hrithikpiyush/acl-arc huggingface dataset:
Features using the word context ( left and right tokens ) have been shown to be very helpful in coreference resolution ( Luo et al. , 2004 ) . For Arabic , since words are morphologically derived from a list of roots ( stems ) , we expected that a feature based on the right and left stems would lead to improvement in system accuracy .
As in the undersampled system , when the data is balanced , SqGRW ( sequence kernel on dependency tree in which grammatical relations are inserted as intermediate nodes ) achieves the best recall . Here , the PET and GR kernel perform similar : this is different from the results of ( Nguyen et al. , 2009 ) where GR performed much worse than PET for ACE data . This exemplifies the difference in the nature of our event annotations from that of ACE relations .
We noted in Section 8 that very short documents of one to three sentences also present a difficulty for our approach . This is where robust syntactic systems like SATZ ( Palmer and Hearst 1997 ) or the POS tagger reported in Mikheev ( 2000 ) , which do not heavily rely on word capitalization and are not sensitive to document length , have an advantage . Our DCA uses information derived from the entire document and thus can be used as a complement to approaches based on the local context .
Average , since it can happen that the grammar does admit hard-toparse sentences that are not used ( or at least not frequently used ) in the real corpus . For example , Radzinsky ( 1991 ) proves that Chinese numerals such as wu zhao zhao zhao zhao zhao wu zhao zhao zhao zhao wu zhao zhao zhao wu zhao zhao wu zhao , for the number 5000000000000000005000000000000005000000000005000000005000 , are not context-free , which implies that Chinese is not a context-free language and thus might parse in exponential worst-case time . Do such arguments -- no doubt important for mathematical linguistics -- have any direct consequences for an engineering linguistics ?
For example , year end is an unsuitable paraphrase for the end of this year in the sentence The chart compares the gold price at the end of last year with the end of this year . Barzilay and McKeown ( 2001 ) also note that the applicability of paraphrases is strongly influenced by context . Section 4 describes our method for determining if a paraphrase is suitable in a given context .
Even better accuracy can be achieved with a more fine-grained link class structure . Promising features for classification include part of speech , frequency of co-occurrence , relative word position , and translational entropy ( Melamed , 1997 ) . Another interesting extension is to broaden the definition of a `` word '' to include multi-word lexical units ( Smadja , 1992 ) .
Furthermore , if we use a labeled-ALS as the metric for augmented-loss training , we also see a considerable increase in LAS . like information extraction ( Yates and Etzioni , 2009 ) and textual entailment ( Berant et al. , 2010 ) . In Table 3 we show results for parsing with the ALS augmented-loss objective .
We ignore here the trivially true lexical chunk `` <QUANT> 14 : 14 . '' In a final processing stage , we generalize over the marker lexicon following a process found in Block ( 2000 ) . In Block 's approach , word alignments are assigned probabilities by means of a statistical word alignment tool .
For example , composition as above has the following alternative derivation : One approach to this problem consists in defining , within the Cut-free atomic-id space , normal form derivations in which the succession of rule application is regulated ( Konig 1989 , Hepple 1990 , Hendriks 1993 ) . Each sequent has a distinguished category formula ( underlined ) on which rule applications are keyed :
Our primary contribution is a method for training the SPR . The SPR uses rules automatically learned from training data , using techniques similar to ( Collins , 2000 ; Freund et al. , 1998 ) . Our method for training a sentence planner is unique in neither depending on hand-crafted rules , nor on the existence of a text or speech corpus in the domain of the sentence planner obtained from the interaction of a human with a system or another human .
For shuffling paraphrases , french alternations are partially described in ( Saint-Dizier , 1999 ) and a resource is available which describes alternation and the mapping verbs/alternations for roughly 1 700 verbs . For complementing this database and for converse constructions , the LADL tables ( Gross , 1975 ) can furthermore be resorted to , which list detailed syntactico-semantic descriptions for 5 000 verbs and 25 000 verbal expressions . In particular , ( Gross , 1989 ) lists the converses of some 3 500 predicative nouns .
