcolonies,
Question: What is the purpose of networks of channels in microcolonies?
Answer: to enable better diffusion of nutrients
Question: Which bacteria is more difficult to eradicate?
Answer: bacteria protected within biofilms
Question: What is the vital nutriment for Myxobacteria?
Answer: amino acids
Question: Why do cells of Myxobacteria migrate towards each other?
Answer: aggregate to form fruiting bodies
Question: How hard to treat bacteria cells in a passive state?
Answer: more resistant
Question: What bacteria do in fruiting bodies?
Answer: multicellular organisation
Question: What does membrane accomplish?
Answer: barrier to hold nutrients, proteins and other essential components
Question: Do bacteria have membrabe-bound organelles in their cytoplasm?
Answer: do not
Question: Absence of what make bacteria belong to prokaryotes?
Answer: true nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts and the other organelles
Question: What bacteria was observed as before prokaryotic cytoskeleton was discovered?
Answer: simple bags of cytoplasm
Question: How does electron transit occur in bacteria?
Answer: between the cytoplasm and the periplasmic space
Question: What kind of membrane do bacteria cells are filled with?
Answer: light-gathering membrane
Question: Can membrane of bacteria create lipid structure?
Answer: light-gathering complexes may even form lipid-enclosed structures
Question: Where is DNA chromosome of bacteria located?
Answer: in the cytoplasm
Question: How does nucleoid look?
Answer: irregularly shaped body
Question: What are the exceptions of non-internal membrane bacteria?
Answer: phylum Planctomycetes and candidate phylum Poribacteria
Question: What is the purpose of polyribosomes in bacteria?
Answer: production of proteins
Question: What types of intracellar nutrient can bacteria produce?
Answer: glycogen, polyphosphate, sulfur or polyhydroxyalkanoates
Question: How does gas vesicles produced by Cyanobacteria help her to move in water?
Answer: move up or down into water layers with different light intensities
Question: What are chromatophores used for?
Answer: photosynthesis
Question: What are the most common nonliving compositions in bacteria?
Answer: glycogen, lipid droplets, crystals, and pigments
Question: What gas vacuoles are respoonsible for in bacteria?
Answer: to control their buoyancy
Question: What is most common cell wall material?
Answer: peptidoglycan
Question: Are cell walls of bacteria similar to cell walls of plants and fungi?
Answer: Bacterial cell walls are different
Question: What are the main materials of cell walls of plants and fungi?
Answer: cellulose and chitin
Question: How can antibiotic penicillin destroy bacteria?
Answer: by inhibiting a step in the synthesis of peptidoglycan
Question: What does gram-positive bacteria have?
Answer: thick cell wall containing many layers of peptidoglycan and teichoic acids
Question: What can be endotoxins called?
Answer: Lipopolysaccharides
Question: Why gram-negative cell bacteria is more toxic than gram-positive bacteria?
Answer: polysaccharides and lipid A
Question: What can different structure of the cell walls of bacteria effect?
Answer: differences in antibiotic susceptibility
Question: What is the main defense of human body against eye infections?
Answer: enzyme lysozyme, found in human tears
Question: What helps Mycobacteria be resistant to decolorization?
Answer: high mycolic acid content
Question: What is mycolic acid is responsible for in Mycobacteria?
Answer: staining pattern of poor absorption followed by high retention.
Question: What is the most typical staining technique used to identify acid-fast bacteria?
Answer: Ziehl-Neelsen stain
Question: What is the main pathogenic bacteria in L-form class ?
Answer: Mycoplasma
Question: What is the diameter of fimbriae?
Answer: 2–10 nanometres
Question: What are fimbriae liable for?
Answer: involved in attachment to solid surfaces or to other cells
Question: What are pili?
Answer: cellular appendages
Question: What are highly resistant dormant structures of certain gram-positive bacteria called?
Answer: endospores
Question: Is creating endospore a reproductive process?
Answer: is not a reproductive process
Question: What are ribosomes in endospores are enclosed in?
