hotchpotch/wikipedia-multilingual-ir-related-lead-pairs huggingface dataset:
Primitive accumulation of capital
In Marxian economics and preceding theories, the problem of primitive accumulation (also called previous accumulation, prior accumulation, or original accumulation) of capital concerns the origin of capital and therefore how class distinctions between possessors and non-possessors came to be.

David Harvey
David William Harvey FBA (born 31 October 1935) is a British-American academic best known for Marxist analyses that focus on urban geography as well as the economy more broadly. He is a Distinguished Professor of anthropology and geography at the Graduate Center of the City University of New York (CUNY). Harvey has authored many books and essays that have been prominent in the development of modern geography as a discipline. He is a proponent of the idea of the right to the city.

In 2007, Harvey was listed as the 18th most-cited author of books in the humanities and social sciences in that year, as established by counting citations from academic journals in the Thomson Reuters ISI database.
Sigismondo Savona
Sigismondo Savona (12 March 1835 – 24 July 1908) was a Maltese educator and politician who played a prominent role in the Language Question which defined the politics of the Crown Colony of Malta in the late 19th century.

Crown Colony of Malta
The Crown Colony of the Island of Malta and its Dependencies (commonly known as the Crown Colony of Malta or simply Malta) was the British colony in the Maltese islands, that has become the modern Republic of Malta. It was established when the Malta Protectorate was transformed into a British Crown colony in 1813, and this was confirmed by the Treaty of Paris in 1814.  The colony gained independence in 1964.
New York's 26th State Senate district
New York's 26th State Senate district is one of 63 districts in the New York State Senate. Based in western Brooklyn, neighborhoods located entirely or partially within the district's boundaries include Carroll Gardens, Cobble Hill, the Columbia Street Waterfront District, Dumbo, Dyker Heights, Fort Hamilton, Gowanus, Park Slope, Red Hook, South Slope, and Sunset Park. Also within its boundaries are the Brooklyn Bridge, the Statue of Liberty, and Ellis Island.

It is currently represented by Democrat Andrew Gounardes. Prior to redistricting in 2022, much of the seat's territory fell within the 19th district.

President Franklin D. Roosevelt began his political career representing the 26th district from 1911 to 1913, albeit under entirely different lines. The district was previously based in upstate New York and contained portions of Columbia, Dutchess and Putnam counties.

Putnam County, New York
Putnam County is a county in the U.S. state of New York. As of the 2020 census, the population was 97,668. The county seat is Carmel, within one of the county's six towns. The county is part of the Hudson Valley region of the state.

Putnam County is bordered by Dutchess County to the north, Connecticut and its county of Fairfield to the east,  Westchester County to the south, and the Hudson River and Orange County to the west. Midtown Manhattan is around a one-hour drive, and the county is included in the New York metropolitan area.

Putnam County was formed in 1812 from Dutchess County and is named for Israel Putnam, a hero in the French and Indian War and a general in the American Revolutionary War.

It is one of the most affluent counties in America, ranked 21st by median household income, and 43rd by per-capita income, according to the 2012 American Community Survey and 2009–2013 American Community Survey, respectively.
Theory of pure equality
In mathematical logic the theory of pure equality is a first-order theory. It has a signature consisting of only the equality relation symbol, and includes no non-logical axioms at all.

This theory is consistent but incomplete, as a non-empty set with the usual equality relation provides an interpretation making certain sentences true. It is an example of a decidable theory and is a fragment of more expressive decidable theories, including monadic class of first-order logic (which also admits unary predicates and is, via Skolem normal form, related to set constraints in program analysis) and monadic second-order theory of a pure set (which additionally permits quantification over predicates and whose signature extends to monadic second-order logic of k successors).

Monadic second-order logic
In mathematical logic, monadic second-order logic (MSO) is the fragment of second-order logic where the second-order quantification is limited to quantification over sets. It is particularly important in the logic of graphs, because of Courcelle's theorem, which provides algorithms for evaluating monadic second-order formulas over graphs of bounded treewidth. It is also of fundamental importance in automata theory, where the Büchi–Elgot–Trakhtenbrot theorem gives a logical characterization of the regular languages.

Second-order logic allows quantification over predicates.  However, MSO is the fragment in which second-order quantification is limited to monadic predicates (predicates having a single argument).  This is often described as quantification over "sets" because monadic predicates are equivalent in expressive power to sets (the set of elements for which the predicate is true).

