Political_philosophy

qas: question: What specifically dates back with Confucius in the 6th century BC?
answers: text: Chinese political philosophy

question: Chinese political philosophy dates back to what century?
answers: text: 6th century BC

question: Chinese political philosophy was developed as a response to what?
answers: text: the social and political breakdown of the country

question: What advocated a communal, decentralized government centered on frugality and ascetism?
answers: text: Mohism

question: What dates back to the 6th century AD?

question: What was a response to increased social and political awareness in China?

question: What advocated a communal, centralized government centered on frugality and accetism?

question: Who advocated a government based on empathy, loyalty and personal relationships?

question: Who advocated a peasant uprising and egalitarianism?

question: When did Agrarianism begin?

question: What is attributed to Mencius in the 6th Century BC?

question: What attribute did all of the philosophies share?

question: In what Spring and Autumn period was Legalism dominant?

question: In the Qin Dynasty, what replaced Legalism?
context: Chinese political philosophy dates back to the Spring and Autumn Period, specifically with Confucius in the 6th century BC. Chinese political philosophy was developed as a response to the social and political breakdown of the country characteristic of the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States period. The major philosophies during the period, Confucianism, Legalism, Mohism, Agrarianism and Taoism, each had a political aspect to their philosophical schools. Philosophers such as Confucius, Mencius, and Mozi, focused on political unity and political stability as the basis of their political philosophies. Confucianism advocated a hierarchical, meritocratic government based on empathy, loyalty, and interpersonal relationships. Legalism advocated a highly authoritarian government based on draconian punishments and laws. Mohism advocated a communal, decentralized government centered on frugality and ascetism. The Agrarians advocated a peasant utopian communalism and egalitarianism. Taoism advocated a proto-anarchism. Legalism was the dominant political philosophy of the Qin Dynasty, but was replaced by State Confucianism in the Han Dynasty. Prior to China's adoption of communism, State Confucianism remained the dominant political philosophy of China up to the 20th century.

qas: question: Western political philosophy originates in what philosophy?
answers: text: ancient Greece

question: What philosophy has dates back to at least Plato?
answers: text: philosophy of ancient Greece

question: Ancient Greece was dominated by what?
answers: text: city-states

question: What originated with Western  philosophy?

question: What philosophy dates back to sme time after Plato?

question: What civilization was dominated by independent towns that experimented with different governments?

question: What Roman statesman was influenced by Plato?

question: What 4 catagories did Aristotle divide greek political organizations into?

question: What is the first important work of political organization?

question: What example of Stoic influence followed Plato's?

question: What was the western political philosophy dominated by?

question: How was ancient Greece's government grouped by Cicero?

question: What was influenced by timocracy in Rome?
context: Western political philosophy originates in the philosophy of ancient Greece, where political philosophy dates back to at least Plato. Ancient Greece was dominated by city-states, which experimented with various forms of political organization, grouped by Plato into four categories: timocracy, tyranny, democracy and oligarchy. One of the first, extremely important classical works of political philosophy is Plato's Republic, which was followed by Aristotle's Nichomachean Ethics and Politics. Roman political philosophy was influenced by the Stoics, including the Roman statesman Cicero.

qas: question: What demarcates a clear distinction between nation and state, as well as religion and state?
answers: text: Indian political philosophy

question: What was divided into governance, administration, defense, law and  order?
answers: text: The institutions of state

question: What was the governing body of the Hindu states?
answers: text: Mantranga

question: What political philosophy does not make a clear distinction between nation and state or religion state

question: What evolved over time and is based on legal treaties and obscure social institutions?

question: Who state institutions were divided into narrow well-defined entities?

question: What governing body of the states listed of the Prime Minister and civil servants?

question: What did political and legal treatisies consist of in Indian government?

question: What were the constitutions of Maha states based on?

question: How was the committee of ministers divided?

question: What prevalant social institution made a clear line between nation and religion?

