Memory

qas: question: Which three processes does phychology recognize as memory?
answers: text: process in which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved.

question: What happens to information during the encoding process?
answers: text: g allows information from the outside world to be sensed in the form of chemical and physical stimuli.

question: What is the second memory stage?
answers: text: Storage

question: What is the third process that happens during the memory process?
answers: text: retrieval of information that has been stored

question: Why may some memory retrieval processes fail?
answers: text: the type of information, and other attempts to remember stored information may be more demanding for various reasons.

question: Which four processes does phychology recognize as memory?

question: What happens to information during the decoding process?

question: What is the fourth memory stage?

question: What is the third process that happens during the psychology process?

question: Why may some memory retrieval processes succeed?
context: In psychology, memory is the process in which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved. Encoding allows information from the outside world to be sensed in the form of chemical and physical stimuli. In the first stage the information must be changed so that it may be put into the encoding process. Storage is the second memory stage or process. This entails that information is maintained over short periods of time. Finally the third process is the retrieval of information that has been stored. Such information must be located and returned to the consciousness. Some retrieval attempts may be effortless due to the type of information, and other attempts to remember stored information may be more demanding for various reasons.

qas: question: What does short-term memory depend on?
answers: text: an acoustic code for storing information, and to a lesser extent a visual code.

question: What did conrad find about test subjects?
answers: text: subjects had more difficulty recalling collections of letters that were acoustically similar

question: What does Conrads finding seem to mean?
answers: text: . Confusion with recalling acoustically similar letters rather than visually similar letters implies that the letters were encoded acoustically.

question: What was Conrads deal with?
answers: text: encoding of written text;

question: What does long-term memory depend on?

question: What didn't Conrad find out about test subjects?

question: What did confusion recalling acoustically different letters imply?

question: Whose study deals with decoding written texts?

question: What did Conrad's 1963 sudy find?
context: Short-term memory is believed to rely mostly on an acoustic code for storing information, and to a lesser extent a visual code. Conrad (1964) found that test subjects had more difficulty recalling collections of letters that were acoustically similar (e.g. E, P, D). Confusion with recalling acoustically similar letters rather than visually similar letters implies that the letters were encoded acoustically. Conrad's (1964) study, however, deals with the encoding of written text; thus, while memory of written language may rely on acoustic components, generalisations to all forms of memory cannot be made.

qas: question: What is another name for short-term memory?
answers: text: working memory.

question: What exactly does short-term memory allow a person to do?
answers: text: recall for a period of several seconds to a minute without rehearsal

question: How much information can one store and recall in short-term memory?
answers: text: capacity is also very limited

question: How can one higher their memory capacity?
answers: text: chunking.

question: Why do some countries display numbers in chunks of two to four numbers?
answers: text: because we are able to chunk the information into meaningful groups of numbers

question: What is another name for extended memory?

question: What exactly does chunking memory allow a person to do?

question: How much information can one store and recall in long-term memory?

question: What year did George A. Miller work at AT&T?

question: How many groups could a person chunk a 7 digit telephone number?
context: Short-term memory is also known as working memory. Short-term memory allows recall for a period of several seconds to a minute without rehearsal. Its capacity is also very limited: George A. Miller (1956), when working at Bell Laboratories, conducted experiments showing that the store of short-term memory was 7±2 items (the title of his famous paper, "The magical number 7±2"). Modern estimates of the capacity of short-term memory are lower, typically of the order of 4–5 items; however, memory capacity can be increased through a process called chunking. For example, in recalling a ten-digit telephone number, a person could chunk the digits into three groups: first, the area code (such as 123), then a three-digit chunk (456) and lastly a four-digit chunk (7890). This method of remembering telephone numbers is far more effective than attempting to remember a string of 10 digits; this is because we are able to chunk the information into meaningful groups of numbers. This may be reflected in some countries in the tendency to display telephone numbers as several chunks of two to four numbers.

qas: question: Why can't some memories be held onto forever?
answers: text: The storage in sensory memory and short-term memory generally has a strictly limited capacity and duration

question: If a memory that is stored in with long term-memories, how long can you possibly rememeber it?
answers: text: sometimes a whole life span)

question: What is the capacity of long term memory?
answers: text: capacity is immeasurable

question: If you knew a telephone number one week ago, but have forgotten it now, where was this memory stored?
answers: text: in our short-term memory

question: By storing smaller quantities of info, long-term memory has this length of duration?

question: Short term memory can remember telephone numbers for many years though what?

question: Repetition allows short-term memory to remember what?

question: How many years can short-term memory be stored?

question: Short-term memory has immeasurable what?
context: The storage in sensory memory and short-term memory generally has a strictly limited capacity and duration, which means that information is not retained indefinitely. By contrast, long-term memory can store much larger quantities of information for potentially unlimited duration (sometimes a whole life span). Its capacity is immeasurable. For example, given a random seven-digit number we may remember it for only a few seconds before forgetting, suggesting it was stored in our short-term memory. On the other hand, we can remember telephone numbers for many years through repetition; this information is said to be stored in long-term memory.

qas: question: What are some examples of units that short-term memory can be categorized in to?
answers: text: visual information and acoustic information

question: Who performed a study in 1986 invovling a participant known as KF?
answers: text: Zlonoga and Gerber

question: What did KF disprove during this study?
answers: text: Atkinson–Shiffrin model.

question: What did KF have trouble doing?
answers: text: difficulties regarding short-term memory.

question: What did this study seem to conclude?
answers: text: a dichotomy between visual and audial memory.

