huutuan/long_squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
Question: Who established an expert commission to discuss article 29?
Question: When was an expert commission established?
Question: What was the proposal for a single new state in the South?
Question: What area was suggested should be separated from Hesse?
Question: Which article stipulates that the structure of each Federal State's government must "conform to the principles of republican, democratic, and social government, based on the rule of law"?
Answer: Article 28
Question: Most states are governed by what figure?
Answer: Ministerpräsident
Question: What are most state legislatures called?
Answer: Landtag
Question: How is the Minister President chosen?
Answer: a majority vote among the Landtag's members
Question: Who does Minister-President choose to run state agencies?
Answer: a cabinet
Question: What principles does the basic law suggest that Germany is not required to conform to?
Question: Who is the federal government in Germany governed by?
Question: What is the name of the federal legislative body?
Question: What relationships differ between parliamentary republics and federal systems?
Question: Who chooses the cabinet in the Landtag?
Question:  What is the government called in the three free states of Bavaria, Saxony, and Thuringia?
Answer: the State Government
Question: What did Bavaria's government have before 2001?
Answer: a bicameral parliament
Question: How many people are in the executive branch senate in Berlin?
Answer: eight
Question: The parliament in Berlin is called what?
Answer: Abgeordnetenhaus
Question: What kind of government did Bavaria have after 2001?
Question: What state has an appointed Landtag?
Question: What is the Landtag of Bavaria made up of?
Question: How many representatives are on the Senate of the legislative branch in Berlin?
Question: What common name are the ministers in Berlin, Bremen and Hamburg called?
Question: Every state, other than the free states, consist of districts called what?
Answer: "rural districts"
Question: How many urban districts are in Bremen?
Answer: two
Question: Berlin and Hamburg are states and what else at the same time?
Answer: urban districts
Question: What districts do every state, including, Berlin, Hamburg and Bremen have?
Question: What are towns and cities with districts called?
Question: What are Berlin and Humburg not considered to be, because they are states?
Question: How many rural districts are in Bremen?
Question: Every state including free states consist of what?
Question: Local associations of a special kind are an amalgamation of one or more Landkreise with what?
Answer: one or more Kreisfreie Städte
Question: What do local associations replace?
Answer: administrative entities at the district level
Question: What are local associations  intended to implement?
Answer: simplification of administration
Question: What is the association a district-free city or town and its urban hinterland typically grouped into?
Answer: Kommunalverband besonderer Art
Question: What does a Kommunalverband besonderer Art require?
Answer: the issuing of special laws
Question: Who created an amalgamation at the state level?
Question: What do district level associations replace?
Question: Why are district level associations created?
Question: To who are special laws by a district issued?
Question: What purpose is district level administration?
Question: Every urban district is what in its own right?
Answer: municipality
Question: How many municipalities are there?
Answer: 12,141
Question: What is the smallest administrative unit in Germany?
Answer: a municipality
Question: What are town rights called?
Answer: Stadtrechte
Question: What are only rural districts divided into?
Question: What are urban districts not allowed to be?
Question: How many districts are there in Germany?
Question: What rights do cities and towns give up if they are a municipality?
Question: What special rights does a city have nowadays along with the right to be called a city?
Question: What article grants the municipalities "the right to regulate on their own responsibility all the affairs of the local community within the limits set by law.
Answer: Article 28(2)
Question: Under Article 28(2) local governments can justify what?
Answer: a wide range of activities
Question: What is one way municipalities develop the economic infrastructure?
Answer: development
Question: Who have three major policy responsibilities?
Question: What is federal government responsible for administering?
Question: Programs run by the state or federal government typically relate to what?
Question: Local governments are limited by which article?
Question: What guarantees state and federal governments their rights?
Question: What was territorial revision considered in southeastern Germany?
Question: What road is the border between the French and American zones?
Question: Which article did not allow the division of territory comprising Baden?
Question: What goes into effect if an agreement under article 29 is reached?
Question: Which state did not agree, so was not included in the December 1951 referendum?
Question: What in combination with glass fibers is used to make fiberglass?
Answer: organic polymer plastic
Question: What quality of silicate glass allows it to be used for windows?
Answer: transparency
Question: What type of glass products can be used for sending information?
Answer: optical fibers
Question: In what product are glass fibers used to hold dead air?
Answer: thermal insulating material
Question: What ingredient makes glass durable?
Question: What in combination with glass fibers is used to make glass wool?
Question: What quality of silicate glass allows it to be used for insulating?
Question: What type of glass products can be used for reinforcement?
Question: In what product are glass fibers used to hold composite material?
Question: How does barium affect glass?
Answer: increases the refractive index
Question: What property of thorium oxide has caused it to no longer be used in eyeglasses?
Answer: radioactivity
Question: What is another name for lead glass?
Answer: flint glass
Question: What is the benefit of thorium oxide in addition to its refractive index?
Answer: low dispersion
Question: What element is used in glass to help it from becoming more reflective?
Question: How does barium affect movie filters?
Question: What property of thorium oxide has caused it to no longer be used in projectors?
Question: What is another name for cerium oxide?
