Dorothy Hodgkin became a member of what organization or association in 1971?
Dorothy Hodgkin Dorothy Mary Crowfoot Hodgkin ( née Crowfoot ; 12 May 1910 – 29 July 1994 ) was a Nobel Prize-winning British chemist who advanced the technique of X-ray crystallography to determine the structure of biomolecules , which became an essential tool in structural biology . Among her most influential discoveries are the confirmation of the structure of penicillin as previously surmised by Edward Abraham and Ernst Boris Chain ; and the structure of vitamin B , for which in 1964 she became the third woman to win the Nobel Prize in Chemistry . Hodgkin also elucidated the structure of insulin in 1969 after 35 years of work . Hodgkin used the name Dorothy Crowfoot until twelve years after marrying Thomas Lionel Hodgkin , when she began using Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin . For simplicitys sake , Hodgkin is referred to as Dorothy Hodgkin by the Royal Society ( when referring to its sponsorship of the Dorothy Hodgkin fellowship ) , and by Somerville College . The National Archives of the United Kingdom refer to her as Dorothy Mary Crowfoot Hodgkin . Early life . Dorothy Mary Crowfoot was born in Cairo , Egypt , the eldest of the four daughters of John Winter Crowfoot ( 1873–1959 ) , then working for the countrys Ministry of Education , and his wife Grace Mary ( née Hood ) ( 1877–1957 ) , known to friends and family as Molly . The family lived in Cairo during the winter months , returning to England each year to avoid the hotter part of the season in Egypt . In 1914 , Hodgkins mother left Hodgkin ( age 4 ) and her two younger sisters Joan ( age 2 ) and Elisabeth ( age 7 months ) with their Crowfoot grandparents near Worthing , and returned to her husband in Egypt . Hodgkins parents then moved south to Sudan where , until 1926 , her father was in charge of education and archaeology . Her mothers four brothers were killed in World War I and as a result she became an ardent supporter of the new League of Nations . In 1921 Hodgkins father entered her in the Sir John Leman Grammar School in Beccles , England , where she was one of two girls allowed to study chemistry . Only once , when she was 13 , did she make an extended visit to her parents , then living in Khartoum , the capital of Sudan , where her father was Principal of Gordon College . When she was 14 , her distant cousin , the chemist Charles Harington ( later Sir Charles ) , recommended D . S . Parsons Fundamentals of Biochemistry . Resuming the pre-war pattern , her parents lived and worked abroad for part of the year , returning to England and their children for several months every summer . In 1926 , on his retirement from the Sudan Civil Service , her father took the post of Director of the British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem , where he and her mother remained until 1935 . In 1928 , Hodgkin joined her parents at the archaeological site of Jerash , in present-day Jordan , where she documented the patterns of mosaics from multiple Byzantine-era Churches dated to the 5th-6th centuries . She finished the drawings as she started her studies in Oxford , while also conducting chemical analyses of glass tesserae from the same site . Her attention to detail through the creation of precise scale drawings of these mosaics mirrors her subsequent work in recognising and documenting patterns in chemistry . Hodgkin developed a passion for chemistry from a young age , and her mother , a proficient botanist , fostered her interest in the sciences . On her 16th birthday her mother gave her a book on X-ray crystallography which helped her decide her future . She was further encouraged by the chemist A.F . Joseph , a family friend who also worked in Sudan . Her state school education did not include Latin , then required for entrance to Oxbridge . Her Leman School headmaster gave her personal tuition in the subject , enabling her to pass the University of Oxford entrance examination . When Hodgkin was asked in later life to name her childhood heroes , she named three women : first and foremost , her mother , Molly ; the medical missionary Mary Slessor ; and the Principal of Somerville College Margery Fry . Higher education . In 1928 at age 18 she entered Somerville College , Oxford , where she studied chemistry . She graduated in 1932 with a first-class honours degree , the third woman at this institution to achieve this distinction . In the autumn of that year , she began studying for a PhD at Newnham College , Cambridge , under the supervision of John Desmond Bernal . It was then that she became aware of the potential of X-ray crystallography to determine the structure of proteins . She was working with Bernal on the techniques first application to the analysis of a biological substance , pepsin . The pepsin experiment is largely credited to Hodgkin , however she always made it clear that it was Bernal who initially took the photographs and gave her additional key insights . Her PhD was awarded in 