huutuan/long_squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
Question: Who wrote "Poem to the Memory of Newton?"
Answer: James Thomson
Question: In what year did Newton die?
Answer: 1727
Question: Whose death in 1727 prompted poems to be written in his honour for decades?
Answer: Newton
Question: Who wrote Creation, a Philosophical Poem in Seven Books?
Answer: Sir Richard Blackmore
Question: In what year was Creation, a Philosophical Poem in Seven Books written?
Answer: 1712
Question: What did John Locke base his governance philosphy in?
Answer: social contract theory
Question: Which English philosopher wrote Leviathan in 1651?
Answer: Thomas Hobbes
Question: Who developed the view that all legitimate political power must be "representative?"
Answer: Thomas Hobbes
Question: Which of Hobbes' ideas led to the distinction between civil society and the state?
Answer: the artificial character of the political order
Question: How does John Locke define mutual security?
Answer: the idea that one cannot infringe on another's natural rights
Question: What do Locke's idea of natural rights include?
Answer: perfect equality and freedom, and the right to preserve life and property
Question: Why did John Locke believe that one person cannot enslave another?
Answer: because it is morally reprehensible
Question: What was John Locke's one exception to denouncing slavery?
Answer: enslavement of a lawful captive in time of war would not go against one's natural rights
Question: In which of John Locke's works are natural rights most famously defined and discussed?
Answer: Second Treatise
Question: Who dropped any passages dealing with miracles or visitations of angels from his work the Jefferson Bible?
Answer: Thomas Jefferson
Question: The Enlightenment era religious commentary was, in part, a response to which war?
Answer: Thirty Years' War
Question: What did the Enlightenment mean for moderate Christians?
Answer: a return to simple Scripture
Question: Did John Locke want to foster or avoid increased detailed debate on the essence of Christianity?
Answer: avoid
Question: In which country did the Enlightenment become associated with anti-government and anti-Church radicalism?
Answer: France
Question: Which of the Enlightenment's leaders did the British government give a knighthood and lucrative government office?
Answer: Isaac Newton
Question: In which country did the government respond with hostility to the Enlightenment, even imprisoning philosophes?
Answer: France
Question: Was government response to the Enlightenment uniformly positive or widely varied?
Answer: varied
Question: In which class did the Enlightenment reach deepest, expressing a nationalistic tone?
Answer: middle
Question: What two ideas did conservative and clerical defenders of traditional religion attack as evil forces that encouraged immorality?
Answer: materialism and skepticism
Question: By 1794, what did those against the Enlightenment point to as confirmation of their predictions?
Answer: Terror during the French Revolution
Question: Which type of philosophers argued that excessive dependence on reason was a mistake perpetuated by the Enlightenment?
Answer: Romantic
Question: Most scholars use the beginning of the Napoleonic Wars or which other battle as a convenient date to end the Enlightenment?
Answer: French Revolution
Question: French historians generally use the beginning of which King's reign to date the start of the Enlightenment?
Answer: Louis XV
Question: What do French historians commonly call the Age of Enlightenment?
Answer: Siècle des Lumières (Century of Enlightenments)
Question: In what year was Descartes' Discourse on Method published?
Answer: 1637
Question: In what year was Issaac Newton's Principia Mathematica published?
Answer: 1687
Question: The creation of the public sphere is associated with the rise of capitalism and which other historical trend?
Answer: rise of the modern nation state
Question: What increased society's autonomy, self-awareness, and need for exchange of information?
Answer: Capitalism
Question: In what year did the aristocracy move from the King's palace at Versailles to Paris?
Answer: 1720
Question: The desire to explore, record and systematize knowledge had a meaningful impact on what other form of publication?
Answer: music
Question: What publication of Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a leading text in the late 18th century and was published 1767 in Geneva and 1768 in Paris?
Answer: Dictionnaire de musique
Question: In what year was Charles Burney's A General History of Music: From the Earliest Ages to the Present Period published?
Answer: 1776
Question: What Mozart piece did Rose Rosengard Subotnik conclude is "an ideal musical representation of the Enlightenment"?
Answer: Die Zauberflöte (1791)
Question: Which two perspectives did Rose Rosengard Subotnik use to compare Mozart's Die Cauberflote?
Answer: Enlightenment and Romantic
Question: What was the principal social institution of the republic during the French Enlightenment?
Answer: salon
Question: Was French society open or fearful of female participation in the literary sphere during the Enlightenment?
Answer: open
Question: What female occupation allowed women to play an essential part in the French Enlightenment?
Answer: salonnières
Question: Which event destroyed the former patronage and corporatism of France and allowed women to participate in society?
Answer: French Revolution
Question: Where was Bibliotheque Bleue located?
Answer: Troyes, France
Question: For what audience were the books of the Bibliotheque Bleue written?
Answer: largely rural and semi-literate
Question: Which two influential periodicals  were closely associated with London coffee house culture and were sold from 1909 to 1714? 
Answer: The Tatler and The Spectator
Question: What collection of cheaply produced books represents the lower class' desire to participate in the Enlightenment?
Answer: Bibliothèque Bleue
Question: Many texts had explicit instructive purposes as Naturalists catered to polite society's desire for what?
