hotchpotch/wikipedia-multilingual-ir-related-lead-pairs huggingface dataset:
Yang–Mills flow
In differential geometry, the Yang–Mills flow is a gradient flow described by the Yang–Mills equations, hence a method to describe a gradient descent of the Yang–Mills action functional. Simply put, the Yang–Mills flow is a path always going in the direction of steepest descent, similar to the path of a ball rolling down a hill. This helps to find critical points, called Yang–Mills connections or instantons, which solve the Yang–Mills equations, as well as to study their stability. Illustratively, they are the points on the hill on which the ball can rest.

The Yang–Mills flow is named after Yang Chen-Ning and Robert Mills, who formulated the underlying Yang–Mills theory in 1954, although it was first studied by Michael Atiyah and Raoul Bott in 1982. It was also studied by Simon Donaldson in the context of the Kobayashi–Hitchin correspondence (or Donaldson–Uhlenbeck–Yau theorem).

Simon Donaldson
Sir Simon Kirwan Donaldson FRS MAE (born 20 August 1957) is an English mathematician known for his work on the topology of smooth (differentiable) four-dimensional manifolds, Donaldson–Thomas theory, and his contributions to Kähler geometry. He is currently a Professor in Pure Mathematics at Imperial College London.  After being a member of the Simons Center for Geometry and Physics (SCGP) for a decade, he holds Emeritus Professor status at the SCGP and Stony Brook University, in New York state.
Chew Mei Fun
Chew Mei Fun (Chinese: 周美芬; pinyin: Zhōu Měifēn; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Chiu Bí-hun; born 17 October 1964) is a Malaysian politician who was the Secretary-General of the Malaysian Chinese Association (MCA). She is a former two-term Member of Parliament (MP) of Malaysia for Petaling Jaya Utara from 1999 to 2008. She is also a former Deputy Minister of Women, Family and Community Development.

Petaling Jaya Utara
Petaling Jaya Utara was a federal constituency in Selangor, Malaysia, that was represented in the Dewan Rakyat from 1995 to 2018.

The federal constituency was created in the 1994 redistribution and was mandated to return a single member to the Dewan Rakyat under the first past the post voting system.
Kozakowice
Kozakowice is a village in Gmina Goleszów, Cieszyn County, Silesian Voivodeship, southern Poland, close to the border with the Czech Republic. It lies in the Silesian Foothills and in the historical region of Cieszyn Silesia. Traditionally as well as currently they form two sołectwos: Kozakowice Dolne and Kozakowice Górne.

Cieszyn Silesia
Cieszyn Silesia, Těšín Silesia or Teschen Silesia (Polish: Śląsk Cieszyński [ˈɕlɔ̃sk tɕɛˈʂɨj̃skʲi] ⓘ; Czech: Těšínské Slezsko [ˈcɛʃiːnskɛː ˈslɛsko] ⓘ or Těšínsko [ˈcɛʃiːnsko] ⓘ; German: Teschener Schlesien or Olsagebiet) is a historical region in south-eastern Silesia, centered on the towns of Cieszyn and Český Těšín and bisected by the Olza River. Since 1920 it has been divided between Poland and Czechoslovakia, and later the Czech Republic. It covers an area of about 2,280 square kilometres (880 sq mi) and has about 810,000 inhabitants, of which 1,002 square kilometres (387 sq mi) (44%) is in Poland, while 1,280 square kilometres (494 sq mi) (56%) is in the Czech Republic.

The historical boundaries of the region are roughly the same as those of the former independent Duchy of Cieszyn. Currently, over half of Cieszyn Silesia forms one of the euroregions, the Cieszyn Silesia Euroregion, with the rest of it belonging to Euroregion Beskydy.
Maria Amalia of Courland
Princess Maria Amalia of Courland (Maria Anna Amalia Kettler; 12 June 1653 – 16 June 1711) was a Landgravine of Hesse-Kassel by her marriage to Charles I, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel. She was a daughter of Jacob Kettler, Duke of Courland and Semigallia and Margravine Louise Charlotte of Brandenburg. Her eldest son was King Frederick I of Sweden. One of her daughters was the most recent common ancestor of all the currently reigning monarchs of Europe from 1939 to 1941 and 1943 to 2022.

