Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

qas: question: Outside of employment, what is the other main issue that affirmative action focuses on?
answers: text: education

question: Affirmative action attempts to ask institutions to grant extra consideration to what group of people outside of Native Americans and women?
answers: text: racial minorities

question: Studies showed that discrimination in both business sectors and education resulted in advantages for what group of people?
answers: text: whites and males

question: Affirmative action does not only attempt to remove disadvantages, but also to ensure what about the number of people in a field?
answers: text: are more representative of the populations they serve

question: Outside of employment, what is the other lesser issue that affirmative action focuses on?

question: Affirmative action attempts to ask institutions to grant extra consideration to what group of people outside of Native Americans and men?

question:  Studies showed that discrimination in both business sectors and education resulted in disadvantages for what group of people?

question: Affirmative action does attempts to remove disadvantages, but also to ensure what about the number of people in a field?
context: Affirmative action in the United States tends to focus on issues such as education and employment, specifically granting special consideration to racial minorities, Native Americans, and women who have been historically excluded groups in America. Reports have shown that minorities and women have faced discrimination in schools and businesses for many years and this discrimination produced unfair advantages for whites and males in education and employment. The impetus toward affirmative action is redressing the disadvantages associated with past and present discrimination. Further impetus is a desire to ensure public institutions, such as universities, hospitals, and police forces, are more representative of the populations they serve.

qas: question: What is another example aside from racial quotes of affirmative action for collegiate admissions?
answers: text: gender quotas

question: Having quotas regarding admissions or employment has been criticized and said to be what kind of discrimination?
answers: text: reverse

question: What case determined that some implementation of affirmative action was unconstitutional?
answers: text: Gratz v. Bollinger

question: In which time period did discrimination policies originate from?
answers: text: Reconstruction Era

question: What do critics of affirmative action believe should be the main factor in hiring?
answers: text: achievement

question: What is another example aside from racial quotes of non-affirmative action for collegiate admissions?

question: Not having quotas regarding admissions or employment has been criticized and said to be what kind of discrimination?

question: What case determined that some implementation of affirmative action was constitutional?

question:  In which time period did discrimination policies not originate from?

question: What do critics of affirmative action believe should not be the main factor in hiring?
context: Affirmative action is a subject of controversy. Some policies adopted as affirmative action, such as racial quotas or gender quotas for collegiate admission, have been criticized as a form of reverse discrimination, and such implementation of affirmative action has been ruled unconstitutional by the majority opinion of Gratz v. Bollinger. Affirmative action as a practice was upheld by the Supreme Court's decision in Grutter v. Bollinger in 2003. Affirmative action policies were developed in order to correct decades of discrimination stemming from the Reconstruction Era by granting disadvantaged minorities opportunities. Many believe that the diversity of current American society suggests that affirmative action policies succeeded and are no longer required. Opponents of affirmative action argue that these policies are outdated and lead to reverse discrimination which entails favoring one group over another based upon racial preference rather than achievement.

qas: question: When did the Reconstruction Era end?
answers: text: 1877

question: Who proposed that land be divided and split up among families of color?
answers: text: General William Tecumseh Sherman

question: What was the policy of dividing land among families of color referred to as?
answers: text: Forty acres and a mule

question: Which part of the constitution was the basis for policies that were developed during the Civil Rights Movement?
answers: text: Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment

question: Who was the first person to utilize the term "affirmative action"?
answers: text: President John F. Kennedy

question: When did the Deconstruction Era end?

question: When did the Deconstruction Era start?

question: Who proposed that land be divided and split up among white families?

question:  Who was the last person to utilize the term "affirmative action"?
context: Ideas for affirmative action came as early as the Reconstruction Era (1865-1877) in which a former slave population lacked the skills and resources for sustainable living. In 1865, General William Tecumseh Sherman proposed to divide the land and goods from Georgia and grant it to families of color which became the "Forty acres and a mule" policy. The proposal was never widely adopted due to strong political opposition. Nearly a century later (1950s-1960s), policies to assist classes of individuals reemerged during the Civil Rights Movement. The civil rights guarantees came through the interpretation of the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment. The decisions came to be known as affirmative action in which mandatory, as well as voluntary programs, affirmed the civil rights of people of color. Furthermore, these affirmative action programs protected people of color from the present effects stemming from past discrimination. In 1961, President John F. Kennedy became the first to utilize the term "affirmative action" in Executive Order 10925 to ensure that government contractors "take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed, and employees are treated during employment, without regard to their race, creed, color, or national origin." This executive order realized the government's intent to create equal opportunities for all qualified people. This executive order was eventually amended and superseded by Lyndon B. Johnson's Executive Order 11246 which prevented discrimination based on race, color, religion, and national origin by organizations which received federal contracts and subcontracts. In 1967, the order was amended to include sex as well. The Reagan administration was opposed to the affirmative action requirements of Executive Order 11246, but these contemplated changes[which?] faced bi-partisan opposition in Congress.

qas: question: In which document did the term "affirmative action" first appear?
answers: text: National Labor Relations Act

question: Who was the author of the National Labor Relations Act?
answers: text: Senator Robert F. Wagner

question: Who did employers routinely blacklist of fire?
answers: text: employees associated with unions

question: Who was able to review complaints about possible worker discrimination?
answers: text: National Labor Relations Board

question: Which group of people did the Wagner Act fail to protect?
answers: text: minorities

question:  In which document did the term "non-affirmative action" first appear?

question:  Who was the author of the National Non-Labor Relations Act?

question:  Who did employers routinely hire?

question: Who wasn't able to review complaints about possible worker discrimination?

question: Which group of people did the Wagner Act protect?
context: The first appearance of the term 'affirmative action' was in the National Labor Relations Act, better known as the Wagner Act, of 1935.:15 Proposed and championed by U.S. Senator Robert F. Wagner of New York, the Wagner Act was in line with President Roosevelt's goal of providing economic security to workers and other low-income groups. During this time period it was not uncommon for employers to blacklist or fire employees associated with unions. The Wagner Act allowed workers to unionize without fear of being discriminated against, and empowered a National Labor Relations Board to review potential cases of worker discrimination. In the event of discrimination, employees were to be restored to an appropriate status in the company through 'affirmative action'. While the Wagner Act protected workers and unions it did not protect minorities, who, exempting the Congress of Industrial Organizations, were often barred from union ranks.:11 This original coining of the term therefore has little to do with affirmative action policy as it is seen today, but helped set the stage for all policy meant to compensate or address an individual's unjust treatment.[citation needed]

qas: question: Who was the true backer of the cause of affirmative action?
answers: text: Harold L. Ickes

question: What position of power did Harold L. Ickes hold?
answers: text: Interior Secretary

question: The first introduction of a quota system mandated that contractors had to do what?
answers: text: employ a fixed percentage of Black workers

question: Which piece of legislation prevented any discrimination in the defense industry and government?
answers: text: Executive Order 8802

question: What does the FEPC stand for?
answers: text: Fair Employment Practices Committee

question: Who was the true backer of the cause of non-affirmative action?

question:  What position of power did Clark L. Ickes hold?

question: The first introduction of a quota system mandated that contractors can't do what?

question:  Which piece of legislation didn't prevent any discrimination in the defense industry and government?

question:  What does the FPPC stand for?
context: FDR's New Deal programs often contained equal opportunity clauses stating "no discrimination shall be made on account of race, color or creed",:11 but the true forerunner to affirmative action was the Interior Secretary of the time, Harold L. Ickes. Ickes prohibited discrimination in hiring for Public Works Administration funded projects and oversaw not only the institution of a quota system, where contractors were required to employ a fixed percentage of Black workers, by Robert C. Weaver and Clark Foreman,:12 but also the equal pay of women proposed by Harry Hopkins.:14FDR's largest contribution to affirmative action, however, lay in his Executive Order 8802 which prohibited discrimination in the defense industry or government.:22 The executive order promoted the idea that if taxpayer funds were accepted through a government contract, then all taxpayers should have an equal opportunity to work through the contractor.:23–4 To enforce this idea, Roosevelt created the Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEPC) with the power to investigate hiring practices by government contractors.:22

qas: question: What group was established in response to Executive Order 9808?
answers: text: President's Committee on Civil Rights

question: What was the Executive Order 9808 issued in response to?
answers: text: Sergeant Isaac Woodard incident

question: In which year were the "To Secure These Rights" findings published?
answers: text: 1947

question: What was the committee especially disturbed by as indicated in their report?
answers: text: the state of race relations

question: Who in the generation following the "To Secure These Rights" findings sign legislation for affirmative action into law?
answers: text: Lyndon B. Johnson

question:  What group was established in response to Executive Order 9108?

question:  What was the Executive Order 988 issued in response to?

question: In which year were the "Don't Secure These Rights" findings published?