Joins two complete clauses with a period . These operations are not domain-specific and are similar to those of previous aggregation components ( Rambow and Korelsky ,1992 ; Shaw , 1998 ; Danlos , 2000 ) , although the various MERGE operations are , to our knowledge , novel in this form . The result of applying the operations is a sentence plan tree ( or sp-tree for short ) , which is a binary tree with leaves labeled by all the elementary speech acts
Work using the marker hypothesis for MT adapts this monolingual mapping for pairs of languages : It is reasonably straightforward to map an English determiner-noun sequence onto a Japanese noun -- case marker segment , once one has identified the sets of marker tags in the languages to be translated . Following construction of the marker lexicon , the ( source , target ) chunks are generalized further using a methodology based on Block ( 2000 ) to permit a limited form of insertion in the translation process . As a byproduct of the chosen methodology , we also derive a standard '' word-level '' translation lexicon .
Mathematical analysis can assess a measure with respect to some formal properties , e.g. whether a measure is a metric ( Lin , 1998 ) .4 However , mathematical analysis can not tell us whether a measure closely resembles human judgments or whether it performs best when used in a certain application . The latter question is tackled by applicationspecific evaluation , where a measure is tested within the framework of a certain application , e.g. word sense disambiguation ( Patwardhan et al. , 2003 ) or malapropism detection ( Budanitsky and Hirst , 2006 ) . Lebart and Rajman ( 2000 ) argue for application-specific evaluation of similarity measures , because measures are always used for some task .
The latter question is tackled by applicationspecific evaluation , where a measure is tested within the framework of a certain application , e.g. word sense disambiguation ( Patwardhan et al. , 2003 ) or malapropism detection ( Budanitsky and Hirst , 2006 ) . Lebart and Rajman ( 2000 ) argue for application-specific evaluation of similarity measures , because measures are always used for some task . But they also note that evaluating a measure as part of a usually complex application only indirectly assesses its quality .
The forest concept is also used in machine translation decoding , for example to characterize the search space of decoding with integrated language models ( Huang and Chiang , 2007 ) . The first direct application of parse forest in translation is our previous work ( Mi et al. , 2008 ) which translates a packed forest from a parser ; it is also the base system in our experiments ( see below ) . This work , on the other hand , is in the orthogonal direction , where we utilize forests in rule extraction instead of decoding .
On novel test sentences , he gives results of 72 % correct translation . In their Gaijin system , Veale and Way ( 1997 ) give a result of 63 % accurate translations obtained for English − > German on a test set of 791 sentences from CorelDRAW manuals . As in METLA and Gaijin , we exploit lists of known marker words for each language to indicate the start and end of segments .
That is , each X E EA is a terminal , or a nonterminal not in the same set Ni as A , but immediately reachable from set N „ through B E N . This method can be generalized , inspired by Stolcke and Segal ( 1994 ) , who derive N-gram probabilities from stochastic context-free grammars . By ignoring the probabilities , each N = 1 , 2 , 3 , ... gives rise to a superset approximation that can be described as follows : The set of strings derivable from a nonterminal A is approximated by the set of strings al ... an such that
Many alternative strategies are possible . The Nash arbitration plan , for example , would allow a doubly graded description whenever the product of the Values for the referent r exceeds that of all distractors ( Nash 1950 ; cfXXX Gorniak and Roy 2003 ; Thorisson 1994 , for other plans ) . 9.3.2 Multidimensional Adjectives ( and Color ) .
Hence we require possible paraphrases for phrases that occur in Section 00 . The paraphrase dictionary that we use was generated for us by Chris Callison-Burch , using the technique described in Callison-Burch ( 2008 ) , which exploits a parallel corpus and methods developed for statistical machine translation . Table 1 gives summary statistics of the paraphrase dictionary and its coverage on Section 00 of the Penn Treebank .
The DOP model , on the other hand , was the first model ( to the best of our knowledge ) that proposed not to train a predefined grammar on a corpus , but to directly use corpus fragments as a grammar . This approach has now gained wide usage , as exemplified by the work of Collins ( 1996 , 1999 ) , Charniak ( 1996 , 1997 ) , Johnson ( 1998 ) , Chiang ( 2000 ) , and many others . The other innovation of DOP was to take ( in principle ) all corpus fragments , of any size , rather than a small subset .
