Karl_Popper

qas: question: Which classical views about the method of science did Popper reject?
answers: text: inductivist

question: Who proposed empirical falsification as the central principle of the scientific method?
answers: text: Popper

question: What is necessary for a scientific theory to be falsified?
answers: text: decisive experiments

question: Which account of knowledge did Popper contest?
answers: text: classical justificationist

question: What is the term for Popper's non-justificational theory of criticism?
answers: text: critical rationalism

question: Who is known for his embrace of the classical inductivist views?

question: Who disproved empirical falsification as a central principle of the scientific method?

question: What was the white swan fallacy used to discuss?

question: What should a scientist do if the outcome of an experiment confirms the theory?

question: Who was known for his support of the classical justificationist account of knowledge?
context: Popper is known for his rejection of the classical inductivist views on the scientific method, in favour of empirical falsification: A theory in the empirical sciences can never be proven, but it can be falsified, meaning that it can and should be scrutinized by decisive experiments. He used the black swan fallacy to discuss falsification. If the outcome of an experiment contradicts the theory, one should refrain from ad hoc manoeuvres that evade the contradiction merely by making it less falsifiable. Popper is also known for his opposition to the classical justificationist account of knowledge, which he replaced with critical rationalism, "the first non-justificational philosophy of criticism in the history of philosophy."

qas: question: In which city was Karl Popper born?
answers: text: Vienna

question: What religion did Popper's family observe during his youth?
answers: text: Lutheranism

question: Whose law firm did Popper's father join in Vienna?
answers: text: Burgomaster Herr Grübl

question: What numerical range of volumes did Popper's father keep in his library?
answers: text: 12,000–14,000

question: What disposition regarding books did Popper inherit from his father?
answers: text: bibliophile

question: What year did Karl Popper pass away?

question: What did the Popper family convert to after Karl was born?

question: What was Karl Popper's mother's profession?

question: Who took over the business after Simon's death?

question: How many books did Karl's mother have in her library?
context: Karl Popper was born in Vienna (then in Austria-Hungary) in 1902, to upper middle-class parents. All of Karl Popper's grandparents were Jewish, but the Popper family converted to Lutheranism before Karl was born, and so he received Lutheran baptism. They understood this as part of their cultural assimilation, not as an expression of devout belief. Karl's father Simon Siegmund Carl Popper was a lawyer from Bohemia and a doctor of law at the Vienna University, and mother Jenny Schiff was of Silesian and Hungarian descent. After establishing themselves in Vienna, the Poppers made a rapid social climb in Viennese society: Simon Siegmund Carl became a partner in the law firm of Vienna's liberal Burgomaster Herr Grübl and, after Grübl's death in 1898, Simon took over the business. (Malachi Hacohen records that Herr Grübl's first name was Raimund, after which Karl received his middle name. Popper himself, in his autobiography, erroneously recalls that Herr Grübl's first name was Carl.) His father was a bibliophile who had 12,000–14,000 volumes in his personal library. Popper inherited both the library and the disposition from him.

qas: question: At which age did Popper first attend university?
answers: text: 16

question: What political doctrine interested Popper in 1919?
answers: text: Marxism

question: Which Austrian political party did Popper join as a youth?
answers: text: Social Democratic Workers' Party of Austria

question: What incident killed several of Poppers Marxist political comrades?
answers: text: street battle in the Hörlgasse

question: To which political philosophy did Popper continue to adhere after moving away from Marxism?
answers: text: social liberalism

question: What age did Popper enter school?

question: When did Popper become disillusioned by social liberalism?

question: What subject did Popper never attend a lecture on?

question: What party rejected Marxist ideology at the time?

question: How many police were shot in the street battle of Horlgasse?
context: Popper left school at the age of 16 and attended lectures in mathematics, physics, philosophy, psychology and the history of music as a guest student at the University of Vienna. In 1919, Popper became attracted by Marxism and subsequently joined the Association of Socialist School Students. He also became a member of the Social Democratic Workers' Party of Austria, which was at that time a party that fully adopted the Marxist ideology. After the street battle in the Hörlgasse on 15 June 1919, when police shot eight of his unarmed party comrades, he became disillusioned by what he saw to be the "pseudo-scientific" historical materialism of Marx, abandoned the ideology, and remained a supporter of social liberalism throughout his life.

qas: question: What trade did Popper enter as an apprentice?
answers: text: cabinetmaker

question: What type of facility did Popper plan to open that would benefit from his furniture-making skills?
answers: text: daycare

question: In which psychoanalysts clinics did Popper volunteer?
answers: text: Alfred Adler

question: When did Popper become an ordinary student rather than a guest at university?
answers: text: 1922

question: For which vocation did Popper complete his university examinations?
answers: text: elementary teacher

question: What was easy for Popper to cope with?

question: Who owned the clinic for adults that Popper volunteered at?

question: When did Popper leave the Pädagogisches Institut?

question: When did Popper join the university as a guest student?

question: When did Popper complete his examination as a university teacher?
context: He worked in street construction for a short amount of time, but was unable to cope with the heavy labour. Continuing to attend university as a guest student, he started an apprenticeship as cabinetmaker, which he completed as a journeyman. He was dreaming at that time of starting a daycare facility for children, for which he assumed the ability to make furniture might be useful. After that he did voluntary service in one of psychoanalyst Alfred Adler's clinics for children. In 1922, he did his matura by way of a second chance education and finally joined the University as an ordinary student. He completed his examination as an elementary teacher in 1924 and started working at an after-school care club for socially endangered children. In 1925, he went to the newly founded Pädagogisches Institut and continued studying philosophy and psychology. Around that time he started courting Josefine Anna Henninger, who later became his wife.

qas: question: Who supervised Popper's doctorate?
answers: text: Karl Bühler

question: What is an English translation of the title of Popper's doctoral thesis?
answers: text: The question of method in cognitive psychology

question: What subjects was Popper authorized to teach in secondary school in 1929?
answers: text: mathematics and physics

question: Whose rise to power motivated Popper to publish his work in hopes of obtaining an academic position abroad?
answers: text: Nazism

question: In which work published in 1934 did Popper introduce his theories centered around falsifiability?
answers: text: The Logic of Scientific Discovery

question: When did Karl Buhler earn a doctorate in psychology?

question: What was the title of Buhler's dissertation?

question: When was Popper barred from teaching math in secondary school?

question: What was the title of Popper's last book?

question: What kind of leave did Popper use to visit Italy?
context: In 1928, he earned a doctorate in psychology, under the supervision of Karl Bühler. His dissertation was entitled "Die Methodenfrage der Denkpsychologie" (The question of method in cognitive psychology). In 1929, he obtained the authorisation to teach mathematics and physics in secondary school, which he started doing. He married his colleague Josefine Anna Henninger (1906–1985) in 1930. Fearing the rise of Nazism and the threat of the Anschluss, he started to use the evenings and the nights to write his first book Die beiden Grundprobleme der Erkenntnistheorie (The Two Fundamental Problems of the Theory of Knowledge). He needed to publish one to get some academic position in a country that was safe for people of Jewish descent. However, he ended up not publishing the two-volume work, but a condensed version of it with some new material, Logik der Forschung (The Logic of Scientific Discovery), in 1934. Here, he criticised psychologism, naturalism, inductionism, and logical positivism, and put forth his theory of potential falsifiability as the criterion demarcating science from non-science. In 1935 and 1936, he took unpaid leave to go to the United Kingdom for a study visit.

