huutuan/long_squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
Question: What plant grows in the rocky areas of the range?
Answer: Edelweiss
Question: Evidence of human habitation in the Alps goes as far back to what era? 
Answer: Paleolithic era
Question: How old was the mummified man discovered at the Austrian-Italian bored?
Answer: 5,000 years old
Question: What culture was well established by the 6th Century BC? 
Answer: the Celtic La Tène culture
Question: Who famously crossed the Alps with a herd of elephants? 
Answer: Hannibal
Question: What person took an army of 40,000 across the mountain passes? 
Answer: Napoleon
Question: Where was Adolf Hitlers base of operation during World War 2?
Answer: Bavarian Alps
Question: How many visitors go to the Alps annually?
Answer: 120 million
Question: What is the dominant industry in the Alpine region? 
Answer: tourist industry
Question: Who says that all high mountains are called Alpes by Celts?
Answer: Maurus Servius Honoratus
Question: What languages have terms for high mountains derived from alp? 
Answer: Celtic languages
Question: There is a theory that in Greek Alpes is a name of what origin? 
Answer: Indo-European origin
Question: What name has been used as a name for a number of mountainous areas across Europe? 
Answer: Albania
Question: Albania was a name for what during Roman Times? 
Answer: the eastern Caucasus
Question: Albania was occasionally used as a name for what in the English language? 
Answer: Scotland
Question: What words are likely to have common origins?
Answer: alb ("white") and albus
Question: Where do Alb and Albus share their origin from?
Answer: the association of the tops of tall mountains or steep hills with snow.
Question: Alb can also mean what? 
Answer: white
Question: The term alp, alm, albe or alpe refers to what in modern languages? 
Answer: a grazing pastures in the alpine regions below the glaciers, not the peaks
Question: What refers to a high mountain pasture where cows are taken to be grazed during the summer months?
Answer: An alp
Question: Words such as horn, kogel, gipfel, spitz, and berd are used in what regions?
Answer: German speaking regions
Question: Mont, pic, dent and aiguille are words used in what regions?
Answer: French speaking regions
Question: What is the mean height of the Alp's peak?
Answer: 2.5 km (1.6 mi)
Question: How far does the Alps range stretch?
Answer: the Mediterranean Sea north above the Po basin, extending through France from Grenoble, eastward through mid and southern Switzerland
Question: Switzerland, France, Austria and Italy have the greatest what? 
Answer: alpine territory
Question: The highest portion of the Alp's range is divided by what? 
Answer: the glacial trough of the Rhone valley
Question: Where are the peaks smaller in the range? 
Answer: the easterly portion
Question: The Bernese Alps are located in what part of the range? 
Answer: northern
Question: What makes the classification of the mountains and subregions difficult?
Answer: The variances in nomenclature
Question: Who came up with the general classification?
Answer: geologist Stefan Schmid
Question: Where is the divide between the Eastern Alps and Western Alps near?
Answer: Splügen Pass
Question: How tall is the peak at Mont Blanc? 
Answer: 4,810 m
Question: The highest peak of the Eastern Alps is where?
Answer: Piz Bernina
Question: How tall is the peak of Piz Bernina
Answer: 4,049 metres
Question: What mountains are located in Switzerland and France?
Answer: the Jura Mountains
Question: What follows the watershed from the Mediterranean Sea to the Wienerwald?
Answer: The secondary chain of the Alps
Question: What heads approximately east-northeast once at the Swiss bored?
Answer: the line of the main chain
Question: What was established during medieval periods by religious orders?
Answer: hospices
Question: Where were hospices established? 
Answer: the summits of many of the main passes
Question: What is the highest of the most important passes of the Alps?
Answer: Col de l'Iseran
Question: What seperates the Otztal Alps and Zillertal Alps?
Answer: the Brenner Pass
Question: How long has the Brenner Pass been used as a trading route? 
Answer: since the 14th century
Question: The lowest of the Alpine passes at what elevation? 
Answer: 985 m (3,232 ft)
Question: Who crossed the Great St. Bernard Pass with 40,000 troops? 
Answer: Napoleon Bonaparte
Question: Where is the highest point in the alps located? 
Answer: col de l'Iseran in Savoy (France)
Question: When did the studying of rock formations begin in the Alps?
Answer: the 18th century
Question: What was used in the mid-19th century to explain the presence of "folded" mountain chains? 
Answer: theory of geosynclines
Question: What theory was more widely accepted by the mid-20th century? 
Answer: the theory of plate tectonics
Question: When did the formation of the alps began?
Answer: about 300 million years ago
Question: What did the Pangaean supercontinent consisted of what during the Paleozoic Era?
Answer: a single tectonic plate
Question: When did the single tectonic plate break into separate plates?
Answer: the Mesozoic Era
Question: The Tethys sea developed during what period of time? 
Answer: Jurassic Period
Question: The collision between the African and the Eurasian plates began during what time? 
Answer: the late Cretaceous Period
Question: What was uplifted from extreme compressive stresses and pressure? 
Answer: marine sedimentary rocks
Question: When did the layer of marine flysch sediments get deposited in the foreland basin?
Answer: As the rising peaks underwent erosion
Question: What were later deposited in foreland areas as molasse?
Answer: Coarse sediments
Question: Switzerland and Bavaria saw a further upthrusting of what?
Answer: flysch
Question: What caused the development of the Jura Mountains? 
Answer: a late-stage orogeny
Question: What cause different paleogeographic regions in the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous periods?