question: What happened in a 1985 study from Zlonoga and Gerber?

question: Which patient demonstration certain deviations from the Zlonoga-Gerber model?

question: What year did Atkinson and Shiffrin release their study?

question: What was suggested when visual long-term memory was unaffected?

question: What was damaged in KF causing difficulties to long-term memory?
context: The model also shows all the memory stores as being a single unit whereas research into this shows differently. For example, short-term memory can be broken up into different units such as visual information and acoustic information. In a study by Zlonoga and Gerber (1986), patient 'KF' demonstrated certain deviations from the Atkinson–Shiffrin model. Patient KF was brain damaged, displaying difficulties regarding short-term memory. Recognition of sounds such as spoken numbers, letters, words and easily identifiable noises (such as doorbells and cats meowing) were all impacted. Interestingly, visual short-term memory was unaffected, suggesting a dichotomy between visual and audial memory.

qas: question: Which part of the brain does short-term memory seem to rely on?
answers: text: frontal lobe (especially dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) and the parietal lobe

question: Which part of the brain does long-term memory rely on?
answers: text: hippocampus

question: How much information can the hippocampus store?
answers: text: does not

question: If the hippocampus doesn't store information what does it do?
answers: text: may be involved in changing neural connections for a period of three months or more after the initial learning.

question: What type of patterns is long-term memory supported by?

question: What two brain lobe regions does long-term memory depend on?

question: Who had the removal of both of his lobes?

question: What was removed from Molaison to  improve his attention span?

question: What part of the brain is not essential for learning new information?
context: Short-term memory is supported by transient patterns of neuronal communication, dependent on regions of the frontal lobe (especially dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) and the parietal lobe. Long-term memory, on the other hand, is maintained by more stable and permanent changes in neural connections widely spread throughout the brain. The hippocampus is essential (for learning new information) to the consolidation of information from short-term to long-term memory, although it does not seem to store information itself. Without the hippocampus, new memories are unable to be stored into long-term memory, as learned from patient Henry Molaison after removal of both his hippocampi, and there will be a very short attention span. Furthermore, it may be involved in changing neural connections for a period of three months or more after the initial learning.

qas: question: How long does sensory  memory to to store information?
answers: text: less than one second

question: Can we control what is stored in our sensory memory?
answers: text: It is out of cognitive control

question: Who did the first studies on exploring a new idea of sensory memory?
answers: text: George Sperling

question: What did Spellings' findings reveal?
answers: text: this form of memory degrades so quickly, participants would see the display but be unable to report all of the items

question: How long does sensory memory store presentations?

question: Can we control what is stored in our experimental memory?

question: Who did the first studies on exploring a new idea of sensory registers?

question: What experiments did George Serling conduct in 1953?

question: What did Spellings' findings prove to be false?
context: Sensory memory holds sensory information less than one second after an item is perceived. The ability to look at an item and remember what it looked like with just a split second of observation, or memorization, is the example of sensory memory. It is out of cognitive control and is an automatic response. With very short presentations, participants often report that they seem to "see" more than they can actually report. The first experiments exploring this form of sensory memory were conducted by George Sperling (1963) using the "partial report paradigm". Subjects were presented with a grid of 12 letters, arranged into three rows of four. After a brief presentation, subjects were then played either a high, medium or low tone, cuing them which of the rows to report. Based on these partial report experiments,Sperling was able to show that the capacity of sensory memory was approximately 12 items, but that it degraded very quickly (within a few hundred milliseconds). Because this form of memory degrades so quickly, participants would see the display but be unable to report all of the items (12 in the "whole report" procedure) before they decayed. This type of memory cannot be prolonged via rehearsal.

qas: question: How does short term memory encode information?
answers: text: acoustically

question: How does long term memory encode information?
answers: text: semantically

question: What is episodic memory?
answers: text: "which attempts to capture information such as 'what', 'when' and 'where'

question: If someone where to recall a wedding they had went to a year before, which type of memory would be used?
answers: text: episodic memory,

question: What did Baddeleys test subjects have touble doing?
answers: text: recalling a collection of words that had similar meanings

question: What year did Baddeley discover episodic memory?

question: What did Baddeley have difficulty recalling?

question: What is the defiition of the part of short-term memory known as episodic?

question: The short-term memory which attempts to capture information such as 'what', 'when' and 'where' is episodic what?

question: What type of short-term memory allows people to recall specific events?
context: While short-term memory encodes information acoustically, long-term memory encodes it semantically: Baddeley (1966) discovered that, after 20 minutes, test subjects had the most difficulty recalling a collection of words that had similar meanings (e.g. big, large, great, huge) long-term. Another part of long-term memory is episodic memory, "which attempts to capture information such as 'what', 'when' and 'where'". With episodic memory, individuals are able to recall specific events such as birthday parties and weddings.

qas: question: Why do infants and young childrens memories need to be assesed differently?
answers: text: do not have the language ability to report on their memories

question: Can researchers study an infants or young childs memories?
answers: text: , researchers have adapted and developed a number of measures for assessing both infants’ recognition memory and their recall memory.

question: How can a researcher study a childs memory?
answers: text: elicited imitation techniques

question: Why can verbal report be used to assess very young children's memory?

question: What techniques have not been used to assess infants’ recognition memory?

question: What did researchers adapt and develop immediately?

question: How can a child study a researcher's memory?

