USB

qas: question: What was designed to standardize the connection of computer peripherals?
answers: text: USB

question: USB has become what on other devices?
answers: text: commonplace

question: What has USB effectively replaced?
answers: text: a variety of earlier interfaces
context: USB was designed to standardize the connection of computer peripherals (including keyboards, pointing devices, digital cameras, printers, portable media players, disk drives and network adapters) to personal computers, both to communicate and to supply electric power. It has become commonplace on other devices, such as smartphones, PDAs and video game consoles. USB has effectively replaced a variety of earlier interfaces, such as serial and parallel ports, as well as separate power chargers for portable devices.

qas: question: What are the different kinds of USB connectors?
answers: text: Type-A or a Type-B

question: Why were the designs for different USB connectors made?
answers: text: to prevent electrical overloads and damaged equipment

question: The Type-A connector is usually what size?
answers: text: the Type-A connector is usually the full size

question: What size is the Type-B connector?
answers: text: the Type-B side can vary as needed
context: Unlike other data cables (e.g., Ethernet, HDMI), each end of a USB cable uses a different kind of connector; a Type-A or a Type-B. This kind of design was chosen to prevent electrical overloads and damaged equipment, as only the Type-A socket provides power. There are cables with Type-A connectors on both ends, but they should be used carefully. Therefore, in general, each of the different "sizes" requires four different connectors; USB cables have the Type-A and Type-B plugs, and the corresponding receptacles are on the computer or electronic device. In common practice, the Type-A connector is usually the full size, and the Type-B side can vary as needed.

qas: question: What size is the most durable from the point of designed insertion lifetime?
answers: text: the "micro" size

question: What was designed for less daily connections?
answers: text: The standard and mini connectors

question: What has reached 5,000-cycle lifetimes?
answers: text: Improved mini-B connectors

question: What was designed with frequent charging of portable devices in mind?
answers: text: Micro connectors
context: Counter-intuitively, the "micro" size is the most durable from the point of designed insertion lifetime. The standard and mini connectors were designed for less than daily connections, with a design lifetime of 1,500 insertion-removal cycles. (Improved mini-B connectors have reached 5,000-cycle lifetimes.) Micro connectors were designed with frequent charging of portable devices in mind; not only is design lifetime of the connector improved to 10,000 cycles, but it was also redesigned to place the flexible contacts, which wear out sooner, on the easily replaced cable, while the more durable rigid contacts are located in the micro-USB receptacles. Likewise, the springy part of the retention mechanism (parts that provide required gripping force) were also moved into plugs on the cable side.

qas: question: USB connections come in what?
answers: text: five data transfer modes

question: What is High Speed only supported by?
answers: text: specifically designed USB 2.0 High Speed interfaces

question: SuperSpeed is only supported by?
answers: text: USB 3.0 and newer interfaces
context: USB connections also come in five data transfer modes, in ascending order: Low Speed (1.0), Full Speed (1.0), High Speed (2.0), SuperSpeed (3.0), and SuperSpeed+ (3.1). High Speed is supported only by specifically designed USB 2.0 High Speed interfaces (that is, USB 2.0 controllers without the High Speed designation do not support it), as well as by USB 3.0 and newer interfaces. SuperSpeed is supported only by USB 3.0 and newer interfaces, and requires a connector and cable with extra pins and wires, usually distinguishable by the blue inserts in connectors.

qas: question: When did the seven companies begin developing USB's?
answers: text: 1994

question: How many companies developed USB's?
answers: text: seven

question: What was the goal for USB's?
answers: text: to make it fundamentally easier to connect external devices to PCs

question: Who was included in a team that worked on the standard at Intel?
answers: text: Ajay Bhatt
context: A group of seven companies began the development of USB in 1994: Compaq, DEC, IBM, Intel, Microsoft, NEC, and Nortel. The goal was to make it fundamentally easier to connect external devices to PCs by replacing the multitude of connectors at the back of PCs, addressing the usability issues of existing interfaces, and simplifying software configuration of all devices connected to USB, as well as permitting greater data rates for external devices. A team including Ajay Bhatt worked on the standard at Intel; the first integrated circuits supporting USB were produced by Intel in 1995.

