Police

qas: question: What does the state want a police force to do?
answers: text: enforce the law, protect property, and limit civil disorder

question: What are gendarmerie?
answers: text: military units charged with civil policing

question: What are police usually separate from?
answers: text: military or other organizations involved in the defense of the state against foreign aggressors

question: What does the state want a police force not to do?

question: What does the president want a police force to do?

question: What aren't gendarmerie?

question: What are police usually together with?

question: What are police never separate from?
context: A police force is a constituted body of persons empowered by the state to enforce the law, protect property, and limit civil disorder. Their powers include the legitimized use of force. The term is most commonly associated with police services of a sovereign state that are authorized to exercise the police power of that state within a defined legal or territorial area of responsibility. Police forces are often defined as being separate from military or other organizations involved in the defense of the state against foreign aggressors; however, gendarmerie are military units charged with civil policing.

qas: question: How are police usually paid?
answers: text: through taxes

question: What kind of service are police?
answers: text: public sector

question: When were police used to protect the class system?
answers: text: late 18th and early 19th centuries

question: What problem do many police forces have?
answers: text: corruption

question: How are police never paid?

question: What kind of service aren't police?

question: When aren't police used to protect the class system?

question: What asset do many police forces have?

question: When were police used to protect the civilian system?
context: Law enforcement, however, constitutes only part of policing activity. Policing has included an array of activities in different situations, but the predominant ones are concerned with the preservation of order. In some societies, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, these developed within the context of maintaining the class system and the protection of private property. Many police forces suffer from police corruption to a greater or lesser degree. The police force is usually a public sector service, meaning they are paid through taxes.

qas: question: Which Chinese kingdoms developed law enforcement?
answers: text: Chu and Jin

question: What period was the Chu kingdom in?
answers: text: Spring

question: What period was the Jin kingdom in?
answers: text: Autumn

question: Which countries adopted the 'prefecture system' from China?
answers: text: Korea and Japan

question: What did ancient China call its police?
answers: text: prefects

question: Which Japanese kingdoms developed law enforcement?

question: What period was the Chu kingdom not in?

question: What period was the Chin kingdom in?

question: Which countries never adopted the 'prefecture system' from China?

question: What did modern China call its police?
context: Law enforcement in Ancient China was carried out by "prefects" for thousands of years since it developed in both the Chu and Jin kingdoms of the Spring and Autumn period. In Jin, dozens of prefects were spread across the state, each having limited authority and employment period. They were appointed by local magistrates, who reported to higher authorities such as governors, who in turn were appointed by the emperor, and they oversaw the civil administration of their "prefecture", or jurisdiction. Under each prefect were "subprefects" who helped collectively with law enforcement in the area. Some prefects were responsible for handling investigations, much like modern police detectives. Prefects could also be women. The concept of the "prefecture system" spread to other cultures such as Korea and Japan.

qas: question: What war ended in 1479?
answers: text: War of the Castilian Succession

question: Who formed Spain's first national police force?
answers: text: Ferdinand and Isabella

question: What was Spain's first national police force called, in Spanish?
answers: text: Santa Hermandad

question: What does Santa Hermandad mean?
answers: text: Holy Brotherhood

question: When did Spain suppress local police units?
answers: text: 1835

question: What war ended in 1497?

question: Who formed Spain's last national police force?

question: What was Spain's second national police force called, in Spanish?

question: What doesn't Santa Hermandad mean?

question: When did Spain empower local police units?
context: As one of their first acts after end of the War of the Castilian Succession in 1479, Ferdinand and Isabella established the centrally organized and efficient Holy Brotherhood (Santa Hermandad) as a national police force. They adapted an existing brotherhood to the purpose of a general police acting under officials appointed by themselves, and endowed with great powers of summary jurisdiction even in capital cases. The original brotherhoods continued to serve as modest local police-units until their final suppression in 1835.

qas: question: Which two entities in Medieval France had police duties?
answers: text: The Marshal of France and the Constable of France

question: How were the Marshal and Constable of France formally classified?
answers: text: Great Officers of the Crown of France

question: What was the Marshal's force called?
answers: text: the Marshalcy

question: What was the Constable's force called, in English?
answers: text: the Constabulary

question: What was the Constable's force called, in French?
answers: text: Connétablie

question: Which two entities in Medieval France didn't have police duties?

question: How were the Marshal and Constable of France informally classified?

question: What was the Marshal's peace corps called?

question: What was the Captain's force called, in English?

question: What was the Constable's force not called, in French?
context: In France during the Middle Ages, there were two Great Officers of the Crown of France with police responsibilities: The Marshal of France and the Constable of France. The military policing responsibilities of the Marshal of France were delegated to the Marshal's provost, whose force was known as the Marshalcy because its authority ultimately derived from the Marshal. The marshalcy dates back to the Hundred Years' 'War, and some historians trace it back to the early 12th century. Another organisation, the Constabulary (French: Connétablie), was under the command of the Constable of France. The constabulary was regularised as a military body in 1337. Under King Francis I (who reigned 1515–1547), the Maréchaussée was merged with the Constabulary. The resulting force was also known as the Maréchaussée, or, formally, the Constabulary and Marshalcy of France.