question: What was the governing body of the head of executive?
context: Indian political philosophy evolved in ancient times and demarcated a clear distinction between (1) nation and state (2) religion and state. The constitutions of Hindu states evolved over time and were based on political and legal treatises and prevalent social institutions. The institutions of state were broadly divided into governance, administration, defense, law and order. Mantranga, the principal governing body of these states, consisted of the King, Prime Minister, Commander in chief of army, Chief Priest of the King. The Prime Minister headed the committee of ministers along with head of executive (Maha Amatya).

qas: question: Who was the 4th Century BC Indian political philosopher?
answers: text: Chanakya

question: What provides an account of the science of politics for a wise ruler?
answers: text: The Arthashastra

question: What is an example of a code of law in ancient India?
answers: text: the Manusmṛti or Laws of Manu

question: Who was the Indian political philosopher in the fourth century A.D.?

question: What provides an account of the science of economics for a wise ruler?

question: "What authorities does Ambi quote?

question: Who is a predecessor of Chanaka?

question: Where is Sukra Neeti an example of a code of law?

question: Who was the 4th BC Indian Arthashastra?

question: What are a few examples the Bruhaspati gives for governance?

question: Who are the authorities Ambi quotes?

question: Who is Prachetasa a descendant of?

question: Who is the father of Ushanas?
context: Chanakya, 4th Century BC Indian political philosopher. The Arthashastra provides an account of the science of politics for a wise ruler, policies for foreign affairs and wars, the system of a spy state and surveillance and economic stability of the state. Chanakya quotes several authorities including Bruhaspati, Ushanas, Prachetasa Manu, Parasara, and Ambi, and described himself as a descendant of a lineage of political philosophers, with his father Chanaka being his immediate predecessor. Another influential extant Indian treatise on political philosophy is the Sukra Neeti. An example of a code of law in ancient India is the Manusmṛti or Laws of Manu.

qas: question: Who heavily influenced the early Christian philosophy of Augustine of Hippo?
answers: text: Plato

question: What was a key change brought about by Christian thought?
answers: text: the moderatation of the Stoicism

question: Who also preached that one was not a member of his or her city?
answers: text: Augustine

question: What does Civitas terrena mean?
answers: text: City of Man

question: What does Civitas Dei mean?
answers: text: City of God

question: Who influenced the Christian philosophy of Hippo of Augustine?

question: What philosophy modernized Christian thought?

question: What mean city of mankind?

question: What Christian belief was challenged by Augustine's city of man?

question: Who taught that one was a member of their city?

question: Who influenced Terrena's view of the moderation of the Stoicism?

question: What was one change brought about by Augustine?

question: What did Plato mention people were a member of?

question: What does Hippo's view attack regarding what Christians believed?

question: What is one thing that Plato changed in the Roman world?
context: The early Christian philosophy of Augustine of Hippo was heavily influenced by Plato. A key change brought about by Christian thought was the moderatation of the Stoicism and theory of justice of the Roman world, as well emphasis on the role of the state in applying mercy as a moral example. Augustine also preached that one was not a member of his or her city, but was either a citizen of the City of God (Civitas Dei) or the City of Man (Civitas Terrena). Augustine's City of God is an influential work of this period that attacked the thesis, held by many Christian Romans, that the Christian view could be realized on Earth.

qas: question: What strongly altered the power balances and perceptions of origin of power in the Mediterranean region?
answers: text: The rise of Islam

question: What emphasized an inexorable link between science and religion?
answers: text: Early Islamic philosophy

question: Who challenged the early Islamic philosophy's views?
answers: text: the "rationalist" Mutazilite philosophers

question: What type of views did the "rationalist" Mutaziite philosophers hold?
answers: text: Hellenic view

question: What help to balance the power in the Mediterranean region?

question: What early philosophy emphasize a separation between science and religion?

question: What philosophers placed revelation above reason?

question: Who were the first theologies of Islam?

question: Who said the Koran must be subordinate to reason?

question: What focused on a link between reason and freedom of action?

question: The rise of what was based on modern scholars views and science?

