huutuan/long_squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
Question: What institutions were forbidden to form private guards?
Question: Whom comprised most of the ordinary military?
Question: How did military families gain prestige?
Answer: connections to the imperial court
Question: Who were the three prominent families during the rise of the warrior classes?
Answer: Fujiwara family, Taira clan, and Minamoto clan
Question: Who had limited intrests in the tenth century?
Question: What groups became part of the centraladministration?
Question: What formed around provincial aristocracy?
Question: What did provincial aristocracy grant to the imperial court?
Question: Who was the first non-Fujiwara emperor since the ninth century?
Answer: Go-Sanjō
Question: Who implemented reforms to reduce the Fujiwara's influence on government?
Answer: Go-Sanjō
Question: What term was used for behind the scenes governance?
Answer: insei
Question: Who was the last emperor born to a Fujiwara mother?
Question: Who's influence grew under Go-Sanjo?
Question: What did the Fjiware try to compile and validate?
Question: Who felt threatened by the Fujiware attempt to validate estate records?
Question: What office did the emperor rule through?
Question: The decline of the Fujiwara's governmental power was filled by what?
Answer: In-no-cho
Question: The members of what clan gradually replaced the Fujiwaras?
Answer: Minamoto
Question: What allowed the paternal line of the imperial family to gain influence over royal succession?
Answer: insei system
Question: The In-no-cho was prominent during what years?
Answer: 1086 to 1156
Question: Who left a void for the Fujiwara to fill?
Question: Who did the emperor banish?
Question: Who was sought out in decision making?
Question: What other family was replaced by the Fujiwara?
Question: What member of the Fujiwara attempted to rebel in the mid-twelfth century?
Answer: Fujiwara no Yorinaga
Question: What battle resulted in the destruction of the Fujiwara?
Answer: Hōgen Rebellion
Question: What clans fought during the Heiji Rebellion?
Answer: Taira and Minamoto
Question: In what year did the Heiji Rebellion occur?
Answer: 1159
Question: After the Heiji Rebellion, what clan grew in power?
Answer: Taira
Question: What struggle occured in the 1200's?
Question: Who had the opportunity to regain their former power in the 1200's?
Question: In what year did no Yorinaga side with the emerors heir apparent?
Question: Who supported the retired emperor in the 11th century?
Question: What rebellion occured in the 11th century?
Question: What military commander gained power after the fall of the Minamoto clan?
Answer: Taira Kiyomori
Question: How old was Emperor Takakura when he died?
Answer: 19
Question: What was the name of Takakura's successor?
Answer: Antoku
Question: Kiyomori removed how many court officials to protect his power?
Answer: 45
Question: What were the names of the temples that Kiyomori destroyed?
Answer: Todai-ji and Kofuku-ji
Question: Who's destruction led to Minamoto emering as the real power in Japan?
Question: What was the name of Minamato's daughter?
Question: Whose daughter died at 19?
Question: Who discouraged trade with Sung China?
Question: Who buildt two temples during their time in power?
Question: What was the term used to describe supervisors of estates?
Answer: jito
Question: What was the name of the emperor that Yoritomo removed from the throne?
Answer: Go-Toba
Question: What system did Yoritomo end?
Question: What areas did stewards rule over?
Question: Who supervised the imerial court?
Question: Who strengthened the Fujiwara family during their rule?
Question: Who did Yoshitsune remove from the throne?
Question: What were the two Japanese sects of Buddhism?
Answer: Tendai and Shingon
Question: Who brought Shingon Buddhism to Japan?
Answer: Kūkai
Question: Tendai Buddhism suggested that enlightenment was accessible to who?
Answer: every creature
Question: What philosophy had little influence during the Haian period?
Question: What were the two Chinese sects of Buddhism?
Question: Where did Kukai bring Tendai Buddhism to?
Question: Who thought all Buddist monks should be ordinated together?
Question: What court did Shingon develop a close relationship with?
Question: During the Heian period, what did the Japanese think could reflect one's soul?
Answer: handwriting
Question: What was said to show low status or "poor breeding"?
Answer: poor or hasty writing
Question: Who was expected to be able to read poetry?
Question: What were verses believed to reflect?
Question: What was a sign of good breeding?
Question: Who rebuked the empress for poor writing?
Question: What is the name of the Japanese national anthem?
Answer: Kimi ga Yo
Question: What famous poem with an unknown author was written during the Heian period?
Answer: Iroha
Question: The Pillow Book was a collection of whose observations of the imperial court?
Answer: Sei Shōnagon
Question: When were the lyrics of the ancient japanese anthem written.
Question: What was the title of the forst ever novel written by Sei Shonagon?
Question: When did Fujiwara no Teika write Iroha?
Question: What crop was a primary source of income during the Heian period?
Answer: rice
Question: What was the name of the beneficiaries of Heian culture?
Answer: Ryōmin
Question: Currency gradually disappeared around what year?
Answer: 1000
Question: What crop became the primary unit of exchange?
Answer: rice
Question: What was a short period of peace?
Question: How was Japan strengthened during the Heian period?
Question: What could average people avoid by acessing rice fields?
Question: Who provided to be compitent at ruling the provinces?
Question: Who were paid fees for theiir services?
