Adolescence

qas: question: A surge in hormone production triggers a number of physical changes during what stage of life?
answers: text: Puberty

question: Which gland secretes a surge of hormonal agents into the blood stream?
answers: text: pituitary

question: Which part of the body releases testosterone in males?
answers: text: testes

question: Which part of the body relesases estrogen in females?
answers: text: ovaries

question: An imbalance in sex hormones, tissue responsiveness, or obesity can cause what in boys?
answers: text: gynecomastia
context: Puberty occurs through a long process and begins with a surge in hormone production, which in turn causes a number of physical changes. It is the stage of life characterized by the appearance and development of secondary sex characteristics (for example, a deeper voice and larger adam's apple in boys, and development of breasts and more curved and prominent hips in girls) and a strong shift in hormonal balance towards an adult state. This is triggered by the pituitary gland, which secretes a surge of hormonal agents into the blood stream, initiating a chain reaction to occur. The male and female gonads are subsequently activated, which puts them into a state of rapid growth and development; the triggered gonads now commence the mass production of the necessary chemicals. The testes primarily release testosterone, and the ovaries predominantly dispense estrogen. The production of these hormones increases gradually until sexual maturation is met. Some boys may develop gynecomastia due to an imbalance of sex hormones, tissue responsiveness or obesity.

qas: question: What is the cultural purpose of adolescence?
answers: text: preparation of children for adult roles

question: What is the transitional period between childhood and adulthood viewed as?
answers: text: adolescence

question: Is adolescence a period of one transition or multiple transitions?
answers: text: multiple transitions

question: What transitions occur during puberty in addition to living circumstances?
answers: text: education, training, employment and unemployment
context: A thorough understanding of adolescence in society depends on information from various perspectives, including psychology, biology, history, sociology, education, and anthropology. Within all of these perspectives, adolescence is viewed as a transitional period between childhood and adulthood, whose cultural purpose is the preparation of children for adult roles. It is a period of multiple transitions involving education, training, employment and unemployment, as well as transitions from one living circumstance to another.

qas: question: How do a person's heart and lungs change during puberty?
answers: text: increase in both size and capacity

question: Increased size and capacity of the heart and lungs result in what changes to the body?
answers: text: increased strength and tolerance for exercise

question: Which sex tends to develop larger hearts and lungs?
answers: text: males

question: Which sex tends to have more red blood cells than the other?
answers: text: males

question: Which body system are a person's lungs a major proponent of?
answers: text: respiratory
context: Pubertal development also affects circulatory and respiratory systems as an adolescents' heart and lungs increase in both size and capacity. These changes lead to increased strength and tolerance for exercise. Sex differences are apparent as males tend to develop "larger hearts and lungs, higher systolic blood pressure, a lower resting heart rate, a greater capacity for carrying oxygen to the blood, a greater power for neutralizing the chemical products of muscular exercise, higher blood hemoglobin and more red blood cells".

qas: question: Is a person's brain fully developed by the time they reach puberty?
answers: text: not

question: The brain reaches what percentage of its adult size by the time a person is six years old?
answers: text: 90%

question: The biggest changes in the brain during puberty occur in the parts of the cortex that process what kinds of information?
answers: text: cognitive and emotional

question: What parts of the brain continue to become more complex into the late teens?
answers: text: creases

question: The brain reaches 90% of its adult size by the time a person reaches what year of age?
answers: text: six
context: The human brain is not fully developed by the time a person reaches puberty. Between the ages of 10 and 25, the brain undergoes changes that have important implications for behavior (see Cognitive development below). The brain reaches 90% of its adult size by the time a person is six years of age. Thus, the brain does not grow in size much during adolescence. However, the creases in the brain continue to become more complex until the late teens. The biggest changes in the folds of the brain during this time occur in the parts of the cortex that process cognitive and emotional information.

qas: question: Which neuromodulator is involved in regulation of mood and behavior?
answers: text: Serotonin

question: Are the effects of serotonin limited to the limbic system?
answers: text: not

question: Serotonin is a neuromodulator that is involved in regulation of what?
answers: text: mood and behavior

question: Which system in the brain determines rewards and punishments, emotional experiences, and social information?
answers: text: limbic

question: Which two neurotransmitters cause adolescents to be more emotional and more responsive to rewards and stresses?
answers: text: dopamine and serotonin
context: Serotonin is a neuromodulator involved in regulation of mood and behavior. Development in the limbic system plays an important role in determining rewards and punishments and processing emotional experience and social information. Changes in the levels of the neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin in the limbic system make adolescents more emotional and more responsive to rewards and stress. The corresponding increase in emotional variability also can increase adolescents' vulnerability. The effect of serotonin is not limited to the limbic system: Several serotonin receptors have their gene expression change dramatically during adolescence, particularly in the human frontal and prefrontal cortex .

qas: question: Are adolescents or children more bound to concrete events?
answers: text: children

question: Deductive reasoning leads to the development of what type of thinking?
answers: text: hypothetical

question: What type of thinking provides the ability to plan ahead and makes adolescents more skilled debaters?
answers: text: hypothetical

question: Adolescents develop a more sophisticated understanding of what mathematical concept thanks to their increased hypothetical thinking abilties?
answers: text: probability
context: Adolescents' thinking is less bound to concrete events than that of children: they can contemplate possibilities outside the realm of what currently exists. One manifestation of the adolescent's increased facility with thinking about possibilities is the improvement of skill in deductive reasoning, which leads to the development of hypothetical thinking. This provides the ability to plan ahead, see the future consequences of an action and to provide alternative explanations of events. It also makes adolescents more skilled debaters, as they can reason against a friend's or parent's assumptions. Adolescents also develop a more sophisticated understanding of probability.

qas: question: Are sexual actvity and risky behaviors more likely in boys that mature early or later?
answers: text: early

question: Increased aggresiveness and early sexual maturation in adolescent boys are due to a surge of what?
answers: text: hormones

question: Are early or late maturing boys generally taller and stronger than their friends?
answers: text: Early

question: What is one reason a late maturing boy may be less confident when comparing himself to others?
answers: text: poor body image
context: The timing of puberty can have important psychological and social consequences. Early maturing boys are usually taller and stronger than their friends. They have the advantage in capturing the attention of potential partners and in becoming hand-picked for sports. Pubescent boys often tend to have a good body image, are more confident, secure, and more independent. Late maturing boys can be less confident because of poor body image when comparing themselves to already developed friends and peers. However, early puberty is not always positive for boys; early sexual maturation in boys can be accompanied by increased aggressiveness due to the surge of hormones that affect them. Because they appear older than their peers, pubescent boys may face increased social pressure to conform to adult norms; society may view them as more emotionally advanced, despite the fact that their cognitive and social development may lag behind their appearance. Studies have shown that early maturing boys are more likely to be sexually active and are more likely to participate in risky behaviors.

qas: question: How is wisdom defined?
answers: text: capacity for insight and judgment that is developed through experience

question: Wisdom increases between age fourteen and what?
answers: text: twenty-five

question: Is wisdom the same thing as intelligence?
answers: text: not

question: Do adolescents perform significantly better on IQ tests than other age groups?
answers: text: not

question: What word is defined as the capacity for insight and judgement that is developed through experience?
answers: text: Wisdom
context: Wisdom, or the capacity for insight and judgment that is developed through experience, increases between the ages of fourteen and twenty-five, then levels off. Thus, it is during the adolescence-adulthood transition that individuals acquire the type of wisdom that is associated with age. Wisdom is not the same as intelligence: adolescents do not improve substantially on IQ tests since their scores are relative to others in their same age group, and relative standing usually does not change—everyone matures at approximately the same rate in this way.

qas: question: How is adolescence defined biologically?
answers: text: the physical transition marked by the onset of puberty and the termination of physical growth

question: How is adolescence defined cognitively?
answers: text: changes in the ability to think abstractly and multi-dimensionally

question: Changes to sex organs, height, weight, and muscle mass are examples of which type of change?
answers: text: biological

question: Increases in knowledge and the ability to think abstractly are examples of which kind of change?
answers: text: Cognitive
context: In studying adolescent development, adolescence can be defined biologically, as the physical transition marked by the onset of puberty and the termination of physical growth; cognitively, as changes in the ability to think abstractly and multi-dimensionally; or socially, as a period of preparation for adult roles. Major pubertal and biological changes include changes to the sex organs, height, weight, and muscle mass, as well as major changes in brain structure and organization. Cognitive advances encompass both increases in knowledge and in the ability to think abstractly and to reason more effectively. The study of adolescent development often involves interdisciplinary collaborations. For example, researchers in neuroscience or bio-behavioral health might focus on pubertal changes in brain structure and its effects on cognition or social relations. Sociologists interested in adolescence might focus on the acquisition of social roles (e.g., worker or romantic partner) and how this varies across cultures or social conditions. Developmental psychologists might focus on changes in relations with parents and peers as a function of school structure and pubertal status.

qas: question: Who founded the University of California, Berkeley's Institude of Human Development?
answers: text: Jean Macfarlane

question: What year was the University of California, Berkeley's Instutute of Human Development founded?
answers: text: 1927

question: What was the Univerity of California, Berkeley's Institute of Human Development formerly called?
answers: text: Institute of Child Welfare

question: What year was the Oakland Growth Study initiated?
answers: text: 1931

question: What year did data for the Oakland Growth Study stop being collected?
answers: text: 1981
context: Jean Macfarlane founded the University of California, Berkeley's Institute of Human Development, formerly called the Institute of Child Welfare, in 1927. The Institute was instrumental in initiating studies of healthy development, in contrast to previous work that had been dominated by theories based on pathological personalities. The studies looked at human development during the Great Depression and World War II, unique historical circumstances under which a generation of children grew up. The Oakland Growth Study, initiated by Harold Jones and Herbert Stolz in 1931, aimed to study the physical, intellectual, and social development of children in the Oakland area. Data collection began in 1932 and continued until 1981, allowing the researchers to gather longitudinal data on the individuals that extended past adolescence into adulthood. Jean Macfarlane launched the Berkeley Guidance Study, which examined the development of children in terms of their socioeconomic and family backgrounds. These studies provided the background for Glen Elder in the 1960s, to propose a life-course perspective of adolescent development. Elder formulated several descriptive principles of adolescent development. The principle of historical time and place states that an individual's development is shaped by the period and location in which they grow up. The principle of the importance of timing in one's life refers to the different impact that life events have on development based on when in one's life they occur. The idea of linked lives states that one's development is shaped by the interconnected network of relationships of which one is a part; and the principle of human agency asserts that one's life course is constructed via the choices and actions of an individual within the context of their historical period and social network.

qas: question: What is a male's major landmark of puberty?
answers: text: first ejaculation

question: At what average age does a male's first ejaculation occur?
answers: text: 13

question: What is a female's major landmark of puberty?
answers: text: menstruation

question: Besides heredity, what other factors contribute to when menustration begins?
answers: text: diet and lifestyle

question: Do girls who are malnourished start menustrating earlier or later than those with high-fat diets?
answers: text: later
context: The major landmark of puberty for males is the first ejaculation, which occurs, on average, at age 13. For females, it is menarche, the onset of menstruation, which occurs, on average, between ages 12 and 13. The age of menarche is influenced by heredity, but a girl's diet and lifestyle contribute as well. Regardless of genes, a girl must have a certain proportion of body fat to attain menarche. Consequently, girls who have a high-fat diet and who are not physically active begin menstruating earlier, on average, than girls whose diet contains less fat and whose activities involve fat reducing exercise (e.g. ballet and gymnastics). Girls who experience malnutrition or are in societies in which children are expected to perform physical labor also begin menstruating at later ages.