question: What group challenged the Hellenic view of Islam?

question: What must reason be subordinate to according to Mutazilite philosophers?

question: What process did speculative theologians use to find truth?
context: The rise of Islam, based on both the Qur'an and Muhammad strongly altered the power balances and perceptions of origin of power in the Mediterranean region. Early Islamic philosophy emphasized an inexorable link between science and religion, and the process of ijtihad to find truth—in effect all philosophy was "political" as it had real implications for governance. This view was challenged by the "rationalist" Mutazilite philosophers, who held a more Hellenic view, reason above revelation, and as such are known to modern scholars as the first speculative theologians of Islam; they were supported by a secular aristocracy who sought freedom of action independent of the Caliphate. By the late ancient period, however, the "traditionalist" Asharite view of Islam had in general triumphed. According to the Asharites, reason must be subordinate to the Quran and the Sunna.

qas: question: The clashes between Ehl-i Sunna and Shia had what kind of character? 
answers: text: political

question: Islamic political philosophy was rooted in what sources? 
answers: text: Islam

question: What is taken as the basis of an analysis?
answers: text: The political conceptions of Islam

question: What political philosophy was rooted in theology?

question: What are the religious conceptions of Islam?

question: What clashed up until the seventh and eighth century?

question: What is the religious conception of Islam taken as?

question: What kind of character did the clashes between Bajjah and Rushd have in the 7th and 8th centuries?

question: What sources are Avicenna based on?

question: How did the ilah generally suppose Islamic philosophy was rooted?

question: What did Ehl-i-Sunna and Shia pose regarding Islam?

question: What do the ideas of general political character give proof of in early Islamic history?
context: Islamic political philosophy, was, indeed, rooted in the very sources of Islam—i.e., the Qur'an and the Sunnah, the words and practices of Muhammad—thus making it essentially theocratic. However, in the Western thought, it is generally supposed that it was a specific area peculiar merely to the great philosophers of Islam: al-Kindi (Alkindus), al-Farabi (Abunaser), İbn Sina (Avicenna), Ibn Bajjah (Avempace), Ibn Rushd (Averroes), and Ibn Khaldun. The political conceptions of Islam such as kudrah (power), sultan, ummah, cemaa (obligation)-and even the "core" terms of the Qur'an—i.e., ibadah (worship), din (religion), rab (master) and ilah (deity)—is taken as the basis of an analysis. Hence, not only the ideas of the Muslim political philosophers but also many other jurists and ulama posed political ideas and theories. For example, the ideas of the Khawarij in the very early years of Islamic history on Khilafa and Ummah, or that of Shia Islam on the concept of Imamah are considered proofs of political thought. The clashes between the Ehl-i Sunna and Shia in the 7th and 8th centuries had a genuine political character.

qas: question: What was heavily influenced by Christian thinking?
answers: text: Medieval political philosophy in Europe

question: Medieval political philosophy had much in common with what type of thinking?
answers: text: Mutazalite Islamic thinking

question: Who was the most influential political philosopher of medieval Europe? 
answers: text: St. Thomas Aquinas

question: What influenced medieval politics?

question: What did Roman Catholics subordinate theology too?

question: How did Christian thinking differ from Mutazalite Islamic thinking?

question: Who emphasize the harmony absent in reason and revelation?

question: What medieval philosopher help to write some of Aristotle's works?

question: What was Mutazalite Islamic thinking influenced by in Europe?

question: Who was the most influential Asharite in medieval Europe?

question: What did Averroes help reintroduce in Europe?

question: What was the effect of Averroes uses of Aristotle's works in Europe?