Question: Buddhist temples in which two cities made use of the shoen system?
Answer: Heian-kyō and Nara
Question: Why were travelers often robbed under Fujiwara rule?
Answer: The Fujiwara rulers failed to maintain adequate police forces
Question: The integration of Shinto shrines into government branches reflected a greater what?
Answer: organizational dynamism
Question: Who always maintained adequate police forces?
Question: What system kept the aristocrates from accumulating too much wealth?
Question: What was integrated into Shinto shrines?
Question: What kept travelers safe during the Heian period?
Question: Which Total War game has an expansion set during the Heian period?
Answer: Shogun 2
Question: What families are playable characters in Total War: Shogun 2?
Answer: Taira, Minamoto or Fujiwara
Question: The Rise of the Samurai expansion for Total War: Shogun 2 depicts which war during the Heian period?
Answer: Gempei War
Question: What popular game from the Heian period had an expanson pack?
Question: Wich part of the game has no multiplayer mode?
Question: What three families are added with the expanson pack?
Question: Who wrote The Origin of Species?
Answer: Charles Darwin
Question: What branch of biology was The Origin of Species founded on?
Answer: evolutionary biology
Question: What was the expedition called that Charles Darwin discovered some of his evidence?
Answer: Beagle expedition
Question: How do populations evolve according to Charles Darwin's theory?
Answer: through a process of natural selection
Question: Which powerful religious institution was a big part of scientific study in the 19th century?
Answer: the Church of England
Question: What was the general opinion about transmutation of species in the 19th century?
Answer: Ideas about the transmutation of species were controversial
Question: How did the majority of science see humanity in relation to animals in the 19th century?
Answer: that humans were unique, unrelated to other animals.
Question: Which theology did everyone agree science was a part of in the 19th century?
Answer: natural theology
Question: What section of the population was Darwin's book written for?
Answer: non-specialist readers
Question: Who attempted to secularize science during the debate over Darwin's book?
Answer: T. H. Huxley
Question: What was T.H. Huxley promoting?
Answer: scientific naturalism
Question: What was the growing change in opinion about evolution called?
Answer: "the eclipse of Darwinism"
Question: When did Darwin's concept of evolution become widely believed and central to the modern theory of evolution?
Answer: in the 1930s and 1940s
Question: To what ancient philosopher did Darwin trace some of his evolutionary ideas?
Answer: Aristotle
Question: Whose ideas were summarized by Aristotle in the work Darwin studied?
Answer: Greek philosopher Empedocles
Question: How did medieval scholars view the Genesis creation story?
Answer: allegorically
Question: What kind of births did the Christian Church fathers believe occurred in nature?
Answer: monstrous births from union between species, and spontaneous generation of life.
Question: Which group wanted to assuage fears that science was a threat to religious stability?
Answer: the Royal Society
Question: Whose theory claimed that species were unchanging and designed by God?
Answer: John Ray
Question: Who created a biological classification in 1735?
Answer: Carl Linnaeus
Question: When did the Ussher chronology state that creation began?
Answer: 4004 BC
Question: Who proposed that life is a self-maintaining, infinite cycle?
Answer: James Hutton
Question: What theory did Erasmus Darwin outline in the 1790s?
Answer: hypothesis of transmutation of species
Question: What was the name of the scientist who developed and published a more complex version of Erasmus Darwin's theory in 1809?
Answer: Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
Question: What is the process of adapting to the environment and inheriting changes through use or disuse called?
Answer: Lamarckism
Question: Whose paleontology work in the 1790s established the reality of extinction?
Answer: Georges Cuvier
Question: Whose work considered adaptation to be evidence of God's design?
Answer: William Paley's
Question: What was the name of William Paley's book claiming divine beneficial design? 
Answer: Natural Theology
Question: What religion were all naturalists working at the two English universities?
Answer: Church of England
Question: How did most naturalists view the concept of transmutation of species?
Answer: a threat to divinely appointed social order.
Question: How did geologists explain the creation of new species in keeping with their belief in divine creation?
Answer: adapted catastrophism to show repeated worldwide annihilation and creation of new fixed species adapted to a changed environment
Question: What university did Darwin attend?
Answer: Edinburgh University
Question: What was Darwin originally studying at university?
Answer: medicine
Question: Who did Darwin assist in researching marine invertebrates?
Answer: Robert Grant
Question: With whom did Darwin study about catastrophic geology?
Answer: Adam Sedgwick
Question: Who wrote The Principles of Geology?
Answer: Charles Lyell
Question: Where was the first stop of the Beagle Expedition?
Answer: St. Jago
Question: What did some of the fossils Darwin found on St. Jago resemble?
Answer: huge armadillos
Question: What caused Darwin to change his mind about the unbridgeable gap between animals and humans?
Answer: their relatives on the island seemed "miserable, degraded savages"
Question: Who showed that extinct South American fossils were related to living species?
Answer: Richard Owen
Question: What did John Gould announce in 1837?
Answer: Darwin's rhea was a separate species from the previously described rhea
Question: How many species of mockingbirds were found to be present on the Galapagos Islands?
Answer: three separate species
Question: What type of scientist was John Gould?