Answer: erudition
Question: The idea of what quality was a social indicator that provided a new source of legitimacy for the dominant class?
Answer: taste (le goût)
Question: Was the target audience of natural history evidenced more by the price of publications or its specific discourse of the genre?
Answer: specific discourse of the genre
Question: What was the first technical dictionary drafted by John Harris titled?
Answer: Lexicon Technicum: Or, An Universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences
Question: Did the Lexicon Technicum focus on theological and biographical entries or science and technology?
Answer: science and technology
Question: What year was the Lexicon Technicum published?
Answer: 1704
Question: In what language was the Lexicon Technicum written?
Answer: English
Question: What book was published in 1686 specifically for women with an interest in scientific writing?
Answer: Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds
Question: Who was the author of Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds (1686)?
Answer: Bernard de Fontenelle
Question: Who wrote a successful natural history textbook for children titled The Easy Introduction to the Knowledge of Nature (1782)?
Answer: Sarah Trimmer
Question: How many editions were published of Sarah Trimmer's history textbook for children?
Answer: eleven
Question: Emilie du Chatelet's translation of what Newton work was published after her death in 1756?
Answer: Principia
Question: Previous to 1725, what subject matter was focused on by the concours academiques?
Answer: generally religious and/or monarchical
Question: Which topics of public controversy became more widely discussed around 1725?
Answer: theories of Newton and Descartes, the slave trade, women's education, and justice
Question: Were the concours academiques public or private matters?
Answer: public
Question: According to Brian Cowan, was learning more or less formal in coffehouses as opposed to private institutions?
Answer: less
Question: What term did Brian Cowan give Oxford coffeehouses?
Answer: penny universities
Question: Diderot, Voltaire, Mozart, Goethe, and Benjamin Franklin were all members of what secret network?
Answer: Freemasonry
Question: To whom was Freemasonry most attractive?
Answer: powerful aristocrats and politicians as well as intellectuals, artists and political activists
Question: Freemasonry expanded rapidly to nearly every country in which continent?
Answer: Europe
Question: Trying to apply Enlightenment thought on religious and political tolerance became known as what?
Answer: enlightened absolutism
Question: Which two Americans travelled to Europe during the Enlightenment and actively contributed to the scienific and political debate?
Answer: Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson
Question: The ideals of the Enlightenment were incorporated into which two United States documents?
Answer: Declaration of Independence and the Constitution
Question: Did the scientific revolution precede or follow the Age of Enlightenment?
Answer: preceded
Question: Kant's work continued to shape German thought and European philosophy well into what century?
Answer: 20th
Question: In what year was Immanuel Kant born?
Answer: 1724
Question: For which work is Mary Wollstonecraft best known?
Answer: A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1791)
Question: In what year was A Vindication on the Rights of Woman published?
Answer: 1791
Question: Mary Wollstonecraft argued for a society based on what idea?
Answer: reason
Question: Whose philosophical concepts directly influenceed James Madison and thus the U.S. Constitution?
Answer: Hume
Question: Who popularised Hume's philosophical concepts?
Answer: Dugald Stewart
Question: What did Locke, Hobbes, and Rousseau agree was necessary for a man to live in civil society?
Answer: social contract
Question: Which theorist wrote Two Treatises of Government?
Answer: Locke
Question: Who wrote Discourse on Inequality?
Answer: Rousseau
Question: From which state does Locke believe it is virtually improssible to break free?
Answer: state of war
Question: For what reason did Rousseau feel people joined into civil society?
Answer: to achieve unity while preserving individual freedom
Question: Leaders of the Enlightenment that helped design laws and programs to reform the court system are called what by historians?
Answer: enlightened despots
Question: Which enlightened despot was so over-enthusiastic that revolts broke out and nearly all of his programs were reversed?
Answer: Joseph II of Austria
Question: In what country was the model constitution of 1791 in effect for only one year?
Answer: Poland
Question: From what country was Enlightenment leader Catherine the Great?
Answer: Russia
Question: Did Mendelssohn and Spinoza judge religion on its moral fruits or logic of its theology??
Answer: moral fruits
Question: What did Enlightenment scholars seek to curtail and thereby prevent another age of intolerant religious war?
Answer: organized religion
Question: Spinoza was determined to remove what from contemporary and historical theology?
Answer: politics
Question: Did Moses Mendelssohn advise to follow a specific organized religion, or to whatever one found most convincing?
Answer: what they found most convincing
Question: Who did Voltaire say that France looked to for ideas of civilization?
Answer: Scotland
Question: What was the profession of James Anderson?
Answer: agronomist
Question: Who was the first modern geologist?
Answer: James Hutton
Question: William Cullen and Joseph Black shared what two occupations?
Answer: physicist and chemist
Question: In what year was the French term Lumieres first used?
Answer: 1733
Question: What term became the German equivalent to the French term Lumieres?
Answer: Aufklärung
Question: In what century did the term Enlightenment emerge in English?
Answer: 19th
Question: What is the Italian equivalent to the French term Lumieres?
Answer: illuminismo
Question: Did the terms, Enlightenment, Lumieres, Aufklarung and illuminismo refer to distinct or overlapping movements?
