প্রকৌশলে নারীদের ইতিহাস
প্রকৌশলে নারীদের ইতিহাস প্রকৌশল এর পেশার উন্নয়নের চেয়েও পুরোনো। প্রকৌশল একটি প্রথাগত পেশা হিসাবে স্বীকৃতি পাওয়ার আগে, women with engineering skills often sought recognition as inventors, যেমন আলেকজান্দ্রিয়ার হাইপেশিয়া (৩৫০ বা ৩৭০–৪১৫ AD), যিনি হাইড্রোমিটার এর আবিষ্কারের সঙ্গে সম্পৃক্ত। ঊনবিংশ শতাব্দীতে, নারীরা যারা প্রকৌশলের কাজ করতো তাদের প্রায়ই গণিত বা বিজ্ঞানের একডেমিক প্রশিক্ষণ থাকতো। অ্যাডা লাভলেস (১৮১৫–১৮৫২) গৃহশিক্ষকের অধীনে গণিত শিখেছেন চার্লস ব্যাবেজের সঙ্গে এনালিটিক্যাল ইঞ্জিন আবিষ্কারে তার সহযোগিতা শুরুর পূর্বে যেটি তাকে খেতাব দিয়েছে পৃথিবীর "প্রথম কম্পিউটার প্রোগ্রামার" হিসেবে। হের্থা মার্কস অর্টন (১৮৫৪–১৯২৩), একজন ব্রিটিশ প্রকৌশলী এবং আবিষ্কারক যিনি ১৮৮০-এ ক্যামব্রিজে গণিতে অধ্যয়ন করেন। এলিসা লিওনিডা জামফায়ারসু (১৮৮৭–১৯৭৩) ইউরোপের প্রথম মহিলা প্রকৌশলীদের মধ্যে একজন। বিংশ শতাব্দীর প্রথম দিকে, অল্প পরিমান নারীই প্রকৌশলের বিষয় গুলিতে ভর্তি হতো, কিন্তু তাদের আগ্রহ লক্ষ্য করা যেত যখন পুরুষরা এসকল বিষয়গুলি অধ্যয়ন করতো।
এলিস পেরি ছিলেন ইউরোপের প্রথম মহিলা যিনি ১৯০৬-এ কুইন'স কলেজ, গ্যালওয়ে থেকে প্রকৌশলের কোন বিষয় থেকে স্নাতক ডিগ্রী লাভ করেন। এলিসা লিওনিডা জামফায়ারসু, একজন রোমানিয়ান প্রকৌশলী যিনি টেকনিক্যাল ইউনিভার্সিটি অব বার্লিন থেকে ১৯১২-এ স্নাতক লাভ করেন। দ্বিতীয় বিশ্বযুদ্ধে মার্কিন যুক্তরাষ্ট্রের প্রবেশ প্রকৌশলে মেধার ঘাটতি সৃষ্টি করে, পুরুষেরা সশস্ত্র বাহিনীগুলোতে চলে যেতে থাকে। The GE on-the-job engineering training for women with degrees in mathematics and physics, and the Curtiss-Wright Engineering Program had "Curtiss-Wright Cadettes" ("Engineering Cadettes", e.g., Rosella Fenton). কোম্পানিটি কর্ণেল বিশ্ববিদ্যালয়, পেন্সিলভেনিয়া স্টেট ইউনিভার্সিটি, পারডু বিশ্ববিদ্যালয়, মিনেসোটা বিশ্ববিদ্যালয়, ইউনিভার্সিটি অব টেক্সাস অ্যাট অস্টিন, RPI, and Iowa State University এর সহযোগী হয় একটি প্রকৌশল পাঠক্রম তৈরি করতে যা অবশেষে ৬০০ নারীর নাম নথিভুক্ত করতে ভূমিকা রাখে। পাঠক্রমটি দশ মাস টিকে ছিল এবং প্রাথমিকভাবে বিমান নকশা এবং উৎপাদনের উপর বিশেষায়িত ছিল।
কেথলিন ম্যাকনাল্টি (১৯২১–২০০৬), এনিয়াক এর আসল প্রোগ্রামারদের একজন নির্বাচিত হয়েছিলেন। জর্জিয়া টেক ১৯৫২-এ নারী প্রকৌশলী শিক্ষার্থী ভর্তি করানো শুরু করে। ম্যাসাচুসেট্‌স ইনস্টিটিউট অব টেকনোলজি (এমআইটি) এর প্রথম নারী শিক্ষার্থী এলেন সলো রিচার্ডসকে (১৮৪২–১৯১১) ১৮৭৩-এ স্নাতক ডিগ্রী দেয়। প্যারিসের ইকলে পলিটেকনিক প্রথম ১৯৭২ সালে নারী শিক্ষার্থীদের ভর্তি শুরু করে। ১৯৮০ থেকে ১৯৯৪ সাল পর্যন্ত মার্কিন যুক্তরাষ্ট্রে নারীদের প্রদত্ত ইঞ্জিনিয়ারিংয়ে বি.এ. / বিএস ডিগ্রির সংখ্যা ৪৫ শতাংশ বৃদ্ধি পায়। তবে, ১৯৮৪-১৯৯৪ এই সময়ে, কম্পিউটার বিজ্ঞানে বি.এ / বিএস ডিগ্রীধারী নারী গ্র্যাজুয়েটদের সংখ্যা ২৩ শতাংশ কমেছে।
Although the terms engineer and engineering date from the Middle Ages, তারা উনিশ শতকের শেষের দিকে সম্প্রতি তাদের বর্তমান অর্থ এবং ব্যবহার অর্জন করেছে। সংক্ষেপে, an engineer is one who uses the principles of engineering – namely acquiring and applying scientific, mathematical, economic, social, and practical knowledge – in order to design and build structures, machines, devices, systems, materials and processes. প্রকৌশল পেশার প্রধান শাখার মধ্যে রয়েছে পুরকৌশল, সামরিক প্রকৌশল, যন্ত্র প্রকৌশল, রসায়ন প্রকৌশল, তড়িৎ ও ইলেক্ট্রনিক প্রকৌশল, মহাকাশ প্রকৌশল, কম্পিউটার বিজ্ঞান, এবং বায়োমেডিক্যাল ইঞ্জিনিয়ারিং।