qas: question: How can the ideal self be described in terms of the adolescent?
answers: text: who the adolescent wishes to be

question: How can the feared self be described in terms of the adolescent?
answers: text: who the adolescent does not want to be

question: Do adolescents demonstrate intended behavior moving towards the ideal or feared self?
answers: text: ideal
context: Adolescents can conceptualize multiple "possible selves" that they could become and long-term possibilities and consequences of their choices. Exploring these possibilities may result in abrupt changes in self-presentation as the adolescent chooses or rejects qualities and behaviors, trying to guide the actual self toward the ideal self (who the adolescent wishes to be) and away from the feared self (who the adolescent does not want to be). For many, these distinctions are uncomfortable, but they also appear to motivate achievement through behavior consistent with the ideal and distinct from the feared possible selves.

qas: question: What term is the beginning of menstruation given?
answers: text: Menarche

question: How many years does regular ovulation follow menarche?
answers: text: two years

question: Do males or females appear physically mature before they are capable of reproduction?
answers: text: females

question: What are two areas of the reproductive system that experience growth in females during puberty?
answers: text: uterus, vagina
context: In females, changes in the primary sex characteristics involve growth of the uterus, vagina, and other aspects of the reproductive system. Menarche, the beginning of menstruation, is a relatively late development which follows a long series of hormonal changes. Generally, a girl is not fully fertile until several years after menarche, as regular ovulation follows menarche by about two years. Unlike males, therefore, females usually appear physically mature before they are capable of becoming pregnant.

qas: question: What activity often results in a boy's first ejaculation?
answers: text: masturbation

question: What are primary sex characteristics?
answers: text: those directly related to the sex organs

question: What does the first stage of puberty involve for males?
answers: text: growth of the testes and scrotum

question: After growth of the testes and scrotum, while male body part experiences growth next?
answers: text: penis

question: Which male body parts enlarge and develop at the same time as the penis?
answers: text: seminal vesicles, the prostate, and the bulbourethral gland
context: Primary sex characteristics are those directly related to the sex organs. In males, the first stages of puberty involve growth of the testes and scrotum, followed by growth of the penis. At the time that the penis develops, the seminal vesicles, the prostate, and the bulbourethral gland also enlarge and develop. The first ejaculation of seminal fluid generally occurs about one year after the beginning of accelerated penis growth, although this is often determined culturally rather than biologically, since for many boys first ejaculation occurs as a result of masturbation. Boys are generally fertile before they have an adult appearance.

qas: question: At what stage do parents see their children as equals?
answers: text: early adolescence

question: During what stage of development is there increased parent-child conflict and a less cohesive familial bond?
answers: text: puberty

question: During puberty and adolescence, do most children share the same or different attitudes and values as their parents?
answers: text: same
context: Adolescence marks a rapid change in one's role within a family. Young children tend to assert themselves forcefully, but are unable to demonstrate much influence over family decisions until early adolescence, when they are increasingly viewed by parents as equals. The adolescent faces the task of increasing independence while preserving a caring relationship with his or her parents. When children go through puberty, there is often a significant increase in parent–child conflict and a less cohesive familial bond. Arguments often concern minor issues of control, such as curfew, acceptable clothing, and the adolescent's right to privacy, which adolescents may have previously viewed as issues over which their parents had complete authority. Parent-adolescent disagreement also increases as friends demonstrate a greater impact on one another, new influences on the adolescent that may be in opposition to parents' values. Social media has also played an increasing role in adolescent and parent disagreements. While parents never had to worry about the threats of social media in the past, it has become a dangerous place for children. While adolescents strive for their freedoms, the unknowns to parents of what their child is doing on social media sites is a challenging subject, due to the increasing amount of predators on social media sites. Many parents have very little knowledge of social networking sites in the first place and this further increases their mistrust. An important challenge for the parent–adolescent relationship is to understand how to enhance the opportunities of online communication while managing its risks. Although conflicts between children and parents increase during adolescence, these are just relatively minor issues. Regarding their important life issues, most adolescents still share the same attitudes and values as their parents.

qas: question: Which part of the brain is involved in decision making and cognitive control?
answers: text: prefrontal cortex

question: Which area of the brain is important for controlling impulses and planning ahead?
answers: text: dorsolateral prefrontal cortex

question: Which part of the brain is important for evaluating rewards and risks?
answers: text: orbitofrontal cortex

question: Which are the first areas to be pruned during puberty?
answers: text: those involving primary functions

question: Motor and sensory skills are examples of what kind of brain function?
answers: text: primary
context: The first areas of the brain to be pruned are those involving primary functions, such as motor and sensory areas. The areas of the brain involved in more complex processes lose matter later in development. These include the lateral and prefrontal cortices, among other regions. Some of the most developmentally significant changes in the brain occur in the prefrontal cortex, which is involved in decision making and cognitive control, as well as other higher cognitive functions. During adolescence, myelination and synaptic pruning in the prefrontal cortex increases, improving the efficiency of information processing, and neural connections between the prefrontal cortex and other regions of the brain are strengthened. This leads to better evaluation of risks and rewards, as well as improved control over impulses. Specifically, developments in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex are important for controlling impulses and planning ahead, while development in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex is important for decision making. Changes in the orbitofrontal cortex are important for evaluating rewards and risks.

qas: question: What is one area in which peer groups can have positive influences on an individual?
answers: text: academic motivation and performance

question: What are some of the negative experiences that peer pressure can influence during adolescence?
answers: text: experimentation with drugs, drinking, vandalism, and stealing

question: At what age does succeptability to peer pressure peak?
answers: text: 14

question: What are some social skills that peer groups offer members the opportunity to develop?
answers: text: empathy, sharing, and leadership
context: Communication within peer groups allows adolescents to explore their feelings and identity as well as develop and evaluate their social skills. Peer groups offer members the opportunity to develop social skills such as empathy, sharing, and leadership. Adolescents choose peer groups based on characteristics similarly found in themselves. By utilizing these relationships, adolescents become more accepting of who they are becoming. Group norms and values are incorporated into an adolescent’s own self-concept. Through developing new communication skills and reflecting upon those of their peers, as well as self-opinions and values, an adolescent can share and express emotions and other concerns without fear of rejection or judgment. Peer groups can have positive influences on an individual, such as on academic motivation and performance. However, while peers may facilitate social development for one another they may also hinder it. Peers can have negative influences, such as encouraging experimentation with drugs, drinking, vandalism, and stealing through peer pressure. Susceptibility to peer pressure increases during early adolescence, peaks around age 14, and declines thereafter. Further evidence of peers hindering social development has been found in Spanish teenagers, where emotional (rather than solution-based) reactions to problems and emotional instability have been linked with physical aggression against peers. Both physical and relational aggression are linked to a vast number of enduring psychological difficulties, especially depression, as is social rejection. Because of this, bullied adolescents often develop problems that lead to further victimization. Bullied adolescents are both more likely to continued to be bullied and to bully others in the future. However, this relationship is less stable in cases of cyberbullying, a relatively new issue among adolescents.

qas: question: What view towards cognitive development during adolescence did Piaget take?
answers: text: constructivist

question: Did Piaget believe that cognitive improvement was sudden and drastic or slow and steadied?
answers: text: sudden and drastic

question: Besides the information-processing perspective, what is the other major approach to understanding cognitive change during adolescence?
answers: text: quantitative, state-theory

question: The information-processing perspective towards cognitive development derives from the study of what?
answers: text: artificial intelligence
context: There are at least two major approaches to understanding cognitive change during adolescence. One is the constructivist view of cognitive development. Based on the work of Piaget, it takes a quantitative, state-theory approach, hypothesizing that adolescents' cognitive improvement is relatively sudden and drastic. The second is the information-processing perspective, which derives from the study of artificial intelligence and attempts to explain cognitive development in terms of the growth of specific components of the thinking process.

qas: question: Casual sexual encounters are often referred to as what?
answers: text: hookups

question: Do most sexual experiences during adolescence take place within or seperate from romantic relationships?
answers: text: within

question: Where do some adolescents feel is a safe place to seek out romantic relationships, try out dating and indentity exploration?
answers: text: social media

question: What seperates "heavy" sexual activity from other forms of affection?
answers: text: genital stimulation

question: For older adolescents, is sexual activity in a romantic relationship associated with lower or higher levels of deviant behavior?
answers: text: lower
context: Adolescence marks a time of sexual maturation, which manifests in social interactions as well. While adolescents may engage in casual sexual encounters (often referred to as hookups), most sexual experience during this period of development takes place within romantic relationships. Adolescents can use technologies and social media to seek out romantic relationships as they feel it is a safe place to try out dating and identity exploration. From these social media encounters, a further relationship may begin. Kissing, hand holding, and hugging signify satisfaction and commitment. Among young adolescents, "heavy" sexual activity, marked by genital stimulation, is often associated with violence, depression, and poor relationship quality. This effect does not hold true for sexual activity in late adolescence that takes place within a romantic relationship. Some research suggest that there are genetic causes of early sexual activity that are also risk factors for delinquency, suggesting that there is a group who are at risk for both early sexual activity and emotional distress. For old adolescents, though, sexual activity in the context of romantic relationships was actually correlated with lower levels of deviant behavior after controlling for genetic risks, as opposed to sex outside of a relationship (hook-ups)

qas: question: What is the term used to describe thinking about thinking itself?
answers: text: metacognition

question: Are adolescents or children better able to understand that people do not have complete control over their thoughts?
answers: text: Adolescents

question: The imaginary audience and personal fable peak at what age?
answers: text: fifteen

question: At what age does self-consciousness in general peak?
answers: text: fifteen
context: A third gain in cognitive ability involves thinking about thinking itself, a process referred to as metacognition. It often involves monitoring one's own cognitive activity during the thinking process. Adolescents' improvements in knowledge of their own thinking patterns lead to better self-control and more effective studying. It is also relevant in social cognition, resulting in increased introspection, self-consciousness, and intellectualization (in the sense of thought about one's own thoughts, rather than the Freudian definition as a defense mechanism). Adolescents are much better able than children to understand that people do not have complete control over their mental activity. Being able to introspect may lead to two forms of adolescent egocentrism, which results in two distinct problems in thinking: the imaginary audience and the personal fable. These likely peak at age fifteen, along with self-consciousness in general.

