Phonology

qas: question: What is phonology a branch of?
answers: text: linguistics

question: What kind of systems are the traditional focus of phonology? 
answers: text: phonemes

question: The study of sign language is a part of what?
answers: text: Phonology

question: What is articulator a branch of?

question: What kind of systems are the traditional focus of linguistics?

question: What is the study of branches a part of?

question: What is a branch of levels?

question: What kind of systems did branches focus on?
context: Phonology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the systematic organization of sounds in languages. It has traditionally focused largely on the study of the systems of phonemes in particular languages (and therefore used to be also called phonemics, or phonematics), but it may also cover any linguistic analysis either at a level beneath the word (including syllable, onset and rime, articulatory gestures, articulatory features, mora, etc.) or at all levels of language where sound is considered to be structured for conveying linguistic meaning. Phonology also includes the study of equivalent organizational systems in sign languages.

qas: question: What part of a language can phonology as a word also refer to?
answers: text: the phonological system

question: What is another term for phonological system?
answers: text: sound system

question: Aside from syntax and the phonological system, what else comprises a language?
answers: text: vocabulary

question: What sort of language system is phonology?
answers: text: fundamental

question: What part of a language can vocabulary as a word also refer to?

question: What is another term for vocabulary?

question: Aside from syntax and the phonological system what else comprises words?

question: What sort of language system is vocabulary?

question: What is an example of vocabulary?
context: The word phonology (as in the phonology of English) can also refer to the phonological system (sound system) of a given language. This is one of the fundamental systems which a language is considered to comprise, like its syntax and its vocabulary.

qas: question: What branch of linguistics is phonology distinguished from?
answers: text: phonetics

question: What kind of linguistics is phonetics considered to be a part of?
answers: text: descriptive

question: Phonology is generally considered a part of the theoretical side of what discipline?
answers: text: linguistics

question: When was the phonome's modern concept developed?
answers: text: mid 20th century

question: What subfield of modern phonology other than phsycholinguistics crosses over with phonetics? 
answers: text: speech perception

question: What branch of linguistics is laboratory distinguished from?

question: What kind of linguistics is laboratory considered to be a part of?

question: Laboratory is generally considered a part of the theoretical side of what discipline?

question: When was the laboratory's modern concept developed?

question: What subfield of modern phonology other than phsycholinguistics crosses over with laboratory?
context: Phonology is often distinguished from phonetics. While phonetics concerns the physical production, acoustic transmission and perception of the sounds of speech, phonology describes the way sounds function within a given language or across languages to encode meaning. For many linguists, phonetics belongs to descriptive linguistics, and phonology to theoretical linguistics, although establishing the phonological system of a language is necessarily an application of theoretical principles to analysis of phonetic evidence. Note that this distinction was not always made, particularly before the development of the modern concept of the phoneme in the mid 20th century. Some subfields of modern phonology have a crossover with phonetics in descriptive disciplines such as psycholinguistics and speech perception, resulting in specific areas like articulatory phonology or laboratory phonology.

qas: question: What language does phonology as a word come from?
answers: text: Greek

question: What Greek word is -logy derived from?
answers: text: lógos

question: Who in 1939 defined phonology?
answers: text: Nikolai Trubetzkoy

question: A distinction was drawn between language and what?
answers: text: speech

question: When did Lass write about phonology?
answers: text: 1998

question: What language does speech as a word come from?

question: What Greek word is speech derived from?

question: Who in 1939 defined speech?

question: A distinction was drawn between phonology and what?

question: When did Lass write about speech?
context: The word phonology comes from the Greek φωνή, phōnḗ, "voice, sound," and the suffix -logy (which is from Greek λόγος, lógos, "word, speech, subject of discussion"). Definitions of the term vary. Nikolai Trubetzkoy in Grundzüge der Phonologie (1939) defines phonology as "the study of sound pertaining to the system of language," as opposed to phonetics, which is "the study of sound pertaining to the act of speech" (the distinction between language and speech being basically Saussure's distinction between langue and parole). More recently, Lass (1998) writes that phonology refers broadly to the subdiscipline of linguistics concerned with the sounds of language, while in more narrow terms, "phonology proper is concerned with the function, behavior and organization of sounds as linguistic items." According to Clark et al. (2007), it means the systematic use of sound to encode meaning in any spoken human language, or the field of linguistics studying this use.

