Dialect

qas: question: What language is the word dialectus from?
answers: text: Latin

question: From what language does the word diálektos come?
answers: text: Greek

question: What does diálektos mean in English?
answers: text: discourse

question: How many different types of linguistic phenomena is the term dialect used to describe?
answers: text: two

question: How many distinct ways is the term dialect used?
answers: text: two

question: In how many ways is the word linguistic used to refer to different phenomena?

question: What language does the word phenomena come from?

question: From which language does the word distinct originate?

question: Which term is used in three distinct ways?
context: The term dialect (from Latin dialectus, dialectos, from the ancient Greek word διάλεκτος diálektos, "discourse", from διά diá, "through" and λέγω legō, "I speak") is used in two distinct ways to refer to two different types of linguistic phenomena.

qas: question: What is the common definition of dialect?
answers: text: a variety of a language that is a characteristic of a particular group of the language's speakers

question: What is the term dialect most often applied to?
answers: text: regional speech patterns

question: Aside from region, what is an example of a factor that may influence dialect?
answers: text: social class

question: What is a term for a dialect particular to a social class?
answers: text: sociolect

question: What do you call a dialect particular to a certain ethnicity?
answers: text: ethnolect

question: What can a region that is associated with a particular social class be called?

question: What can a region that is associated with a particular ethnic group be called?

question: What can a ethnolect that is associated with a particular regional dialect be called?

question: What does any variety of a linguist constitute?

question: Which use is least common among linguists?
context: One usage—the more common among linguists—refers to a variety of a language that is a characteristic of a particular group of the language's speakers. The term is applied most often to regional speech patterns, but a dialect may also be defined by other factors, such as social class. A dialect that is associated with a particular social class can be termed a sociolect, a dialect that is associated with a particular ethnic group can be termed as ethnolect, and a regional dialect may be termed a regiolect. According to this definition, any variety of a language constitutes "a dialect", including any standard varieties.

qas: question: What is the other definition of the term dialect?
answers: text: a language that is socially subordinated to a regional or national standard language

question: How does a dialect stand in relation to the standard language?
answers: text: subordinate to the standard language

question: The regional Romance languages in what country are sometimes referred to as dialects?
answers: text: Italy

question: What are 20th century variations on standard Italian called?
answers: text: regional Italian

question: From what language did the regional Romance languages of Italy derive?
answers: text: Latin

question: Which variation of Italian are known as national Italian?

question: Which language spread throughout Italy during the 19th century?

question: What are 19th century variations of standard Italian known as?

question: What are 20th century variations of standard English known as?

question: Which languages of the 19th century evolved from Vulgar Latin?
context: The other usage refers to a language that is socially subordinated to a regional or national standard language, often historically cognate or related to the standard language, but not actually derived from it. In this sense, unlike in the first usage, the standard language would not itself be considered a "dialect," as it is the dominant language in a particular state or region, whether in terms of social or political status, official status, predominance or prevalence, or all of the above. Meanwhile, the "dialects" subordinate to the standard language are generally not variations on the standard language but rather separate (but often related) languages in and of themselves. For example, most of the various regional Romance languages of Italy, often colloquially referred to as Italian "dialects," are, in fact, not actually derived from modern standard Italian, but rather evolved from Vulgar Latin separately and individually from one another and independently of standard Italian, long prior to the diffusion of a national standardized language throughout what is now Italy. These various Latin-derived regional languages are therefore, in a linguistic sense, not truly "dialects" of the standard Italian language, but are instead better defined as their own separate languages. Conversely, with the spread of standard Italian throughout Italy in the 20th century, various regional versions or varieties of standard Italian developed, generally as a mix of the national standard Italian with local regional languages and local accents. These variations on standard Italian, known as regional Italian, would more appropriately be called "dialects" in accordance with the first linguistic definition of "dialect," as they are in fact derived partially or mostly from standard Italian. 

qas: question: Along with grammar and pronunciation, what distinguishes a dialect?
answers: text: vocabulary

question: If only the pronunciation differs from the standard language, what term is sometimes used?
answers: text: accent

question: What term is sometimes used for dialects that only differ in vocabulary?
answers: text: jargons

question: Along with slangs, patois and pidgins, what is another type of smiilar speech variety?
answers: text: argots

question: In which ways do dialects remain undistinguished? 

question: Along with jargon and pronunciation, how is a dialect distinguished?

question: Along with slang and grammar, how is a dialect distinguished?

question: What are a few examples of varieties in prosody?

question: What is the term for differences in slang?
context: A dialect is distinguished by its vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation (phonology, including prosody). Where a distinction can be made only in terms of pronunciation (including prosody, or just prosody itself), the term accent may be preferred over dialect. Other types of speech varieties include jargons, which are characterized by differences in lexicon (vocabulary); slang; patois; pidgins; and argots.

qas: question: What is another term for a standard or standardized dialect?
answers: text: standard language

question: The support of what groups results in a dialect being standardized?
answers: text: institutions

question: Along with grammars and dictionaries, what publications help a dialect to become standardized?
answers: text: textbooks

question: Standard Philippine English is a standard dialect of of what language?
answers: text: English

question: Recognition from what body may help a dialect to become standardized?
answers: text: government

question: What is the term for a dialect that remains unsupported by institutions?

question: There may be only one what associated with multiple languages?

question: Standard British Canadian is an example of a dialect of which language?

question: Australian Standard English  is an example of a dialect of which language?

question: Standard British Philippines is an example of a dialect of which language?
context: A standard dialect (also known as a standardized dialect or "standard language") is a dialect that is supported by institutions. Such institutional support may include government recognition or designation; presentation as being the "correct" form of a language in schools; published grammars, dictionaries, and textbooks that set forth a correct spoken and written form; and an extensive formal literature that employs that dialect (prose, poetry, non-fiction, etc.). There may be multiple standard dialects associated with a single language. For example, Standard American English, Standard British English, Standard Canadian English, Standard Indian English, Standard Australian English, and Standard Philippine English may all be said to be standard dialects of the English language.