Answer: cortex layer
Question: What chemical compound comprises 5% to 15% of the dry weight of bacterial spores?
Answer: Dipicolinic acid
Question: What extreme physical and chemical stresses can endospores endure?
Answer: UV light, gamma radiation, detergents, disinfectants, heat, freezing, pressure
Question: How long can endospores of bacteria stay alive in dormant state?
Answer: for millions of years
Question: What endospore-forming bacteria can cause tetanus disease?
Answer: Clostridium tetani
Question: What is commonly used to determine taxonomy of bacteria?
Answer: The distribution of metabolic traits
Question: How is bacterial metabolism determined?
Answer: nutritional groups
Question: What are three main criterias of bacterial metabolism?
Answer: the kind of energy used for growth, the source of carbon, and the electron donors
Question: What are electron acceptors accountable for?
Answer: aerobic or anaerobic respiration
Question: How does heterotrophic carbon metabolism occur?
Answer: organic carbon compounds are used as carbon sources
Question: When carbon metabolism is called autotrophic?
Answer: cellular carbon is obtained by fixing carbon dioxide
Question: What category do parasitic bacteria fall into?
Answer: Heterotrophic bacteria
Question: Green sulfur-bacteria is typical representative of what type of bacteria?
Answer: autotrophic bacteria
Question: What is chemotrophy ?
Answer: the use of chemical substances for energy
Question: What type of electron donors organotrophs use?
Answer: organic compounds
Question: What do respiratory organisms use as electron donors?
Answer: chemical compounds
Question: In what organisms is oxygen used as eelectron acceptor?
Answer: anaerobic organisms
Question: What is sulfate-reducing bacteria accountable for?
Answer: the production of the highly toxic forms of mercury
Question: What is the by-product of non-repiratory anaerobes?
Answer: ethanol
Question: How can anaerobes adjust to the surrounding environment?
Answer: can switch between fermentation and different terminal electron acceptors
Question: What are hydrogen and carbon monoxide for Lithotrophic bacteria?
Answer: Common inorganic electron donors
Question: How can gas methane be used in exceptional set of conditions by methanotrophic bacteria?
Answer: both a source of electrons and a substrate for carbon anabolism
Question: What is the main element for aerobic photorophy?
Answer: oxygen
Question: How can bacteria obtain raw materials from the environment?
Answer: in the form of relatively small molecules
Question: What process is used by eukaryotic cells to absorb external items?
Answer: endocytosis
Question: What part of bacteria cell is used during diffusion?
Answer: molecular channels in cell membranes
Question: How size and reproduction are linked in bacteria?
Answer: Bacteria grow to a fixed size and then reproduce
Question: How does bacteria reproduce?
Answer: through binary fission
Question: If the conditions are right how long does it take for bacteria to reproduce?
Answer: divide extremely rapidly
Question: What are produced in cell division?
Answer: two identical clone daughter cells
Question: What is typical solid setting?
Answer: agar plates
Question: Which media is preffered to grow larger volumes of bacteria?
Answer: liquid growth media
Question: Which environment is better to isolate a single example of bacteria strain?
Answer: agar plates
Question: What can help to indentify specific bacteria?
Answer: The use of selective media
Question: What is the simple way of producing large volume of bacteria cells?
Answer: high levels of nutrients
Question: What caused the evolution of different growth strategies in bacteria?
Answer: nutrients are limited
Question: What do algal bacteria if nutrients are available?
Answer: grow extremely rapidly
Question: What can create a subsequent increase of nutrients in natural environment?
Answer: biofilms
Question: How many phase are in the growth of bacteria?
Answer: four phases
Question: What is the second phase of bacteria growth known for?
Answer: rapid exponential growth
Question: What is called the third statge of growth of bacteria?
Answer: stationary phase
Question: The absence of what causes the last stage of bacteria growth?
Answer: nutrients
Question: What bacteria is an exception to single circular chromosome rule?