Princess Louise Charlotte of Brandenburg
Louise Charlotte of Brandenburg (13 September 1617 – 28 August 1676), was a Duchess consort of Courland by marriage to Duke Jacob Kettler of Courland.

She was born to George William, Elector of Brandenburg and Elizabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate.
Mār-bīti
Mār-bīti was a Mesopotamian god. While his character is overall poorly known, it is agreed that he was regarded as warlike. He could be associated with deities such as Nanaya, Nabu or various members of the local pantheons of Der and Borsippa. While he is already attested in an inscription from the Kassite period, most attestations of him come from the first millennium BCE. He was originally worshiped in Malgium and Der in eastern Mesopotamia, but he is also attested in Borsippa, Babylon and Kalhu. A number of temples dedicated to him are mentioned in known texts, but their ceremonial names in most cases remain unknown. Two kings of Babylonia bore theophoric names invoking him, Mār-bīti-apla-uṣur and Mār-bῑti-aḫḫē-idinna.

Nabu
Nabu (Akkadian: 𒀭𒀝, romanized: Nabû, Jewish Babylonian Aramaic: נְבוֹ‏, romanized: Nəḇo) is the Babylonian patron god of literacy, scribes, wisdom, and the rational arts. He is associated with the classical planet Mercury in Babylonian astronomy.
Konstantīns Pēkšēns
Konstantīns Pēkšēns (born 3 March 1859, Mazsalaca parish, Russian Empire — died 23 June 1928, Bad Kissingen, Weimar Republic) is one of the most prominent Latvian architects of all times. After Jānis Baumanis he is the epitome of the second generation of Latvian architects. Many Latvian cities and towns take pride in buildings designed by Pēkšēns, but Riga alone can boast more than 250 multi-storey brick buildings and a great number of wooden houses erected following his designs.

Jānis Frīdrihs Baumanis
Jānis Frīdrihs Baumanis (or Johann Friedrich Baumann, May 23, 1834, in Riga – March 19, 1891, in Riga) was a Latvian, Baltic German architect. He was the first professional Latvian architect. Baumanis designed the Riga Circus in 1888. He was responsible for a number of important public buildings of eclectic design constructed in the second half of the 19th century in Riga.
Pametnik
Pametnik (Bulgarian and Serbian: Паметник, Bulgarian word for monument) is memorial ossuary  and monument to Serbian and Bulgarian soldiers who fought in Battle of Caribrod during Serbo-Bulgarian War. The monument is located on Neškovo brdo in Dimitrovgrad, Serbia. It is considered as anti-war symbol of the war and battle where soldiers of the two countries fought and were later buried together in one ossuary.

Serbo-Bulgarian War
The Serbo-Bulgarian War or the Serbian–Bulgarian War (Bulgarian: Сръбско-българска война, Srăbsko-bălgarska voyna, Serbian: Српско-бугарски рат, Srpsko-bugarski rat),  a war between the Kingdom of Serbia and the Principality of Bulgaria, erupted on 14 November [O.S. 2 November] 1885 and lasted until 28 November [O.S. 16 November] 1885. Despite Bulgaria's status as a  vassal of the Ottoman Empire, the Ottomans did not intervene in the war. Serbia initiated the fighting but suffered a decisive defeat. Austria-Hungary demanded that Bulgaria stop its invasion, and a truce resulted.