question: What was the committee not at all disturbed by as indicated in their report?
context: Following the Sergeant Isaac Woodard incident, President Harry S. Truman, himself a combat veteran of World War I, issued Executive Order 9808 establishing the President's Committee on Civil Rights to examine the violence and recommend appropriate federal legislation. Hearing of the incident, Truman turned to NAACP leader Walter Francis White and declared, "My God! I had no idea it was as terrible as that. We've got to do something." In 1947 the committee published its findings, To Secure These Rights. The book was widely read, influential, and considered utopian for the times: "In our land men are equal, but they are free to be different. From these very differences among our people has come the great human and national strength of America." The report discussed and demonstrated racial discrimination in basic freedoms, education, public facilities, personal safety, and employment opportunities. The committee was disturbed by the state of race relations, and included the evacuation of Americans of Japanese descent during the war "made without a trial or any sort of hearing…Fundamental to our whole system of law is the belief that guilt is personal and not a matter of heredity or association." The recommendations were radical, calling for federal policies and laws to end racial discrimination and bring about equality: "We can tolerate no restrictions upon the individual which depend upon irrelevant factors such as his race, his color, his religion, or the social position to which he is born." To Secure These Rights set the liberal legislative agenda for the next generation that eventually would be signed into law by Lyndon B. Johnson.:35–36

qas: question: The "To Secure These Rights" findings wanted desegregation of which institution?
answers: text: Armed Forces

question: Which risk associated with serving was specifically highlighted by the findings?
answers: text: death

question: What did the findings say occurred to an individual when he enters the armed services?
answers: text: surrenders some of the rights and privileges

question: Discrimination that prevented minorities from serving their country to the best of their abilities was seen as what?
answers: text: a humiliating badge of inferiority

question: The "To Secure These Rights" findings did not want desegregation of which institution?

question: Which risk associated with serving wasn't specifically highlighted by the findings?

question: What did the findings say occurred to an individual when he leaves the armed services?

question: Discrimination that prevented minorities from serving their country to the best of their abilities wasn't seen as what?
context: To Secure These Rights also called for desegregation of the Armed Forces. "Prejudice in any area is an ugly, undemocratic phenomenon, but in the armed services, where all men run the risk of death, it is especially repugnant." The rationale was fairness: "When an individual enters the service of the country, he necessarily surrenders some of the rights and privileges which are inherent in American citizenship." In return, the government "undertakes to protect his integrity as an individual." Yet that was not possible in the segregated Army, since "any discrimination which…prevents members of the minority groups from rendering full military service in defense of their country is for them a humiliating badge of inferiority." The report called for an end to "all discrimination and segregation based on race, color, creed, or national origins in…all branches of the Armed Services.":38–39

qas: question: Who was the first President to address the NAACP?
answers: text: Truman

question: How many people were present at the speech that Truman made?
answers: text: 10,000

question: Where did Truman's historic speech take place?
answers: text: Lincoln Memorial

question: During the speech, Truman made the statement that each man should be guaranteed what?
answers: text: equality of opportunity

question: Who's authority did Truman want to increase throughout the states?
answers: text: federal

question:  Who was the first President to address the NICP?

question:  How many people left the speech that Truman made?

question: Where did Truman's historic speech end?

question: During the speech, Truman made the statement that each man shouldn't be guaranteed what?

question: Who's authority did Truman want to decrease throughout the states?
context: In June, Truman became the first president to address the NAACP. His speech was a significant departure from traditional race relations in the United States. In front of 10,000 people at the Lincoln Memorial, the president left no doubt where he stood on civil rights. According to his speech, America had "reached a turning point in the long history of our country's efforts to guarantee freedom and equality to all our citizens…Each man must be guaranteed equality of opportunity." He proposed what black citizens had been calling for - an enhanced role of federal authority through the states. "We must make the Federal government a friendly, vigilant defender of the rights and equalities of all Americans. And again I mean all Americans.":40

qas: question: What day did Truman mandate the end of discrimination in the federal government?
answers: text: July 26

question: How many executive orders were issued to help prevent discrimination?
answers: text: two

question: What was the name given to Executive Order 9980?
answers: text: Regulations Governing for Employment Practices within the Federal Establishment

question: Which position was formulated as a result of Executive Order 9980?
answers: text: Fair Employment Officer

question: What name was given to Executive Order 9981?
answers: text: Establishing the President's Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Services

question: What day did Truman mandate the beginning of discrimination in the federal government?

question: How many executive orders were issued to help provide discrimination?

question:  What was the name given to Executive Order 9180?

question: Which position was formulated as a result of Executive Order 9?

question:  What name was given to Executive Order 9181?
context: On July 26, Truman mandated the end of hiring and employment discrimination in the federal government, reaffirming FDR's order of 1941.:40 He issued two executive orders on July 26, 1948: Executive Order 9980 and Executive Order 9981. Executive Order 9980, named Regulations Governing for Employment Practices within the Federal Establishment, instituted fair employment practices in the civilian agencies of the federal government. The order created the position of Fair Employment Officer. The order "established in the Civil Service Commission a Fair Employment Board of not less than seven persons." Executive Order 9981, named Establishing the President's Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Services, called for the integration of the Armed Forces and the creation of the National Military Establishment to carry out the executive order.

qas: question: Which year was Eisenhower elected President?
answers: text: 1952

question: Who did Eisenhower believe should be allowed to decide the nature of discrimination laws?
answers: text: the states

question: What was established in 1953?
answers: text: Government Contract Committee

question: What was the main purpose of the Government Contract Committee?
answers: text: conducted surveys of the racial composition of federal employees and tax-supported contractors

question: Who was the chairman of the newly established committee?
answers: text: Vice President Richard Nixon

question:  Which year was Eisenhower elected vice-President?

question: Who did Eisenhower believe should be disallowed to decide the nature of discrimination laws?

question:  What was established in 1913?

question: What was the last purpose of the Government Contract Committee?

question:  Who was the chairman of the old committee?
context: When Eisenhower was elected President in 1952, he believed hiring practices and anti-discrimination laws should be decided by the states, although the administration gradually continued to desegregate the Armed Forces and the federal government.:50 The President also established the Government Contract Committee in 1953, which "conducted surveys of the racial composition of federal employees and tax-supported contractors".:50–51 The committee, chaired by Vice President Richard Nixon, had minimal outcomes in that they imposed the contractors with the primary responsibility of desegregation within their own companies and corporations.:51

qas: question: Who criticized President Eisenhower during the 1960 presidential election?
answers: text: John F. Kennedy

question: What was John F. Kennedy's criticism of the President based on?
answers: text: not ending discrimination in federally supported housing

question: Which order was issued soon after Kennedy took office?
answers: text: Executive Order 10925

question: What does PCEEO stand for?
answers: text: President's Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity

question: What was the immediate penalty for a federal contractor for not obeying the executive order?
answers: text: contract cancellation

question: Who criticized President Eisenhower during the 1930 presidential election?

question:  What was John F. Kennedy's support of the President based on?

question: Which order was issued soon after Kennedy lost office?

question:  What does PELCO stand for?

question: What was the immediate penalty for a federal contractor for obeying the executive order?
context: In the 1960 presidential election, Democratic candidate and future President John F. Kennedy "criticized President Eisenhower for not ending discrimination in federally supported housing" and "advocated a permanent Fair Employment Practices Commission".:59 Shortly after taking office, Kennedy issued Executive Order 10925 in March 1961, requiring government contractors to "consider and recommend additional affirmative steps which should be taken by executive departments and agencies to realize more fully the national policy of nondiscrimination…. The contractor will take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed, and that employees are treated during employment, without regard to their race, creed, color, or national origin".:60 The order also established the President's Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity (PCEEO), chaired by Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson. Federal contractors who failed to comply or violated the executive order were punished by contract cancellation and the possible debarment from future government contracts. The administration was "not demanding any special preference or treatment or quotas for minorities" but was rather "advocating racially neutral hiring to end job discrimination".:61 Turning to issues of women's rights, Kennedy initiated a Commission on the Status of Women in December 1961. The commission was charged with "examining employment policies and practices of the government and of contractors" with regard to sex.:66

qas: question: When did President Kennedy issue Executive Order 11114?
answers: text: June 1963

question: What was the main aim of Executive Order 11114?
answers: text: elimination of discrimination in employment

question: What was anyone who received federal funding of any sort required to do under the Executive Order?
answers: text: comply to the government's policies on affirmative action

question: When did President Kennedy issue Executive Order 13?

question: What was the main aim of Executive Order 14?

question: What was anyone who received federal funding of any sort required to do without the Executive Order?
context: In June 1963, President Kennedy continued his policy of affirmative action by issuing another mandate, Executive Order 11114. The order supplemented to his previous 1961 executive order declaring it was the "policy of the United States to encourage by affirmative action the elimination of discrimination in employment".:72 Through this order, all federal funds, such as "grants, loans, unions and employers who accepted taxpayer funds, and other forms of financial assistance to state and local governments," were forced to comply to the government's policies on affirmative action in employment practices.:72

qas: question: Which Executive Order first contained the phrase "affirmative action"?
answers: text: Executive Order 10925

question: Who chaired the committee created by Executive Order 10925?
answers: text: Vice President Johnson

question: Who co - authored the executive order?
answers: text: Hobart Taylor Jr.