Answer: ornithologist
Question: Which animal did Darwin see at a zoo that made him further consider evolution?
Answer: an ape
Question: Which book did Darwin begin reading in 1838?
Answer: An Essay on the Principle of Population
Question: What did Thomas Malthus' book theorize would happen to human populations if they were unrestrained?
Answer: breed beyond their means and struggle to survive
Question: Which species did Darwin compare with the human struggle to survive?
Answer: plants
Question: What concept was de Candolle considering as he studied plants?
Answer: "warring of the species"
Question: What was the name of Darwin's 35-page writing of his theory?
Answer: "Pencil Sketch"
Question: Which botanist did Darwin begin a correspondence with about his theories?
Answer: Joseph Dalton Hooker
Question: How many pages had Darwin's sketch grown to in 1844?
Answer: 230-page
Question: What information was Darwin's essay based on?
Answer: scientific results of the Beagle voyage
Question: What was the name of the anonymously published science book?
Answer: Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation
Question: What kind of progression did Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation propose?
Answer: a linear progression
Question: Who wrote Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation?
Answer: Robert Chambers
Question: What was the evidence in Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation used to support?
Answer: that living things had progressed from the simple to the more complex over time.
Question: Which scientist was in favor of Lamarckism in the 1850s?
Answer: Herbert Spencer
Question: In what year did Darwin begin to work on his evolution theory full-time?
Answer: 1854
Question: Which bird species did Darwin become extremely interested in studying?
Answer: fancy pigeon
Question: By which year had Darwin's theory become more complex and supported by a lot of evidence?
Answer: 1856
Question: What species did Darwin study for dispersal across oceans>
Answer: plant seeds and animals
Question: Who wrote the "Introduction of Species" paper?
Answer: Alfred Russel Wallace
Question: How did Wallace claim that patterns in the distribution of species could be explained?
Answer: if every new species always came into existence near an already existing, closely related species
Question: Which scientist recognized the possible validity and implications of Wallace's paper?
Answer: Charles Lyell
Question: When did Lyell ask Darwin to publish his theory to give it priority?
Answer: 1–2 May 1856
Question: Which book was Darwin working on when he received a package from Wallace?
Answer: "big book" on Natural Selection,
Question: What was in the packages Darwin received from Wallace?
Answer: twenty pages describing an evolutionary mechanism
Question: Who wrote the paper, On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties?
Answer: Darwin
Question: What do some historians think made Wallace's concept of natural selection different from Darwin's?
Answer: Some historians have suggested that Wallace was actually discussing group selection rather than selection acting on individual variation.
Question: What did Darwin decide to write in July, 1858?
Answer: "an abstract of my whole work".
Question: Which publisher did Lyell convince to arrange publication of Darwin's work?
Answer: John Murray III
Question: What did the publisher offer Darwin in payment for the book?
Answer: 2⁄3 of the profits
Question: What edition was the book in by the time of Darwin's death?
Answer: 6th edition
Question: How much had the book earned Darwin by the time he died?
Answer: nearly £3000
Question: What had Darwin wanted to name his book?
Answer: An abstract of an Essay on the Origin of Species and Varieties Through natural selection
Question: Who convinced Darwin that his book needed a shorter, more compelling title?
Answer: Murray
Question: What does the word "races" mean as referenced in Darwin's book?
Answer: an alternative for "varieties" and does not carry the modern connotation of human races
Question: What is the extended name of The Origin of Species that is written on the title page?
Answer: by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life
Question: By which year did Darwin have the basic premise of his natural selection theory?
Answer: 1838
Question: Why might Darwin have postponed publishing his theory of evolution for over 20 years?
Answer: fear of religious persecution or social disgrace
Question: Which paper did Darwin write that was incorrect?
Answer: Glen Roy
Question: Who might Darwin have feared upsetting by publishing his work?
Answer: his clergymen naturalist friends or his pious wife Emma.
Question: What did Darwin's contemporaries think of the long delays on his publishing?
Answer: Darwin's contemporaries thought the time he took was reasonable
Question: What was Darwin's process on writing his books?
Answer: Darwin always finished one book before starting another
Question: What was Darwin's original estimate for the amount of time his book would take to write?
Answer: five years
Question: Which scientist's study theorized that the idea of Darwin's work being delayed dates to the 1940s?
Answer: John van Wyhe
Question: What was the cost for the first published copies of On the Origin of Species?
Answer: fifteen shillings
Question: How many copies of On the Origin of Species were created in the first printing?
Answer: 1250 copies
Question: Where was the book, On the Origin of Species first offered for sale?
Answer: Murray's autumn sale
Question: How many editions did On the Origin of Species go through during Darwin's lifetime?
Answer: six editions
Question: Which institution bought 500 copies of the book, ensuring that a large number of people would have access to it?
Answer: Mudie's Library
Question: What did On the Genesis of Species argue against natural selection?
Answer: claimed it included false metaphysics
Question: Who wrote On the Genesis of Species?
Answer: George Jackson Mivart
Question: When did Charles Darwin first use the word "evolution" in On the Origin of Species?
Answer: the sixth edition
Question: What did Charles Darwin do to address Mivart's arguments?
Answer: added a new chapter VII,
Question: What was chapter VII entitled?