qas: question: In what year did Paris get a police force?
answers: text: 1667

question: Who created Paris's police force?
answers: text: King Louis XIV

question: What was the largest European city in 1667?
answers: text: Paris

question: What was the title of the head of Paris's police, in English?
answers: text: lieutenant general of police

question: What was the title of the head of Paris's police, in French?
answers: text: lieutenant général de police

question: In what year did Paris not get a police force?

question: Who never created Paris's police force?

question: What was the smallest European city in 1667?

question: What was the largest European city in 1676?

question: What was the title of the bottom of Paris's police, in English?
context: The first centrally organised police force was created by the government of King Louis XIV in 1667 to police the city of Paris, then the largest city in Europe. The royal edict, registered by the Parlement of Paris on March 15, 1667 created the office of lieutenant général de police ("lieutenant general of police"), who was to be the head of the new Paris police force, and defined the task of the police as "ensuring the peace and quiet of the public and of private individuals, purging the city of what may cause disturbances, procuring abundance, and having each and everyone live according to their station and their duties".

qas: question: Who was Paris's first head of police?
answers: text: Gabriel Nicolas de la Reynie

question: How many commissioners worked under Reynie?
answers: text: 44

question: How many policing districts was Paris divided into?
answers: text: 16

question: When was Paris's police system expanded to the rest of France?
answers: text: October 1699

question: When were police inspectors added to Paris's police?
answers: text: 1709

question: Who was Paris's last head of police?

question: How many commissioners worked above Reynie?

question: How many policing districts was France divided into?

question: When was Paris's police system contracted to disclude rest of France?

question: When were police inspectors subtracted from Paris's police?
context: This office was first held by Gabriel Nicolas de la Reynie, who had 44 commissaires de police (police commissioners) under his authority. In 1709, these commissioners were assisted by inspecteurs de police (police inspectors). The city of Paris was divided into 16 districts policed by the commissaires, each assigned to a particular district and assisted by a growing bureaucracy. The scheme of the Paris police force was extended to the rest of France by a royal edict of October 1699, resulting in the creation of lieutenants general of police in all large French cities and towns.

qas: question: When did the French language adopt the word 'police'?
answers: text: in the 18th century

question: What language did French borrow the word 'police' from?
answers: text: English

question: Which dictionary said police were 'a symbol of foreign oppression'?
answers: text: Britannica 1911

question: When were the Marine Police created in the UK?
answers: text: 1798

question: What was the first use of 'police' in the UK?
answers: text: the appointment of Commissioners of Police for Scotland in 1714

question: When did the English language adopt the word 'police'?

question: What language did French not borrow the word 'police' from?

question: Which dictionary said police were 'a symbol of local oppression'?

question: When were the Marine Police created in France?

question: What was the last use of 'police' in the UK?
context: The word "police" was borrowed from French into the English language in the 18th century, but for a long time it applied only to French and continental European police forces. The word, and the concept of police itself, were "disliked as a symbol of foreign oppression" (according to Britannica 1911). Before the 19th century, the first use of the word "police" recorded in government documents in the United Kingdom was the appointment of Commissioners of Police for Scotland in 1714 and the creation of the Marine Police in 1798.

qas: question: Who convinced the West Indies merchants in London to establish police?
answers: text: Patrick Colquhoun

question: When did the West Indies merchants in London create a police force?
answers: text: 1797

question: Where did the West Indies merchants in London create a police force?
answers: text: docks

question: How much cargo had been being stolen from West Indies merchants in London each year?
answers: text: £500,000

question: How did Colquhoun praise the French police?
answers: text: "the greatest degree of perfection"

question: Who convinced the East Indies merchants in London to establish police?

question: When did the West Indies merchants in London destroy a police force?

question: Where did the East Indies merchants in London create a police force?

question: How much cargo had been given from West Indies merchants in London each year?

question: How did Colquhoun reject the French police?
context: In 1797, Patrick Colquhoun was able to persuade the West Indies merchants who operated at the Pool of London on the River Thames, to establish a police force at the docks to prevent rampant theft that was causing annual estimated losses of £500,000 worth of cargo. The idea of a police, as it then existed in France, was considered as a potentially undesirable foreign import. In building the case for the police in the face of England's firm anti-police sentiment, Colquhoun framed the political rationale on economic indicators to show that a police dedicated to crime prevention was "perfectly congenial to the principle of the British constitution." Moreover, he went so far as to praise the French system, which had reached "the greatest degree of perfection" in his estimation.

qas: question: What was the initial size of the Thames River Police force?
answers: text: 50

question: How many dock workers were the Thames River Police policing?
answers: text: 33,000

question: How many dock workers did Colquhoun say were criminals?
answers: text: 11,000

question: How much cargo theft did the Thames River Police prevent in its first year?
answers: text: £122,000

question: When was the Thames River Police made a public service?
answers: text: 28 July 180

question: What was the final size of the Thames River Police force?

question: How many deck workers were the Thames River Police policing?

question: How many dock workers did Colquhoun say weren't criminals?

question: How much cargo theft did the Thames River Police allow in its first year?