question: Can researchers study an infants or young childs motor skills?
context: Infants do not have the language ability to report on their memories and so verbal reports cannot be used to assess very young children’s memory. Throughout the years, however, researchers have adapted and developed a number of measures for assessing both infants’ recognition memory and their recall memory. Habituation and operant conditioning techniques have been used to assess infants’ recognition memory and the deferred and elicited imitation techniques have been used to assess infants’ recall memory.

qas: question: What are some catgories of retrospective memory?
answers: text: semantic, episodic and autobiographical memory

question: If a memory is triggered by a time, which kind of memory is this?
answers: text: Time-based prospective memories

question: What is something somebody can use to remember something?
answers: text: Cues

question: If Bob realized he needed to mail his mother a letter after seeing the postal office, which kind of memory did he trigger?
answers: text: Event-based prospective memories

question: What are some catgories of respective memory?

question: If a memory is triggered by a time, which kind of memory is this not?

question: What is something somebody can use to forget something?

question: What did Winograd conclude in 1989?

question: What is a inor way to distinguish different memory functions?
context: Another major way to distinguish different memory functions is whether the content to be remembered is in the past, retrospective memory, or in the future, prospective memory. Thus, retrospective memory as a category includes semantic, episodic and autobiographical memory. In contrast, prospective memory is memory for future intentions, or remembering to remember (Winograd, 1988). Prospective memory can be further broken down into event- and time-based prospective remembering. Time-based prospective memories are triggered by a time-cue, such as going to the doctor (action) at 4pm (cue). Event-based prospective memories are intentions triggered by cues, such as remembering to post a letter (action) after seeing a mailbox (cue). Cues do not need to be related to the action (as the mailbox/letter example), and lists, sticky-notes, knotted handkerchiefs, or string around the finger all exemplify cues that people use as strategies to enhance prospective memory.

qas: question: Was Hebb's thought of the relationship between short and long term memory true?
answers: text: research showed this to be false

question: Which drugs seemed to help someone remember earlier events?
answers: text: cortisol or epinephrine

question: What relationship does excitement and memory share?
answers: text: excitement enhances memory

question: Bob was in a car accident and couldn't remember his wifes name, what part of his brain could have been damaged?
answers: text: hippocampus

question: Was Hebb's thought of the relationship between long and longer term memory true?

question: Which drugs seemed to help someone forget earlier events?

question: What relationship does unexcitement and memory share?

question: What are patients with amygdalar damage more likely to remember?

question: What typ of damage may also cause memory gain and helps with memory storage.
context: Hebb distinguished between short-term and long-term memory. He postulated that any memory that stayed in short-term storage for a long enough time would be consolidated into a long-term memory. Later research showed this to be false. Research has shown that direct injections of cortisol or epinephrine help the storage of recent experiences. This is also true for stimulation of the amygdala. This proves that excitement enhances memory by the stimulation of hormones that affect the amygdala. Excessive or prolonged stress (with prolonged cortisol) may hurt memory storage. Patients with amygdalar damage are no more likely to remember emotionally charged words than nonemotionally charged ones. The hippocampus is important for explicit memory. The hippocampus is also important for memory consolidation. The hippocampus receives input from different parts of the cortex and sends its output out to different parts of the brain also. The input comes from secondary and tertiary sensory areas that have processed the information a lot already. Hippocampal damage may also cause memory loss and problems with memory storage. This memory loss includes, retrograde amnesia which is the loss of memory for events that occurred shortly before the time of brain damage.

qas: question: Is it important to know how information is coded in the brain?
answers: text: that is crucial

question: Have researchers learned anything studying plasticity?
answers: text: have gained much knowledge

question: What are the roles of Covergence-divergence zones?
answers: text: might be the neural networks where memories are stored and retrieved.

question: What has most of the research on memories revolved around?
answers: text: simple learning in simple neuronal circuits;

question: Have researchers learned anything studying elasticity?

question: Is it not important to know how information is coded in the brain?

question: What are the roles of Covergence-divergence voids?

question: What has none of the research on memories revolved around?

question: what changes are involved in more simple examples of memory
context: One question that is crucial in cognitive neuroscience is how information and mental experiences are coded and represented in the brain. Scientists have gained much knowledge about the neuronal codes from the studies of plasticity, but most of such research has been focused on simple learning in simple neuronal circuits; it is considerably less clear about the neuronal changes involved in more complex examples of memory, particularly declarative memory that requires the storage of facts and events (Byrne 2007). Convergence-divergence zones might be the neural networks where memories are stored and retrieved.

qas: question: What do cognitive neuroscientists believe memory is?
answers: text: the retention, reactivation, and reconstruction of the experience-independent internal representation

question: What suggests that memory has two different components?
answers: text: term of internal representation

question: What showed that memory exists even before that memory is known to the person?
answers: text: Moscovitch 2007

question: What is an engram trace?
answers: text: the underpinning physical neural changes

question: What do regular scientists believe memory is?

question: What suggests that memory has three different components?

question: What did Dudai learn in 1904?

question: What did Semon learn in 2007?

question: What did Moscovitch learn in 2006?
context: Cognitive neuroscientists consider memory as the retention, reactivation, and reconstruction of the experience-independent internal representation. The term of internal representation implies that such definition of memory contains two components: the expression of memory at the behavioral or conscious level, and the underpinning physical neural changes (Dudai 2007). The latter component is also called engram or memory traces (Semon 1904). Some neuroscientists and psychologists mistakenly equate the concept of engram and memory, broadly conceiving all persisting after-effects of experiences as memory; others argue against this notion that memory does not exist until it is revealed in behavior or thought (Moscovitch 2007).

