hotchpotch/wikipedia-multilingual-ir-related-lead-pairs huggingface dataset:
Underclass
The underclass is the segment of the population that occupies the lowest possible position in a class hierarchy, below the core body of the working class. This group is usually considered cut off from the rest of the society.

The general idea that a class system includes a population under the working class has a long tradition in the social sciences (for example, lumpenproletariat). However, the specific term, underclass, was popularized during the last half of the 20th century, first by social scientists of American poverty, and then by American journalists.

The underclass concept has been a point of controversy among social scientists. Definitions and explanations of the underclass, as well as proposed solutions for managing or fixing the underclass problem have been highly debated.

Desegregation in the United States
Desegregation is the process of ending the separation of two groups, usually referring to races. Desegregation is typically measured by the index of dissimilarity, allowing researchers to determine whether desegregation efforts are having impact on the settlement patterns of various groups. This is most commonly used in reference to the United States. Desegregation was long a focus of the American civil rights movement, both before and after the US Supreme Court's decision in Brown v. Board of Education, particularly desegregation of the school systems and the military. Racial integration of society was a closely related goal.
Vigeland, Norway
Vigeland is a village in Lindesnes municipality in Agder county, Norway. The village is located along the river Audna, about 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) north of the river's mouth at the Snigsfjorden. The European route E39 highway runs east-west through Vigeland, connecting it to the town of Mandal, about 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) to the southeast. The 1.19-square-kilometre (290-acre) village has a population (2015) of 1,471 which gives the village a population density of 1,236 inhabitants per square kilometre (3,200/sq mi). Prior to 1 January 2020, the village was the administrative center of Lindesnes municipality.

Mandal, Norway
Mandal is a town in Lindesnes municipality in Agder county, Norway. Mandal is the fourth largest town in Agder as well as the administrative centre of Lindesnes municipality. It is located at the mouth of the river Mandalselva at the southern end of the Mandalen valley. The 6.63-square-kilometre (1,640-acre) town has a population (2019) of 11,053 and a population density of 1,667 inhabitants per square kilometre (4,320/sq mi). In Norway, Mandal is considered a by which can be translated as either a "town" or "city" in English.

The town lies along the European route E39 highway, about 40 kilometres (25 mi) southwest of the town of Kristiansand and about 60 kilometres (37 mi) southeast of the town of Flekkefjord. Mandal has a few suburban villages lying just outside its borders such as Ime immediately to the east and Sånum to the southwest. The village of Krossen lies about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) to the north, along the Mandalselva river.
Mary Gould (silversmith)
Mary Gould was an English silversmith.

Gould was the widow of candlestick maker James Gould, and registered a mark on 31 August 1747; at the time she was classified as a largeworker. She gave her address as the Golden Bottle in Ave Maria Lane. She signed herself "Mrs. James Gould", and used his mark in her work.

A pair of George II silver-gilt candlesticks by Gould, dating to 1747, are owned by the National Museum of Women in the Arts.

Ave Maria Lane
Ave Maria Lane is a street in the City of London, to the west of St. Paul's Cathedral. It is the southern extension of Warwick Lane, between Amen Corner and Ludgate Hill.

On the feast day of Corpus Christi, monks would say prayers in the Corpus Christi procession to St. Paul's Cathedral. They set off from Paternoster Row chanting the Lord's Prayer (Pater noster being the opening words of the prayer in Latin). They would reach the final "Amen" as they turned the corner into Ave Maria Lane, after which they would chant Hail Mary (Ave Maria in Latin).

Ave Maria Lane is home to the Grade I listed building Stationers' Hall, the livery hall of the Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers since 1670.

According to Colsoni's 1693 guide to London (Le Guide de Londres) Ave Maria Lane was a gathering place for German expatriates ("... à l'Enseigne du Black-boy au Latin Coffee-house ...").

The marathon route of the 2012 Summer Olympics passed along Ave Maria Lane.
Fenit
Fenit (Irish: An Fhianait) is a small village in County Kerry, Ireland, located on north side of Tralee Bay about 10 km (6 mi) west of Tralee town, just south of the Shannon Estuary. It is also a civil parish. The bay is enclosed from the Atlantic by the Maharee spit which extends northwards from the Dingle peninsula. Fenit harbour is a mixed function sea port, where fishing, freight import and export, and a 136 berth marina are the main forms of business. As of the 2022 CSO census of Ireland, Fenit had a population of 619 people.