Answer: overlapping
Question: Did rising efficiency in production and communication lower or raise the prices of consumer goods?
Answer: lowered
Question: Was the variety of goods available to consumers increased or decreased by the economic and social change of the Industrial Revolution?
Answer: increased
Question: The context for the rise of the public sphere was the econoic and social change associated with what revolution?
Answer: Industrial Revolution
Question: A the economy and middle class expanded, what artistic profession had an increasing number of members?
Answer: musicians
Question: Which economic class expansion led to the emergence of music magazines and reviews?
Answer: middle
Question: Women increased their presence in the amateur performers scene with what instrument, especially?
Answer: keyboard
Question: Which musican mediums were the majority of amateur music works published for?
Answer: keyboard, voice and keyboard, and chamber ensemble
Question: By what century in France had the men of letters fused with the elites?
Answer: mid-18th century
Question: What was the term for the oppositional literary sphere of a "multitude of versifiers and would-be-authors"?
Answer: Grub Street
Question: Could the London market support the large numbers of writers that were emerging?
Answer: not
Question: Were men travelling to London to become authors paid well or poorly by the publishing-bookselling guilds?
Answer: very poorly
Question: During which movement were the first scientific and literary journals established?
Answer: the Enlightenment
Question: What was the title of the first scientific and literary journal?
Answer: the Parisian Journal des Sçavans
Question: In what year did the first scientific and literary journal appear?
Answer: 1665
Question: Which two languages were the most dominant languages of scientific and literary publications?
Answer: French and Latin
Question: Where were the vast majority of French language periodicals produced?
Answer: Holland
Question: Which work published in 1712 explained terms that usefully described the trades and scientific and commercial education?
Answer: The Marperger Curieuses Natur-, Kunst-, Berg-, Gewerkund Handlungs-Lexicon
Question: In the Jablonski Allgemeines Lexicon (1721) how many colums of text were dedicated to wine?
Answer: over five
Question: Was the Jablonski Allgemeines Lexicon (1721) more dedicated to technical subjects or scientific theory?
Answer: technical subjects
Question: In what year was the first edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica published?
Answer: 1771
Question: The Encyclopaedia Britannica was modelled along the same lines as a work from which country?
Answer: Germany
Question: What enforced contest rule guaranteed that neither gender nor social rank would determine the judging?
Answer: anonymity
Question: Were the vast majority of contest participants from the wealthier strata of society or the popular classes?
Answer: wealthier strata of society
Question: How many prize competitions did women win out of the 2300 in France?
Answer: 49
Question: Women's education common stressed which literary genre?
Answer: poetry
Question: What literary genre were the majority of female winning contest entries?
Answer: poetry
Question: By the 1720s. how many cafes were in Paris?
Answer: around 400
Question: In which Cafe was the Encyclopedie created?
Answer: The Café Procope
Question: Were bruits or newspapers allegedly a better source of information?
Answer: bruits
Question: Where did Freemasonry first spread?
Answer: England
Question: In what country was Freemaonry particularly prevalent?
Answer: France
Question: What was the most popular of all Enlightenment associations?
Answer: Freemasonry
Question: Which group was copied from the Freemasons and founded in Bavaria in 1776?
Answer: Illuminati
Question: Who is known for his statement that individuals have a right to "Life, Liberty and Property"?
Answer: Locke
Question: Locke believed that the natural right to property is derived from what?
Answer: labor
Question: Locke's theory of natural rights influenced what French document?
Answer: French National Constituent Assembly's Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
Question: Which king of Prussia saw himself as the leader of the Enlightenment?
Answer: Frederick the Great
Question: Which Enlightenment theorist was extended an invitation to live at the palace after being iprisoned by the French government?
Answer: Voltaire
Question: Who was the king of Prussia from 1740 to 1786?
Answer: Frederick the Great,
Question: Which American Enlightenment sympathiser was known for his political activism and advances in physics?
Answer: Benjamin Franklin
Question: Did the cultural exchange during the Age of Enlightenment travel exclusively to America or did information travel in both directions, back across the Atlantic to Europe?
Answer: both directions
Question: As diests, Americans were influenced by the ideas of which two Enlightenment followers?
Answer: John Toland (1670–1722) and Matthew Tindal (1656–1733)
Question: Attempts to reconcile which two fields resulted in a widespread rejection of prophecy?
Answer: science and religion
Question: All supernatural aspects were removed from which Thomas Paine work?
Answer: The Age of Reason
Question: What term was given to the writers of Grub Street?
Answer: the Grub Street Hacks
Question: Libelles were generally written in what form?
Answer: pamphlets
Question: Which group inherited the "revolutionary spirit" once displayed by the philosophes, according to Darnton?
Answer: the Grub Street hacks
Question: Which works by the Grub Street Hacks "slandered the court, the Church, the aristocracy, the academies, the salons, everything elevated and respectable, including the monarchy itself."?
Answer: the libelles
Question: Which venue created a unique environment in which people from many different walks of life could gather and share ideas?
Answer: Coffeehouses
Question: Coffehouses were criticized by which group of people, fearing the possiblity of an environmentin which class was disregarded?