Answer: Miscellaneous objections
Question: Why couldn't Asa Gray use a Boston publisher for an American version of On the Origin of Species?
Answer: two New York publishing firms were already planning to exploit the absence of international copyright to print Origin
Question: How much of a royalty was Gray able to negotiate with a New York publisher for On the Origin of Species?
Answer: a 5% royalty
Question: When was the first American edition of On the Origin of Species published?
Answer: mid January 1860
Question: What did Darwin decide to do with the profits of the American version of On the Origin of Species?
Answer: asked Gray to keep any profits
Question: What was the print run that Darwin mentioned for On the Origin of Species?
Answer: 2,500 copies
Question: Who was the German translator that Darwin welcomed for On the Origin of Species?
Answer: Heinrich Georg Bronn,
Question: What did Bronn do in his translation that went completely against what Darwin wanted in On the Origin of Species?
Answer: the German translation published in 1860 imposed Bronn's own ideas, adding controversial themes that Darwin had deliberately omitted.
Question: What did Bronn change "Favoured Races" to in his translated edition of On the Origin of Species?
Answer: "perfected races"
Question: Who published an improved translation of On the Origin of Species in 1867?
Answer: Julius Victor Carus
Question: Why was Darwin unhappy with the first French translation of On the Origins of Species?
Answer: numerous explanatory notes giving her own answers to doubts that Darwin expressed
Question: What was Isaac Newton's belief about God  on the theory of natural law?
Answer: a rational God who established a law-abiding cosmos
Question: Whose epigraph did Darwin add to On the Origin of Species harmonizing God with science and miracles together?
Answer: Joseph Butler
Question: Whose letter does the introduction to On the Origin of Species refer?
Answer: John Herschel
Question: In which edition of On the Origin of Species was the epigraph from Joseph Butler added?
Answer: the second edition
Question: How far back does Chapter One of On the Origin of Species go in its coverage of animal and plant species?
Answer: ancient Egypt
Question: What does Darwin use to illustrate the effects of artificial selection?
Answer: fancy pigeon breeding
Question: From what does Darwin assert all pigeons are descended?
Answer: one species of rock pigeon
Question: Which evolutionary changes were the most important to Darwin?
Answer: the small changes
Question: What does Darwin theorize about different species with regard to variety?
Answer: "species are only strongly marked and permanent varieties"
Question: What did Darwin and Wallace make central to understanding the natural world?
Answer: variation among individuals of the same species
Question: What did Darwin say that a "well marked variety" could be called?
Answer: incipient species"
Question: What did historians say that naturalists generally thought about the differences in variations in a species?
Answer: generally considered such variations to be limited and unimportant deviations from the archetype of each species
Question: What is the struggle that Darwin describes about population likened to?
Answer: doctrine of Malthus
Question: Within what frame of reference does Darwin use the phrase "Struggle for Existence?"
Answer: "a large and metaphorical sense
Question: What was Charles Lyell's perception of what organisms are exposed to in their struggle for survival?
Answer: all organisms are exposed to severe competition
Question: When is competition strongest in the natural world?
Answer: competition is most severe between closely related forms
Question: Why is competition so fierce between related species?
Answer: fill nearly the same place in the economy of nature".
Question: What did Darwin say that artificial selection by animal breeders often causes?
Answer: sharp divergence in character between breeds,
Question: What did Darwin say could happen somewhere if there is a change in conditions?
Answer: extinction of some species
Question: What can happen if species immigrate to a new location?
Answer: descendants of some species became adapted to new conditions
Question: What does Darwin say can explain diverse feature such as antlers on deer and bright feathers on certain male birds?
Answer: sexual selection, driven by competition between males for mates
Question: Which of Darwin's written works has more in depth information about sexual selection?
Answer: The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex
Question: What did Darwin expect to see between species with the addition of artificial selection?
Answer: no limit to the amount of change, to the beauty and infinite complexity of the coadaptations between all organic beings
Question: What did Darwin use to illustrate the way that original species change and adapt into new ones?
Answer: a tree diagram and calculations
Question: What is the theory that is based on acquired characteristics within a species?
Answer: Lamarckism
Question: What did Darwin learn about about the characteristics of domestic animals?
Answer: use in our domestic animals strengthens and enlarges certain parts, and disuse diminishes them
Question: What did Darwin speculate might be how inheritable variations might come about in a species?
Answer: environmental factors
Question: What did Darwin admit about acquired characteristics in chapter one of On the Origin of Species?
Answer: "The laws governing inheritance are quite unknown."
Question: What did Darwin learn about variations by observing breeders?
Answer: breeders were able to select such variations and produce huge differences in many generations of selection
Question: When was The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication by Charles Darwin published?
Answer: 1868
Question: What was the hypothesis that attempted to explain heredity?
Answer: hypothesis of pangenesis.
Question: While Darwin wasn't sure about blending inherited traits, what was his opinion about utilizing inherited variation?
Answer: Darwin's concept of selection working on a population with a range of small variations was workable
Question: When did a model of heredity begin to be integrated with that of variation?
Answer: in the 1930s and 1940s
Question: What was the modern evolutionary synthesis named?