question: When was the Thames River Police made a private service?
context: With the initial investment of £4,200, the new trial force of the Thames River Police began with about 50 men charged with policing 33,000 workers in the river trades, of whom Colquhoun claimed 11,000 were known criminals and "on the game." The force was a success after its first year, and his men had "established their worth by saving £122,000 worth of cargo and by the rescuing of several lives." Word of this success spread quickly, and the government passed the Marine Police Bill on 28 July 1800, transforming it from a private to public police agency; now the oldest police force in the world. Colquhoun published a book on the experiment, The Commerce and Policing of the River Thames. It found receptive audiences far outside London, and inspired similar forces in other cities, notably, New York City, Dublin, and Sydney.

qas: question: Who started the Bow Street detectives?
answers: text: Henry and John Fielding

question: How did the Bow Street group pay their employees?
answers: text: stipendiary system

question: How did the Thames River Police pay their employees?
answers: text: full-time, salaried officers prohibited from taking private fees

question: Who came up with the concept of the 'new' police?
answers: text: Robert Peel

question: What schedule did the Thames River Police employees work?
answers: text: full-time

question: Who fired the Bow Street detectives?

question: How did the Bow Street group get paid by their employees?

question: How did the James River Police pay their employees?

question: Who rejected the concept of the 'new' police?

question: What schedule did the Thames River Police employees not work?
context: Colquhoun's utilitarian approach to the problem – using a cost-benefit argument to obtain support from businesses standing to benefit – allowed him to achieve what Henry and John Fielding failed for their Bow Street detectives. Unlike the stipendiary system at Bow Street, the river police were full-time, salaried officers prohibited from taking private fees. His other contribution was the concept of preventive policing; his police were to act as a highly visible deterrent to crime by their permanent presence on the Thames. Colquhoun's innovations were a critical development leading up to Robert Peel's "new" police three decades later.

qas: question: Which law established Glasgow's police?
answers: text: Glasgow Police Act

question: When was Glasgow's police force established?
answers: text: 1800

question: Which law established Ireland's police?
answers: text: Irish Constabulary Act

question: When was Ireland's police force established?
answers: text: 1822

question: What was Ireland's police force called?
answers: text: Royal Irish Constabulary

question: Which law abolished Glasgow's police?

question: When was Glasgow's police force abolished?

question: Which law fired Ireland's police?

question: When was Ireland's police force abolished?

question: What was Ireland's police force not called?
context: Meanwhile, the authorities in Glasgow, Scotland successfully petitioned the government to pass the Glasgow Police Act establishing the City of Glasgow Police in 1800. Other Scottish towns soon followed suit and set up their own police forces through acts of parliament. In Ireland, the Irish Constabulary Act of 1822 marked the beginning of the Royal Irish Constabulary. The Act established a force in each barony with chief constables and inspectors general under the control of the civil administration at Dublin Castle. By 1841 this force numbered over 8,600 men.

qas: question: Who was the 'father of modern policing'?
answers: text: Peel

question: Whose philosophy influenced Peel?
answers: text: Jeremy Bentham

question: What political position did Bentham think police should have?
answers: text: neutral

question: How did Peel standardize police?
answers: text: as an official paid profession

question: How did Peel organize police?
answers: text: in a civilian fashion

question: Who was the 'mother of modern policing'?

question: Whose philosophy repelled Peel?

question: What political position did Bentham think police shouldn't have?

question: How did Peel specialize police?

question: How did Peel disorganize police?
context: Peel, widely regarded as the father of modern policing, was heavily influenced by the social and legal philosophy of Jeremy Bentham, who called for a strong and centralized, but politically neutral, police force for the maintenance of social order, for the protection of people from crime and to act as a visible deterrent to urban crime and disorder. Peel decided to standardise the police force as an official paid profession, to organise it in a civilian fashion, and to make it answerable to the public.

qas: question: When was the Metropolitan Police Act passed?
answers: text: 1829

question: What did the Metropolitan Police Act say police were a subset of?
answers: text: the judicial system

question: Where was the 'Continental model' of police from?
answers: text: France

question: What part of the government did French police work under?
answers: text: the authority of the monarch

question: When was the Metropolitan Police Act rejected?

question: What did the Metropolitan Police Act say police weren't a subset of?

question: Where was the 'Intercontinental model' of police from?

question: Where wasn't the 'Continental model' of police from?

question: What part of the government did English police work under?
context: The 1829 Metropolitan Police Act created a modern police force by limiting the purview of the force and its powers, and envisioning it as merely an organ of the judicial system. Their job was apolitical; to maintain the peace and apprehend criminals for the courts to process according to the law. This was very different to the 'Continental model' of the police force that had been developed in France, where the police force worked within the parameters of the absolutist state as an extension of the authority of the monarch and functioned as part of the governing state.

qas: question: When did Rio get its first police investigator?
answers: text: 1566

question: How had the Rio police grown by the 17th century?
answers: text: most captaincies already had local units with law enforcement functions

question: When did Minas Gerais get a cavalry regiment?
answers: text: July 9, 1775

question: Where did the Portuguese royal family move in 1808?
answers: text: Brazil

question: Who invaded Portugal in 1808?
answers: text: French

question: When did Rio get its first police inspector?