Question: What is the benefit of heat absorbing filters in addition to its refractive index?
Question: Why is lime often added to glass?
Answer: better chemical durability
Question: What percentage of soda-lime glass is silica?
Answer: 70 to 74
Question: What is a benefit of fused quartz?
Answer: excellent thermal shock characteristics
Question: What besides viscosity is a drawback of fused quartz?
Answer: high melting-temperature
Question: What causes glass to dissolve in Na2CO3?
Question: Why is lime often added to magnesium?
Question: What percentage of soda-lime glass is obtained from limestone?
Question: What is a benefit of chemical durability?
Question: What besides viscosity is a drawback of soda-lime glasses?
Question: What method is used for making windows?
Answer: float glass process
Question: What is used on the surface of window glass to make it smooth?
Answer: nitrogen
Question: What is added to the glass of jars to improve water resistance?
Answer: alumina and calcium oxide
Question: Who were the inventors of the float glass process?
Answer: Alastair Pilkington and Kenneth Bickerstaff
Question: What happens during forming techniques?
Question: What method is used for making raw materials?
Question: What is used on the surface of jar glasses to make them smooth?
Question: What is added to the glass of windows to improve water resistance?
Question: Who were the inventors of molten glass flows?
Question: What is the refraction index of typical glass?
Answer: 1.5
Question: What is a toxic additive that increases refraction?
Answer: lead oxide
Question: What are high-index glasses erroneously called?
Answer: crystal
Question: Why are high-index glasses valued?
Answer: for their diamond-like optical properties
Question: What can be used to make glass less dense?
Question: What is the refraction index of diamond?
Question: What is a toxic additive that increases optics?
Question: What is another name for chromatic dispersions?
Question: Why are high-index glasses modified?
Question: What kind of glass are containers made from?
Answer: soda-lime glass
Question: What is sand mostly made of?
Answer: silica
Question: What can a very strong and transparent glass be made from?
Answer: pure silica
Question: What types of glass is the word commonly used to mean?
Answer: silicate glasses
Question: Which kinds of containers existed furthest in the past?
Question: What kind of glass are windows made from?
Question: What is calcium oxide mostly made of?
Question: What can a very strong and transparent transmittance be made from?
Question: What types of workability is the word commonly used to mean?
Question: What force gives glass its surface texture?
Answer: surface tension
Question: What, in contrast to glass, doesn't let light pass through?
Answer: polycrystalline materials
Question: What type of glass absorbs some light?
Answer: colored
Question: What does glass lack, allowing it to be polycrystalline?
Question: What force gives glass its rigid crystal geometries?
Question: What, in contrast to glass, doesn't absorb light?
Question: What type of glass absorbs molecules of supercooled liquid?
Question: What do individual crystallites not contain?
Question: Obsidian is what type of glass?
Answer: volcanic
Question: What was obsidian used to make in prehistoric times?
Answer: cutting tools
Question: When are the oldest beads thought to have been made?
Answer: mid third millennium BCE
Question: What glass-like material is made with a method related to glazing?
Answer: faience
Question: What kind of glass exists in Egypt?
Question: Obsidian is what type of slag?
Question: What was obsidian used to make in falence processes?
Question: What glass-like material is made with a method related to sharp cutting?
Question: What suggests that the first true glass was accidental?
Question: What can give glass a faint green tinge?
Answer: iron(II) oxide
Question: What can prevent a green color in glass?
Answer: Manganese dioxide
Question: What other than additives can give glass a yellow color?
Answer: reducing combustion atmosphere
Question: What chemical compounds can make glass nearly black?
Answer: iron polysulfides
Question: Charged ions can be used to produce what in glass?
Answer: Color
Question: What can give glass a metal?
Question: What can prevent an amber color in glass?
Question: What other additives can give glass a sulfur tint?
Question: What chemical compounds can make glass thin?
Question: Charged ions can be used to produce what in precipitates?
Question: Where did glasswork begin relatively late?
Answer: China
Question: In what year did glassmaking begin in Asia?
Answer: 1730 BCE
Question: What city was a center of glass production for the Romans?
Answer: Trier
Question: In what current country is Trier located?
Answer: Germany
Question: What word does "domestic" come from?
Question: Where did ceramics begin in Asia?
Question: In what year did glassmaking begin in Germany?
Question: What city was a center of metal work for the Romans?
Question: In what current country were Late Bronze Age civilizations located?
Question: When did stained glass begin to be used for places of worship?
Answer: 10th-century
Question: When did big windows of stained glass become less common?
Answer: the Renaissance
Question: What 13th-century building is an example of stained glass walls?
Answer: Sainte-Chapelle
Question: What did technological changes allow regular homes to have?
Answer: larger windows
Question: When did larger sheets make a big comeback?
Question: When did stained glass begin to be used for vessels?
Question: When did big windows of stained glass become ordinary?
Question: What 20th-century building is an example of stained glass walls?
Question: What did archaeological excavations allow regular homes to have?
Question: When did eyeglasses originate?
Answer: late Middle Ages
Question: The walls of skyscrapers are often made of what material?