1937 for research on X-ray crystallography and the chemistry of sterols . Career and discoveries . In 1933 Hodgkin was awarded a research fellowship by Somerville College , and in 1934 , she moved back to Oxford . The College appointed her its first fellow and tutor in chemistry in 1936 , a post which she held until 1977 . In the 1940s , one of her students was Margaret Roberts ( later Margaret Thatcher ) who , while Prime Minister , hung a portrait of Hodgkin in her office at Downing Street out of respect for her former teacher . Hodgkin was , however a life-long Labour Party supporter . In April 1953 , together with Sydney Brenner , Jack Dunitz , Leslie Orgel , and Beryl M . Oughton , Hodgkin was one of the first people to travel from Oxford to Cambridge to see the model of the double helix structure of DNA , constructed by Francis Crick and James Watson , which was based on data and technique acquired by Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin . According to the late Dr Beryl Oughton ( married name , Rimmer ) , they drove to Cambridge in two cars after Hodgkin announced that they were off to see the model of the structure of DNA . Hodgkin became a Reader at Oxford in 1957 and she was given a fully modern laboratory the following year . In 1960 , Hodgkin was appointed the Royal Societys Wolfson Research Professor , a position she held until 1970 . This provided her salary , research expenses and research assistance to continue her work at the University of Oxford . She was a Fellow of Wolfson College , Oxford from 1977 to 1983 . Steroid structure . Hodgkin was particularly noted for discovering three-dimensional biomolecular structures . In 1945 , working with C.H . ( Harry ) Carlisle , she published the first such structure of a steroid , cholesteryl iodide ( having worked with cholesteryls since the days of her doctoral studies ) . Penicillin structure . In 1945 , Hodgkin and her colleagues , including biochemist Barbara Low , solved the structure of penicillin , demonstrating , contrary to scientific opinion at the time , that it contains a β-lactam ring . The work was not published until 1949 . Vitamin B structure . In 1948 , Hodgkin first encountered vitamin B , and created new crystals . Vitamin B had first been discovered at Merck earlier that year . It had a structure at the time that was almost completely unknown , and when Hodgkin discovered it contained cobalt , she realized the structure actualization could be determined by X-ray crystallography analysis . The large size of the molecule , and the fact that the atoms were largely unaccounted for—aside from cobalt—posed a challenge in structure analysis that had not been previously explored . From these crystals , she deduced the presence of a ring structure because the crystals were pleochroic , a finding which she later confirmed using X-ray crystallography . The B study published by Hodgkin was described by Lawrence Bragg as being as significant as breaking the sound barrier . Scientists from Merck had previously crystallised B , but had published only refractive indices of the substance . The final structure of B , for which Hodgkin was later awarded the Nobel Prize , was published in 1955 . Insulin structure . Insulin was one of Hodgkins most extraordinary research projects . It began in 1934 when she was offered a small sample of crystalline insulin by Robert Robinson . The hormone captured her imagination because of the intricate and wide-ranging effect it has in the body . However , at this stage X-ray crystallography had not been developed far enough to cope with the complexity of the insulin molecule . She and others spent many years improving the technique . It took 35 years after taking her first photograph of an insulin crystal for X-ray crystallography and computing techniques to be able to tackle larger and more complex molecules like insulin . Hodgkins dream of unlocking the structure of insulin was put on hold until 1969 when she was finally able to work with her team of young , international scientists to uncover the structure for the first time . Hodgkins work with insulin was instrumental in paving the way for insulin to be mass produced and used on a large scale for treatment of both type one and type two diabetes . She went on to cooperate with other laboratories active in insulin research , giving advice , and traveling the world giving talks about insulin and its importance for the future of diabetes . Solving the structure of insulin had two important implications for the treatment of diabetes , both making mass production of insulin possible and allowing scientists to alter the structure of insulin to create even better drug options for patients going forward . Personal life . Mentor . Hodgkins mentor Professor John Desmond Bernal greatly influenced her life : scientifically , politically , and personally . Bernal was a key scientific adviser to the UK government during the Second World War . He was also an open and vocal member of the Communist Party and a faithful