The final peace was signed on 3 March [O.S. 19 February] 1886 in Bucharest. The existing boundaries did not change. As a result of the war, European powers acknowledged the act of Unification of Bulgaria which had happened on 18 September [O.S. 6 September] 1885.
Mauro Galvão
Mauro Geraldo Galvão (born 19 December 1961) is a Brazilian retired professional footballer who played as a defender. Galvão won the title of Campeonato Brasileiro Série A four times, playing for Internacional (1979), Grêmio (1996) and Vasco da Gama (1997 and 2000), along a span of 21 years; won the 1998 Copa Libertadores and lost the finals of the 1999 Intercontinental Cup and of the 2000 FIFA Club World Championship.

1998 Copa Libertadores
The 1998 Copa Libertadores was the 39th in the tournament's history. It was held between February 25 and August 26. Mexican clubs participated in Copa Libertadores for the first time. Vasco da Gama won the cup for the first time in the tournament's history, after defeating Barcelona of Ecuador in the final.
Open de Nice Côte d'Azur
The Nice French Riviera Open (or Open de Nice Côte d'Azur in French) was an ATP World Tour 250 series and, formerly, Grand Prix tennis circuit affiliated men's tennis tournament. This tournament was originally founded in 1925 as a combined event called the City of Nice Championships  and remained as a combined event until 1971 and 1976 to 1978. Also known as the Nice International Championships. It was held in Nice, France at the Nice Lawn Tennis Club and played on outdoor clay courts. The last singles champion is Dominic Thiem from Austria.

ATP 250 tournaments
The ATP 250 tournaments are the lowest tier of annual men's tennis tournaments on the main ATP Tour, after the four Grand Slam tournaments, ATP Finals, ATP Masters 1000 tournaments, and ATP 500 tournaments. The winners of each tournament are awarded 250 ranking points—which accounts for the name of the series.

As of 2026, the series included 30 tournaments after the retirement of four tournaments (Atlanta, Córdoba, Lyon and Metz), the downgrade of two in 2025 (Estoril for a year, and Newport) and the upgrade of three tournaments to the 500 level (Dallas, Doha and Munich). Draws usually consist of 28 for singles, with Brisbane International (32) and Winston-Salem Open (48) being the only exceptions. Doubles draws consist of 16 teams.

Thomas Muster holds the record for most singles titles at 26, while Mike Bryan holds the record for most doubles titles won with 46.
Allen Thomas
Allen Thomas (December 14, 1830 – December 3, 1907) was a Confederate States Army brigadier general during the American Civil War (Civil War). He was born in Howard County, Maryland, and became a lawyer but he moved to Louisiana in the later 1850s and became a planter and colonel in the Louisiana militia. After the war, he was a planter, Presidential elector in 1872 and 1880, professor of agriculture at Louisiana State University and coiner at the United States Mint at New Orleans, Louisiana. He moved to Florida in 1889. Between 1894 and 1897, he was United States Minister to Venezuela. He moved to Mississippi in 1907 and died there in that year. He was buried at Donaldsonville, Louisiana.

General officers in the Confederate States Army
The general officers of the Confederate States Army (CSA) were the senior military leaders of the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War of 1861–1865. They were often former officers from the United States Army (the regular army) before the Civil War, while others were given the rank based on merit or when necessity demanded. Most Confederate generals needed confirmation from the Confederate States Congress, much like prospective generals in the modern U.S. armed forces.

Like all of the Confederacy's military forces, these generals answered to their civilian leadership, in particular Jefferson Davis, the president of the Confederate States of America and therefore commander-in-chief of the military forces of the Confederate States.
Kenmore (brand)
Kenmore is an American brand of household appliances, cookware, floorcare, grills, HVAC equipment and other home items owned and licensed by Transformco, an affiliate of ESL Investments. Previously, they were a subsidiary brand of Sears Holdings, but after Sears Holdings filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy on October 15, 2018, they were acquired by Transformco, formed in 2019 after acquiring the assets of Sears Holdings Corporation.

As of 2017, Kenmore products are produced by manufacturers including Whirlpool, Samsung, LG, Electrolux, Panasonic, Cleva North America, and Winia Electronics. Today, the brand's portfolio is sold across Amazon, Lowe's, Target, and many other online retailers.