question: What was the alternative phrase to "affirmative action" that was being considered?
answers: text: positive action

question: What was the main reason that "affirmative action" was chosen over "positive action"?
answers: text: alliterative quality

question: Which Executive Order didn't contain the phrase "affirmative action"?

question:  Who chaired the committee destroyed by Executive Order 10925?

question:  Who co - authored the non-executive order?

question: What was the alternative phrase to "non-affirmative action" that was being considered?

question: What was the main reason that "non-affirmative action" was chosen over "positive action"?
context: The first time "affirmative action" is used by the federal government concerning race is in President John F. Kennedy's Executive Order 10925, which was chaired by Vice President Johnson. At Johnson's inaugural ball in Texas, he met with a young black lawyer, Hobart Taylor Jr., and gave him the task to co-author the executive order. He wanted a phrase that "gave a sense of positivity to performance under the order." He was torn between the words "positive action" and "affirmative action," and selected the later due to its alliterative quality. The term "active recruitment" started to be used as well. This order, albeit heavily worked up as a significant piece of legislation, in reality carried little actual power. The scope was limited to a couple hundred defense contractors, leaving nearly $7.5 billion in federal grants and loans unsupervised.:60

qas: question: Who had issues with JFK's proposal?
answers: text: NAACP

question: Who filed complaints quickly after the Executive Order was implemented?
answers: text: NAACP labor secretary Herbert Hill

question: Which company was targeted by the NAACP for not having fair practices?
answers: text: Lockheed Aircraft Corporation

question: Who did Lockheed sign an agreement with to seek out more minority workers?
answers: text: Vice President Johnson

question: Which laws did the corporations in the South associate with in order to ignore the federal recommendations?
answers: text: Jim Crow

question: Who had issues with JFK's rejection?

question: Who filed complaints quickly before the Executive Order was implemented?

question: Which company was targeted by the NAACP for having fair practices?

question: Who did Lockheed sign an agreement with to seek out more minority workers?

question:  Which laws did the corporations in the North associate with in order to ignore the federal recommendations?
context: NAACP had many problem's with JFK's "token" proposal. They wanted jobs. One day after the order took effect, NAACP labor secretary Herbert Hill filed complaints against the hiring and promoting practices of Lockheed Aircraft Corporation. Lockheed was doing business with the Defense Department on the first billion-dollar contract. Due to taxpayer-funding being 90% of Lockheed's business, along with disproportionate hiring practices, black workers charged Lockheed with "overt discrimination." Lockheed signed an agreement with Vice President Johnson that pledged an "aggressive seeking out for more qualified minority candidates for technical and skill positions.:63–64 This agreement was the administration's model for a "plan of progress." Johnson and his assistants soon pressured other defense contractors, including Boeing and General Electric, to sign similar voluntary agreements indicating plans for progress. However, these plans were just that, voluntary. Many corporations in the South, still afflicted with Jim Crow laws, largely ignored the federal recommendations.:63–64

qas: question: Which piece of legislation quickly followed President Kennedy's assassination?
answers: text: Civil Rights Act

question: Outside of the private business regulations, what was the other aim of the Civil Rights Act?
answers: text: integrate public facilities

question: Which other Executive Order did the Civil Right's Act work closely with?
answers: text: 11114

question: What was the purpose of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act?
answers: text: to end discrimination in all firms with 25 or more employees

question: What was the goal of the Equal Employment Opportunity C omission?
answers: text: ending discrimination in the nation's workplace

question: Which piece of legislation quickly followed Vice-President Kennedy's assassination?

question: Outside of the private business regulations, what was the other aim of the Non-Civil Rights Act?

question: Which other Executive Order did the Civil Right's Act not work closely with?

question:  What was the purpose of Title VII of the Non-Civil Rights Act?
context: This eventually led to LBJ's Civil Rights Act, which came shortly after President Kennedy's assassination. This document was more holistic than any President Kennedy had offered, and therefore more controversial. It aimed not only to integrate public facilities, but also private businesses that sold to the public, such as motels, restaurants, theaters, and gas stations. Public schools, hospitals, libraries, parks, among other things, were included in the bill as well. It also worked with JFK's executive order 11114 by prohibiting discrimination in the awarding of federal contracts and holding the authority of the government to deny contracts to businesses who discriminate. Maybe most significant of all, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act aimed to end discrimination in all firms with 25 or more employees. Another provision established the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission as the agency charged with ending discrimination in the nation's workplace.:74

qas: question: Which section of the legislation was considered the most controversial?
answers: text: Title VII

question: What did critics claim that Title VII advocate?
answers: text: a de facto quota system

question: Which Senator fought back against the criticism of Title VII?
answers: text: Hubert Humphrey

question: Who was one of the key members that Humphrey managed to convince to support the bill?
answers: text: Everett Dirksen

question: What position of importance other than Senator did Everett Dirksen hold?
answers: text: Senate Minority Leader

question: Which section of the legislation was considered the least controversial?

question:  What did supporters claim that Title VII advocate?

question:  Which Mayor fought back against the criticism of Title VII?

question:  Who was one of the key members that Humphrey managed to convince to reject the bill?

question: What position of importance other than Mayor did Everett Dirksen hold?
context: Title VII was perhaps the most controversial of the entire bill. Many conservatives accused it of advocating a de facto quota system, and claimed unconstitutionality as it attempts to regulate the workplace. Minnesota Senator Hubert Humphrey corrected this notion: "there is nothing in [Title VII] that will give power to the Commission to require hiring, firing, and promotion to meet a racial 'quota.' [. . .] Title VII is designed to encourage the hiring on basis of ability and qualifications, not race or religion." Title VII prohibits discrimination. Humphrey was the silent hero of the bill's passing through Congress. He pledged that the bill required no quotas, just nondiscrimination. Doing so, he convinced many pro-business Republicans, including Senate Minority Leader Everett Dirksen (IL) to support Title VII.:78–80

qas: question: Who followed in Johnson's footsteps in terms of ensuring equal opportunity?
answers: text: his successor Nixon

question: Which piece of legislation was begun in 1969?
answers: text: Philadelphia Order

question: Which industry of jobs did the legislation target?
answers: text: construction

question: Aside from the construction industry, which other group was one of the main offenders against equal opportunity laws?
answers: text: craft unions

question: Who held the position of Assistant Secretary of Labor?
answers: text: Arthur Fletcher

question: Who followed in Johnson's footsteps in terms of ensuring unequal opportunity?

question:  Which piece of legislation was ended in 1969?

question:  Which industry of jobs did the legislation not target?

question: Aside from the construction industry, which other group was one of the main offenders against unequal opportunity laws?

question: Who held the position of Secretary of Labor?
context: The strides that the Johnson presidency made in ensuring equal opportunity in the workforce were further picked up by his successor Nixon. In 1969 the Nixon administration initiated the "Philadelphia Order". It was regarded as the most forceful plan thus far to guarantee fair hiring practices in construction jobs. Philadelphia was selected as the test case because, as Assistant Secretary of Labor Arthur Fletcher explained, "The craft unions and the construction industry are among the most egregious offenders against equal opportunity laws . . . openly hostile toward letting blacks into their closed circle." The order included definite "goals and timetables." As President Nixon asserted, "We would not impose quotas, but would require federal contractors to show 'affirmative action' to meet the goals of increasing minority employment."

qas: question: In terms of advancement, what happened to the progression of affirmative action after the Nixon administration?
answers: text: became less prevalent

question: What was one of the primary reasons that the issue of affirmative action lost its momentum?
answers: text: there were other areas that needed focus

question: Which administration allowed affirmative action to take a backseat to other issues?
answers: text: Ford

question: In terms of advancement, what happened to the progression of non-affirmative action after the Nixon administration?

question: What was one of the primary reasons that the issue of non-affirmative action lost its momentum?

question: Which administration allowed affirmative action to take a frontseat to other issues?
context: After the Nixon administration, advancements in affirmative action became less prevalent. "During the brief Ford administration, affirmative action took a back seat, while enforcement stumbled along.":145 Equal rights was still an important subject to many Americans, yet the world was changing and new issues were being raised. People began to look at affirmative action as a glorified issue of the past and now there were other areas that needed focus. "Of all the triumphs that have marked this as America's Century –...none is more inspiring, if incomplete, than our pursuit of racial justice."

qas: question: What kind of classification was subject to strict scrutiny?
answers: text: racial

question: What was the only situation in which a racial classification could be considered acceptable?
answers: text: necessary to promote a compelling governmental interest

question: Who later confirmed that racial classifications were only to be upheld if they were necessary?
answers: text: U.S. Supreme Court

question: What is an example case that can help display where upholding a racial classification is beneficial?
answers: text: Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co.

question: What kind of classification was not subject to strict scrutiny?

question: What was the only situation in which a racial classification could be considered unacceptable?

question: Who later confirmed that racial classifications were only to be upheld if they were unnecessary?

