Hunter-gatherer

qas: question: What kind of human lives by collecting wild flora and fauna?
answers: text: hunter-gatherer

question: What type of society relies on domestication for producing food?
answers: text: agricultural

question: What type of plants and animals do agricultural groups harvest?
answers: text: domesticated species

question: A hunter-gatherer is an animal who obtains food by what?

question: Collecting wild plants and pursuing wild flowers defines what?

question: Which societies rely mainly on undomesticated species?

question:  A human living in a society in which most or all food is obtained by bargaining is known as what?

question: Foraging is a technique used by humans living in which society?
context: A hunter-gatherer is a human living in a society in which most or all food is obtained by foraging (collecting wild plants and pursuing wild animals), in contrast to agricultural societies, which rely mainly on domesticated species.

qas: question: What has been humans' best adaptation in food production?
answers: text: Hunting and gathering

question: What was the first way humans used to find food?
answers: text: Hunting and gathering

question: What stopped the widespread use of hunting and gathering?
answers: text: invention of agriculture

question: What are the basic types of agricultural groups?
answers: text: farming or pastoralist groups

question: What was humanity's second most successful adaptation?

question: Following the invention of gathering, hunter-gatherers have been what?

question: Hunting and gathering were represented by which groups?

question: Which group has been displaced or conquered by farming?

question: Which adaptation occupied at least 95 percent of human history?
context: Hunting and gathering was humanity's first and most successful adaptation, occupying at least 90 percent of human history. Following the invention of agriculture, hunter-gatherers have been displaced or conquered by farming or pastoralist groups in most parts of the world.

qas: question: How many groups of modern hunter-gatherers are there?
answers: text: Only a few

question: What do modern hunter-gatherers use to produce food in addition to gathering?
answers: text: horticulture and/or keeping animals

question: Who uses agriculture and animal domestication to supplement their food?
answers: text: hunter-gatherers

question: Besides  agriculture, how do gatherers add to their food supply?
answers: text: keeping animals

question: In addition to domesticated animals, how do gatherers supplement their food?
answers: text: horticulture

question: All of contemporary societies are classified as what?

question: Which societies replace foraging with horticulture and/or keeping animals?

question: Only a few ancient societies are classified as what?

question: All societies supplement their foraging activity with what?

question: How many ancient societies kept animals?
context: Only a few contemporary societies are classified as hunter-gatherers, and many supplement their foraging activity with horticulture and/or keeping animals.

qas: question: How did early humans locate meat without hunting ?
answers: text: scavenging

question: In addition to finding already dead animals, what other cause of death were their animal finds?
answers: text: natural causes

question: Where did hunter-gatherer peoples live?
answers: text: sparsely wooded areas

question: What type of area did early humans avoid?
answers: text: dense forest

question: Lewis Binford suggested that early humans were obtaining vegetables via scavenging in what decade?

question: Early humans in the Higher Paleolithic lived where?

question: Which population survived in densely wooded areas?

question: Which population dispersed through areas of low primary productivity?

question: Early humans in the Higher Paleolithic collected what?
context: In the 1950s, Lewis Binford suggested that early humans were obtaining meat via scavenging, not hunting. Early humans in the Lower Paleolithic lived in forests and woodlands, which allowed them to collect seafood, eggs, nuts, and fruits besides scavenging. Rather than killing large animals for meat, according to this view, they used carcasses of such animals that had either been killed by predators or that had died of natural causes. Archaeological and genetic data suggest that the source populations of Paleolithic hunter-gatherers survived in sparsely wooded areas and dispersed through areas of high primary productivity while avoiding dense forest cover.

qas: question: What is long-distance running as a food hunting-gathering technique?
answers: text: persistence hunting

question: What theory says that long-distance running drove the evolution of some human traits?
answers: text: endurance running hypothesis

question: Who still practices persistence hunting?
answers: text: some hunter-gatherer groups

question: Besides the endurance running hypothesis, what other theory of food collection is there?
answers: text: scavenging hypothesis

question: What food gathering techniques could have been used by early man at the same time?
answers: text: both subsistence strategies

question: Short-distance running was the driving evolutionary force for what?

question: What is a method practiced by all hunter-gatherer groups in modern times?

question: The scavenging hypothesis is still practiced by which groups? 

question: What contradicts with the scavenging hypothesis?
context: According to the endurance running hypothesis, long-distance running as in persistence hunting, a method still practiced by some hunter-gatherer groups in modern times, was likely the driving evolutionary force leading to the evolution of certain human characteristics. This hypothesis does not necessarily contradict the scavenging hypothesis: both subsistence strategies could have been in use – sequentially, alternating or even simultaneously.