qas: question: Where did Popper move in 1937?
answers: text: New Zealand

question: Where was Popper's academic appointment in New Zealand?
answers: text: Canterbury University College of the University of New Zealand

question: Which lifelong friend did Popper make in Dunedin?
answers: text: John Carew Eccles

question: What philosophical fields did Popper teach at the London School of Economics?
answers: text: logic and scientific method

question: Which Austrian school's failure to give Popper a directorship prompted him to return to the United Kingdom at the end of his life?
answers: text: Ludwig Boltzmann Gesellschaft

question: What year did Popper become a lecturer in biology?

question: What was the title of John Carew Eccles's influential work?

question: What month was Popper's wife born in?

question: What year did John Carew Eccles move to the United Kingdom?

question: What university was Popper appointed a professor of astronomy at?
context: In 1937, Popper finally managed to get a position that allowed him to emigrate to New Zealand, where he became lecturer in philosophy at Canterbury University College of the University of New Zealand in Christchurch. It was here that he wrote his influential work The Open Society and its Enemies. In Dunedin he met the Professor of Physiology John Carew Eccles and formed a lifelong friendship with him. In 1946, after the Second World War, he moved to the United Kingdom to become reader in logic and scientific method at the London School of Economics. Three years later, in 1949, he was appointed professor of logic and scientific method at the University of London. Popper was president of the Aristotelian Society from 1958 to 1959. He retired from academic life in 1969, though he remained intellectually active for the rest of his life. In 1985, he returned to Austria so that his wife could have her relatives around her during the last months of her life; she died in November that year. After the Ludwig Boltzmann Gesellschaft failed to establish him as the director of a newly founded branch researching the philosophy of science, he went back again to the United Kingdom in 1986, settling in Kenley, Surrey.

qas: question: How old was Popper when he died?
answers: text: 92

question: Which cemetery in Vienna received Popper's ashes?
answers: text: Lainzer

question: Where are Popper's manuscripts kept now?
answers: text: Hoover Institution at Stanford University

question: Which university has the contents of Popper's library?
answers: text: Klagenfurt University

question: What was Popper's wife's name?
answers: text: Josefine Anna Popper

question: At what age did Josefine Anna Popper die?

question: What did Popper's wife die from?

question: Whose manuscripts were sent to the University of London?

question: What university possesses Melitta Mew's library? 

question: When did Klagenfurt University lose its copyrights from the estate?
context: Popper died of "complications of cancer, pneumonia and kidney failure" in Kenley at the age of 92 on 17 September 1994. He had been working continuously on his philosophy until two weeks before, when he suddenly fell terminally ill. After cremation, his ashes were taken to Vienna and buried at Lainzer cemetery adjacent to the ORF Centre, where his wife Josefine Anna Popper (called ‘Hennie’) had already been buried. Popper's estate is managed by his secretary and personal assistant Melitta Mew and her husband Raymond. Popper's manuscripts went to the Hoover Institution at Stanford University, partly during his lifetime and partly as supplementary material after his death. Klagenfurt University possesses Popper's library, including his precious bibliophilia, as well as hard copies of the original Hoover material and microfilms of the supplementary material. The remaining parts of the estate were mostly transferred to The Karl Popper Charitable Trust. In October 2008 Klagenfurt University acquired the copyrights from the estate.

qas: question: Which award did Popper receive from the American Political Science Association?
answers: text: Lippincott Award

question: What recognition did Austria bestow on Popper in 1986?
answers: text: Grand Decoration of Honour in Gold for Services to the Republic of Austria

question: Who gave Popper its Humanist Laureate Award?
answers: text: International Academy of Humanism

question: Which English monarch knighted Popper?
answers: text: Queen Elizabeth II

question: Which central European university made Popper a fellow?
answers: text: Charles University, Prague

question: When was Popper knighted by King George?

question: What honor did Popper never win?

question: What award did Russia send to Popper?

question: When was Popper thrown out of the Royal Society?

question: What award did Popper lose in 1982?
context: Popper won many awards and honours in his field, including the Lippincott Award of the American Political Science Association, the Sonning Prize, the Otto Hahn Peace Medal of the United Nations Association of Germany in Berlin and fellowships in the Royal Society, British Academy, London School of Economics, King's College London, Darwin College, Cambridge, and Charles University, Prague. Austria awarded him the Grand Decoration of Honour in Gold for Services to the Republic of Austria in 1986, and the Federal Republic of Germany its Grand Cross with Star and Sash of the Order of Merit, and the peace class of the Order Pour le Mérite. He received the Humanist Laureate Award from the International Academy of Humanism. He was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II in 1965, and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1976. He was invested with the Insignia of a Companion of Honour in 1982.

qas: question: In which year did Popper win the Karl Renner Prize?
answers: text: 1978

question: Which city made Popper part of its Ring of Honour in 1983?
answers: text: Vienna

question: What award given by a Japanese foundation did Popper win in 1992?
answers: text: Kyoto Prize in Arts and Philosophy

question: Popper won the Dr. Leopold Lucas Prize in which year?
answers: text: 1981

question: What year did Popper win the City of Berlin Prize for the Humanities?

question: What award did Popper win in 1970?

question: What award given by an American foundation did Popper win in 1992?

question: Why was Popper awarded the Ring of Honour of the City of Vienna?

question: What prize did Karl Renner recieve in 1981?
context: Other awards and recognition for Popper included the City of Vienna Prize for the Humanities (1965), Karl Renner Prize (1978), Austrian Decoration for Science and Art (1980), Dr. Leopold Lucas Prize (1981), Ring of Honour of the City of Vienna (1983) and the Premio Internazionale of the Italian Federico Nietzsche Society (1988). In 1992, he was awarded the Kyoto Prize in Arts and Philosophy for "symbolising the open spirit of the 20th century" and for his "enormous influence on the formation of the modern intellectual climate".

qas: question: What political philosophy that attracted Popper as a teenager had a profound influence on his thinking going forward?
answers: text: Marxism

question: For a time during which year did Popper consider himself a communist?
answers: text: 1919

question: At which stage of life was Popper most strongly influenced by Marxist thinking?
answers: text: teenage years

question: How did Popper feel about Marxism after only a short time associating with other Marxists?
answers: text: disillusioned

question: How did Popper's rejection of Marxism in his adult years effect him?

question: In what year did Popper consider himself a fascist for a few months? 

question: What ideology did Popper never become disillusioned with?

question: Who did Popper align himself closely with?

question: When did Popper think it was unnecessary to act with prudence? 
context: Karl Popper's rejection of Marxism during his teenage years left a profound mark on his thought. He had at one point joined a socialist association, and for a few months in 1919 considered himself a communist. During this time he became familiar with the Marxist view of economics, class-war, and history. Although he quickly became disillusioned with the views expounded by Marxism, his flirtation with the ideology led him to distance himself from those who believed that spilling blood for the sake of a revolution was necessary. He came to realise that when it came to sacrificing human lives, one was to think and act with extreme prudence.