qas: question: What questionaire has been used to measure the age in which adolescents should be able to engage in autonomous behaviors?
answers: text: teen timetable

question: Do White or Asian parents tend to expect autonomy earlier than the other?
answers: text: White

question: What has the teen timetable questionnaire been used to guage?
answers: text: differences in cultural perceptions of adolescent autonomy
context: A questionnaire called the teen timetable has been used to measure the age at which individuals believe adolescents should be able to engage in behaviors associated with autonomy. This questionnaire has been used to gauge differences in cultural perceptions of adolescent autonomy, finding, for instance, that White parents and adolescents tend to expect autonomy earlier than those of Asian descent. It is, therefore, clear that cultural differences exist in perceptions of adolescent autonomy, and such differences have implications for the lifestyles and development of adolescents. In sub-Saharan African youth, the notions of individuality and freedom may not be useful in understanding adolescent development. Rather, African notions of childhood and adolescent development are relational and interdependent.

qas: question: What is an example of a poor birth control method?
answers: text: withdrawal

question: Are higher or lower levels of parental support associated with risky sexual behavior?
answers: text: lower

question: Is exploratory sexual behavior seen as similar or seperate to other aspects of identity?
answers: text: similar

question: Does having unprotected sex, multiple sexual partners, and poor communication increase or decrease individual and social risk?
answers: text: increase
context: Given the potential consequences, engaging in sexual behavior is somewhat risky, particularly for adolescents. Having unprotected sex, using poor birth control methods (e.g. withdrawal), having multiple sexual partners, and poor communication are some aspects of sexual behavior that increase individual and/or social risk. Some qualities of adolescents' lives that are often correlated with risky sexual behavior include higher rates of experienced abuse, lower rates of parental support and monitoring. Adolescence is also commonly a time of questioning sexuality and gender. This may involve intimate experimentation with people identifying as the same gender as well as with people of differing genders. Such exploratory sexual behavior can be seen as similar to other aspects of identity, including the exploration of vocational, social, and leisure identity, all of which involve some risk.

qas: question: Does research favor or reject the hypothesis that adolescents and adults think about risk similarly but hold different values and therefore come to different conclusions?
answers: text: favor

question: A priority in sexual attraction and dating can prove helpful in order to complete what reproductive advantage?
answers: text: impress potential mates

question: What does research indicate may affect risk-taking behavior throughout the lifespan?
answers: text: baseline sensation seeking
context: Research seems to favor the hypothesis that adolescents and adults think about risk in similar ways, but hold different values and thus come to different conclusions. Some have argued that there may be evolutionary benefits to an increased propensity for risk-taking in adolescence. For example, without a willingness to take risks, teenagers would not have the motivation or confidence necessary to leave their family of origin. In addition, from a population perspective, there is an advantage to having a group of individuals willing to take more risks and try new methods, counterbalancing the more conservative elements more typical of the received knowledge held by older adults. Risktaking may also have reproductive advantages: adolescents have a newfound priority in sexual attraction and dating, and risk-taking is required to impress potential mates. Research also indicates that baseline sensation seeking may affect risk-taking behavior throughout the lifespan.

qas: question: When does the search for identity begin for most individuals?
answers: text: adolescent years

question: What are some factors that make developing and maintaining an identity during the adolescent years a difficult task?
answers: text: family life, environment, and social status

question: What are two main aspects of identity development?
answers: text: self-clarity and self-esteem

question: What are the three general approaches to understanding identity development?
answers: text: self-concept, sense of identity, and self-esteem

question: Do adolescents with a less privileged upbringing have a more or less difficult time developing their identity?
answers: text: more difficult
context: Identity development is a stage in the adolescent life cycle. For most, the search for identity begins in the adolescent years. During these years, adolescents are more open to 'trying on' different behaviours and appearances to discover who they are. In other words, in an attempt to find their identity and discover who they are adolescents are liking to cycle through a number of identities to find one that suits them best. But, developing and maintaining identity (in adolescent years) is a difficult task due to multiple factors such as family life, environment, and social status. Empirical studies suggest that this process might be more accurately described as identity development, rather than formation, but confirms a normative process of change in both content and structure of one's thoughts about the self. The two main aspects of identity development are self-clarity and self-esteem. Since choices made during adolescent years can influence later life, high levels of self-awareness and self-control during mid-adolescence will lead to better decisions during the transition to adulthood.[citation needed] Researchers have used three general approaches to understanding identity development: self-concept, sense of identity, and self-esteem. The years of adolescence create a more conscientious group of young adults. Adolescents pay close attention and give more time and effort to their appearance as their body goes through changes. Unlike children, teens put forth an effort to look presentable (1991). The environment in which an adolescent grows up also plays an important role in their identity development. Studies done by the American Psychological Association have shown that adolescents with a less privileged upbringing have a more difficult time developing their identity.

qas: question: Identity achievement rarely occurs before what age?
answers: text: 18

question: Is there a final endpoint in identity development?
answers: text: no

question: Evidence has supported which theorist's idea concerning stages of development?
answers: text: Erikson

question: Does self-examination begin early or late in adolescence?
answers: text: early
context: Research since reveals self-examination beginning early in adolescence, but identity achievement rarely occurring before age 18. The freshman year of college influences identity development significantly, but may actually prolong psychosocial moratorium by encouraging reexamination of previous commitments and further exploration of alternate possibilities without encouraging resolution. For the most part, evidence has supported Erikson's stages: each correlates with the personality traits he originally predicted. Studies also confirm the impermanence of the stages; there is no final endpoint in identity development.

qas: question: Which theorist argued that not everyone fully achieves identity?
answers: text: Erik Erikson

question: How do adolescents initially define themselves?
answers: text: crowd membership

question: How is Moratorium defined?
answers: text: process of exploration

question: Which researcher developed the current method for testing an individual's process along the stages of identity?
answers: text: James Marcia

question: James Marcia divides questions into how many categories?
answers: text: three
context: Egocentrism in adolescents forms a self-conscious desire to feel important in their peer groups and enjoy social acceptance. Unlike the conflicting aspects of self-concept, identity represents a coherent sense of self stable across circumstances and including past experiences and future goals. Everyone has a self-concept, whereas Erik Erikson argued that not everyone fully achieves identity. Erikson's theory of stages of development includes the identity crisis in which adolescents must explore different possibilities and integrate different parts of themselves before committing to their beliefs. He described the resolution of this process as a stage of "identity achievement" but also stressed that the identity challenge "is never fully resolved once and for all at one point in time". Adolescents begin by defining themselves based on their crowd membership. "Clothes help teens explore new identities, separate from parents, and bond with peers." Fashion has played a major role when it comes to teenagers "finding their selves"; Fashion is always evolving, which corresponds with the evolution of change in the personality of teenagers. Adolescents attempt to define their identity by consciously styling themselves in different manners to find what best suits them. Trial and error in matching both their perceived image and the image others respond to and see, allows for the adolescent to grasp an understanding of who they are Just as fashion is evolving to influence adolescents so is the media. "Modern life takes place amidst a never-ending barrage of flesh on screens, pages, and billboards." This barrage consciously or subconsciously registers into the mind causing issues with self-image a factor that contributes to an adolescence sense of identity. Researcher James Marcia developed the current method for testing an individual's progress along these stages. His questions are divided into three categories: occupation, ideology, and interpersonal relationships. Answers are scored based on extent to which the individual has explored and the degree to which he has made commitments. The result is classification of the individual into a) identity diffusion in which all children begin, b) Identity Foreclosure in which commitments are made without the exploration of alternatives, c) Moratorium, or the process of exploration, or d) Identity Achievement in which Moratorium has occurred and resulted in commitments.

qas: question: Which term is defined as one's thoughts and feelings about one's self-concept and identity?
answers: text: Self-esteem

question: Is there evidence to support a drop in self-esteem during adolescence?
answers: text: no

question: Which type of self-esteem fluctuates rapidly and can cause severe distress and anxiety?
answers: text: Barometric self-esteem

question: Which type of self-esteem remains stable throughout adolescence?
answers: text: baseline self-esteem

question: What is the most important function of friendship?
answers: text: having someone who can provide social and moral support
context: The final major aspect of identity formation is self-esteem. Self-esteem is defined as one's thoughts and feelings about one's self-concept and identity. Most theories on self-esteem state that there is a grand desire, across all genders and ages, to maintain, protect and enhance their self-esteem. Contrary to popular belief, there is no empirical evidence for a significant drop in self-esteem over the course of adolescence. "Barometric self-esteem" fluctuates rapidly and can cause severe distress and anxiety, but baseline self-esteem remains highly stable across adolescence. The validity of global self-esteem scales has been questioned, and many suggest that more specific scales might reveal more about the adolescent experience. Girls are most likely to enjoy high self-esteem when engaged in supportive relationships with friends, the most important function of friendship to them is having someone who can provide social and moral support. When they fail to win friends' approval or couldn't find someone with whom to share common activities and common interests, in these cases, girls suffer from low self-esteem. In contrast, boys are more concerned with establishing and asserting their independence and defining their relation to authority. As such, they are more likely to derive high self-esteem from their ability to successfully influence their friends; on the other hand, the lack of romantic competence, for example, failure to win or maintain the affection of the opposite or same-sex (depending on sexual orientation), is the major contributor to low self-esteem in adolescent boys. Due to the fact that both men and women happen to have a low self-esteem after ending a romantic relationship, they are prone to other symptoms that is caused by this state. Depression and hopelessness are only two of the various symptoms and it is said that women are twice as likely to experience depression and men are three to four times more likely to commit suicide (Mearns, 1991; Ustun & Sartorius, 1995).

qas: question: At what age does awareness of one's sexual orientation occur on average?
answers: text: 10

question: At what age does coming out to one's peers occur on average?
answers: text: 16

question: At what age does coming out to adults occur on average?
answers: text: 17

question: How many times higher is the suicide rate amongst LGBT adolescents than their heterosexual peers?
answers: text: four

question: What are factors causing a hightened suicide rate amongst LGBT adolescents?
answers: text: bullying and rejection from peers or family members
context: In terms of sexual identity, adolescence is when most gay/lesbian and transgender adolescents begin to recognize and make sense of their feelings. Many adolescents may choose to come out during this period of their life once an identity has been formed; many others may go through a period of questioning or denial, which can include experimentation with both homosexual and heterosexual experiences. A study of 194 lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths under the age of 21 found that having an awareness of one's sexual orientation occurred, on average, around age 10, but the process of coming out to peers and adults occurred around age 16 and 17, respectively. Coming to terms with and creating a positive LGBT identity can be difficult for some youth for a variety of reasons. Peer pressure is a large factor when youth who are questioning their sexuality or gender identity are surrounded by heteronormative peers and can cause great distress due to a feeling of being different from everyone else. While coming out can also foster better psychological adjustment, the risks associated are real. Indeed, coming out in the midst of a heteronormative peer environment often comes with the risk of ostracism, hurtful jokes, and even violence. Because of this, statistically the suicide rate amongst LGBT adolescents is up to four times higher than that of their heterosexual peers due to bullying and rejection from peers or family members.

