Copyright_infringement

qas: question: What are the rights of a content creator that has their work protected?
answers: text: right to reproduce, distribute, display or perform the protected work, or to make derivative works

question: How do creators of content protect their work from infringement?
answers: text: copyright law

question: Who is protected by copyright laws?
answers: text: work's creator

question: What is it called when someone uploads a video to YouTube without the creators permission?
answers: text: copyright infringement

question: You wrote a song that was based on an original work, what is this called?
answers: text: derivative works

question: How do creators of content not protect their work from infringement?

question: What are the rights of a content creator that has their work unprotected?

question: Who is unprotected by copyright laws?

question: You wrote a song that was based on an unoriginal work, what is this called?

question: What is it called when someone uploads a video to YouTube with the creators permission?
context: Copyright infringement is the use of works protected by copyright law without permission, infringing certain exclusive rights granted to the copyright holder, such as the right to reproduce, distribute, display or perform the protected work, or to make derivative works. The copyright holder is typically the work's creator, or a publisher or other business to whom copyright has been assigned. Copyright holders routinely invoke legal and technological measures to prevent and penalize copyright infringement.

qas: question: How are disputes resolved for small scale infringement?
answers: text: direct negotiation, a notice and take down process, or litigation in civil court

question: Why has copyright infringement increased recently?
answers: text: Shifting public expectations, advances in digital technology, and the increasing reach of the Internet

question: What are two examples of groups that allow you to make copies of protected works?
answers: text: service providers and software distributors

question: What are content creation industries focusing on doing to prevent infringement?
answers: text: expanding copyright law

question: What can happen to people who commit copyright infringement on a mass-scale?
answers: text: prosecuted via the criminal justice system

question: What are two examples of groups that allow you to obtain copies of protected works?
answers: text: service providers and software distributors

question: How are disputes unresolved for small scale infringement?

question: Why has copyright infringement decreased recently?

question: What are content creation industries focusing on doing to aid infringement?

question: What can't happen to people who commit copyright infringement on a mass-scale?

question: What are two examples of groups that disallow you to make copies of protected works?
context: Copyright infringement disputes are usually resolved through direct negotiation, a notice and take down process, or litigation in civil court. Egregious or large-scale commercial infringement, especially when it involves counterfeiting, is sometimes prosecuted via the criminal justice system. Shifting public expectations, advances in digital technology, and the increasing reach of the Internet have led to such widespread, anonymous infringement that copyright-dependent industries now focus less on pursuing individuals who seek and share copyright-protected content online, and more on expanding copyright law to recognize and penalize – as "indirect" infringers – the service providers and software distributors which are said to facilitate and encourage individual acts of infringement by others.

qas: question: What terms are often linked to people who illegally use or distribute content that is not their own?
answers: text: piracy and theft

question: What means the same as robbery or illegal violence at sea?
answers: text: piracy

question: What kind of property is copyright used for?
answers: text: intellectual property

question: What is the difference between robbery and piracy?
answers: text: related only to tangible property

question: In the 1980's, the Supreme Court ruled that infringement does not equal what?
answers: text: theft

question: What terms are often linked to people who legally use or distribute content that is not their own?

question: What doesn't mean the same as robbery or illegal violence at sea?

question: What kind of property is copyright not used for?

question: What is the same about robbery and piracy?

question: In the 1980's, the Supreme Court ruled that infringement equals what?
context: The terms piracy and theft are often associated with copyright infringement. The original meaning of piracy is "robbery or illegal violence at sea", but the term has been in use for centuries as a synonym for acts of copyright infringement. Theft, meanwhile, emphasizes the potential commercial harm of infringement to copyright holders. However, copyright is a type of intellectual property, an area of law distinct from that which covers robbery or theft, offenses related only to tangible property. Not all copyright infringement results in commercial loss, and the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in 1985 that infringement does not easily equate with theft.

qas: question: What did the Royal Charter give to the Stationers' Company of London?
answers: text: monopoly on publication and tasking it with enforcing the charter

question: How does Article 12 of the 1886 Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works use the term piracy?
answers: text: in relation to copyright infringement

question: What would happen if you imported a copyrighted work into a country where the original is protected by copyright law?
answers: text: seized on importation

question: When was the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights enacted?
answers: text: 1994

question: Piracy has been more recently described online in relation to what?
answers: text: peer-to-peer file sharing networks

question: What did the Royal Charter not give to the Stationers' Company of London?

question: How does Article 21 of the 1886 Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works use the term piracy?

question: What would happen if you imported a copyrighted work into a country where the original isn't protected by copyright law?

question: When was the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights repealed?

question: Piracy has been less recently described online in relation to what?
context: The practice of labelling the infringement of exclusive rights in creative works as "piracy" predates statutory copyright law. Prior to the Statute of Anne in 1710, the Stationers' Company of London in 1557, received a Royal Charter giving the company a monopoly on publication and tasking it with enforcing the charter. Those who violated the charter were labelled pirates as early as 1603. The term "piracy" has been used to refer to the unauthorized copying, distribution and selling of works in copyright. Article 12 of the 1886 Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works uses the term "piracy" in relation to copyright infringement, stating "Pirated works may be seized on importation into those countries of the Union where the original work enjoys legal protection." Article 61 of the 1994 Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs) requires criminal procedures and penalties in cases of "willful trademark counterfeiting or copyright piracy on a commercial scale." Piracy traditionally refers to acts of copyright infringement intentionally committed for financial gain, though more recently, copyright holders have described online copyright infringement, particularly in relation to peer-to-peer file sharing networks, as "piracy."

qas: question: When you are accused theft as it relates to copyright law, you are exercising exclusive rights without what?
answers: text: authorization

question: What have courts said there is a difference between?
answers: text: copyright infringement and theft

question: In Dowling v. United States, what did bootleg records NOT constitute?
answers: text: theft, conversion, or fraud

question: What is the separate term of art to define misappropriation of copyright?
answers: text: The Copyright Act

question: What did the court say was invaded?
answers: text: certain exclusive rights

question: When you are accused theft as it relates to copyright law, you are exercising exclusive rights with what?