question: Who was the most influential political philosopher who made the commentaries of Averroes?
context: Medieval political philosophy in Europe was heavily influenced by Christian thinking. It had much in common with the Mutazalite Islamic thinking in that the Roman Catholics though subordinating philosophy to theology did not subject reason to revelation but in the case of contradictions, subordinated reason to faith as the Asharite of Islam. The Scholastics by combining the philosophy of Aristotle with the Christianity of St. Augustine emphasized the potential harmony inherent in reason and revelation. Perhaps the most influential political philosopher of medieval Europe was St. Thomas Aquinas who helped reintroduce Aristotle's works, which had only been transmitted to Catholic Europe through Muslim Spain, along with the commentaries of Averroes. Aquinas's use of them set the agenda, for scholastic political philosophy dominated European thought for centuries even unto the Renaissance.

qas: question: What was one of the most influential works during the period? 
answers: text: Niccolò Machiavelli's The Prince

question: When was Niccolo Machiavelli's The Prince published? 
answers: text: 1532

question: Who wrote The  Prince?
answers: text: Niccolò Machiavelli

question: Who was well known for his theory of the social contract?
answers: text: Thomas Hobbes

question: What influential work was written in 1532?

question: What was published just before Machiavelli died?

question: The Prince and what other work influenced medieval political thought?

question: What was written to free the Mattice family from exile?

question: Who is known for their theory of social contract in the 1700s?

question: What did Thomas Hobbes write  between 1511-1512?

question: After what year did Jean-Jacques Rousseau die?

question: What did di Medici do for the West?

question: Who expelled Hobbes from Florence?

question: What group did Thomas Hobbes support more than the other?
context: One of the most influential works during this burgeoning period was Niccolò Machiavelli's The Prince, written between 1511–12 and published in 1532, after Machiavelli's death. That work, as well as The Discourses, a rigorous analysis of the classical period, did much to influence modern political thought in the West. A minority (including Jean-Jacques Rousseau) interpreted The Prince as a satire meant to be given to the Medici after their recapture of Florence and their subsequent expulsion of Machiavelli from Florence. Though the work was written for the di Medici family in order to perhaps influence them to free him from exile, Machiavelli supported the Republic of Florence rather than the oligarchy of the di Medici family. At any rate, Machiavelli presents a pragmatic and somewhat consequentialist view of politics, whereby good and evil are mere means used to bring about an end—i.e., the secure and powerful state. Thomas Hobbes, well known for his theory of the social contract, goes on to expand this view at the start of the 17th century during the English Renaissance. Although neither Machiavelli nor Hobbes believed in the divine right of kings, they both believed in the inherent selfishness of the individual. It was necessarily this belief that led them to adopt a strong central power as the only means of preventing the disintegration of the social order.

qas: question: What would refer to a set of enduring institutions through which power would be distributed and its use justified? 
answers: text: state

question: What refers to a specific group of people who occupied the institutions of the state?
answers: text: government

question: Society has been considered subject to natural laws akin to what?
answers: text: the physical world

question: What two questions joined the concepts of state and government?

question: What term referred to a set of temporary institutions through which power could be distributed in its use justified?

question: What term referred to individuals who created laws and ordinances by which other people would be bound?

question: What conceptual distinction continues to operate in science?

question: What has been believed society is subject to since the 1700s?

question: What is one question government was driven by?

question: What has happened since power was distributed and justified in Europe?

question: What theistic thinking led to a division between state and government?

question: What society not organized into states continues to operate today?

question: What does the rest of Europe argue about political action?
context: These theorists were driven by two basic questions: one, by what right or need do people form states; and two, what the best form for a state could be. These fundamental questions involved a conceptual distinction between the concepts of "state" and "government." It was decided that "state" would refer to a set of enduring institutions through which power would be distributed and its use justified. The term "government" would refer to a specific group of people who occupied the institutions of the state, and create the laws and ordinances by which the people, themselves included, would be bound. This conceptual distinction continues to operate in political science, although some political scientists, philosophers, historians and cultural anthropologists have argued that most political action in any given society occurs outside of its state, and that there are societies that are not organized into states that nevertheless must be considered in political terms. As long as the concept of natural order was not introduced, the social sciences could not evolve independently of theistic thinking. Since the cultural revolution of the 17th century in England, which spread to France and the rest of Europe, society has been considered subject to natural laws akin to the physical world.

