Translation

qas: question: What Latin word does the English word translation come from?
answers: text: translatio

question: What languages use equivalents of the English term "translation" that come from the same Latin source?
answers: text: Romance

question: What does Latin's traducere mean in English?
answers: text: "to lead across"

question: Slavic and Germanic languages also use a similar loanword from what source?
answers: text: Latin

question: What does the Dutch word "vertaling" roughly translate to?
answers: text: "re-language-ing"

question: What French word does the English word translation come from?

question: What languages use equivalents of the German term "translation" that come from the same Latin source?

question: What does Russia's traducere mean in English?

question: What does the American word "vertaling" roughly translate to?

question: What language is always derived from Latin?
context: The English word "translation" derives from the Latin translatio (which itself comes from trans- and from fero, the supine form of which is latum—together meaning "a carrying across" or "a bringing across"). The modern Romance languages use equivalents of the English term "translation" that are derived from that same Latin source or from the alternative Latin traducere ("to lead across" or "to bring across"). The Slavic and Germanic languages (except in the case of the Dutch equivalent, "vertaling"—a "re-language-ing") likewise use calques of these Latin sources.

qas: question: How much has translation changed since antiquity?
answers: text: hardly

question: What kind of diversity has the practice of translation had?
answers: text: theoretical

question: When were there some extreme metaphrasers?
answers: text: early Christian period and the Middle Ages

question: What have general been prudent about?
answers: text: seeking equivalents

question: For crucial values, what type of values do translators use where possible?
answers: text: literal

question: How much has translation stayed the same since antiquity?

question: What kind of segregation has the practice of translation had?

question: When were there some minor metaphrasers?

question: What have translators generally been awful at doing?

question: What type of values do translators avoid where possible?
context: Despite occasional theoretical diversity, the actual practice of translation has hardly changed since antiquity. Except for some extreme metaphrasers in the early Christian period and the Middle Ages, and adapters in various periods (especially pre-Classical Rome, and the 18th century), translators have generally shown prudent flexibility in seeking equivalents — "literal" where possible, paraphrastic where necessary — for the original meaning and other crucial "values" (e.g., style, verse form, concordance with musical accompaniment or, in films, with speech articulatory movements) as determined from context.

qas: question: What have translators tried to preserve?
answers: text: context itself

question: How do translators preserve context?
answers: text: reproducing the original order of sememes

question: What is it sometimes necessary to reinterpret when translating?
answers: text: grammatical structure

question: What is the active voice sometimes shifted to when needed?
answers: text: passive

question: What are the syntax characteristics of a text's source language adjusted to for a target language?
answers: text: syntactic requirements

question: What have translators tried to get rid of?

question: How do translators obfuscate context?

question: What is it sometimes unnecessary to reinterpret when translating?

question: What is the active voice never shifted to when needed?
context: In general, translators have sought to preserve the context itself by reproducing the original order of sememes, and hence word order — when necessary, reinterpreting the actual grammatical structure, for example, by shifting from active to passive voice, or vice versa. The grammatical differences between "fixed-word-order" languages (e.g. English, French, German) and "free-word-order" languages (e.g., Greek, Latin, Polish, Russian) have been no impediment in this regard. The particular syntax (sentence-structure) characteristics of a text's source language are adjusted to the syntactic requirements of the target language.

qas: question: A greater ratio of metaphrase to paraphrase can be used translating when there as been greater what between languages?
answers: text: contact and exchange

question: What is a common etymology sometimes misleading as?
answers: text: guide to current meaning

question: What does the French "actuel" mean in English?
answers: text: present

question: How would you convey that something is "presently of importance" in Swedish?
answers: text: aktuell

question: To indicate something is feasible in Polish, what word could be used?
answers: text: aktualny

question: What is a common etymology sometimes clarified as?

question: What does the German "actuel" mean in English?

question: How would you convey that something is "presently of importance" in Hebrew?

question: What word can't be used to indicate something is impossible in Polish?

question: What never exists between two different languages?
context: Generally, the greater the contact and exchange that have existed between two languages, or between those languages and a third one, the greater is the ratio of metaphrase to paraphrase that may be used in translating among them. However, due to shifts in ecological niches of words, a common etymology is sometimes misleading as a guide to current meaning in one or the other language. For example, the English actual should not be confused with the cognate French actuel ("present", "current"), the Polish aktualny ("present", "current," "topical," "timely," "feasible"), the Swedish aktuell ("topical", "presently of importance"), the Russian актуальный ("urgent", "topical") or the Dutch actueel.