Panasonic
Panasonic Holdings Corporation is a Japanese multinational electronics manufacturer, headquartered in Kadoma, Osaka, Japan. It was founded in 1918 as Matsushita Electric Housewares Manufacturing Works in the Fukushima ward of Osaka by Kōnosuke Matsushita. The company was incorporated in 1935 and renamed Matsushita Electric Industrial Co., Ltd., and changed its name to Panasonic Corporation in 2008. In 2022, it reorganized as a holding company and adopted its current name.

In addition to consumer electronics, for which it was the world's largest manufacturer in the late 20th century, Panasonic produces a wide range of products and services, including rechargeable batteries, automotive and avionic systems, industrial equipment, as well as home renovation and construction. The company is listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the Nikkei 225 and TOPIX 100 indices, with a secondary listing on the Nagoya Stock Exchange.
Capital SouthEast Connector
The Capital SouthEast Connector is a 34-mile (55 km) planned expressway in California running from Interstate 5 (I-5) to U.S. Route 50 (US 50). The route runs through Sacramento County, Elk Grove, Rancho Cordova, Folsom, and El Dorado County. This project serves as an alternative route to the Greater Sacramento region's current highway system. It consists of four lanes of thoroughfare and expressway.

El Dorado County, California
El Dorado County (/ˌɛl dəˈrɑːdoʊ/ ⓘ; El Dorado, Spanish for "The Golden one"), officially the County of El Dorado, is a county located in the U.S. state of California, named after the mythical city of El Dorado.
As of the 2020 census, the population was 191,185. The county seat is Placerville. The county is part of the Sacramento-Roseville-Arden-Arcade, CA Metropolitan Statistical Area. It is located entirely in the Sierra Nevada, from the historic Gold Country in the western foothills to the High Sierra in the east. El Dorado County's population has grown as Greater Sacramento has expanded into the region. Where the county line crosses US 50 at Clarksville, the distance to Sacramento is 15 miles (24 km). In the county's high altitude eastern end at Lake Tahoe, environmental awareness and environmental protection initiatives have grown along with the population since the 1960 Winter Olympics, hosted at the former Squaw Valley Ski Resort in neighboring Placer County.
Battle of Baykand
The Battle of Baykand was fought in 729 between the Turkic Türgesh khaganate and its Soghdian allies and the Arabs of the Umayyad Caliphate at Baykand, a town near Bukhara in Transoxiana (in modern Uzbekistan). The Arab army, under the governor of Khurasan Ashras ibn Abdallah al-Sulami, campaigned across the Oxus River to suppress a large-scale rebellion of the subject Soghdian princes that had broken out the previous year and received Türgesh support. As the Arab army advanced on Bukhara, it was encircled by the Türgesh and cut off from water. A series of engagements followed that almost ended in a disaster for the Arabs like the "Day of Thirst" five years earlier, but in the end, through the inspirational bravery of a few Arab leaders and the actions of the vanguard under al-Harith ibn Surayj and Qatan ibn Qutayba, the Arabs broke through and reached Bukhara, which they laid siege to.

Khagan
Khagan or Qaghan (Kazakh: Қаған/Qağan, Middle Mongol:ᠬᠠᠭᠠᠨ; Khaan or Khagan; Old Turkic: 𐰴𐰍𐰣 Qaɣan) is a title of imperial rank in Turkic, Mongolic, and some other languages, equal to the status of emperor and someone who rules a khaganate (empire). The female equivalent is Khatun.

It may also be translated as "Khan of Khans", equivalent to King of Kings. In modern Turkic, the title became Khaan with the g sound becoming almost silent or non-existent; the ğ in modern Turkish Kağan is also silent. After the division of the Mongol Empire, monarchs of the Yuan dynasty and the Northern Yuan held the title of Khagan. Kağan, Hakan and Kaan, Turkish equivalents of the title are common Turkish names in Turkey.