qas: question: The concept of the guild was subordinated to the theory of what?
answers: text: free trade

question: What increasingly challenged the Roman Catholic dominance of theology?
answers: text: Protestant churches

question: The enlightenment was an outright attack on what?
answers: text: religion

question: Who was the most outspoken critic of the church in France?
answers: text: François Marie Arouet de Voltaire

question: The concept of Guild was superior to what theory?

question: The Roman Catholic Church was subordinate to what?

question: The allotment was an evolution of what?

question: Who is the most outspoken supporter of the church in France?

question: After who philosophy was never the same again in France?

question: What concept was the enlightenment subordinated  to?

question: Who challenged Voltaire's dominance of theology?

question: What were political and economic relations an attack on?

question: Who was an outspoken critic of the theory of free trade?

question: After the concept of the guild, what happened to religion in France?
context: Political and economic relations were drastically influenced by these theories as the concept of the guild was subordinated to the theory of free trade, and Roman Catholic dominance of theology was increasingly challenged by Protestant churches subordinate to each nation-state, which also (in a fashion the Roman Catholic Church often decried angrily) preached in the vulgar or native language of each region. However, the enlightenment was an outright attack on religion, particularly Christianity. The most outspoken critic of the church in France was François Marie Arouet de Voltaire, a representative figure of the enlightenment. After Voltaire, religion would never be the same again in France.

qas: question: In what area did these ideological reforms not take place until much later?
answers: text: Ottoman Empire

question: Whose philosophy gave much to Christian thought of the time?
answers: text: The Iroquois philosophy

question: Who was a great admirer of some of the methods of the Iroquois Confederacy?
answers: text: Benjamin Franklin

question: What area did ideological reforms take place much earlier?

question: Where in the New World was this doctrine spread?

question: Who modeled some of the methods of the Huron?

question: Whose literature emphasize the religious philosophy of the natives?

question: What did Aztec civilizations inspire in the US?

question: What did early Mohican literature focus on?

question: Who admired the methods of the Incan Confederacy?

question: What happened when methods of the Iroquois Confederacy were introduced to the Ottoman Empire?

question: What viewpoint influenced doctrine within the New World at the time?
context: In the Ottoman Empire, these ideological reforms did not take place and these views did not integrate into common thought until much later. As well, there was no spread of this doctrine within the New World and the advanced civilizations of the Aztec, Maya, Inca, Mohican, Delaware, Huron and especially the Iroquois. The Iroquois philosophy in particular gave much to Christian thought of the time and in many cases actually inspired some of the institutions adopted in the United States: for example, Benjamin Franklin was a great admirer of some of the methods of the Iroquois Confederacy, and much of early American literature emphasized the political philosophy of the natives.

qas: question: Who was responsible for the work Two Treatises of Government?
answers: text: John Locke

question: Locke refuted whose political theory?
answers: text: Sir Robert Filmer

question: According to Locke, an absolute ruler is proposed by Hobbes is what?
answers: text: unnecessary

question: Who critique the work Two Treaties of Government?

question: What did Sir Robert Filmer could be found through contractual obligation?

question: Which of John Locke's theories was a passing fancy?

question: What theory of Machiavelli and Hobbes did lock except?

question: What did Aquinas believe came into this world is a tabula rasa?

question: What work did Sir Rober FIlmer write?

question: What theory was ridiculed by Aquinas?

question: What did Locke accept that Machiavelli and Hobbes also believed?

question: What did Sir Robert Filmer believe about man's mind at birth?