question: How had the Rio police grown by the 16th century?

question: When didn't Minas Gerais get a cavalry regiment?

question: Where did the Portuguese royal family move in 1880?

question: Who supported Portugal in 1808?
context: In 1566, the first police investigator of Rio de Janeiro was recruited. By the 17th century, most captaincies already had local units with law enforcement functions. On July 9, 1775 a Cavalry Regiment was created in the state of Minas Gerais for maintaining law and order. In 1808, the Portuguese royal family relocated to Brazil, because of the French invasion of Portugal. King João VI established the "Intendência Geral de Polícia" (General Police Intendancy) for investigations. He also created a Royal Police Guard for Rio de Janeiro in 1809. In 1831, after independence, each province started organizing its local "military police", with order maintenance tasks. The Federal Railroad Police was created in 1852.

qas: question: When did Canada get its first police?
answers: text: 1729

question: What was Canada's first police force?
answers: text: Royal Newfoundland Constabulary

question: When was the Toronto police created?
answers: text: 1834

question: When was the Montreal police created?
answers: text: 1838

question: When were the first Mounties created?
answers: text: 1873

question: When did Canada get its last police?

question: What wasn't Canada's first police force?

question: When was the Toronto police destroyed?

question: When was the Montreal police not created?

question: When were the first Mounties destroyed?
context: In Canada, the Royal Newfoundland Constabulary was founded in 1729, making it the first police force in present-day Canada. It was followed in 1834 by the Toronto Police, and in 1838 by police forces in Montreal and Quebec City. A national force, the Dominion Police, was founded in 1868. Initially the Dominion Police provided security for parliament, but its responsibilities quickly grew. The famous Royal Northwest Mounted Police was founded in 1873. The merger of these two police forces in 1920 formed the world-famous Royal Canadian Mounted Police.

qas: question: What were the Old West's local police options?
answers: text: poorly resourced sheriffs and temporarily organized posses

question: Which military branch helped the Old West's inadequate local police?
answers: text: The Army

question: Which private contractor acted as police for businesses?
answers: text: Pinkerton National Detective Agency

question: Which military branch did the Pinkertons exceed at their height?
answers: text: Army

question: What were the New West's local police options?

question: What were the Old West's national police options?

question: Which military branch fought the Old West's inadequate local police?

question: Which public contractor acted as police for businesses?

question: Which military branch did the Pinkertons never exceed at their height?
context: In the American Old West, policing was often of very poor quality.[citation needed] The Army often provided some policing alongside poorly resourced sheriffs and temporarily organized posses.[citation needed] Public organizations were supplemented by private contractors, notably the Pinkerton National Detective Agency, which was hired by individuals, businessmen, local governments and the federal government. At its height, the Pinkerton Agency's numbers exceeded those of the United States Army.[citation needed]

qas: question: Which countries' scholars developed the contemporary police concept?
answers: text: German and French

question: Who wrote the 'Treatise on the Police'?
answers: text: Nicolas Delamare

question: What was the 'Treatise on the Police' called in French?
answers: text: Traité de la Police

question: When was the 'Treatise on the Police' published?
answers: text: 1705

question: What was von Hornigk's career?
answers: text: Political economist and civil servant

question: Which countries' scholars rejected the contemporary police concept?

question: Who co-wrote the 'Treatise on the Police'?

question: What wasn't the 'Treatise on the Police' called in French?

question: When was the 'Treatise on the Police' abolished?

question: What wasn't von Hornigk's career?
context: Michel Foucault claims that the contemporary concept of police as a paid and funded functionary of the state was developed by German and French legal scholars and practitioners in Public administration and Statistics in the 17th and early 18th centuries, most notably with Nicolas Delamare's Traité de la Police ("Treatise on the Police"), first published in 1705. The German Polizeiwissenschaft (Science of Police) first theorized by Philipp von Hörnigk a 17th-century Austrian Political economist and civil servant and much more famously by Johann Heinrich Gottlob Justi who produced an important theoretical work known as Cameral science on the formulation of police. Foucault cites Magdalene Humpert author of Bibliographie der Kameralwissenschaften (1937) in which the author makes note of a substantial bibliography was produced of over 4000 pieces of the practice of Polizeiwissenschaft however, this maybe a mistranslation of Foucault's own work the actual source of Magdalene Humpert states over 14,000 items were produced from the 16th century dates ranging from 1520-1850.

qas: question: Who wrote about Polizeiwissenschaft?
answers: text: Foucault

question: How did Foucault describe the social duty of police?
answers: text: procuring abundance

question: Which economic theory did Foucault say supported the police?
answers: text: mercantilist theory

question: Why did the functions of police grow beyond law enforcement to urban planning?
answers: text: because of the miasma theory of disease; thus, cemeteries were moved out of town, etc.

question: Who never wrote about Polizeiwissenschaft?

question: How did Foucault describe the social duty of army?

question: Which economic theory did Foucault say rejected the police?

question: Which biology theory did Foucault say supported the police?