qas: question: What is another term for procedural memory?
answers: text: implicit memory

question: If bob remembered how to bake a cake after seeing this on television what memory is he using?
answers: text: procedural memory

question: What set of skills is reliant on procedural memory?
answers: text: motor skills

question: If Bob does throws 15 more free throws than he did last week, how many more explicit memories has he gained?
answers: text: no new explicit memories have been formed,

question: What is another term for procedural senses?

question: If bob remembered how to bake a cake after seeing this on television what sense is he using?

question: What set of skills is not reliant on procedural memory?

question: What type of memory does not depend on the cerebellum and basal ganglia?

question: What type of memory is secondarily employed in learning motor skills and should be considered a subset of implicit memory
context: In contrast, procedural memory (or implicit memory) is not based on the conscious recall of information, but on implicit learning. It can best be summarized as remember how to do something. Procedural memory is primarily employed in learning motor skills and should be considered a subset of implicit memory. It is revealed when one does better in a given task due only to repetition - no new explicit memories have been formed, but one is unconsciously accessing aspects of those previous experiences. Procedural memory involved in motor learning depends on the cerebellum and basal ganglia.

qas: question: Which model explains why bob has an easier time reading a book, and then discussing it rather than reading two books?
answers: text: working memory model

question: Which concept is criticised for being unworthy and too broad?
answers: text: concept of a central executive

question: Which part of memory allows us to go about our daily lives?
answers: text: Working memory

question: What does the non-working memory model explain?

question: What has been praised as adequate and non-vague?

question: What is non-working memory also the premise for?

question: Which part of memory allows us to go about our long-term lives?

question: Which model explains why bob has an easier time writing a book, and then discussing it rather than writing two books?
context: The working memory model explains many practical observations, such as why it is easier to do two different tasks (one verbal and one visual) than two similar tasks (e.g., two visual), and the aforementioned word-length effect. However, the concept of a central executive as noted here has been criticised as inadequate and vague.[citation needed] Working memory is also the premise for what allows us to do everyday activities involving thought. It is the section of memory where we carry out thought processes and use them to learn and reason about topics.

qas: question: What do most elderly people worry about?
answers: text: memory loss,

question: Is an eldery person with alzheimers having the same problem as a similar aged person experiencing memory loss?
answers: text: memory loss is qualitatively different

question: Which part of the brain is associated with the memory loss an elderly person suffers?
answers: text: frontal regions

question: Which memory is an elderly person helping by using appointment books?
answers: text: prospective memory

question: What is one of key concerns of younger adults?

question: What is not one of the hallmark symptoms of Alzheimer's disease?

question: What did Alzheimer & Price state in 2005?

question: Younger adults tend to exhibit?

question: Older adults can manage their problems with prospective memory by not using what?
context: One of the key concerns of older adults is the experience of memory loss, especially as it is one of the hallmark symptoms of Alzheimer's disease. However, memory loss is qualitatively different in normal aging from the kind of memory loss associated with a diagnosis of Alzheimer's (Budson & Price, 2005). Research has revealed that individuals’ performance on memory tasks that rely on frontal regions declines with age. Older adults tend to exhibit deficits on tasks that involve knowing the temporal order in which they learned information; source memory tasks that require them to remember the specific circumstances or context in which they learned information; and prospective memory tasks that involve remembering to perform an act at a future time. Older adults can manage their problems with prospective memory by using appointment books, for example.

qas: question: Does a 6 month old have short term memory?
answers: text: can recall information over the short-term

question: What age can an infabt recall steps in an order?
answers: text: 9 months of age

question: What part of a two step sequence can a 6 month old remember?
answers: text: one step of a two-step sequence

question: What part of the brain is not fully developed in infants which can cause the memory differences in ages?
answers: text: the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus and the frontal components of the neural network are not fully developed

question: It should be noted that although 6-month-olds cannot recall information over what?

question: they have no difficulty recalling the temporal order of what?

question: What part of a two step sequence can a 16 month old remember?

question: What part of the brain is fully developed in infants which can cause the memory differences in ages?

question: Researchers have suggested that these age similarities are probably due to what?
context: It should be noted that although 6-month-olds can recall information over the short-term, they have difficulty recalling the temporal order of information. It is only by 9 months of age that infants can recall the actions of a two-step sequence in the correct temporal order - that is, recalling step 1 and then step 2. In other words, when asked to imitate a two-step action sequence (such as putting a toy car in the base and pushing in the plunger to make the toy roll to the other end), 9-month-olds tend to imitate the actions of the sequence in the correct order (step 1 and then step 2). Younger infants (6-month-olds) can only recall one step of a two-step sequence. Researchers have suggested that these age differences are probably due to the fact that the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus and the frontal components of the neural network are not fully developed at the age of 6-months.

qas: question: When remembering your first day of school or first dance, which memory are you using?
answers: text: Episodic memories

question: When fondly remembering your memory, which type of memory are you using?
answers: text: Autobiographical memory

question: Which type of memory enables us to remember knowledge of the world?
answers: text: Semantic memory

question: Which type of memory is used when remembering something that we've seen?
answers: text: Visual memory

question: When remembering your first day of school or first dance, which sense are you using?

question: Which type of memory disables us to remember knowledge of the world?

question: What can result from visual stimulus?

question: What does biographical memory encompass?