question: What haven't courts said there is a difference between?

question: In Dowling v. United States, what did bootleg records constitute?

question: What is the separate term of art to define appropriation of copyright?

question: What did the court say was evaded?
context: Copyright holders frequently refer to copyright infringement as theft. In copyright law, infringement does not refer to theft of physical objects that take away the owner's possession, but an instance where a person exercises one of the exclusive rights of the copyright holder without authorization. Courts have distinguished between copyright infringement and theft. For instance, the United States Supreme Court held in Dowling v. United States (1985) that bootleg phonorecords did not constitute stolen property. Instead, "interference with copyright does not easily equate with theft, conversion, or fraud. The Copyright Act even employs a separate term of art to define one who misappropriates a copyright: '[...] an infringer of the copyright.'" The court said that in the case of copyright infringement, the province guaranteed to the copyright holder by copyright law – certain exclusive rights – is invaded, but no control, physical or otherwise, is taken over the copyright, nor is the copyright holder wholly deprived of using the copyrighted work or exercising the exclusive rights held.

qas: question: What is a possible cause of copyright infringement?
answers: text: partial compliance

question: Who did Texas software company Apptricity write software for?
answers: text: US Army

question: How many users were paid for in 2004?
answers: text: 500 users

question: How much was the lawsuit settled for?
answers: text: US$50 million

question: Who is an example of a major anti-piracy organization?
answers: text: the BSA

question: What is an impossible cause of copyright infringement?

question: Who did Texas software company Apptricity write hardware for?

question: How many users weren't paid for in 2004?

question: How much was the lawsuit rejected for?

question: Who is an example of a minor anti-piracy organization?
context: Sometimes only partial compliance with license agreements is the cause. For example, in 2013, the US Army settled a lawsuit with Texas-based company Apptricity, which makes software that allows the army to track their soldiers in real time. In 2004, the US Army paid US$4.5 million for a license of 500 users, while allegedly installing the software for more than 9000 users; the case was settled for US$50 million. Major anti-piracy organizations, like the BSA, conduct software licensing audits regularly to ensure full compliance.

qas: question: What did Cara Cusumano say about piracy in 2014 that people want?
answers: text: immediacy

question: What had the festival done for the past three years when the statement by Cara Cusumano was made?
answers: text: used the Internet to present its content

question: It was the first year of Tribeca featuring a showcase of producers who do what?
answers: text: work exclusively online

question: What behavior is not just done by people who want content for free?
answers: text: downloading

question: What did Cara Cusumano say about piracy in 2013 that people want?

question: What did Cara Cusumano say about piracy in 2014 that people don't want?

question: What had the festival not done for the past three years when the statement by Cara Cusumano was made?

question: It was the last year of Tribeca featuring a showcase of producers who do what?

question: What behavior is just done by people who want content for free?
context: Cara Cusumano, director of the Tribeca Film Festival, stated in April 2014: "Piracy is less about people not wanting to pay and more about just wanting the immediacy – people saying, 'I want to watch Spiderman right now' and downloading it". The statement occurred during the third year that the festival used the Internet to present its content, while it was the first year that it featured a showcase of content producers who work exclusively online. Cusumano further explained that downloading behavior is not merely conducted by people who merely want to obtain content for free:

qas: question: Who made clear the motivations of the filmmakers?
answers: text: Matt Deaner

question: Who encourages watching movies at a theater as making money from the film?
answers: text: Distributors

question: What is restricted to ensure the largest number of people see a movie at the theater?
answers: text: immediate access to online

question: What is restricted unless the film has a traditional theater release?
answers: text: tax support that a film can receive

question: Who made unclear the motivations of the filmmakers?

question: Who discourages watching movies at a theater as making money from the film?

question: What is restricted to ensure the smallest number of people see a movie at the theater?

question: What is restricted to ensure the largest number of people see a movie at home?

question: What is unrestricted unless the film has a traditional theater release?
context: In response to Cusumano's perspective, Screen Producers Australia executive director Matt Deaner clarified the motivation of the film industry: "Distributors are usually wanting to encourage cinema-going as part of this process [monetizing through returns] and restrict the immediate access to online so as to encourage the maximum number of people to go to the cinema." Deaner further explained the matter in terms of the Australian film industry, stating: "there are currently restrictions on quantities of tax support that a film can receive unless the film has a traditional cinema release."

qas: question: What researchers conducted a study in the early part of May 2014?
answers: text: University of Portsmouth

question: How many people were part of the study?
answers: text: 6,000

question: What was the age range of people studied?
answers: text: seven to 84

question: Who did downloaders want to help by avoiding studios and record companies?
answers: text: artists

question: What researchers conducted a study in the later part of May 2014?

question: How many people weren't part of the study?

question: What was the age range of dogs studied?

question: Who did uploaders want to help by avoiding studios and record companies?

question: Who did downloaders want to hurt by avoiding studios and record companies?
context: In a study published in the Journal of Behavioural and Experimental Economics, and reported on in early May 2014, researchers from the University of Portsmouth in the UK discussed findings from examining the illegal downloading behavior of 6,000 Finnish people, aged seven to 84. The list of reasons for downloading given by the study respondents included money saving; the ability to access material not on general release, or before it was released; and assisting artists to avoid involvement with record companies and movie studios.

qas: question: Even though piracy adds costs to production, what else is offered to developing countries?
answers: text: main access to media goods

question: What do the tradeoffs of digital piracy support?
answers: text: current neglected law enforcements

question: In what country is the issue of digital infringement social?
answers: text: China

question: What is in high demand in this country?
answers: text: cheap and affordable goods

question: What does the government of this country provide to businesses that produce content?
answers: text: connections

question: Even though piracy adds costs to production, what else is offered to established countries?