Before engineering was recognized as a formal profession, women with engineering skills often sought recognition as inventors. One of the earliest women inventors was Hypatia of Alexandria (350? 370?–415), who is credited with the invention of the hydrometer. Tabitha Babbit (1784–1853?) was an American toolmaker who invented the first circular saw. Sarah Guppy (1770–1852) was an Englishwoman who patented a design for bridge foundations. Mary Dixon Kies (1752–1837) was the first American woman to receive a patent for her method of weaving straw in 1809.
With the coming of the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century, new technology-based occupations opened up for both men and women. Sarah Bagley (1806–?) is remembered not only for her efforts to improved working conditions for women mill workers in Lowell, Massachusetts, in the 1830s and 1840s, but also for being one of the earliest women to work as a telegraph operator. Mathilde Fibiger (1830–1872), a Danish novelist and advocate of women's rights, became a telegraph operator for the Danish State Telegraph system in the 1860s.
Engineering began to be taught as a formal academic discipline in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The École Polytechnique in France was established in 1794 to teach military and civil engineering; West Point Military Academy in the United States established a program modeled after the École Polytechnique in 1819. Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI) began to teach civil engineering in 1828. However, none of these institutions admitted women as students at the time of their founding.
In the 19th century, women who performed engineering work often had academic training in mathematics or science. Ada Lovelace (1815–1852), Lord Byron's daughter, was privately schooled in mathematics before beginning the collaboration with Charles Babbage on his analytical engine that would earn her the designation of the "first computer programmer." Hertha Marks Ayrton (1854–1923), a British engineer and inventor who helped develop electric arc lighting, studied mathematics at Cambridge in 1880, but was denied a degree, as women were only granted certificates of completion at the time. Similarly, Mary Engle Pennington (1872–1952), an American chemist and refrigeration engineer, completed the requirements for a BS degree in chemistry at the University of Pennsylvania in 1892, but was given a certificate of proficiency instead.
Rita de Moraes Sarmento (1872–1931) was the first woman to obtain an Engineering degree from the Technical University of Porto, in Portugal. She obtained this degree in 1894, which means she may have been the first formally recognised female engineer in Europe.