question: Why didn't the functions of police grow beyond law enforcement to urban planning?
context: As conceptualized by the Polizeiwissenschaft,according to Foucault the police had an administrative,economic and social duty ("procuring abundance"). It was in charge of demographic concerns and needed to be incorporated within the western political philosophy system of raison d'état and therefore giving the superficial appearance of empowering the population (and unwittingly supervising the population), which, according to mercantilist theory, was to be the main strength of the state. Thus, its functions largely overreached simple law enforcement activities and included public health concerns, urban planning (which was important because of the miasma theory of disease; thus, cemeteries were moved out of town, etc.), and surveillance of prices.

qas: question: Who wrote 'Preventive Police'?
answers: text: Edwin Chadwick

question: When was 'Preventive Police' published?
answers: text: 1829

question: Where was 'Preventive Police' published?
answers: text: London Review

question: What did Chadwick say police should be focused on?
answers: text: prevention

question: What was the alternative to prevention?
answers: text: a deterrent of punishment

question: Who co-wrote 'Preventive Police'?

question: When was 'Preventive Police' not published?

question: Where was 'Preventive Police' unpublished?

question: What did Chadwick say police shouldn't be focused on?

question: What was the same as prevention?
context: Edwin Chadwick's 1829 article, "Preventive police" in the London Review, argued that prevention ought to be the primary concern of a police body, which was not the case in practice. The reason, argued Chadwick, was that "A preventive police would act more immediately by placing difficulties in obtaining the objects of temptation." In contrast to a deterrent of punishment, a preventive police force would deter criminality by making crime cost-ineffective - "crime doesn't pay". In the second draft of his 1829 Police Act, the "object" of the new Metropolitan Police, was changed by Robert Peel to the "principal object," which was the "prevention of crime." Later historians would attribute the perception of England's "appearance of orderliness and love of public order" to the preventive principle entrenched in Peel's police system.

qas: question: What do some police departments make detectives go back to periodically?
answers: text: patrol duties

question: Where do some think the most important police work happens?
answers: text: on patrol

question: How do patrol officers affect crime?
answers: text: prevent crime by their presence

question: What do some police departments make detectives never go back to?

question: What do all police departments make detectives go back to periodically?

question: Where do all think the most important police work happens?

question: Where do some think the most minor police work happens?

question: How do patrol officers ignore crime?
context: Despite popular conceptions promoted by movies and television, many US police departments prefer not to maintain officers in non-patrol bureaus and divisions beyond a certain period of time, such as in the detective bureau, and instead maintain policies that limit service in such divisions to a specified period of time, after which officers must transfer out or return to patrol duties.[citation needed] This is done in part based upon the perception that the most important and essential police work is accomplished on patrol in which officers become acquainted with their beats, prevent crime by their presence, respond to crimes in progress, manage crises, and practice their skills.[citation needed]

qas: question: When did Nadelmann write about global policing?
answers: text: 1993

question: When did Sheptycki write about global policing?
answers: text: 1995

question: What terms have been used to describe policing beyond one country?
answers: text: international policing, transnational policing, and/or global policing

question: When didb't Nadelmann write about global policing?

question: When did Nadelmann write about local policing?

question: When didn't Sheptycki write about global policing?

question: When did Sheptycki write about local policing?

question: What terms haven't been used to describe policing beyond one country?
context: The terms international policing, transnational policing, and/or global policing began to be used from the early 1990s onwards to describe forms of policing that transcended the boundaries of the sovereign nation-state (Nadelmann, 1993), (Sheptycki, 1995). These terms refer in variable ways to practices and forms for policing that, in some sense, transcend national borders. This includes a variety of practices, but international police cooperation, criminal intelligence exchange between police agencies working in different nation-states, and police development-aid to weak, failed or failing states are the three types that have received the most scholarly attention.

qas: question: When did Deflem write about cross-border policing?
answers: text: 2002

question: What groups did European police work against across borders in the 19th century?
answers: text: anarchist agitators and other political radicals

question: Which police force monitored Karl Marx?
answers: text: Prussian

question: What international police agency was created before WW2?
answers: text: Interpol

question: In what era did cross-border policing increase?
answers: text: post–Cold War

question: When did Deflem write about in-border policing?

question: What groups did European police work against across borders in the 18th century?

question: Which police force ignored Karl Marx?

question: What national police agency was created before WW2?

question: In what era did cross-border policing decrease?
context: Historical studies reveal that policing agents have undertaken a variety of cross-border police missions for many years (Deflem, 2002). For example, in the 19th century a number of European policing agencies undertook cross-border surveillance because of concerns about anarchist agitators and other political radicals. A notable example of this was the occasional surveillance by Prussian police of Karl Marx during the years he remained resident in London. The interests of public police agencies in cross-border co-operation in the control of political radicalism and ordinary law crime were primarily initiated in Europe, which eventually led to the establishment of Interpol before the Second World War. There are also many interesting examples of cross-border policing under private auspices and by municipal police forces that date back to the 19th century (Nadelmann, 1993). It has been established that modern policing has transgressed national boundaries from time to time almost from its inception. It is also generally agreed that in the post–Cold War era this type of practice became more significant and frequent (Sheptycki, 2000).