Answer: Spirochaetes of the genus Borrelia
Question: What bacteria is responsible for Lyme disease?
Answer: Borrelia burgdorferi
Question: How does chromosome of Borrelia burgdoferi look like?
Answer: single linear chromosome
Question: What makes bacteria an asexual organism?
Answer: inherit identical copies of their parent's genes
Question: What can cause mutation in bacteria?
Answer: changes to their genetic material DNA
Question: What are two ways changes to DNA of bacteria can occur?
Answer: random mutation during replication or "stress-directed mutation"
Question: What is the aftermath of infrequent errors during intracellular assembly of virus particles?
Answer: Transduction of bacterial genes
Question: What is the result of bacterial adaptation of E.coli bacteria host and plasmid of another bacteria?
Answer: Conjugation
Question: How does conjugation take place?
Answer: conjugative plasmid integrates into the host bacterial chromosome
Question: Is conjugation a common bacterial adaptation?
Answer: It is seldom
Question: How simple is the process of transformation?
Answer: this complex process
Question: What is the first requirement in order for bacteria to bind and recombine with other bacteria's DNA
Answer: enter a special physiological state termed competence
Question: How big can be the transformation level?
Answer: between a third of a chromosome up to the whole chromosome
Question: How rare is the transformation among bacteria organisms?
Answer: common
Question: Between what species do usually transduction, conjugation and transformation take place?
Answer: the same species
Question: What are the consequences of transfer between different species of bacteria?
Answer: transfer of antibiotic resistance
Question: What is horizontal gene transfer?
Answer: gene acquisition from other bacteria or the environment
Question: What can viruses do to bacteria?
Answer: infect and lyse their host bacteria
Question: What can happen if Bacteriophage contain genes of host's phenotype?
Answer: lethal pathogen
Question: How can bacteria resist virus DNA?
Answer: CRISPR system provides bacteria with acquired immunity
Question: If bacteria has flagellum at each end what is the name of the species?
Answer: amphitrichous
Question: When flagellum is distributed throughout the surface of the cell?
Answer: peritrichous
Question: How many proteins is typical flagellum consist os?
Answer: 20 proteins
Question: How does flagellum function within the cell?
Answer: uses the electrochemical gradient across the membrane
Question: How can we classify the vast variety of bacterial species?
Answer: grouping organisms based on similarities
Question: Can classification be helpful in determining differences between distinct species?
Answer: unclear
Question: What supports the uncertainty in classification between the same kind of bacteria?
Answer: lack of distinctive structures in most bacteria,
Question: What can lateral gene transfer create in bacteria?
Answer: different morphologies and metabolisms
Question: What is the way modern classification tries to determine species?
Answer: emphasizes molecular systematics
Question: What would original term "bacteria" determine?
Answer: all microscopic, single-cell prokaryotes
Question: What are two main groups of prokaryotic organisms are divided into?
Answer: Eubacteria and Archaebacteria
Question: What groups of organisms are closely related to each other?
Answer: archaea and eukaryotes
Question: What domain system is commonly used nowdays to classify microorganisms?
Answer: three-domain system
Question: What year was the Grahm stain was developed?
Answer: 1884
Question: What color do Gram positive bacteria cell walls turn to after being stained?
Answer: purple
Question: What color is typical for Gram-negative bacteria after staining?
Answer: pink
Question: What stain shows better test results on Norcadia bacteria?
Answer: Ziehl–Neelsen
Question: What tool does DNA based diagnostics use?
Answer: polymerase chain reaction
Question: What else can molecular methods of classification reveal?
Answer: identification of "viable but nonculturable" cells
Question: Can new methods determine a total number of bacteria species?
Answer: cannot even be estimated with any certainty
Question: Why are certain bacteria called predatory?
Answer: bacteria kill and then consume other microorganisms
Question: Which way do Vampirovibrio absorb nutrients of other microorganisms?