qas: question: What does a nonstandard dialect usually not have compared to a standard dialect?
answers: text: institutional support

question: What language is Scouse a dialect of?
answers: text: English

question: What was created for the sake of comparing English dialects?
answers: text: The Dialect Test

question: Who came up with the Dialect Test?
answers: text: Joseph Wright

question: Along with a syntax and grammar, what attribute does a dialect possess?
answers: text: vocabulary

question: Unlike a standard dialect, what does a nonstandard dialect have?

question: Unlike a nonstandard dialect, what does a standard dialect have?

question: A nonstandard dialect usually receives what type of support?

question: What are some examples of standard American English?

question: Which test was designed by Tyke to compare different English dialects?
context: A nonstandard dialect, like a standard dialect, has a complete vocabulary, grammar, and syntax, but is usually not the beneficiary of institutional support. Examples of a nonstandard English dialect are Southern American English, Western Australian English, Scouse and Tyke. The Dialect Test was designed by Joseph Wright to compare different English dialects with each other.

qas: question: In what country is Limón Creole English spoken?
answers: text: Costa Rica

question: On what coast of Costa Rica is Limón Creole English spoken?
answers: text: Caribbean

question: Speakers of Limón Creole English are descended from people of what nationality?
answers: text: Jamaican

question: How many universally accepted criterion for distinguishing between two languages from two dialects are there?

question: Where is Jamaican Creole spoken?

question: Who speaks Costa Rican Creole?

question: What does the position which Costa Rican linguists oppose depend on?

question: What does the position which Jamaican linguists support depend on?
context: There is no universally accepted criterion for distinguishing two different languages from two dialects (i.e. varieties) of the same language. A number of rough measures exist, sometimes leading to contradictory results. The distinction is therefore subjective and depends on the user's frame of reference. For example, there is discussion about if the Limón Creole English must be considered as "a kind" of English or a different language. This creole is spoken in the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica (Central America) by descendant of Jamaican people. The position that Costa Rican linguists support depends on the University they belong.

qas: question: What trait is the most common way of determining if languages are dialects?
answers: text: mutual intelligibility

question: What is the term for when dialects A and B are mutually intelligible, dialect B and C are mutually intelligible, but dialects A and C are not mutually intelligible?
answers: text: dialect continua

question: What is the definition of mutual intelligibility?
answers: text: if being a speaker of one variety confers sufficient knowledge to understand and be understood by a speaker of the other

question: Which is the most uncommon and purely linguistic criterion?

question: What is the term for two dialects of different languages that are intertwined?

question: What occurs when dialect A B and C are all mutual intelligible with another?

question: Which is the most uncommon criterion for being a dialect of the same language?
context: The most common, and most purely linguistic, criterion is that of mutual intelligibility: two varieties are said to be dialects of the same language if being a speaker of one variety confers sufficient knowledge to understand and be understood by a speaker of the other; otherwise, they are said to be different languages. However, this definition becomes problematic in the case of dialect continua, in which it may be the case that dialect B is mutually intelligible with both dialect A and dialect C but dialects A and C are not mutually intelligible with each other. In this case the criterion of mutual intelligibility makes it impossible to decide whether A and C are dialects of the same language or not. Cases may also arise in which a speaker of dialect X can understand a speaker of dialect Y, but not vice versa; the mutual intelligibility criterion flounders here as well.

qas: question: What term refers to another way in which dialects are distinguished from languages?
answers: text: linguistic authority

question: Under the linguistic authority criteria, what is a dialect of German along with Bavarian German?
answers: text: East Franconian German

question: Of what group of languages is Yiddish a member?
answers: text: Middle High German

question: Why is Yiddish not a dialect of German?
answers: text: a Yiddish speaker would not consult a German dictionary

question: A less sociolinguistic notion, what is the term for another criterion for distinguishing dialects?

question: A more sociolinguistic notion, what is the term for another criterion for distinguishing German dictionarys?

question: Under what authority would two varieties be considered dialects of different languages if they would refer to the same body with questions about their languages?

question: In which dictionary would a Yiddish speaker look for questions regarding word usage?

question: Which language is classified by linguists as being in the Lower High German group?
context: Another occasionally used criterion for discriminating dialects from languages is that of linguistic authority, a more sociolinguistic notion. According to this definition, two varieties are considered dialects of the same language if (under at least some circumstances) they would defer to the same authority regarding some questions about their language. For instance, to learn the name of a new invention, or an obscure foreign species of plant, speakers of Bavarian German and East Franconian German might each consult a German dictionary or ask a German-speaking expert in the subject. By way of contrast, although Yiddish is classified by linguists as a language in the "Middle High German" group of languages, a Yiddish speaker would not consult a German dictionary to determine the word to use in such a case.

qas: question: According to most linguistics, who speaks a dialect?
answers: text: everybody

question: What do only a few linguists believe people speak?

question: According to the least used definition, what does everyone speak?

question: What are used to distinguish between two varieties of different languages only?

question: What does the criteria believe everybody speaks?
context: By the definition most commonly used by linguists, any linguistic variety can be considered a "dialect" of some language—"everybody speaks a dialect". According to that interpretation, the criteria above merely serve to distinguish whether two varieties are dialects of the same language or dialects of different languages.

qas: question: Who developed the abstand and ausbau languages framework?
answers: text: Heinz Kloss

question: In what year was the abstand and ausbau framework developed?
answers: text: 1967

question: What sort of unification in speech communities did the abstand and ausbau framework discuss?
answers: text: politically and/or culturally

question: In which year did abstand and ausbau develop their framework?

question: By who was a framework developed in 1960 for describing speech communities?

question: In what year did Heinz Kloss develop a framework for describing dialects genetically?

question: Who developed a framework for describing dialects genetically?

