Nutrition

qas: question: What does RDN stand for?
answers: text: Registered dietitian nutritionists

question: Who offers dietary advice on the role of nutrition in chronic diseases?
answers: text: Certified Clinical Nutritionists

question: For which health professional is Governmental regulation more universal?
answers: text: RDN

question: Who typically specializes in obesity and chronic disease?
answers: text: Certified Nutrition Specialist
context: Registered dietitian nutritionists (RDs or RDNs) are health professionals qualified to provide safe, evidence-based dietary advice which includes a review of what is eaten, a thorough review of nutritional health, and a personalized nutritional treatment plan. They also provide preventive and therapeutic programs at work places, schools and similar institutions. Certified Clinical Nutritionists or CCNs, are trained health professionals who also offer dietary advice on the role of nutrition in chronic disease, including possible prevention or remediation by addressing nutritional deficiencies before resorting to drugs. Government regulation especially in terms of licensing, is currently less universal for the CCN than that of RD or RDN. Another advanced Nutrition Professional is a Certified Nutrition Specialist or CNS. These Board Certified Nutritionists typically specialize in obesity and chronic disease. In order to become board certified, potential CNS candidate must pass an examination, much like Registered Dieticians. This exam covers specific domains within the health sphere including; Clinical Intervention and Human Health.

qas: question: In which time period did the study of nutrition begin?
answers: text: 6th century BC

question: What is the European equivalent of "Qi"?
answers: text: pneuma

question: What kind of food classification does ginger belong to?
answers: text: hot

question: What nationality was Alcmaeon of Croton?
answers: text: Greek

question: Other than obesity, what else would trademark an imbalance in nutrition?
answers: text: emaciation
context: According to Walter Gratzer, the study of nutrition probably began during the 6th century BC. In China, the concept of Qi developed, a spirit or "wind" similar to what Western Europeans later called pneuma. Food was classified into "hot" (for example, meats, blood, ginger, and hot spices) and "cold" (green vegetables) in China, India, Malaya, and Persia. Humours developed perhaps first in China alongside qi. Ho the Physician concluded that diseases are caused by deficiencies of elements (Wu Xing: fire, water, earth, wood, and metal), and he classified diseases as well as prescribed diets. About the same time in Italy, Alcmaeon of Croton (a Greek) wrote of the importance of equilibrium between what goes in and what goes out, and warned that imbalance would result disease marked by obesity or emaciation.

qas: question: What does the Book of Daniel contain?
answers: text: first recorded nutritional experiment with human subjects

question: Which country was being invaded when Daniel and his friends were captured?
answers: text: Israel

question: What occupation were Daniel and his friends originally meant to have?
answers: text: court servants

question: How long did the trial diet last?
answers: text: 10 days

question: What is another term for vegetables that was used?
answers: text: pulses
context: The first recorded nutritional experiment with human subjects is found in the Bible's Book of Daniel. Daniel and his friends were captured by the king of Babylon during an invasion of Israel. Selected as court servants, they were to share in the king's fine foods and wine. But they objected, preferring vegetables (pulses) and water in accordance with their Jewish dietary restrictions. The king's chief steward reluctantly agreed to a trial. Daniel and his friends received their diet for 10 days and were then compared to the king's men. Appearing healthier, they were allowed to continue with their diet.

qas: question: How long was the doctrines of Galen in use for?
answers: text: 1500 years

question: Which famous emperor did Galen serve as a physician to?
answers: text: Marcus Aurelius

question: Who resided at the School of Salerno in Regimen sanitatis Salernitanum?
answers: text: Benedictine monks

question: What did Galen believe that pneuma was?
answers: text: the source of life

question: What did each pair of attributes supposedly consist of?
answers: text: four humours
context: One mustn't overlook the doctrines of Galen: In use from his life in the 1st century AD until the 17th century, it was heresy to disagree with him for 1500 years. Galen was physician to gladiators in Pergamon, and in Rome, physician to Marcus Aurelius and the three emperors who succeeded him. Most of Galen's teachings were gathered and enhanced in the late 11th century by Benedictine monks at the School of Salerno in Regimen sanitatis Salernitanum, which still had users in the 17th century. Galen believed in the bodily humours of Hippocrates, and he taught that pneuma is the source of life. Four elements (earth, air, fire and water) combine into "complexion", which combines into states (the four temperaments: sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric, and melancholic). The states are made up of pairs of attributes (hot and moist, cold and moist, hot and dry, and cold and dry), which are made of four humours: blood, phlegm, green (or yellow) bile, and black bile (the bodily form of the elements). Galen thought that for a person to have gout, kidney stones, or arthritis was scandalous, which Gratzer likens to Samuel Butler's Erehwon (1872) where sickness is a crime.

qas: question: Who criticized Galen in the 1500s?
answers: text: Paracelsus

question: What was a burning candle comparable to?
answers: text: metabolism

question: Which famous artist did not agree with Galen's theories?
answers: text: Leonardo da Vinci

question: Which well known gas did Jan Baptist van Helmont discover?
answers: text: carbon dioxide

question: Which scientist was able to create a model for the digestive process?
answers: text: Herman Boerhaave
context: In the 1500s, Paracelsus was probably the first to criticize Galen publicly. Also in the 16th century, scientist and artist Leonardo da Vinci compared metabolism to a burning candle. Leonardo did not publish his works on this subject, but he was not afraid of thinking for himself and he definitely disagreed with Galen. Ultimately, 16th century works of Andreas Vesalius, sometimes called the father of modern medicine, overturned Galen's ideas. He was followed by piercing thought amalgamated with the era's mysticism and religion sometimes fueled by the mechanics of Newton and Galileo. Jan Baptist van Helmont, who discovered several gases such as carbon dioxide, performed the first quantitative experiment. Robert Boyle advanced chemistry. Sanctorius measured body weight. Physician Herman Boerhaave modeled the digestive process. Physiologist Albrecht von Haller worked out the difference between nerves and muscles.

qas: question: When was the first nutrition experiment performed?
answers: text: 1747

question: What was the name of the overlooked physician that served in the British Navy?
answers: text: James Lind

question: The juice of which fruit was determined to have helped sailors from contracting scurvy?
answers: text: lime

question: How many sailors died from scurvy between the years 1500 and 1800?
answers: text: two million

question: Which nickname was given to the British sailors?
answers: text: limeys
context: Sometimes overlooked during his life, James Lind, a physician in the British navy, performed the first scientific nutrition experiment in 1747. Lind discovered that lime juice saved sailors that had been at sea for years from scurvy, a deadly and painful bleeding disorder. Between 1500 and 1800, an estimated two million sailors had died of scurvy. The discovery was ignored for forty years, after which British sailors became known as "limeys." The essential vitamin C within citrus fruits would not be identified by scientists until 1932.

qas: question: Which dietary component was not fed to dogs resulting in their death?
answers: text: protein

question: Who first began dividing foods into categories?
answers: text: William Prout

question: Who did Justus von Liebig argue with over the belief that animals get protein from plants?
answers: text: Jean-Baptiste Dumas

question: Which credientials did Liebig lack despite being a leading organic chemist?
answers: text: animal physiology

question: What can be synthesized using carbohydrates and proteins?
answers: text: body fat
context: In 1816, François Magendie discovered that dogs fed only carbohydrates (sugar), fat (olive oil), and water died evidently of starvation, but dogs also fed protein survived, identifying protein as an essential dietary component. William Prout in 1827 was the first person to divide foods into carbohydrates, fat, and protein. During the 19th century, Jean-Baptiste Dumas and Justus von Liebig quarrelled over their shared belief that animals get their protein directly from plants (animal and plant protein are the same and that humans do not create organic compounds). With a reputation as the leading organic chemist of his day but with no credentials in animal physiology, Liebig grew rich making food extracts like beef bouillon and infant formula that were later found to be of questionable nutritious value. In the 1860s, Claude Bernard discovered that body fat can be synthesized from carbohydrate and protein, showing that the energy in blood glucose can be stored as fat or as glycogen.