qas: question: When was the original USB 1.0 Specification introduced?
answers: text: January 1996

question: How fast was the slowest data transfer rate of the USB 1.0?
answers: text: 1.5 Mbit/s "Low Speed"

question: What was the fastest data transfer rate of the USB 1.0?
answers: text: 12 Mbit/s "Full Speed"

question: 1.1 was the first widely used version of what?
answers: text: USB

question: When was the first widely used version of USB released?
answers: text: September 1998
context: The original USB 1.0 specification, which was introduced in January 1996, defined data transfer rates of 1.5 Mbit/s "Low Speed" and 12 Mbit/s "Full Speed". Microsoft Windows 95, OSR 2.1 provided OEM support for the devices. The first widely used version of USB was 1.1, which was released in September 1998. The 12 Mbit/s data rate was intended for higher-speed devices such as disk drives, and the lower 1.5 Mbit/s rate for low data rate devices such as joysticks. Apple Inc.'s iMac was the first mainstream product with USB and the iMac's success popularized USB itself. Following Apple's design decision to remove all legacy ports from the iMac, many PC manufacturers began building legacy-free PCs, which led to the broader PC market using USB as a standard.

qas: question: What provides a fourth transfer mode?
answers: text: The new SuperSpeed bus

question: How fast is the new SuperSpeed bus data signaling rate?
answers: text: 5.0 Gbit/s

question: What is full-duplex in SuperSpeed transfer mode?
answers: text: Communication
context: The new SuperSpeed bus provides a fourth transfer mode with a data signaling rate of 5.0 Gbit/s, in addition to the modes supported by earlier versions. The payload throughput is 4 Gbit/s[citation needed] (due to the overhead incurred by 8b/10b encoding), and the specification considers it reasonable to achieve around 3.2 Gbit/s (0.4 GB/s or 400 MB/s), which should increase with future hardware advances. Communication is full-duplex in SuperSpeed transfer mode; in the modes supported previously, by 1.x and 2.0, communication is half-duplex, with direction controlled by the host.

qas: question: What are the power variants in USB 3.0 ports?
answers: text: low-power and high-power

question: What do the power variants provide?
answers: text: 150 mA and 900 mA respectively

question: What does the Battery Charging Specification do?
answers: text: increases the power handling capability to 1.5 A

question: What is a downfall of the Battery Charging Specification?
answers: text: does not allow concurrent data transmission
context: As with previous USB versions, USB 3.0 ports come in low-power and high-power variants, providing 150 mA and 900 mA respectively, while simultaneously transmitting data at SuperSpeed rates. Additionally, there is a Battery Charging Specification (Version 1.2 – December 2010), which increases the power handling capability to 1.5 A but does not allow concurrent data transmission. The Battery Charging Specification requires that the physical ports themselves be capable of handling 5 A of current[citation needed] but limits the maximum current drawn to 1.5 A.

qas: question: When were the plans to update USB 3.0 to 10 Gbit/s revealed?
answers: text: January 2013

question: What actually happened whenever USB 3.0 was updated?
answers: text: The group ended up creating a new USB version

question: When was USB 3.1 released?
answers: text: 31 July 2013

question: What does the USB 3.1 standard increase?
answers: text: the data signaling rate to 10 Gbit/s in the USB 3.1 Gen2 mode
context: A January 2013 press release from the USB group revealed plans to update USB 3.0 to 10 Gbit/s. The group ended up creating a new USB version, USB 3.1, which was released on 31 July 2013, introducing a faster transfer mode called SuperSpeed USB 10 Gbit/s, putting it on par with a single first-generation Thunderbolt channel. The new mode's logo features a "Superspeed+" caption (stylized as SUPERSPEED+). The USB 3.1 standard increases the data signaling rate to 10 Gbit/s in the USB 3.1 Gen2 mode, double that of USB 3.0 (referred to as USB 3.1 Gen1) and reduces line encoding overhead to just 3% by changing the encoding scheme to 128b/132b. The first USB 3.1 implementation demonstrated transfer speeds of 7.2 Gbit/s.