qas: question: How long has a translator's part in bridging values between cultures been discussed?
answers: text: at least since Terence

question: What did Terence adapt from the Greek's?
answers: text: comedies

question: A translator's role is less like a robot and more like a what?
answers: text: artist

question: Where was the concept of parallel creation found?
answers: text: Cicero

question: Who remarked about Alexander Pope playing Homer on a flageolet?
answers: text: Samuel Johnson

question: How long has a translator's part in bridging values between cultures been avoided?

question: What did Terence destroy from the Greek's?

question: What is a translator's role never like?

question: Where was the concept of parallel creation lost?

question: Who remained silent about Alexander Pope playing Homer on a flageolet?
context: The translator's role as a bridge for "carrying across" values between cultures has been discussed at least since Terence, the 2nd-century-BCE Roman adapter of Greek comedies. The translator's role is, however, by no means a passive, mechanical one, and so has also been compared to that of an artist. The main ground seems to be the concept of parallel creation found in critics such as Cicero. Dryden observed that "Translation is a type of drawing after life..." Comparison of the translator with a musician or actor goes back at least to Samuel Johnson’s remark about Alexander Pope playing Homer on a flageolet, while Homer himself used a bassoon.

qas: question: When it comes to translation, what is less commonly used today?
answers: text: earlier approaches

question: When do earlier approaches to translation still have relevance for historians?
answers: text: when historians view ancient or medieval records

question: What do historians try to piece together from pre-Western environments?
answers: text: events

question: What do Chinese and related translations retain unique to their tradition?
answers: text: theories and philosophies

question: When it comes to translation what is illegally used today?

question: When do earlier approaches to translation lose relevance for historians?

question: What do historians try to take apart from pre-Western environments?

question: What do Chinese and related translations have none of for their tradition?
context: Though earlier approaches to translation are less commonly used today, they retain importance when dealing with their products, as when historians view ancient or medieval records to piece together events which took place in non-Western or pre-Western environments. Also, though heavily influenced by Western traditions and practiced by translators taught in Western-style educational systems, Chinese and related translation traditions retain some theories and philosophies unique to the Chinese tradition.

qas: question: When did translation of material into Arabic begin to increase?
answers: text: 5th century

question: What allowed the expansion of Arabic translations during the 5th century?
answers: text: creation of Arabic script

question: What material was initial Arab translations primarily focused on?
answers: text: politics

question: What cultures' classical works were later translated into Arabic?
answers: text: Greek and Persian

question: What type of translation drew heavily on earlier Near Eastern traditions?
answers: text: Arabic

question: When did translation of material into Arabic begin to stop?

question: What allowed the reduction of Arabic translations during the 5th century?

question: What material was initial Arab translations rarely focused on?

question: What cultures' classical works were never translated into Arabic?

question: What type of translation had no influence from earlier Near Eastern traditions?
context: Translation of material into Arabic expanded after the creation of Arabic script in the 5th century, and gained great importance with the rise of Islam and Islamic empires. Arab translation initially focused primarily on politics, rendering Persian, Greek, even Chinese and Indic diplomatic materials into Arabic. It later focused on translating classical Greek and Persian works, as well as some Chinese and Indian texts, into Arabic for scholarly study at major Islamic learning centers, such as the Al-Karaouine (Fes, Morocco), Al-Azhar (Cairo, Egypt), and the Al-Nizamiyya of Baghdad. In terms of theory, Arabic translation drew heavily on earlier Near Eastern traditions as well as more contemporary Greek and Persian traditions.

qas: question: Why are Arabic translation efforts important to Western translation traditions?
answers: text: centuries of close contacts and exchanges

question: When did Europeans begin more intense studying of Arabic translations of classical works?
answers: text: after the Renaissance

question: What did Arabic, and to a less extent Persian, become to Europeans?
answers: text: important sources of material

question: What helped revitalize Western translation traditions from Arabic?
answers: text: techniques

question: What would Western traditions eventually do?
answers: text: overtake the Islamic and oriental traditions

question: Why are Arabic translation efforts pointless to Western translation traditions?