supporter of the Soviet regime until its invasion of Hungary in 1956 . Hodgkin always referred to him as Sage ; they were lovers before she met Thomas Hodgkin . The marriages of both Dorothy and Bernal were unconventional by the standards of the present and of those days . Health . In 1934 , at the age of 24 , Dorothy began experiencing pain in her hands:a visit to a doctor led to a diagnosis of rheumatoid arthritis which would become progressively worse and crippling over time , with deformities in both her hands and feet . In her last years , Hodgkin spent a great deal of time in a wheelchair and remained scientifically active . Marriage and family . In 1937 , Dorothy Crowfoot married Thomas Lionel Hodgkin . He had not long returned from Palestine where he had resigned from the Colonial Office and was working in adult education . He was an intermittent member of the Communist Party and later wrote several major works on African politics and history , becoming a well-known lecturer at Balliol College in Oxford . The couple had three children : Luke ( b . 1938 ) , Elizabeth ( b . 1941 ) and Toby ( b . 1946 ) . Pseudonyms . Hodgkin published as Dorothy Crowfoot until 1949 , when she was persuaded by Hans Clarkes secretary to use her married name on a chapter she contributed to The Chemistry of Penicillin . By then she had been married for 12 years , given birth to three children and been elected a Fellow of the Royal Society ( FRS ) . Thereafter she would publish as Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin , and this was the name used by the Nobel Foundation in its award to her and the biography it included among other Nobel Prize recipients ; it is also what the Science History Institute calls her . For simplicitys sake , Hodgkin is referred to as Dorothy Hodgkin by the Royal Society , when referring to its sponsorship of the Dorothy Hodgkin fellowship , and by Somerville College , after it inaugurated the annual lectures in her honour . The National Archives of the United Kingdom refer to her as Dorothy Mary Crowfoot Hodgkin ; on a variety of plaques commemorating places where she worked or lived , e.g . 94 Woodstock Road , Oxford , she is Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin . Contacts with scientists abroad . Between the 1950s and the 1970s Hodgkin established and maintained lasting contacts with scientists in her field abroad—at the Institute of Crystallography in Moscow ; in India ; and with the Chinese group working in Beijing and Shanghai on the structure of insulin . Her first visit to China was in 1959 . Over the next quarter century she travelled there seven more times , the last visit a year before her death . Particularly memorable was the visit in 1971 after the Chinese group themselves independently solved the structure of insulin , later than Hodgkins team but to a higher resolution . During the subsequent three years , 1972–1975 , when she was President of the International Union of Crystallography she was unable to persuade the Chinese authorities , however , to permit the countrys scientists to become members of the Union and attend its meetings . Her relations with a supposed scientist in another Peoples Democracy had less happy results . At the age of 73 , Hodgkin wrote a foreword to the English edition of Stereospecific Polymerization of Isoprene , published by Robert Maxwell as the work of Elena Ceausescu , wife of Romanias communist dictator . Hodgkin wrote of the authors outstanding achievements and impressive career . Following the overthrow of Ceausescu during the Romanian Revolution of 1989 , it was revealed that Elena Ceausescu had neither finished secondary school nor attended university . Her scientific credentials were a hoax , and the publication in question was written for her by a team of scientists to obtain a fraudulent doctorate . Political views and activities . Because of Hodgkins political activities , and her husbands association with the Communist Party , she was banned from entering the US in 1953 and subsequently not allowed to visit the country except by CIA waiver . In 1961 Thomas became an advisor to Kwame Nkrumah , President of Ghana , a country he visited for extended periods before Nkrumahs ouster in 1966 . Hodgkin was in Ghana with her husband when they received the news that she had been awarded the Nobel Prize . Dorothy Hodgkin was never a communist . She acquired from her mother , Molly , a concern about social inequalities and a determination to do what she could to prevent armed conflict . Dorothy became particularly concerned about the threat of nuclear war . In 1976 , she became president of the Pugwash Conference and served longer than any who preceded or succeeded her in this post . She stepped down in 1988 , the year after the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty imposed a global ban on short- and long-range nuclear weapons systems , as well as an intrusive verification regime . She accepted the Lenin Peace Prize from the Soviet government in 1987 in recognition