qas: question: When was the Type-C Specification 1.0 finalized?
answers: text: August 2014

question: What defined a new reversible-plug connector for USB devices?
answers: text: USB Type-C Specification 1.0

question: What does Type-C connect to?
answers: text: both hosts and devices

question: What connector provides four power/ground pairs?
answers: text: The 24-pin double-sided connector
context: Developed at roughly the same time as the USB 3.1 specification, but distinct from it, the USB Type-C Specification 1.0 was finalized in August 2014 and defines a new small reversible-plug connector for USB devices. The Type-C plug connects to both hosts and devices, replacing various Type-A and Type-B connectors and cables with a standard meant to be future-proof, similar to Apple Lightning and Thunderbolt. The 24-pin double-sided connector provides four power/ground pairs, two differential pairs for USB 2.0 data bus (though only one pair is implemented in a Type-C cable), four pairs for high-speed data bus, two "sideband use" pins, and two configuration pins for cable orientation detection, dedicated biphase mark code (BMC) configuration data channel, and VCONN +5 V power for active cables. Type-A and Type-B adaptors and cables are required for older devices to plug into Type-C hosts. Adapters and cables with a Type-C receptacle are not allowed.[citation needed]

qas: question: What kind of cables does the fully featured USB Type-C contain?
answers: text: active, electronically marked cables

question: Electronically marked cables have a chip that contains what?
answers: text: an ID function based on the configuration data channel and vendor-defined messages

question: What is the shortened version of vendor-defined messages?
answers: text: (VDMs)
context: Full-featured USB Type-C cables are active, electronically marked cables that contain a chip with an ID function based on the configuration data channel and vendor-defined messages (VDMs) from the USB Power Delivery 2.0 specification. USB Type-C devices also support power currents of 1.5 A and 3.0 A over the 5 V power bus in addition to baseline 900 mA; devices can either negotiate increased USB current through the configuration line, or they can support the full Power Delivery specification using both BMC-coded configuration line and legacy BFSK-coded VBUS line.

qas: question: The design of USB is asymmetrical in what?
answers: text: its topology

question: How many devices may be connected to a host controller?
answers: text: 127 devices

question: How are USB devices linked?
answers: text: in series through hubs

question: What HUB is built into the host controller?
answers: text: the root hub

question: The design of the USB is asymmetrical in its what?
answers: text: topology

question: How many devices can be connected to a host controller?
answers: text: Up to 127 devices

question: What hub is built into the host controller?
answers: text: the root hub

question: A USB host may implement how many host controllers?
answers: text: multiple

question: How many USB ports may a host controller provide?
answers: text: one or more USB ports
context: The design architecture of USB is asymmetrical in its topology, consisting of a host, a multitude of downstream USB ports, and multiple peripheral devices connected in a tiered-star topology. Additional USB hubs may be included in the tiers, allowing branching into a tree structure with up to five tier levels. A USB host may implement multiple host controllers and each host controller may provide one or more USB ports. Up to 127 devices, including hub devices if present, may be connected to a single host controller. USB devices are linked in series through hubs. One hub—built into the host controller—is the root hub.

qas: question: What are logical sub-devices referred to as?
answers: text: device functions

question: A single device can provide an audio device function such as?
answers: text: built-in microphone

question: A single device can provide a video device function such as?
answers: text: a webcam
context: A physical USB device may consist of several logical sub-devices that are referred to as device functions. A single device may provide several functions, for example, a webcam (video device function) with a built-in microphone (audio device function). This kind of device is called a composite device. An alternative to this is compound device, in which the host assigns each logical device a distinctive address and all logical devices connect to a built-in hub that connects to the physical USB cable.

qas: question: What is a pipe?
answers: text: a connection from the host controller to a logical entity

question: A USB connection is based on what?
answers: text: pipes (logical channels)

question: What is a pipe named at?
answers: text: an endpoint

question: Where do pipes correspond?
answers: text: 1-to-1 to endpoints

question: How many endpoints can a USB device have?
answers: text: up to 32 endpoints
context: USB device communication is based on pipes (logical channels). A pipe is a connection from the host controller to a logical entity, found on a device, and named an endpoint. Because pipes correspond 1-to-1 to endpoints, the terms are sometimes used interchangeably. A USB device could have up to 32 endpoints (16 IN, 16 OUT), though it's rare to have so many. An endpoint is defined and numbered by the device during initialization (the period after physical connection called "enumeration") and so is relatively permanent, whereas a pipe may be opened and closed.