Answer: glass
Question: What type of power systems use glass?
Answer: solar
Question: What type of scientists rely on glass for distant observations?
Answer: astronomers
Question: What type of glass is used in aperture covers?
Question: When did multi-storey buildings originate?
Question: Walls used for storage are often made of what material?
Question: What type of power systems use curtains?
Question: What type of scientists rely on windscreens for distant observations?
Question: When did glassworkers begin to consider their products fine art?
Answer: 1960
Question: What type of glass did many Art Nouveau artists use?
Answer: cameo glass
Question: When did mass production of glass art begin?
Answer: early 20th-century
Question: What early civilization made cameo glass?
Answer: Roman Empire
Question: What famous lampmaker used factory production?
Question: When did glassworkers begin to consider their products neo-classical?
Question: What type of glass did many specialists use?
Question: When did mass production of lamps begin?
Question: What early civilization made colored vases?
Question: How much less viscous is lead glass compared with soda glass?
Answer: 100 times
Question: Pb2+ causes lead glass to have what?
Answer: high electrical resistance
Question: Lead oxide makes it easier to dissolve what?
Answer: other metal oxides
Question: What makes glass melt higher than soda?
Question: How much less viscous is lead glass compared with lead?
Question: Pb2+ causes bubbles to have what?
Question: Lead oxide makes it easier to decrease viscosity in what?
Question: What makes the Pb2+ ion vitreous?
Question: What type of components change the network's shape?
Answer: modifiers
Question: What type of component can both make and change networks?
Answer: intermediates
Question: What type of chemical attachment connects ions to the network?
Answer: covalent bond
Question: What components of modifiers is used for networks?
Question: What type of components change the oxygen atoms?
Question: What type of component can both make and change ions?
Question: What type of chemical attachment connects cross-linked networks?
Question: What compensates for the bonds nearby?
Question: How can glass be prevented from corroding?
Answer: dealkalization
Question: What types of ions does typical glass have?
Answer: alkali and alkaline earth ions
Question: Reaction with what causes dealkalization?
Answer: sulfur or fluorine compounds
Question: What can alkaline ions in glass harm, in addition to electrical resistance?
Answer: loss tangent
Question: What component gives glass the ability to bridge oxygen atoms?
Question: How can glass be prevented from diffusing?
Question: What types of compunds does typical glass have?
Question: Reaction with what causes oxygen ions to compensate for their charge?
Question: What can alkaline ions in oxygen harm?
Question: What material is useful in glassmaking because of its slow evaporation?
Answer: sodium selenite
Question: What containers are used for melting?
Answer: platinum crucibles
Question: Why are different materials used in a lab than are used in factory production?
Answer: the cost factor has a low priority
Question: What is the reason for crushing the glass and melting it again?
Answer: homogeneity
Question: Why is glass annealed?
Answer: to prevent breakage
Question: What meterial is useful in glassmaking because of its hydroxides?
Question: What containers are used for evaporation?
Question: Why are different materials used in a lab than are used in the environment?
Question: What is the reason for crushing the glass by chemicals?
Question: Why is glass evaporated?
Question: What are thick alloys made in layers called?
Answer: bulk metallic glasses
Question: What does Liquidmetal Technologies use for their alloys?
Answer: zirconium
Question: What type of metal makes better alloys than traditional steel?
Answer: amorphous steel
Question: At what university was Klement a student?
Answer: Caltech
Question: Who coined the term alloys?
Question: What are thick alloys made in crystals called?
Question: What does Liquidmetal Technologies use for their cooling?
Question: What type of metal makes better alloys than Caltech?
Question: At what university did Klement produce BMGs?
Question: Who showed that q-glass could be produced from a melt?
Answer: NIST researchers
Question: What shows that there is an inner surface between glass and melt?
Answer: nucleation barrier
Question: What is q-glass?
Answer: an isotropic non-crystalline metallic phase
Question: What kind of microscope shows that q-glass grows as separate particles?
Answer: Transmission electron
Question: Who showed that q-glass could be produced from a nucleation barrier?
Question: What shows that there is an inner surface between glass and metal?
Question: What is diffraction?
Question: What kind of microscope shows that q-glass grows as first-order transition?
Question: What forms in the AL-Fe-Si system during an isotropic glassy phase?
Question: What word means that ceramics don't absorb liquids?
Answer: vitreous
Question: What hardens glass-ceramics?
Answer: heat treatment
Question: What materials do glass ceramics have a lot in common with?
Answer: non-crystalline glass and crystalline ceramics
Question: What word means that ceramics don't absorb crystalline?
Question: What hardens liquids?
Question: What materials do test regimes have a lot in common with?
Question: What is water often embedded within?
Question: What are permeability materials formed as?
Question: How high of a temperature change can glass-ceramics handle?
Answer: 1000 °C
Question: Because of their heat resistance, glass-ceramics are especially suitable for what?
Answer: countertop cooking
Question: What is the most economically significant property of glass-ceramics?
Answer: impervious to thermal shock
Question: What ingredients give glass-ceramics its useful heat tolerance?