Answer: nobles
Question: What societal group derived much of their power from the disparity between classes of people?
Answer: Monarchs
Question: Which societal group believed they held a divine right to rule and resented the idea of their subjects convening to discuss political matters?
Answer: Monarchs
Question: Did natural history in particular become increasingly popular amoung the upper or lower classes?
Answer: upper
Question: Which type of history encompassed botany, zoology, meteorolgy, hydrology, and mineralogy?
Answer: natural history
Question: Who wrote the Histoire naturelle des insectes?
Answer: René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur
Question: In what decade did the first Masonic lodges appear on the Continent?
Answer: 1730s
Question: The Freemason embodiment of what country's values was seen as threatening by Continental authorities?
Answer: British
Question: Which lodge that met in the mid 1720s was composed of English Jacobite exiles?
Answer: the Parisian lodge
Question: Which lodges assigned themselves the duty to "initate the unenlightened"?
Answer: British
Question: What is the masonic term for the deistic divine being who created a scientifically ordered universe?
Answer: Grand Architect
Question: Which venue represents a turning point in history during which people discovered that they could have enjoyable social lives within their communities?
Answer: Coffeehouses
Question: Coffehouses were essential to what movement by becoming centers of free-thinking and self-discovery?
Answer: the Enlightenment
Question: In what year was The Spectator published?
Answer: 1711
Question: Which literary work used the fictional narrator Mr. Spectator to entertain and provoke discussion regarding serious philosophical matters?
Answer: The Spectator
Question: Which countries had a large Catholic element and therefore had confrontation with Freemasons?
Answer: France, Italy, Spain, and Mexico
Question: Do American historians downplay or attribute the importance of Freemasonry in causing the American Revolution?
Answer: downplay
Question: Who was the political enemy of the Patriots?
Answer: the Loyalists
Question: Were the Masons political or non-political in the American Revolution?
Answer: non-political
Question: How was the Enlightenment known in French?
Answer: Siècle des Lumières
Question: Which movement dominated the world of ideas in Europe in the 18th century?
Answer: The Enlightenment
Question: In France, what were the central doctrines of the Lumieres?
Answer: individual liberty and religious tolerance
Question: The principle of absolute monarchy of which group was at odds with those following the Enlightenment?
Answer: Roman Catholic Church
Question: Which city in the mid-18th century became the center of an explosion of philosophic and scientific activity?
Answer: Paris
Question: Who were the two leaders of Paris' philosophic movement?
Answer: Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Question: Rousseau argued for a society based on what, rather than faith?
Answer: reason
Question: Which philosopher introduced the idea of a separation of powers in government?
Answer: Montesquieu
Question: Montesquieu's ideas were enthusiastically adopted by the authors of what American document?
Answer: the United States Constitution
Question: What was the most influential publication of the Enlightenment?
Answer: the Encyclopédie
Question: The Encyclopedie was comprised of how many volumes?
Answer: thirty-five
Question: Voltaire wrote Letters on the English in what year?
Answer: 1733
Question: When was Rousseau's Discourse on Inequality published?
Answer: 1754
Question: What year did the French Revolution begin?
Answer: 1789
Question: What was the name of the conservative group opposing the Enlightenment?
Answer: Counter-Enlightenment.
Question: The radical enlightenment was inspired by the philosophy of whom?
Answer: Spinoza
Question: Which Enlightenment philosopher advocated democracy, individual liberty, freedom of expression, and eradication of religious authority?
Answer: Spinoza
Question: Which Enlightenment philosophers sought accomodatin between reform and the traditional systems of power and faith?
Answer: René Descartes, John Locke, Christian Wolff, Isaac Newton and others
Question: Who is credited with the concept of separating church and state?
Answer: John Locke
Question: Which term describes John Locke's movement to seperate church and state?
Answer: The "Radical Enlightenment"
Question: In what year was John Locke born?
Answer: 1632
Question: In what realm did John Locke feel the government lacked authority?
Answer: the realm of individual conscience
Question: According to Thomas Paine, what is the definition of Deism?
Answer: the simple belief in God the Creator, with no reference to the Bible or any other miraculous source
Question: Which philosopher argued that atheists could indeed be moral men?
Answer: Pierre Bayle
Question: Which philosopher argued that without belief in a God who punishes evil, the moral order of society was undermined?
Answer: Voltaire
Question: Who felt that since atheists gave themselves no Supreme Authority and no law, they were more likely to disrupt society?
Answer: Voltaire
Question: Whixh population groups were excluded from most institutions of the public sphere?
Answer: women and the lower classes
Question: Which two areas experienced criss-cross influences through noble and lower class participation?
Answer: coffeehouses and the Masonic lodges
Question: Marmontel contrasted "the opinion of men of letters" with what?
Answer: "the opinion of the multitude,"
Question: d'Alembert contrasted the "truly enlightened public" with whom?
Answer: "the blind and noisy multitude"
Question: The increased consumption of what type of material was one of the key features of the "social" Enlightenment?
Answer: reading materials
Question: Developments in which revolution allowed consumer goods to be produced in greater quantities at lower prices?
Answer: the Industrial Revolution
Question: In additional to rising populations and increased urbanisation, what else did Commercial development increase the need for?