qas: question: Are adolescents with authoritative parents more or less likely to complete secondary education by age 22?
answers: text: more

question: Are adolescents that have a good relationship with their parents more or less likely to smoke, drink, fight, or engage in unprotected sex?
answers: text: less likely

question: Which researchers conducted a 2009 study that concerned adolescents, their parents, and secondary education completion?
answers: text: Adalbjarnardottir and Blondal
context: Despite changing family roles during adolescence, the home environment and parents are still important for the behaviors and choices of adolescents. Adolescents who have a good relationship with their parents are less likely to engage in various risk behaviors, such as smoking, drinking, fighting, and/or unprotected sexual intercourse. In addition, parents influence the education of adolescence. A study conducted by Adalbjarnardottir and Blondal (2009) showed that adolescents at the age of 14 who identify their parents as authoritative figures are more likely to complete secondary education by the age of 22—as support and encouragement from an authoritative parent motivates the adolescence to complete schooling to avoid disappointing that parent.

qas: question: Are modern day teenagers exposed to more or less media than other generations?
answers: text: more

question: How many hours of television does the average teenager watch per year?
answers: text: 1500

question: Teenagers' views on body mass, loe self-esteem, and atypical eating patterns results in what?
answers: text: body dissatisfaction

question: How is "body dissatisfaction" defined?
answers: text: The concept of a person being unhappy with their own image or appearance
context: Much research has been conducted on the psychological ramifications of body image on adolescents. Modern day teenagers are exposed to more media on a daily basis than any generation before them. Recent studies have indicated that the average teenager watches roughly 1500 hours of television per year. As such, modern day adolescents are exposed to many representations of ideal, societal beauty. The concept of a person being unhappy with their own image or appearance has been defined as "body dissatisfaction". In teenagers, body dissatisfaction is often associated with body mass, low self-esteem, and atypical eating patterns. Scholars continue to debate the effects of media on body dissatisfaction in teens.

qas: question: What is the current divorce rate?
answers: text: about 50%

question: Does divorce usually result in more or less contact with the noncustodial parent?
answers: text: less

question: What new theory states that traumatic events during adolescence have lifelong effects?
answers: text: epistemological trauma theory

question: Does a parental divorce during childhood or adulthood have a positive or negative effect on a person during early adulthood?
answers: text: negative
context: A potential important influence on adolescence is change of the family dynamic, specifically divorce. With the divorce rate up to about 50%, divorce is common and adds to the already great amount of change in adolescence. Custody disputes soon after a divorce often reflect a playing out of control battles and ambivalence between parents. Divorce usually results in less contact between the adolescent and their noncustodial parent. In extreme cases of instability and abuse in homes, divorce can have a positive effect on families due to less conflict in the home. However, most research suggests a negative effect on adolescence as well as later development. A recent study found that, compared with peers who grow up in stable post-divorce families, children of divorce who experience additional family transitions during late adolescence, make less progress in their math and social studies performance over time. Another recent study put forth a new theory entitled the adolescent epistemological trauma theory, which posited that traumatic life events such as parental divorce during the formative period of late adolescence portend lifelong effects on adult conflict behavior that can be mitigated by effective behavioral assessment and training. A parental divorce during childhood or adolescence continues to have a negative effect when a person is in his or her twenties and early thirties. These negative effects include romantic relationships and conflict style, meaning as adults, they are more likely to use the styles of avoidance and competing in conflict management.

qas: question: What are a few examples of social and religious transition ceremonies?
answers: text: Confirmation, Bar and Bat Mitzvahs, Quinceañeras, sweet sixteens, cotillions, and débutante balls

question: What are some physical ways that some cultures mark the transition into adulthood?
answers: text: tattoos and scarification

question: Do cultural transitions into adulthood vary, or are they the same?
answers: text: vary
context: Some examples of social and religious transition ceremonies that can be found in the U.S., as well as in other cultures around the world, are Confirmation, Bar and Bat Mitzvahs, Quinceañeras, sweet sixteens, cotillions, and débutante balls. In other countries, initiation ceremonies play an important role, marking the transition into adulthood or the entrance into adolescence. This transition may be accompanied by obvious physical changes, which can vary from a change in clothing to tattoos and scarification. Furthermore, transitions into adulthood may also vary by gender, and specific rituals may be more common for males or for females. This illuminates the extent to which adolescence is, at least in part, a social construction; it takes shape differently depending on the cultural context, and may be enforced more by cultural practices or transitions than by universal chemical or biological physical changes.

qas: question: Do romantic relationships tend to increase or decrease throughout adolescence?
answers: text: increase

question: How many percent of adolescents have had a romantic relationship lasting one month or longer by age 15?
answers: text: 53%

question: At what average age did American males report their first sexual intercourse took place?
answers: text: 17.0

question: At what average age did American females report their first sexual intercourse took place?
answers: text: 17.3

question: Does the typical duration of relationships increase or decrease throughout the teenage years?
answers: text: increases
context: Romantic relationships tend to increase in prevalence throughout adolescence. By age 15, 53% of adolescents have had a romantic relationship that lasted at least one month over the course of the previous 18 months. In a 2008 study conducted by YouGov for Channel 4, 20% of 14−17-year-olds surveyed revealed that they had their first sexual experience at 13 or under in the United Kingdom. A 2002 American study found that those aged 15–44 reported that the average age of first sexual intercourse was 17.0 for males and 17.3 for females. The typical duration of relationships increases throughout the teenage years as well. This constant increase in the likelihood of a long-term relationship can be explained by sexual maturation and the development of cognitive skills necessary to maintain a romantic bond (e.g. caregiving, appropriate attachment), although these skills are not strongly developed until late adolescence. Long-term relationships allow adolescents to gain the skills necessary for high-quality relationships later in life and develop feelings of self-worth. Overall, positive romantic relationships among adolescents can result in long-term benefits. High-quality romantic relationships are associated with higher commitment in early adulthood and are positively associated with self-esteem, self-confidence, and social competence. For example, an adolescent with positive self-confidence is likely to consider themselves a more successful partner, whereas negative experiences may lead to low confidence as a romantic partner. Adolescents often date within their demographic in regards to race, ethnicity, popularity, and physical attractiveness. However, there are traits in which certain individuals, particularly adolescent girls, seek diversity. While most adolescents date people approximately their own age, boys typically date partners the same age or younger; girls typically date partners the same age or older.

qas: question: How is culture defined?
answers: text: symbolic and behavioral inheritance received from the past that provides a community framework for what is valued

question: Does culture affect all, some, or none of the aspects of an individual's life?
answers: text: all

question: What is a challenge researchers face when studying culture and adolescents?
answers: text: not to define the culture's role in adolescence in terms of their own cultural beliefs

question: Should culture be directly connected to a nation or ethnicity?
answers: text: not
context: There are certain characteristics of adolescent development that are more rooted in culture than in human biology or cognitive structures. Culture has been defined as the "symbolic and behavioral inheritance received from the past that provides a community framework for what is valued". Culture is learned and socially shared, and it affects all aspects of an individual's life. Social responsibilities, sexual expression, and belief system development, for instance, are all things that are likely to vary by culture. Furthermore, distinguishing characteristics of youth, including dress, music and other uses of media, employment, art, food and beverage choices, recreation, and language, all constitute a youth culture. For these reasons, culture is a prevalent and powerful presence in the lives of adolescents, and therefore we cannot fully understand today's adolescents without studying and understanding their culture. However, "culture" should not be seen as synonymous with nation or ethnicity. Many cultures are present within any given country and racial or socioeconomic group. Furthermore, to avoid ethnocentrism, researchers must be careful not to define the culture's role in adolescence in terms of their own cultural beliefs.

qas: question: How do adolescents use online technology?
answers: text: experiment with emerging identities and to broaden their peer groups

question: To what does "channel" refer in terms if adolescent communication?
answers: text: form of communication

question: What is a potential negative effect of using newer online channels of communication?
answers: text: cyberbullying
context: When discussing peer relationships among adolescents it is also important to include information in regards to how they communicate with one another. An important aspect of communication is the channel used. Channel, in this respect, refers to the form of communication, be it face-to-face, email, text message, phone or other. Teens are heavy users of newer forms of communication such as text message and social-networking websites such as Facebook, especially when communicating with peers. Adolescents use online technology to experiment with emerging identities and to broaden their peer groups, such as increasing the amount of friends acquired on Facebook and other social media sites. Some adolescents use these newer channels to enhance relationships with peers however there can be negative uses as well such as cyberbullying, as mentioned previously, and negative impacts on the family.

qas: question: What percentage of sexually active teenagers will contract an STI?
answers: text: One in four

question: What percent of the teenage population is affected by herpes and HPV?
answers: text: 15

question: Girls ages 15 to 19 have higher rates of what STD than any other age group?
answers: text: gonorrhea

question: What ratio of all new HIV cases occur in those under age 21?
answers: text: One-quarter

question: According to a survey by the Kaiser Family Foundation, what percentage of parents want schools to discuss contraception with their children?
answers: text: eighty-one percent
context: In contemporary society, adolescents also face some risks as their sexuality begins to transform. While some of these, such as emotional distress (fear of abuse or exploitation) and sexually transmitted infections/diseases (STIs/STDs), including HIV/AIDS, are not necessarily inherent to adolescence, others such as teenage pregnancy (through non-use or failure of contraceptives) are seen as social problems in most western societies. One in four sexually active teenagers will contract an STI. Adolescents in the United States often chose "anything but intercourse" for sexual activity because they mistakenly believe it reduces the risk of STIs. Across the country, clinicians report rising diagnoses of herpes and human papillomavirus (HPV), which can cause genital warts, and is now thought to affect 15 percent of the teen population. Girls 15 to 19 have higher rates of gonorrhea than any other age group. One-quarter of all new HIV cases occur in those under the age of 21. Multrine also states in her article that according to a March survey by the Kaiser Family Foundation, eighty-one percent of parents want schools to discuss the use of condoms and contraception with their children. They also believe students should be able to be tested for STIs. Furthermore, teachers want to address such topics with their students. But, although 9 in 10 sex education instructors across the country believe that students should be taught about contraceptives in school, over one quarter report receiving explicit instructions from school boards and administrators not to do so. According to anthropologist Margaret Mead, the turmoil found in adolescence in Western society has a cultural rather than a physical cause; they reported that societies where young women engaged in free sexual activity had no such adolescent turmoil.

qas: question: In what year was the Convention on the Rights of the Child created?
answers: text: 1989

question: What two countries have not legally committed to advancing an anti-discriminaory stance towards young people?
answers: text: U.S. and South Sudan

question: A person below the age of majority may gain adult rights through what process?
answers: text: legal emancipation

question: What is legally different for an individual who has reached the age of majority?
answers: text: regarded as adults who are responsible for their actions
context: Adolescence is a period frequently marked by increased rights and privileges for individuals. While cultural variation exists for legal rights and their corresponding ages, considerable consistency is found across cultures. Furthermore, since the advent of the Convention on the Rights of the Child in 1989 (children here defined as under 18), almost every country in the world (except the U.S. and South Sudan) has legally committed to advancing an anti-discriminatory stance towards young people of all ages. This includes protecting children against unchecked child labor, enrollment in the military, prostitution, and pornography. In many societies, those who reach a certain age (often 18, though this varies) are considered to have reached the age of majority and are legally regarded as adults who are responsible for their actions. People below this age are considered minors or children. A person below the age of majority may gain adult rights through legal emancipation.