question: When did Europeans begin less intense studying of Arabic translations of classical works?

question: Who never studied Arabic and Persian translations?

question: What helped ruin Western translation traditions from Arabic?

question: What would Western traditions eventually avoid?
context: Arabic translation efforts and techniques are important to Western translation traditions due to centuries of close contacts and exchanges. Especially after the Renaissance, Europeans began more intensive study of Arabic and Persian translations of classical works as well as scientific and philosophical works of Arab and oriental origins. Arabic and, to a lesser degree, Persian became important sources of material and perhaps of techniques for revitalized Western traditions, which in time would overtake the Islamic and oriental traditions.

qas: question: What transformed Arabic languages?
answers: text: movement to translate English and European texts

question: What came to be valued over previous convolutions?
answers: text: new words, simplified syntax, and directness

question: Who expressed skepticism regarding the transformation of Arabic?
answers: text: Educated Arabs and Turks

question: What was legitimate knowledge no longer defined by?
answers: text: texts in the religious schools

question: What was a neologism expressing the introduction of new ideas via translation?
answers: text: Darwinism

question: What kept Arabic languages the same?

question: What came to be hated over previous convolutions?

question: Who expressed hostility regarding the transformation of Arabic?

question: What was fake knowledge no longer defined by?

question: What was not considered a neologism expressing the introduction of new ideas via translation?
context: The movement to translate English and European texts transformed the Arabic and Ottoman Turkish languages, and new words, simplified syntax, and directness came to be valued over the previous convolutions. Educated Arabs and Turks in the new professions and the modernized civil service expressed skepticism, writes Christopher de Bellaigue, "with a freedom that is rarely witnessed today.... No longer was legitimate knowledge defined by texts in the religious schools, interpreted for the most part with stultifying literalness. It had come to include virtually any intellectual production anywhere in the world." One of the neologisms that, in a way, came to characterize the infusion of new ideas via translation was "darwiniya", or "Darwinism".

qas: question: What two countries divvied up the Middle East's countries after WWI?
answers: text: Britain and France

question: What was the dividing up of the Middle Eastern countries in violation of?
answers: text: solemn wartime promises of postwar Arab autonomy

question: A reaction to Britain and France's actions was the emergence of what group in Egypt?
answers: text: Muslim Brotherhood

question: de Bellaigne attributed the growth of Islamism and militarism to what Western catalyst?
answers: text: empire-builders

question: What did the aspirations of the Muslim world's translators find themselves yielding to?
answers: text: retrograde currents

question: What two countries abandoned Middle East's countries after WWI?

question: What was the merging of Middle Eastern countries in violation of?

question: What group's emergence in Egypt was a punishment to Britain and Korea's actions?

question: What did the aspirations of the Muslim world's translators find themselves immune to?

question: Who was not interested in being a translator?
context: After World War I, when Britain and France divided up the Middle East's countries, apart from Turkey, between them, pursuant to the Sykes-Picot agreement—in violation of solemn wartime promises of postwar Arab autonomy—there came an immediate reaction: the Muslim Brotherhood emerged in Egypt, the House of Saud took over the Hijaz, and regimes led by army officers came to power in Iran and Turkey. "[B]oth illiberal currents of the modern Middle East," writes de Bellaigne, "Islamism and militarism, received a major impetus from Western empire-builders." As often happens in countries undergoing social crisis, the aspirations of the Muslim world's translators and modernizers, such as Muhammad Abduh, largely had to yield to retrograde currents.

qas: question: Where do many non-transparent translation theories delve for concepts?
answers: text: German Romanticism

question: What nationality was Friedrich Schleiermacher?
answers: text: German

question: When did Schleiermacher publish his lecture "On the Different Methods of Translation"?
answers: text: 1813

question: Moving the writer toward the reader would be an example of what type of translation method?
answers: text: transparency

question: What method of translation did Schleiermacher favor?
answers: text: extreme fidelity to the foreignness of the source text

question: Where do no non-transparent translation theories delve for concepts?

question: What nationality was Friedrich Schleiermacher afraid of?

question: When did Schleiermacher erase his lecture "On the Different Methods of Translation"?

question: What type of translation method would moving the writer away from the reader be an example of?