question: What don't the tradeoffs of digital piracy support?

question: In what country is the issue of digital infringement anti-social?

question: What is in low demand in this country?

question: What does the government of this country provide to non-businesses that produce content?
context: According to the same study, even though digital piracy inflicts additional costs on the production side of media, it also offers the main access to media goods in developing countries. The strong tradeoffs that favor using digital piracy in developing economies dictate the current neglected law enforcements toward digital piracy. In China, the issue of digital infringement is not merely legal, but social – originating from the high demand for cheap and affordable goods as well as the governmental connections of the businesses which produce such goods.

qas: question: What happens when a country bans a movie?
answers: text: the spread of copied videos and DVDs

question: Who did documentary maker Ilinca Calugareanu write an article for?
answers: text: New York Times

question: What was Irina Margareta Nistor's job in Romania?
answers: text: a narrator for state TV

question: What did a visitor give to Nistor?
answers: text: bootlegged copies of American movies

question: How many movies did Nistor dub for secret viewings in Romania?
answers: text: 3,000

question: What happens when a country accepts a movie?

question: Who did documentary maker Ilinca Calugareanu draw a picture for?

question: What was Irina Margareta Nistor's job in Bulgaria?

question: How many movies did Nistor dub for public viewings in Romania?

question: What did a visitor take from Nistor?
context: There have been instances where a country's government bans a movie, resulting in the spread of copied videos and DVDs. Romanian-born documentary maker Ilinca Calugareanu wrote a New York Times article telling the story of Irina Margareta Nistor, a narrator for state TV under Nicolae Ceauşescu's regime. A visitor from the west gave her bootlegged copies of American movies, which she dubbed for secret viewings through Romania. According to the article, she dubbed more than 3,000 movies and became the country's second-most famous voice after Ceauşescu, even though no one knew her name until many years later.

qas: question: In the U.S., where is copyright infringement contested?
answers: text: civil court

question: Who did MGM studios file a lawsuit against?
answers: text: Grokster and Streamcast

question: In 2005, who did the Supreme Court rule in favor of?
answers: text: MGM

question: What did P2P file sharing services market themselves as?
answers: text: venues for acquiring copyrighted movies

question: What studio's case decision was NOT overturned?
answers: text: Sony

question: In the U.S., where is copyright infringement uncontested?

question: Who did MGM studios not file a lawsuit against?

question: In 2015, who did the Supreme Court rule in favor of?

question: What did P2P file sharing services not market themselves as?

question: What studio's case decision was overturned?
context: In the U.S., copyright infringement is sometimes confronted via lawsuits in civil court, against alleged infringers directly, or against providers of services and software that support unauthorized copying. For example, major motion-picture corporation MGM Studios filed suit against P2P file-sharing services Grokster and Streamcast for their contributory role in copyright infringement. In 2005, the Supreme Court ruled in favor of MGM, holding that such services could be held liable for copyright infringement since they functioned and, indeed, willfully marketed themselves as venues for acquiring copyrighted movies. The MGM v. Grokster case did not overturn the earlier Sony decision, but rather clouded the legal waters; future designers of software capable of being used for copyright infringement were warned.

qas: question: Who can be assigned a contract to enforce a copyright in some jurisdictions?
answers: text: third party

question: What do outside lawyers take infringers to court for?
answers: text: to identify and exact settlements

question: What do critics usually call these lawyers?
answers: text: copyright troll

question: What do these lawsuits have in the U.S.?
answers: text: mixed results

question: Who can't be assigned a contract to enforce a copyright in some jurisdictions?

question: Who can be assigned a contract to enforce a copyright in all jurisdictions?

question: What do inside lawyers take infringers to court for?

question: What do critics never call these lawyers?

question: What don't these lawsuits have in the U.S.?
context: In some jurisdictions, copyright or the right to enforce it can be contractually assigned to a third party which did not have a role in producing the work. When this outsourced litigator appears to have no intention of taking any copyright infringement cases to trial, but rather only takes them just far enough through the legal system to identify and exact settlements from suspected infringers, critics commonly refer to the party as a "copyright troll." Such practices have had mixed results in the U.S.

qas: question: When was the first criminal part of copyright law in the U.S. added?
answers: text: 1897

question: What type of penalty was made for unlawful performances that are willful and for profit?
answers: text: misdemeanor

question: What did a criminal infringer do to be prosecuted?
answers: text: for the purpose of commercial advantage or private financial gain

question: What must a prosecuter show after the basic elements of infringement?
answers: text: that defendant willfully infringed

question: What is the threshold of the number of copies and the value of the works?
answers: text: very low threshold

question: When was the last criminal part of copyright law in the U.S. added?

question: What type of penalty was made for lawful performances that are willful and for profit?

question: What did a criminal infringer not do to be prosecuted?

question: What mustn't a prosecuter show after the basic elements of infringement?

question: What isn't the threshold of the number of copies and the value of the works?
context: The first criminal provision in U.S. copyright law was added in 1897, which established a misdemeanor penalty for "unlawful performances and representations of copyrighted dramatic and musical compositions" if the violation had been "willful and for profit." Criminal copyright infringement requires that the infringer acted "for the purpose of commercial advantage or private financial gain." 17 U.S.C. § 506. To establish criminal liability, the prosecutor must first show the basic elements of copyright infringement: ownership of a valid copyright, and the violation of one or more of the copyright holder's exclusive rights. The government must then establish that defendant willfully infringed or, in other words, possessed the necessary mens rea. Misdemeanor infringement has a very low threshold in terms of number of copies and the value of the infringed works.

qas: question: When was United States v. LaMacchia contested?
answers: text: 1994

question: At the time, what infringement could not be prosecuted under criminal copyright law?
answers: text: non-commercial motives

question: What loophole did the ruling give rise to?
answers: text: LaMacchia Loophole

question: If there is no profit involved, what would happen to criminal charges of fraud?
answers: text: dismissed

question: When was United States v. LaMacchia not contested?