qas: question: What was the main component of Japanese sailor's diet?
answers: text: white rice

question: What is the scientific term for beriberi?
answers: text: endemic neuritis

question: What major symptom other than heart problems did beriberi cause?
answers: text: paralysis

question: Who made the observation that the Japanese sailor's diet was the cause for them developing beriberi?
answers: text: Kanehiro Takaki

question: What was introduced to the diet on a molecular level that prevented the sailors from contracting the disease?
answers: text: thiamine
context: In the early 1880s, Kanehiro Takaki observed that Japanese sailors (whose diets consisted almost entirely of white rice) developed beriberi (or endemic neuritis, a disease causing heart problems and paralysis), but British sailors and Japanese naval officers did not. Adding various types of vegetables and meats to the diets of Japanese sailors prevented the disease, (not because of the increased protein as Takaki supposed but because it introduced a few parts per million of thiamine to the diet, later understood as a cure).

qas: question: What element can be found in thyroid glands?
answers: text: iodine

question: What group of natives suffered from beriberi?
answers: text: Java

question: Who worked with the natives to help solve their dietary issues?
answers: text: Christiaan Eijkman

question: What simple alternative food prevented the development of beriberi in chickens?
answers: text: unprocessed brown rice with the outer bran intact

question: How long after the natives were cured did it take for people to figure out the reason that brown rice cured them?
answers: text: two decades
context: In 1896, Eugen Baumann observed iodine in thyroid glands. In 1897, Christiaan Eijkman worked with natives of Java, who also suffered from beriberi. Eijkman observed that chickens fed the native diet of white rice developed the symptoms of beriberi but remained healthy when fed unprocessed brown rice with the outer bran intact. Eijkman cured the natives by feeding them brown rice, discovering that food can cure disease. Over two decades later, nutritionists learned that the outer rice bran contains vitamin B1, also known as thiamine.

qas: question: What was measured in the early 20th century?
answers: text: caloric energy expenditure

question: What did Carl von Voit and Max Rubner apply to nutrition in order to receive their results?
answers: text: principles of physics

question: Which amino acid can assist with the well - being of mice but not necessarily their growth?
answers: text: tryptophan

question: What did Hopkins believe was required other than calories, protein and minerals to help prevent deficiency diseases?
answers: text: unsuspected dietetic factors

question: Which experiment related to diet was conducted that required four years to complete?
answers: text: single-grain experiment
context: In the early 20th century, Carl von Voit and Max Rubner independently measured caloric energy expenditure in different species of animals, applying principles of physics in nutrition. In 1906, Edith G. Willcock and Frederick Hopkins showed that the amino acid tryptophan aids the well-being of mice but it did not assure their growth. In the middle of twelve years of attempts to isolate them, Hopkins said in a 1906 lecture that "unsuspected dietetic factors," other than calories, protein, and minerals, are needed to prevent deficiency diseases. In 1907, Stephen M. Babcock and Edwin B. Hart conducted the single-grain experiment, which took nearly four years to complete.

qas: question: What was notable about the discovered vitamin A?
answers: text: fat-soluble

question: Which property was vitamin B found to have?
answers: text: water-soluble

question: Which disease was vitamin C claimed to help prevent?
answers: text: scurvy

question: What was cod liver oil able to help cure in dogs?
answers: text: rickets

question: What was referred to as "food factor X"?
answers: text: vitamin E
context: In 1913, Elmer McCollum discovered the first vitamins, fat-soluble vitamin A, and water-soluble vitamin B (in 1915; now known to be a complex of several water-soluble vitamins) and named vitamin C as the then-unknown substance preventing scurvy. Lafayette Mendel and Thomas Osborne also performed pioneering work on vitamins A and B. In 1919, Sir Edward Mellanby incorrectly identified rickets as a vitamin A deficiency because he could cure it in dogs with cod liver oil. In 1922, McCollum destroyed the vitamin A in cod liver oil, but found that it still cured rickets. Also in 1922, H.M. Evans and L.S. Bishop discover vitamin E as essential for rat pregnancy, originally calling it "food factor X" until 1925.

qas: question: Who claims that the list of nutrients that humans require is incomplete?
answers: text: Marion Nestle

question: What is the other category of nutrients that people require other than micronutrients?
answers: text: macro-nutrients

question: What is notable about cellulose in humans?
answers: text: non-digestible

question: What else, other than antioxidants, helps protect body systems?
answers: text: phytochemicals

question: In which year were nutrients categorized into their two respective categories?
answers: text: 2014
context: The list of nutrients that people are known to require is, in the words of Marion Nestle, "almost certainly incomplete". As of 2014, nutrients are thought to be of two types: macro-nutrients which are needed in relatively large amounts, and micronutrients which are needed in smaller quantities. A type of carbohydrate, dietary fiber, i.e. non-digestible material such as cellulose, is required, for both mechanical and biochemical reasons, although the exact reasons remain unclear. Other micronutrients include antioxidants and phytochemicals, which are said to influence (or protect) some body systems. Their necessity is not as well established as in the case of, for instance, vitamins.

qas: question: Which category is represented by carbohydrates and fats among other nutrients?
answers: text: macronutrients

question: What other significant aspect do macronutrients provide other than energy?
answers: text: structural material

question: What unit other than calories is used to measure the energy generated by nutrients?
answers: text: Joules

question: Which nutrient generally provides around 37 kJ per gram?
answers: text: fats

question: Although vitamins are important for many reasons, which role do they not play in the human body?
answers: text: provide energy
context: The macronutrients are carbohydrates, fats, protein, and water. The macronutrients (excluding fiber and water) provide structural material (amino acids from which proteins are built, and lipids from which cell membranes and some signaling molecules are built) and energy. Some of the structural material can be used to generate energy internally, and in either case it is measured in Joules or kilocalories (often called "Calories" and written with a capital C to distinguish them from little 'c' calories). Carbohydrates and proteins provide 17 kJ approximately (4 kcal) of energy per gram, while fats provide 37 kJ (9 kcal) per gram, though the net energy from either depends on such factors as absorption and digestive effort, which vary substantially from instance to instance. Vitamins, minerals, fiber, and water do not provide energy, but are required for other reasons.

qas: question: Other than fats, what else consists of atoms of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen?
answers: text: carbohydrates

question: If a carbohydrate is not a simple monosaccharide, what else could it be?
answers: text: complex polysaccharides

question: What do fatty acid monomers that are bound to glycerol backbones make up?
answers: text: triglycerides

question: What characteristic about fatty acids requires them to be an essential component in a diet?
answers: text: cannot be synthesized in the body

question: Which element do the amino acids that make up the core component of protein have in common?
answers: text: nitrogen
context: Molecules of carbohydrates and fats consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. Carbohydrates range from simple monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose) to complex polysaccharides (starch). Fats are triglycerides, made of assorted fatty acid monomers bound to a glycerol backbone. Some fatty acids, but not all, are essential in the diet: they cannot be synthesized in the body. Protein molecules contain nitrogen atoms in addition to carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. The fundamental components of protein are nitrogen-containing amino acids, some of which are essential in the sense that humans cannot make them internally. Some of the amino acids are convertible (with the expenditure of energy) to glucose and can be used for energy production, just as ordinary glucose, in a process known as gluconeogenesis. By breaking down existing protein, the carbon skeleton of the various amino acids can be metabolized to intermediates in cellular respiration; the remaining ammonia is discarded primarily as urea in urine. This occurs normally only during prolonged starvation.

qas: question: What was traditionally believed to be absorbed quickly causing blood - glucose levels to rapidly rise?
answers: text: simple carbohydrates

question: What is an example of a simple carbohydrate?
answers: text: fructose

question: When simple carbohydrates undergo metabolic pathways, what do they result in after partial catabolism?
answers: text: glucose

question: What is glucose able to stimulate that is required in the human body?
answers: text: production of insulin

question: Where are beta cells that attach to insulin located?
answers: text: pancreas
context: Traditionally, simple carbohydrates are believed to be absorbed quickly, and therefore to raise blood-glucose levels more rapidly than complex carbohydrates. This, however, is not accurate. Some simple carbohydrates (e.g., fructose) follow different metabolic pathways (e.g., fructolysis) that result in only a partial catabolism to glucose, while, in essence, many complex carbohydrates may be digested at the same rate as simple carbohydrates. Glucose stimulates the production of insulin through food entering the bloodstream, which is grasped by the beta cells in the pancreas.