qas: question: What type of grammar was phonology first a part of?
answers: text: Sanskrit

question: What is the name of ancient Sanskrit grammar?
answers: text: Ashtadhyayi

question: Who first composed the Ashtadhyayi?
answers: text: Pāṇini

question: During what time period did Panini do his work?
answers: text: 4th century BC

question: What other text was related to the Ashtadhyayi?
answers: text: the Shiva Sutras

question: What type of grammar were phenomes first a part of?

question: What is the name of ancient phenome grammar?

question: Who first composed the Sanskrit language?

question: During what time period did the Sanskrit language begin?

question: What other text was related to morphology?
context: The history of phonology may be traced back to the Ashtadhyayi, the Sanskrit grammar composed by Pāṇini in the 4th century BC. In particular the Shiva Sutras, an auxiliary text to the Ashtadhyayi, introduces what can be considered a list of the phonemes of the Sanskrit language, with a notational system for them that is used throughout the main text, which deals with matters of morphology, syntax and semantics.

qas: question: When was the phoneme as a concept introduced?
answers: text: 1876

question: Who was Jan Baudouin de Courtenay's student?
answers: text: Mikołaj Kruszewski

question: What nationality was de Courtenay?
answers: text: Polish

question: What was de Courtenay's profession?
answers: text: scholar

question: Who was influenced by  Jan Baudouin de Courtenay?
answers: text: Ferdinand de Saussure

question: When was allophony as a concept introduced?

question: Who was Jan Baudouin de Courtenay's father?

question: What nationality was Kruszewski?

question: What was Kruszewski's profession?

question: Who was influenced by Mikolaj Kruszewski?
context: The Polish scholar Jan Baudouin de Courtenay (together with his former student Mikołaj Kruszewski) introduced the concept of the phoneme in 1876, and his work, though often unacknowledged, is considered to be the starting point of modern phonology. He also worked on the theory of phonetic alternations (what is now called allophony and morphophonology), and had a significant influence on the work of Ferdinand de Saussure.

qas: question: What was Nikolai Trubetzkoy's publication?
answers: text: Principles of Phonology

question: When was Principles of Phonology published?
answers: text: 1939

question: What is Trubetzkoy considered to have founded?
answers: text: morphophonology

question: What school was Trubetzkoy a member of?
answers: text: the Prague school.

question: What was Trubetzkoy's title?
answers: text: Prince

question: What was Baudouin de Courtenay's publication?

question: When was Principles of Phonology made into a movie?

question: What is de Courtenay considered to have founded?

question: What school was de Courtenay a member of?

question: What was de Courtenay's title?
context: An influential school of phonology in the interwar period was the Prague school. One of its leading members was Prince Nikolai Trubetzkoy, whose Grundzüge der Phonologie (Principles of Phonology), published posthumously in 1939, is among the most important works in the field from this period. Directly influenced by Baudouin de Courtenay, Trubetzkoy is considered the founder of morphophonology, although this concept had also been recognized by de Courtenay. Trubetzkoy also developed the concept of the archiphoneme. Another important figure in the Prague school was Roman Jakobson, who was one of the most prominent linguists of the 20th century.

qas: question: When was The Sound Pattern of English published?
answers: text: 1968

question: Other than Chomsky who else published The Sound Pattern of English?
answers: text: Morris Halle

question: Besides the syllable what was downplayed as a result of SPE's influence on phonological theory?
answers: text: emphasis on segments

question: What other discipline was combined with phonology by the generativists?
answers: text: morphophonology

question: When were expansion rules published?

question: Other than Chornsky who else published expansion rules?

question: Besides the syllable what was downplayed as a result of SPE's influence on expansion rules?

question: What other discipline was combined with expansion by the generativists?

question: What are from a universally important syllable?
context: In 1968 Noam Chomsky and Morris Halle published The Sound Pattern of English (SPE), the basis for generative phonology. In this view, phonological representations are sequences of segments made up of distinctive features. These features were an expansion of earlier work by Roman Jakobson, Gunnar Fant, and Morris Halle. The features describe aspects of articulation and perception, are from a universally fixed set, and have the binary values + or −. There are at least two levels of representation: underlying representation and surface phonetic representation. Ordered phonological rules govern how underlying representation is transformed into the actual pronunciation (the so-called surface form). An important consequence of the influence SPE had on phonological theory was the downplaying of the syllable and the emphasis on segments. Furthermore, the generativists folded morphophonology into phonology, which both solved and created problems.

qas: question: Whose publications started the theory of Natural phonology?
answers: text: David Stampe

question: According to Stampe what is phonology based on?
answers: text: a set of universal phonological processes

question: Aside from being active what other condition can the universal phonological processes exist in?
answers: text: suppressed

question: Who is the number two natural phonologist?  
answers: text: Patricia Donegan

question: Who was the founder of natural morphology?
answers: text: Wolfgang U. Dressler

question: Whose publications started the theory of universal input?