qas: question: When did human populations begin using hunting-gathering?
answers: text: 1.8 million years ago

question: What phase of human used subsistence strategies to find food?
answers: text: Homo erectus

question: When did Homo sapiens begin using subsistence gathering?
answers: text: 0.2 million years ago

question: When did hunting-gathering begin to fade from use?
answers: text: 10,000 years ago

question: What began replacing hunting-gathering at the end of the Mesolithic period?
answers: text: Neolithic Revolution

question: What remained the only mode of subsistence until the end of the Paleolithic period?

question: What was replaced only gradually with the spread of the Mesolithic Revolution?

question: The Neolithic Period ended how many years ago?

question: Which revolution spread rapidly?

question: Which subsistence strategy started with the Neolithic Revolution?
context: Hunting and gathering was presumably the subsistence strategy employed by human societies beginning some 1.8 million years ago, by Homo erectus, and from its appearance some 0.2 million years ago by Homo sapiens. It remained the only mode of subsistence until the end of the Mesolithic period some 10,000 years ago, and after this was replaced only gradually with the spread of the Neolithic Revolution.

qas: question: During what period did hunter-gatherers begin to focus food collection on a more limited range?
answers: text: Middle to Upper Paleolithic

question: How many years ago did hunting-gatherers start specializing in their collection practices?
answers: text: 80,000 to 70,000 years ago

question: What was the change in gathering?
answers: text: a smaller selection

question: When did the use of agriculture begin it's spread?
answers: text: 12,000 years ago

question: The transition between the Lower and Middle Paleolithic period started when?

question: In what period did all hunter-gatherers begin to specialize?

question: The transition into the Paleolithic period is chiefly defined by what?

question: Agriculture ended how many years ago?

question: When hunter-gatherers began to specialize, they concentrated on a larger selection of what?
context: Starting at the transition between the Middle to Upper Paleolithic period, some 80,000 to 70,000 years ago, some hunter-gatherers bands began to specialize, concentrating on hunting a smaller selection of (often larger) game and gathering a smaller selection of food. This specialization of work also involved creating specialized tools, like fishing nets and hooks and bone harpoons. The transition into the subsequent Neolithic period is chiefly defined by the unprecedented development of nascent agricultural practices. Agriculture originated and spread in several different areas including the Middle East, Asia, Mesoamerica, and the Andes beginning as early as 12,000 years ago.

qas: question: In what kind of area did forest gardening start?
answers: text: jungle-clad river banks

question: In what other types of areas did forest gardening show up?
answers: text: foothills of monsoon regions

question: What kind of plant did these early gardeners seek out?
answers: text: tree and vine species

question: What use did forest gardeners put to tree and vines to?
answers: text: identified, protected and improved

question: What did these gardeners do about unwanted species?
answers: text: eliminated

question: What type of gardens originated in modern times?

question: What type of gardens were located in the dry foothills of monsoon regions?

question: Inferior foreign species were selected and incorporated where?

question: What was being used as a food production system in all parts of the world?

question: When families were trying to ruin their immediate environment, undesirable species were what?
context: Forest gardening was also being used as a food production system in various parts of the world over this period. Forest gardens originated in prehistoric times along jungle-clad river banks and in the wet foothills of monsoon regions.[citation needed] In the gradual process of families improving their immediate environment, useful tree and vine species were identified, protected and improved, whilst undesirable species were eliminated. Eventually superior foreign species were selected and incorporated into the gardens.

qas: question: Where do many modern day hunter-gatherers live?
answers: text: in the developing world

question: In what type of climate do hunter-gatherers live?
answers: text: arid regions or tropical forests

question: What kind of human life-style is pushing hunter-gatherers out of their environment?
answers: text: settlements of agriculturalists

question: What has Jared Diamond blamed the decline of gatherers on?
answers: text: availability of wild foods

question: What type of food animal went extict by the end of the Pleistocene era?
answers: text: large mammal species

question: What groups have continually increased in numbers?

question: All large mammal species have gone extinct in what countries?

question: Because of overpopulation, most large mammal species have what?

question: All hunter-gatherer groups reside where?