Answer: attach to their prey in order to digest them
Question: What technique do Daptobacter use in order to kill other microorganism?
Answer: invade another cell and multiply inside the cytosol
Question: Where do Daptobacter bacteria come from?
Answer: saprophages
Question: What kind of bacteria can form interspecies hydrogen transfer?
Answer: anaerobic bacteria
Question: What do anaerobic bacteria consume?
Answer: butyric acid or propionic acid
Question: What do bacteria do in soil?
Answer: converting nitrogen gas to nitrogenous compounds
Question: How does the conversion help the vegetation?
Answer: provide an easily absorbable form of nitrogen
Question: What is the amount of bacteria in human intestines?
Answer: over 1,000 bacterial species
Question: How does gut flora prevent growth of pathogenic bacteria?
Answer: through competitive exclusion
Question: What are the pathogenes?
Answer: bacteria form a parasitic association with other organisms
Question: What can pathogenes cause?
Answer: human death and disease
Question: Can cause for most pathogenic diseases be found soon?
Answer: may only be discovered many years after
Question: How pathogenes interact with it's human host?
Answer: pathogen has a characteristic spectrum of interactions
Question: Can all bacteria in human body  be harmful?
Answer: exist on the skin or in the nose without causing any disease
Question: Which bacteria cause Rocky Mountain spotted fever disiease?
Answer: species of Rickettsia
Question: What kind of antibiotics are used for prevention of bacterial growth
Answer: bacteriostatic
Question: Besides in treating human disease where else are antibiotics used?
Answer: in intensive farming to promote animal growth
Question: What is the drawback of using antibiotics if agriculture?
Answer: rapid development of antibiotic resistance in bacterial populations
Question: What is common prevention method of infections in medicine?
Answer: sterilizing
Question: What quality of bacteria is being widely used re-cyling?
Answer: ability of bacteria to degrade a variety of organic compounds
Question: What is being used in cleaning up oil spills?
Answer: Bacteria
Question: What other way is bacteria aiding to nature?
Answer: used for the bioremediation
Question: Who discovered bacteria?
Answer: Dutch microscopist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
Question: How was he able to see bacteria?
Answer: using a single-lens microscope of his own design
Question: How long did it take for his discovery to be taken seriously?
Answer: over a century
Question: Who was the creator of antibiotic?
Answer: Paul Ehrlich
Question: What bacteria did he treat first?
Answer: Treponema pallidum
Question: How was his discovery aknowledged?
Answer: had been awarded a 1908 Nobel Prize
Question: Who based their research on Enrlich's stains works?
Answer: Gram stain and the Ziehl–Neelsen
Question: What's the more appropriate, but mostly unused, name for a printed circuit board when it doesn't have embedded components?
Answer: printed wiring board
Question: What would we call a printed circuit board with embedded electronics, abbreviated PCA?
Answer: printed circuit assembly
Question: What organization likes the term "circuit card assembly" for boards that have already been assembled?
Answer: IPC
Question: What abbreviation would the IPC use for an assembled circuit board?
Answer: CCA
Question: When the board has embedded components it is called what?
Question: A painted wiring board can also be called what?
Question: The term painted wiring board has fallen into what?
Question: The IPC preferred term for assembled bags is what?
Question: The IPC preferred term for assembled backplates is what?
Question: What did PCB designers used to employ on a mylar sheet?
Answer: photomask
Question: In the old PCB design method, what was used to connect component pin pads?
Answer: traces
Question: What were traces originally made out of?
Answer: self-adhesive tape
Question: Designers would rub on a dry transfer of what to make the process of laying out components simpler?
Answer: common component footprints
Question: What kind of metal coated the blank boards used to make PCBs?
Answer: copper
Question: Initially PCBs were designed mechanically how?
Question: Pin pads were laid out on the nylon and then what?
Question: Self-adhesive mylar was used to make what?
Question: Pre-printed reproducing grids on the mylar assisted in what?
Question: Printed copper-clad boards were used to make what?