question: What method of translation did Schleiermacher dislike?
context: Many non-transparent-translation theories draw on concepts from German Romanticism, the most obvious influence being the German theologian and philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher. In his seminal lecture "On the Different Methods of Translation" (1813) he distinguished between translation methods that move "the writer toward [the reader]", i.e., transparency, and those that move the "reader toward [the author]", i.e., an extreme fidelity to the foreignness of the source text. Schleiermacher favored the latter approach; he was motivated, however, not so much by a desire to embrace the foreign, as by a nationalist desire to oppose France's cultural domination and to promote German literature.

qas: question: What is sometimes used to check the accuracy of a translation?
answers: text: Comparison of a back-translation with the original text

question: How are mathematical operations checked?
answers: text: by reversing the operation

question: What operations are results from not always completely reliable?
answers: text: reverse-translation operations

question: What symbol set has a defining property of ambiguity?
answers: text: linguistic

question: What symbol set has the property of being intentionally unequivocal?
answers: text: mathematical

question: What is no longer used to check the accuracy of a translation?

question: How are mathematical operations ignored?

question: What operations are always reliable?

question: What symbol set has no defining property of ambiguity?

question: What symbol set has the property of being unintentionally unequivocal?
context: Comparison of a back-translation with the original text is sometimes used as a check on the accuracy of the original translation, much as the accuracy of a mathematical operation is sometimes checked by reversing the operation. But the results of such reverse-translation operations, while useful as approximate checks, are not always precisely reliable. Back-translation must in general be less accurate than back-calculation because linguistic symbols (words) are often ambiguous, whereas mathematical symbols are intentionally unequivocal.

qas: question: Who provided a humorous example of the unreliability of back-translation? 
answers: text: Mark Twain

question: For what language did Twain create a back-translation?
answers: text: French

question: When was Twain's back-translation published?
answers: text: 1903

question: What include a synopsized adaptation of Twain's story?
answers: text: "Private History of the 'Jumping Frog' Story"

question: What had been thought for a while to be an independent ancient Greek precursor to Twain's story?
answers: text: "The Athenian and the Frog"

question: Who provided a boring example of the unreliability of back-translation?

question: What language did Twain remove a back-translation?

question: When was Twain's back-translation rejected?

question: What lacked a synopsized adaptation of Twain's story?

question: What had been thought for a while to be a dependent ancient Roman precursor to Twain's story?
context: Mark Twain provided humorously telling evidence for the frequent unreliability of back-translation when he issued his own back-translation of a French translation of his short story, "The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County". He published his back-translation in a 1903 volume together with his English-language original, the French translation, and a "Private History of the 'Jumping Frog' Story". The latter included a synopsized adaptation of his story that Twain stated had appeared, unattributed to Twain, in a Professor Sidgwick’s Greek Prose Composition (p. 116) under the title, "The Athenian and the Frog"; the adaptation had for a time been taken for an independent ancient Greek precursor to Twain's "Jumping Frog" story.

qas: question: What do researchers use back-translation to try to reconstruct when a document survives only in translation?
answers: text: the original text

question: Who was Jan Potocki?
answers: text: Polish aristocrat

question: What language was The Saragossa Manuscript originally written in?
answers: text: French

question: When had Edmund Chojecki translated portions of the Saragossa Manuscript into Polish from French?
answers: text: 1847

question: What fragments were the complete Saragossa Manuscripts now produced based on?
answers: text: French-language

question: What do researchers use back-translation to try to destroy when a document survives only in translation?

question: Who was Jan Potocki related to?

question: When had Edmund Chojecki translated portions of the Saragossa Manuscript into Polish from Japanese?
context: When a historic document survives only in translation, the original having been lost, researchers sometimes undertake back-translation in an effort to reconstruct the original text. An example involves the novel The Saragossa Manuscript by the Polish aristocrat Jan Potocki (1761–1815), who wrote the novel in French and anonymously published fragments in 1804 and 1813–14. Portions of the original French-language manuscript were subsequently lost; however, the missing fragments survived in a Polish translation that was made by Edmund Chojecki in 1847 from a complete French copy, now lost. French-language versions of the complete Saragossa Manuscript have since been produced, based on extant French-language fragments and on French-language versions that have been back-translated from Chojecki’s Polish version.