qas: question: In developing countries, is it common for children to attend fewer or greater years of formal schooling?
answers: text: fewer

question: Why, in developting countries, do children often attend fewer years of formal schooling?
answers: text: so that, when they reach adolescence, they can begin working

question: According to family economic and financial education specialists, how do adolescents develop sound money management skills?
answers: text: saving and spending money
context: In addition to the sharing of household chores, certain cultures expect adolescents to share in their family's financial responsibilities. According to family economic and financial education specialists, adolescents develop sound money management skills through the practices of saving and spending money, as well as through planning ahead for future economic goals. Differences between families in the distribution of financial responsibilities or provision of allowance may reflect various social background circumstances and intrafamilial processes, which are further influenced by cultural norms and values, as well as by the business sector and market economy of a given society. For instance, in many developing countries it is common for children to attend fewer years of formal schooling so that, when they reach adolescence, they can begin working.

qas: question: What word refers to the first ejactulation of a male?
answers: text: semenarche

question: What word refers to the first menstrual period in females?
answers: text: menarche

question: What is the term for a culture that discourages sexual activity in unmarried adolescents?
answers: text: Restrictive

question: What is the term for cultures that perceive sexual behavior among unmarried teens as acceptable or even encouraged?
answers: text: permissive

question: Are males and females expected to express their sexuality in the same ways or are there discrepancies between genders and cultures?
answers: text: discrepancies
context: Many cultures define the transition into adultlike sexuality by specific biological or social milestones in an adolescent's life. For example, menarche (the first menstrual period of a female), or semenarche (the first ejaculation of a male) are frequent sexual defining points for many cultures. In addition to biological factors, an adolescent's sexual socialization is highly dependent upon whether their culture takes a restrictive or permissive attitude toward teen or premarital sexual activity. Restrictive cultures overtly discourage sexual activity in unmarried adolescents or until an adolescent undergoes a formal rite of passage. These cultures may attempt to restrict sexual activity by separating males and females throughout their development, or through public shaming and physical punishment when sexual activity does occur. In less restrictive cultures, there is more tolerance for displays of adolescent sexuality, or of the interaction between males and females in public and private spaces. Less restrictive cultures may tolerate some aspects of adolescent sexuality, while objecting to other aspects. For instance, some cultures find teenage sexual activity acceptable but teenage pregnancy highly undesirable. Other cultures do not object to teenage sexual activity or teenage pregnancy, as long as they occur after marriage. In permissive societies, overt sexual behavior among unmarried teens is perceived as acceptable, and is sometimes even encouraged. Regardless of whether a culture is restrictive or permissive, there are likely to be discrepancies in how females versus males are expected to express their sexuality. Cultures vary in how overt this double standard is—in some it is legally inscribed, while in others it is communicated through social convention. Lesbian, gay, bi-sexual and transsexual youth face much discrimination through bullying from those unlike them and may find telling others that they are gay to be a traumatic experience. The range of sexual attitudes that a culture embraces could thus be seen to affect the beliefs, lifestyles, and societal perceptions of its adolescents.

qas: question: Which of the Five-Factor Model dimensions does not demonstrate an association with drinking motives?
answers: text: Openness

question: Is alcohol use a positive or negative emotion control mechanism?
answers: text: negative

question: Which motivation for drinking alcohol results in low conscientiousness, lowered inhibition, and greater tendency towards aggression?
answers: text: enjoyment

question: Drinking to cope with negative emotional states correlates strongly with what behavioral qualities?
answers: text: high neuroticism and low agreeableness
context: Drinking habits and the motives behind them often reflect certain aspects of an individual's personality; in fact, four dimensions of the Five-Factor Model of personality demonstrate associations with drinking motives (all but 'Openness'). Greater enhancement motives for alcohol consumption tend to reflect high levels of extraversion and sensation-seeking in individuals; such enjoyment motivation often also indicates low conscientiousness, manifesting in lowered inhibition and a greater tendency towards aggression. On the other hand, drinking to cope with negative emotional states correlates strongly with high neuroticism and low agreeableness. Alcohol use as a negative emotion control mechanism often links with many other behavioral and emotional impairments, such as anxiety, depression, and low self-esteem.

qas: question: According to research findings, does Internet use have a positive or negative effect on teen physical health?
answers: text: negative

question: Why do research findings believe the Internet has a negative effect on teen physical health?
answers: text: time spent using the Internet replaces time doing physical activities

question: How can the Internet be beneficial for socially anxious teens?
answers: text: easier to interact socially online

question: Which online activity has been consistently associated with increased liklihood of depression?
answers: text: cyberbullying
context: Although research has been inconclusive, some findings have indicated that electronic communication negatively affects adolescents' social development, replaces face-to-face communication, impairs their social skills, and can sometimes lead to unsafe interaction with strangers. A 2015 review reported that “adolescents lack awareness of strategies to cope with cyberbullying, which has been consistently associated with an increased likelihood of depression.” Studies have shown differences in the ways the internet negatively impacts the adolescents' social functioning. Online socializing tends to make girls particularly vulnerable, while socializing in Internet cafés seems only to affect boys academic achievement. However, other research suggests that Internet communication brings friends closer and is beneficial for socially anxious teens, who find it easier to interact socially online. The more conclusive finding has been that Internet use has a negative effect on the physical health of adolescents, as time spent using the Internet replaces time doing physical activities. However, the Internet can be significantly useful in educating teens because of the access they have to information on many various topics.

qas: question: What is the most commonly abused substance during adolescent years in the U.S.?
answers: text: alcohol

question: Aside from alcohol, what is the most commonly indulged drug habit during adolescent years?
answers: text: marijuana

question: The heightened usage of what drug is most likely due at least in some part to the rising popularity of rave culture?
answers: text: ecstasy

question: From the late 1990s to mid 2000s, was drug use in teens on the rise or decline?
answers: text: decline
context: Following a steady decline, beginning in the late 1990s up through the mid-2000s, illicit drug use among adolescents has been on the rise in the U.S. Aside from alcohol, marijuana is the most commonly indulged drug habit during adolescent years. Data collected by the National Institute on Drug Abuse shows that between the years of 2007 and 2011, marijuana use grew from 5.7% to 7.2% among 8th grade students; among 10th grade students, from 14.2% to 17.6%; and among 12th graders, from 18.8% to 22.6%. Additional, recent years have seen a surge in popularity of MDMA; between 2010 and 2011, the use of MDMA increased from 1.4% to 2.3% among high school seniors. The heightened usage of ecstasy most likely ties in at least to some degree with the rising popularity of rave culture.

qas: question: During what ages do reasons for alcohol consumption between males and females begin to diverge?
answers: text: 14–15

question: Do boys or girls view drinking in a more social light?
answers: text: boys

question: Which gender reports most frequently using alcohol as a coping mechanism?
answers: text: girls

question: Does age bring a greater or smaller desire to drink for pleasure rather than coping?
answers: text: greater
context: Until mid-to-late adolescence, boys and girls show relatively little difference in drinking motives. Distinctions between the reasons for alcohol consumption of males and females begin to emerge around ages 14–15; overall, boys tend to view drinking in a more social light than girls, who report on average a more frequent use of alcohol as a coping mechanism. The latter effect appears to shift in late adolescence and onset of early adulthood (18–19 years of age); however, despite this trend, age tends to bring a greater desire to drink for pleasure rather than coping in both boys and girls.

qas: question: From which language does the word "adolescence" originate?
answers: text: Latin

question: What is the Latin meaning of the word "adolescere"?
answers: text: to grow up

question: What is another term for legal adulthood?
answers: text: age of majority

question: Physical growth and cognitive development generally observed in adolescents can extend to what age?
answers: text: early twenties
context: Adolescence (from Latin adolescere, meaning "to grow up") is a transitional stage of physical and psychological human development that generally occurs during the period from puberty to legal adulthood (age of majority). The period of adolescence is most closely associated with the teenage years, though its physical, psychological and cultural expressions may begin earlier and end later. For example, although puberty has been historically associated with the onset of adolescent development, it now typically begins prior to the teenage years and there has been a normative shift of it occurring in preadolescence, particularly in females (see precocious puberty). Physical growth, as distinct from puberty (particularly in males), and cognitive development generally seen in adolescence, can also extend into the early twenties. Thus chronological age provides only a rough marker of adolescence, and scholars have found it difficult to agree upon a precise definition of adolescence.

qas: question: In recent years, has the amount of social networking sites available to the public increased or decreased?
answers: text: greatly increased

question: What percentage of 12-17 year olds claim to have at least one social networking profile?
answers: text: 73%

question: What percentage of teens say they text every day?
answers: text: 68%

question: What percentage of teens report visiting social netorking sites daily?
answers: text: 51%

question: What ratio of teens are "heavy" social media users, using two types of media daily?
answers: text: One in four (23%)
context: Within the past ten years, the amount of social networking sites available to the public has greatly increased as well as the number of adolescents using them. Several sources report a high proportion of adolescents who use social media: 73% of 12–17 year olds reported having at least one social networking profile; two-thirds (68%) of teens text every day, half (51%) visit social networking sites daily, and 11% send or receive tweets at least once every day. In fact, more than a third (34%) of teens visit their main social networking site several times a day. One in four (23%) teens are "heavy" social media users, meaning they use at least two different types of social media each and every day.

qas: question: Are girls reaching sexual maturation early more or less likely to develop eating disorers?
answers: text: more likely

question: Nearly half of Americam high school girls hope to achieve what goal with their diet?
answers: text: lose weight

question: Are early or late maturing girls more exposed to alcohol and drug abuse?
answers: text: early maturing

question: Do early or late maturing girls have more unwanted pregnancies?
answers: text: early maturing

question: Who performs better in school: sexually experienced or inexperienced teen females?
answers: text: inexperienced
context: For girls, early maturation can sometimes lead to increased self-consciousness, though a typical aspect in maturing females. Because of their bodies' developing in advance, pubescent girls can become more insecure and dependent. Consequently, girls that reach sexual maturation early are more likely than their peers to develop eating disorders (such as anorexia nervosa). Nearly half of all American high school girls' diets are to lose weight. In addition, girls may have to deal with sexual advances from older boys before they are emotionally and mentally mature. In addition to having earlier sexual experiences and more unwanted pregnancies than late maturing girls, early maturing girls are more exposed to alcohol and drug abuse. Those who have had such experiences tend to perform not as well in school as their "inexperienced" peers.

qas: question: Is change in bodily distribution of fat and muscle the same or different between males and females during puberty?
answers: text: different

question: Do boys or girls grow muscle faster during puberty?
answers: text: boys

question: Do boys or girls experience a more significant increase in body fat?
answers: text: girls

question: What is the ratio between muscle and fat among post-pubertal boys?
answers: text: three to one

question: What is the ratio between muscle and fat amoung post-pubertal girls?
answers: text: five to four
context: Another set of significant physical changes during puberty happen in bodily distribution of fat and muscle. This process is different for females and males. Before puberty, there are nearly no sex differences in fat and muscle distribution; during puberty, boys grow muscle much faster than girls, although both sexes experience rapid muscle development. In contrast, though both sexes experience an increase in body fat, the increase is much more significant for girls. Frequently, the increase in fat for girls happens in their years just before puberty. The ratio between muscle and fat among post-pubertal boys is around three to one, while for girls it is about five to four. This may help explain sex differences in athletic performance.