Answer: A series of tectonic events
Question: What is another word for rock composition? 
Answer: lithology
Question: What geological subdivision is located in the north?
Answer: Helveticum
Question: What happened to the Western Alps during the Cenozoic Era
Answer: a metamorphic event
Question: When did the Austroalpine peaks undergo their event?
Answer: the Cretaceous Period
Question: The Western Alps and the Austroalpine peaks show distinct differences in what?
Answer: nappe formations
Question: When did Flysch deposits probably occur in the Southern Alps of Lombardy?
Answer: Cretaceous
Question: What area do peaks in France, Italy, and Switzerland lie in? 
Answer: Houillière zone
Question: What are more common in the Western Alps?
Answer: High "massifs"
Question: When compared to the Western Alps, what area has few high peaked massifs?
Answer: Eastern Alps
Question: Layers of rock from Europe, Africa and the ocean make up what?
Answer: the structure of the Alps
Question: What is the origin of the bottom nappe structure? 
Answer: continental Europe
Question: Where are the top of the nappes derived from? 
Answer: the African plate
Question: What is an example of the ongoing orogeny?
Answer: The Matterhorn
Question: What happened to the Alpine orogenic belt that gave it the steep vertical peak?
Answer: folded and fractured
Question: Mont Blanc, the Matterhorn, and peaks in the Pennine Alps cosist of what?
Answer: layers of rock from the various orogenies
Question: What are the common characteristics of the Alpine Orogenic Belt?
Answer: steep vertical peaks
Question: What group defined a list of 82 official Apline summits that reach 4,000m?
Answer: Union Internationale des Associations d'Alpinisme (UIAA)
Question: What is included in the list of 82 official Apline summits other than Mountains?
Answer: subpeaks with little prominence that are considered important mountaineering objectives
Question: The list of twenty two summits has summits with at least how much prominence?
Answer: 500 m (1,640 ft)
Question: When were most of the Alpine fourthousanders climber?
Answer: first half of the 19th century
Question: When was the ascent of the Matterhorn?
Answer: 1865
Question: What did the ascent of the Matterhorn mark?
Answer: the end of the golden age of alpinism
Question: Who was among the first to successfully climb all the major 4,000m peaks?
Answer: Karl Blodig
Question: When was the first female ascent on Mont Blanc?
Answer: 1819
Question: When had Swiss mountaineers ascended most of the peaks? 
Answer: the mid-1850s
Question: What year did Edward Whymper reach the top of the Matterhorn?
Answer: 1865
Question: When were the last of the six great north faces of the Alps climbed? 
Answer: 1938
Question: What did Celtic tribes mine from the Alps?
Answer: copper
Question: What did the Romans mine in the Bad Gastein area?
Answer: gold
Question: What does Erzberd in Styria furnish?
Answer: high-quality iron ore
Question: The cinnabar deposits are found in what area?
Answer: Slovenia
Question: When did the alpine crystals begin to be classified? 
Answer: the 18th century
Question: Who studied the shapes of crystals? 
Answer: Leonhard Euler
Question: By the 19th century what was common in the Alpine regions?
Answer: crystal hunting
Question: Who amassed a collection 8000 crystals?
Answer: David Friedrich Wiser
Question: What was the cause of the severe erosion?
Answer: glaciation
Question: Who noted the severe erosion of the mountains?
Answer: Louis Agassiz
Question: What was Louis Agassiz also known as? 
Answer: the "father of the ice-age concept"
Question: Where did Agassiz study during the 1840s?
Answer: the Unteraar Glacier
Question: Agassiz found that the Unteraar Glacier moved how much per year? 
Answer: 100 m (328 ft)
Question: The movement of the Unteraar Glacier moved more rapidly in what part?
Answer: the middle
Question: What is an example of a valley carved by glaciers during the ice ages? 
Answer: The Inn valley
Question: What lays at the bottom of the Inn Valley
Answer: Eroded rocks from the most recent ice age
Question: The top of the Inn Valley consists of what?
Answer: erosion from earlier ice ages
Question: What are Moraines?
Answer: piles of rock picked up during the movement of the glacier
Question: Where have moraines accumulated?
Answer: at edges, center and the terminus of glaciers.
Question: How do Piedmont glaciers appear?
Answer: spread in a fan-like shape
Question: What causes the ice to break and crack loudly?
Answer: The stress of the movement
Question: What does the cracking of the ice create?
Answer: unpredictable and dangerous crevasses
Question: What causes flooding, property damage, and loss of life?
Answer: a piece of glacier will detach or break
Question: What killed about 2500 people in the 17th century?
Answer: an avalanche
Question: How many homes in a village near Zermatt were destroyed by an avalanche in the 19th century? 
Answer: 120 homes
Question: What cause the glaciers to descend to permafrost levels in some areas? 
Answer: High levels of precipitation
Question: From 1876 to 1973, how much did the glaciers that covered the Alps shrink?
Answer: to 1,342 km2 (518 sq mi)
Question: What resulted from the loss of the area the glaciers over the Alps?
Answer: decreased river run-off levels.
Question: How much of the glaciation in Austria disappeared?
Answer: Forty percent
Question: How much of the glaciation disappeared in Switzerland?
Answer: 30%
Question: What provides Europe with drinking water, irrigation, and hydroelectric power?
Answer: The Alps
Question: How much of Europe does the Alps cover?
Answer: 11 percent of the surface area
Question: How much water does the Alps provide to lowland Europe?