question: At the time, what infringement could be prosecuted under criminal copyright law?

question: What loophole didn't the ruling give rise to?

question: What loophole did the ruling kill?

question: If there is profit involved, what would happen to criminal charges of fraud?
context: United States v. LaMacchia 871 F.Supp. 535 (1994) was a case decided by the United States District Court for the District of Massachusetts which ruled that, under the copyright and cybercrime laws effective at the time, committing copyright infringement for non-commercial motives could not be prosecuted under criminal copyright law. The ruling gave rise to what became known as the "LaMacchia Loophole," wherein criminal charges of fraud or copyright infringement would be dismissed under current legal standards, so long as there was no profit motive involved.

qas: question: What federal law did the United States pass in 1997, in response to the LaMacchia Loophole?
answers: text: No Electronic Theft Act

question: What is the maximum prison time for infringement under the new law?
answers: text: five years in prison

question: What is the maximum monetary fine under the new law?
answers: text: $250,000

question: How much were statutory damages raised by?
answers: text: 50%

question: What was the law called that let people be immune to prosecution?
answers: text: Copyright Act

question: What federal law did the United States pass in 1999, in response to the LaMacchia Loophole?

question: What is the minimum prison time for infringement under the new law?

question: What is the minimum monetary fine under the new law?

question: How much were statutory damages lowered by?

question: What was the law called that let people be immune to persecution?
context: The United States No Electronic Theft Act (NET Act), a federal law passed in 1997, in response to LaMacchia, provides for criminal prosecution of individuals who engage in copyright infringement under certain circumstances, even when there is no monetary profit or commercial benefit from the infringement. Maximum penalties can be five years in prison and up to $250,000 in fines. The NET Act also raised statutory damages by 50%. The court's ruling explicitly drew attention to the shortcomings of current law that allowed people to facilitate mass copyright infringement while being immune to prosecution under the Copyright Act.

qas: question: What directive in 2001 let European Union countries to enact laws that allowed making copies for personal use?
answers: text: EU Copyright Directive of 2001

question: What was the directive NOT intended for?
answers: text: legitimize file-sharing

question: Compensation to the rights-holder is generally a levy or what else?
answers: text: a tax on the content itself

question: What is an example of a country that has no levies collected?
answers: text: Canada

question: What are examples of general purpose storage devices?
answers: text: computer hard drives, portable media players, and phones

question: What directive in 2010 let European Union countries to enact laws that allowed making copies for personal use?

question: What was the directive intended for?

question: Compensation to the rights-holder is never a levy or what else?

question: What is an example of a country that has all levies collected?

question: What are examples of specific purpose storage devices?
context: The personal copying exemption in the copyright law of EU member states stems from the EU Copyright Directive of 2001, which is generally devised to allow EU members to enact laws sanctioning making copies without authorization, as long as they are for personal, noncommerical use. The Copyright Directive was not intended to legitimize file-sharing, but rather the common practice of space shifting copyright-protected content from a legally purchased CD (for example) to certain kinds of devices and media, provided rights holders are compensated and no copy protection measures are circumvented. Rights-holder compensation takes various forms, depending on the country, but is generally either a levy on "recording" devices and media, or a tax on the content itself. In some countries, such as Canada, the applicability of such laws to copying onto general-purpose storage devices like computer hard drives, portable media players, and phones, for which no levies are collected, has been the subject of debate and further efforts to reform copyright law.

qas: question: What does the personal copying exemption explicitly need?
answers: text: was obtained legitimately

question: What is an example of a country that the exemption was assumed?
answers: text: Netherlands

question: When did the Court of Justice of the EU make a ruling about distinction?
answers: text: April 2014

question: In which country is downloading from a file-sharing network no longer legal?
answers: text: Netherlands

question: What does the personal copying exemption explicitly not need?

question: What is an example of a country that the exemption wasn't assumed?

question: When didn't the Court of Justice of the EU make a ruling about distinction?

question: In which country is uploading from a file-sharing network no longer legal?

question: In which country is downloading from a file-sharing network always legal?
context: In some countries, the personal copying exemption explicitly requires that the content being copied was obtained legitimately – i.e., from authorized sources, not file-sharing networks. Other countries, such as the Netherlands, make no such distinction; the exemption there had been assumed, even by the government, to apply to any such copying, even from file-sharing networks. However, in April 2014, the Court of Justice of the European Union ruled that "national legislation which makes no distinction between private copies made from lawful sources and those made from counterfeited or pirated sources cannot be tolerated." Thus, in the Netherlands, for example, downloading from file-sharing networks is no longer legal.

qas: question: What is the U.S. law that uses the WIPO Copyright as it's Title I?
answers: text: DMCA

question: What is it called when someone intentionally breaks encryption on a movie or game?
answers: text: "circumvent[ing] a technological measure

question: Anticircumvention exemptions are generally seen to be be what?
answers: text: inefficient

question: What are child safety and public library software used to filter?
answers: text: website

question: What is the U.S. law that doesn't use the WIPO Copyright as it's Title I?

question: What is the U.N. law that uses the WIPO Copyright as it's Title I?

question: What is it called when someone unintentionally breaks encryption on a movie or game?

question: Anticircumvention exemptions are generally not seen to be what?

question: What are adult safety and public library software used to filter?
context: Title I of the U.S. DMCA, the WIPO Copyright and Performances and Phonograms Treaties Implementation Act has provisions that prevent persons from "circumvent[ing] a technological measure that effectively controls access to a work". Thus if a distributor of copyrighted works has some kind of software, dongle or password access device installed in instances of the work, any attempt to bypass such a copy protection scheme may be actionable – though the US Copyright Office is currently reviewing anticircumvention rulemaking under DMCA – anticircumvention exemptions that have been in place under the DMCA include those in software designed to filter websites that are generally seen to be inefficient (child safety and public library website filtering software) and the circumvention of copy protection mechanisms that have malfunctioned, have caused the instance of the work to become inoperable or which are no longer supported by their manufacturers.