The common western rendering as Great Khan (or Grand Khan), notably in the case of the Mongol Empire, is a translation of Yekhe Khagan (Great Emperor or Их Хаан).
Alex Vinatzer
Alex Vinatzer (born 22 September 1999) is an Italian World Cup alpine ski racer. He specializes in the technical events of slalom and giant slalom. The Italian national ski team has selected him to compete in three Winter Olympics, and four World Championships.

Born in Bolzano, South Tyrol, Vinatzer made his World Cup debut in November 2017 and his first podium in January 2020 at Zagreb, Croatia. On February 4, 2025, together with Giorgia Collomb, Lara Della Mea and Filippo della Vite, he won the gold medal in the team competition at the World Championships in Saalbach-Hinterglemm.

Giant slalom
Giant slalom (GS) is an alpine skiing and alpine snowboarding competitive discipline. It involves racing between sets of poles ("gates") spaced at a greater distance from each other than in slalom, but less than in Super-G.

Giant slalom and slalom make up the technical events in alpine ski racing. This category separates them from the speed events of Super-G and downhill.  The technical events are normally composed of two runs, held on different courses on the same ski run.
Leblouh
Leblouh (Arabic: البلوح, romanized: lə-blūḥ) is the practice of force-feeding girls from as young as five to nineteen, in countries where obesity was traditionally regarded as desirable. Especially prevalent in rural areas and having its roots in Tuareg tradition, leblouh is practiced to increase chances of marriage in a society where high body volume used to be a sign of wealth.

The practice occurs in several African countries, such as Mauritania, Niger, Uganda, Sudan, Nigeria, Kenya and South Africa. It used to be widespread across most of the Arab world as well.

The practice goes back to the 11th century, and has been reported to have made a significant comeback in Mauritania after a military junta took over the country in 2008. The younger generations in Mauritania view this practice negatively.

2008 Mauritanian coup d'état
The 2008 Mauritanian coup d'état was a military coup that took place in Mauritania on August 6, 2008, when President Sidi Ould Cheikh Abdallahi was ousted from power by the Armed Forces of Mauritania, led by a group of high-ranking generals he had dismissed from office earlier that day.
Ike Nnaebue
Ike Nnaebue (born June 19, 1975) is a Nigerian filmmaker, producer, screenwriter, and director. He is best known for the documentary film No U-turn (2022), the film received Special Mention Award at Berlinale 2022, won the Best Documentary category at the Africa Movie Academy Awards (AMAA), won the Artistic Bravery Award at the Durban International Film Festival and nominated for the Best Documentary Feature Film at the 2022 Next Generation Indie Film Awards.

He also directed False (2013), which won Golden Icon Academy Award in 2013 and the most nominated Nollywood film of 2013, and also Sink or Swim (2017), which won Best Narrative Feature at the 2017 Newark International Film Festival.

Africa Movie Academy Awards
The Africa Movie Academy Awards (AMMA) is an annual entertainment award ceremony, presented to recognize excellence among African and non-African professionals, who have contributed to the African film industry. The award was founded by Peace Anyiam-Osigwe currently run by the Africa Film Academy. It is regarded as one of Africa's most notable film events, and have been sometimes referenced as the "African Oscars".
Irina Lobacheva
Irina Viktorovna Lobacheva (Russian: Ирина Викторовна Лобачёва; born 18 February 1973) is a Russian former competitive ice dancer. With partner and former husband Ilia Averbukh, she is the 2002 Olympic silver medalist, the 2002 World champion and the 2003 European champion.