Answer: 90 percent
Question: How much water does Milan depend on from the Alpine runoff?
Answer: 80 percent
Question: Water from the rivers is used in over how many hydroelectric power plants?
Answer: 500
Question: The Rhine, the Rhone, the Inn, the Ticino and the Po rivers flow from what Country?
Answer: Switzerland
Question: Where do the major tributaries that flow through the Danube originate from?
Answer: the Alps
Question: Which river is second to the Nile as a freshwater source to the Mediterranean?
Answer: The Rhone
Question: What does The Rhone begin as?
Answer: glacial meltwater
Question: Where does the Rhine originate?
Answer: a 30 square kilometre area in Switzerland
Question: What side of the Konigssee was St. Bartholomew's chapel built?
Answer: south side
Question: What do the rivers form?
Answer: lakes
Question: Water is diverted from rivers for what purpose?
Answer: snowmaking in the ski resorts
Question: What are the effects of diverting the water from rivers?
Answer: unknown
Question: What are a classic example of what happens when a temperate area at lower altitude gives way to higher-elevation terrain?
Answer: The Alps
Question: Elevations around the world that have a cold climate similar to that of the polar region have been called what?
Answer: Alpine
Question: What causes the temperature to decrease?
Answer: A rise from sea level into the upper regions of the atmosphere
Question: What is sufficient to divide the weather patterns in Europe into a wet north and dry south?
Answer: The height of the Alps
Question: Since when has the severe weather in the Alps been studied? 
Answer: the 18th century
Question: Particularly what part of the weather has been studied?
Answer: the weather patterns
Question: What was placed in the mountains early in the 20th century?
Answer: Numerous weather stations
Question: Where is the Aosta valley located?
Answer: Italy
Question: Where is the Valais located?
Answer: Switzerland
Question: What areas experience periodic flooding from rapid snowmelt and runoff?
Answer: The areas that are not arid and receive high precipitation
Question: What are the ranges of mean precipitation in the Alps?
Answer: 2,600 mm (100 in) per year to 3,600 mm (140 in) per year
Question: Where do the higher levels of precipitation occur? 
Answer: high altitudes
Question: At what altitude does snowfall begin in November?
Answer: At altitudes between 1,000 and 3,000 m
Question: What is the lowest zone of the Alps called?
Answer: colline zone
Question: Where does the lowest zone of the Alps exist? 
Answer: between 500 and 1,000 m
Question: Where does the montane zone extend from?
Answer: from 800 to 1,700 m
Question: Where does the sub-Alpine zone extend from?
Answer: from 1,600 to 2,400 m
Question: What has been projected into the 22nd century for the Alps?
Answer: Various models of climate change
Question: What will have an effect on snowfall, snowpack, glaciation, and river runoff?
Answer: increased temperatures
Question: What have the various models been of?
Answer: climate change
Question: How many species of plants have been identified in the Alpine regions?
Answer: Thirteen thousand
Question: How are Alpine plants grouped?
Answer: by habitat and soil type
Question: Oak, beech, ash, and sycamore maple make up what group of trees?
Answer: chief deciduous trees
Question: What type of soil does Alpenrose prefer?
Answer: acidic soil
Question: What is the area above the treeline defined as?
Answer: alpine
Question: Why does the alpine area fluctuate greatly?
Answer: because of regional fluctuations in tree lines.
Question: What grows in abundance in areas such as the meadows above the Lauterbrunnental?
Answer: Alpine plants such the Alpine gentian
Question: What are Gentians named after?
Answer: the Illyrian king Gentius
Question: How many species of the early-spring blooming flower grow in the Alps?
Answer: 40 species
Question: What do the plants tend to form at higher altitudes? 
Answer: isolated cushions
Question: Ranunculus glacialis have been recorded to have been found how far in the alps?
Answer: above 4,000 m
Question: What is Eritrichium nanum commonly known as?
Answer: the King of the Alps
Question: What is the best known of the alpine plants?
Answer: Edelweiss
Question: What gives way to the growth of plant species with secondary metabolites important for medicinal purposes?
Answer: extreme and stressful climatic conditions
Question: Origanum Vulgare has what useful properties?
Answer: medicinal
Question: Where are Urtica dioica found?
Answer: the Alps
Question: What are rarely found after the extreme deforestation between the 17th and 19th centuries?
Answer: forests of deciduous trees
Question: What has changed since the second half of the 20th century?
Answer: The vegetation
Question: The practice of building ski runs by mechanical means has destroyed what?
Answer: the underlying tundra
Question: What have the wildlife done to survive the harsh conditions of the Alps?
Answer: made adaptations
Question: Some species of wildlife can only survive in what specific environment?
Answer: directly above or below the snow line
Question: What is the largest mammal to live in the highest altitudes?
Answer: alpine ibex
Question: How high have the Alpine Ibex been sighted?
Answer: as high as 3,000 m (9,843 ft)
Question: Where do the ibex live?
Answer: in caves
Question: What animal that live in the Alps are classified as antelopes?
Answer: chamois
Question: What year was the last brown bear recorded to have been killed?
Answer: 1792
Question: Where do Marmots live?
Answer: almost exclusively above the tree line as high as 2,700 m (8,858 ft)
Question: Where do marmots build their colonies?
Answer: beneath the alpine pastures
Question: What is the most common bird found in the Alps?
Answer: the alpine chough
Question: Why do reptiles only live up to the snow line?
Answer: they cannot bear the cold temperatures
Question: What do reptiles due since they cannot bear the cold temperatures?