question: What type of memory allows knowledge like remembering that Paris is the capital of Germany?
context: Declarative memory can be further sub-divided into semantic memory, concerning principles and facts taken independent of context; and episodic memory, concerning information specific to a particular context, such as a time and place. Semantic memory allows the encoding of abstract knowledge about the world, such as "Paris is the capital of France". Episodic memory, on the other hand, is used for more personal memories, such as the sensations, emotions, and personal associations of a particular place or time. Episodic memories often reflect the "firsts" in life such as a first kiss, first day of school or first time winning a championship. These are key events in one's life that can be remembered clearly. Autobiographical memory - memory for particular events within one's own life - is generally viewed as either equivalent to, or a subset of, episodic memory. Visual memory is part of memory preserving some characteristics of our senses pertaining to visual experience. One is able to place in memory information that resembles objects, places, animals or people in sort of a mental image. Visual memory can result in priming and it is assumed some kind of perceptual representational system underlies this phenomenon.[citation needed]

qas: question: What can cause your memory to deterioriate or not work as well?
answers: text: Stress

question: Which hormones are produces when a animal is stressed out?
answers: text: adrenal hormones

question: Who performed a study that involved having peoples hands in cold water while also memorizing words?
answers: text: L. Schwabe and O. Wolf

question: What did L. Schwabes and O. Wolfs study seem to conlcude?
answers: text: stress experienced during learning distracts people by diverting their attention during the memory encoding process.

question: What can cause your memory to deterioriate and work better?

question: Which hormones are produces when a animal is happy?

question: Which Austrian cognitive psychologists released an experimental study?

question: What does SECPT not stand for?
context: Stress has a significant effect on memory formation and learning. In response to stressful situations, the brain releases hormones and neurotransmitters (ex. glucocorticoids and catecholamines) which affect memory encoding processes in the hippocampus. Behavioural research on animals shows that chronic stress produces adrenal hormones which impact the hippocampal structure in the brains of rats. An experimental study by German cognitive psychologists L. Schwabe and O. Wolf demonstrates how learning under stress also decreases memory recall in humans. In this study, 48 healthy female and male university students participated in either a stress test or a control group. Those randomly assigned to the stress test group had a hand immersed in ice cold water (the reputable SECPT or ‘Socially Evaluated Cold Pressor Test’) for up to three minutes, while being monitored and videotaped. Both the stress and control groups were then presented with 32 words to memorize. Twenty-four hours later, both groups were tested to see how many words they could remember (free recall) as well as how many they could recognize from a larger list of words (recognition performance). The results showed a clear impairment of memory performance in the stress test group, who recalled 30% fewer words than the control group. The researchers suggest that stress experienced during learning distracts people by diverting their attention during the memory encoding process.

qas: question: What trouble can interference cause?
answers: text: can hamper memorization and retrieval

question: What is retroactive interference?
answers: text: when learning new information makes it harder to recall old information

question: What is proactive interference?
answers: text: where prior learning disrupts recall of new information

question: What is a term used to describe being able to learn something quicker due to an older ability?
answers: text: positive transfer.

question: What benefits does interference have?

question: What is active interference?

question: What is proactive disruption?

question: What is the phenomenon when learning Latin makes it harder to learn French?

question: What disrupts recall of old information?
context: Interference can hamper memorization and retrieval. There is retroactive interference, when learning new information makes it harder to recall old information and proactive interference, where prior learning disrupts recall of new information. Although interference can lead to forgetting, it is important to keep in mind that there are situations when old information can facilitate learning of new information. Knowing Latin, for instance, can help an individual learn a related language such as French – this phenomenon is known as positive transfer.

qas: question: In 1960 did people believe an infant was able to remember things?
answers: text: Up until the middle of the 1980s it was assumed that infants could not encode, retain, and retrieve information.

question: What is the minimum age researchers think a child begins to have memory?
answers: text: . A growing body of research now indicates that infants as young as 6-months can recall information

question: Does a persons memory capacity increase with age?
answers: text: Furthermore, research has revealed that as infants grow older they can store information for longer periods of time

question: Who has a better memory retention a 6 month old or a 9 month old?
answers: text: 9-month-olds

question: What was assumed until the middle of the 1960s?

question: Research indicates that 6 month olds can recall what after a 48 hour delay?

question: 6-month-olds need approximately five exposures in order to be able to do what?

question: What has shown that with age, infants can store information slower

question: as infants grow older they can store what for shorter periods of time?
context: Up until the middle of the 1980s it was assumed that infants could not encode, retain, and retrieve information. A growing body of research now indicates that infants as young as 6-months can recall information after a 24-hour delay. Furthermore, research has revealed that as infants grow older they can store information for longer periods of time; 6-month-olds can recall information after a 24-hour period, 9-month-olds after up to five weeks, and 20-month-olds after as long as twelve months. In addition, studies have shown that with age, infants can store information faster. Whereas 14-month-olds can recall a three-step sequence after being exposed to it once, 6-month-olds need approximately six exposures in order to be able to remember it.

qas: question: What role does the amygdala play in memory?
answers: text: thought to be involved in emotional memory

question: Can you pin point certain areas of the brain to certain memories. 
answers: text: it is not sufficient to describe memory, and its counterpart, learning, as solely dependent on specific brain regions

question: What changes can be linked to learning and memory?
answers: text: neuronal synapses,

question: What is the hippocampus's relationship to memory?
answers: text: believed to be involved in spatial learning and declarative learning

question: What role does the amygdala play in speech?

question: Can you pin point certain areas of the heart to certain memories

question: What similarities can be linked to learning and memory?