qas: question: Where did Sheptycki study police cooperation?
answers: text: the English Channel region

question: When did Sheptycki write about police cooperation?
answers: text: 2002

question: When did the Channel region establish routine cross-border policing?
answers: text: 1968

question: When was the Schengen Treaty signed?
answers: text: 1992

question: What did the Schengen Treaty do for policing?
answers: text: formalized aspects of police information exchange across the territory of the European Union

question: Where did Sheptycki study police interigation?

question: Where didn't Sheptycki study police cooperation?

question: When didn't Sheptycki write about police cooperation?

question: When did the Channel region reject routine cross-border policing?

question: When was the Schengen Treaty rejected?
context: Not a lot of empirical work on the practices of inter/transnational information and intelligence sharing has been undertaken. A notable exception is James Sheptycki's study of police cooperation in the English Channel region (2002), which provides a systematic content analysis of information exchange files and a description of how these transnational information and intelligence exchanges are transformed into police case-work. The study showed that transnational police information sharing was routinized in the cross-Channel region from 1968 on the basis of agreements directly between the police agencies and without any formal agreement between the countries concerned. By 1992, with the signing of the Schengen Treaty, which formalized aspects of police information exchange across the territory of the European Union, there were worries that much, if not all, of this intelligence sharing was opaque, raising questions about the efficacy of the accountability mechanisms governing police information sharing in Europe (Joubert and Bevers, 1996).

qas: question: Where has cross-border policing been most under-studied?
answers: text: outside of Europe

question: Who compared transnational police information and intelligence sharing practices?
answers: text: Alain

question: What kind of policing has become common practice?
answers: text: Intelligence-led

question: What problems did Sheptycki say 'organizational pathologies' have caused for police?
answers: text: make the functioning of security-intelligence processes in transnational policing deeply problematic

question: What paradox did Sheptycki point out?
answers: text: the harder policing agencies work to produce security, the greater are feelings of insecurity

question: Where has cross-border policing been least under-studied?

question: Where has cross-border policing been most over-studied?

question: What kind of policing has become rare practice?

question: What problems did Sheptycki say 'organizational pathologies' haven't caused for police?

question: What paradox did Sheptycki ignore?
context: Studies of this kind outside of Europe are even rarer, so it is difficult to make generalizations, but one small-scale study that compared transnational police information and intelligence sharing practices at specific cross-border locations in North America and Europe confirmed that low visibility of police information and intelligence sharing was a common feature (Alain, 2001). Intelligence-led policing is now common practice in most advanced countries (Ratcliffe, 2007) and it is likely that police intelligence sharing and information exchange has a common morphology around the world (Ratcliffe, 2007). James Sheptycki has analyzed the effects of the new information technologies on the organization of policing-intelligence and suggests that a number of 'organizational pathologies' have arisen that make the functioning of security-intelligence processes in transnational policing deeply problematic. He argues that transnational police information circuits help to "compose the panic scenes of the security-control society". The paradoxical effect is that, the harder policing agencies work to produce security, the greater are feelings of insecurity.

qas: question: Where has transnational policing become more important?
answers: text: in United Nations peacekeeping

question: What kind of countries get assistance with policing?
answers: text: weak, failed or failing states

question: Who wrote about police development-aid in 2007?
answers: text: Goldsmith and Sheptycki

question: What concern did Hills raise about police models?
answers: text: there are questions about the applicability and transportability of policing models between jurisdictions

question: What concern did Hills raise about power imbalances?
answers: text: With transnational police development-aid the imbalances of power between donors and recipients are stark

question: Where has transnational policing become less important?

question: What kind of countries get no assistance with policing?

question: Who wrote about police development-aid in 2006?

question: What concern did Hills ignore about police models?

question: What concern did Hills ignore about power imbalances?
context: Police development-aid to weak, failed or failing states is another form of transnational policing that has garnered attention. This form of transnational policing plays an increasingly important role in United Nations peacekeeping and this looks set to grow in the years ahead, especially as the international community seeks to develop the rule of law and reform security institutions in States recovering from conflict (Goldsmith and Sheptycki, 2007) With transnational police development-aid the imbalances of power between donors and recipients are stark and there are questions about the applicability and transportability of policing models between jurisdictions (Hills, 2009).

qas: question: Who wrote the Global Accountability Report for 2007?
answers: text: Lloyd, et al.

question: What is the least-accountable IGO?
answers: text: Interpol

question: How accountable is Interpol?
answers: text: 22%

question: Why is transnational policing so unaccountable?
answers: text: this is a secretive area and one not open to civil society involvement

question: Who wrote the Local Accountability Report for 2007?

question: What is the most-accountable IGO?

question: How unaccountable is Interpol?

question: Why is transnational policing so accountable?

question: Why isn't transnational policing so unaccountable?
context: Perhaps the greatest question regarding the future development of transnational policing is: in whose interest is it? At a more practical level, the question translates into one about how to make transnational policing institutions democratically accountable (Sheptycki, 2004). For example, according to the Global Accountability Report for 2007 (Lloyd, et al. 2007) Interpol had the lowest scores in its category (IGOs), coming in tenth with a score of 22% on overall accountability capabilities (p. 19). As this report points out, and the existing academic literature on transnational policing seems to confirm, this is a secretive area and one not open to civil society involvement.