question: Competition for land use results in which societies remaining where they are?
context: Many groups continued their hunter-gatherer ways of life, although their numbers have continually declined, partly as a result of pressure from growing agricultural and pastoral communities. Many of them reside in the developing world, either in arid regions or tropical forests. Areas that were formerly available to hunter-gatherers were—and continue to be—encroached upon by the settlements of agriculturalists. In the resulting competition for land use, hunter-gatherer societies either adopted these practices or moved to other areas. In addition, Jared Diamond has blamed a decline in the availability of wild foods, particularly animal resources. In North and South America, for example, most large mammal species had gone extinct by the end of the Pleistocene—according to Diamond, because of overexploitation by humans, although the overkill hypothesis he advocates is strongly contested.[by whom?]

qas: question: Who expanded into the territory of hunter-gathers?
answers: text: agricultural societies

question: What did the increase in agricultural areas produce?
answers: text: first forms of government

question: What were the Fertile Crescent and Ancient India ?
answers: text: agricultural centers

question: What type of expansion was it in places like the Fertile Crescent?
answers: text: agriculture-driven

question: Why did agricultural societies push into hunter-gatherer areas?
answers: text: agricultural societies increased

question: What were some of the second forms of government in agricultural centers?

question: As the number and size of agricultural societies decreased, what happened?

question: The process of fores-driven expansion led to what?

question: The lands traditionally used by hunter-gatherers were overtaken by what forms of government?

question: What type of development led to agricultural expansion?
context: As the number and size of agricultural societies increased, they expanded into lands traditionally used by hunter-gatherers. This process of agriculture-driven expansion led to the development of the first forms of government in agricultural centers, such as the Fertile Crescent, Ancient India, Ancient China, Olmec, Sub-Saharan Africa and Norte Chico.

qas: question: What type of areas do modern hunter-gathers live in?
answers: text: unsuitable for agricultural use

question: How many modern hunter-gatherer cultures are there?
answers: text: few

question: What do people basically rely on now?
answers: text: agriculture

question: Who lives in areas not usable for agriculture?
answers: text: hunter-gatherer cultures

question: What kind of food production is worldwide now?
answers: text: reliance upon agriculture

question: The many contemporary hunter-gatherer cultures usually live where?

question: Humans almost never rely on what?

question: What cultures live in areas suitable for agricultural use?

question: Ancient hunter-gatherer cultures lived where?

question: How many cultures rely on agriculture?
context: As a result of the now near-universal human reliance upon agriculture, the few contemporary hunter-gatherer cultures usually live in areas unsuitable for agricultural use.

qas: question: What is the lifestyle of hunter-gatherers?
answers: text: nomadic or semi-nomadic

question: What is the permanence of hunter-gatherer settlements?
answers: text: temporary

question: What kind of building materials do they use?
answers: text: impermanent

question: What kind of natural structure do hunter-gatherers use?
answers: text: rock shelters

question: What is the movement ability of hunter-gathers?
answers: text: Mobile communities

question: Few hunter-gatherers live in what kind of settlements?

question: Permanent communities typically construct what?

question: What communities use natural wood shelters?

question: Which communities construct shelters using permanent building materials?

question: Which communities do not live a nomadic or semi-nomadic life?
context: Most hunter-gatherers are nomadic or semi-nomadic and live in temporary settlements. Mobile communities typically construct shelters using impermanent building materials, or they may use natural rock shelters, where they are available.

qas: question: What kind of area allowed a more permanent settlement?
answers: text: rich environments

question: What is the life style of the indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest?
answers: text: hunter-gatherer

question: What does a lush environment allow hunter-gatherers to be?
answers: text: sedentary or semi-sedentary

question: What kind of environment is the Pacific Northwest?
answers: text: rich environments

question: What are the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest?
answers: text: hunter-gatherer cultures

question: What cultures live in barren environments?

question: Which people lived in environments that allowed them to be nomadic?

question: What kind of environment allowed for a nomadic existence?

question: The peoples of the Pacific West Coast lived in what kind of environment?

question: The peoples of the Pacific East Coast lived what kind of lifestyle?
context: Some hunter-gatherer cultures, such as the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, lived in particularly rich environments that allowed them to be sedentary or semi-sedentary.

qas: question: What is the social style of hunter-gather societies?
answers: text: egalitarian

question:  Where do people who are an exception to egalitarianism live?
answers: text: Northwest Coast of North America

question: what group of hunter-gatherers are nearly all egalitarian?
answers: text: African

question: Nomadic hunter-gatherers are an exception to what rule?

question: Those inhabiting the Northeast Coast of North America are what kind of of hunter-gatherers?

question: Very few African hunter-gatherers are what?

question: In American culture, women are roughly what?