Answer: Neo Darwinian Evolution
Question: What is one possible objection to the theory of integrated variation?
Answer: often no intermediate forms between closely related species are found
Question: Why did Darwin wonder why all of nature isn't chaotic and random?
Answer: why, if species have descended from other species by insensibly fine gradations, do we not everywhere see innumerable transitional forms?
Question: What did Darwin ultimately decide was the reason that nature is not a chaos of variation?
Answer: the competition between different forms, combined with the small number of individuals of intermediate forms, often leading to extinction of such forms.
Question: What are some flying animals that Darwin thought might have evolved from bats?
Answer: flying squirrels, and flying lemurs
Question: What example did Darwin give of eyes evolving?
Answer: simple eyes found in invertebrates, starting with nothing more than an optic nerve coated with pigment
Question: How did Darwin justify his theory not breaking down?
Answer: any complex organ existed, which could not possibly have been formed by numerous, successive, slight modifications, my theory would absolutely break down.
Question: How does Darwin theorize that instincts have evolved in slave-making ants?
Answer: He thought it reasonable that species with an extreme dependency on slave workers had evolved in incremental steps.
Question: How does Darwin theorize that instincts have evolved in bees?
Answer: He suggested that bees that make hexagonal cells evolved in steps from bees that made round cells, under pressure from natural selection to economise wax
Question: What did Darwin notice specifically about slave-making ants?
Answer: some species of slave-making ants were more dependent on slaves than others
Question: Why would hybrids have characteristics that keep them from being fertile?
Answer: in order to preserve separately created species
Question: What are Darwin's thoughts on producing hybrids of related species?
Answer: the viability and fertility of the hybrids, varied greatly, especially among plants
Question: What conclusion did Darwin come to after realizing that some diverse species were able to create variations easily, while other species thought to be closely related had difficulty?
Answer: support the view, that there is no fundamental distinction between species and varieties
Question: Why did Darwin introduce a new chapter in On the Origin of Species in the sixth edition?
Answer: to respond to criticisms of earlier editions
Question: What was one of the objections that Darwin addressed in his new chapter in On the Origin of Species?
Answer: that many features of organisms were not adaptive and could not have been produced by natural selection
Question: Which of Darwin's books featured a plant whose elaborate structure aided with fertilization by insects?
Answer: Fertilisation of Orchids
Question: Which scientist was addressed the most often in the new chapter of On the Origin of Species?
Answer: George Jackson Mivart
Question: What was Darwin's response to the claims that certain animals could not have evolved through natural selection?
Answer: Darwin proposed scenarios for the incremental evolution of each feature.
Question: Whose argument did Darwin borrow that geological record is very imperfect, because fossilization is rare?
Answer: Charles Lyell
Question: Which book written by Charles Lyell contains the argument that fossils are too rare to be used as proof of life suddenly arising?
Answer: Principles of Geology
Question: What did Darwin hope to find as he continued to explore new geologic discoveries?
Answer: that new finds would occasionally reveal transitional forms
Question: How long did Darwin estimate the erosion of the Weald to be?
Answer: 300 million years
Question: What is the name of the group of well-developed organisms that were discovered within fossil-bearing layers?
Answer: the Cambrian explosion
Question: How did Darwin expect species to change and evolve?
Answer: slowly, but not at the same rate
Question: What did Darwin believe were the key things needed for variation of species to form?
Answer: variability and change in the environment
Question: Which scientist theorized that the earliest members of a class in a species were simple and generalized?
Answer: Richard Owen
Question: What did Darwin discover about more recently extinct species?
Answer: Recently extinct species were more similar to living species than those from earlier eras
Question: Why couldn't differences in flora and fauna be explained by differences in regions alone?
Answer: South America, Africa, and Australia all have regions with similar climates at similar latitudes, but those regions have very different plants and animals
Question: What did Darwin consider that could explain why different regions could have such different species when they are close together?
Answer: barriers to migration played an important role in the differences between the species of different regions.
Question: What was the combination of effects that Darwin considered the most important in determining the differences in species that evolved separately in similar environments?
Answer: His explanation was a combination of migration and descent with modification.
Question: What theory does Darwin discuss that is related to the importance of homologous structures?
Answer: morphology
Question: What are some examples that Darwin gives of species whose basic form of limbs is similar, but who have vastly different uses for them?
Answer: the hand of a man, formed for grasping, that of a mole for digging, the leg of the horse, the paddle of the porpoise, and the wing of the bat
Question: What does Darwin note about the embryos of many different species in the same class?
Answer: animals of the same class often have extremely similar embryos
Question: What are some examples of rudimentary organs that Darwin discusses in the chapter?
Answer: e wings of flightless birds and the rudiments of pelvis and leg bones found in some snakes
Question: What hopes does Darwin have for his theory in the natural history fields?
Answer: that his theory might produce revolutionary changes
Question: Why did Darwin avoid the topic of the origins of humans in most of his book?
Answer: so as not to prejudice readers against his theory
Question: What does Darwin allude to hoping in the final chapter of On the Origin of Species about humans?
Answer: that psychology would be put on a new foundation and that "Light will be thrown on the origin of man"
Question: What were Darwin's two important aims about evolution?