Answer: they hibernate underground
Question: How have the Alpine salamanders adapted to living above the snow line?
Answer: by giving birth to fully developed young rather than laying eggs
Question: What can be found in the streams up to the snow line?
Answer: Brown trout
Question: How long have some species of moths believed to have evolved from the same habitat?
Answer: 120 million years
Question: What can be commonly seen drinking from the snow melt?
Answer: Blue moths
Question: The swallowtail Parnassius family of butterfly habitat ranges up to how much?
Answer: 1,800 m (5,906 ft)
Question: What species of beetles are were collected for their colors before being protected?
Answer: Rosalia alpina
Question: Some species of moths and insects show evidence of what?
Answer: having been indigenous to the area
Question: How long ago does the evidence show moths and insects to have been indigenous?
Answer: the Alpine orogeny
Question: Where is Emosson located?
Answer: Valais, Switzerland
Question: When were dinosaur tracks found in Emosson?
Answer: the 1970s
Question: When were late Paleolithic communities established along the lake shores?
Answer: About 10,000 years ago
Question: What has been found in caves near Vercors?
Answer: Evidence of human habitation
Question: Why were houses built on piles?
Answer: to keep them dry
Question: What have been found in Alpine areas of France and Italy?
Answer: Standing stones
Question: How old are rock drawings in Valcamonica?
Answer: more than 5000 years old
Question: Who was Otzi the Iceman?
Answer: a mummy of a neolithic body
Question: When was Otzi the Iceman found?
Answer: In 1991
Question: Where was Otzi the Iceman discovered?
Answer: the Similaun glacier
Question: When did Celtic tribes settle in Switzerland? 
Answer: between 1000 to 1500 BC
Question: The Raetians lived in what region?
Answer: the eastern regions
Question: The Helvetii occupied which region?
Answer: the west
Question: What did the Celtic tribes mine?
Answer: salt
Question: Which were the most widespread of the mountain tribes?
Answer: The Celts
Question: Who was the Carthaginian general?
Answer: Hannibal
Question: What did the Romans build along the mountain passes?
Answer: roads
Question: What can still be found on the mountain passes?
Answer: Roman road markers
Question: When were the Allobrogi defeated?
Answer: in 121 BC
Question: When did Julius Caesar overcome the Helvetii?
Answer: 58 BC
Question: What tribes settled much of the Alpine region?
Answer: Germanic tribes
Question: What did the Frankish expansion and the Bavarian expansion introduce?
Answer: feudalism
Question: What area still has intricate frescoes?
Answer: Castello del Buonconsiglio in Trento, Italy
Question: What is preserved as an example of medieval architecture?
Answer: Château de Chillon
Question: Where were the Visconti from?
Answer: northern Italy
Question: What dynastie was from Austria and Slovenia?
Answer: the House of Habsburg
Question: What Country was a well-established separate state by the 16th century?
Answer: Switzerland
Question: What wars took place during the late 18th century and early 19th century?
Answer: the Napoleonic Wars
Question: Who annexed territory formerly controlled by the Habsburgs and Savoys?
Answer: Napoleon
Question: When was the Helvetic Republic established?
Answer: 1798
Question: Where was the Helvetic Republic established?
Answer: Switzerland
Question: When did many alpine countries develop heavy protection to prevent new invasion?
Answer: After the fall of Napoléon
Question: Who built a series of fortifications in the Maurienne valley?
Answer: Savoy
Question: Why were a series of fortifications in the Maurienne valley built?
Answer: to protect the major alpine passes
Question: Who ordered the construction of a paved road?
Answer: Napoléon Bonaparte
Question: What became tourist destinations during the 19th century?
Answer: the monasteries built in the high Alps
Question: Who built monasteries in Lucerne, Switzerland and Oberammergau?
Answer: The Benedictines
Question: Who had abbeys in the Savor and one in the center of Interlaken?
Answer: the Augustinians
Question: When was the Great St. Bernard Hospice built?
Answer: the 9th or 10th centuries
Question: How old was the charcoal placed in the Drachloch cave?
Answer: 50,000 years
Question: What does the finding of charcoal in Dragon's Hole prove?
Answer: the high peaks were visited by prehistoric people
Question: What may have been buried by the same prehistoric people?
Answer: Seven bear skulls
Question: People blindfolded themselves to cross what?
Answer: Alpine passes
Question: What was Charles VII chamberlain ordered to do?
Answer: climb Mont Aiguille
Question: What did the knight leave at the summit of Rocciamelone?
Answer: a bronze triptych of three crosses
Question: When did Antioine de Ville climb Mont Aiguille?
Answer: 1492
Question: When did four Chamonix men almost reach the summit of Mont Blanc?
Answer: 18th century
Question: Who was the first naturalist to ascend the mountains?
Answer: Conrad Gessner
Question: Where was Horace-Benedict de Saussure born?
Answer: Geneva
Question: Who was a member of the third ascent of Mont Blanc?
Answer: Saussure
Question: Who was the first of many to present the Alps as a place of allure and beauty?
Answer: Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Question: Who wrote the poem Die Alpen?
Answer: Albrecht von Haller
Question: When did the Alpine countries see an influx of poets, artists, and musicians?
Answer: After the end of the Napoleonic Wars
Question: What did the visitors come to experience in the Alpine countries?
Answer: the sublime effects of monumental nature
Question: Percy and Mary Shelley were inspired by what region's scenery?
Answer: Geneva
Question: What poem did Shelley write during the visits to Geneva?