Answer: demand for information
Question: In what country did literacy rates double over the course of the 18th century?
Answer: France
Question: The number of books about religion in Paris from 1720 to 1780 dropped by what percentage?
Answer: just one-tenth of the total
Question: Handel gained considerable fame with performances of what two types of artistic work?
Answer: operas and oratorios
Question: Which two composers are usually regarded as being the most in line with the Enlightenment ideals?
Answer: Haydn and Mozart
Question: What style of music did Haydn and Mozart share?
Answer: Viennese Classical
Question: Members of what group were considered to be the "most useful of all citizens?"
Answer: scientists
Question: What percentage of clerics were members of the Academy of Science?
Answer: 13 percent
Question: The Academy of Science was only open to which societal group?
Answer: elite Parisian scholars
Question: How did elite Parisian scholars perceive themselves?
Answer: interpreters of the sciences for the people
Question: Where were many of the leading universities associated with Enlightenment progressive principles located?
Answer: northern Europe
Question: Which six universities were the most renowned in northern Europe?
Answer: Leiden, Göttingen, Halle, Montpellier, Uppsala and Edinburgh
Question: Which university, especially, produced professors whose ideas had a significant impact on the colonies?
Answer: Edinburgh
Question: Which of  France's universities was the exception and was hospitable to the Enlightenment?
Answer: the medical university at Montpellier
Question: How can associationism be defined?
Answer: the notion that the mind associates or dissociates ideas through repeated routines
Question: What was the predominant educational psychology from the 1750s onward?
Answer: associationism,
Question: Children were taught to memorize facts through methods that originated during which time period?
Answer: the Renaissance
Question: What were the prime examples of reference works that systemasized scientific knowledge in the age oif Enlightenment?
Answer: universal encyclopedias
Question: What was the goal of universal encyclopedias?
Answer: to record all human knowledge in a comprehensive reference work
Question: Which universal encyclopedia began publication in 1751 and was composed of 35 volumes and over 71,000 seperate entries?
Answer: Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers
Question: In what work is the goal to record the extent of human knowledge in the arts and sciences outlined?
Answer: Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot
Question: Who wrote the Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot?
Answer: d'Alembert's
Question: Anatomy, biology, geology, mineralogy, and zoology are all studies of which subject?
Answer: natural history
Question: Who criticized the sciences for distancing man from nature and not operating to make people happier?
Answer: Rousseau
Question: Who replaced universities as centres of scientific research and development during the Enlightenment?
Answer: scientific societies and academies
Question: Which century is considered by some as a "drab" period, however saw significant advancements in the practice of medicine, mathematics, and physics, the development of biological taxonomy, a new understanding of magnetism, and the maturation of chemistry as a discipline?
Answer: the 18th century
Question: Voltaire and Emilie du Chatelet populatized which scientific philosophy?
Answer: Newtonianism
Question: Many Enlightenment writers and thinkers had backgrounds in the sciences and associated scientific advancement with overthrow of religion and traditional authority in favor of what?
Answer: the development of free speech and thought
Question: Who discovered carbon dioxide or fixed air?
Answer: chemist Joseph Black
Question: Who created the argument for deep time?
Answer: geologist James Hutton
Question: Who invented the steam engine?
Answer: James Watt
Question: Who launched the first manned flight in a hot-air balloon in November 1783?
Answer: the Montgolfier Brothers
Question: For which masterpiece did Cesare Beccaria become famous?
Answer: Crimes and Punishments (1764)
Question: Into how many languages was Cesare Beccaria's Crimes and Punishments (1764) translated?
Answer: 22
Question: Which work established Francesco Mario Pagano as an international authority on criminal law?
Answer: Considerazioni sul processo criminale (Considerations on the criminal trial, 1787)
Question: In what year did Francesco Mario Pagano publish Saggi Politici?
Answer: 1783
Question: What did contemporary sources claim was the purpose of the universiity in contrast to the societies?
Answer: transmission of knowledge
Question: Contemporary sources considered societies functioned for what purpose in contrast to universities?
Answer: to create knowledge
Question: By what year were there over seventy official scientific societies?
Answer: 1789
Question: Who coined the term "the Age of Academies" to describe the 18th century?
Answer: Bernard de Fontenelle
Question: The Enlightenment is frequently linked to the French Revolution of what year?
Answer: 1789
Question: Who delineated the "consent of the governed" in Two Treatises of Government (1689)?
Answer: Locke
Question: The "divine right of kings" was in direct conflict with which of Locke's philosophies?
Answer: "consent of the governed"
Question: According to Locke, the revolutions of the late 1700s and early 1800s were caused when what could not be resolved peacefully?
Answer: governance paradigm shift
Question: In what work did Ferguson explain how humans advanced from a hunting and gathering society to a commercial and civil society without "signing" a social contract?
Answer: An Essay on the History of Civil Society
Question: In what year did Ferguson publish An Essay on the History of Civil Society?
Answer: 1767
Question: How many stages of progress did Ferguson theorize?
Answer: four
Question: Who, along with Adam Ferguson, criticized the idea of social contract theorists?
Answer: David Hume
Question: What century produced the first Russian univeristy, library, theatre, public museum, and independent press?