qas: question: What political ideology dominated Austrian politics in the decades before the second world war?
answers: text: fascism

question: What key event in 1938 pushed Popper into exile from Austria?
answers: text: the Anschluss

question: What political ideology do Popper's major works defend?
answers: text: democratic liberalism

question: What form of political organization do Popper's works mainly critique?
answers: text: totalitarianism

question: What was the Anschluss?
answers: text: the annexation of Austria by the German Reich

question: What prevented fascism from taking over Austrian politics?

question: In what years was fascism prevented from taking over?

question: What forced Popper to come out of exile?

question: What was one of Popper's least important works?

question: Whose books critiqued democratic liberalism as a social and political philosophy?
context: The failure of democratic parties to prevent fascism from taking over Austrian politics in the 1920s and 1930s traumatised Popper. He suffered from the direct consequences of this failure, since events after the Anschluss, the annexation of Austria by the German Reich in 1938, forced him into permanent exile. His most important works in the field of social science—The Poverty of Historicism (1944) and The Open Society and Its Enemies (1945)—were inspired by his reflection on the events of his time and represented, in a sense, a reaction to the prevalent totalitarian ideologies that then dominated Central European politics. His books defended democratic liberalism as a social and political philosophy. They also represented extensive critiques of the philosophical presuppositions underpinning all forms of totalitarianism.

qas: question: Which two important psychologists did Popper view as advancing non-scientific theories?
answers: text: Freud and Adler

question: Whose recent breakthrough in physics did Popper view as paradigmatic science?
answers: text: Einstein

question: What quality of the theory of relativity did Popper believe made it proper science?
answers: text: risky

question: What did Popper think psychoanalytic theory shared more feature with than real science ?
answers: text: primitive myths

question: What could you not do to psychoanalytic theory that Popper believed crucial in genuine science?
answers: text: falsify

question: When did Adler set off a revolution in the field of physics?

question: What did Freud think Einstein's theory was?

question: When did Popper's experiments confirm light is deflected towards solid bodies? 

question: Who though psychoanalytic theories had more in common with genuine science than myths?

question: What field did Einstein set off a revolution in during the late 20th century? 
context: Popper puzzled over the stark contrast between the non-scientific character of Freud and Adler's theories in the field of psychology and the revolution set off by Einstein's theory of relativity in physics in the early 20th century. Popper thought that Einstein's theory, as a theory properly grounded in scientific thought and method, was highly "risky", in the sense that it was possible to deduce consequences from it which were, in the light of the then-dominant Newtonian physics, highly improbable (e.g., that light is deflected towards solid bodies—confirmed by Eddington's experiments in 1919), and which would, if they turned out to be false, falsify the whole theory. In contrast, nothing could, even in principle, falsify psychoanalytic theories. He thus came to the conclusion that psychoanalytic theories had more in common with primitive myths than with genuine science.

qas: question: According to Popper, a theory is scientific only is it is susceptible to what?
answers: text: falsification

question: What key components of science are ineffective when brought to bear on non-scientific theories?
answers: text: criticism or experiment

question: How did Popper characterize the wide applicability and immunity to criticism of psychoanalytic theory?
answers: text: weaknesses

question: Who thought the weaknesses of psychoanalytical theories were actually strengths?

question: What made it possible for psychoanalytical theories to be shown as false?  

question: Who never tackled the problem of demarcation in the philosophy of science?

question: What did Popper think the weakness of a scientific theory lay in?
context: This led Popper to conclude that what were regarded[by whom?] as the remarkable strengths of psychoanalytical theories were actually their weaknesses. Psychoanalytical theories were crafted in a way that made them able to refute any criticism and to give an explanation for every possible form of human behaviour. The nature of such theories made it impossible for any criticism or experiment - even in principle - to show them to be false. This realisation had an important consequence when Popper later tackled the problem of demarcation in the philosophy of science, as it led him to posit that the strength of a scientific theory lies in its both being susceptible to falsification, and not actually being falsified by criticism made of it. He considered that if a theory cannot, in principle, be falsified by criticism, it is not a scientific theory.

qas: question: What term did Popper use for his philosophy?
answers: text: critical rationalism

question: Which account of scientific method did Popper's repudiate?
answers: text: the classical observationalist-inductivist account

question: What was Popper's position on classical empiricism?
answers: text: rejection

question: According to Popper, what is the only way one can test scientific theories because they are necessarily abstract?
answers: text: indirectly

question: What term did Einstein term to describe his philosophy? 

question: What does critical rationalism embrace?

question: What did Popper think was concrete in nature?

question: What did Popper think could be tested only directly?

question: Who argued in favor of the classical observationalist-inductivist account of science?
context: Popper coined the term "critical rationalism" to describe his philosophy. Concerning the method of science, the term indicates his rejection of classical empiricism, and the classical observationalist-inductivist account of science that had grown out of it. Popper argued strongly against the latter, holding that scientific theories are abstract in nature, and can be tested only indirectly, by reference to their implications. He also held that scientific theory, and human knowledge generally, is irreducibly conjectural or hypothetical, and is generated by the creative imagination to solve problems that have arisen in specific historico-cultural settings.

qas: question: Popper pointed out an important logical asymmetry between what two concepts?
answers: text: verification and falsifiability

question: What does Popper say demarcates scientific theory from non-science?
answers: text: falsifiability

question: What political theory did Popper say did not meet his falsifiability criterion?
answers: text: Marxism

question: What branch of psychology was Popper critical of for not producing falsifiable theory?
answers: text: psychoanalysis

question: Popper pointed out a logical symmetry between what two concepts?

question: What lies at the heart of Einstein's philosophy about science?

question: What discouraged Popper from taking falsifiability as his criterion of demarcation between things that are scientific and not scientific?

question: What ideology did Popper raise to scientific status?

question: What ideology did Popper claim was falsifiable?
context: Logically, no number of positive outcomes at the level of experimental testing can confirm a scientific theory, but a single counterexample is logically decisive: it shows the theory, from which the implication is derived, to be false. To say that a given statement (e.g., the statement of a law of some scientific theory) -- [call it "T"] -- is "falsifiable" does not mean that "T" is false. Rather, it means that, if "T" is false, then (in principle), "T" could be shown to be false, by observation or by experiment. Popper's account of the logical asymmetry between verification and falsifiability lies at the heart of his philosophy of science. It also inspired him to take falsifiability as his criterion of demarcation between what is, and is not, genuinely scientific: a theory should be considered scientific if, and only if, it is falsifiable. This led him to attack the claims of both psychoanalysis and contemporary Marxism to scientific status, on the basis that their theories are not falsifiable.

qas: question: Which of Popper's works addresses the improvement of scientific understanding of the world over time?
answers: text: All Life is Problem Solving

question: Popper described the growth of scientific understanding as what kind of process?
answers: text: evolutionary

question: What aspect of a scientific theory can never be fully verified, according to Popper?
answers: text: truth content

question: In what book did Popper seek to explain the process of literary knowledge?

question: Who explained why our understanding of the universe seems to worsen over time?

question: What part of theories can be verified by scientific testing?

question: What refers to something being "fake"?

