Data Mixture Inference: What do BPE Tokenizers Reveal about their
  Training Data?
Authors: name: Jonathan Hayase, name: Alisa Liu, name: Yejin Choi, name: Sewoong Oh, name: Noah A. Smith

The pretraining data of today's strongest language models is opaque. In
particular, little is known about the proportions of various domains or
languages represented. In this work, we tackle a task which we call data
mixture inference, which aims to uncover the distributional make-up of training
data. We introduce a novel attack based on a previously overlooked source of
information -- byte-pair encoding (BPE) tokenizers, used by the vast majority
of modern language models. Our key insight is that the ordered list of merge
rules learned by a BPE tokenizer naturally reveals information about the token
frequencies in its training data: the first merge is the most common byte pair,
the second is the most common pair after merging the first token, and so on.
Given a tokenizer's merge list along with data samples for each category of
interest, we formulate a linear program that solves for the proportion of each
category in the tokenizer's training set. Importantly, to the extent to which
tokenizer training data is representative of the pretraining data, we
indirectly learn about the pretraining data. In controlled experiments, we show
that our attack recovers mixture ratios with high precision for tokenizers
trained on known mixtures of natural languages, programming languages, and data
sources. We then apply our approach to off-the-shelf tokenizers released with
recent LMs. We confirm much publicly disclosed information about these models,
and also make several new inferences: GPT-4o's tokenizer is much more
multilingual than its predecessors, training on 39% non-English data; Llama3
extends GPT-3.5's tokenizer primarily for multilingual (48%) use; GPT-3.5's and
Claude's tokenizers are trained on predominantly code (~60%). We hope our work
sheds light on current design practices for pretraining data, and inspires
continued research into data mixture inference for LMs.