Question: What process groups PCBs before transfer to a panel?
Answer: Panelization
Question: Is it more common for panels to have a single design or many designs?
Answer: a single design
Question: What type of panels can also be referred to as an "array?'
Answer: assembly panels
Question: Besides assembly panels, what's the other type of panel?
Answer: bare board manufacturing panels
Question: What step of the bare board manufacture would be impossible if panels weren't always used?
Answer: the plating process
Question: Usually a panel consists of multiple designs, but sometimes what?
Question: The two types of portals are what?
Question: Depending on what must be discussed, a manufacturing panel can consist of what?
Question: Assemblers often mount components on portals rather than single PCBs why?
Question: What is the process called whereby the individual PCBs are separated?
Answer: depaneling
Question: What boundaries would you follow to separate PCBs on a panel?
Answer: individual circuits
Question: What technology has made depaneling possible without needing to physically interact with the board?
Answer: lasers
Question: What does the V-shaped groove method save?
Answer: space
Question: What delicate component is less likely to be damaged if laser depanelization is used?
Answer: circuits
Question: The panel is eventually merged into what?
Question: The process of deadpanning is what?
Question: Individual PCBs can be merged along what line?
Question: In the old days, depaneling was often done how?
Question: What chemical element is often present in the bath used to sensitive exposed film after it's been imaged?
Answer: palladium
Question: What object is used to expose selected parts of the photosensitive film to light?
Answer: mask
Question: In subtractive methods, what metal covers the board and is then partially removed?
Answer: copper
Question: In the additive method, which parts of the laminate are plated with copper?
Answer: sensitized areas
Question: The advantage of the subtractive method is that less what?
Question: Bare laminate is placed on top of photosensitive film in what process?
Question: The exposed areas are sensitized using plutonium in what process?
Question: The laminate is plated with silver during what process?
Question: When the PCB is stripped, what is finished?
Question: In the semi-additive process, what do the areas exposed by the mask become at the end?
Answer: traces
Question: What metal is used to plate the unmasked parts of the board in the semi-additive method?
Answer: copper
Question: After the mask comes off of the board, what step takes off the original plating?
Answer: etching
Question: What company used to make radios with additive boards in the mid-20th century?
Answer: General Electric
Question: What weight of plating is possible with copper?
Answer: any
Question: Fully additive is the most common what?
Question: Additional silver is plated onto what?
Question: Who made consumer radio sets in the late 1940s using additive boards?
Question: The patterned board has a thin layer of what already on it?
Question: What non-professionals might use immersion etching, since it's the easiest way to make a PCB?
Answer: hobbyists
Question: Is the immersion etching process long or short compared to other production methods?
Answer: long
Question: If you wanted to speed up the etching process, you could agitate the bath up or add what to it?
Answer: Heat
Question: What funny name is used for the etching process where air is blown through the etching solution to get it moving around?
Answer: bubble etching
Question: What's the fastest and most easily controlled process for etching?
Answer: spray etching
Question: Immaculate etching is the process where what?
Question: Etching time is short compared to what?
Question: What gives unpredictable control of etching rates and high production rates?
Question: Air is passed through the etchant bath to slow the etching in what process?
Question: If you started with a two-sided laminate etched on either side, laminated to the top and bottom, and processed it again to get traces on the outside layers, how many layers would your final PCB have?
Answer: four
Question: What makes up the inside of a multi-layer PCB?
Answer: trace layers
Question: Pressure is one thing you need to apply to make a multi-layer PCB; what's the other thing?
Answer: heat
Question: What tool is used to push the trace layers in a multi-layer PCB together?
Answer: press
Question: Single-layer printed circuit boards have trace layers where?
Question: A five-layer PCB can be fabricated how?
Question: What kind of circuit boards result from applying pressure and cold air for a period of time?
Question: A silver-clad laminate can be found in what kind of circuit board?
Question: A five-layer PCB uses what kind of foil?