qas: question: If the direction of the data transfer is from the device to the host, what does the host send?
answers: text: the host sends an IN packet

question: What does a bi-directional endpoint accept?
answers: text: both IN and OUT packets

question: What is sent if the direction of the data transfer is from host to endpoint?
answers: text: an OUT packet
context: An endpoint of a pipe is addressable with a tuple (device_address, endpoint_number) as specified in a TOKEN packet that the host sends when it wants to start a data transfer session. If the direction of the data transfer is from the host to the endpoint, an OUT packet (a specialization of a TOKEN packet) having the desired device address and endpoint number is sent by the host. If the direction of the data transfer is from the device to the host, the host sends an IN packet instead. If the destination endpoint is a uni-directional endpoint whose manufacturer's designated direction does not match the TOKEN packet (e.g. the manufacturer's designated direction is IN while the TOKEN packet is an OUT packet), the TOKEN packet is ignored. Otherwise, it is accepted and the data transaction can start. A bi-directional endpoint, on the other hand, accepts both IN and OUT packets.

qas: question: What is started when a USB is first connected to a host?
answers: text: enumeration process

question: What does the enumeration process start by doing?
answers: text: sending a reset signal to the USB device

question: What id the data rate determined during?
answers: text: the reset signaling

question: When is the device assigned a unique 7-bit address?
answers: text: After reset

question: What happens whenever a USB host is restarted?
answers: text: the enumeration process is repeated for all connected devices.
context: When a USB device is first connected to a USB host, the USB device enumeration process is started. The enumeration starts by sending a reset signal to the USB device. The data rate of the USB device is determined during the reset signaling. After reset, the USB device's information is read by the host and the device is assigned a unique 7-bit address. If the device is supported by the host, the device drivers needed for communicating with the device are loaded and the device is set to a configured state. If the USB host is restarted, the enumeration process is repeated for all connected devices.

qas: question: What do transaction translators do?
answers: text: convert between high-speed USB 2.0 buses and full and low speed buses

question: When does a USB 2.0 hub operate in high speed mode?
answers: text: When a high-speed USB 2.0 hub is plugged into a high-speed USB host or hub

question: What kind of devices do High speed USB 2.0's contain?
answers: text: transaction translators
context: High-speed USB 2.0 hubs contain devices called transaction translators that convert between high-speed USB 2.0 buses and full and low speed buses. When a high-speed USB 2.0 hub is plugged into a high-speed USB host or hub, it operates in high-speed mode. The USB hub then uses either one transaction translator per hub to create a full/low-speed bus routed to all full and low speed devices on the hub, or uses one transaction translator per port to create an isolated full/low-speed bus per port on the hub.

qas: question: What do USB's implement connections to?
answers: text: storage devices

question: What are the standards called that implement connections to storage devices?
answers: text: the USB mass storage device class (MSC or UMS)

question: What is the process of making a novel device look like a familiar device?
answers: text: extension

question: Why is the ability to boot write-locked SD cards with a USB adapter advantageous for?
answers: text: maintaining the integrity and non-corruptible, pristine state of the booting medium.
context: USB implements connections to storage devices using a set of standards called the USB mass storage device class (MSC or UMS). This was at first intended for traditional magnetic and optical drives and has been extended to support flash drives. It has also been extended to support a wide variety of novel devices as many systems can be controlled with the familiar metaphor of file manipulation within directories. The process of making a novel device look like a familiar device is also known as extension. The ability to boot a write-locked SD card with a USB adapter is particularly advantageous for maintaining the integrity and non-corruptible, pristine state of the booting medium.

qas: question: Since when can most computers boot from USB mass storage devices?
answers: text: since mid-2004

question: What is USB not intended for?
answers: text: a primary bus for a computer's internal storage

question: What is an important advantage of USB?
answers: text: it is possible to install and remove devices without rebooting the computer

question: Buses such as Parallel ATA fulfill what role in PC computers?
answers: text: a computer's internal storage
context: Though most computers since mid-2004 can boot from USB mass storage devices, USB is not intended as a primary bus for a computer's internal storage. Buses such as Parallel ATA (PATA or IDE), Serial ATA (SATA), or SCSI fulfill that role in PC class computers. However, USB has one important advantage, in that it is possible to install and remove devices without rebooting the computer (hot-swapping), making it useful for mobile peripherals, including drives of various kinds (given SATA or SCSI devices may or may not support hot-swapping).

