No "Zero-Shot" Without Exponential Data: Pretraining Concept Frequency
  Determines Multimodal Model Performance
Authors: name: Vishaal Udandarao, name: Ameya Prabhu, name: Adhiraj Ghosh, name: Yash Sharma, name: Philip H. S. Torr, name: Adel Bibi, name: Samuel Albanie, name: Matthias Bethge

Web-crawled pretraining datasets underlie the impressive "zero-shot"
evaluation performance of multimodal models, such as CLIP for
classification/retrieval and Stable-Diffusion for image generation. However, it
is unclear how meaningful the notion of "zero-shot" generalization is for such
multimodal models, as it is not known to what extent their pretraining datasets
encompass the downstream concepts targeted for during "zero-shot" evaluation.
In this work, we ask: How is the performance of multimodal models on downstream
concepts influenced by the frequency of these concepts in their pretraining
datasets? We comprehensively investigate this question across 34 models and
five standard pretraining datasets (CC-3M, CC-12M, YFCC-15M, LAION-400M,
LAION-Aesthetics), generating over 300GB of data artifacts. We consistently
find that, far from exhibiting "zero-shot" generalization, multimodal models
require exponentially more data to achieve linear improvements in downstream
"zero-shot" performance, following a sample inefficient log-linear scaling
trend. This trend persists even when controlling for sample-level similarity
between pretraining and downstream datasets, and testing on purely synthetic
data distributions. Furthermore, upon benchmarking models on long-tailed data
sampled based on our analysis, we demonstrate that multimodal models across the
board perform poorly. We contribute this long-tail test set as the "Let it
Wag!" benchmark to further research in this direction. Taken together, our
study reveals an exponential need for training data which implies that the key
to "zero-shot" generalization capabilities under large-scale training paradigms
remains to be found.