Dingle Peninsula
The Dingle Peninsula (Irish: Corca Dhuibhne; anglicised as Corkaguiny or Corcaguiny, the name of the corresponding barony) is the northernmost of the major peninsulas in County Kerry. It ends beyond the town of Dingle at Dunmore Head, the westernmost point of mainland Ireland. It is separated from the Iveragh Peninsula to the south by the Dingle Bay.
Water Act 1989
The Water Act 1989 (c. 15) is an act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that reorganised the bodies responsible for all aspects of water within England and Wales. Whereas previous legislation, particularly the Water Act 1973, had focused on providing a single unifying body with responsibility for all water-related functions within a river basin or series of river basins, this legislation divided those functions up again, with water supply, sewerage and sewage disposal being controlled by private companies, and the river management, land drainage and pollution functions becoming the responsibility of the National Rivers Authority.

Legislation.gov.uk
legislation.gov.uk, formerly known as the UK Statute Law Database, is the official Web-accessible database of the statute law of the United Kingdom, hosted by The National Archives. Established in the early 2000s, it contains all primary legislation in force since 1267 and all secondary legislation since 1823; it does not include legislation which was fully repealed prior to 1991. The contents have been revised to reflect legislative changes up to 2002, with material that has been amended since 2002 fully updated and searchable.
Vivino (surname)
Vivino is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:

Donna Vivino (born 1978), American musical theater actress and singer

Floyd Vivino (1951–2026), American actor

Jerry Vivino (born 1954), American musician

Jimmy Vivino (born 1955), American musician, singer, and producer

Floyd Vivino
Florio "Floyd" Vivino (October 19, 1951 – January 22, 2026), known professionally as Uncle Floyd, was an American television, film and stage performer primarily known for his comedy/variety television show The Uncle Floyd Show (1974–1998). Vivino had a cult following and a 13,000-member fan club. David Bowie and John Lennon considered themselves fans. He also ran as a write-in candidate for Governor of New Jersey in 2009 and 2017.
Han Wan
Han Wan (Chinese: 韓萬), also known by his posthumous name as the Viscount Wu of Han, was the first leader of Han clan in the Jin state. He was the son of Huan Shu of Quwo, half-brother of Count Zhuang of Quwo, and the progenitor of the Han state.

Han Wan was a charioteer for his nephew, Duke Wu of Quwo, and helped to kill Marquess Ai of Jin. Duke Wu of Quwo then took over the throne of Jin, and bestowed Han Wan the land of Han. Han Wan's descendants later adopted "Han" as the clan name based on the name of the fief.

Han Wan's descendants became high-ranking officials in the Jin state. The family became very powerful and eventually partitioned the Jin state.

Jin (Chinese state)
Jin (traditional Chinese: 晉; simplified Chinese: 晋, Old Chinese: *tsi[n]-s), originally known as Tang (唐), was a major state during the middle part of the Zhou dynasty, based near the centre of what was then China, on the lands attributed to the legendary Xia dynasty: the southern part of modern Shanxi. Although it grew in power during the Spring and Autumn period, its aristocratic structure saw it break apart when the duke lost power to his nobles. In 403 BC, the Zhou court recognized Jin's three successor states: Han, Zhao, and Wei. The Partition of Jin marks the end of the Spring and Autumn period and the beginning of the Warring States period.
Listed buildings in Heysham
Heysham is an unparished area in Lancaster, Lancashire, England. It contains 26 listed buildings that are recorded in the National Heritage List for England.  Of these, four are listed at Grade I, the highest of the three grades, one is at Grade II*, the middle grade, and the others are at Grade II, the lowest grade.  The area is mainly occupied by the village of Heysham, with the coast to the west, and the town of Morecambe to the north.  The headland overlooking the sea contains some ancient structures that are listed, including a ruined chapel and rock-cut tombs.  Most of the other listed buildings are houses, many of them being in the oldest part of the village adjacent to the headland.  Elsewhere the listed buildings include a church and associated structures, a public house, and a well.