Monadic second-order logic is expressively equivalent to plural logic.
Longcroft School
Longcroft School and Sixth Form College is a community secondary school situated in Molescroft, East Riding of Yorkshire, England. Its catchment area covers the north of Beverley, Leconfield, Swinemoor and Molescroft and has a capacity of around 1,500 pupils, including the Sixth Form.

Leconfield
Leconfield is a village and civil parish in the East Riding of Yorkshire, England, about 3 miles (5 km) north-west of Beverley town centre on the A164 road. The civil parish consists of Leconfield, the village of Arram and the hamlet of Scorborough. The 2011 UK census gave the parish a population of 2,127, an increase on the 2001 UK census figure of 1,990.
Walton County Courthouse (Georgia)
The Walton County Courthouse in Monroe, Georgia was built in 1883.  It was designed by architects Bruce & Morgan in Second Empire style.  It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1980.

It was built at cost of $23,865 during 1883–84.

It is also a contributing building in the NRHP-listed Monroe Commercial Historic District.

Monroe, Georgia
Monroe is a city and the county seat of Walton County, Georgia, United States. It is located both one hour east of Atlanta via US 78 and GA 138 to I-20 and east of Hartsfield–Jackson International Airport and is one of the exurban cities in the Atlanta metropolitan area. The population was 14,928 at the 2020 U.S. census.
2 Corinthians 3
2 Corinthians 3 is the third chapter of the Second Epistle to the Corinthians in the New Testament of the Christian Bible. It is authored by Paul the Apostle and Timothy (2 Corinthians 1:1) in Macedonia in 55–56 AD/CE. This chapter is part of a section (from 2 Corinthians 2:14 to 5:19) which deals with Paul's authority as an apostle.

Baptist theologian John Gill writes that in this chapter, "the apostle clears himself from the charge of arrogance and self-commendation, and ascribes both the virtue and efficacy of his ministry, and his qualifications for it, to the Lord". Paul uses several contrasting ideas "such as 'letter of law/Spirit', 'death/life', 'old covenant/new covenant'" to compare the old or Mosaic relationship between God and his chosen people with a new relationship central to his teaching, "established by God through Christ".

Second Epistle to the Corinthians
The Second Epistle to the Corinthians is a Pauline epistle of the New Testament of the Christian Bible. The epistle is attributed to Paul the Apostle and a co-author named Timothy, and is addressed to the church in Corinth and Christians in the surrounding province of Achaea, in modern-day Greece. According to Jerome, Titus was the amanuensis of this epistle.
Kyzyl-Alay
Kyzyl-Alay (Kyrgyz: Кызыл-Алай) also known as Chagyr (Kyrgyz: Чагыр) is a mountain village in Osh Region of Kyrgyzstan, near highway M41. It is part of the Alay District. Its population was 1,310 in 2021.

Nearby towns and villages include Ak-Bosogo (8 km or 5 mi) and Chong-Karakol (13 km or 8 mi).

Osh Region
Osh is a region of Kyrgyzstan. Its capital is Osh, which is not part of the region. It is bounded (clockwise) by Jalal-Abad Region, Naryn Region, China (Xinjiang), Tajikistan (Districts under Central Government Jurisdiction and Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region), Batken Region, and Uzbekistan (Andijan and Fergana Regions). Its total area is 28,934 km2 (11,171 sq mi). The resident population of the region was 1,391,649 as of January 2021. According to the 2009 census, 28% of the total population are ethnic Uzbeks.
1993 Tel Aviv Open
The 1993 Tel Aviv Open was a men's tennis tournament played on outdoor hard courts that was part of the World Series of the 1993 ATP Tour. It was played at the Israel Tennis Centers in the Tel Aviv District city of Ramat HaSharon, Israel from October 11 through October 18, 1993. Unseeded Stefano Pescosolido won the singles title.