question: What is thought to be involved in nonemotional memory?

question: What is the hippocampus's relationship to speech?
context: Brain areas involved in the neuroanatomy of memory such as the hippocampus, the amygdala, the striatum, or the mammillary bodies are thought to be involved in specific types of memory. For example, the hippocampus is believed to be involved in spatial learning and declarative learning, while the amygdala is thought to be involved in emotional memory. Damage to certain areas in patients and animal models and subsequent memory deficits is a primary source of information. However, rather than implicating a specific area, it could be that damage to adjacent areas, or to a pathway traveling through the area is actually responsible for the observed deficit. Further, it is not sufficient to describe memory, and its counterpart, learning, as solely dependent on specific brain regions. Learning and memory are attributed to changes in neuronal synapses, thought to be mediated by long-term potentiation and long-term depression.

qas: question: Does it matter how long someone is exposed to stress to have an impact on their memory?
answers: text: the more impact it may have. However, short term exposure to stress also causes impairment in memory by interfering with the function of the hippocampus

question: Whar does research show happens to blood glucorticoid levels during stressful events?
answers: text: levels that have increased drastically

question: Can a unborn child face issues with stress than can affect their future abilities?
answers: text: prenatally, the offspring show increased levels of glucocorticoids when they are subjected to stress later on in life.

question: Do the people studied in different research perform as well after stress as they did before becoming in contact with stressful situations?
answers: text: When subjects are asked to complete a learning task after short term exposure they have often difficulties

question: Whar does research show happens to blood glucose levels during stressful events?

question: Can a unborn child face issues with stress than can affect their past abilities?

question: How does long term exposure to stress also cause impairment in memory?

question: When subjects are asked to complete a remembering task after short term exposure they have what?

question: Why does long term exposure to stress have less impact?
context: The more long term the exposure to stress is, the more impact it may have. However, short term exposure to stress also causes impairment in memory by interfering with the function of the hippocampus. Research shows that subjects placed in a stressful situation for a short amount of time still have blood glucocorticoid levels that have increased drastically when measured after the exposure is completed. When subjects are asked to complete a learning task after short term exposure they have often difficulties. Prenatal stress also hinders the ability to learn and memorize by disrupting the development of the hippocampus and can lead to unestablished long term potentiation in the offspring of severely stressed parents. Although the stress is applied prenatally, the offspring show increased levels of glucocorticoids when they are subjected to stress later on in life.

qas: question: What neurons are damaged during stressful events?
answers: text: The CA1 neurons found in the hippocampus

question: What can make someone more prone to memory loss as they age?
answers: text: the more stressful situations that someone encounters,

question: What will a person often do with extremely stressful memories?
answers: text: repression of memories where a person moves an unbearable memory to the unconscious mind

question: What is the cause of neuron loss due to stress?
answers: text: high level of extracellular glutamate allow calcium to enter NMDA receptors

question: What protons are damaged during stressful events?

question: What can make someone more prone to memory gain as they age?

question: What will a person often do with extremely stressful thoughts?

question: What is the cause of neuron gain due to stress?

question: Where are the AC1 neurons found?
context: Stressful life experiences may be a cause of memory loss as a person ages. Glucocorticoids that are released during stress damage neurons that are located in the hippocampal region of the brain. Therefore, the more stressful situations that someone encounters, the more susceptible they are to memory loss later on. The CA1 neurons found in the hippocampus are destroyed due to glucocorticoids decreasing the release of glucose and the reuptake of glutamate. This high level of extracellular glutamate allow calcium to enter NMDA receptors which in return kills neurons. Stressful life experiences can also cause repression of memories where a person moves an unbearable memory to the unconscious mind. This directly relates to traumatic events in one's past such as kidnappings, being prisoners of war or sexual abuse as a child.

qas: question: Does sleep hurt a persons memory?
answers: text: There have been several studies which show that sleep improves the retention of memory,

question: What does SWS stand for?
answers: text: slow-wave sleep

question: What take place during SWS?
answers: text: System consolidation

question: What is the role of the neocortex whe it relates to memory?
answers: text: reviews and processes memories, which moves them into long-term memory

question: In studies what is a relationship between sleeping and learning?
answers: text: activation patterns in the sleeping brain that mirror those recorded during the learning of tasks from the previous day

question: Why does sleep affect recall?

question: When are the neural connections in the brain weakened?

question: What does WSW stand for?

question: What take place during WSW?

question: What is the role of the neocortex whe it relates to muscles?
context: Sleep does not affect acquisition or recall while one is awake. Therefore, sleep has the greatest effect on memory consolidation. During sleep, the neural connections in the brain are strengthened. This enhances the brain’s abilities to stabilize and retain memories. There have been several studies which show that sleep improves the retention of memory, as memories are enhanced through active consolidation. System consolidation takes place during slow-wave sleep (SWS). This process implicates that memories are reactivated during sleep, but that the process doesn’t enhance every memory. It also implicates that qualitative changes are made to the memories when they are transferred to long-term store during sleep. When you are sleeping, the hippocampus replays the events of the day for the neocortex. The neocortex then reviews and processes memories, which moves them into long-term memory. When you do not get enough sleep it makes it more difficult to learn as these neural connections are not as strong, resulting in a lower retention rate of memories. Sleep deprivation makes it harder to focus, resulting in inefficient learning. Furthermore, some studies have shown that sleep deprivation can lead to false memories as the memories are not properly transferred to long-term memory. Therefore, it is important to get the proper amount of sleep so that memory can function at the highest level. One of the primary functions of sleep is thought to be the improvement of the consolidation of information, as several studies have demonstrated that memory depends on getting sufficient sleep between training and test. Additionally, data obtained from neuroimaging studies have shown activation patterns in the sleeping brain that mirror those recorded during the learning of tasks from the previous day, suggesting that new memories may be solidified through such rehearsal.