Elisa Leonida Zamfirescu (1887–1973) is one of the first formally recognised female engineers in Europe. Due to prejudices against women in the sciences, she was rejected by the School of Bridges and Roads in Bucharest, Romania. However, in 1909, she was accepted at the Royal Academy of Technology in Berlin. She graduated from the university in 1912, with a degree in engineering, specialising in chemistry, possibly becoming one of the first women engineers in the world. Other women in engineering in the same time period include three Danish women: Agnes Klingberg, Betzy Meyer, and Julie Arenholt, who graduated in 1897 and 1901 from 'Polyteknisk Læreanstalt', today known as the Danish Technical University. The first female engineering graduate in Britain was Alice Perry who graduated from Queen's College, Galway in 1906.
Women without formal engineering degrees were also integral to great 19th century civil engineering feats. Emily Warren Roebling is recognized as managing the construction of the Brooklyn Bridge, and was the first person to cross the bridge at its opening ceremony in 1883. Roebling's husband, Washington Roebling, worked as the chief engineer for the Brooklyn Bridge project until he fell ill of decompression sickness. Upon her husband's illness, Emily Warren Roebling assumed her husband's duties at the project site, and taught herself about material properties, cable construction, calculating catenary curves, and the like.
In the early years of the twentieth century, a few women were admitted to engineering programs, but they were generally looked upon as curiosities by their male counterparts. Nora Stanton Blatch Barney (1883–1971), daughter of Harriot Stanton Blatch and granddaughter of Elizabeth Cady Stanton, was the first woman to receive a degree in civil engineering from Cornell University in 1905. In the same year, she was accepted as a junior member of the American Society of Civil Engineers; however, twelve years later, after having worked as an engineer, architect, and engineering inspector, her request for an upgrade to associate membership was denied. Olive Dennis (1885–1957), who became the second woman to graduate from Cornell with a civil engineering degree in 1920, was initially hired by the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad as a draftsman; however, she later became the first person to claim the title of Service Engineer when this title was created.
Alice Perry was the first woman in Europe to graduate with a degree in engineering in 1908 from Queen's College, Galway. Elisa Leonida Zamfirescu, a Romanian engineer graduated from the Technical University of Berlin in 1912.
Edith Clarke, the inventor of the graphical calculator, was the first woman to earn a degree in MIT's electrical engineering department in 1918. Clarke also became the first woman admitted to the American Institution of Electrical Engineers, the precursor to the IEEE. She taught at the University of Texas Austin, where she was the only woman faculty member in the engineering department.
The entry of the United States into World War II created a serious shortage of engineering talent as men were drafted into the armed forces at the same time that industry ramped up production of armaments, battleships, and airplanes. The U.S. Office of Education initiated a series of courses in science and engineering that were open to women as well as men.
Private programs for women included GE on-the-job engineering training for women with degrees in mathematics and physics, and the Curtiss-Wright Engineering Program had "Curtiss-Wright Cadettes" ("Engineering Cadettes", e.g., Rosella Fenton). The company partnered with Cornell, Penn State, Purdue, the University of Minnesota, the University of Texas, RPI, and Iowa State University to create an engineering curriculum that eventually enrolled over 600 women. The course lasted ten months and focused primarily on aircraft design and production.
Thelma Estrin (1924–2014 ), who would later become a pioneer in the fields of computer science and biomedical engineering, took a 1942 three-month engineering assistant course at Stevens Institute of Technology and earned University of Wisconsin BSc, MSc, and PhD degrees.
Through an accelerated program brought on by the war, Lois Graham (1925-2013) graduated from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1946 and was the first woman in the United States to receive a Ph.D. in mechanical engineering from Illinois Institute of Technology (M.S. ME ’49, Ph.D. ’59).
In 1943, the United States Army authorized a secret project at the University of Pennsylvania's Moore School of Electrical Engineering to develop an electronic computer to compute artillery firing tables for the Army's Ballistic Research Laboratory. The project, which came to be known as ENIAC, or Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer, was completed in 1946.