qas: question: What has served as a school of writing for many authors?
answers: text: Translation

question: Who spread Buddhist texts in East Asia?
answers: text: monks

question: What did translators shape in the course of their work?
answers: text: languages

question: What have translators acted as by conveying knowledge between cultures?
answers: text: bridges

question: Where were idioms and vocabulary imported from?
answers: text: source languages

question: What has served as an enemy of writing for many authors?

question: Who spread Buddhist texts in South America?

question: What did translators lose in the course of their work?

question: What have translators acted as by conveying ignorance between cultures?

question: Where were idioms and vocabulary hidden from?
context: Translation has served as a school of writing for many authors. Translators, including monks who spread Buddhist texts in East Asia, and the early modern European translators of the Bible, in the course of their work have shaped the very languages into which they have translated. They have acted as bridges for conveying knowledge between cultures; and along with ideas, they have imported from the source languages, into their own languages, loanwords and calques of grammatical structures, idioms and vocabulary.

qas: question: What roles have interpreters occasionally played in history?
answers: text: crucial

question: What region did La Malinche hail from?
answers: text: Mexican Gulf Coast

question: Where were the slave-traders La Malinche was sold or given to from?
answers: text: Xicalango

question: What was La Malinche essential to?
answers: text: Spanish conquest of Mexico

question: In addition to being an interpreter and adviser, what function did La Malinche serve for Hernán Cortés?
answers: text: lover

question: What roles have interpreters occasionally lied about in history?

question: What region did La Malinche refuse to visit?

question: Where were the slave-traders La Malinche stole?

question: What was La Malinche not involved with?
context: Interpreters have sometimes played crucial roles in history. A prime example is La Malinche, also known as Malintzin, Malinalli and Doña Marina, an early-16th-century Nahua woman from the Mexican Gulf Coast. As a child she had been sold or given to Maya slave-traders from Xicalango, and thus had become bilingual. Subsequently given along with other women to the invading Spaniards, she became instrumental in the Spanish conquest of Mexico, acting as interpreter, adviser, intermediary and lover to Hernán Cortés.

qas: question: What type of translation is favored by those wanting more accurate translations?
answers: text: Web-based human translation

question: What reputation does machine translations have?
answers: text: frequent inaccuracy

question: What type of translation is still the most accurate and reliable?
answers: text: human

question: Because of crowdsourcing, what type of translation are agencies able to provide?
answers: text: on-demand human-translation services

question: Who purchases the services of translation agencies?
answers: text: businesses, individuals, and enterprises

question: What type of translation is disliked by those wanting more accurate translations?

question: What reputation does machine translations lose?

question: What type of translation is still never accurate and reliable?

question: What type of translation are agencies unable to provide?

question: Who hides the services of translation agencies?
context: Web-based human translation is generally favored by companies and individuals that wish to secure more accurate translations. In view of the frequent inaccuracy of machine translations, human translation remains the most reliable, most accurate form of translation available. With the recent emergence of translation crowdsourcing, translation-memory techniques, and internet applications, translation agencies have been able to provide on-demand human-translation services to businesses, individuals, and enterprises.

qas: question: Unedited machine translation will miss what crucial aspect of human language?
answers: text: context-embedded

question: What does it take a person to be able to do?
answers: text: comprehend the context of the original text

question: What can even translations completely done by a human still be prone to?
answers: text: error

question: How must machine translations be transformed by a human?
answers: text: reviewed and edited

question: What crucial aspect of human language will be missed from edited alien translation?

question: What does it take an animal to be able to do?

question: What can translations completely done by a human not be prone to?

question: How must machine translations be transformed by a robot?
context: Relying exclusively on unedited machine translation, however, ignores the fact that communication in human language is context-embedded and that it takes a person to comprehend the context of the original text with a reasonable degree of probability. It is certainly true that even purely human-generated translations are prone to error; therefore, to ensure that a machine-generated translation will be useful to a human being and that publishable-quality translation is achieved, such translations must be reviewed and edited by a human.

qas: question: Where did Buddhism spread?
answers: text: Asia

question: Buddhism's spread led to what large-scale effort?
answers: text: translation

question: How long did the translation effort take?
answers: text: well over a thousand years

question: What Empire was especially good at translation?
answers: text: The Tangut Empire

question: What were the Tanguts able to do in only decades that took the Chinese centuries?
answers: text: translate volumes

question: Where did Buddhism end?