Ramat HaSharon
Ramat HaSharon (Hebrew: רמת השרון, lit. 'The Sharon Highplain', רָמַת הַשָּׁרוֹן‎) is an affluent city located on Israel's central coastal strip in the south of the Sharon region, bordering the cities of Tel Aviv to the south, Hod-HaSharon to the east, and Herzliya and kibbutz Glil Yam to the north. It is part of the Tel Aviv District, within the Gush Dan metropolitan area. In 2023 Ramat HaSharon had a population of 49,002 and its citizens are nearly entirely Jewish.
Heidegger Studies
Heidegger Studies is an annual peer-reviewed academic journal covering the thought of Martin Heidegger published by Duncker & Humblot. It was established in 1985 and publishes contributions in English, German, and French. The editors-in-chief are Parvis Emad, Friedrich-Wilhelm von Herrmann, Pascal David, Paola-Ludovika Coriando, and Ingeborg Schüßler. All issues are available online from the Philosophy Documentation Center.

Friedrich-Wilhelm von Herrmann
Friedrich-Wilhelm von Herrmann (German: [fɔn ˈhɛʁman]; 8 October 1934 – 2 August 2022) was a German philosopher. He was known for his expertise on Heidegger's thought, having worked with him at the University of Freiburg from 1972 to 1976. Herrmann taught there as professor from 1979 to 1999.
Christmas cookie
Christmas cookies or Christmas biscuits are traditionally sugar cookies or biscuits (though other flavours may be used based on family traditions and individual preferences) cut into various shapes related to Christmas.

Biscuit
A biscuit is a flour-based baked food item. Biscuits are typically hard, flat, and unleavened. They are usually sweet and may be made with sugar, chocolate, icing, jam, ginger, or cinnamon. Savoury biscuits are called crackers.

Types of biscuit include biscotti, sandwich biscuits (such as custard creams), digestive biscuits, ginger biscuits, shortbread biscuits, chocolate chip cookies, Anzac biscuits, and speculaas.

The term "biscuit" is used in many English-speaking countries. In the United States and parts of Canada, sweet biscuits are nearly always called "cookies" and savoury biscuits are called "crackers".
Beverly Sherwood
Beverly Jean Sherwood (born May 29, 1947) was an American politician. She has served in the Virginia House of Delegates since 1994, representing the 29th district in the Shenandoah Valley, including the city of Winchester and parts of Frederick and Warren Counties. She is a member of the Republican Party.

Sherwood served on the Frederick County Board of Supervisors 1991–1993, before her election to the House to replace retiring Democrat Alson H. Smith.

Sherwood was chair of the House committee on Militia, Police and Public Safety 2002–2012. Since 2012, she has chaired the committee on Agriculture, Chesapeake and Natural Resources.

On June 11, 2013, Mark Berg defeated Sherwood in a Republican primary.

Winchester, Virginia
Winchester is the northernmost independent city in the Commonwealth of Virginia, United States. It is the county seat of Frederick County, although the two are separate jurisdictions. As of 2020 United States census, the city's population was 28,120. It is the principal city of the Winchester metropolitan area with a population of just over 145,000 extending into West Virginia, which is a part of the Washington–Baltimore combined statistical area. Winchester is home to Shenandoah University and the Museum of the Shenandoah Valley.
Garden Spot Village
Garden Spot Village is a licensed, non-profit, faith-based continuing care retirement community in New Holland, Pennsylvania. The facility is operated by Garden Spot Communities, Inc., a 501(c)(3) not-for-profit corporation, and it provides residential and health-care services for adults ages 55 and above. It employs about 500 staff members, including hospitality, maintenance, administrative and skilled nursing staff.

501(c) organization
A 501(c) organization is a nonprofit organization in the federal law of the United States according to Internal Revenue Code (26 U.S.C. § 501(c)). Such organizations are exempt from some federal income taxes. Sections 503 through 505 set out the requirements for obtaining such exemptions. Many states refer to Section 501(c) for definitions of organizations exempt from state taxation as well. 501(c) organizations can receive unlimited contributions from individuals, corporations, and unions.

For example, a nonprofit organization may be tax-exempt under section 501(c)(3) if its primary activities are charitable, religious, educational, scientific, literary, testing for public safety, fostering amateur sports competition, or preventing cruelty to children or animals.
Mont McIntire
Montford M. "Tubby" McIntire (September 30, 1884 – January 10, 1963) was an American football coach. He was the 17th head football coach at West Virginia University in Morgantown, West Virginia, serving for four seasons, from 1916 to 1920, and compiling a record of 24–11–4. West Virginia did not field a team in 1918 due to World War I.

McIntire was the head football coach at Phillips University in Enid, Oklahoma from 1921 to 1923. He resigned following the 1923 season and intended to return to his home state of West Virginia.

McIntire died in 1963 of coronary thrombosis.