qas: question: Several manufacturers offer what?
answers: text: external portable USB hard disk drives

question: What do external portable USB hard drive disks offer?
answers: text: performance comparable to internal drives

question: What is the most recent standard for external drive connectivity?
answers: text: Thunderbolt

question: What do the external drives typically include?
answers: text: a "translating device"
context: Firstly conceived and still used today for optical storage devices (CD-RW drives, DVD drives, etc.), several manufacturers offer external portable USB hard disk drives, or empty enclosures for disk drives. These offer performance comparable to internal drives, limited by the current number and types of attached USB devices, and by the upper limit of the USB interface (in practice about 30 MB/s for USB 2.0 and potentially 400 MB/s or more for USB 3.0). These external drives typically include a "translating device" that bridges between a drive's interface to a USB interface port. Functionally, the drive appears to the user much like an internal drive. Other competing standards for external drive connectivity include eSATA, ExpressCard, FireWire (IEEE 1394), and most recently Thunderbolt.

qas: question: Media Transfer Protocol was designed by who?
answers: text: Microsoft

question: Why was Media Transfer Protocol designed?
answers: text: to give higher-level access to a device's filesystem

question: What was MTP originally designed for?
answers: text: use with portable media players

question: Why has MTP become the primary storage access protocol of the Android operating system?
answers: text: MTP does not require exclusive access to the storage device the way UMS does
context: Media Transfer Protocol (MTP) was designed by Microsoft to give higher-level access to a device's filesystem than USB mass storage, at the level of files rather than disk blocks. It also has optional DRM features. MTP was designed for use with portable media players, but it has since been adopted as the primary storage access protocol of the Android operating system from the version 4.1 Jelly Bean as well as Windows Phone 8 (Windows Phone 7 devices had used the Zune protocol which was an evolution of MTP). The primary reason for this is that MTP does not require exclusive access to the storage device the way UMS does, alleviating potential problems should an Android program request the storage while it is attached to a computer. The main drawback is that MTP is not as well supported outside of Windows operating systems.

qas: question: What do older computers have to have in order for USB mice and keyboards to be used?
answers: text: PS/2 connectors with the aid of a small USB-to-PS/2 adapter

question: What is the hardware designed to detect in USB mice and keyboards?
answers: text: whether it is connected to a USB or PS/2 port

question: USB keyboards and mice may communicate using what?
answers: text: appropriate protocol

question: What connects PS/2 keyboards and mice to a USB port?
answers: text: Converters

question: What performs bidirectional data translation between two standards?
answers: text: a microcontroller
context: USB mice and keyboards can usually be used with older computers that have PS/2 connectors with the aid of a small USB-to-PS/2 adapter. For mice and keyboards with dual-protocol support, an adaptor that contains no logic circuitry may be used: the hardware in the USB keyboard or mouse is designed to detect whether it is connected to a USB or PS/2 port, and communicate using the appropriate protocol. Converters also exist that connect PS/2 keyboards and mice (usually one of each) to a USB port. These devices present two HID endpoints to the system and use a microcontroller to perform bidirectional data translation between the two standards.

qas: question: What is difficult to do with a USB plug?
answers: text: to insert a USB plug into its receptacle incorrectly

question: The USB specification states that the required USB icon must be what?
answers: text: embossed on the "topside" of the USB plug

question: How is the USB icon located to each receptacle?
answers: text: adjacent

question: Receptacles should be oriented to allow the icon on the plug to what?
answers: text: to be visible during the mating process
context: By design, it is difficult to insert a USB plug into its receptacle incorrectly. The USB specification states that the required USB icon must be embossed on the "topside" of the USB plug, which "...provides easy user recognition and facilitates alignment during the mating process." The specification also shows that the "recommended" "Manufacturer's logo" ("engraved" on the diagram but not specified in the text) is on the opposite side of the USB icon. The specification further states, "The USB Icon is also located adjacent to each receptacle. Receptacles should be oriented to allow the icon on the plug to be visible during the mating process." However, the specification does not consider the height of the device compared to the eye level height of the user, so the side of the cable that is "visible" when mated to a computer on a desk can depend on whether the user is standing or kneeling.