qas: question: What should non-lethal weapons properly be called?
answers: text: "less than lethal" or "less-lethal"

question: What are common less-lethal weapons?
answers: text: batons, tear gas, riot control agents, rubber bullets, riot shields, water cannons and electroshock weapons

question: What is supposed to be the last resort for police?
answers: text: The use of firearms or deadly force

question: What is South Africa's "shoot-to-kill" policy?
answers: text: allows police to use deadly force against any person who poses a significant threat to them or civilians

question: Where can police shoot fleeing convicts?
answers: text: Brazil

question: What should lethal weapons properly be called?

question: What are uncommon less-lethal weapons?

question: What is supposed to be the first resort for police?

question: What is North Africa's "shoot-to-kill" policy?

question: Where can't police shoot fleeing convicts?
context: They can also be armed with non-lethal (more accurately known as "less than lethal" or "less-lethal") weaponry, particularly for riot control. Non-lethal weapons include batons, tear gas, riot control agents, rubber bullets, riot shields, water cannons and electroshock weapons. Police officers often carry handcuffs to restrain suspects. The use of firearms or deadly force is typically a last resort only to be used when necessary to save human life, although some jurisdictions (such as Brazil) allow its use against fleeing felons and escaped convicts. A "shoot-to-kill" policy was recently introduced in South Africa, which allows police to use deadly force against any person who poses a significant threat to them or civilians. With the country having one of the highest rates of violent crime, president Jacob Zuma states that South Africa needs to handle crime differently from other countries.

qas: question: How do modern police often communicate?
answers: text: radio

question: Where do police have radios?
answers: text: carried both on the person and installed in vehicles

question: Why do police use radios?
answers: text: to co-ordinate their work, share information, and get help quickly

question: What have computers in police cars enabled for investigation?
answers: text: criminal background checks on persons of interest to be completed in a matter of seconds

question: What have computers in police cars enabled for reporting?
answers: text: updating officers' daily activity log and other, required reports on a real-time basis

question: How do modern police never communicate?

question: Where don't police have radios?

question: Why don't police use radios?

question: What have computers in police cars enabled for investigation?

question: What have computers in police cars disbled for reporting?
context: Modern police forces make extensive use of radio communications equipment, carried both on the person and installed in vehicles, to co-ordinate their work, share information, and get help quickly. In recent years, vehicle-installed computers have enhanced the ability of police communications, enabling easier dispatching of calls, criminal background checks on persons of interest to be completed in a matter of seconds, and updating officers' daily activity log and other, required reports on a real-time basis. Other common pieces of police equipment include flashlights/torches, whistles, police notebooks and "ticket books" or citations.

qas: question: When do police often use unmarked cars?
answers: text: primarily for sting operations or apprehending criminals without alerting them to their presence

question: What use of unmarked cars is controversial?
answers: text: for traffic law enforcement

question: When did New York State ban unmarked cars for traffic cops?
answers: text: 1996

question: Why did New York State ban unmarked cars for traffic cops?
answers: text: it endangered motorists who might be pulled over by people impersonating police officers

question: When do police often use marked cars?

question: What use of unmarked cars isn't controversial?

question: When did New York State ban marked cars for traffic cops?

question: Why did New York State allow unmarked cars for traffic cops?

question: Why did New York State ban marked cars for traffic cops?
context: Unmarked vehicles are used primarily for sting operations or apprehending criminals without alerting them to their presence. Some police forces use unmarked or minimally marked cars for traffic law enforcement, since drivers slow down at the sight of marked police vehicles and unmarked vehicles make it easier for officers to catch speeders and traffic violators. This practice is controversial, with for example, New York State banning this practice in 1996 on the grounds that it endangered motorists who might be pulled over by people impersonating police officers.

qas: question: Why do some cops use bicycles to patrol?
answers: text: they allow for more open interaction with the public

question: How do bicycles help catch some suspects?
answers: text: their quieter operation can facilitate approaching suspects unawares and can help in pursuing them attempting to escape on foot

question: What do police use to control motorcyclist events?
answers: text: Motorcycles

question: Why do all cops use bicycles to patrol?

question: Why do some cops use motorcycles to patrol?

question: How do bicycles help catch some police officers?

question: How don't bicycles help catch some suspects?

question: What don't police use to control motorcyclist events?
context: Motorcycles are also commonly used, particularly in locations that a car may not be able to reach, to control potential public order situations involving meetings of motorcyclists and often in escort duties where motorcycle police officers can quickly clear a path for escorted vehicles. Bicycle patrols are used in some areas because they allow for more open interaction with the public. In addition, their quieter operation can facilitate approaching suspects unawares and can help in pursuing them attempting to escape on foot.

qas: question: Who introduced education requirements for US police?
answers: text: August Vollmer

question: Who was O.W. Wilson a student of?
answers: text: August Vollmer

question: Where did Wilson reduce police corruption?
answers: text: Wichita, Kansas, and later in the Chicago Police Department

question: Why did Wilson rotate officers between communities?
answers: text: to reduce their vulnerability to corruption

question: How did Wilson recruit more qualified police?
answers: text: an aggressive recruiting drive with higher police salaries

question: Who never introduced education requirements for US police?