qas: question: What includes Internet portals, software and games?
answers: text: intermediaries

question: What examples provide virtual information?
answers: text: interactive forums and comment facilities

question: News, universities and libraries and archives are examples of what?
answers: text: aggregators

question: What is an important element of the World Wide Web?
answers: text: hyperlinks

question: What excludes Internet portals, software and games?

question: What includes Internet portals, hardware and games?

question: What examples provide actual information?

question: News, universities and libraries and archives aren't examples of what?

question: What is an unimportant element of the World Wide Web?
context: In addition, intermediaries are now also generally understood to include Internet portals, software and games providers, those providing virtual information such as interactive forums and comment facilities with or without a moderation system, aggregators of various kinds, such as news aggregators, universities, libraries and archives, web search engines, chat rooms, web blogs, mailing lists, and any website which provides access to third party content through, for example, hyperlinks, a crucial element of the World Wide Web.

qas: question: Who did early court cases focus on?
answers: text: Internet service providers

question: What could be sued for under civil or criminal law?
answers: text: libel, defamation, or pornography

question: What was the result of early law on online liability?
answers: text: varied widely from country to country

question: When were the first laws of liability passed?
answers: text: mid-1990s

question: Who didn't early court cases focus on?

question: Who did late court cases focus on?

question: What couldn't be sued for under civil or criminal law?

question: What was the result of early law on offline liability?

question: When were the last laws of liability passed?
context: Early court cases focused on the liability of Internet service providers (ISPs) for hosting, transmitting or publishing user-supplied content that could be actioned under civil or criminal law, such as libel, defamation, or pornography. As different content was considered in different legal systems, and in the absence of common definitions for "ISPs," "bulletin boards" or "online publishers," early law on online intermediaries' liability varied widely from country to country. The first laws on online intermediaries' liability were passed from the mid-1990s onwards.[citation needed]

qas: question: What law enacted in the U.S. in 1998 gave online intermediaries limited statutory immunity?
answers: text: Digital Millennium Copyright Act

question: How is this law characterized in the U.S.?
answers: text: safe harbor

question: In the E.U., what are the governing principles for ISP's?
answers: text: mere conduit

question: What is it called when intermediaries cannot be given an order by governments to monitor what happens on their services?
answers: text: no obligation to monitor

question: What was attempted to be amended in 2009 to support new ways to prevent copyright infringement?
answers: text: European Telecoms Package

question: What law rejected in the U.S. in 1998 gave online intermediaries limited statutory immunity?

question: How is this law characterized in the U.N.?

question: In the E.U., what aren't the governing principles for ISP's?

question: What is it called when intermediaries cannot be given an order by governments to ignore what happens on their services?

question: What was attempted to be amended in 2007 to support new ways to prevent copyright infringement?
context: The U.S. Digital Millennium Copyright Act (1998) and the European E-Commerce Directive (2000) provide online intermediaries with limited statutory immunity from liability for copyright infringement. Online intermediaries hosting content that infringes copyright are not liable, so long as they do not know about it and take actions once the infringing content is brought to their attention. In U.S. law this is characterized as "safe harbor" provisions. Under European law, the governing principles for Internet Service Providers are "mere conduit", meaning that they are neutral 'pipes' with no knowledge of what they are carrying; and 'no obligation to monitor' meaning that they cannot be given a general mandate by governments to monitor content. These two principles are a barrier for certain forms of online copyright enforcement and they were the reason behind an attempt to amend the European Telecoms Package in 2009 to support new measures against copyright infringement.

qas: question: What do certain type of intermediaries NOT do?
answers: text: host or transmit infringing content

question: What protocol do intermediaries use that include a torrent tracker?
answers: text: BitTorrent

question: What do Torrent files NOT contain?
answers: text: copyrighted content

question: What is a torrent site that uses magnet links to share peer-to-peer?
answers: text: The Pirate Bay

question: What do certain type of intermediaries do?

question: What protocol do intermediaries not use that include a torrent tracker?

question: What protocol do intermediaries use that exclude a torrent tracker?

question: What do Torrent files contain?

question: What is a torrent site that uses magnet links to block peer-to-peer?
context: These types of intermediaries do not host or transmit infringing content, themselves, but may be regarded in some courts as encouraging, enabling or facilitating infringement by users. These intermediaries may include the author, publishers and marketers of peer-to-peer networking software, and the websites that allow users to download such software. In the case of the BitTorrent protocol, intermediaries may include the torrent tracker and any websites or search engines which facilitate access to torrent files. Torrent files don't contain copyrighted content, but they may make reference to files that do, and they may point to trackers which coordinate the sharing of those files. Some torrent indexing and search sites, such as The Pirate Bay, now encourage the use of magnet links, instead of direct links to torrent files, creating another layer of indirection; using such links, torrent files are obtained from other peers, rather than from a particular website.

qas: question: What is the legal status of secondary liability?
answers: text: subject of ongoing litigation

question: What makes peer-to-peer networks different than other online providers?
answers: text: decentralised structure

question: What was the initial purpose of the BitTorrent protocol?
answers: text: distribute large files effectively

question: What are the reasons for more complex network configurations in peer-to-peer software development?
answers: text: to avoid liability as intermediaries

question: What is the legal status of primary liability?

question: What makes peer-to-peer networks the same as other online providers?

question: What was the final purpose of the BitTorrent protocol?

question: What wasn't the initial purpose of the BitTorrent protocol?

question: What are the reasons for more simple network configurations in peer-to-peer software development?
context: Nevertheless, whether and to what degree any of these types of intermediaries have secondary liability is the subject of ongoing litigation. The decentralised structure of peer-to-peer networks, in particular, does not sit easily with existing laws on online intermediaries' liability. The BitTorrent protocol established an entirely decentralised network architecture in order to distribute large files effectively. Recent developments in peer-to-peer technology towards more complex network configurations are said to have been driven by a desire to avoid liability as intermediaries under existing laws.