qas: question: What do Type-A receptacles do on host devices?
answers: text: supply power

question: What do Type-b receptacles do on target devices?
answers: text: draw power

question: What do the receptacles prevent user from doing?
answers: text: from accidentally connecting two USB power supplies to each other

question: What networks do USB not support?
answers: text: cyclic networks
context: The standard connectors were deliberately intended to enforce the directed topology of a USB network: Type-A receptacles on host devices that supply power and Type-B receptacles on target devices that draw power. This prevents users from accidentally connecting two USB power supplies to each other, which could lead to short circuits and dangerously high currents, circuit failures, or even fire. USB does not support cyclic networks and the standard connectors from incompatible USB devices are themselves incompatible.

qas: question: Standard connectors were designed to be what?
answers: text: robust

question: Why were standard connectors designed to be so robust?
answers: text: the connectors would be used more frequently

question: What as a drawback of previous connectors?
answers: text: Many previous connector designs were fragile

question: How are the electrical contents of a USB connector protected?
answers: text: by an adjacent plastic tongue

question: How is the entire connecting assembly of a USB connector protected?
answers: text: by an enclosing metal sheath
context: The standard connectors were designed to be robust. Because USB is hot-pluggable, the connectors would be used more frequently, and perhaps with less care, than other connectors. Many previous connector designs were fragile, specifying embedded component pins or other delicate parts that were vulnerable to bending or breaking. The electrical contacts in a USB connector are protected by an adjacent plastic tongue, and the entire connecting assembly is usually protected by an enclosing metal sheath.

qas: question: Where is the external metallic sheet connected?
answers: text: typically connected to system ground

question: What provides a degree of protection from interference with the USB signal?
answers: text: This enclosure design

question: This type of stage make-break timing allows for what?
answers: text: electrically safe hot-swapping.
context: The connector construction always ensures that the external sheath on the plug makes contact with its counterpart in the receptacle before any of the four connectors within make electrical contact. The external metallic sheath is typically connected to system ground, thus dissipating damaging static charges. This enclosure design also provides a degree of protection from electromagnetic interference to the USB signal while it travels through the mated connector pair (the only location when the otherwise twisted data pair travels in parallel). In addition, because of the required sizes of the power and common connections, they are made after the system ground but before the data connections. This type of staged make-break timing allows for electrically safe hot-swapping.

qas: question: What are the newer micro-USB receptacles designed for?
answers: text: a minimum rated lifetime of 10,000 cycles of insertion

question: What is the minimum rated lifetime for the standard USB receptacle?
answers: text: 1,500

question: After a leaf-spring was moved from jack to the plug, the most stressed part was found where?
answers: text: on the cable side of the connection

question: Why was the change made for the USB device?
answers: text: so that the connector on the less expensive cable would bear the most wear
context: The newer micro-USB receptacles are designed for a minimum rated lifetime of 10,000 cycles of insertion and removal between the receptacle and plug, compared to 1,500 for the standard USB and 5,000 for the mini-USB receptacle. Features intended to accomplish include, a locking device was added and the leaf-spring was moved from the jack to the plug, so that the most-stressed part is on the cable side of the connection. This change was made so that the connector on the less expensive cable would bear the most wear instead of the more expensive micro-USB device. However the idea that these changes did in fact make the connector more durable in real world use has been widely disputed, with many contending that they are in fact, much less durable.

qas: question: What type of tolerances does the USB standard specify for compliant USB connectors?
answers: text: loose tolerances

question: Why were loose tolerances allowed for compliant USB connectors?
answers: text: to minimize physical incompatibilities in connectors from different vendors

question: How is a weakness addressed in some other connector standards?
answers: text: the USB specification also defines limits to the size of a connecting device

question: Due to size restrictions compliant devices must what?
answers: text: fit within the size restrictions or support a compliant extension cable that does
context: The USB standard specifies relatively loose tolerances for compliant USB connectors to minimize physical incompatibilities in connectors from different vendors. To address a weakness present in some other connector standards, the USB specification also defines limits to the size of a connecting device in the area around its plug. This was done to prevent a device from blocking adjacent ports due to the size of the cable strain relief mechanism (usually molding integral with the cable outer insulation) at the connector. Compliant devices must either fit within the size restrictions or support a compliant extension cable that does.