question: What did Heinz Kloss develop a framework for in 1927?
context: A framework was developed in 1967 by Heinz Kloss, abstand and ausbau languages, to describe speech communities, that while unified politically and/or culturally, include multiple dialects which though closely related genetically may be divergent to the point of inter-dialect unintelligibility.

qas: question: The language of the Pennsylvania Dutch is a dialect of what language?
answers: text: German

question: Which terms are always mutually exclusive?

question: What type of relationship do the terms Pennsylvania and Dutch have?

question: Which dialect is the language of Germany?

question: What type of relationship do the terms dialect and Dutch have?
context: The terms "language" and "dialect" are not necessarily mutually exclusive: There is nothing contradictory in the statement "the language of the Pennsylvania Dutch is a dialect of German".

qas: question: What term avoids distinguishing between languages and dialects?
answers: text: languoid

question: What is the most common way of referring to a language without making the determination of whether it's a dialect or independent language?
answers: text: variety

question: Along with variety and languoid, what is another term used for a language without determining its independent status?
answers: text: lect

question: Which term distinguishes between dialects and languages?

question: Which term distinguishes between dialects and languages but not variety?

question: Which is the most uncommon term linguists use to avoid taking a position on the speech of a community?

question: Which term distinguishes between dialects and languages but not position?

question: Which term distinguishes between dialects and groups of languages?
context: There are various terms that linguists may use to avoid taking a position on whether the speech of a community is an independent language in its own right or a dialect of another language. Perhaps the most common is "variety"; "lect" is another. A more general term is "languoid", which does not distinguish between dialects, languages, and groups of languages, whether genealogically related or not.

qas: question: With what social class it the standard dialect commonly associated?
answers: text: the elite class

question: What social status is the term "dialect" sometimes associated with?
answers: text: low

question: What is another term for language varieties?
answers: text: dialects

question: In certain context, which term refers to varieties with high social status?

question: The term proper refers to varieties with what type of social status?

question: What is another term for secondary sense?

question: The term variety refers to varieties with what type of social status?

question: Which term refers to varieties with high social status?
context: In many societies, however, a particular dialect, often the sociolect of the elite class, comes to be identified as the "standard" or "proper" version of a language by those seeking to make a social distinction, and is contrasted with other varieties. As a result of this, in some contexts the term "dialect" refers specifically to varieties with low social status. In this secondary sense of "dialect", language varieties are often called dialects rather than languages:

qas: question: What non-linguistic developments influence the status of a language?
answers: text: historical and political

question: What dialect is the language Romansh similar to?
answers: text: Lombardic alpine

question: What language are Mandarin and Cantonese sometimes considered dialects of?
answers: text: Chinese

question: Why might Mandarin and Cantonese not be regarded as dialects?
answers: text: mutual unintelligibility

question: What is the status of language solely determined by?

question: Along with alpine dialects, what else is the status of language determined by?

question: What types of development help to determine the status of Mandarin?

question: Lombardic is recognized as a language despite being close to which alpine dialect?

question: Which variations of the Chinese language have mutual intelligibility? 
context: The status of "language" is not solely determined by linguistic criteria, but it is also the result of a historical and political development. Romansh came to be a written language, and therefore it is recognized as a language, even though it is very close to the Lombardic alpine dialects. An opposite example is the case of Chinese, whose variations such as Mandarin and Cantonese are often called dialects and not languages, despite their mutual unintelligibility.

qas: question: What event is regarded as a landmark in the development of modern nationalism?
answers: text: the French Revolution

question: If possessing a language leads to a group being regarded as a separate people, what political arrangement presumably follows?
answers: text: its own independent state

question: What political arrangement is associated with being a dialect-speaking sub-group?
answers: text: regional autonomy

question: Along with political controversy, what can the distinction between a language and dialect sometimes lead to?
answers: text: armed conflict

question: Since which revolution has Ancient Nationalism especially been developed?

question: What has failed to make a distinction between the terms language and dialect?

question: On which basis is the distinction between language and dialect more often made?

question: What can the distinction between regional autonomy and dialect lead to?

question: What can the distinction between regional autonomy and the French Revolution lead to?
context: Modern Nationalism, as developed especially since the French Revolution, has made the distinction between "language" and "dialect" an issue of great political importance. A group speaking a separate "language" is often seen as having a greater claim to being a separate "people", and thus to be more deserving of its own independent state, while a group speaking a "dialect" tends to be seen not as "a people" in its own right, but as a sub-group, part of a bigger people, which must content itself with regional autonomy.[citation needed] The distinction between language and dialect is thus inevitably made at least as much on a political basis as on a linguistic one, and can lead to great political controversy, or even armed conflict.

qas: question: Max Weinreich is a linguist of what language?
answers: text: Yiddish

question: What does "A shprakh iz a dialekt mit an armey un flot" mean in English?
answers: text: A language is a dialect with an army and navy

question: When did Max Weinrich write "A shprakh iz a dialekt mit an armey un flot"?
answers: text: 1945

question: In what did the army-navy publish the phrase  "A language is a dialect with an army and navy"?

question: What is illustrated by the frequency by Max Weinreich published his expression?

question: Which language is YIVO Bleter a linguist of?

question: Max Weinreich is what in relation to the YIVO Bleter language?
context: The Yiddish linguist Max Weinreich published the expression, A shprakh iz a dialekt mit an armey un flot ("אַ שפּראַך איז אַ דיאַלעקט מיט אַן אַרמײ און פֿלאָט"‎: "A language is a dialect with an army and navy") in YIVO Bleter 25.1, 1945, p. 13. The significance of the political factors in any attempt at answering the question "what is a language?" is great enough to cast doubt on whether any strictly linguistic definition, without a socio-cultural approach, is possible. This is illustrated by the frequency with which the army-navy aphorism is cited.

qas: question: When is the term 'German dialects' used in regard to the German language?
answers: text: traditional regional varieties

question: What are traditional region varieties of German distinguished from?
answers: text: the regional varieties of modern standard German

question: Which term is only used for nontraditional varieties?