qas: question: Can one increase their brain efficency?
answers: text: people can improve cognitive function and brain efficiency

question: What can a person do to increase their brain efficiency?
answers: text: simple lifestyle changes such as incorporating memory exercises, healthy eating, physical fitness and stress reduction

question: In a study performed with 17 subjects, what relationship did healthy changes and brain efficiency have?
answers: text: After 14 days, they showed greater word fluency (not memory) compared to their baseline performance.

question: Do lifestyle changes definitely have an affect on long term memory?
answers: text: it is therefore unclear if this intervention has lasting effects on memory.

question: Who published a study in a June 2006 issue of UCLA?

question: Can one increase their brain unefficency?

question: What can people improve through complex lifestyle changes?

question: After 17 says, they showed greater what?

question: How many subjects had the average age of 17?
context: A UCLA research study published in the June 2006 issue of the American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry found that people can improve cognitive function and brain efficiency through simple lifestyle changes such as incorporating memory exercises, healthy eating, physical fitness and stress reduction into their daily lives. This study examined 17 subjects, (average age 53) with normal memory performance. Eight subjects were asked to follow a "brain healthy" diet, relaxation, physical, and mental exercise (brain teasers and verbal memory training techniques). After 14 days, they showed greater word fluency (not memory) compared to their baseline performance. No long term follow up was conducted, it is therefore unclear if this intervention has lasting effects on memory.

qas: question: What is a term to describe memory loss?
answers: text: amnesia.

question: What diseases can have a major imact on memory?
answers: text: Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease

question: What is Korsakoff's syndrome?
answers: text: an organic brain disease that adversely affects memory by widespread loss or shrinkage of neurons within the prefrontal cortex.

question: Is amnesia only seen in one form?
answers: text: There are many sorts of amnesia,

question: What happens to a person whose autobiographic memory is damaged?
answers: text: that they cannot forget small details that otherwise would not be stored

question: What is a term to describe memory gain?

question: What diseases does not have a major impact on memory?

question: What is Alzheimer's syndrome?

question: Why is amnesia only seen in one form?

question: What happens to a person whose biographic memory is damaged?
context: Much of the current knowledge of memory has come from studying memory disorders, particularly amnesia. Loss of memory is known as amnesia. Amnesia can result from extensive damage to: (a) the regions of the medial temporal lobe, such as the hippocampus, dentate gyrus, subiculum, amygdala, the parahippocampal, entorhinal, and perirhinal cortices or the (b) midline diencephalic region, specifically the dorsomedial nucleus of the thalamus and the mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus. There are many sorts of amnesia, and by studying their different forms, it has become possible to observe apparent defects in individual sub-systems of the brain's memory systems, and thus hypothesize their function in the normally working brain. Other neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease can also affect memory and cognition. Hyperthymesia, or hyperthymesic syndrome, is a disorder that affects an individual's autobiographical memory, essentially meaning that they cannot forget small details that otherwise would not be stored. Korsakoff's syndrome, also known as Korsakoff's psychosis, amnesic-confabulatory syndrome, is an organic brain disease that adversely affects memory by widespread loss or shrinkage of neurons within the prefrontal cortex.

qas: question: Does excersice have any role on cognitive brain function?
answers: text: has many cognitive benefits and effects on the brain.

question: What positive things can happen to your brain when you excersise?
answers: text: increases in neurotransmitter levels, improved oxygen and nutrient delivery, and increased neurogenesis in the hippocampus

question: Is a child who excercies likely to perform better in school?
answers: text: The effects of exercise on memory have important implications for improving children's academic performance

question: What type of excercise has shown the best benefit for the brain?
answers: text: aerobic exercises

question: What has many cognitive drawbacks and effects on the brain?

question: What type of nonaerobic exercises have benefits on the brain?

question: What negative things can happen to your brain when you excersise?

question: The effects of exercise on memory do not have important implications for what?

question: What causes decreased oxygen and nutrient delivery?
context: Physical exercise, particularly continuous aerobic exercises such as running, cycling and swimming, has many cognitive benefits and effects on the brain. Influences on the brain include increases in neurotransmitter levels, improved oxygen and nutrient delivery, and increased neurogenesis in the hippocampus. The effects of exercise on memory have important implications for improving children's academic performance, maintaining mental abilities in old age, and the prevention and potential cure of neurological diseases.

qas: question: What can impact memory performance in a positive way?
answers: text: when material is linked to the learning context,

question: What can the scent of vanilla be used for?
answers: text: strong cue for memory.

question: What did a study performed by Schwabe and wolf show?
answers: text: memory impairment and the detrimental effects of stress on learning can be attenuated.

question: In Schwabe and wolfs study what where particpants asked to memorize?
answers: text: were asked to remember the locations of 15 pairs of picture cards –

question: In their study what was the relationship that both groups shared?
answers: text: both stressed and unstressed, performed faster when the learning and retrieval contexts were similar.

question: What can impact memory performance in a negative way?

question: What can the scent of lavender be used for?

question: What did a study performed by Schwartz and wolf show?

question: In Schwabe and wolfs study what where participants asked to forget?