In corpus linguistics building such megacorpora is beyond the scope of individual researchers , and they are not easily accessible ( Kennedy , 1998 : 56 ) unless the web is used as a corpus ( Kilgarriff and Grefenstette , 2003 ) . Increasingly , corpus researchers are tapping the Web to overcome the sparse data problem ( Keller et al. , 2002 ) . This topic generated intense interest at workshops held at the University of Heidelberg ( October 2004 ) , University of Bologna ( January 2005 ) , University of Birmingham ( July 2005 ) and now in Trento in April 2006 .
In contrast to Johnson and D6rre 's deduction system , though , the selective magic parsing approach combines top-down and bottom-up control strategies . As such it resembles the parser of the grammar development system Attribute Language Engine ( ALE ) of ( Carpenter and Penn , 1994 ) . Unlike the ALE parser , though , the selective magic parser does not presuppose a phrase structure backbone and is more flexible as to which sub-computations are tabled/filtered .
However , as is evident from the discussion above , previous spelling research does provide an important role in suggesting productive features to include in the decision tree . Research that is more similar in goal to that outlined in this paper is Vosse ( Vosse , 1992 ) . Vosse uses a simple algorithm to identify three classes of unknown words : misspellings , neologisms , and names .
For handling very long documents with our method , however , the information decay strategy seems to be the right way to proceed . Mani and MacMillan ( 1995 ) pointed out that little attention had been paid in the named-entity recognition field to the discourse properties of proper names . They proposed that proper names be viewed as linguistic expressions whose interpretation often depends on the discourse context , advocating text-driven processing rather than reliance on pre-existing lists .
We report performance in terms of two metrics : ( 1 ) the Fmeasure score as computed by the commonly-used MUC scorer ( Vilain et al. , 1995 ) , and ( 2 ) the accuracy on the anaphoric references , computed as the fraction of anaphoric references correctly resolved . Following Ponzetto and Strube ( 2006 ) , we consider an anaphoric reference , NPi , correctly resolved if NPi and its closest antecedent are in the same coreference chain in the resulting partition . In all of our experiments , we use NPs automatically extracted by an in-house NP chunker and IdentiFinder .
A new collection does not become available for analysis until the LSE completes the annotation process , which may entail significant delay with multiple users of the LSE server . The Gsearch system ( Corley et al. , 2001 ) also selects sentences by syntactic criteria from large on-line text collections . Gsearch annotates corpora with a fast chart parser to obviate the need for corpora with pre-existing syntactic mark-up .
It was first proposed for ITS applications over a decade ago by Dedina and Nusbaum ( 1986 , 1991 ) . See also the work of Byrd and Chodorow ( 1985 ) , which considers computer-based pronunciation by analogy but does not mention the possible application to text-to-speech synthesis . As detailed by Damper ( 1995 ) and Damper and Eastmond ( 1997 ) , PbA shares many similarities with the artificial intelligence paradigms variously called case-based , memory-based , or instance-based reasoning as applied to letter-to-phoneme conversion ( Stanfill and Waltz 1986 ; Lehnert 1987 ; Stanfill 1987 , 1988 ; Golding 1991 ; Golding and Rosenbloom 1991 ; van den Bosch and Daelemans 1993 ) .
The three preprocessing steps ( tokenization , POS-tagging , lemmatization ) are performed using TreeTagger ( Schmid , 1995 ) . The resulting list of POS-tagged lemmas is weighted using the SMART ` ltc ' 8 tf.idf-weighting scheme ( Salton , 1989 ) . We implemented a set of filters for word pairs .
Applications where word order is not essential include • cross-language information retrieval ( e.g. , McCarley 1999 ) , • multilingual document filtering ( e.g. , Oard 1997 ) , • computer-assisted language learning ( e.g. , Nerbonne et al. 1997 ) , • certain machine-assisted translation tools ( e.g. , Macklovitch 1994 ; Melamed 1996a ) , • concordancing for bilingual lexicography ( e.g. , Catizone , Russell , and Warwick 1989 ; Gale and Church 1991 ) , • corpus linguistics ( e.g. , Svartvik 1992 ) , • `` crummy '' machine translation ( e.g. , Church and Hovy 1992 ; Resnik 1997 ) .