question: Women are not at all influential and powerful in what culture?
context: Hunter-gatherers tend to have an egalitarian social ethos, although settled hunter-gatherers (for example, those inhabiting the Northwest Coast of North America) are an exception to this rule. Nearly all African hunter-gatherers are egalitarian, with women roughly as influential and powerful as men.

qas: question: How is it interesting to view hunter-gatherers' egalitarianism?
answers: text: in an evolutionary context

question: What do chimpanzees act like as pertains to being egalitarianism?
answers: text: anything but egalitarian

question: How do chimpanzees arrange themselves in a group setting?
answers: text: into hierarchies

question: What is the dominate one in a chimpanzee group?
answers: text: alpha male

question: Humanity's closest primate relatives are the what?

question: Chimpanzees are similar to humans because they are what?

question: The formation of what was a key factor in the emergence of human consciousness?

question: The egalitarianism typical of human hunters and gatherers is always what?

question: What species is often dominated by an alpha female?
context: The egalitarianism typical of human hunters and gatherers is never total, but is striking when viewed in an evolutionary context. One of humanity's two closest primate relatives, chimpanzees, are anything but egalitarian, forming themselves into hierarchies that are often dominated by an alpha male. So great is the contrast with human hunter-gatherers that it is widely argued by palaeoanthropologists that resistance to being dominated was a key factor driving the evolutionary emergence of human consciousness, language, kinship and social organization.

qas: question: What permanent group representative do hunter-gatherers not have?
answers: text: permanent leaders

question: Initiative within the group depends upon what factor?
answers: text: task being performed

question: What group arrangement is usual in family authority?
answers: text: matrilocal

question: What is the kinship and decent system among hunter-gatherers?
answers: text: matrilineal

question: Which group has permanent leaders?

question: Who maintains that hunter/gatherers have permanent leaders?

question: Where is there often sexual disparity?

question: Young mothers get no child support from whom?

question: Which systems were relatively inflexible?
context: Anthropologists maintain that hunter/gatherers don't have permanent leaders; instead, the person taking the initiative at any one time depends on the task being performed. In addition to social and economic equality in hunter-gatherer societies, there is often, though not always, sexual parity as well. Hunter-gatherers are often grouped together based on kinship and band (or tribe) membership. Postmarital residence among hunter-gatherers tends to be matrilocal, at least initially. Young mothers can enjoy childcare support from their own mothers, who continue living nearby in the same camp. The systems of kinship and descent among human hunter-gatherers were relatively flexible, although there is evidence that early human kinship in general tended to be matrilineal.

qas: question: What value system do Western scholars tend to use in analyzing societies?
answers: text: Western values

question: Who does most of the gathering in a hunter-gatherer society?
answers: text: women

question: What group members are the big game hunters?
answers: text: men

question: What does the argument over women as gathers said to produce ?
answers: text: arrangement oppresses women

question: How is childcare viewed in a hunter-gatherer society?
answers: text: childcare is collective

question: What gave the Neanderthals the edge over Homo sapiens?

question: It is easy to view what arrangements in the light of Eastern values?

question: One rare arrangement is the sexual division of what?

question: Every baby had one mother and one male carer in what society?

question: Ancient archaeological research suggests that the sexual division of labor was what?
context: It is easy for Western-educated scholars to fall into the trap of viewing hunter-gatherer social and sexual arrangements in the light of Western values.[editorializing] One common arrangement is the sexual division of labour, with women doing most of the gathering, while men concentrate on big game hunting. It might be imagined that this arrangement oppresses women, keeping them in the domestic sphere. However, according to some observers, hunter-gatherer women would not understand this interpretation. Since childcare is collective, with every baby having multiple mothers and male carers, the domestic sphere is not atomised or privatised but an empowering place to be.[citation needed] In all hunter-gatherer societies, women appreciate the meat brought back to camp by men. An illustrative account is Megan Biesele's study of the southern African Ju/'hoan, 'Women Like Meat'. Recent archaeological research suggests that the sexual division of labor was the fundamental organisational innovation that gave Homo sapiens the edge over the Neanderthals, allowing our ancestors to migrate from Africa and spread across the globe.

qas: question: How is labor often divided in these groups?
answers: text: sexual division

question: What percentage of Aeta women hunt?
answers: text: 85%

question: What is the success rate of Aeta female hunters?
answers: text: 31%

question: What is the success rate for male Aeta hunters?
answers: text: 17%

question: In a majority of cases, women hunt what?

question: Among the Aeta people of Japan, how many women hunt?

question: The Ju'/hoansi women typically hunt in groups and with what?