question: What was the advance of scientific knowledge in Einstein's view?
context: In All Life is Problem Solving, Popper sought to explain the apparent progress of scientific knowledge – that is, how it is that our understanding of the universe seems to improve over time. This problem arises from his position that the truth content of our theories, even the best of them, cannot be verified by scientific testing, but can only be falsified. Again, in this context the word "falsified" does not refer to something being "fake"; rather, that something can be (i.e., is capable of being) shown to be false by observation or experiment. Some things simply do not lend themselves to being shown to be false, and therefore, are not falsifiable. If so, then how is it that the growth of science appears to result in a growth in knowledge? In Popper's view, the advance of scientific knowledge is an evolutionary process characterised by his formula:

qas: question: What process in science is like the process of natural selection in nature?
answers: text: error elimination

question: What is a better description for theories that survive scientific scrutiny than "more true?"
answers: text: more "fit"

question: What is another term for the tentative theories enter the process of error elimination in science? 
answers: text: conjectures

question: Toward what does Popper believe scientific understandings progress?
answers: text: more and more interesting problems

question: What is not subject to rigorous attempts at falsification? 

question: What serves a different purpose in biological evolution than error elimination serves in science?

question: What theories are less applicable to the situation at hand?

question: What produces adaptive traits to deal only with simple problems of survival?

question: Who thinks the evolution of theories does not reflect a certain type of progress?
context: In response to a given problem situation (), a number of competing conjectures, or tentative theories (), are systematically subjected to the most rigorous attempts at falsification possible. This process, error elimination (), performs a similar function for science that natural selection performs for biological evolution. Theories that better survive the process of refutation are not more true, but rather, more "fit"—in other words, more applicable to the problem situation at hand (). Consequently, just as a species' biological fitness does not ensure continued survival, neither does rigorous testing protect a scientific theory from refutation in the future. Yet, as it appears that the engine of biological evolution has, over many generations, produced adaptive traits equipped to deal with more and more complex problems of survival, likewise, the evolution of theories through the scientific method may, in Popper's view, reflect a certain type of progress: toward more and more interesting problems (). For Popper, it is in the interplay between the tentative theories (conjectures) and error elimination (refutation) that scientific knowledge advances toward greater and greater problems; in a process very much akin to the interplay between genetic variation and natural selection.

qas: question: Popper's thoughts on falsification present a solution to the philosophical problem concerning what type of scientific reasoning?
answers: text: induction

question: What parts of a theory are unnecessary before the simple theory is falsified?
answers: text: additional conditions

question: Who presented a solution to the philosophical problem of induction centered around falsifiability?
answers: text: Popper

question: Who never claimed to have solved the philosophical problem of induction?

question: What theory is not possible to formulate?

question: What would confirm the theory the sun will rise?

question: What is rational according to Popper?

question: Who said it was rational to assume the sun will rise until a given day?
context: Among his contributions to philosophy is his claim to have solved the philosophical problem of induction. He states that while there is no way to prove that the sun will rise, it is possible to formulate the theory that every day the sun will rise; if it does not rise on some particular day, the theory will be falsified and will have to be replaced by a different one. Until that day, there is no need to reject the assumption that the theory is true. Nor is it rational according to Popper to make instead the more complex assumption that the sun will rise until a given day, but will stop doing so the day after, or similar statements with additional conditions.

qas: question: Popper's rational approach opposes what technique sometimes used to remove contradictions in knowledge?
answers: text: ad-hoc-measures

question: Which of Popper's students argued that rational criticism should be most widely applied?
answers: text: W.W. Bartley III

question: What type of knowledge is not the only sphere of rational criticism, according to Popper's student W.W. Bartley III?
answers: text: empirical

question: Who held that rationality is restricted  to the realm of empirical or scientific theories?

question: What is rational discussion about not possible, according to this view?

question: Who was W.W. Bartley III's student?

question: What was W.W. Bartley III's uncontroversial claim?
context: Popper held that rationality is not restricted to the realm of empirical or scientific theories, but that it is merely a special case of the general method of criticism, the method of finding and eliminating contradictions in knowledge without ad-hoc-measures. According to this view, rational discussion about metaphysical ideas, about moral values and even about purposes is possible. Popper's student W.W. Bartley III tried to radicalise this idea and made the controversial claim that not only can criticism go beyond empirical knowledge, but that everything can be rationally criticised.

qas: question: According to Popper, what is not grounds for doubt?
answers: text: lack of justification

question: What principle of traditional philosophy did Popper take an anti-justificationist stance against?
answers: text: principle of sufficient reason

question: What does Popper believe is essential to do to theories instead of justification?
answers: text: eliminate errors

question: What don't we need to look for about theories in Popper's view?
answers: text: good positive reasons

question: Who was a pro-justificationist?

question: What did Popper think needed to be justified?

question: What is a justification for doubt?

question: Who believed that good positive reasons exist?

question: What did Popper think should never be tested or scrutinized?
context: To Popper, who was an anti-justificationist, traditional philosophy is misled by the false principle of sufficient reason. He thinks that no assumption can ever be or needs ever to be justified, so a lack of justification is not a justification for doubt. Instead, theories should be tested and scrutinised. It is not the goal to bless theories with claims of certainty or justification, but to eliminate errors in them. He writes, "there are no such things as good positive reasons; nor do we need such things [...] But [philosophers] obviously cannot quite bring [themselves] to believe that this is my opinion, let alone that it is right" (The Philosophy of Karl Popper, p. 1043)

qas: question: Which of Popper's works criticized the idea that history has an inexorable developmental path?
answers: text: The Poverty of Historicism

question: What is the term for the view that there are discoverable general laws constraining history's development?
answers: text: historicism

question: What political forms did Popper believe historicism supported?
answers: text: authoritarianism and totalitarianism

question: What unpredictable feature of the world did Popper say refuted historicism?
answers: text: the growth of human knowledge

question: In what book did Popper defend historicism?

question: Who criticized the "Open Society"?

question: What did Einstein consider historicism to be?

question: What did Popper argue is founded on correct assumptions regarding the nature of scientific law and prediction?

question: What can predict its own future states of knowledge? 
context: In The Open Society and Its Enemies and The Poverty of Historicism, Popper developed a critique of historicism and a defence of the "Open Society". Popper considered historicism to be the theory that history develops inexorably and necessarily according to knowable general laws towards a determinate end. He argued that this view is the principal theoretical presupposition underpinning most forms of authoritarianism and totalitarianism. He argued that historicism is founded upon mistaken assumptions regarding the nature of scientific law and prediction. Since the growth of human knowledge is a causal factor in the evolution of human history, and since "no society can predict, scientifically, its own future states of knowledge", it follows, he argued, that there can be no predictive science of human history. For Popper, metaphysical and historical indeterminism go hand in hand.

qas: question: Whose theory of truth did Popper read with intense interest in 1935?
answers: text: Alfred Tarski

question: What theory of interest to Popper did Alfred Tarski publish in 1933?
answers: text: semantic theory of truth

question: Tarski's theory overcame certain objections to what conception of truth?
answers: text: truth as correspondence

question: What kind of realism did Popper believe Tarski's theory supported?
answers: text: metaphysical

question: What did Popper write about before 1934?

question: Whose theory of truth did Alfred Tarski read in 1935?