Answer: to show that species had not been separately created, and to show that natural selection had been the chief agent of change
Question: What did heknow his readers were already familiar with from Vestiges?
Answer: the concept of transmutation of species
Question: How did Darwin view Vestiges in the introduction to On the Origin of Species?
Answer: his introduction ridicules that work as failing to provide a viable mechanism.
Question: What is Darwin's belief about the accumulation of adaptive variations?
Answer: the accumulation of adaptive variations provides a scientifically testable mechanism for evolutionary speciation.
Question: What does Darwin do to show that his theory can support many theories that could not be explained by individual creation of species?
Answer: Darwin presents supporting facts drawn from many disciplines
Question: Whose scientific philosophy argued that a mechanism could be called a vera causa if three things could be shown as true?
Answer: John Herschel
Question: What are the three things John Herschel maintains need to be shown to allow for a mechanism be called a true cause?
Answer: its existence in nature, its ability to produce the effects of interest, and its ability to explain a wide range of observations
Question: What element of On the Origin of Species ensured that the book would be taken seriously by scientists?
Answer: its dryness ensured that it was seen as aimed at specialist scientists and could not be dismissed as mere journalism or imaginative fiction.
Question: What did On Origin of Species avoid in order to raise its chance of being taken seriously?
Answer: it avoided the narrative style of the historical novel and cosmological speculation
Question: What reason did David Quammen believe that On the Origin of Species was weakened in later editions?
Answer: Darwin making concessions and adding details to address his critics
Question: Why did James T. Costa think that On the Origin of Species was more likely to draw interest than a larger book that Darwin had been working on?
Answer: because the book was an abstract produced in haste in response to Wallace's essay
Question: Why did James T. Costa think the larger, abandoned book would not have been as successful?
Answer: would have been encumbered by scholarly footnotes and much more technical detail
Question: Why did On the Origin of Species likely raise so much interest and debate?
Answer: no sharp line between scientific issues and ideological, social and religious implications
Question: Why was the book taken seriously even though much of the response was hostile?
Answer: Darwin had to be taken seriously as a prominent and respected name in science
Question: What field of ideas latched onto On the Origin of Species when it became a widespread success?
Answer: social reform
Question: What did Darwin's book do for the field of scientific study of evolution?
Answer: Darwin's book legitimised scientific discussion of evolutionary mechanisms
Question: What was the term used to not only describe Darwin's theories, but the whole spectrum of evolution-ism after his book met with success?
Answer: Darwinism
Question: What was the general response from scientific readers to Lamarck's written work?
Answer: the transmutational ideas of Lamarck and the vague "law of development" of Vestiges had not found scientific favour
Question: What was the likely reason that Darwin's ideas were accepted more readily than Lamarck's?
Answer: natural selection as a scientifically testable mechanism while accepting that other mechanisms such as inheritance of acquired characters were possible.
Question: Which school did opponents to Darwin's method support?
Answer: the idealist school of William Whewell's Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences
Question: Where did early support for Darwin's findings come from?
Answer: the findings of field naturalists studying biogeography and ecology, including Joseph Dalton Hooker in 1860, and Asa Gray in 1862
Question: Who authored research supporting insect mimicry  using natural selection?
Answer: Henry Walter Bates
Question: Who supported Darwin's theories on evolution despite it having little impact on his own research?
Answer: Thomas Henry Huxley
Question: What did Huxley's 1860 article in the Westminster Review promote?
Answer: scientific naturalism over natural theology
Question: Why did Huxley coin the name "Darwinism?"
Answer: as part of his efforts to secularise and professionalise science
Question: What did the morphologist Ernst Haeckel convince Huxley of about comparative anatomy and paleontology?
Answer: that comparative anatomy and palaeontology could be used to reconstruct evolutionary genealogies
Question: How did Owen respond to On the Origin of Species with his review?
Answer: bitterly attacked Huxley, Hooker and Darwin, but also signalled acceptance of a kind of evolution as a teleological plan in a continuous "ordained becoming"
Question: What was the debate between Huxley and Owen concerning humans and apes?
Answer: Huxley had emphasised anatomical similarities between apes and humans, contesting Owen's view that humans were a separate sub-class
Question: What was the primary debate at the British Association for the Advancement of Science meeting of 1860?
Answer: legendary 1860 Oxford evolution debate
Question: When did Darwin publish his own explanation of the question of the evolution of man and ape?
Answer: Darwin published his own explanation in the Descent of Man (1871)
Question: While evolutionary ideas were accepted by German biologists, what was not?
Answer: natural selection
Question: What led to more misgivings of conservative scientists when Bronn's German translation of On the Origin of Species was published?
Answer: Bronn's alterations in his German translation added to the misgivings of conservatives
Question: Which group of people was excited by the German translation of On the Origin of Species?
Answer: political radicals
Question: Why were political radicals such as Ernst Haekel so interested in On the Origin of Species?
Answer: aiming to synthesise Darwin's ideas with those of Lamarck and Goethe while still reflecting the spirit of Naturphilosophie
Question: What was the general feeling toward Darwin's ideas in France?
Answer: Darwin's ideas had little impact in France, where any scientists supporting evolutionary ideas opted for a form of Lamarckism
Question: What people in what country had embraced the idea of evolution for many years before Darwin published his theory?