qas: question: What does Article 10 of the Berne Convention call certain uses that limit copyright?
answers: text: fair practice

question: Where are minimal quotations commonly used?
answers: text: journalism and education

question: What categories do works that would normally be considered infringing fall into?
answers: text: fair use or fair dealing

question: What do these statutes represent?
answers: text: principles underlying many earlier judicial precedents

question: What are these statutes essential to?
answers: text: freedom of speech

question: What does Article 11 of the Berne Convention call certain uses that limit copyright?

question: What does Article 10 of the Berne Convention not call certain uses that limit copyright?

question: Where are maximum quotations commonly used?

question: What categories do work that wouldn't normally be considered infringing fall into?

question: What don't these statutes represent?
context: Article 10 of the Berne Convention mandates that national laws provide for limitations to copyright, so that copyright protection does not extend to certain kinds of uses that fall under what the treaty calls "fair practice," including but not limited to minimal quotations used in journalism and education. The laws implementing these limitations and exceptions for uses that would otherwise be infringing broadly fall into the categories of either fair use or fair dealing. In common law systems, these fair practice statutes typically enshrine principles underlying many earlier judicial precedents, and are considered essential to freedom of speech.

qas: question: What is it called when a law disallows copyright owners from denying a license for certain uses?
answers: text: compulsory licensing

question: What are two examples of this licensing?
answers: text: compilations and live performances of music

question: What happens if a royalty is paid to the copyright owner or representative?
answers: text: no infringement occurs

question: What country has fair dealing laws?
answers: text: Canada

question: What is it called when a law allows copyright owners from denying a license for certain uses?

question: What is it called when a law disallows copyright owners from accepting a license for certain uses?

question: What aren't two examples of this licensing?

question: What happens if a royalty isn't paid to the copyright owner or representative?

question: What country has no fair dealing laws?
context: Another example is the practice of compulsory licensing, which is where the law forbids copyright owners from denying a license for certain uses of certain kinds of works, such as compilations and live performances of music. Compulsory licensing laws generally say that for certain uses of certain works, no infringement occurs as long as a royalty, at a rate determined by law rather than private negotiation, is paid to the copyright owner or representative copyright collective. Some fair dealing laws, such as Canada's, include similar royalty requirements.

qas: question: Where was the Public Relations Consultants Association Ltd v Newspaper Licensing Agency Ltd case contested?
answers: text: Europe

question: Whose copyright were news aggregators infringing on?
answers: text: news generators

question: When was the second part of the case decided?
answers: text: June 2014

question: What did the courts rule was NOT infringement?
answers: text: temporary web cache of consumers

question: Where was the Private Relations Consultants Association Ltd v Newspaper Licensing Agency Ltd case contested?

question: Where was the Public Relations Consultants Association Ltd v Newspaper Licensing Agency Ltd case not contested?

question: Whose copyright weren't news aggregators infringing on?

question: When was the second part of the case undecided?

question: What did the courts rule was infringement?
context: In Europe, the copyright infringement case Public Relations Consultants Association Ltd v Newspaper Licensing Agency Ltd had two prongs; one concerned whether a news aggregator service infringed the copyright of the news generators; the other concerned whether the temporary web cache created by the web browser of a consumer of the aggregator's service, also infringed the copyright of the news generators. The first prong was decided in favor of the news generators; in June 2014 the second prong was decided by the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU), which ruled that the temporary web cache of consumers of the aggregator did not infringe the copyright of the news generators.

qas: question: If a work must include a degree of originality, what else must it contain to be protected?
answers: text: in a fixed medium

question: What is NOT protected?
answers: text: The idea itself

question: What makes a copy of an original idea infringing?
answers: text: it copies that person's unique, tangible expression of the idea

question: What limitation is only embodied in case law, rather than statues?
answers: text: what qualifies as original

question: If a work must exclude a degree of originality, what else must it contain to be protected?

question: If a work must include a degree of originality, what else mustn't it contain to be protected?

question: What is protected?

question: What makes a copy of an unoriginal idea infringing?

question: What limitation is only embodied in case law, and also in statues?
context: In order to qualify for protection, a work must be an expression with a degree of originality, and it must be in a fixed medium, such as written down on paper or recorded digitally. The idea itself is not protected. That is, a copy of someone else's original idea is not infringing unless it copies that person's unique, tangible expression of the idea. Some of these limitations, especially regarding what qualifies as original, are embodied only in case law (judicial precedent), rather than in statutes.

qas: question: Which country needs a similarity requirement to determine if the work was copied?
answers: text: U.S.

question: What test might courts require software to pass to determine if it is protected or infringing?
answers: text: Abstraction-Filtration-Comparison test

question: What has software case law determined about R&D, effort and expense put into creation?
answers: text: doesn't affect copyright protection

question: Which country needs a similarity requirement to determine if the work wasn't copied?

question: Which country doesn't need a similarity requirement to determine if the work was copied?

question: What test might courts require hardware to pass to determine if it is protected or infringing?

question: What test might courts require software to pass to determine if it isn't protected or infringing?

question: What has hardware case law determined about R&D, effort and expense put into creation?
context: In the U.S., for example, copyright case law contains a substantial similarity requirement to determine whether the work was copied. Likewise, courts may require computer software to pass an Abstraction-Filtration-Comparison test (AFC Test) to determine if it is too abstract to qualify for protection, or too dissimilar to an original work to be considered infringing. Software-related case law has also clarified that the amount of R&D, effort and expense put into a work's creation doesn't affect copyright protection.

qas: question: Who takes different steps to prevent infringement?
answers: text: Corporations and legislatures

question: What is the major focus of these steps?
answers: text: preventing or reducing digital methods of infringement

question: What kinds of legislation are a strategy for preventing infringement?
answers: text: civil & criminal

question: What does DRM and anti-circumvention laws do?
answers: text: limit the amount of control consumers have

question: Who takes different steps to allow infringement?