question: What seemed to disprove metaphysical realism and the regulative idea of a search for truth to Popper?

question: What did Tarski write about the search for truth in 1934?

question: What book by Alfred Tarski was published in 1972?
context: As early as 1934, Popper wrote of the search for truth as "one of the strongest motives for scientific discovery." Still, he describes in Objective Knowledge (1972) early concerns about the much-criticised notion of truth as correspondence. Then came the semantic theory of truth formulated by the logician Alfred Tarski and published in 1933. Popper writes of learning in 1935 of the consequences of Tarski's theory, to his intense joy. The theory met critical objections to truth as correspondence and thereby rehabilitated it. The theory also seemed, in Popper's eyes, to support metaphysical realism and the regulative idea of a search for truth.

qas: question: What term do philosophers give to the kind of theory Tarski proposed about truth?
answers: text: deflationary

question: With what does Popper say Tarski's theory replaces the predicate "is true?"
answers: text: "corresponds to the facts"

question: What concept did Tarski introduce to discuss the conditions for the truth of statements?
answers: text: metalanguage

question: What two things does Popper argue Tarski's theory involves in an evaluation of truth?
answers: text: assertions and the facts to which they refer

question: What is not part of a metalanguage?

question: When is the sentence "Snow is white" untrue?

question: What does Popper interpret as a deflationary theory?

question: What does Tarski base his interpretation of Popper on?

question: What does Tarski identify Popper's formulation of the truth conditions of sentences as?
context: According to this theory, the conditions for the truth of a sentence as well as the sentences themselves are part of a metalanguage. So, for example, the sentence "Snow is white" is true if and only if snow is white. Although many philosophers have interpreted, and continue to interpret, Tarski's theory as a deflationary theory, Popper refers to it as a theory in which "is true" is replaced with "corresponds to the facts". He bases this interpretation on the fact that examples such as the one described above refer to two things: assertions and the facts to which they refer. He identifies Tarski's formulation of the truth conditions of sentences as the introduction of a "metalinguistic predicate" and distinguishes the following cases:

qas: question: What term does Popper use that roughly means verisimilitude?
answers: text: truthlikeness

question: Poppers notion of verisimilitude leaves no place for which kind of probabilities in the evaluation of scientific hypotheses?
answers: text: subjective

question: What class of considerations did Popper believe were not important in scientific measurement?
answers: text: epistemic

question: What is the logical content of hypotheses inversely proportional to in Popper's reasoning?
answers: text: probability

question: What term means the opposite of verisimilitude?

question: What was Popper's unimportant notion?

question: What can never be evaluated as more or less true than another on an quantitative basis?

question: What does Popper emphasize has a lot to do with subjective probabilities? 
context: Upon this basis, along with that of the logical content of assertions (where logical content is inversely proportional to probability), Popper went on to develop his important notion of verisimilitude or "truthlikeness". The intuitive idea behind verisimilitude is that the assertions or hypotheses of scientific theories can be objectively measured with respect to the amount of truth and falsity that they imply. And, in this way, one theory can be evaluated as more or less true than another on a quantitative basis which, Popper emphasises forcefully, has nothing to do with "subjective probabilities" or other merely "epistemic" considerations.

qas: question: What did Popper argue was objective and independent of its subject?
answers: text: knowledge

question: How many different worlds or realities did Popper differentiate in Objective Knowledge?
answers: text: three

question: What constituted World One in Popper's theory?
answers: text: the physical world

question: Who produced the contents of World Three?
answers: text: individual human beings

question: Which world's evolution corresponds to the growth of human knowledge?
answers: text: World Three

question: What was not objective for Popper?

question: In what book did Popper say that knowledge was dependent on the knowing subject?

question: How many different worlds or realities did Einstein define in Objective Knowledge?

question: What constituted World Four in Popper's theory?

question: What items did Popper say were not a product of the second world made manifest in the first world?
context: Knowledge, for Popper, was objective, both in the sense that it is objectively true (or truthlike), and also in the sense that knowledge has an ontological status (i.e., knowledge as object) independent of the knowing subject (Objective Knowledge: An Evolutionary Approach, 1972). He proposed three worlds: World One, being the physical world, or physical states; World Two, being the world of mind, or mental states, ideas, and perceptions; and World Three, being the body of human knowledge expressed in its manifold forms, or the products of the second world made manifest in the materials of the first world (i.e., books, papers, paintings, symphonies, and all the products of the human mind). World Three, he argued, was the product of individual human beings in exactly the same sense that an animal path is the product of individual animals, and that, as such, has an existence and evolution independent of any individual knowing subjects. The influence of World Three, in his view, on the individual human mind (World Two) is at least as strong as the influence of World One. In other words, the knowledge held by a given individual mind owes at least as much to the total accumulated wealth of human knowledge, made manifest, as to the world of direct experience. As such, the growth of human knowledge could be said to be a function of the independent evolution of World Three. Many contemporary philosophers, such as Daniel Dennett, have not embraced Popper's Three World conjecture, due mostly, it seems, to its resemblance to mind-body dualism.

qas: question: Which of Popper's notions is often invoked in creation-evolution debates?
answers: text: criterion of falsifiability

question: What kind of research program did Popper call Darwinism?
answers: text: metaphysical

question: What phrase did Popper use to describe Darwinism's relation to proper falsifiable theories?
answers: text: possible framework

question: Popper's philosophy is often applied in what political debate concerning biological science?
answers: text: creation–evolution

question: What issues does the creation-evolution controversy in Canada raise?

question: What have both sides of the debate never invoked?

question: Where is there no creation-evolution controversy? 

question: How often are passages by Darwin quoted in the creation–evolution controversy?

question: Who stated that Darwinism is a testable scientific theory?
context: The creation–evolution controversy in the United States raises the issue of whether creationistic ideas may be legitimately called science and whether evolution itself may be legitimately called science. In the debate, both sides and even courts in their decisions have frequently invoked Popper's criterion of falsifiability (see Daubert standard). In this context, passages written by Popper are frequently quoted in which he speaks about such issues himself. For example, he famously stated "Darwinism is not a testable scientific theory, but a metaphysical research program—a possible framework for testable scientific theories." He continued:

qas: question: Along with some creationists, Popper believed that evolution must have what quality to its progress?
answers: text: goal-directed

question: Popper disagreed with creationists that whose hand must be directing evolution?
answers: text: god

question: What kind of an entity did Popper believe the universe to be?
answers: text: creative

question: What did Popper not have sophisticated views on?

question: What did Darwin understand the universe as?

question: Who thought that the universe necessitated a god?

question: What didn't go beyond what the frequently-quoted passages said?

question: Who thought that evolution did not work in a goal-directed way?
context: Popper had his own sophisticated views on evolution that go much beyond what the frequently-quoted passages say. In effect, Popper agreed with some of the points of both creationists and naturalists, but also disagreed with both views on crucial aspects. Popper understood the universe as a creative entity that invents new things, including life, but without the necessity of something like a god, especially not one who is pulling strings from behind the curtain. He said that evolution must, as the creationists say, work in a goal-directed way but disagreed with their view that it must necessarily be the hand of god that imposes these goals onto the stage of life.