question: Which term is only used for national varieties?

question: In reference to modern varieties, what term is only used for traditional regional languages?

question: What does this allow the to remain undistinguished from?

question: Because of this, what is ancient standard German distinguished from?
context: When talking about the German language, the term German dialects is only used for the traditional regional varieties. That allows them to be distinguished from the regional varieties of modern standard German.

qas: question: After what entities are German dialects traditionally named?
answers: text: Germanic tribes

question: What do the German dialects show on a narrow spectrum?

question: What type of relationship do most German dialects have?

question: After who does German dialectology name minor dialect groups after?

question: It is assumed Germanic tribes descended from what?

question: What type of dialects show have a narrow range of variation?
context: The German dialects show a wide spectrum of variation. Most of them are not mutually intelligible. German dialectology traditionally names the major dialect groups after Germanic tribes from which they were assumed to have descended.[citation needed]

qas: question: In what geographic part of Germany are dialects more common?
answers: text: South

question: In what geographic part of Germany are dialects less frequently seen?
answers: text: Northern Germany

question: Dialects are more frequently seen in the countryside as compared to what population centers?
answers: text: cities

question: In what environment are dialects less common?
answers: text: public

question: In what environment are dialects more frequently heard?
answers: text: familiar

question: Where in Southern Germany are dialects less common?

question: What is more common in Northern German than in the South?

question: What are more common in Southern German than in the North?
context: The extent to which the dialects are spoken varies according to a number of factors: In Northern Germany, dialects are less common than in the South. In cities, dialects are less common than on the countryside. In a public environment, dialects are less common than in a familiar environment.

qas: question: What dialect of German is spoken in Switzerland?
answers: text: Swiss German

question: What dialect of German is rarely heard in Switzerland?
answers: text: standard German

question: Aside from Switzerland, what country speaks a dialect related to Swiss German?
answers: text: Liechtenstein

question: In which country is there a situation identical to the rest of the German speaking countries?

question: What is seldom spoken where German is used as a default everyday language?

question: Which language do some standard German speakers perceive to be foreign?

question: The Swiss German dialect is rarely spoken in which two countries?

question: In which two countries is standard German used everyday?
context: The situation in Switzerland and Liechtenstein is different from the rest of the German-speaking countries. The Swiss German dialects are the default everyday language in virtually every situation, whereas standard German is seldom spoken. Some Swiss German speakers perceive standard German to be a foreign language.

qas: question: What type of language was Low German in the Middle Ages?
answers: text: an ausbau language

question: Why are Low German varieties regarded as dialects of standard German?
answers: text: they are roofed by standard German

question: What is often not included when counting German dialects?

question: In which country are the Middle Age varieties spoken?

question: When did High German have a strong tendency towards being an ausbau language?

question: When did Low German have a weak tendency towards being an ausbau language?

question: What are High German varieties often included with?
context: The Low German varieties spoken in Germany are often counted among the German dialects. This reflects the modern situation where they are roofed by standard German. This is different from the situation in the Middle Ages when Low German had strong tendencies towards an ausbau language.

qas: question: What are Italian dialects termed in the Italian language?
answers: text: dialetti

question: What language are many Italian dialects derived from?
answers: text: Vulgar Latin

question: What does 'dialetti' mean in Italian?
answers: text: dialects

question: Why might Italian dialects be regarded as independent languages rather than dialects of standard Italian?
answers: text: they are not derived from modern standard Italian

question: Which country is home to lots of native regional majority languages?

question: Most of Italy's languages have what kind of base along with shared variants?

question: What is another German term for dialects?

question: According to linguistics, most national languages in Italy are not dialects but what?

question: Rather than an individual languages, what are most regional languages in Italy better referred to as?
context: Italy is home to a vast array of native regional minority languages, most of which are Romance-based and have their own local variants. These regional languages are often referred to colloquially or in non-linguistic circles as Italian "dialects," or dialetti (standard Italian for "dialects"). However, the majority of the regional languages in Italy are in fact not actually "dialects" of standard Italian in the strict linguistic sense, as they are not derived from modern standard Italian but instead evolved locally from Vulgar Latin independent of standard Italian, with little to no influence from what is now known as "standard Italian." They are therefore better classified as individual languages rather than "dialects."

qas: question: What is a major reason why the Latin-based regional Romance languages of Italy should be regarded as independent languages rather than dialects of each other?
answers: text: they lack mutual intelligibility

question: From what region of Italy does the Eastern Lombard dialect hail?
answers: text: Lombardy

question: What language family does Eastern Lombard belong to?
answers: text: Gallo-Italic

question: What type of language is Sicilian?
answers: text: Neapolitan

question: What language was spoken by Lombard immigrants to Sicily?
answers: text: Sicilian Gallo-Italic

question: Rather than separate languages, what are the Romance languages better classified as?

question: Where is Western Lombard spoken?

question: With who would a Sicilian speaker have a lesser degree of mutual intelligibility?

question: With who would a Sicilian speaker have a lesser degree of mutual unintelligibility?

question: Which language developed in popular Lombard communities in the same place as the Sicilian language?
context: In addition to having evolved, for the most part, separately from one another and with distinct individual histories, the Latin-based regional Romance languages of Italy are also better classified as separate languages rather than true "dialects" due to the often high degree in which they lack mutual intelligibility. Though mostly mutually unintelligible, the exact degree to which the regional Italian languages are mutual unintelligible varies, often correlating with geographical distance or geographical barriers between the languages, with some regional Italian languages that are closer in geographical proximity to each other or closer to each other on the dialect continuum being more or less mutually intelligible. For instance, a speaker of purely Eastern Lombard, a language in Northern Italy's Lombardy region that includes the Bergamasque dialect, would have severely limited mutual intelligibility with a purely standard Italian speaker and would be nearly completely unintelligible to a speaker of a pure Sicilian language variant. Due to Eastern Lombard's status as a Gallo-Italic language, an Eastern Lombard speaker may, in fact, have more mutual intelligibility with a Occitan, Catalan, or French speaker than a standard Italian or Sicilian language speaker. Meanwhile, a Sicilian language speaker would have an greater degree of mutual intelligibility with a speaker of the more closely related Neapolitan language, but far less mutual intelligibility with a person speaking Sicilian Gallo-Italic, a language that developed in isolated Lombard emigrant communities on the same island as the Sicilian language.