Answer: 18th century
Question: What did the Russian enlightenment focus on instead of societal enlightenment?
Answer: the individual
Question: From whom did Catherine the Great receive assistance in her Enlightenment ideals via correspondence?
Answer: Voltaire
Question: Which philosopher believed that the Enlightenment was ultimately born out of Protestant reaction against the Catholic counter-reformation?
Answer: Bertrand Russell
Question: Where did Betrand Russell believe views such as affinity for democracy against monarachy originated from?
Answer: 16th-century Protestants
Question: Who does Betrand Russell started the schism that lead to the Enlightenment?
Answer: Martin Luther
Question: How did Alexis de Tocqueville describe the French Revolution?
Answer: the inevitable result of the radical opposition created in the 18th century between the monarchy and the men of letters of the Enlightenment
Question: Which group was considered "a substitute aristocracy that was both all-powerful and without real power" according to Tocqueville?
Answer: men of letters
Question: From where did Tocqueville believe the illusory power of the men of letters came from?
Answer: the rise of "public opinion"
Question: Which Jewish philosopher referred to Enlightenment as a process by which man was educated in the use of reason?
Answer: Moses Mendelssohn
Question: How did Immanuel Kant describe the Enlightenment?
Answer: "man's release from his self-incurred tutelage"
Question: For whom was Enlightenment mankind's final coming of age, the emancipation of the human consciousness from an immature state of ignorance?"
Answer: Immanuel Kant
Question: According to historian Roy Porter, what was the Age of Enlightenment trying to capture?
Answer: the liberation of the human mind from a dogmatic state of ignorance
Question: John Locke, Francis Bacon, and Isaac Newton where considered the the greatest men who ever lived by which American colonist?
Answer: Thomas Jefferson
Question: Religious tolerance and the importance of individual conscience was particularly influential in the drafting of which American document?
Answer: the United States Constitution
Question: Whom, along with Francis Bacon and John Locke, did Thomas Jefferson consider to be one of the three greatest men that ever lived?
Answer: Isaac Newton
Question: From a historical standpoint, what was one of the most important features of the debating society?
Answer: openness to the public
Question: Were debates only open to certain economic classes, or could all attend?
Answer: all classes providing they could pay the entrance fee
Question: What were some of the issues discussed in addition to debates on religion?
Answer: politics and the role of women
Question: What aspect of the Enlightenment did Robert Darnton and Jurgen Habermas focus on within the Enlightenment?
Answer: social conditions
Question: How did Habermas describe the public sphere?
Answer: bourgeois, egalitarian, rational, and independent from the state
Question: The new venues and modes of communication allowing for rational exchange were given what term by Habermas in 18th century Europe?
Answer: the "bourgeois public sphere"
Question: What do Jonathon Israel claim caused the change that eventually led to the revolutions of the latter half of the 18th centure and early 19th century?
Answer: the ideas themselves
Question: What does Israel argue Western civilization was based on until the 1650s?
Answer: largely shared core of faith, tradition and authority
Question: Jonathon Israel rejects the notion that the revolutionary ideas were by products of what transformations?
Answer: social and economic
Question: What time period does Johnathon Israel focus on?
Answer: 1650 to the end of the 18th century
Question: How was the public sphere defined?
Answer: realm of communication marked by new arenas of debate, more open and accessible forms of urban public space and sociability, and an explosion of print culture
Question: During what centuries was the rise of the public sphere?
Answer: late 17th century and 18th century
Question: The argument of the public sphere was founded on what?
Answer: reason
Question: What term did Habermas give to describe the areas of political/social knowledge and discussion that were previously exlusive territory of the state and religious authorities?
Answer: common concern
Question: The values of the bourgeois public sphere included holding reason to the supreme, considering everything open to criticism, and the opposition of what?
Answer: secrecy of all sorts
Question: Book sellers and publishers had to negotiate censorship laws of varying strictness in what country, especially?
Answer: France
Question: Which work narrowly escaped seizure and had to be saved by Malesherbes?
Answer: The Encyclopédie
Question: Many publishing companies were located outside of which country to avoid overzealous censors?
Answer: France
Question: Readers were more interested in sensationalist stories about what topics than they were in political theory itself?
Answer: criminals and political corruption
Question: What was the term given to books that did not have a dominant motif and contained something to offend almost everyone in authority?
Answer: general works
Question: Who helped The Encyclopedie find its way into print using the French censorship law creatively?
Answer: Malesherbes
Question: The King and Clement XII condemned which literary work?
Answer: The Encyclopédie
Question: What percentage of books borrowed in England, Germany, and Norath America were novels?
Answer: 70
Question: What percentage of books borrowed were of a religious nature in England, Germany, and North America?
Answer: 1
Question: What did the Republic of Letters support?
Answer: free public examination of questions regarding religion or legislation
Question: Once everyone was a part of what group did Kant believe all of society would be enlightened?
Answer: the "reading public"
Question: Who were two of the figures that participated in the Republic of Letters?
Answer: Diderot and Voltaire
Question: What did Immanuel Kant consider essential to his conception of the public sphere?
Answer: written communication
Question: Who called the journals the most influential cultural innovation of European intellectual culture?