question: What is an example case that can help display where upholding a racial classification is not beneficial?
context: In the beginning, racial classifications that identified race were inherently suspect and subject to strict scrutiny. These classifications would only be upheld if necessary to promote a compelling governmental interest. Later the U.S. Supreme Court decided that racial classifications that benefited underrepresented minorities were to only be upheld if necessary and promoted a compelling governmental purpose. (See Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co.) There is no clear guidance about when government action is not "compelling", and such rulings are rare.

qas: question: Which case concerning White and Hispanic firefighters was heard by the Supreme Court in 2009?
answers: text: Ricci v. DeStefano

question: Where was the issue of White and Hispanic firefighters heard in the case based out of?
answers: text: New Haven, Connecticut

question: How many whites were given the possibility of immediate promotion as a result of taking the controversial test?
answers: text: 17

question: What percentage of those people taking the test were African American?
answers: text: 23

question: What was the final vote count for the Supreme Court over the issue?
answers: text: 5-4

question: Which case concerning White and Hispanic firefighters was heard by the Supreme Court in 2019?

question: Where was the issue of White and Black firefighters heard in the case based out of?

question: How many whites were given the possibility of immediate firing as a result of taking the controversial test?

question: What percentage of those people taking the test were Asian American?
context: Ricci v. DeStefano was heard by the United States Supreme Court in 2009. The case concerns White and Hispanic firefighters in New Haven, Connecticut, who upon passing their test for promotions to management were denied the promotions, allegedly because of a discriminatory or at least questionable test. The test gave 17 whites and two Hispanics the possibility of immediate promotion. Although 23% of those taking the test were African American, none scored high enough to qualify. Because of the possibility the tests were biased in violation of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act, no candidates were promoted pending outcome of the controversy. In a split 5-4 vote, the Supreme Court ruled that New Haven had engaged in impermissible racial discrimination against the White and Hispanic majority.

qas: question: Which President declared that discrimination is contrary to the Constitutional principles of the United States?
answers: text: Kennedy

question: Which piece of legislation did President Kennedy use to claim that discrimination was a violation of the Constitution?
answers: text: Executive Order 10925

question: What were the affected industries in terms of regulation as a result of Executive Order 10925?
answers: text: Federal Government and on government contracts

question: Which President declared that discrimination is contrary to the Constitutional principles of the UK?

question: Which piece of legislation did President Kennedy use to claim that discrimination was not a violation of the Constitution?

question:  What were the affected industries in terms of deregulation as a result of Executive Order 10925?
context: President Kennedy stated in Executive Order 10925 that "discrimination because of race, creed, color, or national origin is contrary to the Constitutional principles and policies of the United States"; that "it is the plain and positive obligation of the United States Government to promote and ensure equal opportunity for all qualified persons, without regard to race, creed, color, or national origin, employed or seeking employment with the Federal Government and on government contracts"; that "it is the policy of the executive branch of the Government to encourage by positive measures equal opportunity for all qualified persons within the Government"; and that "it is in the general interest and welfare of the United States to promote its economy, security, and national defense through the most efficient and effective utilization of all available manpower".

qas: question: Other than being race and gender based, what did believers in affirmative action also feel that the system discriminated against?
answers: text: class

question: Which organization believed in the class based argument?
answers: text: African American Policy Forum

question: What group of people did the AAPF claim affirmative action created?
answers: text: African American middle class

question: What does the AAPF believe the foundation for the class based argument is?
answers: text: non-poor minorities do not experience racial and gender based discrimination

question: What does the AAPF believe the goal of affirmative action should be?
answers: text: to address race-based obstacles that block the path to success

question: Other than being race and gender based, what did believers in affirmative action also feel that the system did not discriminate against

question: Which organization believed in the non-class based argument?

question:  What group of people did the AAPF claim affirmative action did not create?

question: What does the AAPF believe the foundation for the class based agreement is?

question:  What does the AAPF believe the goal of non-affirmative action should be?
context: Proponents of affirmative action argue that by nature the system is not only race based, but also class and gender based. To eliminate two of its key components would undermine the purpose of the entire system. The African American Policy Forum believes that the class based argument is based on the idea that non-poor minorities do not experience racial and gender based discrimination. The AAPF believes that "Race-conscious affirmative action remains necessary to address race-based obstacles that block the path to success of countless people of color of all classes". The groups goes on to say that affirmative action is responsible for creating the African American middle class, so it does not make sense to say that the system only benefits the middle and upper classes.

qas: question: What major event preceded the growth of the divide in education between White and Black Americans?
answers: text: end of World War II

question: What was considered to be a major cause of the increase in educational gap?
answers: text: Dwight D. Eisenhower's GI Bill

question: What did returning black veterans not receive?
answers: text: loans at the same rate as whites

question: How many servicemen and women were educated as a result of the GI Bill?
answers: text: Nearly 8 million

question: What opportunities were few for black veterans?
answers: text: higher educational

question: What major event preceded the growth of the divide in education between White and Asian Americans?

question: What was not considered to be a major cause of the increase in educational gap?

question:  What did returning white veterans not receive?

question:  How many servicemen and women weren't educated as a result of the GI Bill?

question:  What opportunities were few for hispanic veterans?
context: Following the end of World War II the educational gap between White and Black Americans was widened by Dwight D. Eisenhower's GI Bill. This piece of legislation paved the way for white GIs to attend college. Despite their veteran status returning black servicemen were not afforded loans at the same rate as whites. Furthermore, at the time of its introduction, segregation was still the law of the land barring blacks from the best institutions. Overall, "Nearly 8 million servicemen and servicewomen were educated under the provisions of the GI Bill after World War II. But for blacks, higher educational opportunities were so few that the promise of the GI Bill went largely unfulfilled."

qas: question: Who conducted a study about the origins of "Latinos"?
answers: text: Dr. Paul Brest

question: How much of the Latino population did Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans and Cuban Americans make up in 1991?
answers: text: 80%

question: In relation to other major ethnic groups, what is the education level of Latinos?
answers: text: least well educated

question: What was the percentage increase of the high school completion rate for African Americans between 1975 and 1990?
answers: text: 12%

question: How many of the total bachelor degrees awarded in 1990 went to Latinos?
answers: text: 3.1%

question: Who conducted a study about the origins of "Blacks"?

question: How much of the Latino population did Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans and Cuban Americans make up in 1911?

question: In relation to other major ethnic groups, what is the education level of Blacks?

question: How many of the total bachelor degrees awarded in 1992 went to Latinos?
context: According to a study by Dr. Paul Brest, Hispanics or "Latinos" include immigrants who are descendants of immigrants from the countries comprising Central and South America. In 1991, Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans, and Cuban Americans made up 80% of the Latino population in the United States. Latinos are disadvantaged compared to White Americans and are more likely to live in poverty. They are the least well educated major ethnic group and suffered a 3% drop in high school completion rate while African Americans experienced a 12% increase between 1975-1990. In 1990, they constituted 9% of the population, but only received 3.1% of the bachelors's degrees awarded. At times when it is favorable to lawmakers, Latinos were considered "white" by the Jim Crow laws during the Reconstruction. In other cases, according to Paul Brest, Latinos have been classified as an inferior race and a threat to white purity. Latinos have encountered considerable discrimination in areas such as employment, housing, and education. Brest finds that stereotypes continue to be largely negative and many perceive Latinos as "lazy, unproductive, and on the dole." Furthermore, native-born Latino-Americans and recent immigrants are seen as identical since outsiders tend not to differentiate between Latino groups.

qas: question: Which groups can be categorized as Native Americans?
answers: text: people who lived in North America before European settlement

question: When did the Native Americans lose their land?
answers: text: During the U.S. government's westward expansion

question: Where were Native Americans forced to live after they lost their land?
answers: text: reservations

question: How much land did the Native Americans own in 1934?
answers: text: 52 million acres

question: In relation to whites, what was the poverty rate for Native Americans in 1990?
answers: text: more than triple

question: Which groups can be categorized as Non-Native Americans?

question:  When did the Native Americans win their land?

question: Where were Native Americans forced to live after they won their land?

question:  How much land did the Native Americans own in 1914?
context: The category of Native American applies to the diverse group of people who lived in North America before European settlement. During the U.S. government's westward expansion, Native Americans were displaced from their land which had been their home for centuries. Instead, they were forced onto reservations which were far smaller and less productive. According to Brest, land belonging to Native Americans was reduced from 138 million acres in 1887 to 52 million acres in 1934. In 1990, the poverty rate for Native Americans was more than triple that of the whites and only 9.4% of Native Americans have completed a bachelor's degree as opposed to 25.2% of whites and 12.2% of African Americans.

qas: question: What form of discrimination did early Asian immigrants experience?
answers: text: not having the ability to become naturalized citizens

question: What law type did Asian immigrants struggle with?
answers: text: school segregation

question: Which piece of legislature marked the start of discrimination against Asians?
answers: text: Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882

question: Which bill was passed in an attempt to limit or prevent Asian immigration?
answers: text: Immigration Act of 1924

question: According to studies, what are Asians perceived to be lacking?
answers: text: communication skills and personality

question: m of discrimination did early African immigrants experience?