question: Who was W.O. Wilson a student of?

question: Where did Wilson increase police corruption?

question: Why did Wilson rotate officers between communities?

question: How did Wilson recruit more unqualified police?
context: In the United States, August Vollmer introduced other reforms, including education requirements for police officers. O.W. Wilson, a student of Vollmer, helped reduce corruption and introduce professionalism in Wichita, Kansas, and later in the Chicago Police Department. Strategies employed by O.W. Wilson included rotating officers from community to community to reduce their vulnerability to corruption, establishing of a non-partisan police board to help govern the police force, a strict merit system for promotions within the department, and an aggressive recruiting drive with higher police salaries to attract professionally qualified officers. During the professionalism era of policing, law enforcement agencies concentrated on dealing with felonies and other serious crime, rather than broader focus on crime prevention.

qas: question: What does Miranda provide?
answers: text: safeguards against self-incriminating statements made after an arrest

question: What does the 5th Amendment protect against?
answers: text: self-incrimination

question: Which amendment prevents self-incrimination?
answers: text: Fifth

question: What does Miranda not provide?

question: What doesn't Miranda provide?

question: What does the 5th Amendment not protect against?

question: What doesn't the 5th Amendment protect against?

question: Which amendment doesn't prevent self-incrimination?
context: In Miranda the court created safeguards against self-incriminating statements made after an arrest. The court held that "The prosecution may not use statements, whether exculpatory or inculpatory, stemming from questioning initiated by law enforcement officers after a person has been taken into custody or otherwise deprived of his freedom of action in any significant way, unless it demonstrates the use of procedural safeguards effective to secure the Fifth Amendment's privilege against self-incrimination"

qas: question: When was the Terry v. Ohio case?
answers: text: 1968

question: Which two parts did Terry v. Ohio divide seizure into?
answers: text: investigatory stop and arrest

question: What is an investigatory stop's search limited to?
answers: text: what [is] minimally necessary to determine whether [a suspect] is armed

question: When was the Sherry v. Ohio case?

question: When was the Terry v. New York case?

question: Which two parts didn't Terry v. Ohio divide seizure into?

question: What is an investigatory start's search limited to?

question: What is an investigatory stop's search unlimited to?
context: In Terry v. Ohio (1968) the court divided seizure into two parts, the investigatory stop and arrest. The court further held that during an investigatory stop a police officer's search " [is] confined to what [is] minimally necessary to determine whether [a suspect] is armed, and the intrusion, which [is] made for the sole purpose of protecting himself and others nearby, [is] confined to ascertaining the presence of weapons" (U.S. Supreme Court). Before Terry, every police encounter constituted an arrest, giving the police officer the full range of search authority. Search authority during a Terry stop (investigatory stop) is limited to weapons only.

qas: question: What is the legal status of UK police officers?
answers: text: constables

question: What can only Inspector-ranked UK officers do?
answers: text: authorize a search of a suspect's house

question: What can only Superintendent-ranked UK officers do?
answers: text: authorize a suspect's detention beyond 24 hours

question: What powers of a new UK police officer are the same as a Commissioner's?
answers: text: arrest

question: What is the illegal status of UK police officers?

question: What is the legal status of UN police officers?

question: What can all UK officers do?

question: What can't only Superintendent-ranked UK officers do?

question: What powers of an old UK police officer are the same as a Commissioner's?
context: All police officers in the United Kingdom, whatever their actual rank, are 'constables' in terms of their legal position. This means that a newly appointed constable has the same arrest powers as a Chief Constable or Commissioner. However, certain higher ranks have additional powers to authorize certain aspects of police operations, such as a power to authorize a search of a suspect's house (section 18 PACE in England and Wales) by an officer of the rank of Inspector, or the power to authorize a suspect's detention beyond 24 hours by a Superintendent.

qas: question: Why do some police acts limit when police can interfere without court orders?
answers: text: To ensure that the police would not interfere in the regular competencies of the courts of law

question: What could be impeded without police interference?
answers: text: the realization of the private right

question: How could police help the owner when a restaurant guest doesn't pay because their wallet got stolen?
answers: text: establish a restaurant guest's identity and forward it to the innkeeper

question: Why do all police acts limit when police can interfere without court orders?

question: Why do some police acts limit when police can aid without court orders?

question: What could be unimpeded without police interference?

question: What couldn't be impeded without police interference?

question: How couldn't police help the owner when a restaurant guest doesn't pay because their wallet got stolen?
context: In contrast, the police are entitled to protect private rights in some jurisdictions. To ensure that the police would not interfere in the regular competencies of the courts of law, some police acts require that the police may only interfere in such cases where protection from courts cannot be obtained in time, and where, without interference of the police, the realization of the private right would be impeded. This would, for example, allow police to establish a restaurant guest's identity and forward it to the innkeeper in a case where the guest cannot pay the bill at nighttime because his wallet had just been stolen from the restaurant table.