Answer: Jonathan Israel
Question: To what did the journals shift attention of the cultivated public away from and towards novelty and innovation?
Answer: established authorities
Question: What enlightened ideas were promoted by the journals?
Answer: toleration and intellectual objectivity
Question: The journals were a source of knowledge derived from what topics?
Answer: science and reason
Question: How did dictionaries and encyclopedias change in the 18th century?
Answer: from simply defining words in a long running list to far more detailed discussions of those words
Question: What movement were dictionaries and encyclopedias trying to promote?
Answer: to systematize knowledge and provide education to a wider audience than the elite
Question: How did the content of encyclopedias change in the 18th century?
Answer: tended to focus more strongly on secular affairs, particularly science and technology, rather than matters of theology
Question: Encyclopedias in the 18th century tended to focus more strongly on what topics, rather than theology?
Answer: secular affairs, particularly science and technology
Question: How was the Encyclopedie arranged?
Answer: according to a "tree of knowledge."
Question: The rise of empiricism caused a division between which two subjects?
Answer: the arts and sciences
Question: What was considered the trunk of the tree of knowledge?
Answer: philosophy
Question: Which editions of the Encyclopedie were less expensive and more accessible to the non-elite?
Answer: quarto and octavo
Question: How many copies of the Encyclopedie were estimated to be in circulation throughout France and Europe before the French Revolution?
Answer: 25 000
Question: Which society in England also played a significant role in the public sphere and spread of Enlightenment ideas?
Answer: Royal Society of London
Question: In what year was the Royal Society of London given a royal charter?
Answer: 1662
Question: Whose method based knowledge on experiementation, which had to be witnessed?
Answer: Robert Boyle
Question: Who were considered more reliable witnesses than the Oxfordshire peasants?
Answer: Oxford professors
Question: What two factors were taken into account in credibility in the Royal Society?
Answer: a witness's knowledge in the area; and a witness's "moral constitution"
Question: Before the Enlightenment, most intellectual debates revoled around what subject?
Answer: "confessional"
Question: Catholic, Lutheran, Reformed (Calvinist), or Anglican issues were called what?
Answer: "confessional"
Question: During what time period did a "general process of rationalization and secularization set in"?
Answer: second half of the 17th century and during the 18th century
Question: The aim of confessional debates was to establish which bloc of faith should have what?
Answer: the "monopoly of truth and a God-given title to authority"
Question: According to German historian Reinhart Koselleck, which two social structures left a decisive imprint on the Age of Enlightenment?
Answer: the Republic of Letters and the Masonic lodges
Question: Which Scottish professor believes that Masons were not a major radical or reformist network in their own right?
Answer: Thomas Munck
Question: Historian Margaret Jacob stresses the importance of the Masons in indirectly inspriting what type of thinking?
Answer: political thought
Question: Daniel Roche claims that Masonry promoted what idea by only attracting men of similar social background?
Answer: egalitarianism
Question: The presence of whom in the French "lodges of adoption" formed in the 1780s was die to the close ties shared with aristocratic society?
Answer: noble women
Question: Who believed the avoidance of thematic and heirarhical systems allowed free interpretation of the works and caused them to beomce an example of eglitarianism?
Answer: Charles Porset
Question: Why did Encyclopedias and dictionaries become more popular during the Age of Reason?
Answer: the number of educated consumers who could afford such texts began to multiply
Question: How many dictionaries and encyclopedias were published between 1760 and 1769?
Answer: 63
Question: How many dictionaries and encyclopedias were published in the decade preceding the French Revolution?
Answer: 148
Question: What caused an increasingly literate population to develop in the Enlightenment era?
Answer: a high rise in the availability of food
Question: Instead of paying more for food, on what did people spend their money?
Answer: education
Question: Which ideal endeavoured to make information available to the greatest number of people?
Answer: Popularization
Question: Who wrote the celebrated Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica?
Answer: Sir Isaac Newton
Question: Which work of Isaac Newton was published in Latin and remained inaccessible to readers without education until Enlightenment writers began to translate and analyze it in the vernacular?
Answer: Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica
Question: Who attached a Game & Watch D-pad to the Famicom prototype?
Answer: Katsuyah Nakawaka
Question: What was installed on the front of the console so the joystick could be used?
Answer: 15-pin expansion port
Question: Why were the controllers hard-wired to the console with no connectors?
Answer: cost reasons
Question: Where were the game pad controllers copied from?
Answer: Game & Watch machines
Question:  Who attached a Game & Watch C-pad to the Famicom prototype?
Question: What was installed on the front of the console so the joystick couldn't be used?
Question: Why were the controllers hard-wired to the console with multiple connectors?
Question:  Where were the game pad controllers not copied from?
Question: What day did Nintendo unveil the new systems?
Answer: October 18, 1985
Question: Where did Nintendo start unveiling the new systems?
Answer: New York City
Question: What was the name of the convention where Nintendo unveiled its American version of the Famicom?
Answer: Consumer Electronics Show
Question: What was the abbreviation for Nintendo NonEntertainment System?
Question:  What day did Nintendo not unveil the new systems?
Question:  Where did Nintendo stop unveiling the new systems?