Morecambe
Morecambe (/ˈmɔːrkəm/ MOR-kəm) is a seaside town and civil parish in the City of Lancaster district of Lancashire, England, on Morecambe Bay, part of the Irish Sea. In 2011 the parish had a population of 34,768.
Sicherheit und Frieden
Sicherheit und Frieden (English: Security and Peace) is a quarterly German academic journal focusing on peace research and security policy publishing articles in German and English. Since 2004 the journal also publishes peer-reviewed articles. The current editor-in-chief is Michael Brzoska (Institute for Peace Research and Security Policy, University of Hamburg).

Security policy
Security policy is a definition of what it means to be secure for a system, organization or other entity.  For an organization, it addresses the constraints on behavior of its members as well as constraints imposed on adversaries by mechanisms such as doors, locks, keys, and walls.  For systems, the security policy addresses constraints on functions and flow among them, constraints on access by external systems and adversaries including programs and access to data by people.
Brownian model of financial markets
The Brownian motion models for financial markets are based on the work of Robert C. Merton and Paul A. Samuelson, as extensions to the one-period market models of Harold Markowitz and William F. Sharpe, and are concerned with defining the concepts of financial assets and markets, portfolios, gains and wealth in terms of continuous-time stochastic processes.

Under this model, these assets have continuous prices evolving continuously in time and are driven by Brownian motion processes. This model requires an assumption of perfectly divisible assets and a frictionless market (i.e. that no transaction costs occur either for buying or selling). Another assumption is that asset prices have no jumps, that is there are no surprises in the market. This last assumption is removed in jump diffusion models.

Harry Markowitz
Harry Max Markowitz (August 24, 1927 – June 22, 2023) was an American economist who received the 1989 John von Neumann Theory Prize and the 1990 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences.

Markowitz was a professor of finance at the Rady School of Management at the University of California, San Diego (UCSD).  He is best known for his pioneering work in modern portfolio theory, studying the effects of asset risk, return, correlation and diversification on probable investment portfolio returns.
Podplat
Podplat (pronounced [ˈpɔːtplat]) is a small settlement in the Municipality of Rogaška Slatina in eastern Slovenia. It lies on the railway line from Celje to Rogaška Slatina and there is a small train station in the settlement. The entire area belongs to the traditional Styria region and is now included in the Savinja Statistical Region.

Glossary of rail transport terms
Rail transport terms are a form of technical terminology applied to railways. Although many terms are uniform across different nations and companies, they are by no means universal, with differences often originating from parallel development of rail transport systems in different parts of the world, and in the national origins of the engineers and managers who built the inaugural rail infrastructure. An example is the term railroad, used (but not exclusively) in North America, and railway, generally used in English-speaking countries outside North America and by the International Union of Railways. In English-speaking countries outside the United Kingdom, a mixture of US and UK terms may exist.

Various terms, both global and specific to individual countries, are listed here. The abbreviation "UIC" refers to terminology adopted by the International Union of Railways in its official publications and thesaurus.
Nurpur, Jalandhar
Nurpur is a village in Nakodar in Jalandhar district of Punjab State, India. It is located 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) from sub district headquarter and 30 kilometres (19 mi) from district headquarter. The village is administrated by a Sarpanch, an elected representative of the village.

Jalandhar district
Jalandhar district is a district in Doaba region of the state of Punjab, India. The district headquarters is the city of Jalandhar.

Before the Partition of India, Jalandhar was also the headquarters of the Jalandhar Division, with constituent districts Jalandhar, Hoshiarpur, Ludhiana, Ferozepur and Kangra. The entire Jalandhar Division was awarded to India when Punjab was partitioned.
Frank D. Layman Memorial
Frank D. Layman Memorial is a historic monument located at Hunter in Greene County, New York.  It was erected in 1901 to commemorate Frank D. Layman, who died on the site of the memorial on August 10, 1900, while fighting a forest fire. It is pyramidal in shape, four sided, and rises upward from a base approximately seven feet in diameter to approximately 11 feet.

It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2003.