With respect to frame specification this means that there can be lexical entries , such as the one in Figure 7 , for which we need to make sure that tj as the value of c gets transferred . ' One would think that the type information ti , which is more specific than that 16 A linguistic example based on the signature given by Pollard and Sag ( 1994 ) would be a lexical rule deriving predicative signs from nonpredicative ones , i.e. , changing the PRD value of substantive signs from -- to - F , much like the lexical rule for NPs given by Pollard and Sag ( 1994 , p. 360 , fn . 20 ) .
Although these dictates are fairly clear , the underlying notion of topic is not . An example of psycholinguistically oriented research work can be found in Bond and Hayes ( 1983 ) . These authors take the position that a paragraph is a psychologically real unit of discourse , and , in fact , a formal grammatical unit .
This will become even more interesting when mappings of our synonym identifiers to a large medical thesaurus ( MeSH , ( NLM , 2001 ) ) are incorporated into our system . Alternatively , we may think of user-centered comparative studies ( Hersh et al. , 1995 ) .
It is the lack of exactly this notion of referential level that has stood in the way of other linguists who have been interested in the paragraph as a unit . Crothers ( 1979 , p. 112 ) , for example , bemoans the fact that his `` theory lacks a world knowledge component , a mental ` encyclopedia , ' which could be invoked to generate inferences ... '' . With respect to that independent source of knowledge , our main contributions are two .
Most of the early work on automatic f-structure annotation ( e.g. , van Genabith , Way , and Sadler 1999 ; Frank 2000 ; Sadler , van Genabith , and Way 2000 ) was applied only to small data sets ( fewer than 200 sentences ) and was largely proof of concept . However , more recent work ( Cahill et al. 2002 ; Cahill , McCarthy , et al. 2004 ) has presented efforts in evolving and scaling up annotation techniques to the Penn-II Treebank ( Marcus et al. 1994 ) , containing more than 1,000,000 words and 49,000 sentences . We utilize the automatic annotation algorithm of Cahill et al. ( 2002 ) and Cahill , McCarthy , et al. ( 2004 ) to derive a version of Penn-II in which each node in each tree is annotated with LFG functional annotations in the form of attribute-value structure equations .
In section 2.4 this property is used to convert a bilingual corpus into a set of translation patterns which are formulated in terms of words and category labels . It also shows the structural identity to bilingual grammars as used in ( Wu , 1996 ) .
We currently do not have an efficient means to encode disagreement information as hard constraints ; we plan to investigate incorporating such information in future work . Relationships between the unlabeled items Carvalho and Cohen ( 2005 ) consider sequential relations between different types of emails ( e.g. , between requests and satisfactions thereof ) to classify messages , and thus also explicitly exploit the structure of conversations . Previous sentiment-analysis work in different domains has considered inter-document similarity ( Agarwal and Bhattacharyya , 2005 ; Pang and Lee , 2005 ; Goldberg and Zhu , 2006 ) or explicit
We are using a lexicon of approx . 100000 word stems of German ( Neumann et al. , 1997 ) . STP-Heuristics : Shallow parsing techniques are used to heuristically identify sentences containing relevant information .
The resulting encoding allows the execution of lexical rules on-the-fly , i.e. , coroutined with other constraints at some time after lexical lookup . The computational treatment of lexical rules proposed can be seen as an extension to the principled method discussed by Gotz and Meurers ( 1995 , 1996 , 1997b ) for encoding the main building block of HPSG grammars -- the implicative constraints -- as a logic program . The structure of the paper is as follows : We start with a brief introduction of the formal background on which our approach is based in Section 2 .
Proof . Identical to the standard perceptron proof , e.g. , Collins ( 2002 ) , by inserting in loss-separability for normal separability . Like the original perceptron theorem , this implies that the algorithm will converge .
Previous systems to assist in the development of spoken-language systems ( SLSs ) have focused on building stand-alone , customized applications , such as ( Sutton et al. , 1996 ) and ( Pargellis et al. , 1999 ) . The goal of the JAVOX toolkit is to speech-enable traditional desktop applications -- this is similar to the goals of the MELISSA project ( Schmidt et al. , 1998 ) . It is intended to both speed the development of SLSs and to localize the speech-specific code within the application .