Previous to the development of the ENIAC, the U.S. Army had employed women trained in mathematics to calculate artillery trajectories, at first using mechanical desk calculators and later the differential analyzer developed by Vannevar Bush, at the Moore School. In 1945, one of these "computers", Kathleen McNulty (1921–2006), was selected to be one of the original programmers of the ENIAC, together with Frances Spence (1922– ), Betty Holberton (1917–2001), Marlyn Wescoff, Ruth Lichterman (1924–1986), and Betty Jean Jennings (1924–2011). McNulty, Holberton, and Jennings would later work on the UNIVAC, the first commercial computer developed by the Remington Rand Corporation in the early 1950s.
In 1946, Hattie Scott Peterson gained a degree in civil engineering, believed to be the first African-American woman to do so.
The Cold War and the space race between the United States and the Soviet Union created additional demands for trained engineering talent in the 1950s and 1960s. Many engineering schools in the U.S. that had previously admitted only male students began to tentatively adopt coeducation. After 116 years as an all-male institution, RPI began to admit small numbers of female students in the 1940s. Georgia Tech began to admit women engineering students in 1952, but only in programs not available in other state universities. It would be 1968 before women were admitted to all courses offered by Georgia Tech.
The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) had graduated its first female student, Ellen Swallow Richards (1842–1911) in 1873; she later became an instructor at MIT. However, until the 1960s, MIT enrolled few female engineering students, due in part to a lack of housing for women students. After the completion of the first women's dormitory on campus, McCormick Hall, in 1964, the number of women enrolled increased greatly. Influenced in part by the second wave feminism movement of the late 1960s and 1970s, female faculty members at MIT, including Mildred Dresselhaus and Sheila Widnall, began to actively promote the cause of women's engineering education.
The École Polytechnique in Paris first began to admit women students in 1972.
Margaret Hamilton is also notable for her contributions to computer and aerospace engineering in the 1970s. Hamilton, the director of the Software Engineering Division of the MIT Instrumentation Laboratory at the time, is famous for her work in writing the on-board guidance code for the Apollo 11 mission.
As more engineering programs were opened to women, the number of women enrolled in engineering programs increased dramatically. The number of BA/BS degrees in engineering awarded to women in the U.S. increased by 45 percent between 1980 and 1994. However, during the period of 1984–1994, the number of women graduating with a BA/BS degree in computer science decreased by 23 percent (from 37 percent of graduates in 1984 to 28 percent in 1994). This phenomenon became known as "The incredible shrinking pipeline," from the title of a 1997 paper on the subject by Dr. Tracy Camp, a professor in the Department of Mathematical and Computer Sciences at the Colorado School of Mines.
Some of the reasons for the decline cited in the paper included:
ন্যাশনাল সাইন্স ফাউন্ডেশন কর্তৃক গবেষণা অনুযায়ী, মার্কিন যুক্তরাষ্ট্রে নারীদের জন্য প্রদত্ত প্রকৌশলে বি.এ./বিএস ডিগ্রি ১৯৬৬-এ ০.৪% থেকে ক্রমাগতভাবে বেড়ে ২০০২-এ ২০.৯%-এ পৌছেছে, এবং তারপর ২০০৮ সালে সামান্য কমে ১৮.৫%-এ এসেছে। যাহোক, the trend identified in "The incredible shrinking pipeline" has continued; the percentage of BA/BS degrees in mathematics and computer science awarded to women peaked in 1985 at 39.5 percent, and declined steadily to 25.3 percent in 2008.
The percentage of master's degrees in engineering awarded to women increased steadily from 0.6 percent in 1966 to 22.9 percent in 2008. The percentage of doctoral degrees in engineering awarded to women during the same period increased from 0.3 percent to 21.5 percent.
অস্ট্রেলিয়ায় মাত্র ৯.৬% প্রকৌশলী নারী, এবং ১৯৯০-এর দশক থেকে প্রকৌশল ডিগ্রি কোর্সে মহিলাদের হার প্রায় ১৪%ই রয়ে গিয়েছে।
মহিলা প্রকৌশল স্নাতকদের হার ১৯৮৪ থেকে শতকরা ৭ ভাগ থেকে বেড়ে ২০০৭-এ শতকরা ১৫ ভাগে এসেছে। শিল্পে প্রকৌশলীদের অনুপাত, যারা নারী, অন্যদিকে, এখনও খুব কম যা ৬% - এটি ইইউ-এ সর্বনিম্ন হার।