Liquidity and Capital Resources
Our primary sources of liquidity are cash flows from operations, available cash reserves and debt capacity available under various credit facilities. We could raise additional funds through other public or private debt or equity financings. We may use our available or additional funds to, among other things
facilitate purchases, redemptions and exchanges of shares and pay dividends;
acquire complementary businesses or technologies;
take advantage of opportunities, including more rapid expansion; or
develop new services and solutions.
As of August 31, 2019, Cash and cash equivalents were $6.1 billion, compared with $5.1 billion as of August 31, 2018.
Cash flows from operating, investing and financing activities, as reflected in our Consolidated Cash Flows Statements, are summarized in the following table:
Operating activities: The $600 million year-over-year increase in operating cash flow was due to higher net income as well as changes in operating assets and liabilities, including an increase in accounts payable, partially offset by higher tax disbursements.
Investing activities: The $506 million increase in cash used was primarily due to higher spending on business acquisitions and investments. For additional information, see Note 6 (Business Combinations) to our Consolidated Financial Statements under Item 8, “Financial Statements and Supplementary Data.”
Financing activities: The $58 million increase in cash used was primarily due to an increase in cash dividends paid as well as an increase in purchases of shares, partially offset by an increase in proceeds from share issuances and a decrease in the purchase of additional interests in consolidated subsidiaries. For additional information, see Note 14 (Material Transactions Affecting Shareholders’ Equity) to our Consolidated Financial Statements under Item 8, “Financial Statements and Supplementary Data.”
We believe that our current and longer-term working capital, investments and other general corporate funding requirements will be satisfied for the next twelve months and thereafter through cash flows from operations and, to the extent necessary, from our borrowing facilities and future financial market activities
Substantially all of our cash is held in jurisdictions where there are no regulatory restrictions or material tax effects on the free flow of funds. In addition, domestic cash inflows for our Irish parent, principally dividend distributions from lower-tier subsidiaries, have been sufficient to meet our historic cash requirements, and we expect this to continue into the future.
Table:
 | Fiscal 2019 | Fiscal 2018 | 2019 to 2018 Change
 |  | (in millions of U.S. dollars) | 
Net cash provided by (used in): |  |  | 
Operating activities | $6,627 | $6,027 | $600
Investing activities | (1,756) | (1,250) | (506)
Financing activities | (3,767) | (3,709) | (58)
Effect of exchange rate changes on cash and cash equivalents | (39) | (134) | 95
Net increase (decrease) in cash and cash equivalents | $1,065 | $934 | $131


Question: What is the total effect of exchange rate changes on cash and cash equivalents in both 2018 and 2019?
Answer: -173
Calculation: -39+(-134)