qas: question: What example of a carbohydrate is unable to be fully absorbed in humans?
answers: text: Dietary fiber

question: How many kilocalories of energy per gram is dietary fiber able to produce when successfully metabolized?
answers: text: four

question: What is the main component that makes up dietary fiber?
answers: text: cellulose

question: What is an example of a gastrointestinal problem other than diarrhea?
answers: text: constipation

question: What does soluble fiber do to help lower blood glucose levels?
answers: text: slow the absorption of sugar
context: Dietary fiber is a carbohydrate that is incompletely absorbed in humans and in some animals. Like all carbohydrates, when it is metabolized it can produce four Calories (kilocalories) of energy per gram. However, in most circumstances it accounts for less than that because of its limited absorption and digestibility. Dietary fiber consists mainly of cellulose, a large carbohydrate polymer which is indigestible as humans do not have the required enzymes to disassemble it. There are two subcategories: soluble and insoluble fiber. Whole grains, fruits (especially plums, prunes, and figs), and vegetables are good sources of dietary fiber. There are many health benefits of a high-fiber diet. Dietary fiber helps reduce the chance of gastrointestinal problems such as constipation and diarrhea by increasing the weight and size of stool and softening it. Insoluble fiber, found in whole wheat flour, nuts and vegetables, especially stimulates peristalsis – the rhythmic muscular contractions of the intestines, which move digesta along the digestive tract. Soluble fiber, found in oats, peas, beans, and many fruits, dissolves in water in the intestinal tract to produce a gel that slows the movement of food through the intestines. This may help lower blood glucose levels because it can slow the absorption of sugar. Additionally, fiber, perhaps especially that from whole grains, is thought to possibly help lessen insulin spikes, and therefore reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes. The link between increased fiber consumption and a decreased risk of colorectal cancer is still uncertain.

qas: question: Dietary fat can be said to consist of fatty acids bonded to which molecule?
answers: text: glycerol

question: How many glycerol backbones does a triglyceride contain?
answers: text: one

question: What needs to be examined to determine whether a fat can be classified as saturated or unsaturated?
answers: text: the detailed structure of the fatty acids involved

question: Which element is present that is bonded to all of the carbons in a saturated fat?
answers: text: hydrogen

question: What kind of fat can a trans fat be categorized as?
answers: text: unsaturated fat
context: A molecule of dietary fat typically consists of several fatty acids (containing long chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms), bonded to a glycerol. They are typically found as triglycerides (three fatty acids attached to one glycerol backbone). Fats may be classified as saturated or unsaturated depending on the detailed structure of the fatty acids involved. Saturated fats have all of the carbon atoms in their fatty acid chains bonded to hydrogen atoms, whereas unsaturated fats have some of these carbon atoms double-bonded, so their molecules have relatively fewer hydrogen atoms than a saturated fatty acid of the same length. Unsaturated fats may be further classified as monounsaturated (one double-bond) or polyunsaturated (many double-bonds). Furthermore, depending on the location of the double-bond in the fatty acid chain, unsaturated fatty acids are classified as omega-3 or omega-6 fatty acids. Trans fats are a type of unsaturated fat with trans-isomer bonds; these are rare in nature and in foods from natural sources; they are typically created in an industrial process called (partial) hydrogenation. There are nine kilocalories in each gram of fat. Fatty acids such as conjugated linoleic acid, catalpic acid, eleostearic acid and punicic acid, in addition to providing energy, represent potent immune modulatory molecules.

qas: question: Where do saturated fats in a diet typically originate from?
answers: text: animal sources

question: Which kind of fat is generally considered to be healthiest?
answers: text: Unsaturated fats

question: Which type of fat should people attempt to avoid?
answers: text: trans fats

question: What kind of state of matter do unsaturated fats typically have at room temperature?
answers: text: liquids

question: Although trans fats are harmful to human health, what property do they have that makes them useful in food processing?
answers: text: rancidity resistance
context: Saturated fats (typically from animal sources) have been a staple in many world cultures for millennia. Unsaturated fats (e. g., vegetable oil) are considered healthier, while trans fats are to be avoided. Saturated and some trans fats are typically solid at room temperature (such as butter or lard), while unsaturated fats are typically liquids (such as olive oil or flaxseed oil). Trans fats are very rare in nature, and have been shown to be highly detrimental to human health, but have properties useful in the food processing industry, such as rancidity resistance.[citation needed]

qas: question: What does it mean when it is claimed that many fatty acids are non - essential?
answers: text: the body can produce them as needed

question: At least how many fatty acids are essential to the human health and have to be consumed rather than produced by the body?
answers: text: two

question: What does EPA stand for?
answers: text: eicosapentaenoic acid

question: Outside of consumption, what would be broken down in the body to obtain DGLA and AA?
answers: text: omega-6 linoleic acid

question: What do people consume that has low amounts of the necessary essential fatty acids?
answers: text: processed vegetable oils
context: Most fatty acids are non-essential, meaning the body can produce them as needed, generally from other fatty acids and always by expending energy to do so. However, in humans, at least two fatty acids are essential and must be included in the diet. An appropriate balance of essential fatty acids—omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids—seems also important for health, although definitive experimental demonstration has been elusive. Both of these "omega" long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids are substrates for a class of eicosanoids known as prostaglandins, which have roles throughout the human body. They are hormones, in some respects. The omega-3 eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), which can be made in the human body from the omega-3 essential fatty acid alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), or taken in through marine food sources, serves as a building block for series 3 prostaglandins (e.g., weakly inflammatory PGE3). The omega-6 dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid (DGLA) serves as a building block for series 1 prostaglandins (e.g. anti-inflammatory PGE1), whereas arachidonic acid (AA) serves as a building block for series 2 prostaglandins (e.g. pro-inflammatory PGE 2). Both DGLA and AA can be made from the omega-6 linoleic acid (LA) in the human body, or can be taken in directly through food. An appropriately balanced intake of omega-3 and omega-6 partly determines the relative production of different prostaglandins, which is one reason why a balance between omega-3 and omega-6 is believed important for cardiovascular health. In industrialized societies, people typically consume large amounts of processed vegetable oils, which have reduced amounts of the essential fatty acids along with too much of omega-6 fatty acids relative to omega-3 fatty acids.

qas: question: What is able to prevent AA from being released from membranes?
answers: text: Omega-3 EPA

question: The conversion of omega-6 DGLA to AA is able to help regulate which process?
answers: text: the production of the prostaglandins PGE1 and PGE2

question: What kind of process is the conversion of DGLA to AA?
answers: text: desaturation

question: What is an example of a hormone other than insulin that is able to control the enzyme delta-5-desaturase?
answers: text: glucagon

question: What is the scientific name for cell division?
answers: text: mitosis
context: The conversion rate of omega-6 DGLA to AA largely determines the production of the prostaglandins PGE1 and PGE2. Omega-3 EPA prevents AA from being released from membranes, thereby skewing prostaglandin balance away from pro-inflammatory PGE2 (made from AA) toward anti-inflammatory PGE1 (made from DGLA). Moreover, the conversion (desaturation) of DGLA to AA is controlled by the enzyme delta-5-desaturase, which in turn is controlled by hormones such as insulin (up-regulation) and glucagon (down-regulation). The amount and type of carbohydrates consumed, along with some types of amino acid, can influence processes involving insulin, glucagon, and other hormones; therefore, the ratio of omega-3 versus omega-6 has wide effects on general health, and specific effects on immune function and inflammation, and mitosis (i.e., cell division).