qas: question: What is the name of Popper's model of evolution?
answers: text: spearhead

question: Popper's model of evolution is part of what family of models?
answers: text: genetic pluralism

question: What directs the actions of organisms in Popper's biological model?
answers: text: goals

question: Organisms' goals shift along with which notable genetic process?
answers: text: Mutations

question: In which model do living organisms not have goals?

question: What is the least sophisticated form of organisms with central control?

question: What is a species of higher complexity than the human brain?

question: What are mutations in the genes not able to change?

question: What does Popper think is more likely to be lethal to an organism than changes of phenotype?
context: Instead, he formulated the spearhead model of evolution, a version of genetic pluralism. According to this model, living organisms themselves have goals, and act according to these goals, each guided by a central control. In its most sophisticated form, this is the brain of humans, but controls also exist in much less sophisticated ways for species of lower complexity, such as the amoeba. This control organ plays a special role in evolution—it is the "spearhead of evolution". The goals bring the purpose into the world. Mutations in the genes that determine the structure of the control may then cause drastic changes in behaviour, preferences and goals, without having an impact on the organism's phenotype. Popper postulates that such purely behavioural changes are less likely to be lethal for the organism compared to drastic changes of the phenotype.

qas: question: Which view of evolution emphasizing large changes in organisms' phenotypes does Popper oppose to his own?
answers: text: hopeful monster

question: Which aspect of organisms changes most radically in the process of evolution Popper envisions?
answers: text: behaviour

question: How does Popper describe the "monsters" that evolve in his view of evolutionary processes?
answers: text: hopeful behavioural monster

question: What kind of Darwinism does Popper subscribe to in contrast to the naturalistic kind?
answers: text: active

question: What happens after behavior changes only a little?

question: What do large and slow changes to the phenotype do?

question: What changed after the giraffe evolved a long neck?

question: What did Darwin contrast "active Darwinism" with?
context: Popper contrasts his views with the notion of the "hopeful monster" that has large phenotype mutations and calls it the "hopeful behavioural monster". After behaviour has changed radically, small but quick changes of the phenotype follow to make the organism fitter to its changed goals. This way it looks as if the phenotype were changing guided by some invisible hand, while it is merely natural selection working in combination with the new behaviour. For example, according to this hypothesis, the eating habits of the giraffe must have changed before its elongated neck evolved. Popper contrasted this view as "evolution from within" or "active Darwinism" (the organism actively trying to discover new ways of life and being on a quest for conquering new ecological niches), with the naturalistic "evolution from without" (which has the picture of a hostile environment only trying to kill the mostly passive organism, or perhaps segregate some of its groups).

qas: question: Which professor cited by Popper described the creation-evolution debate as "a storm in a Victorian tea-cup?"
answers: text: C.E. Raven

question: What controversy involving science did Popper believe was sensationalized because of its connection with religion?
answers: text: creation-evolution

question: In which year did C.E. Raven publish the remarks on creation-evolution quoted by Popper?
answers: text: 1943

question: What term does Popper use when describing creationism as a type of theory?
answers: text: metaphysical

question: Who wrote that the creation-evolution controversy was "not sensational" ?

question: Who did Professor Raven say he agreed with?

question: In what book did Popper called the conflict "a storm in a Victorian tea-cup"?

question: In what year did Popper publish Science, Religion, and the Future?

question: Who thought the force of Popper's remarks was impaired to the attention he paid to the conflict?
context: About the creation-evolution controversy, Popper wrote that he considered it "a somewhat sensational clash between a brilliant scientific hypothesis concerning the history of the various species of animals and plants on earth, and an older metaphysical theory which, incidentally, happened to be part of an established religious belief" with a footnote to the effect that "[he] agree[s] with Professor C.E. Raven when, in his Science, Religion, and the Future, 1943, he calls this conflict "a storm in a Victorian tea-cup"; though the force of this remark is perhaps a little impaired by the attention he pays to the vapours still emerging from the cup—to the Great Systems of Evolutionist Philosophy, produced by Bergson, Whitehead, Smuts, and others."

qas: question: In which year did Popper give a secret interview concerning his views about God?
answers: text: 1969

question: Which term for his religious outlook did Popper prefer?
answers: text: agnosticism

question: What did Popper believe were at the heart of religious disagreements, and should not be the cause of as much conflict as they are?
answers: text: myths

question: Although he opposed organized religion, what attitude did Popper think should be taken toward it:
answers: text: tolerant

question: When did Popper give an interview on the condition it be published right away?

question: Who thought that atheism was superior to agnosticism?

question: What kind of religion did Popper support?

question: Why did Popper support organized religion?

question: Who did Popper believe should not be respected?
context: In an interview that Popper gave in 1969 with the condition that it shall be kept secret until after his death, he summarised his position on God as follows: "I don't know whether God exists or not. ... Some forms of atheism are arrogant and ignorant and should be rejected, but agnosticism—to admit that we don't know and to search—is all right. ... When I look at what I call the gift of life, I feel a gratitude which is in tune with some religious ideas of God. However, the moment I even speak of it, I am embarrassed that I may do something wrong to God in talking about God." He objected to organised religion, saying "it tends to use the name of God in vain", noting the danger of fanaticism because of religious conflicts: "The whole thing goes back to myths which, though they may have a kernel of truth, are untrue. Why then should the Jewish myth be true and the Indian and Egyptian myths not be true?" In a letter unrelated to the interview, he stressed his tolerant attitude: "Although I am not for religion, I do think that we should show respect for anybody who believes honestly."

qas: question: What branch of philosophy did Popper advance the most?
answers: text: philosophy of science

question: Which department did Popper found at the London School of Economics?
answers: text: Department of Philosophy, Logic and Scientific Method

question: Which two major philosophers of science learned a great deal from Popper at the London School Economics?
answers: text: Imre Lakatos and Paul Feyerabend

question: What did Paul Feyerabend ultimate do to Popper's philosophy of science?
answers: text: repudiated it entirely

question: Where did Popper establish a university department for the philosophy of science in 1946?
answers: text: London School of Economics

question: Who did not play a role in the philosophy of science?

question: When was the Department of Philosophy, Logic and Scientific Method at the London School of Economics disbanded?

question: What department did Einstein found in 1946 in London?

question: Who did Imre Lakatos lecture to?

question: Which philosopher completely agreed with Popper's unmodified position? 
context: Popper played a vital role in establishing the philosophy of science as a vigorous, autonomous discipline within philosophy, through his own prolific and influential works, and also through his influence on his own contemporaries and students. Popper founded in 1946 the Department of Philosophy, Logic and Scientific Method at the London School of Economics and there lectured and influenced both Imre Lakatos and Paul Feyerabend, two of the foremost philosophers of science in the next generation of philosophy of science. (Lakatos significantly modified Popper's position,:1 and Feyerabend repudiated it entirely, but the work of both is deeply influenced by Popper and engaged with many of the problems that Popper set.)

qas: question: Which other Austrian scholar and friend of Popper also worked near him at the London School of Economics?
answers: text: Friedrich Hayek

question: What was Hayek's academic field?
answers: text: Economics

question: In which year did Popper write Hayek a letter expressing his intellectual debt to him?
answers: text: 1944

question: Who did Popper say was the only thinker who might have had a greater influence on him than Hayek?
answers: text: Alfred Tarski

question: Which of Hayek's publications was dedicated to Popper?
answers: text: Studies in Philosophy, Politics, and Economics

question: Who has a long rivalry with Popper?