2003 European Figure Skating Championships
The 2003 European Figure Skating Championships was a senior international figure skating competition in the 2002–03 season. Medals were awarded in the disciplines of men's singles, ladies' singles, pair skating, and ice dancing. The event was held at the Malmö Ice in Malmö, Sweden from January 20 to 26, 2003. The compulsory dance was the Tango Romantica.
Yusuf Mahamud Ibrahim
Yusuf Mahamud Ibrahim (Somali: Yuusuf Maxamuud Ibrahiim, Arabic: يوسف محمود ابراهيم; died 1848) was a Somali ruler. He was the third and most powerful Sultan of the Geledi sultanate, reigning from 1798 to 1848. Under the reign of Sultan Yusuf, his kingdom entered its apex, he managed to modernize his economy and his kingdom quickly became one of the wealthiest states in East Africa. Yusuf frequently toured the sultanate and built rapport with his many clients and allies.  He successfully consolidated Geledi power during conquest of Bardera and expelling extremist ideology from his region. It was under his rule he manage to establish many trading partners and allies such as the Sultanate of Witu. He also exacted tribute from Sultan Said of the Omani Empire starting from 1843.

Omani Empire
The Omani Empire (Arabic: الْإِمْبَرَاطُورِيَّة الْعُمَانِيَّة) was a maritime empire, vying with Portugal and Britain for trade and influence in the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean. After rising as a regional power in the 18th century, the empire at its peak in the 19th century saw its influence or control extend across the Strait of Hormuz to modern-day Iran and Pakistan, and as far south as Cape Delgado in what is now Mozambique. After the death of Said bin Sultan in 1856 the empire was divided between his sons into two sultanates, an African section (Sultanate of Zanzibar) ruled by Majid bin Said and an Asian section (Sultanate of Muscat and Oman) ruled by Thuwaini bin Said.
John Atherton
John Atherton (1598 – 5 December 1640) was the Bishop of Waterford and Lismore in the Church of Ireland. He and John Childe (his steward and tithe proctor) were both tried and executed for buggery in 1640.

Bishop of Waterford and Lismore
The Bishop of Waterford and Lismore is an episcopal title which takes its name after the city of Waterford and town of Lismore in Ireland. The title was used by the Church of Ireland until 1838, and is still used by the Roman Catholic Church.
Colin Tennant, 3rd Baron Glenconner
Colin Christopher Paget Tennant, 3rd Baron Glenconner (1 December 1926 – 27 August 2010), was a British peer, landowner and socialite. He was the son of Christopher Tennant, 2nd Baron Glenconner, and Pamela Winifred Paget. He was also the nephew of Edward Tennant and Stephen Tennant, and the half-brother of the novelist Emma Tennant.

Before succeeding to the peerage in 1983, he had travelled widely, especially in India and the West Indies. He was an avid socialite and a close friend of Princess Margaret, to whom his wife, the former Lady Anne Coke, was a lady-in-waiting. In 1958, he purchased the island of Mustique in The Grenadines for £45,000.

Antony Armstrong-Jones, 1st Earl of Snowdon
Antony Charles Robert Armstrong-Jones, 1st Earl of Snowdon (7 March 1930 – 13 January 2017), was a British photographer. He was best known internationally for his portraits of prominent cultural and political figures, many of which were published in Vogue, Vanity Fair, The Sunday Times Magazine, The Sunday Telegraph Magazine, and other major outlets. More than 280 of his photographs are held in the permanent collections of the National Portrait Gallery. Between 1968 and 1973, he directed several television documentaries and contributed to design and accessibility reforms. A committed advocate for disabled people, he helped shape policy and infrastructure across the United Kingdom. He married Princess Margaret, sister of Queen Elizabeth II, in 1960; he was created Earl of Snowdon the following year, and they divorced in 1978.
Natalia Gantimurova
Natalia Sergeyevna Gantimurova (Russian: Наталья Серге́евна Гантимурова; born 14 August 1991)  is a Russian beauty pageant titleholder who was crowned Miss Russia 2011 and represented her country in the 2011 Miss Universe and Miss World pageants.

Miss Russia
Miss Russia (Russian: Мисс Россия, romanized: Miss Rossiya) is a national beauty pageant in Russia. It selects the Russian representatives to compete in two of the major beauty pageants: Miss World and Miss Universe.