question: Among the Ju'/hoansi women of China, women help men track down what?

question: Men in the Austrailian Martu primarily hunt small animals like what?
context: To this day, most hunter-gatherers have a symbolically structured sexual division of labour. However, it is true that in a small minority of cases, women hunt the same kind of quarry as men, sometimes doing so alongside men. The best-known example are the Aeta people of the Philippines. According to one study, "About 85% of Philippine Aeta women hunt, and they hunt the same quarry as men. Aeta women hunt in groups and with dogs, and have a 31% success rate as opposed to 17% for men. Their rates are even better when they combine forces with men: mixed hunting groups have a full 41% success rate among the Aeta." Among the Ju'/hoansi people of Namibia, women help men track down quarry. Women in the Australian Martu also primarily hunt small animals like lizards to feed their children and maintain relations with other women.

qas: question: At what conference did Richard Borshay speak?
answers: text: Man the Hunter

question: When was the Man the Hunter conference?
answers: text: 1966

question: Why is there a lessening of material possessions in hunting and gathering groups?
answers: text: mobility

question: What can decreased material possessions produce in a hunter-gatherer society?
answers: text: egalitarianism

question: What other characteristic is variable for these groups?
answers: text: territorial boundaries

question: A surplus of resources can be accumulated by any member in which societies?

question: Which 1966 conference did geologists Richard Borshay Lee and Irven DeVore attend?

question: The sedentary life of nomadic hunting and gathering societies required what?

question: At the 1973 "Man the Hunter" conference egalitarianism was suggested as what?

question: Other characteristics proposed by Lee and DeVore were stability in territorial boundaries and what?
context: At the 1966 "Man the Hunter" conference, anthropologists Richard Borshay Lee and Irven DeVore suggested that egalitarianism was one of several central characteristics of nomadic hunting and gathering societies because mobility requires minimization of material possessions throughout a population. Therefore, no surplus of resources can be accumulated by any single member. Other characteristics Lee and DeVore proposed were flux in territorial boundaries as well as in demographic composition.

qas: question: Who called hunter-gathers the original affluent society?
answers: text: Marshall Sahlins

question: When did Ross Sackett study time and energy for hunter-gartherer groups?
answers: text: 1996

question: How long a day do people in other societies work?
answers: text: 8.8 hours a day

question: What was the title of Ross Sackett's paper in which he challenged the popular view of hunter-gatherer lives?

question: In 1851, Thomas Hobbes described hunter-gatherers as what?

question: Data showed that hunter-gatherers enjoyed less leisure time than whom?

question: Which group did not typically eat well?

question: Marshall Sahlins performed analysis testing Sackett's view in what year?
context: At the same conference, Marshall Sahlins presented a paper entitled, "Notes on the Original Affluent Society", in which he challenged the popular view of hunter-gatherers lives as "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short," as Thomas Hobbes had put it in 1651. According to Sahlins, ethnographic data indicated that hunter-gatherers worked far fewer hours and enjoyed more leisure than typical members of industrial society, and they still ate well. Their "affluence" came from the idea that they were satisfied with very little in the material sense. Later, in 1996, Ross Sackett performed two distinct meta-analyses to empirically test Sahlin's view. The first of these studies looked at 102 time-allocation studies, and the second one analyzed 207 energy-expenditure studies. Sackett found that adults in foraging and horticultural societies work, on average, about 6.5 hours a day, where as people in agricultural and industrial societies work on average 8.8 hours a day.

qas: question: What other characteristic of group behavior is needed in a hunter-gatherer society?
answers: text: sharing

question: What is the basis of a hunting an gathering economy?
answers: text: gift economy

question: Hoarding of resources are important in what societies?

question: What societies can be described as a "hoarding economy"?

question: What is important in the numerical systems of hunter-gatherer societies?

question: Not exchanging resources is important in which societies?

question: Which societies can be described as a "mutual economy"?
context: Mutual exchange and sharing of resources (i.e., meat gained from hunting) are important in the economic systems of hunter-gatherer societies. Therefore, these societies can be described as based on a "gift economy."

qas: question: What is the only important factor in hunter-gatherer tool choices?
answers: text: temperature

question: What does climate produce in hunter-gatherer societies?
answers: text: variability

question: What is the threat that extreme temperature causes in environment?
answers: text: significant

question: What does temperature impact on tool kits?
answers: text: increased variability of tools

question: What is Torrence's 1989 theory about that ties into tool kit variability ?
answers: text: risk of failure

question: What was found to be one of the many significant factors affecting hunter-gatherer tool kits?