qas: question: What primarily makes up the enzymes in our body that regulate the chemical reactions that occur?
answers: text: Proteins

question: What is the primary component of every protein?
answers: text: amino acids

question: What is the term that refers to the body process that produces new proteins?
answers: text: protein retention

question: When the body no longer needs the amino acids that are present, through which excretion are they lost?
answers: text: urine

question: Approximately how many amino acid types does the human body generally have?
answers: text: twenty
context: Proteins are structural materials in much of the animal body (e.g. muscles, skin, and hair). They also form the enzymes that control chemical reactions throughout the body. Each protein molecule is composed of amino acids, which are characterized by inclusion of nitrogen and sometimes sulphur (these components are responsible for the distinctive smell of burning protein, such as the keratin in hair). The body requires amino acids to produce new proteins (protein retention) and to replace damaged proteins (maintenance). As there is no protein or amino acid storage provision, amino acids must be present in the diet. Excess amino acids are discarded, typically in the urine. For all animals, some amino acids are essential (an animal cannot produce them internally) and some are non-essential (the animal can produce them from other nitrogen-containing compounds). About twenty amino acids are found in the human body, and about ten of these are essential and, therefore, must be included in the diet. A diet that contains adequate amounts of amino acids (especially those that are essential) is particularly important in some situations: during early development and maturation, pregnancy, lactation, or injury (a burn, for instance). A complete protein source contains all the essential amino acids; an incomplete protein source lacks one or more of the essential amino acids.

qas: question: What would be required for the human body to potentially have a chance to create a complete protein source?
answers: text: two incomplete protein sources

question: Other than rice, what would be another example of an incomplete protein source?
answers: text: beans

question: What is taken from proteins and converted to glucose by the body?
answers: text: Excess amino acids

question: What is the term for the conversion of amino acids into glucose?
answers: text: gluconeogenesis

question: What happens to amino acids that are left over after the body has converted what it can to glucose?
answers: text: discarded
context: It is possible with protein combinations of two incomplete protein sources (e.g., rice and beans) to make a complete protein source, and characteristic combinations are the basis of distinct cultural cooking traditions. However, complementary sources of protein do not need to be eaten at the same meal to be used together by the body. Excess amino acids from protein can be converted into glucose and used for fuel through a process called gluconeogenesis. The amino acids remaining after such conversion are discarded.

qas: question: What was the early recommended amount of water that was supposedly required to keep the body hydrated?
answers: text: 6–8 glasses of water daily

question: Who originally made a water intake recommendation in 1945?
answers: text: Food and Nutrition Board of the National Research Council

question: How much water should be taken in for each calorie of food that is consumed?
answers: text: 1 milliliter

question: What does ADI stand for?
answers: text: adequate daily intakes

question: Where do humans get the 20% of water that does not come from the beverages we drink?
answers: text: food
context: Early recommendations for the quantity of water required for maintenance of good health suggested that 6–8 glasses of water daily is the minimum to maintain proper hydration. However the notion that a person should consume eight glasses of water per day cannot be traced to a credible scientific source. The original water intake recommendation in 1945 by the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Research Council read: "An ordinary standard for diverse persons is 1 milliliter for each calorie of food. Most of this quantity is contained in prepared foods." More recent comparisons of well-known recommendations on fluid intake have revealed large discrepancies in the volumes of water we need to consume for good health. Therefore, to help standardize guidelines, recommendations for water consumption are included in two recent European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) documents (2010): (i) Food-based dietary guidelines and (ii) Dietary reference values for water or adequate daily intakes (ADI). These specifications were provided by calculating adequate intakes from measured intakes in populations of individuals with “desirable osmolarity values of urine and desirable water volumes per energy unit consumed.” For healthful hydration, the current EFSA guidelines recommend total water intakes of 2.0 L/day for adult females and 2.5 L/day for adult males. These reference values include water from drinking water, other beverages, and from food. About 80% of our daily water requirement comes from the beverages we drink, with the remaining 20% coming from food. Water content varies depending on the type of food consumed, with fruit and vegetables containing more than cereals, for example. These values are estimated using country-specific food balance sheets published by the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations. Other guidelines for nutrition also have implications for the beverages we consume for healthy hydration- for example, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommend that added sugars should represent no more than 10% of total energy intake.

qas: question: Who was similar recommended intake volumes as adults?
answers: text: the elderly

question: Other then breastfeeding women, who what other category of woman should have increased water intake?
answers: text: Pregnant

question: How much more water should pregnant women consumed compared to an average non - pregnant woman?
answers: text: 300 mL/day

question: Why should lactating women increase their water consumption?
answers: text: To compensate for additional fluid output

question: How much more water do lactating women need to consume in relation to the average woman?
answers: text: 700 mL/day
context: The EFSA panel also determined intakes for different populations. Recommended intake volumes in the elderly are the same as for adults as despite lower energy consumption, the water requirement of this group is increased due to a reduction in renal concentrating capacity. Pregnant and breastfeeding women require additional fluids to stay hydrated. The EFSA panel proposes that pregnant women should consume the same volume of water as non-pregnant women, plus an increase in proportion to the higher energy requirement, equal to 300 mL/day. To compensate for additional fluid output, breastfeeding women require an additional 700 mL/day above the recommended intake values for non-lactating women.

qas: question: What kind of element are dietary minerals?
answers: text: inorganic chemical elements

question: What was the term "mineral" originally meant to describe?
answers: text: the less common elements in the diet

question: In what form are some metals commonly found in the body?
answers: text: ions

question: In what form should minerals be to be absorbed easier?
answers: text: ionic forms

question: What is the most famous mineral that is artificially added that prevents goiter?
answers: text: iodine
context: Dietary minerals are inorganic chemical elements required by living organisms, other than the four elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen that are present in nearly all organic molecules. The term "mineral" is archaic, since the intent is to describe simply the less common elements in the diet. Some are heavier than the four just mentioned, including several metals, which often occur as ions in the body. Some dietitians recommend that these be supplied from foods in which they occur naturally, or at least as complex compounds, or sometimes even from natural inorganic sources (such as calcium carbonate from ground oyster shells). Some minerals are absorbed much more readily in the ionic forms found in such sources. On the other hand, minerals are often artificially added to the diet as supplements; the most famous is likely iodine in iodized salt which prevents goiter.

qas: question: Which vitamin can be synthesized in the skin?
answers: text: Vitamin D

question: What is required for vitamin D to be synthesized?
answers: text: UVB radiation

question: What is an example of a vitamin - like compound that is not considered an essential dietary nutrient?
answers: text: carnitine

question: What has recently been discovered in the thousands, especially from examining fresh vegetables?
answers: text: phytochemicals

question: What is choline not an example of?
answers: text: vitamins
context: As with the minerals discussed above, some vitamins are recognized as organic essential nutrients, necessary in the diet for good health. (Vitamin D is the exception: it can be synthesized in the skin, in the presence of UVB radiation.) Certain vitamin-like compounds that are recommended in the diet, such as carnitine, are thought useful for survival and health, but these are not "essential" dietary nutrients because the human body has some capacity to produce them from other compounds. Moreover, thousands of different phytochemicals have recently been discovered in food (particularly in fresh vegetables), which may have desirable properties including antioxidant activity (see below); however, experimental demonstration has been suggestive but inconclusive. Other essential nutrients that are not classified as vitamins include essential amino acids (see above), choline, essential fatty acids (see above), and the minerals discussed in the preceding section.

qas: question: What is another term that can be used to describe "potentially damaging" compounds?
answers: text: mutation causing

question: What are oxidizers?
answers: text: acceptors of electrons

question: In order for the body to function normally, what must be used to neutralize free radicals?
answers: text: antioxidant compounds

question: What subgroup of phytochemicals helps make up the majority of the body's antioxidants?
answers: text: polyphenols

question: Which area of the body does vitamin A protect?
answers: text: fat areas
context: As cellular metabolism/energy production requires oxygen, potentially damaging (e.g., mutation causing) compounds known as free radicals can form. Most of these are oxidizers (i.e., acceptors of electrons) and some react very strongly. For the continued normal cellular maintenance, growth, and division, these free radicals must be sufficiently neutralized by antioxidant compounds. Recently, some researchers suggested an interesting theory of evolution of dietary antioxidants. Some are produced by the human body with adequate precursors (glutathione, Vitamin C), and those the body cannot produce may only be obtained in the diet via direct sources (Vitamin C in humans, Vitamin A, Vitamin K) or produced by the body from other compounds (Beta-carotene converted to Vitamin A by the body, Vitamin D synthesized from cholesterol by sunlight). Phytochemicals (Section Below) and their subgroup, polyphenols, make up the majority of antioxidants; about 4,000 are known. Different antioxidants are now known to function in a cooperative network. For example, Vitamin C can reactivate free radical-containing glutathione or Vitamin E by accepting the free radical itself. Some antioxidants are more effective than others at neutralizing different free radicals. Some cannot neutralize certain free radicals. Some cannot be present in certain areas of free radical development (Vitamin A is fat-soluble and protects fat areas, Vitamin C is water-soluble and protects those areas). When interacting with a free radical, some antioxidants produce a different free radical compound that is less dangerous or more dangerous than the previous compound. Having a variety of antioxidants allows any byproducts to be safely dealt with by more efficient antioxidants in neutralizing a free radical's butterfly effect.