question:  What law type did African immigrants struggle with?

question:  Which bill was passed in an attempt to provide for Asian immigration?
context: Early Asian immigrants experienced prejudice and discrimination in the forms of not having the ability to become naturalized citizens. They also struggled with many of the same school segregation laws that African Americans faced. Particularly, during World War II, Japanese Americans were interned in camps and lost their property, homes, and businesses. Discrimination against Asians began with the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 and then continued with the Scott Act of 1888 and the Geary Act of 1892. At the beginning of the 20th century, the United States passed the Immigration Act of 1924 to prevent Asian immigration out of fear that Asians were stealing white jobs and lowering the standard for wages. In addition, whites and non-Asians do not differentiate among the different Asian groups and perpetuate the "model minority" stereotype. According to a 2010 article by Professor Qin Zhang of Fairfield University, Asians are characterized as one dimensional in having great work ethic and valuing education, but lacking in communication skills and personality. A negative outcome of this stereotype is that Asians have been portrayed as having poor leadership and interpersonal skills. This has contributing to the "glass ceiling" phenomenon in which although there are many qualified Asian Americans, they occupy a disproportionately small number of executive positions in businesses. Furthermore, the model minority stereotype has led to resentment of Asian success and several universities and colleges have limited or have been accused of limiting Asian matriculation.

qas: question: What is one of the issues with affirmative action?
answers: text: inherently unequal

question: How do people who are in favor of affirmative action view it?
answers: text: an effort towards inclusion rather than a discriminatory practice

question: What does affirmative action supposedly aim to do?
answers: text: overcome prejudicial treatment through inclusion

question: What do proponents of affirmative action believe is the best way to combat exclusionary practices?
answers: text: make special efforts at inclusion

question: What is one of the issues with non-affirmative action?

question:  How do people who aren't in favor of affirmative action view it?

question:  What does affirmative action supposedly not aim to do?

question: What do proponents of affirmative action believe is the worst way to combat exclusionary practices?
context: Proponents of affirmative action recognize that the policy is inherently unequal; however, minding the inescapable fact that historic inequalities exist in America, they believe the policy is much more fair than one in which these circumstances are not taken into account. Furthermore, those in favor of affirmative action see it as an effort towards inclusion rather than a discriminatory practice. "Job discrimination is grounded in prejudice and exclusion, whereas affirmative action is an effort to overcome prejudicial treatment through inclusion. The most effective way to cure society of exclusionary practices is to make special efforts at inclusion, which is exactly what affirmative action does."

qas: question: Which President made their stance on affirmative action clear in 1995?
answers: text: Bill Clinton

question: How long after his inauguration was Bill Clinton's speech?
answers: text: two and a half years

question: Which speech did Bill Clinton's speech draw parallels to?
answers: text: President Lyndon B. Johnson's "Freedom is not Enough"

question: What did President Clinton claim would not be enough to give everyone in American equality?
answers: text: just outlawing discrimination

question: What was President Clinton's response to the claim that affirmative action was hurting the white middle class.
answers: text: the policy was not the source of their problems

question: Which President made their stance on non-affirmative action clear in 1995?

question:  How soon after his inauguration was Bill Clinton's speech?

question: Which speech did Bill Clinton's speech draw differences from?

question: What did President Clinton claim would be enough to give everyone in American equality?

question: What was President Clinton's response to the claim that affirmative action was not hurting the white middle class.?
context: There are a multitude of supporters as well as opponents to the policy of affirmative action. Many presidents throughout the last century have failed to take a very firm stance on the policy, and the public has had to discern the president's opinion for themselves. Bill Clinton, however, made his stance on affirmative action very clear in a speech on July 19, 1995, nearly two and a half years after his inauguration. In his speech, he discussed the history in the United States that brought the policy into fruition: slavery, Jim Crow, and segregation. Clinton also mentioned a point similar to President Lyndon B. Johnson's "Freedom is not Enough" speech, and declared that just outlawing discrimination in the country would not be enough to give everyone in America equality. He addressed the arguments that affirmative action hurt the white middle class and said that the policy was not the source of their problems. Clinton plainly outlined his stance on affirmative action, saying:

qas: question: Where was the National Conference of State Legislatures held in 2014?
answers: text: Washington D.C.

question: What did proponents of affirmative action claim some of the effects of policies that support affirmative action had done?
answers: text: help to open doors for historically excluded groups in workplace settings and higher education

question: What has the concept of workplace diversity caused employers to do?
answers: text: actively seek to promote an inclusive workplace

question: Having a diverse workplace allows for employers to do what?
answers: text: draw in talent and ideas from all segments of the population

question: Which organization claims that private sector employers believe having a diverse workplace is beneficial?
answers: text: U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission

question: Where was the National Conference of State Legislatures held in 2024?

question: What did proponents of affirmative action claim some of the effects of policies that reject affirmative action had done?

question: What has the concept of workplace diversity caused employers not to do?

question:  Having a diverse workplace allows for employers to not do what?
context: The National Conference of State Legislatures held in Washington D.C. stated in a 2014 overview that many supporters for affirmative action argue that policies stemming from affirmative action help to open doors for historically excluded groups in workplace settings and higher education. Workplace diversity has become a business management concept in which employers actively seek to promote an inclusive workplace. By valuing diversity, employers have the capacity to create an environment in which there is a culture of respect for individual differences as well as the ability to draw in talent and ideas from all segments of the population. By creating this diverse workforce, these employers and companies gain a competitive advantage in an increasingly global economy. According to the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, many private sector employers have concluded that a diverse workforce makes a "company stronger, more profitable, and a better place to work." Therefore, these diversity promoting policies are implemented for competitive reasons rather than as a response to discrimination, but have shown the value in having diversity.

qas: question: What does AAUP stand for?
answers: text: American Association of University Professors

question: What were the effects of affirmative action on universities according to the study done by the AAUP?
answers: text: positive effects on the educational outcomes and experiences of college students

question: What did a study claim about the beliefs of faculty members on increased diversity?
answers: text: helps students to reach the essential goals of a college education

question: Who supposedly suffers no detrimental effects from classroom diversity?
answers: text: Caucasian students

question: In which year did the AAUP release their study?
answers: text: 2000

question: What does ADUP stand for?

question: What were the effects of affirmative action on universities according to the study done by the AALP?

question: What did a study claim about the beliefs of faculty members on decreased diversity?

question: Who supposedly suffers a lot of detrimental effects from classroom diversity?

question: In which year did the ALUP release their study?
context: In the year 2000, according to a study by American Association of University Professors (AAUP), affirmative action promoted diversity within colleges and universities. This has been shown to have positive effects on the educational outcomes and experiences of college students as well as the teaching of faculty members. According to a study by Geoffrey Maruyama and José F. Moreno, the results showed that faculty members believed diversity helps students to reach the essential goals of a college education, Caucasian students suffer no detrimental effects from classroom diversity, and that attention to multicultural learning improves the ability of colleges and universities to accomplish their missions. Furthermore, a diverse population of students offers unique perspectives in order to challenge preconceived notions through exposure to the experiences and ideas of others. According to Professor Gurin of the University of Michigan, skills such as "perspective-taking, acceptance of differences, a willingness and capacity to find commonalities among differences, acceptance of conflict as normal, conflict resolution, participation in democracy, and interest in the wider social world" can potentially be developed in college while being exposed to heterogeneous group of students. In addition, broadening perspectives helps students confront personal and substantive stereotypes and fosters discussion about racial and ethnic issues in a classroom setting. Furthermore, the 2000 AAUP study states that having a diversity of views leads to a better discussion and greater understanding among the students on issues of race, tolerance, fairness, etc.

qas: question: Who claims that artificially raising minority students into schools has a negative effect on them?
answers: text: Richard Sander

question: What was a negative effect of affirmative action according to Richard Sander?
answers: text: high dropout rates

question: Where do half of the black college students rank in terms of their performance relative to the rest of their class?
answers: text: bottom 20 percent

question: What is the failure rate for black law school graduates compared to whites for the bar exam?
answers: text: four times

question: Who claims that artificially raising minority students into schools has a positive effect on them?

question: What was a postive effect of affirmative action according to Richard Sander?

question: Where do half of the white college students rank in terms of their performance relative to the rest of their class?

question: What is the failure rate for black law school graduates compared to asians for the bar exam?
context: Richard Sander claims that by artificially elevating minority students into schools they otherwise would not be capable of attending, this discourages them and tends to engender failure and high dropout rates for these students. For example, about half of black college students rank in the bottom 20 percent of their classes, black law school graduates are four times as likely to fail bar exams as are whites, and interracial friendships are more likely to form among students with relatively similar levels of academic preparation; thus, blacks and Hispanics are more socially integrated on campuses where they are less academically mismatched. He claims that the supposed "beneficiaries" of affirmative action – minorities – do not actually benefit and rather are harmed by the policy. Sander's claims have been disputed, and his empirical analyses have been subject to substantial criticism. A group including some of the country's lead statistical methodologists told the Supreme Court that Sander's analyses were sufficiently flawed that the Court would be wise to ignore them entirely. At the same time many scholars have found that minorities gain substantially from affirmative action.