Answer: Mont Blanc
Question: When did scientists began to arrive en masse to study the geology and ecology of the Alpine region?
Answer: the mid-19th century
Question: What did Adolf Hitler have a lifelong romantic fascination with? 
Answer: the Alps
Question: Where did Adolf Hitler establish a home in the 1930s?
Answer: the Obersalzberg region
Question: When was Adolf Hitlers first visit to the Alps?
Answer: 1923
Question: By 1940 who occupied many of the Alpine countries?
Answer: the Third Reich
Question: What country underwent a political coup that made it part of the Third Reich?
Answer: Austria
Question: What was the only country that avoided invasion from the Third Reich?
Answer: Switzerland
Question: Who wired the infrastructure leading into Switzerland?
Answer: The Swiss commanders
Question: Where was the battle at Riva Ridge?
Answer: Italy
Question: Where was a substantial amount of Nazi plunder found at the end of the war?
Answer: Austria
Question: Where did American troops find 75 kilos of gold coins?
Answer: The salt mines surrounding the Altaussee area
Question: What does the economy consist of on the rim of the mountains?
Answer: manufacturing and service jobs
Question: Farming and Forestry continue to be a mainstay of what?
Answer: Alpine culture
Question: When were skills that guaranteed survival in the mountain valleys most important?
Answer: the medieval period
Question: What is one of the strongest traditions in Alpine culture?
Answer: carpentry
Question: What made farming less dominant in the 20th century? 
Answer: tourism
Question: Why is pasture land limited? 
Answer: because of the steep and rocky topography of the Alps
Question: When are cows moved to the highest pastures close to the snowline?
Answer: mid-June
Question: How much can a wheel of cheese from the Emmental weigh?
Answer: up to 45 kg (100 lb)
Question: What is an important farming activity in mountain villages?
Answer: Haymaking
Question: How many times is Hay normally brought each year?
Answer: twice
Question: When is Carnival celebrated? 
Answer: before Lent
Question: What do people in high villages build their homes according to?
Answer: medieval designs that withstand cold winters
Question: What is the area of the home heated by a stove called? 
Answer: the stube
Question: The typic Swiss chalet originated from where?
Answer: the Bernese Oberland
Question: Which direction do Chalets often face? 
Answer: south or downhill
Question: What are Chalets built of? 
Answer: solid wood
Question: Where is the dining room table placed? 
Answer: the stube
Question: Traditionally, what are meals served on? 
Answer: carved wooden plates
Question: How is furniture traditionally carved? 
Answer: elaborately
Question: Where are chalets typically used for roof construction found?? 
Answer: the higher parts of the valleys
Question: The inclination of the roof cannot exceed how much? 
Answer: 40%
Question: How many dialects have been identified in the Slavic Alps?
Answer: 19
Question: What language is spoken by two percent of the population in southeast Switzerland? 
Answer: Romansh
Question: What's one of the most popular tourist destinations in the world? 
Answer: the Alps
Question: Where is Saalbach located? 
Answer: Austria
Question: How many people visit the Alps every year? 
Answer: over 120 million
Question: What is an integral part of the Alpine economy?
Answer: tourism
Question: When were large hotels built in the Alps? 
Answer: during the Belle Époque
Question: When were cog-railways built in the Alps?
Answer: early in the 20th century
Question: When was the first figure skating championship held? 
Answer: 1882
Question: Where was the first figure skating championship held? 
Answer: St. Moritz
Question: Where were the Winter Olympics held in 1924?
Answer: Chamonix, France
Question: Where were the Winter Olympics held in 1928?
Answer: St. Moritz, Switzerland
Question: Where were the Winter Olympics held in 1936?
Answer: Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany
Question: When was the Lauberhorn Rennen ran for the first time on the Lauberhorn above Wengen?
Answer: 1930
Question: When were the Winter Olympics held in Albertville, France? 
Answer: (1992)
Question: When were ski-lifts built in Swiss and Austrian towns?
Answer: post-World War I
Question: When were several new villages built in France almost exclusively for skiing?
Answer: the 1970s
Question: Where is Les Menuires located? 
Answer: France
Question: How much area is devoted to roads in the Alpine region?
Answer: 4,200 km (2,600 mi)
Question: How many vehicles use the roads? 
Answer: 6 million
Question: Where are most of Europe's highest railways located? 
Answer: Switzerland
Question: How long is the tunnel connecting Lotschberg and Gotthard planned to be? 
Answer: 57 km
Question: Where are the villages of Wengen and Zermatt located? 
Answer: Switzerland
Question: Why are villages considering becoming car free zones?
Answer: reasons of sustainability
Question: The lower regions and larger towns of the Alps are well-served by what?
Answer: motorways
Question: What can be treacherous even in summer due to steep slopes?
Answer: mountain passes
Question: What is a gene?
Answer: a locus (or region) of DNA that encodes a functional RNA or protein product
Question: What is the basis of inheritance of phenotypic traits?
Answer: The transmission of genes to an organism's offspring
Question: What influence are most biological traits under?
Answer: polygenes (many different genes)
Question: What is one instantly visible genetic trait?
Answer: eye colour or number of limbs
Question: What is one invisible genetic trait?
Answer: blood type, risk for specific diseases, or the thousands of basic biochemical processes that comprise life
Question: What do mutations in a gene sequence lead to?
Answer: different variants, known as alleles
Question: What do alleles do?
Answer: encode slightly different versions of a protein
Question: What do alleles cause?