question: According to Stampe what is universal input based on?

question: Aside from being active what other condition can the natural morphology exist in?

question: Who is the number two universal processor?

question: Who was the founder of active utterance?
context: Natural phonology is a theory based on the publications of its proponent David Stampe in 1969 and (more explicitly) in 1979. In this view, phonology is based on a set of universal phonological processes that interact with one another; which ones are active and which are suppressed is language-specific. Rather than acting on segments, phonological processes act on distinctive features within prosodic groups. Prosodic groups can be as small as a part of a syllable or as large as an entire utterance. Phonological processes are unordered with respect to each other and apply simultaneously (though the output of one process may be the input to another). The second most prominent natural phonologist is Patricia Donegan (Stampe's wife); there are many natural phonologists in Europe, and a few in the U.S., such as Geoffrey Nathan. The principles of natural phonology were extended to morphology by Wolfgang U. Dressler, who founded natural morphology.

qas: question: Who founded autosegmental phonology?
answers: text: John Goldsmith

question: When did John Goldsmith share his work?
answers: text: 1976

question: What did Autosegmental phonology morph into?
answers: text: feature geometry

question: Who founded operating tiers?

question: When did John Goldsmith publish his work?

question: What did operating tiers morph into?

question: What are no longer seen as operating on lexical phonology?

question: What became the standard theory of phenomes?
context: In 1976 John Goldsmith introduced autosegmental phonology. Phonological phenomena are no longer seen as operating on one linear sequence of segments, called phonemes or feature combinations, but rather as involving some parallel sequences of features which reside on multiple tiers. Autosegmental phonology later evolved into feature geometry, which became the standard theory of representation for theories of the organization of phonology as different as lexical phonology and optimality theory.

qas: question: When was Government phonology first seen?
answers: text: the early 1980s

question: Jonathan Kaye is an important person in what form of phonology?
answers: text: Government

question: What is responsible for differences in surface realizations according to Government phonology?
answers: text: restricted variation

question: When were government principles first seen?

question: Jonathan Kaye is an important person in what form of conflict?

question: What is responsible for differences in surface realizations according to government conflict?

question: What vary according to their selection of government?

question: What is true of all languages' field parameters?
context: Government phonology, which originated in the early 1980s as an attempt to unify theoretical notions of syntactic and phonological structures, is based on the notion that all languages necessarily follow a small set of principles and vary according to their selection of certain binary parameters. That is, all languages' phonological structures are essentially the same, but there is restricted variation that accounts for differences in surface realizations. Principles are held to be inviolable, though parameters may sometimes come into conflict. Prominent figures in this field include Jonathan Kaye, Jean Lowenstamm, Jean-Roger Vergnaud, Monik Charette, and John Harris.

qas: question: When did Prince and Smolensky develop their theory?
answers: text: 1991

question: Where was optimality theory created?
answers: text: LSA summer institute

question: Aside from Alan Prince who brought optimality theory to morphology?
answers: text: John McCarthy

question: Who were prominent critics of optimality theory?
answers: text: Mark Hale and Charles Reiss

question: When did Prince and Smolensky develop pronunciation?

question: Where was dominant theory created?

question: Aside from Alan Prince who brought dominant theory to morphology?

question: Who were prominent critics of dominant theory?

question: Who are proponents of dominant phonology?
context: In a course at the LSA summer institute in 1991, Alan Prince and Paul Smolensky developed optimality theory—an overall architecture for phonology according to which languages choose a pronunciation of a word that best satisfies a list of constraints ordered by importance; a lower-ranked constraint can be violated when the violation is necessary in order to obey a higher-ranked constraint. The approach was soon extended to morphology by John McCarthy and Alan Prince, and has become a dominant trend in phonology. The appeal to phonetic grounding of constraints and representational elements (e.g. features) in various approaches has been criticized by proponents of 'substance-free phonology', especially Mark Hale and Charles Reiss.

qas: question: What followed government phonology?
answers: text: strict-CV phonology

question: Where is government phonology popular?
answers: text: the United Kingdom,

question: What theory is seen more in the US?
answers: text: optimality theory

question: What followed government optimality?

question: Where is descendant phonology popular?

question: What government idea is seen more in the UK?

question: What has a greater following in France?