question: Who never takes different steps to prevent infringement?

question: What is the minor focus of these steps?

question: What kinds of legislation aren't a strategy for preventing infringement?

question: What doesn't DRM and anti-circumvention laws do?
context: Corporations and legislatures take different types of preventative measures to deter copyright infringement, with much of the focus since the early 1990s being on preventing or reducing digital methods of infringement. Strategies include education, civil & criminal legislation, and international agreements, as well as publicizing anti-piracy litigation successes and imposing forms of digital media copy protection, such as controversial DRM technology and anti-circumvention laws, which limit the amount of control consumers have over the use of products and content they have purchased.

qas: question: How have governments lowered infringement rates?
answers: text: narrowing the scope of what is considered infringing

question: Besides upholding international treaty, what else have countries done specifically to digital works and uses?
answers: text: enacted compulsory licensing laws

question: What law in the US considers digital transmission of audio to be licensed if certain conditions are met?
answers: text: DMCA

question: What else does this law provide to service providers?
answers: text: safe harbor

question: Who does this law target?
answers: text: providers whose users are suspected of copyright infringement

question: How have governments increased infringement rates?

question: Besides upholding international treaty, what else haven't countries done specifically to digital works and uses?

question: What law in the UN considers digital transmission of audio to be licensed if certain conditions are met?

question: What else doesn't this law provide to service providers?

question: Who doesn't this law target?
context: Legislatures have reduced infringement by narrowing the scope of what is considered infringing. Aside from upholding international copyright treaty obligations to provide general limitations and exceptions, nations have enacted compulsory licensing laws applying specifically to digital works and uses. For example, in the U.S., the DMCA, an implementation of the 1996 WIPO Copyright Treaty, considers digital transmissions of audio recordings to be licensed as long as a designated copyright collective's royalty and reporting requirements are met. The DMCA also provides safe harbor for digital service providers whose users are suspected of copyright infringement, thus reducing the likelihood that the providers themselves will be considered directly infringing.

qas: question: What do some copyright owners do by reducing the scope of infringement?
answers: text: employing relatively permissive, "open" licensing

question: What must a user do under a prepared license?
answers: text: adhere to certain conditions

question: Besides lessening the burden on the courts, what is the effect of this license?
answers: text: reducing infringement

question: What is an example of a free software license?
answers: text: GNU General Public License

question: What works do Creative Commons licenses generally apply to?
answers: text: visual and literary works

question: What do some copyright owners do by increasing the scope of infringement?

question: What mustn't a user do under a prepared license?

question: Besides heightening the burden on the courts, what is the effect of this license?

question: What is an example of a paid software license?

question: What works do Creative Commons licenses generally not apply to?
context: Some copyright owners voluntarily reduce the scope of what is considered infringement by employing relatively permissive, "open" licensing strategies: rather than privately negotiating license terms with individual users who must first seek out the copyright owner and ask for permission, the copyright owner publishes and distributes the work with a prepared license that anyone can use, as long as they adhere to certain conditions. This has the effect of reducing infringement – and the burden on courts – by simply permitting certain types of uses under terms that the copyright owner considers reasonable. Examples include free software licenses, like the GNU General Public License (GPL), and the Creative Commons licenses, which are predominantly applied to visual and literary works.

qas: question: How long is a movie typically released in theaters for?
answers: text: approximately 16 and a half weeks

question: During this time, how are digital versions of the movie transported in data storage devices?
answers: text: by couriers

question: What can be done to a movie to only allow it to show at certain times?
answers: text: encrypted

question: What can be coded to films to find the source of illegal copies?
answers: text: Anti-Piracy marks can be added

question: What inferior versions of movies are available for piracy during the theatrical run of a movie called?
answers: text: "cams" made by video recordings of the movie screens

question: How long is a movie atypically released in theaters for?

question: During this time, how aren't digital versions of the movie transported in data storage devices?

question: What can't be done to a movie to only allow it to show at certain times?

question: What can be coded to films to find the source of legal copies?

question: What superior versions of movies are available for piracy during the theatrical run of a movie called?
context: To prevent piracy of films, the standard drill of film distribution is to have a movie first released through movie theaters (theatrical window), on average approximately 16 and a half weeks, before having it released to Blu-Ray and DVD (entering its video window). During the theatrical window, digital versions of films are often transported in data storage devices by couriers rather than by data transmission. The data can be encrypted, with the key being made to work only at specific times in order to prevent leakage between screens. Coded Anti-Piracy marks can be added to films to identify the source of illegal copies and shut them down. As a result of these measures, the only versions of films available for piracy during the theatrical window are usually "cams" made by video recordings of the movie screens, which are of inferior quality compared to the original film version.

qas: question: What 2010 body found how difficult it is to accurately report the financial impact of infringement?
answers: text: U.S. GAO

question: How many commanly cited estimates did the body report on?
answers: text: three

question: What did the FBI use as a source?
answers: text: estimate

question: What report said the data could not be substantiated or traced to a reliable data source?
answers: text: GAO report

question: What 2010 body found how easy it is to accurately report the financial impact of infringement?

question: What 2010 body found how difficult it is to inaccurately report the financial impact of infringement?

question: How many uncommonly cited estimates did the body report on?

question: What didn't the FBI use as a source?

question: What report said the data could be substantiated or traced to a reliable data source?
context: The U.S. GAO's 2010 findings regarding the great difficulty of accurately gauging the economic impact of copyright infringement was reinforced within the same report by the body's research into three commonly cited estimates that had previously been provided to U.S. agencies. The GAO report explained that the sources – a Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) estimate, a Customs and Border Protection (CBP) press release and a Motor and Equipment Manufacturers Association estimate – "cannot be substantiated or traced back to an underlying data source or methodology."

qas: question: Who did a study in 2007 regarding the five countries with the highest rates of software piracy?
answers: text: BSA and International Data Corporation

question: Which country had the lowest rate of software piracy?
answers: text: U.S.