question: Environments with stable temperatures posed a risk to which systems?

question: Risk of success is the most important factor in determining the structure of whose toolkits?

question: Payment structure affected the variability of which societies?

question: Torrence found temperature to be a significant factor for toolkits in what year?
context: Hunter-gatherer societies manifest significant variability, depending on climate zone/life zone, available technology and societal structure. Archaeologists examine hunter-gatherer tool kits to measure variability across different groups. Collard et al. (2005) found temperature to be the only statistically significant factor to impact hunter-gatherer tool kits. Using temperature as a proxy for risk, Collard et al.'s results suggest that environments with extreme temperatures pose a threat to hunter-gatherer systems significant enough to warrant increased variability of tools. These results support Torrence's (1989) theory that risk of failure is indeed the most important factor in determining the structure of hunter-gatherer toolkits.

qas: question: What  does the immediate return system mean?
answers: text: egalitarian

question: To what kind of group does the delayed return system belong?
answers: text: nonegalitarian

question: Which group eats their acquired food in a day or two?
answers: text: immediate return

question: What is the only way to divide hunter-gatherer groups?

question: Temporary return foragers consume their food when?

question: Kelly uses the the category "immediate return" hunter-gatherers for what?

question: Kelly uses the the category "delayed return" hunter-gatherers for what?

question: What type of forager stores their food within a day or two after they procure it?
context: One way to divide hunter-gatherer groups is by their return systems. James Woodburn uses the categories "immediate return" hunter-gatherers for egalitarian and "delayed return" for nonegalitarian. Immediate return foragers consume their food within a day or two after they procure it. Delayed return foragers store the surplus food (Kelly, 31).

qas: question: How do modern hunters and gathers differ from early ones?
answers: text: contact with modern civilization

question: What type of conditions are not present in modern societies?
answers: text: pristine

question: Where do you find groups that represent pristine conditions?
answers: text: in uncontacted peoples

question: What do modern hunter-gatherers not reflect?
answers: text: Paleolithic societies

question: Hunting-gathering was the uncommon human mode of subsistence throughout what?

question: Hunter-gatherer cultures today represent what?

question: Observation of ancient hunters and gatherers does not necessarily reflect what?

question: Hunter-gatherer cultures examined today have almost no contact with who?

question: What cultures represent "pristine" conditions found in uncontacted peoples?
context: Hunting-gathering was the common human mode of subsistence throughout the Paleolithic, but the observation of current-day hunters and gatherers does not necessarily reflect Paleolithic societies; the hunter-gatherer cultures examined today have had much contact with modern civilization and do not represent "pristine" conditions found in uncontacted peoples.

qas: question: What is hunting and gathering argued to be?
answers: text: adaptive strategy

question: What situation can cause food stresses that make hunting-gathering necessary?
answers: text: environmental change

question: What change from hunting and gathering to agriculture is not easy to mark?
answers: text: transition

question: Besides the use of agriculture, what other factor clouds the issue of the transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture?
answers: text: cultural diffusion

question: How long has this cultural diffusion been happening?
answers: text: last 10,000 years

question: The transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture is always a what process?

question: It is easy to draw a clear line between what?

question: The adaptive strategy has remained unchanged since what decade?

question: When will hunting and gathering never be exploited?

question: The resulting cultural infusion has occurred in the last how many years?
context: The transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture is not necessarily a one way process. It has been argued that hunting and gathering represents an adaptive strategy, which may still be exploited, if necessary, when environmental change causes extreme food stress for agriculturalists. In fact, it is sometimes difficult to draw a clear line between agricultural and hunter-gatherer societies, especially since the widespread adoption of agriculture and resulting cultural diffusion that has occurred in the last 10,000 years.[citation needed] This anthropological view has remained unchanged since the 1960s.[clarification needed][citation needed]

qas: question: If they're not purely hunter-gatherers, then what do they have a history of being?
answers: text: agriculturalists

question: What caused these one-time agriculturalists to become foragers??
answers: text: pushed into marginal areas

question: What kind of upset could force agriculturalists into being foragers?
answers: text: migrations

question: Besides economic troubles, what else could push a people into foraging?
answers: text: violent conflict

question: In the early 1980s, a large group of anthropologists and archaeologists attempted what?

question: In very few cases, the ancestors of hunter-gatherers were what?

question: There has been simple interaction between hunter-gatherers and whom?

question: Ho wlong has there been simple interaction between hunter-gatherers and non-hunter-gatherers?