qas: question: What is a secondary sex characteristic change?
answers: text: every change that is not directly related to sexual reproduction

question: How many Tanner stages are there?
answers: text: five

question: What was the occupation of the person who devised the Tanner categorization system?
answers: text: pediatrician

question: Elevation of the breasts, development of pubic hair, and elevation of the nippes are examples of what type of changes?
answers: text: Changes in secondary sex characteristics

question: Is deepening of the voice in males a primary or secondary sex characteristic?
answers: text: secondary
context: Changes in secondary sex characteristics include every change that is not directly related to sexual reproduction. In males, these changes involve appearance of pubic, facial, and body hair, deepening of the voice, roughening of the skin around the upper arms and thighs, and increased development of the sweat glands. In females, secondary sex changes involve elevation of the breasts, widening of the hips, development of pubic and underarm hair, widening of the areolae, and elevation of the nipples. The changes in secondary sex characteristics that take place during puberty are often referred to in terms of five Tanner stages, named after the British pediatrician who devised the categorization system.

qas: question: Are children or adolescents more likely to question assertions and less likely to accept facts?
answers: text: adolescents

question: Is not dating until a certain age a common sense or culturally-relative standard?
answers: text: culturally-relative

question: Is refraining from touching a hot stoce a common sense or culturally-relative standard?
answers: text: common sense
context: Compared to children, adolescents are more likely to question others' assertions, and less likely to accept facts as absolute truths. Through experience outside the family circle, they learn that rules they were taught as absolute are in fact relativistic. They begin to differentiate between rules instituted out of common sense—not touching a hot stove—and those that are based on culturally-relative standards (codes of etiquette, not dating until a certain age), a delineation that younger children do not make. This can lead to a period of questioning authority in all domains.

qas: question: Who was the first president of the American Psychological Association?
answers: text: G. Stanley Hall

question: What was the title of the publication that started the formal study of adolescent psychology?
answers: text: Adolescence in 1904

question: From the '50s to the '80s, was the field's focus devoted to describing patterns of behavior or explaining them?
answers: text: describing

question: Which theorist is known for his beliefs on evolution?
answers: text: Darwin
context: The formal study of adolescent psychology began with the publication of G. Stanley Hall's "Adolescence in 1904." Hall, who was the first president of the American Psychological Association, viewed adolescence primarily as a time of internal turmoil and upheaval (sturm und drang). This understanding of youth was based on two then new ways of understanding human behavior: Darwin's evolutionary theory and Freud's psychodynamic theory. He believed that adolescence was a representation of our human ancestors' phylogenetic shift from being primitive to being civilized. Hall's assertions stood relatively uncontested until the 1950s when psychologists such as Erik Erikson and Anna Freud started to formulate their theories about adolescence. Freud believed that the psychological disturbances associated with youth were biologically based and culturally universal while Erikson focused on the dichotomy between identity formation and role fulfillment. Even with their different theories, these three psychologists agreed that adolescence was inherently a time of disturbance and psychological confusion. The less turbulent aspects of adolescence, such as peer relations and cultural influence, were left largely ignored until the 1980s. From the '50s until the '80s, the focus of the field was mainly on describing patterns of behavior as opposed to explaining them.

qas: question: How do children tend to define themselves?
answers: text: by physical traits

question: Do children or adolescents define themselves based on values, thoughts, and opinions?
answers: text: adolescents

question: Which idea is known as the ability of a person to have opinions and beliefs that are defined confidently, consistent, and stable?
answers: text: self-concept

question: Greater self-awareness, greater awareness of others, and the ability to consider multiple possiblities at once are examples of what kind of developments?
answers: text: cognitive
context: The idea of self-concept is known as the ability of a person to have opinions and beliefs that are defined confidently, consistent and stable. Early in adolescence, cognitive developments result in greater self-awareness, greater awareness of others and their thoughts and judgments, the ability to think about abstract, future possibilities, and the ability to consider multiple possibilities at once. As a result, adolescents experience a significant shift from the simple, concrete, and global self-descriptions typical of young children; as children, they defined themselves by physical traits whereas as adolescents, they define themselves based on their values, thoughts, and opinions.

qas: question: Which adolescent ethninticy is most often studied?
answers: text: white

question: What social class of adolescents is most often studied?
answers: text: middle class

question: The period of one's life that spans late adolescence and early adulthood is known as what?
answers: text: youth

question: Is an inner city or crime-driven neighborhood more or less likely to be detrimental to one's development?
answers: text: more likely

question: Why are children from suburban communities more likely to participate in activies that benefit their identity?
answers: text: exposed to more opportunities and better situations in general
context: An adolescent's environment plays a huge role in their identity development. While most adolescent studies are conducted on white, middle class children, studies show that the more privileged upbringing people have, the more successfully they develop their identity. The forming of an adolescent's identity is a crucial time in their life. It has been recently found that demographic patterns suggest that the transition to adulthood is now occurring over a longer span of years than was the case during the middle of the 20th century. Accordingly, youth, a period that spans late adolescence and early adulthood, has become a more prominent stage of the life course. This therefore has caused various factors to become important during this development. So many factors contribute to the developing social identity of an adolescent from commitment, to coping devices, to social media. All of these factors are affected by the environment an adolescent grows up in. A child from a more privileged upbringing is exposed to more opportunities and better situations in general. An adolescent from an inner city or a crime-driven neighborhood is more likely to be exposed to an environment that can be detrimental to their development. Adolescence is a sensitive period in the development process, and exposure to the wrong things at that time can have a major effect on future decisions. While children that grow up in nice suburban communities are not exposed to bad environments they are more likely to participate in activities that can benefit their identity and contribute to a more successful identity development.

qas: question: What has the largest affect over one's social development?
answers: text: relationships

question: Do a teen's friends have a large or small impact on their social development?
answers: text: large

question: Do adolescents become heavily emotionally invested in friends or are they generally anti-social?
answers: text: heavily emotionally invested in friends
context: The relationships adolescents have with their peers, family, and members of their social sphere play a vital role in the social development of an adolescent. As an adolescent's social sphere develops rapidly as they distinguish the differences between friends and acquaintances, they often become heavily emotionally invested in friends. This is not harmful; however, if these friends expose an individual to potentially harmful situations, this is an aspect of peer pressure. Adolescence is a critical period in social development because adolescents can be easily influenced by the people they develop close relationships with. This is the first time individuals can truly make their own decisions, which also makes this a sensitive period. Relationships are vital in the social development of an adolescent due to the extreme influence peers can have over an individual. These relationships become significant because they begin to help the adolescent understand the concept of personalities, how they form and why a person has that specific type of personality. "The use of psychological comparisons could serve both as an index of the growth of an implicit personality theory and as a component process accounting for its creation. In other words, by comparing one person's personality characteristics to another's, we would be setting up the framework for creating a general theory of personality (and, ... such a theory would serve as a useful framework for coming to understand specific persons)." This can be likened to the use of social comparison in developing one’s identity and self-concept, which includes ones personality, and underscores the importance of communication, and thus relationships, in one’s development. In social comparison we use reference groups, with respect to both psychological and identity development. These reference groups are the peers of adolescents. This means that who the teen chooses/accepts as their friends and who they communicate with on a frequent basis often makes up their reference groups and can therefore have a huge impact on who they become. Research shows that relationships have the largest affect over the social development of an individual.

qas: question: Does communication with peers increase or decrease during adolescence?
answers: text: increases

question: Do children or adolescents tend to associae with friends of the opposite sex more?
answers: text: Adolescents

question: How is adolescence defined socially?
answers: text: a period of development characterized by a dramatic increase in time spent with peers and a decrease in adult supervision
context: Peer groups are essential to social and general development. Communication with peers increases significantly during adolescence and peer relationships become more intense than in other stages  and more influential to the teen, affecting both the decisions and choices being made. High quality friendships may enhance children's development regardless of the characteristics of those friends. As children begin to bond with various people and create friendships, it later helps them when they are adolescent and sets up the framework for adolescence and peer groups. Peer groups are especially important during adolescence, a period of development characterized by a dramatic increase in time spent with peers and a decrease in adult supervision. Adolescents also associate with friends of the opposite sex much more than in childhood and tend to identify with larger groups of peers based on shared characteristics. It is also common for adolescents to use friends as coping devices in different situations. A three-factor structure of dealing with friends including avoidance, mastery, and nonchalance has shown that adolescents use friends as coping devices with social stresses.

qas: question: Did adolescents report more sexual or social events to researchers?
answers: text: social events

question: Why do researchers believe the social event reporting by adolescents (rather than sexual activity) is important?
answers: text: focus on the more positive aspects of adolescents

question: Holding hands with one's partner and telling others about a relationship are examples of what kind of adolescent event?
answers: text: romantic
context: Some researchers are now focusing on learning about how adolescents view their own relationships and sexuality; they want to move away from a research point of view that focuses on the problems associated with adolescent sexuality.[why?] College Professor Lucia O'Sullivan and her colleagues found that there weren't any significant gender differences in the relationship events adolescent boys and girls from grades 7-12 reported. Most teens said they had kissed their partners, held hands with them, thought of themselves as being a couple and told people they were in a relationship. This means that private thoughts about the relationship as well as public recognition of the relationship were both important to the adolescents in the sample. Sexual events (such as sexual touching, sexual intercourse) were less common than romantic events (holding hands) and social events (being with one's partner in a group setting). The researchers state that these results are important because the results focus on the more positive aspects of adolescents and their social and romantic interactions rather than focusing on sexual behavior and its consequences.

qas: question: What are the three main types of autonomy?
answers: text: emotional independence, behavioral autonomy, and cognitive autonomy

question: How is behavioral autonomy defined?
answers: text: encompasses an adolescent's developing ability to regulate his or her own behavior, to act on personal decisions, and to self-govern

question: Adolescent cultural differences are especially visible in which type of autonomy?
answers: text: Behavioral

question: How is cognitive autonomy defined?
answers: text: the capacity for an adolescent to partake in processes of independent reasoning and decision-making without excessive reliance on social validation

question: Is an adolescent's mental health at its best when their feelings of autonomy match closely with their parents or when they are at odds?
answers: text: match closely
context: The degree to which adolescents are perceived as autonomous beings varies widely by culture, as do the behaviors that represent this emerging autonomy. Psychologists have identified three main types of autonomy: emotional independence, behavioral autonomy, and cognitive autonomy. Emotional autonomy is defined in terms of an adolescent's relationships with others, and often includes the development of more mature emotional connections with adults and peers. Behavioral autonomy encompasses an adolescent's developing ability to regulate his or her own behavior, to act on personal decisions, and to self-govern. Cultural differences are especially visible in this category because it concerns issues of dating, social time with peers, and time-management decisions. Cognitive autonomy describes the capacity for an adolescent to partake in processes of independent reasoning and decision-making without excessive reliance on social validation. Converging influences from adolescent cognitive development, expanding social relationships, an increasingly adultlike appearance, and the acceptance of more rights and responsibilities enhance feelings of autonomy for adolescents. Proper development of autonomy has been tied to good mental health, high self-esteem, self-motivated tendencies, positive self-concepts, and self-initiating and regulating behaviors. Furthermore, it has been found that adolescents' mental health is best when their feelings about autonomy match closely with those of their parents.