qas: question: What language is modern standard Italian derived from?
answers: text: Florentine Tuscan

question: What language is Florentine Tuscan based on?
answers: text: Latin

question: During what century did Florentine Tuscan begin to be used in poetry?
answers: text: 12th

question: What socioeconomic class used the Florentine Tuscan language in Dante's time?
answers: text: upper class

question: From what region of Italy did Florentine Tuscan derive?
answers: text: Tuscany

question: What is Florentine Tuscan language based on?

question: Since when has Giovanni Boccaccio been used in poetry and literature? 

question: Since when has Dadnte Alighieri been used in poetry and literature? 

question: Since when has Niccolo Machiavelli been used in poetry and literature? 

question: Since when has Petrarch been used in poetry and literature? 
context: Modern standard Italian itself is heavily based on the Latin-derived Florentine Tuscan language. The Tuscan-based language that would eventually become modern standard Italian had been used in poetry and literature since at least the 12th century, and it first became widely known in Italy through the works of authors such as Dante Alighieri, Giovanni Boccaccio, Niccolò Machiavelli, and Petrarch. Dante's Florentine-Tuscan literary Italian thus became the language of the literate and upper class in Italy, and it spread throughout the peninsula as the lingua franca among the Italian educated class as well as Italian traveling merchants. The economic prowess and cultural and artistic importance of Tuscany in the Late Middle Ages and the Renaissance further encouraged the diffusion of the Florentine-Tuscan Italian throughout Italy and among the educated and powerful, though local and regional languages remained the main languages of the common people.

qas: question: What Italian nationalist spoke of the importance of a national Italian language?
answers: text: Alessandro Manzoni

question: During what period was the importance of having an Italian national language raised?
answers: text: the Risorgimento

question: In what decade was Italy unified?
answers: text: 1860s

question: What percentage of Italians spoke standard Italian when Italy was first unified?
answers: text: 2.5%

question: When Italy was unified, what was named the official national language?
answers: text: standard Italian

question: During what period were proponents of Italian Unification stressing the importance of establishing a uniform national language?

question: When did Alessandro Manzoni stress the importance of creating an Italian state?

question: During which decade was Italy de-unified?

question: When did Risorgimento become the official language of the new Italian state?
context: During the Risorgimento, proponents of Italian republicanism and Italian nationalism, such as Alessandro Manzoni, stressed the importance of establishing a uniform national language in order to better create an Italian national identity. With the unification of Italy in the 1860s, standard Italian became the official national language of the new Italian state, while the various unofficial regional languages of Italy gradually became regarded as subordinate "dialects" to Italian, increasingly associated negatively with lack of education or provincialism. However, at the time of the Italian Unification, standard Italian still existed mainly as a literary language, and only 2.5% of Italy's population could speak standard Italian.

qas: question: During what war did a large number of Italian men first learn standard Italian?
answers: text: World War I

question: Along with radio and public education, what invention helped to diffuse standard Italian among the Italian population?
answers: text: television

question: In modern Italy, what class of people are regional languages sometimes associated with?
answers: text: lower

question: Along with formal settings, where do some Italians avoid speaking their regional language?
answers: text: outside of one's region

question: Aside from when they're speaking to Italians from their same town or region, where is a common place where Italians speak their regional language?
answers: text: at home with family

question: What language do many Italians speak today as opposed to their regional language?

question: What is never associated with being lower class?

question: What is never associated with being uneducated?

question: What is never associated with being boorish?

question: What is never associated with being overly informal?
context: In the early 20th century, the vast conscription of Italian men from all throughout Italy during World War I is credited with facilitating the diffusion of standard Italian among less educated Italian men, as these men from various regions with various regional languages were forced to communicate with each other in a common tongue while serving in the Italian military. With the eventual spread of the radio and television throughout Italy and the establishment of public education, Italians from all regions were increasingly exposed to standard Italian, while literacy rates among all social classes improved. Today, the majority of Italians are able to speak standard Italian, though many Italians still speak their regional language regularly or as their primary day-to-day language, especially at home with family or when communicating with Italians from the same town or region. However, to some Italians, speaking a regional language, especially in a formal setting or outside of one's region, may carry a stigma or negative connotations associated with being lower class, uneducated, boorish, or overly informal.

qas: question: Regional Italian dialects are often influenced by regional languages and what other language?
answers: text: standard Italian

question: What do Italians in different regions never speak?

question: What is another term for national Italian dialects?

question: What dialect is regional Italian heavily influenced by native languages?

question: What is another term for varieties of standard Italian?

question: The majority of Italian languages are dialects of what?
context: Italians in different regions today may also speak regional varieties of standard Italian, or regional Italian dialects, which, unlike the majority of languages of Italy, are actually dialects of standard Italian rather than separate languages. A regional Italian dialect is generally standard Italian that has been heavily influenced or mixed with local or regional native languages and accents.

qas: question: What language family do most of the languages of Italy belong to?
answers: text: Italo-Dalmatian

question: What language are most languages of Italy derived from?
answers: text: Latin

question: Aside from Italo-Dalmatian, what is another term for the group that Italian languages belong to?
answers: text: Romance

question: Which family do the least widely spoken languages fall into?

question: What type of languages are the languages of Italo-Dalmation?

question: Which languages are primarily Dalmation languages?