qas: question: Where could one find a large population of gut flora?
answers: text: Animal intestines

question: What term collectively describes "Firmicutes" and "Bacteroidetes" among others?
answers: text: phyla

question: What is the importance of having phyla in the body?
answers: text: essential to digestion

question: What role specifically in digestion do bacteria in the gut have?
answers: text: breaking down and aiding in the absorption of otherwise indigestible food

question: Which vitamin are the bacteria present in the gut responsible for producing?
answers: text: vitamin B12
context: Animal intestines contain a large population of gut flora. In humans, the four dominant phyla are Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, Actinobacteria, and Proteobacteria. They are essential to digestion and are also affected by food that is consumed. Bacteria in the gut perform many important functions for humans, including breaking down and aiding in the absorption of otherwise indigestible food; stimulating cell growth; repressing the growth of harmful bacteria, training the immune system to respond only to pathogens; producing vitamin B12; and defending against some infectious diseases.

qas: question: Heart disease and obesity are examples of what kind of disease?
answers: text: "Western" diseases

question: In which country was a study about the presence of cancer and heart disease in different regions done?
answers: text: China

question: How much of an increase in presence of "Western" diseases was there in communities that primarily had animal - based diets as opposed to vegetable diets?
answers: text: 100-fold

question: Other than meat, what else is lacking from the people in China's diet compared to diets from the Western world?
answers: text: dairy

question: What disease was said to possibly be the result of diets that are high in meat and dairy products?
answers: text: cancers
context: Heart disease, cancer, obesity, and diabetes are commonly called "Western" diseases because these maladies were once rarely seen in developing countries. An international study in China found some regions had virtually no cancer or heart disease, while in other areas they reflected "up to a 100-fold increase" coincident with shifts from diets that were found to be entirely plant-based to heavily animal-based, respectively. In contrast, diseases of affluence like cancer and heart disease are common throughout the developed world, including the United States. Adjusted for age and exercise, large regional clusters of people in China rarely suffered from these "Western" diseases possibly because their diets are rich in vegetables, fruits, and whole grains, and have little dairy and meat products. Some studies show these to be, in high quantities, possible causes of some cancers. There are arguments for and against this controversial issue.

qas: question: Who released a guideline that recommends that people follow a whole plant food diet?
answers: text: United Healthcare/Pacificare

question: Which magazine also recommended that people follow a whole plant food diet?
answers: text: National Geographic

question: In which year was there a cover article on the National Geographic regarding diet recommendations?
answers: text: 2005

question: How many populations were studied and surveyed for the cover article?
answers: text: three

question: Other than fruits and vegetables, what other product was highly recommended to be a part of a healthy diet?
answers: text: whole grains
context: The United Healthcare/Pacificare nutrition guideline recommends a whole plant food diet, and recommends using protein only as a condiment with meals. A National Geographic cover article from November 2005, entitled The Secrets of Living Longer, also recommends a whole plant food diet. The article is a lifestyle survey of three populations, Sardinians, Okinawans, and Adventists, who generally display longevity and "suffer a fraction of the diseases that commonly kill people in other parts of the developed world, and enjoy more healthy years of life." In sum, they offer three sets of 'best practices' to emulate. The rest is up to you. In common with all three groups is to "Eat fruits, vegetables, and whole grains."

qas: question: Other than nitrogen, what other element varies greatly between a carnivore and herbivore diet?
answers: text: carbon

question: What percentage of nitrogen content is generally found in fungi?
answers: text: 5% to 10%

question: What process of breaking down cellulose do herbivores rely on for their essential nutrients?
answers: text: bacterial fermentation

question: Other than sugar and fiber, what else are carbohydrates consisted of?
answers: text: starch

question: Where can fatty acids be found?
answers: text: lipids
context: Carnivore and herbivore diets are contrasting, with basic nitrogen and carbon proportions vary for their particular foods. "The nitrogen content of plant tissues averages about 2%, while in fungi, animals, and bacteria it averages about 5% to 10%." Many herbivores rely on bacterial fermentation to create digestible nutrients from indigestible plant cellulose, while obligate carnivores must eat animal meats to obtain certain vitamins or nutrients their bodies cannot otherwise synthesize. All animals' diets must provide sufficient amounts of the basic building blocks they need, up to the point where their particular biology can synthesize the rest. Animal tissue contains chemical compounds, such as water, carbohydrates (sugar, starch, and fiber), amino acids (in proteins), fatty acids (in lipids), and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). These compounds in turn consist of elements such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, iron, zinc, magnesium, manganese, and so on. All of these chemical compounds and elements occur in various forms and combinations (e.g. hormones, vitamins, phospholipids, hydroxyapatite).

qas: question: Through what part of the body are nutrients transported to feed cells?
answers: text: bloodstream

question: In which specific circumstance is the digestive system not the first system involved in nutrient processing?
answers: text: unborn fetus

question: What is able to break bonds in ingested molecules?
answers: text: Digestive juices

question: Molecules that are released from ingested foods are done so through which process?
answers: text: digestive processes

question: Through which manner are unabsorbed matter and waste products excreted?
answers: text: feces
context: Animal tissue consists of elements and compounds ingested, digested, absorbed, and circulated through the bloodstream to feed the cells of the body. Except in the unborn fetus, the digestive system is the first system involved[vague]. Digestive juices break chemical bonds in ingested molecules, and modify their conformations and energy states. Though some molecules are absorbed into the bloodstream unchanged, digestive processes release them from the matrix of foods. Unabsorbed matter, along with some waste products of metabolism, is eliminated from the body in the feces.

qas: question: What needs to be compared to the waste products from humans to determine what is absorbed in the body?
answers: text: food

question: It is important to examine both the feces and what other excrement when studying absorption?
answers: text: urine

question: Other than time consuming, what else are nutritional studies due to their length and variable count?
answers: text: expensive

question: At which rate is the science behind nutrition continuing to evolve?
answers: text: slowly
context: Studies of nutritional status must take into account the state of the body before and after experiments, as well as the chemical composition of the whole diet and of all material excreted and eliminated from the body (in urine and feces). Comparing the food to the waste can help determine the specific compounds and elements absorbed and metabolized in the body. The effects of nutrients may only be discernible over an extended period, during which all food and waste must be analyzed. The number of variables involved in such experiments is high, making nutritional studies time-consuming and expensive, which explains why the science of animal nutrition is still slowly evolving.

qas: question: How do plants absorb essential elements that are present in the soil?
answers: text: through their roots

question: Having leaves allows plants to absorb nutrients through which medium?
answers: text: air

question: What is the process that plants undergo in order to obtain carbohydrates?
answers: text: photosynthesis

question: What is the process called in which plants gather nutrients from the soil around their roots?
answers: text: cation exchange

question: What part of the leaf in a plant takes in carbon dioxide and releases oxygen?
answers: text: stomata
context: Plants uptake essential elements from the soil through their roots and from the air (consisting of mainly nitrogen and oxygen) through their leaves. Green plants obtain their carbohydrate supply from the carbon dioxide in the air by the process of photosynthesis. Carbon and oxygen are absorbed from the air, while other nutrients are absorbed from the soil. Nutrient uptake in the soil is achieved by cation exchange, wherein root hairs pump hydrogen ions (H+) into the soil through proton pumps. These hydrogen ions displace cations attached to negatively charged soil particles so that the cations are available for uptake by the root. In the leaves, stomata open to take in carbon dioxide and expel oxygen. The carbon dioxide molecules are used as the carbon source in photosynthesis.