qas: question: Do American teenagers spend more or less time in shool than adolescents in other countires?
answers: text: less

question: Do American teenagers spend more or less time on leisure activities than adolescents in other countries?
answers: text: more

question: Does the amount of time adolescents spend on work and leisure vary from culture to culture or reman relatively constant?
answers: text: varies greatly

question: What are two potential reasons that adolescents in different cultures spend varying time on work and leisure activities?
answers: text: cultural norms and expectations, as well as various socioeconomic factors
context: Furthermore, the amount of time adolescents spend on work and leisure activities varies greatly by culture as a result of cultural norms and expectations, as well as various socioeconomic factors. American teenagers spend less time in school or working and more time on leisure activities—which include playing sports, socializing, and caring for their appearance—than do adolescents in many other countries. These differences may be influenced by cultural values of education and the amount of responsibility adolescents are expected to assume in their family or community.

qas: question: Is teenage alcohol drug use at al all-time high or low?
answers: text: low

question: Do teens smoke marijuana or cigarettes more commonly?
answers: text: marijuana

question: Are male or female late adolescents more likely to smoke cigarettes?
answers: text: male

question: What is one possible explanation for the shift towards marijuana and away from cigarettes?
answers: text: recent changing social and political views towards marijuana
context: Teenage alcohol drug use is currently at an all-time low. Out of a polled body of students, 4.4% of 8th graders reported having been on at least one occasion been drunk within the previous month; for 10th graders, the number was 13.7%, and for 12th graders, 25%. More drastically, cigarette smoking has become a far less prevalent activity among American middle- and high-school students; in fact, a greater number of teens now smoke marijuana than smoke cigarettes, with one recent study showing a respective 15.2% versus 11.7% of surveyed students. Recent studies have shown that male late adolescents are far more likely to smoke cigarettes rather than females. The study indicated that there was a discernible gender difference in the prevalence of smoking among the students. The finding of the study show that more males than females began smoking when they were in primary and high schools whereas most females started smoking after high school. This may be attributed to recent changing social and political views towards marijuana; issues such as medicinal use and legalization have tended towards painting the drug in a more positive light than historically, while cigarettes continue to be vilified due to associated health risks.

qas: question: Are motives behind teen alcohol use varied or uniform across different cultures?
answers: text: uniform

question: What two reasons for adolescent drinking are shared across cultural contexts?
answers: text: Social engagement and personal enjoyment

question: What is the most common reason for drinking among adolescents according to surveys in Argentina, Hong Kong, and Canada?
answers: text: pleasure and recreation

question: What percentage of Argentenian teens reported drinking to improve a bad mood?
answers: text: 7%

question: In Hong Kong, did males or females most frequently report drinking to feel the effects of the alcohol?
answers: text: males
context: Research has generally shown striking uniformity across different cultures in the motives behind teen alcohol use. Social engagement and personal enjoyment appear to play a fairly universal role in adolescents' decision to drink throughout separate cultural contexts. Surveys conducted in Argentina, Hong Kong, and Canada have each indicated the most common reason for drinking among adolescents to relate to pleasure and recreation; 80% of Argentinian teens reported drinking for enjoyment, while only 7% drank to improve a bad mood. The most prevalent answers among Canadian adolescents were to "get in a party mood," 18%; "because I enjoy it," 16%; and "to get drunk," 10%. In Hong Kong, female participants most frequently reported drinking for social enjoyment, while males most frequently reported drinking to feel the effects of alcohol.

qas: question: The transition from child-to-adulthood can be broadly defined as what?
answers: text: adolescence

question: How long does the United States believe adolescence lasts?
answers: text: nearly a decade

question: Does the time frame of adolescence vary from culture to culture or remain universally agreed upon?
answers: text: varies drastically by culture

question: Leaving school, starting a full-time job, getting married, and becoming a parent for the first time are markers in what stage of one's development, according to Hogan & Astone?
answers: text: adolescence
context: A broad way of defining adolescence is the transition from child-to-adulthood. According to Hogan & Astone (1986), this transition can include markers such as leaving school, starting a full-time job, leaving the home of origin, getting married, and becoming a parent for the first time. However, the time frame of this transition varies drastically by culture. In some countries, such as the United States, adolescence can last nearly a decade, but in others, the transition—often in the form of a ceremony—can last for only a few days.

qas: question: Is adolescence usually accompanied by increased parental supervision or increased independence?
answers: text: independence

question: Is the end of adolescence and beginning of adulthood easily agreed upon or does it vary by country?
answers: text: varies by country

question: Do milestones such as driving a vechile, serving on a jury, voting, and marriage all have a common age of responsibility?
answers: text: different ages
context: The end of adolescence and the beginning of adulthood varies by country and by function. Furthermore, even within a single nation state or culture there can be different ages at which an individual is considered (chronologically and legally) mature enough for society to entrust them with certain privileges and responsibilities. Such milestones include driving a vehicle, having legal sexual relations, serving in the armed forces or on a jury, purchasing and drinking alcohol, voting, entering into contracts, finishing certain levels of education, and marriage. Adolescence is usually accompanied by an increased independence allowed by the parents or legal guardians, including less supervision as compared to preadolescence.

qas: question: When do the first facial hairs present in pubescent males?
answers: text: between 14 to 17 years of age

question: For how long does facial hair continue to get darker, coarser, and thicker?
answers: text: 2–4 years after puberty

question: Where does facial hair first present during puberty?
answers: text: corners of the upper lip
context: Facial hair in males normally appears in a specific order during puberty: The first facial hair to appear tends to grow at the corners of the upper lip, typically between 14 to 17 years of age. It then spreads to form a moustache over the entire upper lip. This is followed by the appearance of hair on the upper part of the cheeks, and the area under the lower lip. The hair eventually spreads to the sides and lower border of the chin, and the rest of the lower face to form a full beard. As with most human biological processes, this specific order may vary among some individuals. Facial hair is often present in late adolescence, around ages 17 and 18, but may not appear until significantly later. Some men do not develop full facial hair for 10 years after puberty. Facial hair continues to get coarser, darker and thicker for another 2–4 years after puberty.

qas: question: Do males or females experience growth spurts first?
answers: text: females

question: How much later on average do males experience their growth spurt?
answers: text: two years later

question: What is the growth rate during peak height velocity for a male adolescent?
answers: text: 4 inches (10.3 cm) a year

question: What is the growth rate during peak height velocity for a female adolescent?
answers: text: 3.5 inches (9 cm)

question: Growth rates during adolescent are comparible to those of what other life stage?
answers: text: toddler
context: The adolescent growth spurt is a rapid increase in the individual's height and weight during puberty resulting from the simultaneous release of growth hormones, thyroid hormones, and androgens. Males experience their growth spurt about two years later, on average, than females. During their peak height velocity (the time of most rapid growth), adolescents grow at a growth rate nearly identical to that of a toddler—about 4 inches (10.3 cm) a year for males and 3.5 inches (9 cm) for females. In addition to changes in height, adolescents also experience a significant increase in weight (Marshall, 1978). The weight gained during adolescence constitutes nearly half of one's adult body weight. Teenage and early adult males may continue to gain natural muscle growth even after puberty.

qas: question: Does the amount of white matter in the brain increase or decrease over the course of adolescence?
answers: text: increases

question: Does the amount of grey matter in the brain increase linearly or follow an inverted-U pattern over the course of adolescence?
answers: text: inverted-U pattern

question: During which process are unnecessary neuronal connections in the brain eliminated?
answers: text: synaptic pruning

question: Does the brain become more or less efficient as a result of synaptic pruning?
answers: text: more efficient
context: Over the course of adolescence, the amount of white matter in the brain increases linearly, while the amount of grey matter in the brain follows an inverted-U pattern. Through a process called synaptic pruning, unnecessary neuronal connections in the brain are eliminated and the amount of grey matter is pared down. However, this does not mean that the brain loses functionality; rather, it becomes more efficient due to increased myelination (insulation of axons) and the reduction of unused pathways.

qas: question: Who describes adolescence as the stage of life in which the individual's thoughts start taking more of an abstract form?
answers: text: Piaget

question: What is another term for congitive skills that enable the control and coordination of thoughts and behavior?
answers: text: executive functions

question: Which cortex is commonly associated with the coordination of thoughts and behavior?
answers: text: prefrontal cortex

question: Does Piaget believe that egocentric thoughts decrease or increase during adolescence?
answers: text: decrease
context: Adolescence is also a time for rapid cognitive development. Piaget describes adolescence as the stage of life in which the individual's thoughts start taking more of an abstract form and the egocentric thoughts decrease. This allows the individual to think and reason in a wider perspective. A combination of behavioural and fMRI studies have demonstrated development of executive functions, that is, cognitive skills that enable the control and coordination of thoughts and behaviour, which are generally associated with the prefrontal cortex. The thoughts, ideas and concepts developed at this period of life greatly influence one's future life, playing a major role in character and personality formation.

qas: question: Do adolescents or children understand puns, proverbs, metaphors, and analogies most effectively?
answers: text: adolescents

question: Children under what age often cannot comprehend sarcasm?
answers: text: nine

question: Are puns, proverbs, metaphors, and analogies lower-order or higher-order logic?
answers: text: higher-order

question: The appearance of more systematic, abstract thinking is a notable aspect of what type of development during adolescence?
answers: text: cognitive
context: The appearance of more systematic, abstract thinking is another notable aspect of cognitive development during adolescence. For example, adolescents find it easier than children to comprehend the sorts of higher-order abstract logic inherent in puns, proverbs, metaphors, and analogies. Their increased facility permits them to appreciate the ways in which language can be used to convey multiple messages, such as satire, metaphor, and sarcasm. (Children younger than age nine often cannot comprehend sarcasm at all.) This also permits the application of advanced reasoning and logical processes to social and ideological matters such as interpersonal relationships, politics, philosophy, religion, morality, friendship, faith, democracy, fairness, and honesty.

qas: question: Most injuries sustained by adolescents are related to what?
answers: text: risky behavior

question: Do adolescents or adults seem to give more weight to rewards?
answers: text: adolescents

question: Do adolescents, adults, or both weight the potential rewards and consequences of an action?
answers: text: both

question: Which theory proposes that adults and adolescents both weigh the potential rewards and consequences of an action?
answers: text: behavioral decision-making theory
context: Because most injuries sustained by adolescents are related to risky behavior (car crashes, alcohol, unprotected sex), a great deal of research has been done on the cognitive and emotional processes underlying adolescent risk-taking. In addressing this question, it is important to distinguish whether adolescents are more likely to engage in risky behaviors (prevalence), whether they make risk-related decisions similarly or differently than adults (cognitive processing perspective), or whether they use the same processes but value different things and thus arrive at different conclusions. The behavioral decision-making theory proposes that adolescents and adults both weigh the potential rewards and consequences of an action. However, research has shown that adolescents seem to give more weight to rewards, particularly social rewards, than do adults.