question: A small but vocal segment of architects attempted to demonstrate their knowledge of hunter-gatherers in what decade?
context: In the early 1980s, a small but vocal segment of anthropologists and archaeologists attempted to demonstrate that contemporary groups usually identified as hunter-gatherers do not, in most cases, have a continuous history of hunting and gathering, and that in many cases their ancestors were agriculturalists and/or pastoralists[citation needed] who were pushed into marginal areas as a result of migrations, economic exploitation, and/or violent conflict (see, for example, the Kalahari Debate). The result of their effort has been the general acknowledgement that there has been complex interaction between hunter-gatherers and non-hunter-gatherers for millennia.[citation needed]

qas: question: What can be learned from the study of modern hunter-gatherers?
answers: text: nothing meaningful

question: Who thinks that it is useless to study modern foragers since the real ones are gone?
answers: text: theorists

question: What type of hunter-gatherer has disappeared ?
answers: text: pure hunter-gatherer

question: The "pure hunter-gatherer" appeared not long after what?

question: Many meaningful things can be learned about prehistoric hunter-gatherers from what?

question: Nothing meaningful can be learned about modern hunter gatherers from the studies of what?

question: Who advocates this "reviled" critique?

question: What do some theorists imply about modern hunter-gatherers?
context: Some of the theorists who advocate this "revisionist" critique imply that, because the "pure hunter-gatherer" disappeared not long after colonial (or even agricultural) contact began, nothing meaningful can be learned about prehistoric hunter-gatherers from studies of modern ones (Kelly, 24-29; see Wilmsen)

qas: question: Who has rejected Wilmsen's arguments?
answers: text: Lee and Guenther

question: Whose lifestyle does Shultziner think we can learn about?
answers: text: prehistoric hunter-gatherers

question: What is it about prehistoric hunter-gatherers that impresses Shultziner?
answers: text: egalitarianism

question: Who has offered arguments that Lee and Guenther disliked?
answers: text: Wilmsen

question: Wilmsen has rejected most of the arguments put forth by whom?

question: Who has argued that we can learn a lot about the lifestyles of modern hunter-gatherers?

question: Who does not have impressive levels of egalitarianism?

question: Studies of prehistoric hunter-gatherers can shed light on which group?

question: Which group does Shultziner believe we can't learn anything from?
context: Lee and Guenther have rejected most of the arguments put forward by Wilmsen. Doron Shultziner and others have argued that we can learn a lot about the life-styles of prehistoric hunter-gatherers from studies of contemporary hunter-gatherers—especially their impressive levels of egalitarianism.

qas: question: What do hunter-gathers intentionally manipulate?
answers: text: the landscape

question: How do they manage the landscape?
answers: text: cutting or burning undesirable plants

question: What technique do they use to make animal habitats?
answers: text: slash-and-burn

question: What is the manipulation of the landscape associated with?
answers: text: agriculture

question: What do modern hunter-gatherers depend on at least somewhat?
answers: text: domesticated food

question: Many hunter-gatherers unconsciously manipulate what?

question: None of the modern hunter-gatherers depend of which kind of food sources?

question: Which group uses a slash-and-burn technique to create habitats for humans?

question: Which group burns desirable plants while encouraging undesirable ones?

question: Very few hunter-gatherers encourage domestication on what level?
context: Many hunter-gatherers consciously manipulate the landscape through cutting or burning undesirable plants while encouraging desirable ones, some even going to the extent of slash-and-burn to create habitat for game animals. These activities are on an entirely different scale to those associated with agriculture, but they are nevertheless domestication on some level. Today, almost all hunter-gatherers depend to some extent upon domesticated food sources either produced part-time or traded for products acquired in the wild.

qas: question: What do some agriculturalists often do?
answers: text: hunt and gather

question: What do they sometimes do for entertainment?
answers: text: go hunting

question: Why would they leave agricultural lifestyle?
answers: text: to escape colonial control

question: Besides avoiding government controls, what other reason could they have?
answers: text: agriculture became difficult

question: All agriculturalists also what?

question: Others in undeveloped countries go hunting, primarily for what?

question: In the African rainforest, groups continue to rely on what?

question: Groups in what area have accepted colonial control?