qas: question: What can environmental depletion lead to?
answers: text: crucial nutrition-related health problems

question: Other than malnutrition and a spread of disease, what is an example of a health problem that arose due to environmental depletion?
answers: text: contamination

question: Other than industrial chemicals, what other industry discharges chemicals that can contaminate the environment?
answers: text: agricultural

question: The release and contamination of the environment affects what important system other than the human race?
answers: text: the ecosystem

question: If people's nutritional status and health changes, what could this affect in their daily routine?
answers: text: diet habits
context: Research in the field of nutrition has greatly contributed in finding out the essential facts about how environmental depletion can lead to crucial nutrition-related health problems like contamination, spread of contagious diseases, malnutrition, etc. Moreover, environmental contamination due to discharge of agricultural as well as industrial chemicals like organocholrines, heavy metal, and radionucleotides may adversely affect the human and the ecosystem as a whole. As far as safety of the human health is concerned, then these environmental contaminants can reduce people's nutritional status and health. This could directly or indirectly cause drastic changes in their diet habits. Hence, food-based remedial as well as preventive strategies are essential to address global issues like hunger and malnutrition and to enable the susceptible people to adapt themselves to all these environmental as well as socio-economic alterations.

qas: question: What is the abbreviation for licensed dietitians in the US?
answers: text: LD

question: Who do dietitians have to register with other than the American Dietetic Association in order to be recognized as such in the US?
answers: text: Commission for Dietetic Registration

question: Which specific term is unregulated but still oft associated with professionals when it comes to food and diets?
answers: text: nutritionist

question: Which state has started to regulate the word "nutritionist"?
answers: text: Florida

question: What are restaurants and food manufacturers required to follow in order to assist consumers looking to follow dietary guidelines?
answers: text: disclosure/labeling requirements
context: In the US, dietitians are registered (RD) or licensed (LD) with the Commission for Dietetic Registration and the American Dietetic Association, and are only able to use the title "dietitian," as described by the business and professions codes of each respective state, when they have met specific educational and experiential prerequisites and passed a national registration or licensure examination, respectively. In California, registered dietitians must abide by the "Business and Professions Code of Section 2585-2586.8". Anyone may call themselves a nutritionist, including unqualified dietitians, as this term is unregulated. Some states, such as the State of Florida, have begun to include the title "nutritionist" in state licensure requirements. Most governments provide guidance on nutrition, and some also impose mandatory disclosure/labeling requirements for processed food manufacturers and restaurants to assist consumers in complying with such guidance.

qas: question: Nutritional standards and recommendations are produced by a joint effort between the US Department of Agriculture and which other department?
answers: text: US Department of Health and Human Services

question: Who releases guidelines that revolve around diet and physical activity recommendations?
answers: text: USDA

question: What is the name of the concept that has replaced the food pyramid?
answers: text: MyPlate

question: The USDA's effort sand actions are overseen by which governmental committee?
answers: text: Agriculture, Nutrition and Forestry Committee

question: On which channel are committee meetings often shown?
answers: text: C-SPAN
context: In the US, nutritional standards and recommendations are established jointly by the US Department of Agriculture and US Department of Health and Human Services. Dietary and physical activity guidelines from the USDA are presented in the concept of MyPlate, which superseded the food pyramid, which replaced the Four Food Groups. The Senate committee currently responsible for oversight of the USDA is the Agriculture, Nutrition and Forestry Committee. Committee hearings are often televised on C-SPAN.

qas: question: Smart Bodies is an example of an initiative that was started by what level of government?
answers: text: state

question: What is the goal of Smart Bodies?
answers: text: to promote nutrition literacy

question: The Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Louisiana Foundation joined together with which University to help develop Smart Bodies?
answers: text: Louisiana State Agricultural Center

question: When was the Smart Bodies initiative first released?
answers: text: 2005

question: What does the initiative specifically target?
answers: text: childhood obesity
context: An example of a state initiative to promote nutrition literacy is Smart Bodies, a public-private partnership between the state’s largest university system and largest health insurer, Louisiana State Agricultural Center and Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Louisiana Foundation. Launched in 2005, this program promotes lifelong healthful eating patterns and physically active lifestyles for children and their families. It is an interactive educational program designed to help prevent childhood obesity through classroom activities that teach children healthful eating habits and physical exercise.

qas: question: In England and which other country is there a curricula that revolves around nutritional education?
answers: text: Wales

question: What is the official name of the curricula that promotes nutritional education in schools?
answers: text: Personal and Social Education and Food Technology curricula

question: What does FCS stand for?
answers: text: Family and Consumer Science

question: Aside from dieting and general nutritional information, what else does the curricula in England and Wales aim to teach students?
answers: text: how to read nutrition labels on packaging

question: In which type of school are kids required to take a number of health related courses?
answers: text: American
context: Nutrition is taught in schools in many countries. In England and Wales, the Personal and Social Education and Food Technology curricula include nutrition, stressing the importance of a balanced diet and teaching how to read nutrition labels on packaging. In many schools, a Nutrition class will fall within the Family and Consumer Science or Health departments. In some American schools, students are required to take a certain number of FCS or Health related classes. Nutrition is offered at many schools, and, if it is not a class of its own, nutrition is included in other FCS or Health classes such as: Life Skills, Independent Living, Single Survival, Freshmen Connection, Health etc. In many Nutrition classes, students learn about the food groups, the food pyramid, Daily Recommended Allowances, calories, vitamins, minerals, malnutrition, physical activity, healthful food choices, portion sizes, and how to live a healthy life.

qas: question: In which country were there no specific nutritional literacy studies on a national level that could be found?
answers: text: U.S.

question: What does the abbreviation NAAL represent?
answers: text: National Assessment of Adult Literacy

question: How many Americans were found to have intermediate health literacy?
answers: text: 44%

question: What percentage of Americans fell below the basics of health literacy?
answers: text: 14

question: People who had a lower health literacy rate were found to be living below what standard?
answers: text: level of poverty
context: At the time of this entry, we were not able to identify any specific nutrition literacy studies in the U.S. at a national level. However, the findings of the 2003 National Assessment of Adult Literacy (NAAL) provide a basis upon which to frame the nutrition literacy problem in the U.S. NAAL introduced the first ever measure of "the degree to which individuals have the capacity to obtain, process and understand basic health information and services needed to make appropriate health decisions" – an objective of Healthy People 2010 and of which nutrition literacy might be considered an important subset. On a scale of below basic, basic, intermediate and proficient, NAAL found 13 percent of adult Americans have proficient health literacy, 44% have intermediate literacy, 29 percent have basic literacy and 14 percent have below basic health literacy. The study found that health literacy increases with education and people living below the level of poverty have lower health literacy than those above it.

qas: question: What percentage of people were were found to have a high likelihood of low literacy skills in the Mississippi Delta region?
answers: text: 52

question: What primary difference was there between the NAAL and Delta study that made comparisons difficult?
answers: text: methodological differences

question: Who was the main author of the study that suggested that the Mississippi Delta study identified a problem of health literacy?
answers: text: Zoellner

question: For how many years had the My Pyramid graphic been released at the time of the Mississippi Delta study?
answers: text: two

question: Income level was found to have a signification correlation to which outcome in the study?
answers: text: nutrition literacy
context: Another study examining the health and nutrition literacy status of residents of the lower Mississippi Delta found that 52 percent of participants had a high likelihood of limited literacy skills. While a precise comparison between the NAAL and Delta studies is difficult, primarily because of methodological differences, Zoellner et al. suggest that health literacy rates in the Mississippi Delta region are different from the U.S. general population and that they help establish the scope of the problem of health literacy among adults in the Delta region. For example, only 12 percent of study participants identified the My Pyramid graphic two years after it had been launched by the USDA. The study also found significant relationships between nutrition literacy and income level and nutrition literacy and educational attainment further delineating priorities for the region.

qas: question: What did the studies show there was a lack of understanding of by the population?
answers: text: nutritional information

question: The studies indicated that there was a lack of information in the area about what kind of choice?
answers: text: food

question: What was found to be limited or at least difficult to get access to in the studied region?
answers: text: healthful foods

question: What kind of constraint was found to have a significant effect on the nutritional literacy?
answers: text: socioeconomic

question: Aside from large people living in poverty, what else is considered a socioeconomic constraint that resulted in a decrease in opportunity for healthy food choices?
answers: text: low levels of education
context: These statistics point to the complexities surrounding the lack of health/nutrition literacy and reveal the degree to which they are embedded in the social structure and interconnected with other problems. Among these problems are the lack of information about food choices, a lack of understanding of nutritional information and its application to individual circumstances, limited or difficult access to healthful foods, and a range of cultural influences and socioeconomic constraints such as low levels of education and high levels of poverty that decrease opportunities for healthful eating and living.