Answer: different phenotype traits
Question: What does "having a gene" or a "good gene" typically refer to?
Answer: having a different allele of the gene
Question: What causes genes to evolve?
Answer: natural selection or survival of the fittest of the alleles
Question: What can coding regions be split into?
Answer: several exons
Question: What do some viruses store their genome in instead of DNA?
Answer: RNA
Question: What are some gene products?
Answer: functional non-coding RNAs
Question: What is a broad, modern working definition of a gene?
Answer: any discrete locus of heritable, genomic sequence which affect an organism's traits by being expressed as a functional product
Question: Who first suggested the existence of discrete inheritable units?
Answer: Gregor Mendel (1822–1884)
Question: If a distinct trait in edible pea plants is mathematically described as a 2n combination, what does n represent? 
Answer: n is the number of differing characteristics in the original peas
Question: What is one thing that Gregor Mendel was the first to demonstrate?
Answer: independent assortment
Question: What is another thing that Gregor Mendel was the first to demonstrate?
Answer: the distinction between dominant and recessive traits
Question: What did Gregor Mendel explain his results in terms of?
Answer: discrete inherited units that give rise to observable physical characteristics
Question: What was the dominant theory of heredity prior to Mendel's work?
Answer: one of blending inheritance
Question: Who developed the theory of inheritance known as pangenesis?
Answer: Charles Darwin
Question: What does the term gemmule describe?
Answer: hypothetical particles that would mix during reproduction
Question: What year was Mendel's work first published?
Answer: 1866
Question: Who are the three scientists that claimed to have reached conclusions similar to Mendel's?
Answer: Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns, and Erich von Tschermak
Question: What ancient Greek word is the word 'gene' derived from?
Answer: γένος (génos)
Question: What does the ancient Greek word 'génos' mean?
Answer: "race, offspring"
Question: What Danish botanist coined the word 'gene'?
Answer: Wilhelm Johannsen
Question: What was the word 'gene' used to describe in 1909?
Answer: the fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity
Question: Who first used the word 'genetics' in 1905?
Answer: William Bateson
Question: What was shown to be the molecular repository of genetic information by experiments in the 1940s to 1950s?
Answer: Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Question: Who studied the structure of DNA using x-ray crystallography?
Answer: Rosalind Franklin
Question: What two scientists published a model of the double stranded DNA molecule?
Answer: James D. Watson and Francis Crick
Question: What is one exception to the central dogma of molecular biology?
Answer: reverse transcription in retroviruses
Question: What is the modern study of genetics at the level of DNA known as?
Answer: molecular genetics
Question: What was the first gene to be sequenced?
Answer: the gene for Bacteriophage MS2 coat protein
Question: Who developed chain termination DNA sequencing in 1977?
Answer: Frederick Sanger
Question: What did the devlopment of the chain termination DNA sequencing method do for the sequencing process?
Answer: improved the efficiency of sequencing and turned it into a routine laboratory tool.
Question: What project used an automated version of the Sanger method in its early stages?
Answer: the Human Genome Project
Question: In what time span were the theories to integrate molecular genetic with Darwinian evolution developed?
Answer: the 1930s and 1940s
Question: What are the theories that integrate molecular genetics with Darwinian evolution called?
Answer: the modern evolutionary synthesis
Question: Who proposed an evolutionary concept of the gene as a unit of natural selection?
Answer: George C. Williams
Question: What is the definition of the concept of the gene as a unit of natural selection?
Answer: "that which segregates and recombines with appreciable frequency."
Question: Who popularized ideas emphasizing the centrality of genes in evolution?
Answer: Richard Dawkins
Question: What do the vast majority of living organisms encode their genes in?
Answer: long strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
Question: What does DNA consist of?
Answer: a chain made from four types of nucleotide subunits
Question: What type of sugar composes part of the DNA molecule?
Answer: a five-carbon sugar (2'-deoxyribose)
Question: What are the four bases used in nucleotide subunits?
Answer: adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine
Question: Besides the sugar and the four bases, what else does DNA consist of?
Answer: a phosphate group
Question: What is the backbone of a DNA double helix made of?
Answer: phosphate-sugar
Question: What base pairs with thymine?
Answer: adenine
Question: What base does guanine pair with?
Answer: cytosine
Question: What causes the specificity of base pairing?
Answer: adenine and thymine align form two hydrogen bonds, whereas cytosine and guanine form three hydrogen bonds
Question: Due to the cause of the specificity of base pairing, what must be true of the two strands in a double helix?
Answer: The two strands in a double helix must therefore be complementary
Question: What causes the directionality of DNA strands?
Answer: the chemical composition of the pentose residues of the bases
Question: What is known as the 3' end?
Answer: an exposed hydroxyl group on the deoxyribose
Question: What is known as the 5' end?
Answer: an exposed phosphate group
Question: What type of synthesis occurs in the 5'→3' direction?
Answer: Nucleic acid synthesis
Question: Why does DNA replication and transcription occur in the 5'→3' direction?
Answer: because new nucleotides are added via a dehydration reaction that uses the exposed 3' hydroxyl as a nucleophile
Question: How does the expression of genes encoded in DNA begin?
Answer: by transcribing the gene into RNA
Question: What is RNA?
Answer: a second type of nucleic acid that is very similar to DNA
Question: What base does RNA have in place of thymine?
Answer: the base uracil
Question: What are codons?
Answer: a series of three-nucleotide sequences
Question: What specifies the correspondence between codons and amino acids during protein translation?