question: Hunting is usually done in the frost-free what?
context: Some agriculturalists also regularly hunt and gather (e.g., farming during the frost-free season and hunting during the winter). Still others in developed countries go hunting, primarily for leisure. In the Brazilian rainforest, those groups that recently did, or even continue to, rely on hunting and gathering techniques seem to have adopted this lifestyle, abandoning most agriculture, as a way to escape colonial control and as a result of the introduction of European diseases reducing their populations to levels where agriculture became difficult.[citation needed][dubious – discuss]

qas: question: What is the name of the Spinifex people?
answers: text: Pila Nguru

question: Where do the Pila Nguru people live?
answers: text: Western Australia

question: Who refuses contact with outsiders on Sentinel Island?
answers: text: Sentinelese

question: Where are the Sentinelese and the Andaman Islands?
answers: text: Indian Ocean

question: Which group is located in Western Austria?

question: Which group is located in the Gobi Desert?

question: Which group lives on the North Sands Island?

question: Which group has not maintained their independent existence?

question: The habitat located where has proved suitable for European agriculture?
context: There are nevertheless a number of contemporary hunter-gatherer peoples who, after contact with other societies, continue their ways of life with very little external influence. One such group is the Pila Nguru (Spinifex people) of Western Australia, whose habitat in the Great Victoria Desert has proved unsuitable for European agriculture (and even pastoralism).[citation needed] Another are the Sentinelese of the Andaman Islands in the Indian Ocean, who live on North Sentinel Island and to date have maintained their independent existence, repelling attempts to engage with and contact them.[citation needed]

qas: question: These ancient hunter-gathers followed what path in pursuit of game?
answers: text: ice-free corridors

question: Between what ice sheets were the corridors located?
answers: text: Laurentide and Cordilleran

question: What other way could they have crossed on to this continent?
answers: text: primitive boats

question: Small-game hunters crossed which Strait?

question: Hunter-gatherers traveled along iced corridors how many years ago?

question: Big-game hunters cam from Asia into South America over what bridge?

question: Using advanced boats, they also could have migrated down the Pacific to where?

question: A land bridge from Asia into South America existed how many years ago?
context: Evidence suggests big-game hunter gatherers crossed the Bering Strait from Asia (Eurasia) into North America over a land bridge (Beringia), that existed between 47,000–14,000 years ago. Around 18,500-15,500 years ago, these hunter-gatherers are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct Pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets. Another route proposed is that, either on foot or using primitive boats, they migrated down the Pacific coast to South America.

qas: question: Where did the North American hunter-gathers mostly live?
answers: text: Great Plains

question: What basic trait do all hunter-gatherers share?
answers: text: stone tool production

question: What is it about the tool styles that is remarkable?
answers: text: common style

question: Where have early Paleo -Indian tools been found?
answers: text: across the Americas

question: How many members did the mobile tool-making hunters often have?
answers: text: 25 to 50 members

question: Which group was spread over small geographical area?

question: All individual groups shared a uncommon style of what?

question: These tool adaptations have been utilized by highly sedentary what?

question: Hunter-gatherers would never flourish over the what?

question: There were very few regional variations in lifestyles among which group?
context: Hunter-gatherers would eventually flourish all over the Americas, primarily based in the Great Plains of the United States and Canada, with offshoots as far east as the Gaspé Peninsula on the Atlantic coast, and as far south as Chile, Monte Verde.[citation needed] American hunter-gatherers were spread over a wide geographical area, thus there were regional variations in lifestyles. However, all the individual groups shared a common style of stone tool production, making knapping styles and progress identifiable. This early Paleo-Indian period lithic reduction tool adaptations have been found across the Americas, utilized by highly mobile bands consisting of approximately 25 to 50 members of an extended family.

qas: question: What kind of climate occurred in the Americas?
answers: text: warmer more arid

question: What disappeared during the Archaic period?
answers: text: megafauna

question: What became the norm for the mobile bands?
answers: text: regional adaptations

question: What did they rely less and less on?
answers: text: hunting and gathering

question: What was there a pattern of in this period?
answers: text: increasing regional generalization

question: Which period in the Americas saw an unchanging environment?

question: The first appearance of the megafauna happened in what period?

question: A colder, more arid climate happened in what period?

question: The minority of population groups at this time were what?

question: Which groups started to focus on resources available to them globally?
context: The Archaic period in the Americas saw a changing environment featuring a warmer more arid climate and the disappearance of the last megafauna. The majority of population groups at this time were still highly mobile hunter-gatherers; but now individual groups started to focus on resources available to them locally, thus with the passage of time there is a pattern of increasing regional generalization like, the Southwest, Arctic, Poverty, Dalton and Plano traditions. This regional adaptations would become the norm, with reliance less on hunting and gathering, with a more mixed economy of small game, fish, seasonally wild vegetables and harvested plant foods.