question: What were seventy healthy female and male university students, randomly assigned to?
context: However, memory performance can be enhanced when material is linked to the learning context, even when learning occurs under stress. A separate study by cognitive psychologists Schwabe and Wolf shows that when retention testing is done in a context similar to or congruent with the original learning task (i.e., in the same room), memory impairment and the detrimental effects of stress on learning can be attenuated. Seventy-two healthy female and male university students, randomly assigned to the SECPT stress test or to a control group, were asked to remember the locations of 15 pairs of picture cards – a computerized version of the card game "Concentration" or "Memory". The room in which the experiment took place was infused with the scent of vanilla, as odour is a strong cue for memory. Retention testing took place the following day, either in the same room with the vanilla scent again present, or in a different room without the fragrance. The memory performance of subjects who experienced stress during the object-location task decreased significantly when they were tested in an unfamiliar room without the vanilla scent (an incongruent context); however, the memory performance of stressed subjects showed no impairment when they were tested in the original room with the vanilla scent (a congruent context). All participants in the experiment, both stressed and unstressed, performed faster when the learning and retrieval contexts were similar.

qas: question: What can cause a person to have fake memories?
answers: text: repeatedly imagine actions that they have never performed or events that they have never experienced

question: Who performed a study that showed the similarirty of imaginging doing something and then later remembering actually doing that task?
answers: text: Goff and Roediger

question: What did a similar study done by Garry find?
answers: text: researchers found that one-fourth of the students asked to imagine the four events reported that they had actually experienced such events as children

question: What did Goff and Roediger ask people to do in 1996?

question: What can cause a person to have fake senses?

question: What did a similar study done by Gary Goff find?

question: What happens when people are not asked to imagine events?

question: Who asked students how uncertain they were that they experienced events?
context: Interestingly, research has revealed that asking individuals to repeatedly imagine actions that they have never performed or events that they have never experienced could result in false memories. For instance, Goff and Roediger (1998) asked participants to imagine that they performed an act (e.g., break a toothpick) and then later asked them whether they had done such a thing. Findings revealed that those participants who repeatedly imagined performing such an act were more likely to think that they had actually performed that act during the first session of the experiment. Similarly, Garry and her colleagues (1996) asked college students to report how certain they were that they experienced a number of events as children (e.g., broke a window with their hand) and then two weeks later asked them to imagine four of those events. The researchers found that one-fourth of the students asked to imagine the four events reported that they had actually experienced such events as children. That is, when asked to imagine the events they were more confident that they experienced the events.

qas: question: What has research shown about our memories?
answers: text: our memories are constructed

question: How does a person build their memories?
answers: text: when they encode them and/or when they recall them.

question: What did a study done by Elizabeth Loftus and John palmer show?
answers: text: that when people were provided with misleading information they tended to misremember, a phenomenon known as the misinformation effect.

question: In their study what did people say they say when they really hadn't due to having the word "smashed" inserted into the question?
answers: text: broken glass

question: What has research not shown about our memories?

question: How does a person build their confidence?

question: What did a study done by John Loftus and Elizabeth Palmer show?

question: Who conducted a study in 1794?

question: What is known as the information effect?
context: Although people often think that memory operates like recording equipment, it is not the case. The molecular mechanisms underlying the induction and maintenance of memory are very dynamic and comprise distinct phases covering a time window from seconds to even a lifetime. In fact, research has revealed that our memories are constructed. People can construct their memories when they encode them and/or when they recall them. To illustrate, consider a classic study conducted by Elizabeth Loftus and John Palmer (1974) in which people were instructed to watch a film of a traffic accident and then asked about what they saw. The researchers found that the people who were asked, "How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?" gave higher estimates than those who were asked, "How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?" Furthermore, when asked a week later whether they have seen broken glass in the film, those who had been asked the question with smashed were twice more likely to report that they have seen broken glass than those who had been asked the question with hit. There was no broken glass depicted in the film. Thus, the wording of the questions distorted viewers’ memories of the event. Importantly, the wording of the question led people to construct different memories of the event – those who were asked the question with smashed recalled a more serious car accident than they had actually seen. The findings of this experiment were replicated around the world, and researchers consistently demonstrated that when people were provided with misleading information they tended to misremember, a phenomenon known as the misinformation effect.

qas: question: What is the most widely used way in learing?
answers: text: Rote learning

question: What does memorization mean?
answers: text: a method of learning that allows an individual to recall information verbatim

question: What learning tool did Cosmos rosselliius write about?
answers: text: using visual alphabets.

question: What is the spacing effect?
answers: text: shows that an individual is more likely to remember a list of items when rehearsal is spaced over an extended period of time

question: What is the Zeigarnik effect?
answers: text: states that people remember uncompleted or interrupted tasks better than completed ones.

question: What is the least widely used way in learning?

question: What does memorization not mean?

question: What learning tool did Cosmo Kramer write about?

question: What is the Cosmos effect?

question: What uses non-spatial memory to memorize spatial information?
context: Memorization is a method of learning that allows an individual to recall information verbatim. Rote learning is the method most often used. Methods of memorizing things have been the subject of much discussion over the years with some writers, such as Cosmos Rossellius using visual alphabets. The spacing effect shows that an individual is more likely to remember a list of items when rehearsal is spaced over an extended period of time. In contrast to this is cramming: an intensive memorization in a short period of time. Also relevant is the Zeigarnik effect which states that people remember uncompleted or interrupted tasks better than completed ones. The so-called Method of loci uses spatial memory to memorize non-spatial information.