question: Who never communicated with Hayek?

question: Who did Hayek write a letter to in 1944?

question: Who did Alfred Tarski say he had learned more from than any other living thinker?

question: When did Studies in Philosophy, Politics, and Economics come out?
context: While there is some dispute as to the matter of influence, Popper had a long-standing and close friendship with economist Friedrich Hayek, who was also brought to the London School of Economics from Vienna. Each found support and similarities in the other's work, citing each other often, though not without qualification. In a letter to Hayek in 1944, Popper stated, "I think I have learnt more from you than from any other living thinker, except perhaps Alfred Tarski." Popper dedicated his Conjectures and Refutations to Hayek. For his part, Hayek dedicated a collection of papers, Studies in Philosophy, Politics, and Economics, to Popper, and in 1982 said, "...ever since his Logik der Forschung first came out in 1934, I have been a complete adherent to his general theory of methodology."

qas: question: What other contemporaneous school of thought is often confused with Popper's own contributions?
answers: text: logical positivism

question: Popper has stressed that his description of scientific methodology should not be mistaken to apply to whom?
answers: text: any particular scientist

question: At what level does Popper indicate his view of scientific methodology applies?
answers: text: system or community

question: What kind of progress does science make given the methodology Popper describes?
answers: text: slow but steady

question: What does Popper argue is therefore true?

question: Whose ideas are a logical account of truth?

question: What did not appear at the same time as Popper's ideas?

question: What did the followers of logical positivism mistake as opposite to their own?

question: What kind of progress does science make if it does not use Popper's methodology?
context: He does not argue that any such conclusions are therefore true, or that this describes the actual methods of any particular scientist.[citation needed] Rather, it is recommended as an essential principle of methodology that, if enacted by a system or community, will lead to slow but steady progress of a sort (relative to how well the system or community enacts the method). It has been suggested that Popper's ideas are often mistaken for a hard logical account of truth because of the historical co-incidence of their appearing at the same time as logical positivism, the followers of which mistook his aims for their own.

qas: question: What thesis says a scientific hypothesis is not testable in isolation from its system of theories?
answers: text: Quine-Duhem

question: Which of Popper's works responds to critiques of naive falsificationism?
answers: text: The Logic of Scientific Discovery

question: The planet Uranus' apparent failure to follow Newton's laws led to the discovery of which planet?
answers: text: Neptune

question: According to Popper, the scientific selection process favors which type of theory?
answers: text: more generally applicable

question: What thesis says it is possible to test a single hypothesis alone?

question: What can we conclusively say must be replaced?

question: When was the theory that there are eight planets in the solar system rejected?

question: What did Popper discuss in chapters 5 and 6 of The Logic of Scientific Discovery?

question: Why are Newton's laws not preferred over the other theory?
context: The Quine-Duhem thesis argues that it's impossible to test a single hypothesis on its own, since each one comes as part of an environment of theories. Thus we can only say that the whole package of relevant theories has been collectively falsified, but cannot conclusively say which element of the package must be replaced. An example of this is given by the discovery of the planet Neptune: when the motion of Uranus was found not to match the predictions of Newton's laws, the theory "There are seven planets in the solar system" was rejected, and not Newton's laws themselves. Popper discussed this critique of naïve falsificationism in Chapters 3 and 4 of The Logic of Scientific Discovery. For Popper, theories are accepted or rejected via a sort of selection process. Theories that say more about the way things appear are to be preferred over those that do not; the more generally applicable a theory is, the greater its value. Thus Newton's laws, with their wide general application, are to be preferred over the much more specific "the solar system has seven planets".[dubious – discuss]

qas: question: Popper believed he had already discussed similar ideas to Kuhn's about scientific communities in what work?
answers: text: Logic of Discovery

question: What aspect of Kuhn's thinking did Popper criticize?
answers: text: relativism

question: What did Popper say must be the beginning phase of science?
answers: text: the critical discussion of myths

question: According to Popper, what second layer does scientific inquiry have that pre-scientific inquiry does not?
answers: text: a critical attitude

question: What year did Kuhn stress "that scientists necessarily develop their ideas within a definite theoretical framework"?

question: What book did Kuhn publish in 1934?

question: What did Kuhn criticize about Popper?

question: What did Kuhn say must be the beginning phase of science?

question: According to Kuhn, what second layer does scientific inquiry have that pre-scientific inquiry does not?
context: Popper claimed to have recognised already in the 1934 version of his Logic of Discovery a fact later stressed by Kuhn, "that scientists necessarily develop their ideas within a definite theoretical framework", and to that extent to have anticipated Kuhn's central point about "normal science". (But Popper criticised what he saw as Kuhn's relativism.) Also, in his collection Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge (Harper & Row, 1963), Popper writes, "Science must begin with myths, and with the criticism of myths; neither with the collection of observations, nor with the invention of experiments, but with the critical discussion of myths, and of magical techniques and practices. The scientific tradition is distinguished from the pre-scientific tradition in having two layers. Like the latter, it passes on its theories; but it also passes on a critical attitude towards them. The theories are passed on, not as dogmas, but rather with the challenge to discuss them and improve upon them."

qas: question: What kind of criteria frequently used in science complicates the definitiveness of some hypotheses' falsification?
answers: text: statistical

question: What other flaws complicate the problem of identifying faulty scientific hypotheses?
answers: text: flaws in the evidence

question: According to Popper, what resolves conflicting hypotheses and observations in the long run?
answers: text: the collective judgment of scientists

question: What is always possible to do?

question: What is always clear if evidence contradicts a hypothesis?

question: Who wrote a set of instructions that merely need to be followed diligently to achieve science?

question: What is a matter of the judgement of a single scientist?

question: What is a sign of flaws in the evidence?
context: Another objection is that it is not always possible to demonstrate falsehood definitively, especially if one is using statistical criteria to evaluate a null hypothesis. More generally it is not always clear, if evidence contradicts a hypothesis, that this is a sign of flaws in the hypothesis rather than of flaws in the evidence. However, this is a misunderstanding of what Popper's philosophy of science sets out to do. Rather than offering a set of instructions that merely need to be followed diligently to achieve science, Popper makes it clear in The Logic of Scientific Discovery that his belief is that the resolution of conflicts between hypotheses and observations can only be a matter of the collective judgment of scientists, in each individual case.

qas: question: Which book by Houck points out logical flaws in Popper's falsificationism?
answers: text: Science Versus Crime

question: Who argued that Popper's falsificationism was just as logically untenable as Logical Positivism's verificationism?
answers: text: Carl Gustav Hempel

question: Who wrote the book Science Versus Crime which challenged the logic of falsificationism?
answers: text: Houck

question: What did Popper write in Science Versus Crime?

question: Who argued that falsificationism was defensible on logical grounds alone?

question: What implies that not all metals melt?

question: What was tenable on logical grounds alone?