Enid, Oklahoma
Enid (/ˈiːnɪd/ EE-nid) is the ninth-largest city in the U.S. state of Oklahoma. It is the county seat of Garfield County. In the 2020 census, the population was 51,308. Enid was founded during the opening of the Cherokee Outlet in the Land Run of 1893, and is named after Enid, a character in Alfred, Lord Tennyson's Idylls of the King. In 1991, the Oklahoma state legislature designated Enid the "purple martin capital of Oklahoma." Enid holds the nickname of "Queen Wheat City" and "Wheat Capital" of Oklahoma and the United States for its immense grain storage capacity, and has the third-largest grain storage capacity in the world.
Cliffy Island Lighthouse
The Cliffy Island Lighthouse is located atop Cliffy Island, a steep-sided island which is the summit of a granite submarine mountain in the Bass Strait. Cliffy Island is located about 32 kilometres directly south of Port Albert, and roughly 38 kilometres to the northeast of Wilsons Promontory Lighthouse in Victoria, Australia. The lighthouse warns approaching vessels of rocks in Bass Strait by emitting a flash of white light every five seconds. The focal plane of the lightsource and Fresnel lens is situated 52 metres above sea level. The site is managed by the Victoria Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, while the lighthouse itself is operated by the Australian Maritime Safety Authority (AMSA). The island is accessible only by helicopter, and the entire site is closed to the public.

Cardinal point (optics)
In Gaussian optics, the cardinal points consist of three pairs of points located on the optical axis of a rotationally symmetric, focal, optical system. These are the focal points, the principal points, and the nodal points; there are two of each. For ideal systems, the basic imaging properties such as image size, location, and orientation are completely determined by the locations of the cardinal points. For simple cases where the medium on both sides of an optical system is air or vacuum, four cardinal points are sufficient: the two focal points and either the principal points or the nodal points. The only ideal system that has been achieved in practice is a plane mirror, however the cardinal points are widely used to approximate the behavior of real optical systems. Cardinal points provide a way to analytically simplify an optical system with many components, allowing the imaging characteristics of the system to be approximately determined with simple calculations.
Differential optical absorption spectroscopy
In atmospheric chemistry, differential optical absorption spectroscopy (DOAS) is used to measure concentrations of trace gases. When combined with basic optical spectrometers such as prisms or diffraction gratings and automated, ground-based observation platforms, it presents a cheap and powerful means for the measurement of trace gas species such as ozone and nitrogen dioxide. Typical setups allow for detection limits corresponding to optical depths of 0.0001 along lightpaths of up to typically 15 km and thus allow for the detection also of weak absorbers, such as water vapour, nitrous acid, formaldehyde, tetraoxygen, iodine oxide, bromine oxide and chlorine oxide.

Nitrous acid
Nitrous acid (molecular formula HNO2) is a weak and monoprotic acid known only in solution, in the gas phase, and in the form of nitrite (NO−2) salts. It was discovered by Carl Wilhelm Scheele, who called it "phlogisticated acid of niter". Nitrous acid is used to make diazonium salts from amines. The resulting diazonium salts are reagents in azo coupling reactions to give azo dyes.
Alisa Lozko
Alisa Vadimovna Lozko (Russian: Алиса Вадимовна Лозко; born 1 June 2002) is a Russian former figure skater. She is the 2016 JGP Czech Republic bronze medalist, the 2016 Bavarian Open junior champion, the 2015 Denkova-Staviski Cup junior champion, and the 2016 Sportland Trophy junior champion.

ISU Junior Grand Prix in the Czech Republic
The ISU Junior Grand Prix in the Czech Republic – also known as the Czech Skate – is an international figure skating competition sanctioned by the International Skating Union (ISU), organized and hosted by the Czech Figure Skating Association (Czech: Český krasobruslařský svaz). It is held periodically as an event of the ISU Junior Grand Prix of Figure Skating (JGP), a series of international competitions exclusively for junior-level skaters. Medals may be awarded in men's singles, women's singles, pair skating, and ice dance. Skaters earn points based on their results at the qualifying competitions each season, and the top skaters or teams in each discipline are invited to then compete at the Junior Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final.
Charles W. Bowles
Colonel Charles William Bowles (30 September 1877 – 14 September 1966) was a British civil engineer for Patiala State Monorail Trainways commissioned by Maharaja Bhupinder Singh of Patiala.

