Spectra: A Comprehensive Study of Ternary, Quantized, and FP16 Language
  Models
Authors: name: Ayush Kaushal, name: Tejas Pandey, name: Tejas Vaidhya, name: Aaryan Bhagat, name: Irina Rish

Post-training quantization is the leading method for addressing
memory-related bottlenecks in LLM inference, but unfortunately, it suffers from
significant performance degradation below 4-bit precision. An alternative
approach involves training compressed models directly at a low bitwidth (e.g.,
binary or ternary models). However, the performance, training dynamics, and
scaling trends of such models are not yet well understood. To address this
issue, we train and openly release the Spectra LLM suite consisting of 54
language models ranging from 99M to 3.9B parameters, trained on 300B tokens.
Spectra includes FloatLMs, post-training quantized QuantLMs (3, 4, 6, and 8
bits), and ternary LLMs (TriLMs) - our improved architecture for ternary
language modeling, which significantly outperforms previously proposed ternary
models of a given size (in bits), matching half-precision models at scale. For
example, TriLM 3.9B is (bit-wise) smaller than the half-precision FloatLM 830M,
but matches half-precision FloatLM 3.9B in commonsense reasoning and knowledge
benchmarks. However, TriLM 3.9B is also as toxic and stereotyping as FloatLM
3.9B, a model six times larger in size. Additionally, TriLM 3.9B lags behind
FloatLM in perplexity on validation splits and web-based corpora but performs
better on less noisy datasets like Lambada and PennTreeBank.
  To enhance understanding of low-bitwidth models, we are releasing 500+
intermediate checkpoints of the Spectra suite at
https://github.com/NolanoOrg/SpectraSuite{https://github.com/NolanoOrg/SpectraSuite}.