Answer: The intelligentsia in Russia
Question: Which aspects of evolution theory were thought to be unimportant by many who read Darwin's work?
Answer: the Malthusian aspects
Question: Which author voiced his displeasure of the morality of Darwin's views in a novel?
Answer: Leo Tolstoy
Question: What justification for his objections to the process of natural selection did Karl von Nägel give?
Answer: insistence that a trivial characteristic with no adaptive advantage could not be developed by selection
Question: What was Darwin's concession to Karl von Nägel's objections?
Answer: Darwin conceded that these could be linked to adaptive characteristics
Question: Who disputed Darwin's estimate that the age of the earth allowed gradual evolution of species?
Answer: William Thomson
Question: What were William Thomson's reasons for disputing Darwin's estimate?
Answer: calculated that it had cooled in less than 100 million years
Question: When were the problems of the earth and heredity resolved?
Answer: in the 20th century
Question: Why did most scientists accept the validity of evolution by the 1870s, but considered natural selection a minor part of it?
Answer: they believed evolution was purposeful and progressive.
Question: What was meant by the term saltationism?
Answer: new species were thought to arise through "jumps" rather than gradual adaptation
Question: What is the term for the belief that species have a tendency to change and adapt in a certain direction?
Answer: orthogenesis
Question: What was the minority view on evolution that was believed by August Weismann?
Answer: neo-Darwinism
Question: What rediscovered inheritance was thought to invalidate Darwin's views on evolution?
Answer: Mendelian inheritance
Question: Who believed that action needed to be taken to level out the social and economic playing field before natural selection could occur to improve humanity?
Answer: Alfred Russel Wallace
Question: Which political commentary attempted to widen the idea of natural selection to include competition between different races of people and countries?
Answer: Walter Bagehot's Physics and Politics (1872)
Question: Why were some political commentaries attempting to attach natural selection to human races?
Answer: to provide scientific evidence for the superiority of Caucasians over non white races and justify European imperialism
Question: What uses of his ideology did Darwin object to being used?
Answer: to justify military aggression and unethical business practices
Question: What theory about humanity did Darwin oppose?
Answer: he opposed polygenism, the idea that human races were fundamentally distinct and did not share a recent common ancestry.
Question: What view did Louis Agassiz have of On the Origin of Species?
Answer: strongly opposed to the ideas in the book
Question: What view did some clergymen in the Church of England take of the theory of natural selection?
Answer: interpreted natural selection as an instrument of God's design
Question: What did Darwin do to show that he admired the cleric Charles Kingsley? 
Answer: Darwin quoted Kingsley as "a celebrated cleric", and added the phrase "by the Creator" to the closing sentence,
Question: What did some commentators think about Darwin changing the phrasing in his book?
Answer: some commentators have taken this as a concession to religion that Darwin later regretted
Question: What were Darwin's views on the part of God in his theory?
Answer: Darwin's view at the time was of God creating life through the laws of nature
Question: What was Baden Powell's opinion of On the Origin of Species?
Answer: Baden Powell praised "Mr Darwin's masterly volume [supporting] the grand principle of the self-evolving powers of nature"
Question: What did the pamphlet that Asa Gray published defend?
Answer: defending the book in terms of theistic evolution, Natural Selection is not inconsistent with Natural Theology.
Question: What was a way that theologians compromised with the information in Darwin's book?
Answer: Theistic evolution became a popular compromise
Question: What was later realized that caused naturalistic mechanisms such as neo-Lamarckism to be embraced?
Answer: supernatural intervention could not be a scientific explanation
Question: How did people attempt to rationalize or reconcile the concept of natural selection?
Answer: by supposing there was some supernatural intervention on the path leading to humans
Question: Which scientist argued that Darwinism was atheism?
Answer: Charles Hodge
Question: What controversy around Darwin's book began in the 1920s?
Answer: the American creation–evolution controversy
Question: What official position did the Vatican take on the subject of evolution in 1950?
Answer: The Vatican stated its official position in a 1950 papal encyclical, which held that evolution was not inconsistent with Catholic teaching.
Question: What branching common descent theory has become the most unifying one of the life sciences?
Answer: Darwin's theory of evolution
Question: What does the theory of evolution explain about living organisms?
Answer: The theory explains the diversity of living organisms and their adaptation to the environment.
Question: In what fields has Darwin's theory of evolution become particularly essential?
Answer: medicine and agriculture
Question: What kind of controversy has begun within school systems about Darwin's theory?
Answer: a religion-based political controversy
Question: What kinds of things have been done by scholars interested in Darwin's work?
Answer: scholars have generated an extensive literature, the Darwin Industry, about his life and work.
Question: What has been created in 1959 and filled with information about changes in every edition of On the Origin of Species?
Answer: a variorum
Question: What was done on the 150th anniversary of the publication of On the Origin of Species?
Answer: Worldwide commemorations
Question: What were the celebrants honoring with their commemorations?
Answer: They celebrated the ideas which "over the last 150 years have revolutionised our understanding of nature and our place within it".
Question: On what date did the Soviet Union dissolve?
Answer: December 26, 1991
Question: What entity was created in place of the Soviet Union?