Answer: The genetic code
Question: What is the total complement of genes in an organism or cell known as?
Answer: its genome
Question: What does a chromosome consist of?
Answer: a single, very long DNA helix
Question: What is encoded on a chromosome?
Answer: thousands of genes
Question: What is the region of the chromosome at which a particular gene is located called?
Answer: its locus
Question: What does each locus contain?
Answer: one allele of a gene
Question: Where are the majority of eukaryotic genes stored?
Answer: on a set of large, linear chromosomes
Question: Chromosomes that are packed within the nucleus in complex with histones are called what?
Answer: a nucleosome
Question: What does the manner of DNA storage on the histone and the chemical modifications of the histone itself regulate?
Answer: whether a particular region of DNA is accessible for gene expression
Question: What are replication origins?
Answer: regions where DNA replication is initiated to make two copies of the chromosome
Question: Long stretches of repetitive sequence that cap the ends of the linear chromosomes are called what?
Answer: Telomeres
Question: How do prokaryotes store their genomes?
Answer: on a single large, circular chromosome
Question: What type of chromosome do some eukaryotic organelles contain?
Answer: a remnant circular chromosome with a small number of genes
Question: Small circles of DNA that encode only a few genes and are transferable between individuals are called what?
Answer: plasmids
Question: What allows genes for antibiotic resistance to be passed between individual cells?
Answer: horizontal gene transfer
Question: Regions of DNA that serve no obvious function are often found in what type of organism?
Answer: eukaryotes
Question: What is referred to as "junk DNA"?
Answer: DNA without an identified function
Question: What percentage of the human genome is made of protein coding DNA?
Answer: barely 2%
Question: What percentage of bases in the human genome are expressed by protein coding DNA
Answer: about 80%
Question: Often, how large a part of the structure of a gene is the protein coding sequence?
Answer: often only a small part
Question: What often plays only a small part in the structure of a gene? 
Answer: the actual protein coding sequence
Question: What is one of the many elements that the structure of a gene consists of?
Answer: DNA regions that are not transcribed
Question: What is another element of the structure of a gene?
Answer: untranslated regions of the RNA
Question: What elements does the structure of a gene consist of?
Answer: DNA regions that are not transcribed as well as untranslated regions of the RNA
Question: How is a promoter sequence recognized?
Answer: by transcription factors and RNA polymerase
Question: What results when genes have more than one promoter?
Answer: messenger RNAs (mRNA) that differ in how far they extend in the 5' end
Question: What does a "strong" promoter sequence do?
Answer: bind the transcription machinery well
Question: What does a "weak" promoter sequence do?
Answer: bind poorly and initiate transcription less frequently
Question: What happens when a regulatory region binds to transcription factors?
Answer: the DNA to loop
Question: How do enhancers increase transcription?
Answer: by binding an activator protein
Question: What happens after an enhancer binds an activator protein?
Answer: helps to recruit the RNA polymerase to the promoter
Question: What causes DNA to be less available for RNA polymerase?
Answer: silencers bind repressor proteins
Question: What is at both ends of the transcribed pre-mRNA?
Answer: untranslated regions
Question: Where are the ribosome binding site, terminator and start and stop codons located on transcribed pre-mRNA?
Answer: untranslated regions
Question: What do most eukaryotic open reading frames contain?
Answer: untranslated introns
Question: What dictates the splice sites to generate the final mature mRNA?
Answer: The sequences at the ends of the introns
Question: What encodes the protein or RNA product?
Answer: the splice sites to generate the final mature mRNA
Question: What are multiple protein coding sequences transcribed as?
Answer: a unit
Question: What sort of functions do the products of operon genes typically have?
Answer: related functions
Question: What type of network are the products of operon genes typically involved with?
Answer: the same regulatory network
Question: What type of coding sequences do prokaryotic genes typically have?
Answer: multiple protein-coding sequences
Question: What is an example of a regulatory region of a gene that does not have to close to the coding sequence?
Answer: enhancers
Question: Why do some regulatory regions of a gene not have to be close to the coding sequence?
Answer: because the intervening DNA can be looped out to bring the gene and its regulatory region into proximity
Question: What part of a gene can be much larger than its exons?
Answer: a gene's introns
Question: How do regulatory regions on different chromosomes operate in order to allow regions on different chromosomes to come into contact with one another?
Answer: in trans
Question: Where can regulatory regions be found?
Answer: different chromosomes
Question: What model did early work in molecular genetics suggest?
Answer: the model that one gene makes one protein.
Question: What discovery caused the model that one gene makes one protein to be refined?
Answer: the discovery of genes that can encode multiple proteins
Question: How do genes encode multiple proteins?
Answer: by alternative splicing and coding sequences
Question: How are alternative splicing and coding sequences distributed?
Answer: split in short section across the genome
Question: In order for a gene to encode multiple proteins, how must its mRNAs be arranged?
Answer: concatenated by trans-splicing.
Question: What sort of definition can be used to conveniently encompass the complexity of diverse phenomena?
Answer: A broad operational definition
Question: What is the broad operational definition of a gene?
Answer: a union of genomic sequences encoding a coherent set of potentially overlapping functional products
Question: What does the typical definition of a gene categorize genes by?
Answer: their specific DNA loci
Question: What does the broad operational definition of gene categorize genes by?
Answer: their functional products (proteins or RNA)
Question: What does the broad operational definition of a gene classify as gene-associated regions?
Answer: regulatory elements
Question: How many steps are required to read the information encoded in a gene's DNA and produce the specified protein?