qas: question: Which idea is the controversy of affirmative action primarily based upon?
answers: text: class inequality

question: Other than African Americans, who do detractors of affirmative action claim benefit most from affirmative action?
answers: text: Hispanic Americans

question: At who's expense other than Asian Americans are upper-class African Americans and Hispanic Americans supposedly benefiting?
answers: text: lower-class European Americans

question: What do some people believe should be the basis for affirmative action instead of race based legislation?
answers: text: class-based affirmative action

question: Who primarily makes up America's poor group?
answers: text: people of color

question: Which idea is the controversy of non-affirmative action primarily based upon?

question: Other than Asian Americans, who do detractors of affirmative action claim benefit most from affirmative action?

question: At whose expense other than African Americans are upper-class African Americans and Hispanic Americans supposedly benefiting?

question: What do some people believe should be the basis for affirmative action instead of religion based legislation?

question:  Who primarily makes up America's rich group?
context: The controversy surrounding affirmative action's effectiveness is based on the idea of class inequality. Opponents of racial affirmative action argue that the program actually benefits middle- and upper-class African Americans and Hispanic Americans at the expense of lower-class European Americans and Asian Americans. This argument supports the idea of class-based affirmative action. America's poor is disproportionately made up of people of color, so class-based affirmative action would disproportionately help people of color. This would eliminate the need for race-based affirmative action as well as reducing any disproportionate benefits for middle- and upper-class people of color.

qas: question: Where were the Italian American professors employed that asked to be added as an affirmative action category?
answers: text: City University of New York

question: Which year did the Italian American Professors make their request?
answers: text: 1976

question: What category of race do Italian Americans normally fall under?
answers: text: white

question: What was the title of the book written by Thomas Sowell?
answers: text: Affirmative Action Around the World: An Empirical Study

question: Why would Italian Americans want to get themselves designated as members of a preferred group?
answers: text: to take advantage of group preference policies

question: Where were the Irish American professors employed that asked to be added as an affirmative action category?

question:  Which year did the Irish American Professors make their request?

question:  What category of race do Irish Americans normally fall under?

question: What was the title of the song written by Thomas Sowell?

question: Why would Italian Americans want to get themselves designated as members of a non-preferred group?
context: In 1976, a group of Italian American professors at City University of New York asked to be added as an affirmative action category for promotion and hiring. Italian Americans are usually considered white in the US and would not be covered under affirmative action policies, but the professors believed they were underrepresented. Libertarian economist Thomas Sowell wrote in his book, Affirmative Action Around the World: An Empirical Study, that affirmative action policies encourage non-preferred groups to designate themselves as members of preferred groups [i.e., primary beneficiaries of affirmative action] to take advantage of group preference policies.

qas: question: What book did Frederick Lynch author?
answers: text: Invisible Victims: White Males and the Crisis of Affirmative Action

question: What did white males feel was happening to them as a result of affirmative action?
answers: text: reverse discrimination

question: What moral position does Shelby Steele hold?
answers: text: against affirmative action

question: What does Shelby Steele believe that the true concept of affirmative action is?
answers: text: enforcing equal opportunity

question: What book did Frederick Lynch burn?

question: What did black males feel was happening to them as a result of affirmative action?

question:  What moral position does Shelby Steele disagree with?

question: What does Shelby Steele believe that the false concept of affirmative action is?
context: Frederick Lynch, the author of Invisible Victims: White Males and the Crisis of Affirmative Action, did a study on white males that said they were victims of reverse discrimination. Lynch explains that these white men felt frustrated and unfairly victimized by affirmative action. Shelby Steele, another author against affirmative action, wanted to see affirmative action go back to its original meaning of enforcing equal opportunity. He argued that blacks had to take full responsibility in their education and in maintaining a job. Steele believes that there is still a long way to go in America to reach our goals of eradicating discrimination.

qas: question: Which book did Terry Eastland write?
answers: text: From Ending Affirmative Action: The Case for Colorblind Justice

question: Outside of promoting diversity, was does Eastland believe the other reason to be in favor of affirmative action is?
answers: text: remedying past discrimination

question: What did Eastland believe the founders of affirmative action did not consider?
answers: text: how the benefits of affirmative action would go to those who did not need it

question: Why does Sowell believe that there is little to no incentive for the preferred minority groups to perform at their best?
answers: text: because doing so is unnecessary

question: What argument does Sowell make in his claim that non - preferred minorities have less incentive to perform at their best?
answers: text: because it can prove futile

question: Which song did Terry Eastland write?

question: Outside of promoting diversity, was does Eastland believe the other reason to be against affirmative action is?

question: What did Westland believe the founders of affirmative action did not consider?

question: Why does Sowell believe that there is a lot of incentive for the preferred minority groups to perform at their best?

question: What argument does Sowell make in his claim that preferred minorities have less incentive to perform at their best?
context: Terry Eastland, the author who wrote From Ending Affirmative Action: The Case for Colorblind Justice states, "Most arguments for affirmative action fall into two categories: remedying past discrimination and promoting diversity". Eastland believes that the founders of affirmative action did not anticipate how the benefits of affirmative action would go to those who did not need it, mostly middle class minorities. Additionally, she argues that affirmative action carries with it a stigma that can create feelings of self-doubt and entitlement in minorities. Eastland believes that affirmative action is a great risk that only sometimes pays off, and that without it we would be able to compete more freely with one another. Libertarian economist Thomas Sowell identified what he says are negative results of affirmative action in his book, Affirmative Action Around the World: An Empirical Study. Sowell writes that affirmative action policies encourage non-preferred groups to designate themselves as members of preferred groups [i.e., primary beneficiaries of affirmative action] to take advantage of group preference policies; that they tend to benefit primarily the most fortunate among the preferred group (e.g., upper and middle class blacks), often to the detriment of the least fortunate among the non-preferred groups (e.g., poor white or Asian); that they reduce the incentives of both the preferred and non-preferred to perform at their best – the former because doing so is unnecessary and the latter because it can prove futile – thereby resulting in net losses for society as a whole; and that they engender animosity toward preferred groups as well.:115–147

qas: question: What is a definition of reverse discrimination?
answers: text: a policy or practice in which members of a majority are discriminated against in favor of a historically disadvantaged group or minority

question: What do some commentators claim the irony of policies resulting from affirmative action is?
answers: text: these policies are just another form of discrimination

question: Who is an example of someone that states that affirmative action is another form of discrimination?
answers: text: Ward Connerly

question: What does the opposition of affirmative action believe should be the main key in determining acceptance in employment or education?
answers: text: merit

question: An argument against affirmative action is that it encourages what?
answers: text: mediocrity and incompetence

question: What is a definition of discrimination?

question:  What do some commentators reject the irony of policies resulting from affirmative action is?

question: Who is an example of someone that states that affirmative action is not another form of discrimination?

question: What does the opposition of affirmative action believe should be the main key in determining acceptance in unemployment?

question:  An argument against affirmative action is that it discourages what?
context: Some commentators have defined reverse discrimination as a policy or practice in which members of a majority are discriminated against in favor of a historically disadvantaged group or minority.[non-primary source needed] Many argue that reverse discrimination results from affirmative action policies and that these policies are just another form of discrimination no different from examples in the past. People like Ward Connerly assert that affirmative action requires the very discrimination it is seeking to eliminate. According to these opponents, this contradiction might make affirmative action counter-productive. One argument for reverse discrimination is the idea that affirmative action encourages mediocrity and incompetence. Job positions would not be offered to the applicants who are the most qualified, but to applicants with a special trait such as a certain race, ethnicity, or gender. For example, opponents say affirmative action causes unprepared applicants to be accepted in highly demanding educational institutions or jobs which result in eventual failure (see, for example, Richard Sander's study of affirmative action in Law School, bar exam and eventual performance at law firms). Other opponents say that affirmative action lowers the bar and so denies those who strive for excellence on their own merit and the sense of real achievement. Opponents of affirmative action suggest that merit should be the primary factor considered in applying for job positions, college, graduate school, etc.

qas: question: What is a typical argument in favor of affirmative action?
answers: text: compensation argument

question: In the compensation argument, who should supposedly have to make up for past discrimination against blacks?
answers: text: society today should compensate for the injuries

question: Which argument is being made by those who oppose affirmative action in relation to the compensation argument?
answers: text: preferential treatment for this same trait is illogical

question: In terms of whites, what is an argument that is used to try and refute the benefits of affirmative action as it relates to the compensation argument?
answers: text: whites today who innocently benefited from past injustices should not be punished for something they had no control over

question: According to opposition believers, who should be punished for discrimination?
answers: text: people who willingly and knowingly benefited from discriminatory practices

question: What is a typical argument against affirmative action?

question: In the compensation argument, who should supposedly have to make up for past discrimination against whites?

question: Which argument is being made by those who support affirmative action in relation to the compensation argument?