Question: What was the name of the convention where Nintendo unveiled its American version of the Pamicom?
Question: In June 1989 who was Nintendo of America's vice president of marketing?
Answer: Peter Main
Question: In 1990, what percentage of American households owned an NES?
Answer: 30%
Question: What was the slogan for the Nintendo brand?
Answer: It can't be beaten
Question: What outsold the NES in Europe and South America?
Answer: Sega's Master System
Question: Where was Nintendo not available?
Answer: Soviet Union
Question: In June 1987 who was Nintendo of America's vice president of marketing?
Question:  In 1990, what percentage of American households owned a SNES?
Question:  What wasn't the slogan for the Nintendo brand?
Question:  What outsold the NES in Europe and South Africa?
Question:  Where was Nintendo always available?
Question: Which cartridges were shaped slightly differently?
Answer: Japanese (Famicom)
Question: Which interface did the NES use?
Answer: 72-pin
Question: Which interface did Famicom use?
Answer: 60-pin
Question: Various companies in Japan did what to their games for certain specifics?
Answer: develop their own customized chips
Question: Which cartridges weren't shaped slightly differently?
Question:  Which interface did the SNES use?
Question:  Which interface did Famicom not use?
Question: Various companies in China did what to their games for certain specifics?
Question: With the NES at its end, which competing consoles with less strict licensing terms were supported?
Answer: Sega Genesis and then the PlayStation
Question: Who was an example of a 3rd party publisher?
Answer: Electronic Arts
Question: Nintendo relied primarily on what for its support?
Answer: first-party games
Question: Rivals in what self-identified era enjoyed much stronger 3rd party support?
Answer: post-SNES era
Question: With the NES at its end, which competing consoles with more strict licensing terms were supported?
Question:  Who was an example of a 2nd party publisher?
Question:  Nintendo didn't rely primarily on what for its support?
Question: Rivals in what self-identified era enjoyed much stronger 2nd party support?
Question: Who caused Nintendo to take formal action regarding rentals?
Answer: Blockbuster Video
Question: According to Nintendo what was the danger in renting games?
Answer: would significantly hurt sales and drive up the cost of games
Question: Blockbuster was banned from including what with their games?
Answer: copyrighted instruction booklets
Question: What did Blockbuster do instead of use copyrighted instruction booklets?
Answer: produced their own short instructions
Question:  Who caused Nintendo to take informal action regarding rentals?
Question:  According to Nintendo what wasn't the danger in renting games?
Question:  Blockbuster wasn't banned from including what with their games?
Question: What did Blockbuster do along with use copyrighted instruction booklets?
Question: Which company distributed the NES to the UK, Italy, and Australia?
Answer: Mattel
Question: When did Nintendo take over European distribution?
Answer: 1990
Question: Which three countries share the PAL A region?
Answer: UK, Italy and Australia
Question: What two versions of the NES were released in the UK, Italy, and Australia?
Answer: "Mattel Version" and "NES Version"
Question: Which company didn't distribute the NES to the UK, Italy, and Australia?
Question:  When did Nintendo take over Asian distribution?
Question:  Which three countries share the PAL B region?
Question: What two versions of the NES were released in the UK, France, and Spain?
Question: What were the two turbo controllers Nintendo made for the NES?
Answer: NES Advantage and the NES Max
Question: What did the Turbo feature allow players to do?
Answer: shoot much faster during shooter games
Question: Which controller had a non-adjustable Turbo feature?
Answer: The NES Max
Question: Which two accessories were featured in the movie The Wizard?
Answer: Power Pad and the Power Glove
Question: The NES Max also did not feature what?
Answer: "Slow" button
Question:  What were the third turbo controllers Nintendo made for the NES?
Question:  What did the Turbo feature not allow players to do?
Question:  Which controller had a adjustable Turbo feature?
Question:  Which three accessories were featured in the movie The Wizard?
Question:  The SNES Max also did not feature what?
Question: What year did Nintendo release the Famicom Disk System?
Answer: 1986
Question: Where could the disks for the game be obtained?
Answer: kiosks in malls
Question: How were the disks purchased?
Answer: buyers could select a title and have it written to the disk
Question: What were the storage disks used for?
Answer: storing the game and saving progress
Question: What was the total capacity of a disk?
Answer: 128k
Question: What year did Atari release the Famicom Disk System?
Question:  Where could the disks for the game not be obtained?
Question:  How were the disks sold?
Question:  What weren't the storage disks used for?
Question:  What was half of the total capacity of a disk?
Question: Retailers in what test area reported a miserable failure of sales?
Answer: New York City
Question: When was the second time Nintendo test marketed the NES?
Answer: February 1986
Question: When was the nationwide release of the NES?
Answer: September 1986
Question:  When was the system originally not supposed to be released?
Question:  Retailers in what test area reported a success of sales?
Question:  When was the first time Nintendo test marketed the NES?
Question:  When was the non-nationwide release of the NES?
Question: One region comprised the entirety of mainland Europe save for which country?
Answer: Italy
Question: Who released cartridges in mainland Europe?
Answer: Nintendo
Question: Who handled distribution in the other region?
Answer: Mattel