Monument
A monument is a type of structure created to commemorate a person or event, or which has become relevant to a social group as a part of their remembrance of historic times or cultural heritage, due to its artistic, historical, political, technical or architectural importance.  Examples of monuments include statues, (war) memorials, historical buildings, and cultural assets. If there is a public interest in its preservation, a monument can for example be listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Wali language (Sudan)
Wali (also Walari, Walarishe, Wele) is a Hill Nubian language spoken in the northwestern Nuba Mountains in the south of Sudan. It is spoken by around 9,000 people 12 km northeast of Katla. Ethnologue reports that use of Wali is vigorous and that there are many monolingual speakers. Young children speak English and Wali, but it is expected that the next generation will continue to communicate using Wali.

Nuba Mountains
The Nuba Mountains (Arabic: جبال النوبة), also referred to as the Nuba Hills, are an area located in South Kordofan, Sudan. The area is home to a group of indigenous ethnic groups known collectively as the Nuba peoples. They are not the same as the Nubians who are indigenous to north Sudan. Rather their name is derived from the name of the mountains, “Nuba”. In Antiquity, the area was a part of the Kingdom of Kush. In the Middle Ages, the Nuba mountains had been part of the Nubian kingdom of Alodia. In the 18th century, they became home to the kingdom of Taqali that controlled the hills of the mountains until their defeat by Mahdi Muhammad Ahmad. After the British defeated the Mahdi army, Taqali was restored as a client state. Infiltration of the Messiria tribe and Muraheleen of Baggara Arabs has been influential in modern conflicts. Up to 1.5 million people live in the mountains, mostly ethnic Nuba, with a small minority of Baggara.
AWB Limited
AWB Limited was a major grain marketing organisation based in Australia. Founded in 1939 by the Government of Australia as the Australian Wheat Board, in 1999 it became a private company, owned by wheat growers. It was acquired by Agrium in 2010.

Grain
A grain is a small, hard, dry fruit (caryopsis) – with or without an attached hull layer – harvested for human or animal consumption. A grain crop is a grain-producing plant. The two main types of commercial grain crops are cereals and legumes.

After being harvested, dry grains are more durable than other staple foods, such as starchy fruits (plantains, breadfruit, etc.) and tubers (sweet potatoes, cassava, and more). This durability has made grains well suited to industrial agriculture, since they can be mechanically harvested, transported by rail or ship, stored for long periods in silos, and milled for flour or pressed for oil. Thus, the grain market is a major global agricultural market that includes crops such as maize, rice, soybeans, wheat and other grains.
Stafidokampos
Stafidokampos (Greek: Σταφιδόκαμπος) is a village in the municipal unit of Andravida, Elis, Greece. It is situated in a flat rural area, 2 km southeast of the centre of Andravida, 2 km west of Tragano, 2 km north of the river Pineios and 28 km northwest of Pyrgos. The Andravida Air Base is 2 km to the north.

Elis
Elis, also known as Ellis or Ilia (Greek: Ηλεία, Eleia), is a historic region in the western part of the Peloponnese peninsula of Greece. It is administered as a regional unit of the modern region of Western Greece. Its capital is Pyrgos. Until 2011 it was Elis Prefecture, covering the same territory.

The modern regional unit is nearly coterminous with the ancient Elis of the classical period. Here lie the ancient ruins of cities of Elis, Epitalion and Olympia, known for the ancient Olympic Games which started in 776 BC.
First State Bank of Baggs
The First State Bank of Baggs, also known as the Bank Club, is a building in Baggs, Wyoming, USA. Built in 1907–08 to house a bank, it is one of the relatively few original buildings left in Baggs. After the bank closed in 1924, the building became a doctor's office and, during Prohibition, it housed a bootleg liquor business. After Prohibition was repealed it became Baggs Liquor. In 1946, it was renamed the Bank Club Bar.

The one story log structure is covered by stamped sheet metal and has a Greek Revival pedimented front with Ionic columns in antis between Doric pilastered walls.

The First State Bank of Baggs was placed on the National Register of Historic Places on September 13, 1984.

Baggs, Wyoming
Baggs is a town in Carbon County, Wyoming, United States. The population was 411 at the 2020 census.
Baggs is home to the Outlaw Stop, a branch of the Little Snake River Museum, which is headquartered in Savery.
Journal of Halacha and Contemporary Society
The Journal of Halacha and Contemporary Society is a semiannual Orthodox Jewish academic journal published by the Rabbi Jacob Joseph School and edited by Rabbi Benzion Sommerfeld. As its title implies, it is devoted to the interface between halakha (halacha, Jewish law and ethics) and modern society; thus, some articles will discuss how recent scientific developments are viewed by halakha while others may examine modern trends in Jewish life.