question: What began in the United States?
context: Broadly speaking, government phonology (or its descendant, strict-CV phonology) has a greater following in the United Kingdom, whereas optimality theory is predominant in the United States.[citation needed]

qas: question: What is Evolutionary Phonology an integrated approach to?
answers: text: phonological theory

question: What is combined to sound patterns by Evolutionary Phonology?
answers: text: synchronic and diachronic accounts

question: When did Evolutionary Phonology come into being?
answers: text: recent years.

question: What sort of approach did Evolutionary Phonology take?
answers: text: integrated

question: What is recent diachronic an integrated approach to?

question: What is combined to sound patterns by recent patterns?

question: When did  diachronic come into being?

question: What sort of approach did recent diachronic take?

question: What was initiated with sound accounts?
context: An integrated approach to phonological theory that combines synchronic and diachronic accounts to sound patterns was initiated with Evolutionary Phonology in recent years.

qas: question: What are the units called that traditional phonology studies?
answers: text: phonemes

question: What is another word for variations?
answers: text: allophones

question: What is the opposite of aspirated?
answers: text: unaspirated

question: What are the minimal pairs called that minimal phonology studies?

question: What is another word for phoneme?

question: What is the opposite of phoneme?

question: In what languages are there minimal pairs of words for which allophones are the only contrasting feature?

question: Which speakers treat both sounds as aspirations?
context: An important part of traditional, pre-generative schools of phonology is studying which sounds can be grouped into distinctive units within a language; these units are known as phonemes. For example, in English, the "p" sound in pot is aspirated (pronounced [pʰ]) while that in spot is not aspirated (pronounced [p]). However, English speakers intuitively treat both sounds as variations (allophones) of the same phonological category, that is of the phoneme /p/. (Traditionally, it would be argued that if an aspirated [pʰ] were interchanged with the unaspirated [p] in spot, native speakers of English would still hear the same words; that is, the two sounds are perceived as "the same" /p/.) In some other languages, however, these two sounds are perceived as different, and they are consequently assigned to different phonemes. For example, in Thai, Hindi, and Quechua, there are minimal pairs of words for which aspiration is the only contrasting feature (two words can have different meanings but with the only difference in pronunciation being that one has an aspirated sound where the other has an unaspirated one).

qas: question: What type of language study involves trying to deduce underlying phonomes?
answers: text: phonological

question: Aside from finding out what underlying phonemes are there what does the phonological study of a language try to find out about the language?
answers: text: sound inventory

question: What kind of speaker data does studying a language phonologically involve examining? 
answers: text: native

question: What type of language study involves trying to deduce transcriptions?

question: Aside from finding out what underlying phonemes are there what does the phnological study of a language tray to find out about minimal pairs?

question: What kind of transcription data does studying a language phonologically involve examining?

question: What is a frequently used criterion for deciding whether two languages should be assigned to the same phoneme?

question: What does part of the assigned transcription of a language involve?
context: Part of the phonological study of a language therefore involves looking at data (phonetic transcriptions of the speech of native speakers) and trying to deduce what the underlying phonemes are and what the sound inventory of the language is. The presence or absence of minimal pairs, as mentioned above, is a frequently used criterion for deciding whether two sounds should be assigned to the same phoneme. However, other considerations often need to be taken into account as well.

qas: question: What kind of linguistics describes how factors of languages change in history?
answers: text: historical

question: With the passage of time what particular things phonemic in a language are known to change?
answers: text: contrasts

question: In the past sounds that now belong to separate phonemes were allophones of what kind of phoneme in English?
answers: text: the same phoneme

question: What kind of linguistics describes how factors of phenomes change in history?

question: With the passage of phenomes what particular things phonemic in a language are known to change?

question: In the past sounds that now belong to separate phenomes were allophones of what kind  of change in English?

question: What cannot change over time?

question: Where is historical change of time described?
context: The particular contrasts which are phonemic in a language can change over time. At one time, [f] and [v], two sounds that have the same place and manner of articulation and differ in voicing only, were allophones of the same phoneme in English, but later came to belong to separate phonemes. This is one of the main factors of historical change of languages as described in historical linguistics.

qas: question: How do speech perception and articulation findings and insights affect previous and more traditional ideas?
answers: text: complicate

question: How does interchanging allophones of the same pheneme render words?
answers: text: unrecognizable

question: What does splicing words affect?
answers: text: speech perception

question: How do speech perception and articulation findings and insights affect previous and more traditional spliced words?

question: How does interchanging phenomes of the same allophone render words?

question: What does splicing phenomes affect?

question: What can result in recognizable words?