question: What small-scale effort was led to by the spread of Buddhism?

question: How long did the translation effort stop?

question: What Empire was not good at translation?

question: What were the Tanguts not able to do that took the Chinese centuries?
context: In Asia, the spread of Buddhism led to large-scale ongoing translation efforts spanning well over a thousand years. The Tangut Empire was especially efficient in such efforts; exploiting the then newly invented block printing, and with the full support of the government (contemporary sources describe the Emperor and his mother personally contributing to the translation effort, alongside sages of various nationalities), the Tanguts took mere decades to translate volumes that had taken the Chinese centuries to render.[citation needed]

qas: question: Who attempted a large-scale effort at translation?
answers: text: Arabs

question: What did the Arabs create Arabic versions of?
answers: text: philosophical and scientific works

question: When were some of the Arabic translations of earlier sentences translated into Latin?
answers: text: Middle Ages

question: What is Schola Traductorum in English?
answers: text: School of Translation

question: Latin translations indirectly advanced whose science and culture?
answers: text: European

question: Who attempted no effort at translation?

question: What did the Arabs destroy Arabic versions of?

question: When were some of the Arabic translations of earlier sentences removed from Latin?

question: What is Schola Traductorum not considered in English?

question: Whose science and culture did Latin translations indirectly harm?
context: The Arabs undertook large-scale efforts at translation. Having conquered the Greek world, they made Arabic versions of its philosophical and scientific works. During the Middle Ages, translations of some of these Arabic versions were made into Latin, chiefly at Córdoba in Spain. King Alfonso X el Sabio (Alphonse the Wise) of Castille in the 13th century promoted this effort by founding a Schola Traductorum (School of Translation) in Toledo. There Arabic texts, Hebrew texts, and Latin texts were translated into the other tongues by Muslim, Jewish and Christian scholars, who also argued the merits of their respective religions. Latin translations of Greek and original Arab works of scholarship and science helped advance European Scholasticism, and thus European science and culture.

qas: question: What was the first great English translation?
answers: text: Wycliffe Bible

question: When was the Wycliffe Bible translated?
answers: text: 1382

question: When did the age of great English prose translation begin?
answers: text: end of the 15th century

question: What adaptation of Arthurian romances took so many liberties with the source material that it could hardly be called a translation?
answers: text: Le Morte Darthur

question: The Tyndale New Testament was one of the first great translations from what style?
answers: text: Tudor

question: What was the last great German translation?

question: When was the Wycliffe Bible burned?

question: When did the age of great English prose translation stop?

question: What adaptation of Arthurian romances took no liberties with the source material?
context: The first great English translation was the Wycliffe Bible (ca. 1382), which showed the weaknesses of an underdeveloped English prose. Only at the end of the 15th century did the great age of English prose translation begin with Thomas Malory's Le Morte Darthur—an adaptation of Arthurian romances so free that it can, in fact, hardly be called a true translation. The first great Tudor translations are, accordingly, the Tyndale New Testament (1525), which influenced the Authorized Version (1611), and Lord Berners' version of Jean Froissart's Chronicles (1523–25).

qas: question: Whose court did Pletho arrive in and begin a new period of translation in Renaissance Italy?
answers: text: Cosimo de' Medici

question: What title did Georgius Gemistus Pletho carry?
answers: text: Byzantine scholar

question: When did Constantinople fall to the Turks?
answers: text: 1453

question: Who undertook translating Plato's works to Latin?
answers: text: Marsilio Ficino

question: What did religious beliefs depend upon when it came to Plato, Aristotle and Jesus?
answers: text: the exact words

question: Whose court did Pletho buy and begin a new period of translation in Renaissance Italy?

question: What title did Georgius Gemistus Pletho lose status as?

question: When did Constantinople defeat the Turks?

question: Who couldn't translate Plato's works to Latin?

question: What did scientific beliefs depend upon when it came to Plato, Aristotle and Jesus?
context: Meanwhile, in Renaissance Italy, a new period in the history of translation had opened in Florence with the arrival, at the court of Cosimo de' Medici, of the Byzantine scholar Georgius Gemistus Pletho shortly before the fall of Constantinople to the Turks (1453). A Latin translation of Plato's works was undertaken by Marsilio Ficino. This and Erasmus' Latin edition of the New Testament led to a new attitude to translation. For the first time, readers demanded rigor of rendering, as philosophical and religious beliefs depended on the exact words of Plato, Aristotle and Jesus.