question: Romance languages are the primary language of which family?
context: The languages of Italy are primarily Latin-based Romance languages, with the most widely spoken languages falling within the Italo-Dalmatian language family. This wide category includes:

qas: question: Campidanese Sardinian is a variant of what language?
answers: text: The Sardinian language

question: What language is Sassarese closely related to?
answers: text: Italian Tuscan

question: What language family does Gallurese belong to?
answers: text: Italo-Dalmatian

question: What language family does Ligurian belong to?
answers: text: Gallo-Romance

question: Where is the Catalan Algherese dialect spoken?
answers: text: Sardinian

question: Which language is considered to be it's only Sardinian language family?

question: Which language does the Campidanese Sardinian variant include?

question: Where are Romance, Gallurese and Sassarese also spoken?

question: Which languages are not considered to be related to the Italian Tuscon language?

question: Where is the Romance Algherese dialect spoken?
context: The Sardinian language is considered to be its own Romance language family, separate not only from standard Italian but also the wider Italo-Dalmatian family, and it includes the Campidanese Sardinian and Logudorese Sardinian variants. However, Gallurese, Sassarese, and Corsican are also spoken in Sardinia, and these languages are considered closely related or derived from the Italian Tuscan language and thus are Italo-Dalmatian languages. Furthermore, the Gallo-Romance language of Ligurian and the Catalan Algherese dialect are also spoken in Sardinia.

qas: question: Along with British English, what is the major variant of the English language?
answers: text: American English

question: What are the two major variants of Serbo-Croatian?
answers: text: Serbian and Croatian

question: Are British and American English regarded as distinct languages, or dialects of a single language?
answers: text: dialects of a single language

question: Do regional linguists treat Serbian and Croation as distinct languages or as dialects of a single language?
answers: text: distinct languages

question: Why are Serbian and Croatian often treated like distinct languages?
answers: text: the two countries oscillate from being brotherly to being bitter enemies

question: What is can be controversial with consistent verdicts?

question: Which languages are not spoken by political allies?

question: Which languages are not spoken by military allies?

question: Serbian and American English are the major variants of which language?

question: British English and Croatian American are the major variants of which language?
context: The classification of speech varieties as dialects or languages and their relationship to other varieties of speech can be controversial and the verdicts inconsistent. English and Serbo-Croatian illustrate the point. English and Serbo-Croatian each have two major variants (British and American English, and Serbian and Croatian, respectively), along with numerous other varieties. For political reasons, analyzing these varieties as "languages" or "dialects" yields inconsistent results: British and American English, spoken by close political and military allies, are almost universally regarded as dialects of a single language, whereas the standard languages of Serbia and Croatia, which differ from each other to a similar extent as the dialects of English, are being treated by some linguists from the region as distinct languages, largely because the two countries oscillate from being brotherly to being bitter enemies. (The Serbo-Croatian language article deals with this topic much more fully.)

qas: question: Along with Serbian, with what language is Macedonian mutually intelligible?
answers: text: Bulgarian

question: What dialect continuum does Macedonian belong to?
answers: text: South Slavic

question: What do Bulgarian linguists regard the Macedonian language as?
answers: text: a Bulgarian dialect

question: In what year was a Macedonian literary standard established?
answers: text: 1944

question: In what country is Macedonian most commonly spoken?
answers: text: Republic of Macedonia

question: With which language is Macedonian mutually unintelligible? 

question: In what year was there a literary standard of Bulgarian developed?

question: When was a standard of Serbian developed in Macedonia?

question: In what year was there a literary standard of Slavic developed?
context: Similar examples abound. Macedonian, although mutually intelligible with Bulgarian, certain dialects of Serbian and to a lesser extent the rest of the South Slavic dialect continuum, is considered by Bulgarian linguists to be a Bulgarian dialect, in contrast with the contemporary international view and the view in the Republic of Macedonia, which regards it as a language in its own right. Nevertheless, before the establishment of a literary standard of Macedonian in 1944, in most sources in and out of Bulgaria before the Second World War, the southern Slavonic dialect continuum covering the area of today's Republic of Macedonia were referred to as Bulgarian dialects.

qas: question: Lebanese people of what religion sometimes consider Lebanese to be a distinct language?
answers: text: Christian

question: In what language are Lebanese laws written?
answers: text: Arabic

question: During the Lebanese Civil War, what language did Lebanese Christians sometimes use officially?
answers: text: Lebanese Arabic

question: What language is Lebanese closely related to?
answers: text: Arabic

question: What script did Lebanese Christians sometimes use to write Lebanese Arabic during the civil war?
answers: text: Latin

question: Where is Lebanese considered a dialect and not a distinct language?

question: During which war did Christians us Latin exclusively?

question: In which form are all Christian laws written?

question: In which form may Latin script be conducted?

question: In which form is Lebanese script written?
context: In Lebanon, a part of the Christian population considers "Lebanese" to be in some sense a distinct language from Arabic and not merely a dialect. During the civil war Christians often used Lebanese Arabic officially, and sporadically used the Latin script to write Lebanese, thus further distinguishing it from Arabic. All Lebanese laws are written in the standard literary form of Arabic, though parliamentary debate may be conducted in Lebanese Arabic.

qas: question: Along with Morocco and Tunisia, in what country are the Darijas spoken?
answers: text: Algeria

question: What is the liturgical language of Islam?
answers: text: Literary Arabic

question: In what language is the Qur'an written?
answers: text: Literary Arabic

question: What does the term Dariajs refer to?
answers: text: spoken North African languages

question: What is the dominant religion of North Africa?
answers: text: Islam

question: Where are the Darijas considered the same as other Arabic dialects?

question: Which countries tend to give preference to the Darijas?

question: In which language is the Darijas written?

question: What is the language of folk-tale books?