question: What complicates the traditional ideas of phonemes being perceived as the same allophones?
context: The findings and insights of speech perception and articulation research complicate the traditional and somewhat intuitive idea of interchangeable allophones being perceived as the same phoneme. First, interchanged allophones of the same phoneme can result in unrecognizable words. Second, actual speech, even at a word level, is highly co-articulated, so it is problematic to expect to be able to splice words into simple segments without affecting speech perception.

qas: question: What are assigned to phonemes by different linguists?
answers: text: sounds

question: What part of a human does language processing?
answers: text: brain

question: The phonetical similarity of what thing causes disagreements between linguists?
answers: text: allophones

question: What are assigned to phonemes by different languages?

question: What part of a human does allophone processing?

question: The phonetical similarity of what thing causes disagreements between phenomes?

question: Who takes different approaches to the problem of assigning sounds to allophones?

question: Who differs in the extent to which they requires phonemes to be phonetically similar?
context: Different linguists therefore take different approaches to the problem of assigning sounds to phonemes. For example, they differ in the extent to which they require allophones to be phonetically similar. There are also differing ideas as to whether this grouping of sounds is purely a tool for linguistic analysis, or reflects an actual process in the way the human brain processes a language.

qas: question: When did theoretical linguists turn away traditional phoneme concepts?
answers: text: early 1960s

question: On what level do theoretical linguists consider basic units?
answers: text: abstract

question: What is a name for the basic morpheme unit?
answers: text: morphophonemes

question: What is the act of analyzing morphophones called?
answers: text: morphophonology

question: What kind of linguists are leaving the old methods behind?
answers: text: theoretical

question: When did theoretical linguists turn away traditioinal analysis concepts?

question: On what level do theoretical linguists consider basic approaches?

question: What is a name for the basic phoneme unit?

question: What kind of linguists are leaving the old phonemes behind?

question: When did theoretical linguists move away from the traditional concept of a morpheme?
context: Since the early 1960s, theoretical linguists have moved away from the traditional concept of a phoneme, preferring to consider basic units at a more abstract level, as a component of morphemes; these units can be called morphophonemes, and analysis using this approach is called morphophonology.

qas: question: What do phonemes differentiate? 
answers: text: meaning

question: Aside from phonemes what is studied by phonology?
answers: text: how sounds alternate

question: The study of syllable structure is part of what discipline?
answers: text: phonology

question: What do allomorphs differentiate?

question: Aside from phonemes what is studies by geometry?

question: The study of accent structure is part of what discipline?

question: What studies how geometry alternates?

question: What is another name for syllable?
context: In addition to the minimal units that can serve the purpose of differentiating meaning (the phonemes), phonology studies how sounds alternate, i.e. replace one another in different forms of the same morpheme (allomorphs), as well as, for example, syllable structure, stress, feature geometry, accent, and intonation.

qas: question: Under what topic is suprasegmentals studied?
answers: text: prosody

question: Aside from bleeding what is an order of rules that define how pronunciation of a sound changes?
answers: text: feeding

question: Phonotactics, phonological alternation and prosody are topics contained in what discipline?
answers: text: Phonology

question: Stress and intonation are studied under what topic?
answers: text: prosody

question: Under what topic is phonological alternation studied?

question: Aside from bleeding what is an order of rules that define how suprasegmentals change?

question: Phonotactics, phonological alternation and stress are topics contained in what discipline?

question: Stress and rules are studied under what topic?

question: What includes topics such as sound rules?
context: Phonology also includes topics such as phonotactics (the phonological constraints on what sounds can appear in what positions in a given language) and phonological alternation (how the pronunciation of a sound changes through the application of phonological rules, sometimes in a given order which can be feeding or bleeding,) as well as prosody, the study of suprasegmentals and topics such as stress and intonation.

qas: question: Instead of being language-specific what kind of tools are the principles of phonological analysis designed to be?
answers: text: general analytical tools

question: What other types of language have the phonological analysis principles been applied to?
answers: text: sign languages

question: What are the principles of phonological analysis able to be applied separately from?
answers: text: modality

question: In sign languages what are not represented as instances of speech sounds?
answers: text: sub-lexical units

question: Instead of being language specific what kind of tool is sign language designed to be? 

question: What other types of language have the speech sound principles been applied to 

question: What are the principles of sign language able to be applied separately from?

question: In sign laguages what are not represented as instances of analytical tools?

question: What can be applied depending on modality?
context: The principles of phonological analysis can be applied independently of modality because they are designed to serve as general analytical tools, not language-specific ones. The same principles have been applied to the analysis of sign languages (see Phonemes in sign languages), even though the sub-lexical units are not instantiated as speech sounds.