question: Which region had the highest loss?
answers: text: Asia-Pacific

question: How much did the EU lose?
answers: text: $12,383,000

question: Where was the lowest amount of U.S. dollars lost?
answers: text: Middle East/Africa region

question: Who did a study in 2000 regarding the five countries with the highest rates of software piracy?

question: Who did a study in 2007 regarding the five cities with the highest rates of software piracy?

question: Which country had the highest rate of hardware piracy?

question: Which region had the highest gain?

question: How much did the EU gain?
context: According to a 2007 BSA and International Data Corporation (IDC) study, the five countries with the highest rates of software piracy were: 1. Armenia (93%); 2. Bangladesh (92%); 3. Azerbaijan (92%); 4. Moldova (92%); and 5. Zimbabwe (91%). According to the study's results, the five countries with the lowest piracy rates were: 1. U.S. (20%); 2. Luxembourg (21%); 3. New Zealand (22%); 4. Japan (23%); and 5. Austria (25%). The 2007 report showed that the Asia-Pacific region was associated with the highest amount of loss, in terms of U.S. dollars, with $14,090,000, followed by the European Union, with a loss of $12,383,000; the lowest amount of U.S. dollars was lost in the Middle East/Africa region, where $2,446,000 was documented.

qas: question: Who else did the BSA issues a report in 2011 with?
answers: text: IDC and Ipsos Public Affairs

question: What percentage of people admit to pirating software?
answers: text: 57 percent

question: What was the commercial value of pirated software in 2011?
answers: text: US$63.4 billion

question: What nation had the higest piracy rate?
answers: text: Zimbabwe

question: What was the U.S.'s piracy rate?
answers: text: 19%

question: Who else did the BSA issues a report in 2001 with?

question: What percentage of people admit to pirating hardware?

question: What was the commercial value of pirated hardware in 2011?

question: What nation had the lowest nonpiracy rate?

question: What was the U.N.'s piracy rate?
context: In its 2011 report, conducted in partnership with IDC and Ipsos Public Affairs, the BSA stated: "Over half of the world's personal computer users – 57 percent – admit to pirating software." The ninth annual "BSA Global Software Piracy Study" claims that the "commercial value of this shadow market of pirated software" was worth US$63.4 billion in 2011, with the highest commercial value of pirated PC software existent in the U.S. during that time period (US$9,773,000). According to the 2011 study, Zimbabwe was the nation with the highest piracy rate, at 92%, while the lowest piracy rate was present in the U.S., at 19%.

qas: question: Who reported that piracy took $12.5 billion from the U.S. economy?
answers: text: Institute for Policy Innovation

question: How much money have retailers lost?
answers: text: over a billion dollars

question: How many production-level jobs were lost?
answers: text: 46,000

question: Which government lost $422 million in potential tax money?
answers: text: U.S. government

question: Who reported that piracy gained $12.5 billion for the U.S. economy?

question: How much money have retailers made?

question: How many production-level jobs were gained?

question: How many production-level jobs weren't lost?

question: Which government made $422 million in potential tax money?
context: In 2007, the Institute for Policy Innovation (IPI) reported that music piracy took $12.5 billion from the U.S. economy. According to the study, musicians and those involved in the recording industry are not the only ones who experience losses attributed to music piracy. Retailers have lost over a billion dollars, while piracy has resulted in 46,000 fewer production-level jobs and almost 25,000 retail jobs. The U.S. government was also reported to suffer from music piracy, losing $422 million in tax revenue.

qas: question: What book did Professor Aram Sinnreich write?
answers: text: The Piracy Crusade

question: What did Sinnreich call the link between lower music sales and peer-to-peer sharing site?
answers: text: tenuous

question: What was the industry going through?
answers: text: artificial expansion

question: What does he call the merging of economic, political and technological forces that drove the music industry?
answers: text: perfect bubble

question: What book did Professor Aram Sinnreich read?

question: What book didn't Professor Aram Sinnreich write?

question: What didn't Sinnreich call the link between lower music sales and peer-to-peer sharing site?

question: What wasn't the industry going through?

question: What doesn't he call the merging of economic, political and technological forces that drove the music industry?
context: Professor Aram Sinnreich, in his book The Piracy Crusade, states that the connection between declining music sails and the creation of peer to peer file sharing sites such as Napster is tenuous, based on correlation rather than causation. He argues that the industry at the time was undergoing artificial expansion, what he describes as a "'perfect bubble'—a confluence of economic, political, and technological forces that drove the aggregate value of music sales to unprecedented heights at the end of the twentieth century".

qas: question: What was the estimated total value of pirated software in 2010?
answers: text: $59 billion

question: Who accounted for over half the total?
answers: text: emerging markets

question:  What did the established markets receive for the first time?
answers: text: less PC shipments than emerging economies

question: What country has the highest retail value of software?
answers: text: China

question: What percentage of software in Africa is illegal?
answers: text: 83 percent

question: What was the estimated total value of pirated software in 2000?

question: What was the known total value of pirated software in 2010?

question: Who accounted for less than half the total?

question: What did the established markets receive for the last time?

question: What country has the lowest retail value of software?
context: The 2011 Business Software Alliance Piracy Study Standard, estimates the total commercial value of illegally copied software to be at $59 billion in 2010, with emerging markets accounting for $31.9 billion, over half of the total. Furthermore, mature markets for the first time received less PC shipments than emerging economies in 2010, making emerging markets now responsible for more than half of all computers in use worldwide. In addition with software infringement rates of 68 percent comparing to 24 percent of mature markets, emerging markets thus possess the majority of the global increase in the commercial value of counterfeit software. China continues to have the highest commercial value of such software at $8.9 billion among developing countries and second in the world behind the US at $9.7 billion in 2011. In 2011, the Business Software Alliance announced that 83 percent of software deployed on PCs in Africa has been pirated (excluding South Africa).