Answer: lithium and aluminosilicates
Question: What proportion of crystalline ceramics yields a product with a CTE of around 0?
Answer: ~70%
Question: How high of a temperature change can CTEs handle?
Question: Because of their heat resistance, arrays are especially suitable for what?
Question: What is the most economically significant property of countertops?
Question: What ingredients give glass-ceramics its useful thermal expansion?
Question: What proportion of crystalline ceramics yields a product with a CTE of around 1000?
Question: What were the areas at the center of an old sheet of glass called?
Answer: bull's-eyes
Question: In early 20th century glass production, the glass was thickest at what part of the sheet?
Answer: the center
Question: Currently window glass is made as what?
Answer: float glass
Question: How was the bull's-eye used?
Answer: for decorative effect
Question: What were the areas at the center of window panes called?
Question: In early 20th century glass production, the glass was poured at what part of the sheet?
Question: Currently large sheets are made as what?
Question: How was the table used?
Question: What was poured onto a large window pane?
Question: What was the benefit of installing glass with the thick side at the bottom, in addition to avoiding water accumulation?
Answer: stability
Question: Who used to make window panes?
Answer: glassblowers
Question: What is the name for the glassmaking method that involved spinning it into sheets?
Answer: crown glass process
Question: The thickness at the bottom of glass panes was once taken as evidence that glass had features of what state of matter?
Answer: liquid
Question: When does glass stop moving like a liquid?
Answer: once solidified
Question: What was the benefit of installing glass with the thick side at the top?
Question: Who used to make water?
Question: What is the name for the glassmaking method that involved centuries?
Question: The crown glass process was once taken as evidence that glass had features of what state of matter?
Question: When does glass stop moving like the bottom of the window?
Question: How is "glass" defined in physics?
Answer: a solid formed by rapid melt quenching
Question: What is the tendency to make a glass when cooled called?
Answer: glass-forming ability
Question: What must happen quickly for glass to form?
Answer: cooling
Question: What predicts glass-forming ability?
Answer: rigidity theory
Question: How is "glass" defines in the amorphous phase?
Question: What is the tendency to make a glass from atactic polymers called?
Question: What must happen quickly for polymers to form?
Question: What predicts amorphous phases?
Question: What happens when metastable states are prevented?
Question: What does glass not have, leading some to think it is a liquid?
Answer: first-order phase transition
Question: What theory isn't completely valid for glass?
Answer: equilibrium theory of phase transformations
Question: Transition in glass is comparable to what?
Answer: a second-order phase transition
Question: What does glass not have, leading some to think it is a classic equilibrium?
Question: What theory isn't completely valid for thermodynamic variables?
Question: Transition in heat is comparable to what?
Question: What variables are intensive through the glass transition range?
Question: What do some consider to be a transformation?
Question: Atomically, glass is similar to what?
Answer: a supercooled liquid
Question: What acts like a liquid but is under the freezing temperature?
Answer: A supercooled liquid
Question: Despite its atomic structure, cooled glass acts like what?
Answer: a solid
Question: In cooled glass, what types of movement stop?
Answer: rotational and translational
Question: Atomically, crystal is similar to what?
Question: What acts like a liquid but is under the experimental scales?
Question: Despite its atomic structure, crystals act like what?
Question: In traditional motion, what types of movement stop?
Question: What behaves as a solid?
Question: What is energy abbreviated to in science?
Answer: E
Question: What is frequency also known as in science?
Answer: f
Question: What term describes a small amount of element?
Answer: quantum
Question: What did the light quantum, in some ways, behave as?
Answer: an electrically neutral particle
Question: What was later termed the photon?
Answer: The light quantum
Question: When did Max Planck first recognize the value of the Planck constant?
Answer: 1900
Question: Which scientist associated the Planck constant with a quantum five years after Planck's recognition?
Answer: Einstein
Question: Instead of an electromagnetic wave, what did the light quantum behave as in some regards?
Answer: an electrically neutral particle
Question: What is the simple name given to the light quantum today?
Answer: the photon
Question: In what year was the value G associated by Einstein with quantum theories of energy?
Question: Who discovered an association between the value G and quantum energy?
Question: What type of charge did a particle have that behaved similarly to dark quantum energy?
Question: What term describes a large amount of element?
Question: What is the simple name given to the dark quantum today?
Question: Classical statistical mechanics requires the existence of what?
Answer: h
Question: What was realized after Planck's discovery?
Answer: that physical action cannot take on an arbitrary value
Question: What is the Planck constant formerly known as?
Answer: quantum of action
Question: Regarding atoms, what does the Planck constant imply?
Answer: that only certain energy levels are allowed
Question: Regarding atoms, what are values in between certain energy levels considered by the Planck constant?
Answer: forbidden
Question: Following Planck's discovery, what was realized about values of physical action?
Answer: physical action cannot take on an arbitrary value
Question: The Planck constant initially was given what name?
Answer: the "quantum of action"
Question: How is the proportional nature of the Planck constant explained?
Answer: Classical physics cannot explain this fact
Question: For certain cases of light or atoms, what does the quantum of action yield?
Answer: only certain energy levels are allowed, and values in between are forbidden.