Regular contributors include Dr. Fred Rosner on medical issues, Rabbi J. David Bleich, and Rabbi Alfred Cohen.  According to the masthead, all articles are vetted by halachic authorities.

The journal also often includes reviews of books on subjects that are relevant to the journal's scope.

Fred Rosner
Fred Rosner (October 3, 1935 – July 2024) was an American professor of medicine at Mount Sinai School of Medicine and the director of the Department of Medicine at Queens Hospital Center. He was also the chairman of the Medical Ethics Committee of the State of New York.  He was, moreover, an expert on Jewish medical ethics and on the medical writings of Moses Maimonides.
Toa Payoh Hospital
Toa Payoh Hospital (Chinese Simplified:大巴窑医院) was a hospital located in Toa Payoh, Singapore. The hospital started operations as Thomson Road Hospital on 20 May 1959 and in 1997 merged with Changi Hospital to form Changi General Hospital located in Simei. The premises of the hospital was supposed to be taken over by Ren Ci Community Hospital but was eventually demolished.

Toa Payoh
Toa Payoh (IPA: /ˌt(w)ɔː ˈpɑːjoʊ, ˌtoʊ -/ taw PAH-yoh or toh-, Chinese: 大巴窑 / 大巴窯, Tamil: தோ பாயோ) is a planning area and residential town located in the northern part of the Central Region of Singapore. Toa Payoh planning area borders Bishan and Serangoon to the north, the Central Water Catchment to the northwest, Kallang to the south, Geylang to the southeast, Novena to the west and Hougang to the east. Toa Payoh New Town is situated in the western portion of the Toa Payoh planning area. The latter occupies a much larger area, encompassing estates such as Potong Pasir and Bidadari.

Toa Payoh planning area consists of 12 subzones: Bidadari, Boon Teck, Braddell, Joo Seng, Kim Keat, Lorong 8 Toa Payoh, Pei Chun, Potong Pasir, Sennett, Toa Payoh Central, Toa Payoh West and Woodleigh.
2020 Australia Day Honours
The 2020 Australia Day Honours are appointments to various orders and honours to recognise and reward good works by Australian citizens. The list was announced on 26 January 2020 by the Governor General of Australia, David Hurley.

The Australia Day Honours are the first of the two major annual honours lists, the first announced to coincide with Australia Day (26 January), with the other being the Queen's Birthday Honours, which are announced on the second Monday in June.

Efficiency Decoration
The Efficiency Decoration, post-nominal letters TD for recipients serving in the Territorial Army of the United Kingdom or ED for those serving in the Auxiliary Military Forces, was instituted in 1930 for award to part-time officers after twenty years of service as an efficient and thoroughly capable officer. The decoration superseded the Volunteer Officers' Decoration, the Colonial Auxiliary Forces Officers' Decoration and the Territorial Decoration.

In the British Commonwealth, the decoration was gradually superseded by national decorations in some member countries, in Canada by the  Canadian Forces' Decoration in 1951, in the Union of South Africa by the John Chard Decoration in 1952 and in Australia by the Reserve Force Decoration in 1982. In the United Kingdom, the decoration was superseded by the Volunteer Reserves Service Medal in 1999. New Zealand continues to award the Efficiency Decoration (New Zealand) and is one of a few countries still to do so.
Stem cell controversy
The stem cell controversy concerns the ethics of research involving the development and use of human embryos. Most commonly, this controversy focuses on  embryonic stem cells. Not all stem cell research involves human embryos.  For example, adult stem cells, amniotic stem cells, and induced pluripotent stem cells do not involve creating, using, or destroying human embryos, and thus are minimally, if at all, controversial. Many less controversial sources of acquiring stem cells include using cells from the umbilical cord, breast milk, and bone marrow, which are not pluripotent.

Sanctity of life
In religion and ethics, the sanctity of life, sometimes described as the inviolability of life, is a principle of implied protection regarding aspects of sentient life that are said to be holy, sacred, or otherwise of such value that they are not to be violated. This can be applied to humans, animals or (in the practice of Ahimsa) even micro-organisms. Sanctity of life sits at the centre of debate over abortion and euthanasia.