Question: What kind of drill bit do you need to drill holes in a PCB?
Answer: coated tungsten carbide
Question: What kind of material sometimes used for drilling will lose sharpness quickly if used for PCBs?
Answer: high-speed-steel
Question: What property do PCBs have that makes them tough to drill through?
Answer: abrasive
Question: What does the "NCD" in "NCD files" mean?
Answer: numerically controlled drill
Question: What's another name for NCD files that has an "x" in it?
Answer: Excellon files
Question: Holes through a PBC are drilled how?
Question: Drill bits must remain dull why?
Question: Drilling with high-speed-steel is feasible why?
Question: The dull file describes what?
Question: Drilling must be low RPM and high feed to be what?
Question: What do the hole walls in two-layer PCBs have to be before they can be electroplated?
Answer: conductive
Question: What's the minimum number of layers a PCB can have to be considered "multi-layer"?
Answer: three
Question: What process does a multi-layer PCB usually undergo before plating to make sure the layers have good connectivity with each other?
Answer: de-smear
Question: What type of boards undergo the etch-back process?
Answer: high reliability
Question: Etch-back removes glass fibers and what other material?
Answer: resin
Question: What connects the conducting layers of the PAB?
Question: Smears are removed with a chemical smear what?
Question: The process used on low-reliability boards is called what?
Question: The back-etch removes what?
Question: What becomes integral with the deposited silver?
Question: What happens to untreated copper that makes it difficult to solder?
Answer: oxidizes
Question: What chemical treatment will prevent bare copper from oxidizing?
Answer: benzimidazolethiol
Question: What's the process by which bare copper gets covered in solder?
Answer: hot air solder levelling
Question: What does hot air solder leveling ensure the coated copper will have?
Answer: solderable surface
Question: What alloy can no longer be used in HASL because of restrictions on the use of one of its metal components?
Answer: tin-lead
Question: Shiny solder is usually fused to do what?
Question: What encourages surface oxidation of bare copper?
Question: Traditionally, any exposed silver was coated with what?
Question: The HASL finish encourages oxidation from what?
Question: What is now used in compliance with the RoHS directive in the EU and China?
Question: What metal is often under the gold plating on edge connectors?
Answer: nickel
Question: What's the abbreviation for immersion silver plating?
Answer: IAg
Question: Ag3Cu is one intermetallic that tin forms; what's the other one?
Answer: Cu5Sn6
Question: What might the rapid diffusion of coating metal into tin solder leave in the surface coating?
Answer: voids
Question: Main connectors, placed along one edge of some boards, are often what?
Question: The only coating consideration is what?
Question: What forms intermetallics such a Cu66n6?
Question: Electroless silver with immersion gold coating (ENIG) is an example of what?
Question: Electroless silver electroless palladium immersion gold (ENEPIG) is an example of what?
Question: What's the process whereby metal filaments are grown on or in a PCB via DC voltage?
Answer: Electrochemical migration
Question: Along with silver and aluminum, what metal grows metal filaments when exposed to an electric field?
Answer: zinc
Question: In addition to "whiskers," what does silver sprout around ions like halide?
Answer: conducting surface paths
Question: What do scientist call the function whereby tin changes when it's very cold?
Answer: tin pest
Question: What's present in plated surfaces that causes tin to grow metal filaments?
Answer: tension
Question: What material is a good choice for electronics use?
Question: Tin plast is what type of issue?
Question: The transformation of silver to a powdery allotrope at low temperature is know as what?
Question: AC voltage bias helps promote the growth of what?
Question: If part of a PCB isn't solderable, what can be used instead?
Answer: solder resist
Question: What's another term used for "solder resist"?
Answer: solder mask
Question: What solder resist with a four-word name is a popular choice in the industry?
Answer: liquid photoimageable solder mask
Question: What kind of coating gets applied to the PWB before light exposure?
Answer: photo-sensitive
Question: What solder resist is so inaccurate that few choose it anymore?