question: What did Hobbes believe about gaining knowledge?
context: John Locke in particular exemplified this new age of political theory with his work Two Treatises of Government. In it Locke proposes a state of nature theory that directly complements his conception of how political development occurs and how it can be founded through contractual obligation. Locke stood to refute Sir Robert Filmer's paternally founded political theory in favor of a natural system based on nature in a particular given system. The theory of the divine right of kings became a passing fancy, exposed to the type of ridicule with which John Locke treated it. Unlike Machiavelli and Hobbes but like Aquinas, Locke would accept Aristotle's dictum that man seeks to be happy in a state of social harmony as a social animal. Unlike Aquinas's preponderant view on the salvation of the soul from original sin, Locke believes man's mind comes into this world as tabula rasa. For Locke, knowledge is neither innate, revealed nor based on authority but subject to uncertainty tempered by reason, tolerance and moderation. According to Locke, an absolute ruler as proposed by Hobbes is unnecessary, for natural law is based on reason and seeking peace and survival for man.

qas: question: Who developed the Marxist critique of capitalism?
answers: text: Friedrich Engels

question: What was one of the defining ideological movements of the Twentieth Century?
answers: text: The Marxist critique of capitalism

question: What produced a parallel revolution in political thought?
answers: text: The industrial revolution

question: Who developed liberalism and fascism?

question: What revolution was parallel but urbanization and capitalism?

question: What movement formed in the mid-1900s?

question: Whose theory of revolution is similar to Immanuel Kant's philosophy of history?

question: Who were established members of the political landscape by the late 1900s?

question: What political system was supported by capitalism?

question: What revolutionaries used Mikhail Bakunin's theories in the 20th century?

question: By the turn of the 20th century what two groups were established politically?

question: In the late 19th century what two ideas were becoming prominent in the Anglo-American world?

question: What was a defining movement of the Twentieth Century against capitalism, created by Vladamir Lenin?
context: The Marxist critique of capitalism — developed with Friedrich Engels — was, alongside liberalism and fascism, one of the defining ideological movements of the Twentieth Century. The industrial revolution produced a parallel revolution in political thought. Urbanization and capitalism greatly reshaped society. During this same period, the socialist movement began to form. In the mid-19th century, Marxism was developed, and socialism in general gained increasing popular support, mostly from the urban working class. Without breaking entirely from the past, Marx established principles that would be used by future revolutionaries of the 20th century namely Vladimir Lenin, Mao Zedong, Ho Chi Minh, and Fidel Castro. Though Hegel's philosophy of history is similar to Immanuel Kant's, and Karl Marx's theory of revolution towards the common good is partly based on Kant's view of history—Marx declared that he was turning Hegel's dialectic, which was "standing on its head", "the right side up again". Unlike Marx who believed in historical materialism, Hegel believed in the Phenomenology of Spirit. By the late 19th century, socialism and trade unions were established members of the political landscape. In addition, the various branches of anarchism, with thinkers such as Mikhail Bakunin, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon or Peter Kropotkin, and syndicalism also gained some prominence. In the Anglo-American world, anti-imperialism and pluralism began gaining currency at the turn of the 20th century.

qas: question: What was a watershed event in human history?
answers: text: World War I

question: When was The Russian Revolution?
answers: text: 1917

question: What brought communism?
answers: text: The Russian Revolution of 1917

question: What did Ludwig Von Mises and Friedrich Hayek run?
answers: text: a group of central European economists

question: What changed because of Leninism?

question: When did universal suffrage I begin?

question: What did social democratic parties do after communism was introduced?

question: What did European countries lead that identified the inspirations behind new government doctrines?

question: What was identified as being different types of Luxemburgism?
context: World War I was a watershed event in human history, changing views of governments and politics. The Russian Revolution of 1917 (and similar, albeit less successful, revolutions in many other European countries) brought communism - and in particular the political theory of Leninism, but also on a smaller level Luxemburgism (gradually) - on the world stage. At the same time, social democratic parties won elections and formed governments for the first time, often as a result of the introduction of universal suffrage. However, a group of central European economists led by Austrian School economists Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich Hayek identified the collectivist underpinnings to the various new socialist and fascist doctrines of government power as being different brands of political totalitarianism.