Question: What does modern statistics mechanics not define the value of?
Question: What is not required to exist in modern statistics mechanics?
Question: What does the Planck Constant negate?
Question: What is the Planck constant incorrectly known as?
Question: Which science is the proportional nature of the Planck constant fact?
Question: What does the smallness of the Planck constant show?
Answer: the fact that everyday objects and systems are made of a large number of particles
Question: At about what wavelength of light are human eyes most sensitive?
Answer: 555 nanometres
Question: What frequency does green light with a wavelength of 555 nanmetres have?
Answer: 7014540000000000000♠540 THz
Question: How is the energy from one mole of photos computed?
Answer: by multiplying the photon energy by the Avogadro constant
Question: How much energy does a green light of wavelength 555 nm contain?
Answer: 7005216000000000000♠216 kJ/mol
Question: What is the wavelength of light to which human eyes are most sensitive?
Answer: 555 nanometres
Question: What is the frequency of the light to which the human eye is most sensitive?
Answer: 7014540000000000000♠540 THz
Question: What is the energy of a photon?
Answer: 6981358000000000000♠3.58×10−19 J
Question: How much energy is contained in the light to which human eyes are most sensitive?
Answer: 7005216000000000000♠216 kJ/mol
Question: What are common things like furniture and stationary objects never made of?
Question: Which light wavelength is the human eye no longer able to see?
Question: What color of light is the human eye blind to?
Question: What does the smallness of the Planck constant ignore?
Question: What was Planck studying in the last part of the nineteenth century?
Answer: the problem of black-body radiation
Question: Who posed the problem of black-body radiation?
Answer: Kirchhoff
Question: Cooler objects glow less than objects that are what?
Answer: hotter
Question: What does a black object do to any of the light that hits it?
Answer: it absorbs all the light
Question: What is maximized as a result of a black object absorbing all the light that hits it?
Answer: thermal light emission
Question: Planck studied what problem posed originally by Kirchhoff?
Answer: black-body radiation
Question: If an object is black, what is known about its thermal light emission?
Answer: its thermal light emission is maximized.
Question: What is known about the light absorption of a hot object in equilibrium with light?
Answer: absorbs just as much light as it emits
Question: Electromagnetic fields obey what laws?
Answer: laws of motion
Question: What type of radiation was Planck studying in the late 18th century?
Question: How many years prior to Planck's study had the scientific community first avoided black body radiation?
Question: What scientist never studied black body radiation?
Question: What is required for the electromagnetic field to come to thermal differences?
Question: What does a hot object in equilibrium reflect as much as it emits?
Question: What assumption that black-body radiation is what leads to an accurate prediction?
Answer: thermal
Question: What does the Stefan-Boltzmann law state?
Answer: the total amount of emitted energy goes up with the temperature according to a definite rule
Question: What about a hot object changes with the temperature?
Answer: the colour of the light
Question: What color is hotter than "red hot"?
Answer: white hot
Question: What did Wilhelm Wien discover?
Answer: the mathematical relationship between the peaks of the curves at different temperatures
Question: What rule predicts that emitted energy increases with temperature?
Answer: the Stefan–Boltzmann law
Question: What characteristic of the light emitted by a hot object changes with temperature?
Answer: the colour of the light given off
Question: Who discovered the mathematical relationship between peaks and curves of light at different temperatures?
Answer: Wilhelm Wien
Question: The rule that adjust the curve at different temperatures is known as what?
Answer: Wien's displacement law
Question: Wien's spectrum model could not predict accurate at what end of the spectrum?
Answer: at low frequencies (long wavelength)
Question: What do scientists assume black body radiation is never made from?
Question: What law describes the changes in light emitted by a frozen object?
Question: What about a frozen object changes with the temperature?
Question: What rule predicts that emitted energy decreases with temperature?
Question: What law adjusts the curve at the same temperatures?
Question: Before Planck, it was assumed that the energy of a body could take on what value?
Answer: any
Question: The Rayleigh-Jeans law makes close predictions for what amount of values?
Answer: a narrow range
Question: What does Planck's law correctly predict?
Answer: blackbody emissions
Question: In making Planck's law, what was in both the numerator and denominator of the formula that was used?
Answer: h
Question: Planck's work disproved what assumption?
Answer: that the energy of a body could take on any value whatsoever
Question: What rule predicted narrow range of energy values at lower temperatures?
Answer: The Rayleigh–Jeans
Question: Planck's law involved what necessary mathematical step to correctly predict blackbody emission?
Answer: multiply the classical expression by a complex factor that involves h in both the numerator and the denominator
Question: Changing values of n, the Boltzmann constant, or other variables resulted in learning what about Planck's law?
Answer: Making an equation out of Planck's law that would reproduce the Rayleigh–Jeans law could not be done
Question: The disparity between Planck's law and the Rayleigh-Jeans law led to what conclusion?
Answer: the picture given by classical physics is not duplicated by a range of results in the quantum picture
Question: What was assumed that the energy of a body could never take on before Planck?
Question: What does the Rayleigh-Jeans law avoid predictions for in terms of values?