Answer: two steps are required
Question: What is the first step to read the information encoded in a gene's DNA and produce the protein it specifies?
Answer: the gene's DNA is transcribed to messenger RNA (mRNA)
Question: What is the second step to read the information encoded in a gene's DNA and produce the protein it specifies?
Answer: mRNA is translated to protein
Question: What step must RNA-coding genes still go through?
Answer: the first step
Question: What is the process of producing a biologically functional molecule of either RNA or protein called?
Answer: gene expression
Question: What specifies the amino acid sequence of a protein?
Answer: The nucleotide sequence of a gene's DNA
Question: What are sets of three nucleotides known as?
Answer: codons
Question: What does each codon correspond to?
Answer: a specific amino acid
Question: What indicates the beginning and end of the protein coding region?
Answer: a "start codon", and three "stop codons"
Question: How many possible codons are there?
Answer: There are 64 possible codons (four possible nucleotides at each of three positions, hence 43 possible codons)
Question: What does transcription produce?
Answer: a single-stranded RNA molecule known as messenger RNA
Question: How does the nucleotide sequence of mRNA compare to DNA?
Answer: complementary to the DNA from which it was transcribed
Question: What is used as a template to generate a complementary mRNA?
Answer: The gene's DNA
Question: Why does the mRNA match the sequence of the gene's DNA coding strand?
Answer: because it is synthesised as the complement of the template strand
Question: What is the enzyme called that performs transcription?
Answer: an RNA polymerase
Question: If the transcription is very long, where on the RNA may translation begin?
Answer: at the 5' end of the RNA
Question: Where does transcription occur in eukaryotes?
Answer: transcription occurs in the nucleus
Question: Where does a eukaryote store the cell's DNA?
Answer: in the nucleus
Question: What is the RNA molecule produced by the polymerase known as?
Answer: the primary transcript
Question: What is the process by which a mature mRNA molecule is used as a template for synthesizing a new protein called?
Answer: Translation
Question: What does a ribosome consist of?
Answer: large complexes of RNA and protein
Question: What is a ribosome responsible for?
Answer: carrying out the chemical reactions to add new amino acids to a growing polypeptide chain
Question: How is the genetic code read?
Answer: via interactions with specialized RNA molecules called transfer RNA (tRNA)
Question: How many unpaired bases does each tRNA have?
Answer: three
Question: What are examples of a cell's external environment?
Answer: available nutrients, temperature and other stresses
Question: What are examples of a cell's internal environment?
Answer: cell division cycle, metabolism, infection status
Question: At which step can gene expression be regulated?
Answer: at any step
Question: What example of post-translational modification of a protein was first described in 1961?
Answer: The regulation of lactose metabolism genes in E. coli
Question: What is first copied into RNA as an intermediate in the manufacture of the final protein product?
Answer: A typical protein-coding gene
Question: In some cases, what are the actual functional products?
Answer: the RNA molecules
Question: What sort of synthesis occurs when the RNA molecules are the actual functional products?
Answer: the synthesis of ribosomal RNA and transfer RNA
Question: What sort of function are ribozymes capable of?
Answer: enzymatic function
Question: What are the DNA sequences from which ribozymes are transcribed known as?
Answer: non-coding RNA genes
Question: In what form do some viruses store their entire genome?
Answer: in the form of RNA
Question: Why do the cellular hosts of some viruses not have to wait for transcription to synthesize their proteins?
Answer: Because they use RNA to store genes
Question: What is one type of an RNA retrovirus?
Answer: HIV
Question: What sort of transcription does the genome of HIV require before its proteins can be synthesized?
Answer: reverse transcription
Question: Besides viruses, where has RNA-mediated epigenetic inheritance been observed?
Answer: in plants and very rarely in animals
Question: How much of an asexual organism's genome is inherited from its parents?
Answer: a complete copy
Question: How many copies of each chromosome does a sexual organism have?
Answer: two copies of each chromosome
Question: How many sets of chromosomes does a sexual organism inherit from each parent?
Answer: one complete set from each parent
Question: Why do sexual organisms have two copies of each chromosome?
Answer: because they inherit one complete set from each parent
Question: According to Mendelian inheritance, what is part of the cause of variations in an organism's phenotype?
Answer: variations in its genotype
Question: What sort of characteristics are described by an organism's phenotype?
Answer: observable physical and behavioral characteristics
Question: What is a genotype?
Answer: particular set of genes
Question: What specifies a particular trait with a different sequence of alleles?
Answer: Each gene
Question: How many alleles do most eukaryotic organisms have for each trait?
Answer: two alleles for each trait
Question: Where can alleles be located in order to be either dominant or recessive?
Answer: at a locus
Question: When paired with any other allele for the same trait, what do dominant alleles give rise to?
Answer: their corresponding phenotypes
Question: When do recessive alleles give rise to their corresponding phenotype?
Answer: when paired with another copy of the same allele
Question: When do alleles assort independently?
Answer: in the production of gametes
Question: What are gametes?
Answer: germ cells
Question: What does the growth, development, and reproduction of organisms rely on?
Answer: cell division
Question: In cell division, what two cells are created? 
Answer: identical daughter cells
Question: What specialized enzyme is responsible DNA replication?
Answer: DNA polymerases
Question: Why does the sequence of one strand completely specify the sequence of its complement?
Answer: Because the DNA double helix is held together by base pairing
Question: What one word characterizes the process of DNA replication?
Answer: semiconservative