Before starting work on Patiala State Monorail Trainways, Bowles was appointed by the British as an engineer in the Bengal Nagpur Railway Company Bowles was in charge of constructing its workshops, houses, schools, churches, hospitals, armory, recreational facilities and a jail, which once held two very important Indian political prisoners, Subhas Chandra Bose and Jawaharlal Nehru.

Bowles experimented with using the Ewing System for transporting construction material during the laying of railway tracks for Bengal Nagpur Railway Company. This experiment allowed him to perfect the monorail based on the Ewing System which he subsequently used to construct the Patiala State Monorail Trainways at Patiala.

Bowles, who was born in Homerton, died in 1965 in Gloucestershire, England.

Patiala
Patiala (Punjabi pronunciation: [pʌʈeɑ̈ːɭɑ]) is a city in southeastern Punjab, northwestern India. It is the fourth largest city in the state and is the administrative capital of Patiala district. Patiala is located around the Qila Mubarak (the 'Blessed Castle') constructed by a chieftain Ala Singh, who founded the royal dynasty of Patiala State in 1763, and after whom the city is named.

In popular culture, the city remains famous for its traditional Patiala shahi turban (a type of headgear), paranda (a tasselled tag for braiding hair), Patiala salwar (a type of female trousers), jutti (a type of footwear) and Patiala peg (a measure of liquor). Patiala is also known as the Royal City and the Beautiful City.
Oreoglanis colurus
Oreoglanis colurus is a species of catfish in the family Sisoridae, found in the upper reaches of the Nan River drainage, itself a tributary of the Chao Phraya River in northern Thailand, which was discovered by Vidthayanon, Saenjundaeng and H.H. Ng in 2009.

Sisoridae
Sisoridae is a family of catfishes. These Asian catfishes live in fast-moving waters and often have adaptations that allow them to adhere to objects in their habitats. The family includes about 235 species.
Basra Operations Command
The Basra Operations Command is an organisation of the Government of Iraq which coordinates both Ministry of Defence and Ministry of Interior security forces in Basra Governorate. It was established in August 2007, and quickly became involved in the Battle of Basra (2008) ("Operation Charge of the Knights") against the Shia Jaysh al-Mahdī (Mahdi Army) militia in Basra. The BOC is headquartered in Basrah.

Ministry of Interior (Iraq)
The Ministry of Interior (MOI) is the government body charged with overseeing policing and border control in Iraq. The MOI comprises several agencies, including the Iraqi Police, Highway Patrol, Traffic Department, Emergency Response Unit, Explosive Ordnance Disposal Unit, and Department of Border Enforcement. Following passage of the Facilities Protection Service Reform Law, the Ministry absorbed FPS personnel previously spread among other ministries.  The MOI has approximately 380,430 employees, and the Ministry of Finance approved US$3.8 billion for its 2008 budget, representing a 21% growth over the previous year.: 37
Chariot manned torpedo
The Chariot was a British human torpedo used in World War II. The Chariot was inspired by the operations of Italian naval commandos, in particular the raid on 19 December 1941 by members of the Decima Flottiglia MAS who rode "Maiali" manned torpedoes into the port of Alexandria and there placed limpet mines on or near the battleships HMS Valiant and HMS Queen Elizabeth as well as an 8,000-ton tanker, causing serious damage which put both battleships out of operational use until 1943.

HMS Trooper
HMS Trooper (N91) was a T-class submarine of the Royal Navy. She was laid down by Scotts, Greenock, and launched in March 1942. On 3 October 2024 it was reported HMS Trooper was discovered at a depth of 253 metres (830 ft) in the Icarian Sea in Greece.
Diamond inclusions
Diamond inclusions are the non-diamond materials that get encapsulated inside diamond during its formation process in the mantle. The trapped materials can be other minerals or fluids like water. Since diamonds have high strength and low reactivity with either the inclusion or the volcanic host rocks which carry the diamond to the Earth's surface, the diamond serves as a container that preserves the included material intact under the changing conditions from the mantle to the surface. Although diamonds can only place a lower bound on the pressure of their formation, many inclusions provide additional constraints on the pressure, temperature and even age of formation.

Fluid
In physics, a fluid is a liquid, gas, or other material that may continuously move and deform (flow) under an applied shear stress, or external force. They have zero shear modulus, or, in simpler terms, are substances which cannot resist any shear force applied to them.