question: What can always be tested at a lower temperature? 
context: In a book called Science Versus Crime, Houck writes that Popper's falsificationism can be questioned logically: it is not clear how Popper would deal with a statement like "for every metal, there is a temperature at which it will melt." The hypothesis cannot be falsified by any possible observation, for there will always be a higher temperature than tested at which the metal may in fact melt, yet it seems to be a valid scientific hypothesis. These examples were pointed out by Carl Gustav Hempel. Hempel came to acknowledge that Logical Positivism's verificationism was untenable, but argued that falsificationism was equally untenable on logical grounds alone. The simplest response to this is that, because Popper describes how theories attain, maintain and lose scientific status, individual consequences of currently accepted scientific theories are scientific in the sense of being part of tentative scientific knowledge, and both of Hempel's examples fall under this category. For instance, atomic theory implies that all metals melt at some temperature.

qas: question: Which German psychologist and tutor of Popper may have originated some of Popper's ideas?
answers: text: Otto Selz

question: Who claimed Otto Selz deserved credit for ideas published by Popper?
answers: text: Michel ter Hark

question: What contributed to Otto Selz's cessation of work in 1933?
answers: text: the rise of Nazism

question: What is the name of the 2004 paper that links Popper's work to that of his tutor Otto Selz?
answers: text: Popper, Otto Selz and the rise of evolutionary epistemology

question: Popper is criticized for dismissing which major philosophers in his work?
answers: text: Plato, Hegel and Marx

question: What book did Popper publish in 2004?

question: Who did Hark claim that Selz took his ideas from?

question: Why did Selz publish his ideas?

question: When did Selz start his work?

question: What is Popper praised for in some academic quarters?
context: In 2004, philosopher and psychologist Michel ter Hark (Groningen, The Netherlands) published a book, called Popper, Otto Selz and the rise of evolutionary epistemology, in which he claimed that Popper took some of his ideas from his tutor, the German psychologist Otto Selz. Selz never published his ideas, partly because of the rise of Nazism, which forced him to quit his work in 1933, and the prohibition of referring to Selz' work. Popper, the historian of ideas and his scholarship, is criticised in some academic quarters for his rejection of Plato, Hegel and Marx.

qas: question: Which two prominent scientists advanced theories that John N. Gray claims would never have survived the scientific method Popper describes?
answers: text: Darwin and Einstein

question: Which work by John Gray challenges Popper's falsificationism?
answers: text: Straw Dogs

question: According to Gray, what should have falsified Einstein and Darwin's theories when first proposed?
answers: text: available evidence

question: What kind of thesis does Gray advance about scientific progress?
answers: text: irrationalist

question: What did John Gray say according to Popper?

question: Whose theories were compatible with all available evidence when they were introduced?

question: What is the rationalist thesis?

question: Where does Popper state this would have "killed the theories of Darwin and Einstein at birth."?

question: What thesis does Popper seek to establish? 
context: According to John N. Gray, Popper held that "a theory is scientific only in so far as it is falsifiable, and should be given up as soon as it is falsified." By applying Popper's account of scientific method, Gray's Straw Dogs states that this would have "killed the theories of Darwin and Einstein at birth." When they were first advanced, Gray claims, each of them was "at odds with some available evidence; only later did evidence become available that gave them crucial support." Against this, Gray seeks to establish the irrationalist thesis that "the progress of science comes from acting against reason."

qas: question: Gray's approach aligns with which approach that Popper himself considered untenable?
answers: text: inductivist

question: A possible rebuttal to Gray's argument appears in Popper's reply to which philosopher?
answers: text: Imre Lakatos

question: What did general relativity do that made it tentatively acceptable when it was proposed?
answers: text: explained the empirical refutations of Newton's theory

question: In contrast to Gray, which theory did Popper argue was at least equally consistent with Newton's on the available evidence?
answers: text: Einstein's theory

question: What does Gray give an indication of?

question: What did Popper seek to show was logically legitimate? 

question: Whose theory was less well corroborated than Newton's on it's conception?

question: What was not deemed suitable for tentative acceptance? 

question: Who wrote several decades after Gray's criticism?
context: Gray does not, however, give any indication of what available evidence these theories were at odds with, and his appeal to "crucial support" illustrates the very inductivist approach to science that Popper sought to show was logically illegitimate. For, according to Popper, Einstein's theory was at least equally as well corroborated as Newton's upon its initial conception; they both equally well accounted for all the hitherto available evidence. Moreover, since Einstein also explained the empirical refutations of Newton's theory, general relativity was immediately deemed suitable for tentative acceptance on the Popperian account. Indeed, Popper wrote, several decades before Gray's criticism, in reply to a critical essay by Imre Lakatos:

qas: question: Which type of theory is most falsifiable?
answers: text: simplest

question: What school of philosophy does Popper's thinking on induction oppose?
answers: text: positivism

question: For Popper, knowing that a theory is true is what?
answers: text: impossible

question: What quality of a useful theory must be easily detectable?
answers: text: its falsity

question: Why would a theory be true with lower probability?

question: What did Popper hold that one should do with the most likely theory?

question: Who supported positivism?

question: Who argues it is possible to ensure that a theory is true?

question: What is less important than detecting the falsity of a theory?
context: Such a theory would be true with higher probability, because it cannot be attacked so easily: to falsify the first one, it is sufficient to find that the sun has stopped rising; to falsify the second one, one additionally needs the assumption that the given day has not yet been reached. Popper held that it is the least likely, or most easily falsifiable, or simplest theory (attributes which he identified as all the same thing) that explains known facts that one should rationally prefer. His opposition to positivism, which held that it is the theory most likely to be true that one should prefer, here becomes very apparent. It is impossible, Popper argues, to ensure a theory to be true; it is more important that its falsity can be detected as easily as possible.

qas: question: Who instigated the 1919 riot that reshaped Popper's political views?
answers: text: Communists

question: The 1919 riot involving Popper's comrades was part of what larger political move?
answers: text: a coup

question: Popper's critique of which doctrine has its origins in first-hand observation of communist agitation?
answers: text: historicism

question: Which historically significant communist activist was associated with the 1919 riots in which some of Popper's friends were killed?
answers: text: Béla Kun

question: What did the Marxist rioters believe would cause more death and suffering than their own agitation?
answers: text: class struggle

question: What year did the Communists stop a riot from occurring?

question: What was Popper impressed by in his later years?

question: How many armed people did the police shoot?

question: What did Popper associate with noble means?

question: What did Popper think placed freedom before equality?
context: In his early years Popper was impressed by Marxism, whether of Communists or socialists. An event that happened in 1919 had a profound effect on him: During a riot, caused by the Communists, the police shot several unarmed people, including some of Popper's friends, when they tried to free party comrades from prison. The riot had, in fact, been part of a plan by which leaders of the Communist party with connections to Béla Kun tried to take power by a coup; Popper did not know about this at that time. However, he knew that the riot instigators were swayed by the Marxist doctrine that class struggle would produce vastly more dead men than the inevitable revolution brought about as quickly as possible, and so had no scruples to put the life of the rioters at risk to achieve their selfish goal of becoming the future leaders of the working class. This was the start of his later criticism of historicism. Popper began to reject Marxist historicism, which he associated with questionable means, and later socialism, which he associated with placing equality before freedom (to the possible disadvantage of equality).