qas: question: What was the guiding ideal of translators throughout the 18th century?
answers: text: ease of reading

question: If a translator didn't understand something in a text or thought it too boring to present to readers, what did they do with it?
answers: text: omitted

question: What did translators of this time assume was better than the actual text they were translating?
answers: text: their own style of expression

question: How much did the translators care about scholarship?
answers: text: no more than had their predecessors

question: What did James Macpherson "translate" from?
answers: text: own composition

question: What was the guiding ideal of translators throughout the 14th century?

question: What did translators of this time assume was worse than the actual text they were translating?

question: How much did the translators avoid scholarship?

question: What did James Macpherson never "translate" from?
context: Throughout the 18th century, the watchword of translators was ease of reading. Whatever they did not understand in a text, or thought might bore readers, they omitted. They cheerfully assumed that their own style of expression was the best, and that texts should be made to conform to it in translation. For scholarship they cared no more than had their predecessors, and they did not shrink from making translations from translations in third languages, or from languages that they hardly knew, or—as in the case of James Macpherson's "translations" of Ossian—from texts that were actually of the "translator's" own composition.

qas: question: What new standards of translation came with the 19th century?
answers: text: accuracy and style

question: Who observed that the policy became "the text, the whole text, and nothing but the text"?
answers: text: J.M. Cohen

question: What sort of passages were still left out of the supposed "whole" text?
answers: text: bawdy

question: What did the Victorians aim to remind the reader of their translations?
answers: text: that they were reading a foreign classic

question: How did the translation of Rubaiyat achieve an Oriental flavor?
answers: text: by using Persian names and discreet Biblical echoes

question: What banned standards of translation came with the 19th century?

question: Who ignored that the policy became "the text, the whole text, and nothing but the text"?

question: What sort of passages were left in the supposed "whole" text?

question: What did the Victorians aim to remind the writer of in their translations?

question: How did the translation of Rubaiyat disregard an Oriental flavor?
context: The 19th century brought new standards of accuracy and style. In regard to accuracy, observes J.M. Cohen, the policy became "the text, the whole text, and nothing but the text", except for any bawdy passages and the addition of copious explanatory footnotes. In regard to style, the Victorians' aim, achieved through far-reaching metaphrase (literality) or pseudo-metaphrase, was to constantly remind readers that they were reading a foreign classic. An exception was the outstanding translation in this period, Edward FitzGerald's Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam (1859), which achieved its Oriental flavor largely by using Persian names and discreet Biblical echoes and actually drew little of its material from the Persian original.

qas: question: What is the translation of text that is sung closely linked to?
answers: text: poetry

question: What is most vocal music set to in Western tradition?
answers: text: verse

question: What type of forms does popular music tend to retain?
answers: text: stanzaic

question: What type of example an be found of translating poetry for singing?
answers: text: church hymns

question: Who translated German chorales into English?
answers: text: Catherine Winkworth

question: What is the translation of text that is sung never linked to?

question: What is all vocal music set to in Western tradition?

question: What forms does popular music tend to refrain from?

question: What type of example can not be found of translating poetry for singing?

question: Who translated Chinese chorales into English?
context: Translation of a text that is sung in vocal music for the purpose of singing in another language—sometimes called "singing translation"—is closely linked to translation of poetry because most vocal music, at least in the Western tradition, is set to verse, especially verse in regular patterns with rhyme. (Since the late 19th century, musical setting of prose and free verse has also been practiced in some art music, though popular music tends to remain conservative in its retention of stanzaic forms with or without refrains.) A rudimentary example of translating poetry for singing is church hymns, such as the German chorales translated into English by Catherine Winkworth.

qas: question: How is translation of sung texts different than translations of poetry?
answers: text: more restrictive

question: Why is the translation of sung texts more restrictive?
answers: text: little or no freedom to choose between a versified translation

question: What places a great challenge on someone trying to translate music from one language to another?
answers: text: assignment of syllables to specific notes in the original musical

question: How can a syllable be added or deleted in prose sung texts?
answers: text: by subdividing or combining notes

question: How is translation of sung texts the exact same as translations of poetry?

question: Why is the translation of sung texts not restrictive?