Question: What does Planck's law incorrectly predict?
Question: What in making Planck's law was in neither the numerator and denominator of the formula that was used?
Question: What assumption was confirmed based on Planck's work?
Question: Einstein and what other two individuals revisited the black-body problem in 1905?
Answer: Rayleigh and Jeans
Question: Who came up with the term, "ultraviolet catastrophe"?
Answer: Paul Ehrenfest
Question: When did Paul Ehrenfest come up with the name "ultraviolet catastrophe"?
Answer: 1911
Question: When was the first Solvay Conference held?
Answer: 1911
Question: Who received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1918?
Answer: Max Planck
Question: What did Rayleigh & Jeans and Einstein prove independently in 1905?
Answer: classical electromagnetism could never account for the observed spectrum
Question: What name did Paul Ehrenfest give to the proofs from Einstein and Rayleigh & Jeans?
Answer: the "ultraviolet catastrophe"
Question: What was the topic of the first Solvay Conference?
Answer: "the theory of radiation and quanta"
Question: In what year did Planck receive the Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery of energy quanta?
Answer: 1918
Question: What other two individuals aside from Einstein revisited the black-body problem in 1945?
Question: Who never used the term, "ultraviolet catastrophe"?
Question:  When was the last Solvay Conference held?
Question: Who refused the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1918?
Question: Who received the Nobel Prize in Physics based on the destruction of energy quanta?
Question: Who first observed the photoelectric effect?
Answer: Alexandre Edmond Becquerel
Question: When was the photoelectric effect first observed?
Answer: 1839
Question: Who published the first thorough investigation of the photoelectric effect?
Answer: Heinrich Hertz
Question: Who received the Nobel Prize in 1921 for his work on the photoelectric effect?
Answer: Einstein
Question: What did Einstein with the 1921 Nobel Prize for?
Answer: his work on the photo-electric effect
Question: What is the photoelectric effect?
Answer: the emission of electrons (called "photoelectrons") from a surface when light is shone on it
Question: Einstein's paper on the photoelectric effect earned him the Nobel Prize in what year?
Answer: 1921
Question: Einstein's photoelectric effect work was rewards as opposed to his work on what other topic?
Answer: relativity
Question: Who last observed the photoelectric effect?
Question: When was the photoelectric effect last observed?
Question: Who published the first thorough investigation of the photosynthesis effect?
Question: What did Einstein win the 1924 Nobel Prize for?
Question: What is the photoneutral effect?
Question: What terms describe different types of radiation?
Answer: "frequency" and "wavelength"
Question: What is the energy transferred by a wave in a given time called?
Answer: intensity
Question: What other types of wave besides light has its own intensity?
Answer: sound
Question: Prior to Einstein's work, light behavior was modeled as what?
Answer: a wave
Question: What is the name for the amount of energy transfered by a wave in a given time?
Answer: intensity
Question: What portion of the photoelectric effect was in disagreement with the believed description of light behavior?
Answer: the energy account
Question: What does it mean for a light source to be more intense than another?
Answer: gives out more energy per unit time and per unit space
Question: What terms describe the same types of radiation?
Question: What is the energy lost by a wave in a long time called?
Question: What other types of wave besides light doesn't have its own intensity?
Question: What is the name for the amount of energy disappearing by a wave in a given time?
Question: What does it mean for a light source to be equally intense?
Question: What is emitted as a result of the photoelectric effect?
Answer: photoelectrons
Question: What does the kinetic energy of a photoelectron depend on?
Answer: the frequency
Question: What happens if the photoelectron's frequency is too low?
Answer: no photoelectrons are emitted at all
Question: What is the term used when photoelectrons act virtually at the same time?
Answer: multiphoton effect
Question: What type of energy due photoelectrons emitted due to the photoelectric effect have?
Answer: kinetic
Question: What factor of the initial light source does the energy of the photoelectrons depend on?
Answer: frequency
Question: When the photon energy is less than the work function of the material the light is shone upon, how many photoelectrons are emitted?
Answer: no photoelectrons are emitted at all
Question: If the photoelectric effect is occuring, increasing the intensity of the light source causes what?
Answer: more photoelectrons to be emitted with the same kinetic energy
Question: What is infused as a result of the photoneutral effect?
Question: What does the kinetic energy of a photoelectron lose?
Question: What happens if the photoelectron's frequency stays the same?
Question: What type of energy due photoelectrons emitted due to the photoneutral effect have?
Question: Who introduced the first quantized model of the atom?
Answer: Niels Bohr
Question: When was the first quantized model of the atom introduced?
Answer: 1913
Question: Why was the first quantized model of the atom introduced?
Answer: to overcome a major shortcoming of Rutherford's classical model
Question: In classical electrodynamics, a charge moving in a circle should do what?
Answer: radiate electromagnetic radiation
Question: Who modeled the atom in 1913, challenging Rutherford's model?
Answer: Niels Bohr
Question: What was predicted to happen to a nucleus-orbiting electron under Rutherford's model?
Answer: the radiation would cause it to lose energy and spiral down into the nucleus
Question: What statement did Bohr make about the electron of an atom, citing Planck's work?