of her work for peace and disarmament . Disability and death . Due to distance , Hodgkin decided not to attend the 1987 Congress of the International Union of Crystallography in Australia . However , despite increasing frailty , she astounded close friends and family by going to Beijing for the 1993 Congress , where she was welcomed by all . She died in July 1994 after a stroke , at her husbands home in the village of Ilmington , near Shipston-on-Stour , Warwickshire . Portraits . The National Portrait Gallery , London lists 17 portraits of Dorothy Hodgkin including an oil painting of her at her desk by Maggi Hambling and a photograph portrait by David Montgomery . Graham Sutherland made preliminary sketches for a portrait of Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin in 1978 . One sketch is in the collection of the Science History Institute and another at the Royal Society in London . The portrait was never finished . A portrait of Dorothy Hodgkin by Bryan Organ was commissioned by private subscription to become part of the collection of the Royal Society . Accepted by the president of the society on 25 March 1982 , it was the first portrait of a woman Fellow to be included in the Societys collection . Honours and awards . Living . - Hodgkin won the 1964 Nobel Prize in Chemistry , and is the only British woman scientist to have been awarded a Nobel Prize in any of the three sciences it recognises . - In 1965 she was appointed to the Order of Merit . - She was the first and only woman to receive the prestigious Copley Medal . - In 1947 , she was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society ( FRS ) in 1947 and EMBO Membership in 1970. , Hodgkin was Chancellor of the University of Bristol from 1970 to 1988 . - In 1958 , she was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences . - In 1966 , she was awarded the Iota Sigma Pi National Honorary Member for her significant contribution . - She became a foreign member of the USSR Academy of Sciences in the 1970s . - In 1982 she received the Lomonosov Medal of the Soviet Academy of Sciences . - In 1987 she accepted the Lenin Peace Prize from the government of Mikhail Gorbachev . - The communist government of Bulgaria awarded her its Dimitrov Prize . - An asteroid ( 5422 ) discovered on 23 December 1982 by L.G . Karachkina ( at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory , M.P.C . 22509 , in the USSR ) in 1993 was named Hodgkin in her honour . - In 1983 , Hodgkin received the Austrian Decoration for Science and Art . Legacy . - British commemorative stamps - Hodgkin was one of five Women of Achievement selected for a set issued in August 1996 . The others were Marea Hartman ( sports administrator ) , Margot Fonteyn ( ballerina/choreographer ) , Elisabeth Frink ( sculptor ) & Daphne du Maurier ( writer ) . All except Hodgkin were Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( DBEs ) . In 2010 , during the 350th anniversary of the founding of the Royal Society , Hodgkin was the only woman in a set of stamps celebrating ten of the Societys most illustrious members , taking her place alongside Isaac Newton , Edward Jenner , Joseph Lister , Benjamin Franklin , Charles Babbage , Robert Boyle , Ernest Rutherford , Nicholas Shackleton and Alfred Russel Wallace . - The Royal Society awards the Dorothy Hodgkin Fellowship ( named in her honour ) for outstanding scientists at an early stage of their research career who require a flexible working pattern due to personal circumstances , such as parenting or caring responsibilities or health-related reasons . - The Council offices in the London Borough of Hackney and buildings at University of York , Bristol University and Keele University are named after her , as is the science block at Sir John Leman High School , her former school . - In 2012 , Hodgkin was featured in the BBC Radio 4 series The New Elizabethans to mark the diamond Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II . In this series a panel of seven academics , journalists and historians named her among the group of people in the UK whose actions during the reign of Elizabeth II have had a significant impact on lives in these islands and given the age its character . - In 2015 Hodgkins 1949 paper The X-ray Crystallographic Investigation of the Structure of Penicillin was honoured by a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the Division of History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society presented to the University of Oxford ( England ) . This research is notable for its groundbreaking use of X-ray crystallography to determine the structure of complex natural products , in this instance , of penicillin . - Since 1999 , the Oxford International Womens Festival has presented the annual Dorothy Hodgkin Memorial Lecture , usually in March , in honour of Hodgkins work . The Lecture is a collaboration between Oxford AWiSE ( Association for Women in Science & Engineering ) , Somerville College and the Oxford University Museum of Natural History .