The simplest strategy for ordering adjectives is what Shaw and Hatzivassiloglou ( 1999 ) call the direct evidence method . To order the pair -LCB- a , b -RCB- , count how many times the ordered sequences ( a , b ) and ( b , a ) appear in the training data and output the pair in the order which occurred more often .
Can one deal effectively with the problem of reference without axiomatized Gricean maxims , for instance by using only `` petty conversational implicature '' ( Hobbs 1979 ) , or the metarules of Section 5.2 ? It seems to us that the answer is no .
To test our hypothesis that DCA can be used as a complement to a local-context approach , we combined our main configuration ( evaluated in row D of Table 4 ) with a POS tagger . Unlike other POS taggers , this POS tagger ( Mikheev 2000 ) was also trained to disambiguate sentence boundaries . 10.1 Training a POS Tagger
Moreover , Indian languages show some distinct phenomena like , compound and composite verbs for which no such investigations have been conducted yet . On the other hand , experiments indicate that mental representation and processing of morphologically complex words are not quite language independent ( Taft , 2004 ) . Therefore , the findings from experiments in one language can not be generalized to all languages making it important to conduct similar experimentations in other languages .
extraction of N-V pairs from the corpus with the inferred patterns . ASARES has been previously applied to the acquisition of word pairs sharing semantic relations defined in the Generative Lexicon framework ( Pustejovsky , 1995 ) and called qualia relations ( Bouillon et al. , 2001 ) . Here , we propose to use ASARES in a quite similar way to retrieve our valid N-V pairs .
Evaluative and persuasive documents , such as a politician 's speech regarding a bill or a blogger 's commentary on a legislative proposal , form a particularly interesting type of politically oriented text . People are much more likely to consult such evaluative statements than the actual text of a bill or law under discussion , given the dense nature of legislative language and the fact that ( U.S. ) bills often reach several hundred pages in length ( Smith et al. , 2005 ) . Moreover , political opinions are exsional bills and related data was launched in January 1995 , when Mosaic was not quite two years old and Altavista did not yet exist .
Linguistic annotation of corpora contributes crucially to the study of language at several levels : morphology , syntax , semantics , and discourse . Its significance is reflected both in the growing interest in annotation software for word sense tagging ( Edmonds and Kilgarriff , 2002 ) and in the long-standing use of part-of-speech taggers , parsers and morphological analysers for data from English and many other languages . Linguists , lexicographers , social scientists and other researchers are using ever larger amounts of corpus data in their studies .
More importantly , it will now become normal for an object to have many Values for the same Attribute ; c4 , for example , has the Values > 6 cm , > 10 cm , and > 12 cm . Each of these Values has equal status , so the notion of a basic-level Value can not play a role ( cfXXX , Dale and Reiter 1995 ) . If we abstract away from the role of basic-level Values , then Dale and Reiter 's FindBestValue chooses the most general Value that removes the maximal
Accuracy is not the best measure to assess segmentation quality , therefore we also conducted experiments using the WindowDiff measure as proposed by Pevzner and Hearst ( 2002 ) . WindowDiff returns 0 in case of a perfect segmentation ; 1 is the worst possible score .
The labeled version of this score requires that the labels of the arc are also correct . Optimizing for dependency arc length is particularly important as parsers tend to do worse on longer dependencies ( McDonald and Nivre , 2007 ) and these dependencies are typically the most meaningful for downstream tasks , e.g. , main verb dependencies for tasks 2For the graph-based parser one can also find the higest scoring tree with correct root by setting the score of all competing arcs to − ∞ .
The basic idea underlying our work is to look at foreign words , to compute their co-occurrence-based associations , and to consider these as translations of the respective words . Whereas Rapp & Zock ( 2010 ) dealt only with an English corpus , the current work shows that this methodology is applicable to a wide range of languages and corpora . We were able to shed some light on criteria influencing performance , such as the selection of text type and the direction of a language pair .
This precision-recall tradeoff reflects the inherent tradeoff between imperceptibility and payload in a Linguistic Steganography system . We also experiment with a CCG parser ( Clark and Curran , 2007 ) , requiring that the contexts surrounding the original phrase and paraphrase are assigned the same CCG lexical categories by the parser .