question: In terms of blacks, what is an argument that is used to try and refute the benefits of affirmative action as it relates to the compensation argument?
context: Another popular argument for affirmative action is the compensation argument. Blacks were mistreated in the past for a morally irrelevant characteristic of being black so society today should compensate for the injuries. This causes reverse discrimination in the form of preferential hirings, contracts, and scholarships as a means to ameliorate past wrongs. Many opponents argue that this form of reparation is morally indefensible because if blacks were harmed for being black in the past, then preferential treatment for this same trait is illogical. In addition, arguments are made that whites today who innocently benefited from past injustices should not be punished for something they had no control over. Therefore, they are being reverse discriminated against because they are receiving the punishment that should be given to people who willingly and knowingly benefited from discriminatory practices

qas: question: Other than failing to achieve its goal, what else do opponents to affirmative action claim it has?
answers: text: undesirable side-effects

question: Other than benefiting more privileged people within minority groups, what is another argument against affirmative action?
answers: text: may increase racial tension

question: When was there a vote regarding affirmative action in Michigan?
answers: text: 2006

question: How many Michigan voters elected to ban affirmative action for university admissions?
answers: text: 60%

question: Which court case featured an unprecedented and controversial decision?
answers: text: Grutter v. Bollinger

question: Other than failing to achieve its goal, what else do people who agree with affirmative action claim it has?

question: Other than benefiting more privileged people outside of minority groups, what is another argument against affirmative action?

question:  When was there a vote not regarding affirmative action in Michigan?

question: How many Michigan voters elected to support affirmative action for university admissions?

question: Which court case featured an uncontroversial decision?
context: Some opponents further claim that affirmative action has undesirable side-effects and that it fails to achieve its goals. They argue that it hinders reconciliation, replaces old wrongs with new wrongs, undermines the achievements of minorities, and encourages groups to identify themselves as disadvantaged, even if they are not. It may increase racial tension and benefit the more privileged people within minority groups at the expense of the disenfranchised within better-off groups (such as lower-class whites and Asians).There has recently been a strong push among American states to ban racial or gender preferences in university admissions, in reaction to the controversial and unprecedented decision in Grutter v. Bollinger. In 2006, nearly 60% of Michigan voters decided to ban affirmative action in university admissions. Michigan joined California, Florida, Texas, and Washington in banning the use of race or sex in admissions considerations. Some opponents believe, among other things, that affirmative action devalues the accomplishments of people who belong to a group it's supposed to help, therefore making affirmative action counter-productive. Furthermore, opponents of affirmative action claim that these policies dehumanize individuals and applicants to jobs or school are judged as members of a group without consideration for the individual person.

qas: question: Where are racial preferences highlighted the most in the United States?
answers: text: admission to universities and other forms of higher education

question: What is another term for kids who get preferential treatment due to their parents attending the same university?
answers: text: legacy admissions

question: Which case that went to the Supreme Court resulted in a decision regarding public universities and affirmative action?
answers: text: Bakke v. Regents

question: What are public universities not allowed to do?
answers: text: set specific numerical targets based on race for admissions or employment

question: Instead of being allowed to set numerical targets, what did the Court rule that universities are allowed to do?
answers: text: "goals" and "timetables" for diversity could be set

question: Where are racial preferences highlighted the most in the UK?

question: What is another term for kids who don't get preferential treatment due to their parents attending the same university?

question: Which case that went to the Supreme Court resulted in a decision regarding private universities and affirmative action?

question:  What are public universities allowed to do?
context: In the US, a prominent form of racial preferences relates to access to education, particularly admission to universities and other forms of higher education. Race, ethnicity, native language, social class, geographical origin, parental attendance of the university in question (legacy admissions), and/or gender are sometimes taken into account when the university assesses an applicant's grades and test scores. Individuals can also be awarded scholarships and have fees paid on the basis of criteria listed above. In 1978, the Supreme Court ruled in Bakke v. Regents that public universities (and other government institutions) could not set specific numerical targets based on race for admissions or employment. The Court said that "goals" and "timetables" for diversity could be set instead.

qas: question: What does the racial preferences debate indicate about universities and colleges?
answers: text: competing notions of the mission of colleges

question: What claim did Ronald Dworkin make about the expectations that a college application should not have?
answers: text: a right to expect that a university will design its admissions policies in a way that prizes any particular set of qualities

question: What does Ronald Dworkin believe admission should represent?
answers: text: a way to advance the mission as each university defines it

question: When can affirmative action be judged to be acceptable in terms of admissions?
answers: text: If diversity is a goal of the university and their racial preferences do not discriminate

question: What does the racial preferences debate not indicate about universities and colleges?

question: What claim did Ronald Dworkin make about the expectations that a college application should have?

question: When can affirmative action be judged to be unacceptable in terms of admissions?
context: The racial preferences debate related to admission to US colleges and universities reflects competing notions of the mission of colleges: "To what extent should they pursue scholarly excellence, to what extent civic goods, and how should these purposes be balanced?". Scholars such as Ronald Dworkin have asserted that no college applicant has a right to expect that a university will design its admissions policies in a way that prizes any particular set of qualities. In this view, admission is not an honor bestowed to reward superior merit but rather a way to advance the mission as each university defines it. If diversity is a goal of the university and their racial preferences do not discriminate against applicants based on hatred or contempt, then affirmative action can be judged acceptable based on the criteria related to the mission the university sets for itself.

qas: question: What did the ruling in Hopwood v Texas set a precedent for in terms of admission policies?
answers: text: banning any use of race in school admissions

question: What did the law passed by the State of Texas guarantee?
answers: text: entry to any state university if a student finished in the top 10% of their graduating class

question: Other than Texas and Florida, which other state replaced racial quotas?
answers: text: California

question: What is one example of what racial quotas were replaced with?
answers: text: class rank

question: After the state passed the top 10% rule, what happened to minority enrollment?
answers: text: returned minority enrollment to pre-1996 levels

question: What didn't the ruling in Hopwood v Texas set a precedent for in terms of admission policies?

question:  What did the law passed by the State of Texas not guarantee?

question: Other than Texas and Florida, which other state did not replace racial quotas?

question:  What is one example of what racial quotas were not replaced with?
context: To accommodate the ruling in Hopwood v. Texas banning any use of race in school admissions, the State of Texas passed a law guaranteeing entry to any state university if a student finished in the top 10% of their graduating class. Florida and California have also replaced racial quotas with class rank and other criteria. Class rank tends to benefit top students at less competitive high schools, to the detriment of students at more competitive high schools. This effect, however, may be intentional since less-funded, less competitive schools are more likely to be schools where minority enrollment is high. Critics argue that class rank is more a measure of one's peers than of one's self. The top 10% rule adds racial diversity only because schools are still highly racially segregated because of residential patterns. The class rank rule has the same consequence as traditional affirmative action: opening schools to students who would otherwise not be admitted had the given school used a holistic, merit-based approach. From 1996 to 1998, Texas had merit-based admission to its state universities, and minority enrollment dropped. The state's adoption of the "top 10 percent" rule returned minority enrollment to pre-1996 levels.

qas: question: What was going on at Harvard University during the 2003 - 04 academic year?
answers: text: a panel discussion

question: What did two prominent black professors point out at the panel discussion?
answers: text: an unintended effect of affirmative action policies at Harvard

question: What portion of black Harvard undergraduates came from families in which all four grandparents were born into the African American community?
answers: text: a third

question: What did the African American students at Harvard that could trace their lineage back multiple generations begin calling themselves?
answers: text: the descendants

question: Other than the reasons for the under representation of African Americans, what else is still up for debate?
answers: text: possible remedies

question: What was going on at Harvard University during the 2007 - 08 academic year?

question: What did two prominent white professors point out at the panel discussion?

question: What portion of black Harvard undergraduates came from families in which all four grandparents were born into the Asian American community?

question: What did the Asian American students at Harvard that could trace their lineage back multiple generations begin calling themselves?

question: Other than the reasons for the under representation of Asian Americans, what else is still up for debate?
context: During a panel discussion at Harvard University's reunion for African American alumni during the 2003–04 academic year, two prominent black professors at the institution—Lani Guinier and Henry Louis Gates—pointed out an unintended effect of affirmative action policies at Harvard. They stated that only about a third of black Harvard undergraduates were from families in which all four grandparents were born into the African American community. The majority of black students at Harvard were Caribbean and African immigrants or their children, with some others the mixed-race children of biracial couples. One Harvard student, born in the South Bronx to a black family whose ancestors have been in the United States for multiple generations, said that there were so few Harvard students from the historic African American community that they took to calling themselves "the descendants" (i.e., descendants of American slaves). The reasons for this underrepresentation of historic African Americans, and possible remedies, remain a subject of debate.

qas: question: To which university does Richard H. Sander belong?
answers: text: UCLA

question: In which publication did Sander publish an article questioning racial preferences in law schools?
answers: text: Stanford Law Review

question: What did Sander's study show in terms of black law students rankings?
answers: text: half of all black law students rank near the bottom of their class after the first year of law school

question: How much does the article estimate the black lawyer population would potentially grow if affirmative action was ended?
answers: text: eight percent

question: Which legislative work prohibited the use of racial preferences for admissions in the state of California?
answers: text: Proposition 209

question:  To which university does Richard H. Sander not belong?