question: What places a great challenge on someone trying to translate writing from one language to another?

question: How can a syllable be forbidden from prose sung texts?
context: Translation of sung texts is generally much more restrictive than translation of poetry, because in the former there is little or no freedom to choose between a versified translation and a translation that dispenses with verse structure. One might modify or omit rhyme in a singing translation, but the assignment of syllables to specific notes in the original musical setting places great challenges on the translator. There is the option in prose sung texts, less so in verse, of adding or deleting a syllable here and there by subdividing or combining notes, respectively, but even with prose the process is almost like strict verse translation because of the need to stick as closely as possible to the original prosody of the sung melodic line.

qas: question: Who can translations of a sung text aid?
answers: text: audiences, singers and conductors

question: What type of familiar translation may be seen during an opera?
answers: text: subtitles or surtitles

question: What do professional and amateur singers often sing?
answers: text: works in languages they do not know

question: Translations help singers unfamiliar with a language do what?
answers: text: understand the meaning of the words they are singing.

question: Who can translations of a sung text harm?

question: What type of familiar translation is restricted during an opera?

question: What do professional and amateur singers never sing?

question: What do translations help singers familiar with a language do?

question: What kind of text is not allowed to have a translation?
context: Translations of sung texts—whether of the above type meant to be sung or of a more or less literal type meant to be read—are also used as aids to audiences, singers and conductors, when a work is being sung in a language not known to them. The most familiar types are translations presented as subtitles or surtitles projected during opera performances, those inserted into concert programs, and those that accompany commercial audio CDs of vocal music. In addition, professional and amateur singers often sing works in languages they do not know (or do not know well), and translations are then used to enable them to understand the meaning of the words they are singing.

qas: question: What is one of the first known instances of translation in the West?
answers: text: rendering of the Old Testament into Greek

question: When was the Old Testament translated into Greek?
answers: text: 3rd century BCE

question: Why is the translation of the Old Testament into Greek known as the Septuagint?
answers: text: seventy translators

question: How did each translator of the Bible work in Alexandria?
answers: text: in solitary confinement

question: According to myth, what property did all seventy versions of the bible have?
answers: text: identical

question: What is one of the worst unknown instances of translation in the West?

question: When was the Old Testament illegal in Greek?

question: Why is the translation of the New Testament into Greek known as the Septuagint?

question: How did each translator of the Bible die in Alexandria?

question: What property did all seventy versions of the bible lack being?
context: One of the first recorded instances of translation in the West was the rendering of the Old Testament into Greek in the 3rd century BCE. The translation is known as the "Septuagint", a name that refers to the seventy translators (seventy-two, in some versions) who were commissioned to translate the Bible at Alexandria, Egypt. Each translator worked in solitary confinement in his own cell, and according to legend all seventy versions proved identical. The Septuagint became the source text for later translations into many languages, including Latin, Coptic, Armenian and Georgian.

qas: question: During the Protestant Reformation, what local languages was the bible translated into?
answers: text: European

question: Disparities between versions of crucial words and passages in versions of the bible contributed to what split?
answers: text: Roman Catholicism and Protestantism

question: Biblical translations have caused lasting effects on what?
answers: text: religions, cultures and languages of their respective countries

question: Who translated the Bible to German?
answers: text: Martin Luther

question: What does the fact of the King James Only movement demonstrate?
answers: text: religious schism over different translations of religious texts remain to this day

question: What local languages was the bible translated into during the Contestant Reformation?

question: What union did similarities between versions of crucial words and passages in versions of the bible contribute to?

question: What have biblical translations had no lasting effects on?

question: Who banned the Bible in German?

question: What does the fact of the King James Only movement ignore?
context: The period preceding, and contemporary with, the Protestant Reformation saw the translation of the Bible into local European languages—a development that contributed to Western Christianity's split into Roman Catholicism and Protestantism due to disparities between Catholic and Protestant versions of crucial words and passages (although the Protestant movement was largely based on other things, such as a perceived need for reformation of the Roman Catholic Church to eliminate corruption). Lasting effects on the religions, cultures and languages of their respective countries have been exerted by such Bible translations as Martin Luther's into German, Jakub Wujek's into Polish, and the King James Bible's translators' into English. Debate and religious schism over different translations of religious texts remain to this day, as demonstrated by, for example, the King James Only movement.