qas: question: An imbalance in the intake of nutrients by any organism can be referred by which term?
answers: text: Malnutrition

question: In what kind of country is malnutrition often found as excessive consumption or as a nutritional imbalance?
answers: text: developed

question: Aside from inadequate knowledge, what else is characteristic of malnutrition found in developing countries?
answers: text: poor access to a range of nutritious foods

question: What is the abbreviation ICRISAT short for?
answers: text: International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics

question: What is the name of the traditional Mali recipe that equinut is a twist on?
answers: text: di-dèguè
context: Malnutrition refers to insufficient, excessive, or imbalanced consumption of nutrients by an organism. In developed countries, the diseases of malnutrition are most often associated with nutritional imbalances or excessive consumption. In developing countries, malnutrition is more likely to be caused by poor access to a range of nutritious foods or inadequate knowledge. In Mali the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) and the Aga Khan Foundation, trained women's groups to make equinut, a healthy and nutritional version of the traditional recipe di-dèguè (comprising peanut paste, honey and millet or rice flour). The aim was to boost nutrition and livelihoods by producing a product that women could make and sell, and which would be accepted by the local community because of its local heritage.

qas: question: What is the term that refers to a viewpoint that believes a reliance on food science is a cause of poor nutrition and ill health?
answers: text: Nutritionism

question: Who is originally claimed to have given birth to the concept of nutritionism?
answers: text: Gyorgy Scrinis

question: Although he was not the creator of the concept, who popularized the idea of nutritionism?
answers: text: Michael Pollan

question: Who has to rely on nutrition experts when it comes to making decisions regarding food and nutritional values?
answers: text: policy makers

question: Which region of the world does Pollan claim could trace their health problems back to nutritionism?
answers: text: Western World
context: Nutritionism is the view that excessive reliance on food science and the study of nutrition can lead to poor nutrition and to ill health. It was originally credited to Gyorgy Scrinis, and was popularized by Michael Pollan. Since nutrients are invisible, policy makers rely on nutrition experts to advise on food choices. Because science has an incomplete understanding of how food affects the human body, Pollan argues, nutritionism can be blamed for many of the health problems relating to diet in the Western World today.

qas: question: What are organizations targeting with the aim of improving nutritional content or resources?
answers: text: school cafeterias

question: Outside of policymakers and teachers, who else is a key component to improving nutritional content in schools?
answers: text: managed foodservice contractors

question: What are health and nutrition shown to have a link to in terms of education?
answers: text: overall educational success

question: What percentage of American students report that they currently eat the recommended servings of fruits and vegetables?
answers: text: 10

question: Which animal was shown to have a negative effect on learning behavior due to nutritional deficiencies back in 1951?
answers: text: mice
context: Some organizations have begun working with teachers, policymakers, and managed foodservice contractors to mandate improved nutritional content and increased nutritional resources in school cafeterias from primary to university level institutions. Health and nutrition have been proven to have close links with overall educational success. Currently, less than 10% of American college students report that they eat the recommended five servings of fruit and vegetables daily. Better nutrition has been shown to have an impact on both cognitive and spatial memory performance; a study showed those with higher blood sugar levels performed better on certain memory tests. In another study, those who consumed yogurt performed better on thinking tasks when compared to those that consumed caffeine-free diet soda or confections. Nutritional deficiencies have been shown to have a negative effect on learning behavior in mice as far back as 1951.

qas: question: Which health issue is now becoming a common issue in developing countries?
answers: text: Cancer

question: Which organization did a study on cancer in developing countries?
answers: text: International Agency for Research on Cancer

question: What were cancers such as liver cancer or stomach cancer found to have a link to?
answers: text: consumption of carcinogenic preserved foods

question: The rise of lung cancer in poor nations can be attributed to the use of which product?
answers: text: tobacco

question: Obesity, lack of exercise, age and diet are risk factors attributed to cancer that are all apart of what kind of lifestyle?
answers: text: Western
context: Cancer is now common in developing countries. According to a study by the International Agency for Research on Cancer, "In the developing world, cancers of the liver, stomach and esophagus were more common, often linked to consumption of carcinogenic preserved foods, such as smoked or salted food, and parasitic infections that attack organs." Lung cancer rates are rising rapidly in poorer nations because of increased use of tobacco. Developed countries "tended to have cancers linked to affluence or a 'Western lifestyle' — cancers of the colon, rectum, breast and prostate — that can be caused by obesity, lack of exercise, diet and age."

qas: question: Reduced insulin function can also go by what other term?
answers: text: insulin resistance

question: Other than the reduced insulin function, what else contributes greatly to many disease states?
answers: text: lifestyle-induced hyperinsulinemia

question: Arterial microinjuries and heart disease can all be linked back to which health issue that is caused by hyperinsulinemia?
answers: text: chronic inflammation

question: The metabolic syndrome is a term that refers to which health issue?
answers: text: insulin resistance

question: Hyperinsulinemia has a negative effect on the levels of which important molecules in the body?
answers: text: prostaglandin PGE1/PGE2
context: Several lines of evidence indicate lifestyle-induced hyperinsulinemia and reduced insulin function (i.e., insulin resistance) as a decisive factor in many disease states. For example, hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance are strongly linked to chronic inflammation, which in turn is strongly linked to a variety of adverse developments such as arterial microinjuries and clot formation (i.e., heart disease) and exaggerated cell division (i.e., cancer). Hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance (the so-called metabolic syndrome) are characterized by a combination of abdominal obesity, elevated blood sugar, elevated blood pressure, elevated blood triglycerides, and reduced HDL cholesterol. The negative impact of hyperinsulinemia on prostaglandin PGE1/PGE2 balance may be significant.

qas: question: Insulin resistance has been strongly linked to which health issue?
answers: text: obesity

question: If someone struggles with insulin resistance, what kind of diabetes can develop as a result?
answers: text: type 2

question: Almost all individuals who suffer from type 2 diabetes and/or obesity are found to have which trait?
answers: text: marked insulin resistance

question: Appropriate exercise and reducing glycemic load are two examples of ways to stimulate which process?
answers: text: reverse insulin resistance
context: The state of obesity clearly contributes to insulin resistance, which in turn can cause type 2 diabetes. Virtually all obese and most type 2 diabetic individuals have marked insulin resistance. Although the association between overweight and insulin resistance is clear, the exact (likely multifarious) causes of insulin resistance remain less clear. It is important to note that it has been demonstrated that appropriate exercise, more regular food intake, and reducing glycemic load (see below) all can reverse insulin resistance in overweight individuals (and thereby lower blood sugar levels in those with type 2 diabetes).

qas: question: Obesity can cause resistance to which hormone?
answers: text: leptin

question: In the so called vicious cycle, what aggravates obesity to continue the cycle?
answers: text: insulin/leptin resistance

question: A characteristic of the cycle other than fat storage is a continuously high stimulation of what?
answers: text: insulin/leptin

question: What function do insulin and leptin normally provide in the body?
answers: text: satiety signals to the hypothalamus

question: What effect does insulin/leptin resistance have on the function of insulin/leptin?
answers: text: reduce this signal
context: Obesity can unfavourably alter hormonal and metabolic status via resistance to the hormone leptin, and a vicious cycle may occur in which insulin/leptin resistance and obesity aggravate one another. The vicious cycle is putatively fuelled by continuously high insulin/leptin stimulation and fat storage, as a result of high intake of strongly insulin/leptin stimulating foods and energy. Both insulin and leptin normally function as satiety signals to the hypothalamus in the brain; however, insulin/leptin resistance may reduce this signal and therefore allow continued overfeeding despite large body fat stores. In addition, reduced leptin signalling to the brain may reduce leptin's normal effect to maintain an appropriately high metabolic rate.