qas: question: When does differentiation appear fully developed?
answers: text: by mid-adolescence

question: When adolescents begin to qualify their traits, what are they demonstrating?
answers: text: differentiation

question: Does the recognition of inconsistent content in one's self-concept typically bring distress or peace to an adolescent?
answers: text: distress
context: Further distinctions in self-concept, called "differentiation," occur as the adolescent recognizes the contextual influences on their own behavior and the perceptions of others, and begin to qualify their traits when asked to describe themselves. Differentiation appears fully developed by mid-adolescence. Peaking in the 7th-9th grades, the personality traits adolescents use to describe themselves refer to specific contexts, and therefore may contradict one another. The recognition of inconsistent content in the self-concept is a common source of distress in these years (see Cognitive dissonance), but this distress may benefit adolescents by encouraging structural development.

qas: question: In what year did Troiden propose a four-stage model for the development of homosexual sexual identity?
answers: text: 1989

question: What is Troiden's first stage of development known as?
answers: text: sensitization

question: When does sensitization usually start?
answers: text: childhood

question: Troiden's second stage is referred to as what?
answers: text: identity confusion

question: In what stage is youth overwhelmed by feelings of inner turmoil regarding their sexual orientation?
answers: text: identity confusion
context: In 1989, Troiden proposed a four-stage model for the development of homosexual sexual identity. The first stage, known as sensitization, usually starts in childhood, and is marked by the child's becoming aware of same-sex attractions. The second stage, identity confusion, tends to occur a few years later. In this stage, the youth is overwhelmed by feelings of inner turmoil regarding their sexual orientation, and begins to engage sexual experiences with same-sex partners. In the third stage of identity assumption, which usually takes place a few years after the adolescent has left home, adolescents begin to come out to their family and close friends, and assumes a self-definition as gay, lesbian, or bisexual. In the final stage, known as commitment, the young adult adopts their sexual identity as a lifestyle. Therefore, this model estimates that the process of coming out begins in childhood, and continues through the early to mid 20s. This model has been contested, and alternate ideas have been explored in recent years.

qas: question: Does intimacy between same-sex siblings increase or decrease during adolescence?
answers: text: increases

question: When siblings act as peers, what positive effects are possible?
answers: text: increase one another's sociability and feelings of self-worth

question: At what stage to mixed-sex siblings generally experience an increase in intimacy?
answers: text: middle adolescence
context: During childhood, siblings are a source of conflict and frustration as well as a support system. Adolescence may affect this relationship differently, depending on sibling gender. In same-sex sibling pairs, intimacy increases during early adolescence, then remains stable. Mixed-sex siblings pairs act differently; siblings drift apart during early adolescent years, but experience an increase in intimacy starting at middle adolescence. Sibling interactions are children's first relational experiences, the ones that shape their social and self-understanding for life. Sustaining positive sibling relations can assist adolescents in a number of ways. Siblings are able to act as peers, and may increase one another's sociability and feelings of self-worth. Older siblings can give guidance to younger siblings, although the impact of this can be either positive or negative depending on the activity of the older sibling.

qas: question: Do adolescents associate with "cliques" on a large or small scale?
answers: text: small

question: How are cliques defined?
answers: text: exclusive, single-sex groups of peers with whom they are particularly close

question: What are the positive effects that cliques may have on an adolescent?
answers: text: help adolescents become socially acclimated and form a stronger sense of identity

question: Do adolescents associate with "crowds" on a large or small scale?
answers: text: larger
context: Adolescents tend to associate with "cliques" on a small scale and "crowds" on a larger scale. During early adolescence, adolescents often associate in cliques, exclusive, single-sex groups of peers with whom they are particularly close. Despite the common notion that cliques are an inherently negative influence, they may help adolescents become socially acclimated and form a stronger sense of identity. Within a clique of highly athletic male-peers, for example, the clique may create a stronger sense of fidelity and competition. Cliques also have become somewhat a "collective parent," i.e. telling the adolescents what to do and not to do. Towards late adolescence, cliques often merge into mixed-sex groups as teenagers begin romantically engaging with one another. These small friend groups then break down further as socialization becomes more couple-oriented. On a larger scale, adolescents often associate with crowds, groups of individuals who share a common interest or activity. Often, crowd identities may be the basis for stereotyping young people, such as jocks or nerds. In large, multi-ethnic high schools, there are often ethnically-determined crowds. While crowds are very influential during early and middle adolescence, they lose salience during high school as students identify more individually.

qas: question: What percentage of adolescents reporting having experienced physical violence in a relationship?
answers: text: 10-45%

question: What percentage of adolescents reported experiencing psychological aggression?
answers: text: a quarter to a third

question: Hitting, throwing objects, and slaps are examples of what type of aggression?
answers: text: Physical

question: In heterosexual adolescent couples, is there a significant difference in the rates of male and female aggressors?
answers: text: no

question: Does physical aggression decline or increase during high-school, college, and early adulthood?
answers: text: decline
context: Dating violence is fairly prevalent within adolescent relationships. When surveyed, 10-45% of adolescents reported having experienced physical violence in the context of a relationship while a quarter to a third of adolescents reported having experiencing psychological aggression. This reported aggression includes hitting, throwing things, or slaps, although most of this physical aggression does not result in a medical visit. Physical aggression in relationships tends to decline from high school through college and young adulthood. In heterosexual couples, there is no significant difference between the rates of male and female aggressors, unlike in adult relationships.

qas: question: Does adolescent participation in family work and routines have a positive or negative influence on feelings of self-worth, care, and concern for others?
answers: text: positive

question: What is one large determining factor in normative adolescent behavior?
answers: text: The extent to which an adolescent is expected to share family responsibilities

question: How are household chores frequently divided?
answers: text: self-care tasks and family-care tasks
context: The lifestyle of an adolescent in a given culture is profoundly shaped by the roles and responsibilities he or she is expected to assume. The extent to which an adolescent is expected to share family responsibilities is one large determining factor in normative adolescent behavior. For instance, adolescents in certain cultures are expected to contribute significantly to household chores and responsibilities. Household chores are frequently divided into self-care tasks and family-care tasks. However, specific household responsibilities for adolescents may vary by culture, family type, and adolescent age. Some research has shown that adolescent participation in family work and routines has a positive influence on the development of an adolescent's feelings of self-worth, care, and concern for others.

qas: question: Through what means does an adolescent develop a unique belief system?
answers: text: interaction with social, familial, and cultural environments

question: The active seeking of new ideas rather than the unquestioning acceptance of adult authority is known as what stage of development?
answers: text: Adolescence

question: What things are youth responsible for forming a set of beliefs about during adolescence?
answers: text: themselves, the world around them, and whatever higher powers they may or may not believe in

question: Ceremonies, rituals, and confirmations are examples of what?
answers: text: cultural traditions that intend to provide a meaningful transition to adulthood
context: Adolescence is frequently characterized by a transformation of an adolescent's understanding of the world, the rational direction towards a life course, and the active seeking of new ideas rather than the unquestioning acceptance of adult authority. An adolescent begins to develop a unique belief system through his or her interaction with social, familial, and cultural environments. While organized religion is not necessarily a part of every adolescent's life experience, youth are still held responsible for forming a set of beliefs about themselves, the world around them, and whatever higher powers they may or may not believe in. This process is often accompanied or aided by cultural traditions that intend to provide a meaningful transition to adulthood through a ceremony, ritual, confirmation, or rite of passage.

qas: question: What percentage of adolescent homes have access to the internet?
answers: text: more than three-quarters

question: What percentage of adolescents use the internet at least occasionally?
answers: text: 90%

question: In the last decade, has the amount oftime adolescents spend on the computer increased or dereased?
answers: text: greatly increased

question: What percentage of adolescents report using social networking sites?
answers: text: (65%)

question: What online activity has the largest number of reported adolescent particpation?
answers: text: video games
context: Because exposure to media has increased over the past decade, adolescents' utilization of computers, cell phones, stereos and televisions to gain access to various mediums of popular culture has also increased. Almost all American households have at least one television, more than three-quarters of all adolescents' homes have access to the Internet, and more than 90% of American adolescents use the Internet at least occasionally. As a result of the amount of time adolescents spend using these devices, their total media exposure is high. In the last decade, the amount of time that adolescents spend on the computer has greatly increased. Online activities with the highest rates of use among adolescents are video games (78% of adolescents), email (73%), instant messaging (68%), social networking sites (65%), news sources (63%), music (59%), and videos (57%).

qas: question: What is DIS?
answers: text: a fusion of the literature of both developmental and intervention sciences

question: What are some of the negative things adolescents are susceptible to?
answers: text: drug addiction, sexual abuse, peer pressure, violent crimes and other illegal activities

question: What does the DIS focus on in adolescents?
answers: text: risky and inappropriate behaviors
context: At the decision-making point of their lives, youth is susceptible to drug addiction, sexual abuse, peer pressure, violent crimes and other illegal activities. Developmental Intervention Science (DIS) is a fusion of the literature of both developmental and intervention sciences. This association conducts youth interventions that mutually assist both the needs of the community as well as psychologically stranded youth by focusing on risky and inappropriate behaviors while promoting positive self-development along with self-esteem among adolescents.

qas: question: What does the alcohol and illegal drug habits of teens tend to be shaped by?
answers: text: the substance use of friends and other classmates

question: What is one possible reasoning behind many students choosing to continue their smoking habits from middle school into late adolescence?
answers: text: addictive nature of cigarettes

question: Do peer acceptance and social norms have a greater or lesser effect on behavior at the onset of adolescence?
answers: text: significantly greater
context: Peer acceptance and social norms gain a significantly greater hand in directing behavior at the onset of adolescence; as such, the alcohol and illegal drug habits of teens tend to be shaped largely by the substance use of friends and other classmates. In fact, studies suggest that more significantly than actual drug norms, an individual's perception of the illicit drug use by friends and peers is highly associated with his or her own habits in substance use during both middle and high school, a relationship that increases in strength over time. Whereas social influences on alcohol use and marijuana use tend to work directly in the short term, peer and friend norms on smoking cigarettes in middle school have a profound effect on one's own likelihood to smoke cigarettes well into high school. Perhaps the strong correlation between peer influence in middle school and cigarette smoking in high school may be explained by the addictive nature of cigarettes, which could lead many students to continue their smoking habits from middle school into late adolescence.

qas: question: What is the range of consentual age variance between jurisdictions?
answers: text: 12 to 20 years

question: Is the age that peope are allowed to marry universally decided upon?
answers: text: No

question: What are other areas in which legal societal age varies?
answers: text: enlisting in the military, gambling, and the purchase of alcohol, cigarettes or items with parental advisory labels
context: The age of consent to sexual activity varies widely between jurisdictions, ranging from 12 to 20 years, as does the age at which people are allowed to marry. Specific legal ages for adolescents that also vary by culture are enlisting in the military, gambling, and the purchase of alcohol, cigarettes or items with parental advisory labels. It should be noted that the legal coming of age often does not correspond with the sudden realization of autonomy; many adolescents who have legally reached adult age are still dependent on their guardians or peers for emotional and financial support. Nonetheless, new legal privileges converge with shifting social expectations to usher in a phase of heightened independence or social responsibility for most legal adolescents.