question: Which language is the liturgical language of social media?
context: In Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco, the Darijas (spoken North African languages) are sometimes considered more different from other Arabic dialects. Officially, North African countries prefer to give preference to the Literary Arabic and conduct much of their political and religious life in it (adherence to Islam), and refrain from declaring each country's specific variety to be a separate language, because Literary Arabic is the liturgical language of Islam and the language of the Islamic sacred book, the Qur'an. Although, especially since the 1960s, the Darijas are occupying an increasing use and influence in the cultural life of these countries. Examples of cultural elements where Darijas' use became dominant include: theatre, film, music, television, advertisement, social media, folk-tale books and companies' names.

qas: question: During what century did the Russian government claim that Ukrainian was a Russian dialect?
answers: text: 19th

question: What Russian government claimed that Ukrainian was not a distinct language?
answers: text: the Tsarist Government

question: The conquest of western Ukraine by what country altered the language of Ukraine?
answers: text: Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

question: When did the Russian Empire claim the Tsarist language was a language on its own?

question: During which century did the Ukraine claim that Tsarist was simply a dialect of Russian?

question: By who was the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth conquered? 

question: To which dialects were Ukrainian dialects substantially similar?
context: In the 19th century, the Tsarist Government of the Russian Empire claimed that Ukrainian was merely a dialect of Russian and not a language on its own. The differences were few and caused by the conquest of western Ukraine by the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. However, the dialects in Ukraine eventually differed substantially from the dialects in Russia.

qas: question: What nation conquered Ukraine during the First World War?
answers: text: The German Empire

question: What alliance defeated the German Empire in World War I?
answers: text: the Entente

question: What Ukrainian political group was involved in the defeat of the German Empire?
answers: text: Bolsheviks

question: Who did the Ukrainian Bolsheviks conquer the Ukraine from?
answers: text: Whites

question: During which war did the Ukraine conquer the German Empire?

question: When was the Ukraine planning on installing a puppet king? 

question: Who defeated the Entente during World War I?

question: By who was the Entente conquered during World War I?

question: Who conquered the Ukraine during World War II?
context: The German Empire conquered Ukraine during World War I and was planning on either annexing it or installing a puppet king, but was defeated by the Entente, with major involvement by the Ukrainian Bolsheviks. After conquering the rest of Ukraine from the Whites, Ukraine joined the USSR and was enlarged (gaining Crimea and then Eastern Galicia), whence a process of Ukrainization was begun, with encouragement from Moscow.

qas: question: After what war did Moscow begin to repress the Ukrainian language?
answers: text: World War II

question: Why did Moscow begin to repress the Ukrainian language?
answers: text: Ukrainian collaborationism with the Axis powers

question: Why did Ukrainians collaborate with the Axis?
answers: text: to gain independence

question: What happened to Moscow policy after World War I?

question: When did the Ukraine change its policy towards repression of the Moscow language?

question: When did collaboration between Moscow and the Axis powers cause the Ukraine to change policies?

question: Whose collaboration caused Moscow to change its policy regarding independence? 

question: Who was in collaboration with Moscow?
context: After World War II, due to Ukrainian collaborationism with the Axis powers in an attempt to gain independence, Moscow changed its policy towards repression of the Ukrainian language.

qas: question: In what country is the Surzhyk dialect spoken?
answers: text: Ukraine

question: Surzhyk is a dialect intermediate between the Ukrainian language and what other language?
answers: text: Russian

question: The boundaries between which languages are clearly known?

question: What is the name for the intermediate dialect formed between Surzhyk and the Russian language?

question: What is the name for the intermediate dialect formed between Surzhyk and the Ukranian language?

question: What is the name for the intermediate dialect developing in Russia?
context: Today the boundaries of the Ukrainian language to the Russian language are still not drawn clearly, with an intermediate dialect between them, called Surzhyk, developing in Ukraine.

qas: question: Who was the president of Moldova in 1996?
answers: text: Mircea Snegur

question: In what year was a Moldovan-Romanian dictionary published?
answers: text: 2003

question: Fear of what caused the Moldovan parliament to reject changing the name of the country's language to Romanian in 1996?
answers: text: Romanian expansionism

question: Who was the head of the Academy of Sciences of Moldova?
answers: text: Ion Bărbuţă

question: Political purposes have been reclassified to deliberately do what?

question: When did the Moldovan parliament approve a proposal from President Snegur?

question: When was President Moldovan's proposal rejected by parliament?

question: What did the Academy of Science declare regarding Moldovan words?

question: When was the Romanian-Academy dictionary published?
context: There have been cases of a variety of speech being deliberately reclassified to serve political purposes. One example is Moldovan. In 1996, the Moldovan parliament, citing fears of "Romanian expansionism", rejected a proposal from President Mircea Snegur to change the name of the language to Romanian, and in 2003 a Moldovan–Romanian dictionary was published, purporting to show that the two countries speak different languages. Linguists of the Romanian Academy reacted by declaring that all the Moldovan words were also Romanian words; while in Moldova, the head of the Academy of Sciences of Moldova, Ion Bărbuţă, described the dictionary as a politically motivated "absurdity".

qas: question: From what did Chinese characters derive?
answers: text: logograms

question: What is another name for the Yue language?
answers: text: Cantonese

question: Hakka is a language from what geographic part of China?
answers: text: the south

question: From the time of the Ming dynasty, what city was the capital of China?
answers: text: Beijing

question: At its founding. what was the official language of the Republic of China?
answers: text: Standard Mandarin

question: What do Chinese characters use to give hints to pronunciation?

question: What is another name for the Xiang language?  

question: Where is Macau the most commonly used language?

question: Which language is the most commonly used in Cantonese?