Answer: screen print epoxy ink
Question: Areas that should be soldered may be covered with what?
Question: A photo-sensitive coating is applied beneath the surface of what?
Question: Wet film solder mask is similar to what?
Question: Screen print epoxy ink is commonly used why?
Question: What doesn't provide protection from the environment?
Question: What are bare-board tests looking for besides "opens"?
Answer: "shorts"
Question: What's an absent connection that needs to be linked up on an unpopulated board called?
Answer: An open
Question: What conductive metal are the lands on a circuit board made out of?
Answer: copper
Question: What does a flying probe tester deliver to the contact points during testing?
Answer: voltage
Question: What system tells the flying probe where to go and what to do?
Answer: CAM system
Question: Populated boards are usually what?
Question: A long is a connection between what?
Question: A closed is a missing connection between what?
Question: Building the adapter is low cost and economical for?
Question: Surface-mount is one type of construction used in PCB assembly; what's the other one?
Answer: through-hole
Question: Which type of construction makes components that use more space?
Answer: through-hole
Question: Which of the two kinds of construction is weaker under strain?
Answer: surface-mount
Question: If you're building a circuit board that has a lot of components that won't be used, which construction would be better?
Answer: surface-mount
Question: What must be combined in a multiple assembly?
Question: Surface mount mounting can provide needed strength for what?
Question: Components that are expected to be touched will take up what?
Question: All required components are available only in what?
Question: Do test circuits create permanent or temporary connections between traces?
Answer: temporary
Question: What's the most frequently used test configuration procedure for ICs?
Answer: Joint Test Action Group
Question: What would you avoid by using the Joint Test Action Group standard?
Answer: physical test probes
Question: What component of the printed circuit board is appraised with boundary scan testing?
Answer: ICs
Question: To whom would you go to acquire the algorithms you'd use for the Joint Test Action Group procedures?
Answer: JTAG tool vendors
Question: Bouncing scan testing requires what?
Question: The least common standard test configuration procedure is what?
Question: JAG tool vendors provide various types of what?
Question: The JAG test architecture provides a means to what?
Question: If a PCB is intended for use in an setting with extreme conditions, what would probably be applied?
Answer: conformal coating
Question: A conformal coating can be applied by spraying the PCB or by doing what else to it?
Answer: dipping
Question: The conformal coating can prevent leaking, shorts, and what other type of moisture damage?
Answer: corrosion
Question: What material was first used for conformal coating?
Answer: wax
Question: What action is made much more difficult for boards that have a conformal coating?
Answer: servicing
Question: PABs are intended for what type of environment?
Question: What type of coat encourages corrosion?
Question: The chief advantage to conformal coatings is what?
Question: Which coatings are usually dips of dilute solutions of wax rubber?
Question: What's another term for "grounded" in the context of PCBs?
Answer: earthed
Question: What force can easily change or even completely destroy an etch on a PCB?
Answer: static charge
Question: What class of PCBs are even more susceptible to static than standard ones?
Answer: non-traditional
Question: Non-traditional PCBs include microwave PCBs and what other type of board?
Answer: MCMs
Question: Many assembled PABs are sensitive to what?
Question: Proper handling techniques might transmit what?
Question: What must be placed in static bags during transport?
Question: An accumulated static charge though the user happens when what is done?
Question: If a lead wasn't soldered manually, what device was used?
Answer: wave soldering machine
Question: Which type of PCB construction technique was used first?
Answer: through-hole
Question: In through-hole construction, what are the leads on the front attached to on the back?
Answer: copper traces
Question: For boards with two sides, to what angle are leads bent to in order to install them horizontally?
Answer: 90 degrees
Question: What is improved by bending leads in opposite directions on the back of double-sided PCBs?
Answer: mechanical strength
Question: Vertical installation of through-hole parts with two axial leads in done how?
Question: Vertical installation is done by bending the leads what degrees?
Question: Leads have to be soldered in what way?
Question: A wave sewing machine can solder the what?