Answer: Commonwealth of Independent States
Question: Who was president of the Soviet Union when it came to an end?
Answer: Mikhail Gorbachev,
Question: Who became president of Russia after Gorbachev left office?
Answer: Boris Yeltsin
Question: Which flag replaced the Soviet flag at the Kremlin?
Answer: pre-revolutionary Russian flag.
Question: Who was General Secretary prior to Mikhail Gorbachev?
Answer: Konstantin Chernenko
Question: What caused Chernenko to leave office?
Answer: death
Question: How old was Gorbachev when he was elected as the General Secretary? 
Answer: 54
Question: What entity was responsible for Gorbachev's being elected?
Answer: Politburo
Question: To which two people did Gorbachev grant membership into the Politburo for his own reasons? 
Answer: Yegor Ligachev and Nikolai Ryzhkov,
Question: What were some of the downsides of the more liberal Soviet Union?
Answer: nationalist movements and ethnic disputes
Question: In which country did Warsaw Pact regime remain in place?
Answer: Romania
Question: What was the name of the legislative body that was brought into existance in 1989?
Answer: Congress of People's Deputies
Question: When were opposition parties first allowed in the Soviet Union?
Answer: 1990
Question: When was Gorbachev's speech addressing alcohol abuse?
Answer: May 1985
Question: Other than increasing pricing what was another measure that was introduced to decrease alcohol consumption?
Answer: rationing
Question: What was censored?
Answer: drinking scenes from old movies
Question: Whose anti-alcohol program did Gorbachev's remind people of?
Answer: Tsar Nicholas II
Question: When did Tsar Nicholas II ban alcohol?
Answer: during World War I,
Question: When did Eduard Shevardnadze gain full membership in the Politburo?
Answer: July 1, 1985
Question: Who was responsible for Shevardnadze's membership?
Answer: Gorbachev
Question: Who was minister of foreign affairs prior to Shevardnadze?
Answer: Andrei Gromyko
Question: What was Gromyko's western nickname?
Answer: "Mr Nyet"
Question: Which person did Gorbachev kick out of the Politburo on the first of July?
Answer: Grigory Romanov
Question: Who became Chairman of the Council of Ministers in 1985?
Answer: Nikolai Ryzhkov
Question: Who was Chairman of the Council of Ministers prior to Ryzhkov?
Answer: Nikolai Tikhonov
Question: How old was Tikhonov when he stopped being Chairman?
Answer: 79-year-old
Question: What is an analogous office to Chairman of the Council of Ministers?
Answer: chairman of the State Planning Committee
Question: Who was the new chairman of the State Planning Committee in 1985?
Answer: Nikolai Talyzin
Question: Who created the CTAG?
Answer: Linards Grantiņš, Raimonds Bitenieks, and Mārtiņš Bariss.
Question: What group was the first to oppose the Soviet government publicly?
Answer: Helsinki-86
Question: Who was fired by Gorbachev causing riots?
Answer: Dinmukhamed Konayev
Question: What position did Konayev hold in Kazakhstan prior to his removal?
Answer: First Secretary of the Communist Party
Question: Who took the place of Konayev?
Answer: Gennady Kolbin
Question: When were the first demonstrations in Kazakhstan to protest the removal and replacement of Konayev?
Answer: December 17, 1986
Question: How many people were estimated by authorities to have attended the riots?
Answer: 3,000
Question: What were the attendance estimates from non governmental groups?
Answer: 30,000 to 40,000
Question: How did the Kazakh SSR government say the two protesters were killed?
Answer: blows to the head
Question: Who wrote about the KGB officer's testimony?
Answer: Mukhtar Shakhanov
Question: Whose support did Gorbachev seek in order to increase liberties?
Answer: the people's
Question: What party was Gorbachev in charge of?
Answer: Communist
Question: What group wanted to stop reforms?
Answer: "conservatives."
Question: What sort of prisoners were released?
Answer: political
Question: Who demonstrated close to the Kremlin in July of 1978?
Answer: Crimean Tatars
Question: Prior to 1987 when was the last large release of prisoners?
Answer: mid-1950s.
Question: Who released the prisoners in the 1950s?
Answer: Khrushchev's
Question: Who disagreed vocally about the demonstrations being permitted?
Answer: Yegor Ligachev
Question: Who resigned in September of 1987?
Answer: Boris Yeltsin
Question: What was Gorbachev's reaction to Yeltsin's resignation?
Answer: stunned
Question: What did Yeltsin dislike about the reforms?
Answer: slow pace
Question: Who took Yeltsin's side?
Answer: No one
Question: Where is Freedom Monument?
Answer: Riga
Question: What did the protesters do?
Answer: laid flowers
Question: Who were the protesters remembering?
Answer: Latvians
Question: Where did further protests take place?
Answer: Baltic States
Question: When did the phosphate mine protests begin?
Answer: spring 1987
Question: What group was started by ex-political prisoners?
Answer: MRP-AEG group
Question: Who was in charge of the MRP-AEG group?
Answer: Tiit Madisson
Question: What was requested for Estonia in the proposal printed by the Edasi newspaper in 1987?
Answer: autonomy
Question: When was the Yerevan demonstration?
Answer: October 17, 1987