qas: question: The debate regarding factors influencing the development of insulin and leptin is not just about how, but also about what other factor?
answers: text: to what extent

question: Other than processed foods, what else was recently introduced to the human diet?
answers: text: high glycemic index

question: What is an example of the body's ability to maintain homeostasis being overwhelmed?
answers: text: metabolic syndrome epidemic
context: There is a debate about how and to what extent different dietary factors— such as intake of processed carbohydrates, total protein, fat, and carbohydrate intake, intake of saturated and trans fatty acids, and low intake of vitamins/minerals—contribute to the development of insulin and leptin resistance. In any case, analogous to the way modern man-made pollution may possess the potential to overwhelm the environment's ability to maintain homeostasis, the recent explosive introduction of high glycemic index and processed foods into the human diet may possess the potential to overwhelm the body's ability to maintain homeostasis and health (as evidenced by the metabolic syndrome epidemic).

qas: question: Hyponatremia is the term that refers to which action by a human?
answers: text: Excess water intake, without replenishment of sodium and potassium salts

question: In 2007, what kind of contest was Jennifer Strange participating in upon her death?
answers: text: water-drinking

question: In which specific kind of events can one often find people drinking too much water?
answers: text: long-distance endurance

question: When a human is suffering from hyponatremia, what is the main cause of damage that may occur?
answers: text: swelling of the brain

question: Damage to the brain occurs because of the increase in which process?
answers: text: osmosis
context: Excess water intake, without replenishment of sodium and potassium salts, leads to hyponatremia, which can further lead to water intoxication at more dangerous levels. A well-publicized case occurred in 2007, when Jennifer Strange died while participating in a water-drinking contest. More usually, the condition occurs in long-distance endurance events (such as marathon or triathlon competition and training) and causes gradual mental dulling, headache, drowsiness, weakness, and confusion; extreme cases may result in coma, convulsions, and death. The primary damage comes from swelling of the brain, caused by increased osmosis as blood salinity decreases. Effective fluid replacement techniques include water aid stations during running/cycling races, trainers providing water during team games, such as soccer, and devices such as Camel Baks, which can provide water for a person without making it too hard to drink the water.

qas: question: The increase in cases of diabetes, obesity and heart disease can be traced back to an increase in the consumption of what product?
answers: text: sugar

question: What has been the increase in obesity among adults in the last 30 years in the United States?
answers: text: more than doubled

question: What is the current percentage of obese adults in the United States?
answers: text: 35

question: Within the past 30 years, how has the number of diabetes cases changed?
answers: text: quadrupled

question: What does the term LDL stand for?
answers: text: Low-density lipoprotein
context: The relatively recent increased consumption of sugar has been linked to the rise of some afflictions such as diabetes, obesity, and more recently heart disease. Increased consumption of sugar has been tied to these three, among others. Obesity levels have more than doubled in the last 30 years among adults, going from 15% to 35% in the United States. Obesity and diet also happen to be high risk factors for diabetes. In the same time span that obesity doubled, diabetes numbers quadrupled in America. Increased weight, especially in the form of belly fat, and high sugar intake are also high risk factors for heart disease. Both sugar intake and fatty tissue increase the probability of elevated LDL cholesterol in the bloodstream. Elevated amounts of Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, is the primary factor in heart disease. In order to avoid all the dangers of sugar, moderate consumption is paramount.

qas: question: When did the Industrial Revolution roughly begin?
answers: text: two hundred years ago

question: Apart from altering the state of food, what is the other main focus in technology increases for the food processing industry?
answers: text: keep foods fresh longer

question: Which technology is primarily responsible for helping keep food fresh?
answers: text: Cooling

question: Pasteurisation is an an example of a technology that aims to do what to food?
answers: text: last longer without becoming spoiled

question: Pasteurisation and autoclavation are examples of what kind of technique?
answers: text: heating
context: Since the Industrial Revolution some two hundred years ago, the food processing industry has invented many technologies that both help keep foods fresh longer and alter the fresh state of food as they appear in nature. Cooling is the primary technology used to maintain freshness, whereas many more technologies have been invented to allow foods to last longer without becoming spoiled. These latter technologies include pasteurisation, autoclavation, drying, salting, and separation of various components, all of which appearing to alter the original nutritional contents of food. Pasteurisation and autoclavation (heating techniques) have no doubt improved the safety of many common foods, preventing epidemics of bacterial infection. But some of the (new) food processing technologies have downfalls as well.

qas: question: Centrifugation and pressing are prime examples of what?
answers: text: Modern separation techniques

question: An unfortunate side effect of concentrating food components is that it causes what change in the food?
answers: text: nutritional content

question: What kind of nutritional value do the processed foods have in comparison to their fresh variants?
answers: text: reduced

question: What is another term other than 'fortified' that can be used to describe the addition of nutrients to processed food?
answers: text: enriched

question: Outside of oxidized fats, what is another substance that is deemed harmful that can be found in processed foods?
answers: text: trans fatty acids
context: Modern separation techniques such as milling, centrifugation, and pressing have enabled concentration of particular components of food, yielding flour, oils, juices, and so on, and even separate fatty acids, amino acids, vitamins, and minerals. Inevitably, such large-scale concentration changes the nutritional content of food, saving certain nutrients while removing others. Heating techniques may also reduce food's content of many heat-labile nutrients such as certain vitamins and phytochemicals, and possibly other yet-to-be-discovered substances. Because of reduced nutritional value, processed foods are often 'enriched' or 'fortified' with some of the most critical nutrients (usually certain vitamins) that were lost during processing. Nonetheless, processed foods tend to have an inferior nutritional profile compared to whole, fresh foods, regarding content of both sugar and high GI starches, potassium/sodium, vitamins, fiber, and of intact, unoxidized (essential) fatty acids. In addition, processed foods often contain potentially harmful substances such as oxidized fats and trans fatty acids.

qas: question: What did people who became ill with beri-beri have as their main food source?
answers: text: polished rice

question: What vitamin is removed during the polishing of rice?
answers: text: thiamine

question: Which disease became prevalent among infants in the United States as an effect of processed foods?
answers: text: scurvy

question: What treatment did the milk that was fed to infants undergo to control bacterial disease?
answers: text: Pasteurisation

question: What was destroyed during the pasteurisation of the milk?
answers: text: vitamin C
context: A dramatic example of the effect of food processing on a population's health is the history of epidemics of beri-beri in people subsisting on polished rice. Removing the outer layer of rice by polishing it removes with it the essential vitamin thiamine, causing beri-beri. Another example is the development of scurvy among infants in the late 19th century in the United States. It turned out that the vast majority of sufferers were being fed milk that had been heat-treated (as suggested by Pasteur) to control bacterial disease. Pasteurisation was effective against bacteria, but it destroyed the vitamin C.

qas: question: What is undoubtedly a cause of the increase in obesity related diseases that are becoming prevalent?
answers: text: widespread application of some modern food processing technologies

question: Aside from agricultural subsidizing, what else does the food processing industry influence in terms of political decisions?
answers: text: nutritional recommendations

question: What is perceived as the general priority of the food processing industry in this sort of economy?
answers: text: effective production of cheap foods with a long shelf-life

question: The more expensive fresh foods have what nutritional value in relation to processed food?
answers: text: superior

question: Other than being cheaper, what is another main draw of processed foods?
answers: text: more convenient
context: As mentioned, lifestyle- and obesity-related diseases are becoming increasingly prevalent all around the world. There is little doubt that the increasingly widespread application of some modern food processing technologies has contributed to this development. The food processing industry is a major part of modern economy, and as such it is influential in political decisions (e.g., nutritional recommendations, agricultural subsidising). In any known profit-driven economy, health considerations are hardly a priority; effective production of cheap foods with a long shelf-life is more the trend. In general, whole, fresh foods have a relatively short shelf-life and are less profitable to produce and sell than are more processed foods. Thus, the consumer is left with the choice between more expensive, but nutritionally superior, whole, fresh foods, and cheap, usually nutritionally inferior, processed foods. Because processed foods are often cheaper, more convenient (in both purchasing, storage, and preparation), and more available, the consumption of nutritionally inferior foods has been increasing throughout the world along with many nutrition-related health complications.