qas: question: Who published A Theory of Justice? 
answers: text: John Rawls

question: What did John Rawls publish?
answers: text: A Theory of Justice

question: What continent saw a huge blossoming of political philosophy?
answers: text: Europe

question: The events of May 1968 led to an increased interest in what?
answers: text: revolutionary ideology

question: From the end of WWII until 1971 what declined in China?

question: What was continental Europe skeptical about?

question: What did Marxism turn towards from the end of WWII until 1971?

question: In the 1950's and 1960's what group was interested in revolutionary ideology?

question: What immigrants to the US and Britain encouraged studies in Marxism?
context: From the end of World War II until 1971, when John Rawls published A Theory of Justice, political philosophy declined in the Anglo-American academic world, as analytic philosophers expressed skepticism about the possibility that normative judgments had cognitive content, and political science turned toward statistical methods and behavioralism. In continental Europe, on the other hand, the postwar decades saw a huge blossoming of political philosophy, with Marxism dominating the field. This was the time of Jean-Paul Sartre and Louis Althusser, and the victories of Mao Zedong in China and Fidel Castro in Cuba, as well as the events of May 1968 led to increased interest in revolutionary ideology, especially by the New Left. A number of continental European émigrés to Britain and the United States—including Karl Popper, Friedrich Hayek, Leo Strauss, Isaiah Berlin, Eric Voegelin and Judith Shklar—encouraged continued study in political philosophy in the Anglo-American world, but in the 1950s and 1960s they and their students remained at odds with the analytic establishment.

qas: question: What remained an important focus during the 1950s and 1960s?
answers: text: Communism

question: There was a marked trend towards what type of approach to political issues?
answers: text: pragmatic approach

question: Who wrote The Racial Contract?
answers: text: Charles W. Mills

question: Who wrote The Sexual Contract?
answers: text: Carole Patemen

question: What was a political exclusion in the 1950's and 1960's?

question: What was the trend towards dealing with racism?

question: What did utilitarianism lead to in the developed world?

question: What did the Communism mention about who was excluded in society?

question: What was one approach to the debate about colonialism?
context: Communism remained an important focus especially during the 1950s and 1960s. Colonialism and racism were important issues that arose. In general, there was a marked trend towards a pragmatic approach to political issues, rather than a philosophical one. Much academic debate regarded one or both of two pragmatic topics: how (or whether) to apply utilitarianism to problems of political policy, or how (or whether) to apply economic models (such as rational choice theory) to political issues. The rise of feminism, LGBT social movements and the end of colonial rule and of the political exclusion of such minorities as African Americans and sexual minorities in the developed world has led to feminist, postcolonial, and multicultural thought becoming significant. This led to a challenge to the social contract by philosophers Charles W. Mills in his book The Racial Contract and Carole Patemen in her book The Sexual Contract that the social contract excluded persons of colour and women respectively.

qas: question: What did John Rawsl publish?
answers: text: A Theory of Justice

question: Who Published A Theory of Justice?
answers: text: John Rawls

question: When was A Theory of Justice published?
answers: text: 1971

question: Who wrote Anarchy, State, and Utopia?
answers: text: Robert Nozick

question: What did Robert Nozick write in 1971?

question: What did John Rawls write in 1974?

question: What award did John Rawls's book win?

question: What is Robert Nozick's book considered in American philosophy?

question: What viewpoint did John Rawls have when responding to Rober Nozick?
context: In Anglo-American academic political philosophy, the publication of John Rawls's A Theory of Justice in 1971 is considered a milestone. Rawls used a thought experiment, the original position, in which representative parties choose principles of justice for the basic structure of society from behind a veil of ignorance. Rawls also offered a criticism of utilitarian approaches to questions of political justice. Robert Nozick's 1974 book Anarchy, State, and Utopia, which won a National Book Award, responded to Rawls from a libertarian perspective and gained academic respectability for libertarian viewpoints.

qas: question: Herbert Marcuse was from what school?
answers: text: Frankfurt School,

question: Thinkers out of the Frankfurt School combined Marxian and what other perspective?
answers: text: Freudian

question: Who in particular moved a Marxist analysis of commodity fetishism to the realm of consumption? 
answers: text: Guy Debord

question: What thinkers came out of the Foucault School?