question: What do most languages use to indicate varieties?
context: Unlike most languages that use alphabets to indicate the pronunciation, Chinese characters have developed from logograms that do not always give hints to its pronunciation. Although the written characters remained relatively consistent for the last two thousand years, the pronunciation and grammar in different regions has developed to an extent that the varieties of the spoken language are often mutually unintelligible. As a series of migration to the south throughout the history, the regional languages of the south, including Xiang, Wu, Gan, Min, Yue (Cantonese), and Hakka often show traces of Old Chinese or Middle Chinese. From the Ming dynasty onward, Beijing has been the capital of China and the dialect spoken in Beijing has had the most prestige among other varieties. With the founding of the Republic of China, Standard Mandarin was designated as the official language, based on the spoken language of Beijing. Since then, other spoken varieties are regarded as fangyan (dialects). Cantonese is still the most commonly used language in Hong Kong, Macau and among some overseas Chinese communities, whereas Southern Min has been accepted in Taiwan as an important local language along with Mandarin.

qas: question: From the perspective of historical linguists, what are Romance languages dialects of?
answers: text: Latin

question: What do many historical linguists consider modern Greek to be a dialect of?
answers: text: Ancient Greek

question: From what language is North Germanic derived?
answers: text: Old Norse

question: Tok Pisin might be regarded as a dialect of what language?
answers: text: English

question: What do few historical linguists view any speech form as?

question: According to this few, what language is Latin a dialect of?

question: According to this few, what language is Ancient Greek a dialect of?

question: According to this few, what language is Old Norse a dialect of?

question: According to this few, what language is English a dialect of?
context: Many historical linguists view any speech form as a dialect of the older medium of communication from which it developed.[citation needed] This point of view sees the modern Romance languages as dialects of Latin, modern Greek as a dialect of Ancient Greek, Tok Pisin as a dialect of English, and North Germanic as dialects of Old Norse. This paradigm is not entirely problem-free. It sees genetic relationships as paramount: the "dialects" of a "language" (which itself may be a "dialect" of a yet older language) may or may not be mutually intelligible. Moreover, a parent language may spawn several "dialects" which themselves subdivide any number of times, with some "branches" of the tree changing more rapidly than others.

qas: question: Italian is significantly mutually comprehensible with what other Romance language?
answers: text: Spanish

question: With what romance language does Spanish not have a high degree of mutual comprehensibility?
answers: text: French

question: What is the reason for French and Italian not being very mutually comprehensible?
answers: text: French having undergone more rapid and more pervasive phonological change

question: This pattern is particularly lacking among which modern languages?

question: Which languages have a low degree of  mutual comprehensibility?

question: What do both the Italian and Spanish languages share with the French language?

question: What is French-Spanish and Spanish-Italian mutual incomprehensibility due to?

question: Which two languages share numerous root words that aren't even in the Romance language?
context: This can give rise to the situation in which two dialects (defined according to this paradigm) with a somewhat distant genetic relationship are mutually more readily comprehensible than more closely related dialects. In one opinion, this pattern is clearly present among the modern Romance languages, with Italian and Spanish having a high degree of mutual comprehensibility, which neither language shares with French, despite some claiming that both languages are genetically closer to French than to each other:[citation needed] In fact, French-Italian and French-Spanish relative mutual incomprehensibility is due to French having undergone more rapid and more pervasive phonological change than have Spanish and Italian, not to real or imagined distance in genetic relationship. In fact, Italian and French share many more root words in common that do not even appear in Spanish.

qas: question: What Italian word is similar to the French word "avoir"?
answers: text: avere

question: What French word is similar to the Italian word "essere"?
answers: text: être

question: What two languages have the possibility for significant mutual intelligibility?
answers: text: Italian and Spanish

question: Along with foods and family relationships, what sorts of words are similar in French and Italian?
answers: text: body parts

question: When forming compound tenses in Spanish, what auxiliary is no longer used?
answers: text: sere

question: In Italian and French which words are very different while the same words are similar in Spanish?

question: Which two languages have undergone more change than French regarding phonological structures?

question: What Spanish word is similar to the Italian word avere?

question: Which Spanish word is similar to the Italian word essere?

question: Which Italian term is similar to avoir?
context: For example, the Italian and French words for various foods, some family relationships, and body parts are very similar to each other, yet most of those words are completely different in Spanish. Italian "avere" and "essere" as auxiliaries for forming compound tenses are used similarly to French "avoir" and "être". Spanish only retains "haber" and has done away with "ser" in forming compound tenses. However, when it comes to phonological structures, Italian and Spanish have undergone less change than French, with the result that some native speakers of Italian and Spanish may attain a degree of mutual comprehension that permits extensive communication.[citation needed]

qas: question: What language could all Western languages be considered dialects of?
answers: text: Interlingua

question: Researchers at what organization study and develop Interlingua?
answers: text: International Auxiliary Language Association

question: What was the nationality of high school students who learned Interlingua in a notable linguistic experiment?
answers: text: Swedish

question: Along with Italian and Spanish, what language could Swedish Interlingua learners translate?
answers: text: Portuguese

question: Along with Standard Average European, from what concept was Interlingua derived?
answers: text: the international scientific vocabulary

question: Which language was developed to aid Eastern civilization languages in acting as dialects?

question: What is the name of the language that was created to help Western languages act as English?

question: What has Interlingua been found to be a detriment to?

question: According to one study, students learning Spanish were able to translate passages from which languages that other students could not?

question: Which languages' vocabulary does not reach beyond the Western family of languages?
context: One language, Interlingua, was developed so that the languages of Western civilization would act as its dialects. Drawing from such concepts as the international scientific vocabulary and Standard Average European, linguists[who?] developed a theory that the modern Western languages were actually dialects of a hidden or latent language.[citation needed] Researchers at the International Auxiliary Language Association extracted words and affixes that they considered to be part of Interlingua's vocabulary. In theory, speakers of the Western languages would understand written or spoken Interlingua immediately, without prior study, since their own languages were its dialects. This has often turned out to be true, especially, but not solely, for speakers of the Romance languages and educated speakers of English. Interlingua has also been found to assist in the learning of other languages. In one study, Swedish high school students learning Interlingua were able to translate passages from Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian that students of those languages found too difficult to understand. It should be noted, however, that the vocabulary of Interlingua extends beyond the Western language families.