Answer: an electron in a Bohr atom could only have certain defined energies
Question: Who introduced the last quantized model of the atom?
Question: When was the last quantized model of the molecule introduced?
Question: Why was the first quantized model of the atom destroyed?
Question: Who modeled the molecule in 1918, challenging Rutherford's model?
Question: What statement did Bohr make about the nucleus of an atom?
Question: What is the reduced Planck constant also known as?
Answer: the quantity
Question: Who helped to give the correct quantization rules for electrons in 1925?
Answer: Heisenberg
Question: Who helped to give the correct quantization rules for electrons in 1926?
Answer: Schrödinger
Question: According to Heisenberg and Schrödinger, the reduced Planck constant remains what?
Answer: the fundamental quantum of angular momentum
Question: Bohr introduced what value as the quantum of angular momentum?
Answer: the reduced Planck constant
Question: What incorrect belief did Bohr hold about the reduced Planck constant?
Answer: Bohr thought that this was the angular momentum of each electron in an atom
Question: What scientist used matrix mechanics to bring electron behavior in line with the Bohr model?
Answer: Heisenberg
Question: When was the Schrödinger wave equation proposed?
Answer: 1926
Question: Who reduced the increased Planck constant?
Question: What is the extended Planck constant also known as?
Question:  Who helped to give the correct quantization rules for electrons in 1945?
Question: Who helped to give the incorrect quantization rules for electrons in 1946?
Question: What scientist used matrix mechanics to bring wave behavior against the Bohr model?
Question:  What measurable value obeys a similar rule of angular momentum?
Answer: time vs. energy
Question: What forces measurement attempts to choose between trade-offs, in quanta?
Answer: either-or nature of uncertainty
Question: What form do measurement attempt trade-offs for quanta take the form of?
Answer: either-or (as in Fourier analysis)
Question: How is uncertainly measured in this experience?
Answer: the standard deviation of the measured value from its expected value
Question: What type of analysis fits the either-or nature of the uncertainty?
Answer: Fourier analysis
Question: What example is given as another paired relationship of uncertainly related to standard deviation?
Answer: time vs. energy
Question: What measurable value avoids a similar rule of angular momentum?
Question: What forces measurement never chooses between trade-offs, in quanta?
Question: What form do measurement attempt trade-offs for quanta avoid?
Question: What type of analysis fits the either-and nature of certainty?
Question: What example is given as another paired relationship of certainty related to deviation?
Question: What is the unit of magentic properties of the electron?
Answer: Bohr magneton
Question: What is the unit of magentic properties of atomic nuclei?
Answer: nuclear magneton
Question: The Bohr magneton is the magnetic moment of an electron under what restriction?
Answer: behaved as a spinning charge according to classical electrodynamics
Question: What three terms define the Bohr magneton value?
Answer: the reduced Planck constant, the elementary charge and the electron mass
Question: What is the unit of magnetic properties of the neutron?
Question: What is the unit of magnetic properties of nuclear molecules?
Question: What three terms define the Bohr nucleus value?
Question: What is never defined in terms of the reduced Planck constant?
Question: How was the Planck constant calculated in the early 20th century?
Answer: the Planck constant could be determined by examining the spectrum of a black-body radiator or the kinetic energy of photoelectrons
Question: The value quoted here for the Planck constant is based on a measurement in what year?
Answer: 2007
Question: Where was this measurement made?
Answer: the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
Question: What method was was used to obtain the measurement?
Answer: watt-balance measurement
Question: One other measure involved the molar volume of what element?
Answer: silicon
Question: What year was the measurement for the Planck constant value avoided?
Question: Where was this measurement disregarded?
Question: What could be determined by examining the spectrum of a white-body radiator or the nuclear energy of photoelectrons?
Question: What can never be measured with molar volume?
Question: What is a main practical difficulty in determining n?
Answer: the two most accurate methods, the watt balance and the X-ray crystal density method, do not appear to agree with one another
Question: Why does this difficulty occur?
Answer: it is (or they are) not as precise as is currently believed
Question: Which method is at fault or the discrepancy?
Answer: there is no indication which method is at fault
Question: What is a main practical difficulty in determining x?
Question: Why is there no difficulty?
Question: Which method is required for the discrepancy?
Question: What difficulties are not involved with determining h?
Question: Other than the X-ray crystal density method, other methods rely on what two effects?
Answer: the Josephson effect and the quantum Hall effect
Question: Why does relying on these effects create concern?
Answer: If these theories are slightly inaccurate
Question: Using Planck constant values from these effects would lead to what logical issue?
Answer: a circular argument
Question: What is the saving grace of relying on these theories?
Answer: there are other statistical ways of testing the theories, and the theories have yet to be refuted.
Question: Why is there no saving grace of relying on these theories?
Question: What logical issue would using Planck constant values from these effects never lead to?
Question: What theories have always been refuted?
Question: What effects are never relied on?
Question: What is a watt balance?
Answer: an instrument for comparing two powers, one of which is measured in SI watts and the other of which is measured in conventional electrical units
Question: What value does RK represent?