question: What points-of-view did Anglo-Americans combine?

question: What were thinkers influenced by when they emphasized consumerism?

question: Who took Marxist commodity fetishism to the realm of cultural emphasis?

question: What happened in Europe that led to criticism of Hegel between 1950 and 1980?
context: Contemporaneously with the rise of analytic ethics in Anglo-American thought, in Europe several new lines of philosophy directed at critique of existing societies arose between the 1950s and 1980s. Most of these took elements of Marxist economic analysis, but combined them with a more cultural or ideological emphasis. Out of the Frankfurt School, thinkers like Herbert Marcuse, Theodor W. Adorno, Max Horkheimer, and Jürgen Habermas combined Marxian and Freudian perspectives. Along somewhat different lines, a number of other continental thinkers—still largely influenced by Marxism—put new emphases on structuralism and on a "return to Hegel". Within the (post-) structuralist line (though mostly not taking that label) are thinkers such as Gilles Deleuze, Michel Foucault, Claude Lefort, and Jean Baudrillard. The Situationists were more influenced by Hegel; Guy Debord, in particular, moved a Marxist analysis of commodity fetishism to the realm of consumption, and looked at the relation between consumerism and dominant ideology formation.

qas: question: What is often considered valuable for generating a new set of philosophical problems? 
answers: text: The liberal-communitarian debate

question: What type of control do communitarians tend to support?
answers: text: greater local control

question: What type of economic and social policies do Communitarians tend to support?
answers: text: policies which encourage the growth of social capital

question: What is valuable for creating greater local control?

question: What does political theory tend to support in communities?

question: What type of policies do individuals support?

question: What did a clash of perspective develop around?

question: Who argues that individuals should have political focus?
context: Another debate developed around the (distinct) criticisms of liberal political theory made by Michael Walzer, Michael Sandel and Charles Taylor. The liberal-communitarian debate is often considered valuable for generating a new set of philosophical problems, rather than a profound and illuminating clash of perspective.These and other communitarians (such as Alasdair MacIntyre and Daniel A. Bell) argue that, contra liberalism, communities are prior to individuals and therefore should be the center of political focus. Communitarians tend to support greater local control as well as economic and social policies which encourage the growth of social capital.

qas: question: When did republicanism and the capability approach arise?
answers: text: the end of the 20th century

question: What aims to provide an alternate definition of liberty from Isaiah Berlin's positive and negative forms of liberty?
answers: text: The resurgent republican movement

question: Mahbub ul Haq and Amartya Sen pioneered what approach?
answers: text: The capability approach

question: When did the perspectives jurist and non-interference appear?

question: To a liberal, what is the state of a political perspective that is not interfered with? 

question: What is the approach of republicanism as developed by Mahbub ul Haq and Amartya Sen?

question: How do both political perspectives treat arbitrary will?

question: What does the economist movement look to define in a different way?
context: A pair of overlapping political perspectives arising toward the end of the 20th century are republicanism (or neo- or civic-republicanism) and the capability approach. The resurgent republican movement aims to provide an alternate definition of liberty from Isaiah Berlin's positive and negative forms of liberty, namely "liberty as non-domination." Unlike liberals who understand liberty as "non-interference," "non-domination" entails individuals not being subject to the arbitrary will of anyother person. To a liberal, a slave who is not interfered with may be free, yet to a republican the mere status as a slave, regardless of how that slave is treated, is objectionable. Prominent republicans include historian Quentin Skinner, jurist Cass Sunstein, and political philosopher Philip Pettit. The capability approach, pioneered by economists Mahbub ul Haq and Amartya Sen and further developed by legal scholar Martha Nussbaum, understands freedom under allied lines: the real-world ability to act. Both the capability approach and republicanism treat choice as something which must be resourced. In other words, it is not enough to be legally able to do something, but to have the real option of doing it.