question: In which publication did Sander publish an article not questioning racial preferences in law schools?

question: What did Sander's study show in terms of white law students rankings?

question: How much does the article estimate the black lawyer population would potentially grow if affirmative action started?

question: Which legislative work did not prohibit the use of racial preferences for admissions in the state of California?
context: UCLA professor Richard H. Sander published an article in the November 2004 issue of the Stanford Law Review that questioned the effectiveness of racial preferences in law schools. He noted that, prior to his article, there had been no comprehensive study on the effects of affirmative action. The article presents a study that shows that half of all black law students rank near the bottom of their class after the first year of law school and that black law students are more likely to drop out of law school and to fail the bar exam. The article offers a tentative estimate that the production of new black lawyers in the United States would grow by eight percent if affirmative action programs at all law schools were ended. Less qualified black students would attend less prestigious schools where they would be more closely matched in abilities with their classmates and thus perform relatively better. Sander helped to develop a socioeconomically-based affirmative action plan for the UCLA School of Law after the passage of Proposition 209 in 1996, which prohibited the use of racial preferences by public universities in California. This change occurred after studies showed that the graduation rate of blacks at UCLA was 41%, compared to 73% for whites.

qas: question: What area of study did professor Mark Long have a degree in?
answers: text: economics

question: In which year did Long publish his study?
answers: text: 2007

question: How were rebounds of minority enrollment explained in Long's report?
answers: text: increasing minority enrollment in high schools

question: Who would supposedly be the beneficiaries of a class-based style affirmative action?
answers: text: white students

question: What percentage of the black population thought affirmative action should be abolished?
answers: text: 14

question:  What area of study did professor Mark Long have a job in?

question:  In which year did Long reject his study?

question: How were rebounds of minority enrollment rejected in Long's report?

question: Who would supposedly be the beneficiaries of a not class-based style affirmative action?

question: What percentage of the black population thought affirmative action should not be abolished?
context: A study in 2007 by Mark Long, an economics professor at the University of Washington, demonstrated that the alternatives of affirmative action proved ineffective in restoring minority enrollment in public flagship universities in California, Texas, and Washington. More specifically, apparent rebounds of minority enrollment can be explained by increasing minority enrollment in high schools of those states, and the beneficiaries of class-based (not race) affirmative action would be white students. At the same time, affirmative action itself is both morally and materially costly: 52 percent of white populace (compared to 14 percent of black) thought it should be abolished, implying white distaste of using racial identity, and full-file review is expected to cost the universities an additional $1.5 million to $2 million per year, excluding possible cost of litigation.

qas: question: With which organization did Li file a civil rights complaint?
answers: text: Office for Civil Rights

question: Which university was Li alleging racial discrimination against?
answers: text: Princeton University

question: Who was the Dean of Admissions at Princeton University at the time of the complaint?
answers: text: Janet Rapelye

question: What did Princeton claim the real reasons for the rejection of Li's application was?
answers: text: many others had far better qualifications

question: Even though Li did not get accepted, what was done instead of a straight rejection?
answers: text: placement on the waitlist

question:  With which organization did Li not file a civil rights complaint?

question:  Which university was Li allegingn non-racial discrimination against?

question: Who wasn't the Dean of Admissions at Princeton University at the time of the complaint?

question:  What did Princeton claim the real reasons for the approval of Li's application was?

question: Even though Li did not get rejected, what was done instead of a straight rejection?
context: In 2006, Jian Li, a Chinese undergraduate at Yale University, filed a civil rights complaint with the Office for Civil Rights against Princeton University, claiming that his race played a role in their decision to reject his application for admission and seeking the suspension of federal financial assistance to the university until it "discontinues discrimination against Asian Americans in all forms" by eliminating race and legacy preferences. Princeton Dean of Admissions Janet Rapelye responded to the claims in the November 30, 2006, issue of the Daily Princetonian by stating that "the numbers don't indicate [discrimination]." She said that Li was not admitted because "many others had far better qualifications." Li's extracurricular activities were described as "not all that outstanding". Li countered in an email, saying that his placement on the waitlist undermines Rapelye's claim. "Princeton had initially waitlisted my application," Li said. "So if it were not for a yield which was higher than expected, the admissions office very well may have admitted a candidate whose "outside activities were not all that outstanding".

qas: question: Which University had a lawsuit filed against it?
answers: text: University of Texas

question: What did the plaintiffs claim the university had for an admissions policy?
answers: text: race-conscious policy

question: What did the admissions policy of the University of Texas supposedly violate?
answers: text: their civil and constitutional rights

question: Who concluded that the University maintained a "holistic" approach to affirmative action?
answers: text: US Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit

question: When will the Supreme Court likely hear the case for the second time?
answers: text: June 2016

question:  Which University had a lawsuit not filed against it?

question: What did the plaintiffs claim the university didn't have for an admissions policy?

question: What did the admissions policy of the University of Texas supposedly not violate?

question: Who concluded that the University did not maintain a "holistic" approach to affirmative action?

question: When will the Supreme Court likely hear the case for the third time?
context: In 2012, Abigail Fisher, an undergraduate student at Louisiana State University, and Rachel Multer Michalewicz, a law student at Southern Methodist University, filed a lawsuit to challenge the University of Texas admissions policy, asserting it had a "race-conscious policy" that "violated their civil and constitutional rights". The University of Texas employs the "Top Ten Percent Law", under which admission to any public college or university in Texas is guaranteed to high school students who graduate in the top ten percent of their high school class. Fisher has brought the admissions policy to court because she believes that she was denied acceptance to the University of Texas based on her race, and thus, her right to equal protection according to the 14th Amendment was violated. The Supreme Court heard oral arguments in Fisher on October 10, 2012, and rendered an ambiguous ruling in 2013 that sent the case back to the lower court, stipulating only that the University must demonstrate that it could not achieve diversity through other, non-race sensitive means. In July 2014, the US Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit concluded that U of T maintained a "holistic" approach in its application of affirmative action, and could continue the practice. On February 10, 2015, lawyers for Fisher filed a new case in the Supreme Court. It is a renewed complaint that the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit got the issue wrong — on the second try as well as on the first. The Supreme Court agreed in June 2015 to hear the case a second time. It will likely be decided by June 2016.

qas: question: On which date were lawsuits filed against Harvard and Chapel Hill?
answers: text: November 17, 2014

question: Who filed the lawsuits against the Universities?
answers: text: Students for Fair Admissions

question: Other than Asian students, who else was allegedly being discriminated against?
answers: text: white

question: What is the Students for Fair Admissions an offshoot of?
answers: text: Project on Fair Representation

question: What are the Universities waiting for before proceeding with the lawsuit?
answers: text: until the U.S. Supreme Court provides clarification of relevant law

question: On which date were lawsuits filed with Harvard and Chapel Hill?

question: Who filed the lawsuits with the Universities?

question:  Other than African students, who else was allegedly being discriminated against?

question:  What is the Students for Fair Admissions not an offshoot of?

question: What are the Universities waiting for after proceeding with the lawsuit?
context: On November 17, 2014, Students for Fair Admissions, an offshoot of the Project on Fair Representation, filed lawsuits in federal district court challenging the admissions practices of Harvard University and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. The UNC-Chapel Hill lawsuit alleges discrimination against white and Asian students, while the Harvard lawsuit focuses on discrimination against Asian applicants. Both universities requested the court to halt the lawsuits until the U.S. Supreme Court provides clarification of relevant law by ruling in Fisher v. University of Texas at Austin for the second time. This Supreme Court case will likely be decided in June 2016 or slightly earlier.

qas: question: How many Asian organizations were involved in filing the federal complaints?
answers: text: more than 60

question: Who did the organizations file the complaints with?
answers: text: Education and Justice Departments

question: Who was the target of the filing?
answers: text: Harvard University

question: What grade average do some students have that are being rejected?
answers: text: top-one-percent grade point averages

question: Why was the lawsuit eventually dismissed?
answers: text: the Students for Fair Admissions lawsuit makes similar allegations

question: How many Asian organizations weren't involved in filing the federal complaints?

question:  Who did the organizations not file the complaints with?

question:  Who was not the target of the filing?

question: What grade average do some students have that aren't being rejected?
context: In May 2015, a coalition of more than 60 Asian-American organizations filed federal complaints with the Education and Justice Departments against Harvard University. The coalition asked for a civil rights investigation into what they described as Harvard's discriminatory admission practices against Asian-American applicants. The complaint asserts that recent studies indicate that Harvard has engaged in systematic and continuous discrimination against Asian Americans in its "holistic" admissions process. Asian-American applicants with near-perfect test scores, top-one-percent grade point averages, academic awards, and leadership positions are allegedly rejected by Harvard because the university uses racial stereotypes, racially differentiated standards, and de facto racial quotas. This federal complaint was dismissed in July 2015 because the Students for Fair Admissions lawsuit makes similar allegations.