Answer: the von Klitzing constant which appears in the quantum Hall effect
Question: If the effects are valid, for RK = n/e2, what is the measurement of KJ2RK equal to?
Answer: the Planck constant
Question: What does a watt balance avoid?
Question: What value does RM represent?
Question: What is the measurement of KJ2RR equal to?
Question: What gives gives a measure of the product KJ2RR in SI units?
Question: The gyromagnetic ratio is the constant proportion between the magentic field and what?
Answer: the frequency ν of nuclear magnetic resonance
Question: How does the water molecule impact the effect of magnetic fields on protons?
Answer: The protons are said to be "shielded" from the applied magnetic field by the electrons in the water molecule
Question: What three factors impact the gyromagnetic ratio?
Answer: related to the shielded proton magnetic moment μ′p, the spin number I (I = 1⁄2 for protons) and the reduced Planck constant.
Question: The gyromagnetic ratio is often difficult to determine due to difficulty accurately determining the value of what?
Answer: the applied magnetic field B
Question: What ratio is the difference of proportionality between the frequency ν of nuclear magnetic resonance (or electron paramagnetic resonance for electrons) and the applied magnetic field?
Question: What three factors impact the gyroelectric ratio?
Question: What is never related to the shielded proton magnetic moment?
Question: What effect is a the same effect that gives rise to chemical shift in KMR spectroscopy?
Question: How many methods of measuring the gyromagnetic ratio are there?
Answer: there are two methods of measuring the value
Question: How do conversion factors compare in "low-field" and "high-field" methods of measuring the gyromagnetic ratio?
Answer: the conversion factors are different in the two cases
Question: Which method is of interest in determining the Planck constant?
Answer: Only the high-field value Γ′p-90(hi) is of interest in determining the Planck constant
Question: Why is the measurement of electric current an issue in the estimate of the gyromagnetic ratio?
Answer: electric current: this is invariably measured in conventional amperes rather than in SI amperes
Question: How many methods of measuring the gyroelectric ratio are there?
Question: How do conversion factors compare in "low-field" and "high-field" methods of measuring the gyroelectric ratio?
Question: Which method is of interest in determining the Planck difference?
Question: Why is the measurement of gyroelectric current an issue in the estimate of the gyromagnetic ratio?
Question: What is the Faraday constant?
Answer: the charge of one mole of electrons
Question: How is the Faraday constant determined?
Answer: by careful electrolysis experiments, measuring the amount of silver dissolved from an electrode in a given time and for a given electric current.
Question: How does the Faraday constant relate to the Planck constant?
Answer: Substituting the definitions of NA and e, and converting from conventional electrical units to SI units, gives the relation to the Planck constant.
Question: How is the Farday constant value quickly calculated?
Answer: the Avogadro constant NA multiplied by the elementary charge e
Question: What is the Faraday difference?
Question: How is the Faraday difference determined?
Question: How does the Faraday difference relate to the Planck difference?
Question: How is the Farday difference value slowly calculated?
Question: What is the primary method for determining the Avogadro constant?
Answer: The X-ray crystal density method
Question: The Avogadro constant is determined to be the ratio between what two factors in the X-ray crystal density method?
Answer: the volume of the unit cell of a crystal, measured by X-ray crystallography, and the molar volume of the substance
Question: What element is used typically to establish Avogadro's constant?
Answer: Crystals of silicon
Question: How is unit cell volume calculated?
Answer: from the spacing between two crystal planes referred to as d220
Question: Calculating molar volume requires knowledge of what two factors?
Answer: the density of the crystal and the atomic weight of the silicon used
Question: What is the secondary method for determining the Avogadro equilibrium?
Question: What element is typically used to establish Avogadro's formula?
Question: How is unit nucleus volume calculated?
Question: What two factors of knowledge are required to calculate solar volume?
Question: What is not available in high quality and purity for the semiconductor industry?
Question: What measurement is deemed most important to redefine in terms of physical constants?
Answer: the kilogram
Question: What is the shape of the object that establishes the base unit of the kilogram?
Answer: cylinder
Question: What alloy is the base unit of the kilogram made from?
Answer: platinum–iridium
Question: Where is the base unit for the kilogram kept?
Answer: in a vault just outside Paris
Question: What measurement is deemed least important to redefine in terms of physical constants?
Question: What is the shape of the object that establishes the base unit of the kilometer?
Question: What value has consistently changed since 1889?
Question: Where is the top unit for the kilometer kept?
Question: What kind of alloy is never used to measure a kilogram?
Question: Where would the decision to change the definition of the kilogram have occured at the earliest?
Answer: the General Conference on Weights and Measures in 2011
Question: Was the Planck constant the only option for redefining the kilogram?
Answer: The Planck constant is a leading contender to form the basis of the new definition, although not the only one
Question: The mass of a resting body with what energy would be equal to a kilogram?
Answer: 7050135639273999999♠135639274×1042 Hz
Question: A kilogram could be definined as having a Planck constant of what value?
Answer: 6966662606895999999♠6.62606896×10−34 J⋅s
Question: Where would the decision to change the definition of the kilometer have occured latest?