qas: question: USB cables and device have only what on their ends?
answers: text: plugs

question: Hosts and devices only have what in terms of connecting to a USB device?
answers: text: receptacles

question: Devices usually have what type of receptacle?
answers: text: one or another Type-B variety

question: Hosts almost always have what type of receptacle?
answers: text: Type-A receptacles
context: In general, USB cables have only plugs on their ends, while hosts and devices have only receptacles. Hosts almost universally have Type-A receptacles, while devices have one or another Type-B variety. Type-A plugs mate only with Type-A receptacles, and the same applies to their Type-B counterparts; they are deliberately physically incompatible. However, an extension to the USB standard specification called USB On-The-Go (OTG) allows a single port to act as either a host or a device, which is selectable by the end of the cable that plugs into the receptacle on the OTG-enabled unit. Even after the cable is hooked up and the units are communicating, the two units may "swap" ends under program control. This capability is meant for units such as PDAs in which the USB link might connect to a PC's host port as a device in one instance, yet connect as a host itself to a keyboard and mouse device in another instance.

qas: question: What has been used to connect digital cameras. smartphones and other devices to tablet computers?
answers: text: Various connectors

question: What was standard for transferring data to and from the earlier type of smartphones?
answers: text: The mini-B USB connector

question: How large are both mini-A and mini-B plugs?
answers: text: approximately 3 by 7 mm

question: When were the mini-A connector and and the mini-AB receptacle connector depreceated?
answers: text: 23 May 2007
context: Various connectors have been used for smaller devices such as digital cameras, smartphones, and tablet computers. These include the now-deprecated (i.e. de-certified but standardized) mini-A and mini-AB connectors; mini-B connectors are still supported, but are not OTG-compliant (On The Go, used in mobile devices). The mini-B USB connector was standard for transferring data to and from the early smartphones and PDAs. Both mini-A and mini-B plugs are approximately 3 by 7 mm; the mini-A connector and the mini-AB receptacle connector were deprecated on 23 May 2007.

qas: question: What is the micro connector designed for?
answers: text: to reduce the mechanical wear on the device

question: What is the easier-to-replace cable designed for?
answers: text: to bear the mechanical wear of connection and disconnection

question: What is the micro-plug rated for?
answers: text: 10,000 connect-disconnect cycles
context: The micro plug design is rated for at least 10,000 connect-disconnect cycles, which is more than the mini plug design. The micro connector is also designed to reduce the mechanical wear on the device; instead the easier-to-replace cable is designed to bear the mechanical wear of connection and disconnection. The Universal Serial Bus Micro-USB Cables and Connectors Specification details the mechanical characteristics of micro-A plugs, micro-AB receptacles (which accept both micro-A and micro-B plugs), and micro-B plugs and receptacles, along with a standard-A receptacle to micro-A plug adapter.

qas: question: In 2007 who endorsed micro-USB as the standard connector for data and power on mobile devices?
answers: text: The cellular phone carrier group Open Mobile Terminal Platform

question: When did the ITU announce that it had embraced micro-USB as the Universal Charging Solution?
answers: text: 22 October 2009

question: What has energy-efficient one-charger-fits-all new mobile phone solution?
answers: text: micro-USB
context: The cellular phone carrier group Open Mobile Terminal Platform (OMTP) in 2007 endorsed micro-USB as the standard connector for data and power on mobile devices In addition, on 22 October 2009 the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) has also announced that it had embraced micro-USB as the Universal Charging Solution its "energy-efficient one-charger-fits-all new mobile phone solution," and added: "Based on the Micro-USB interface, UCS chargers also include a 4-star or higher efficiency rating—​​up to three times more energy-efficient than an unrated charger."

qas: question: Who defined a common External Power Supply for use with smartphones sold?
answers: text: The European Standardisation Bodies CEN, CENELEC and ETSI

question: How many mobile phone manufacturers signed the EU's common EPS (MoU)?
answers: text: 14

question: Who was one of the original MoU signers?
answers: text: Apple
context: The European Standardisation Bodies CEN, CENELEC and ETSI (independent of the OMTP/GSMA proposal) defined a common External Power Supply (EPS) for use with smartphones sold in the EU based on micro-USB. 14 of the world's largest mobile phone manufacturers signed the EU's common EPS Memorandum of Understanding (MoU). Apple, one of the original MoU signers, makes micro-USB adapters available – as permitted in the Common EPS MoU – for its iPhones equipped with Apple's proprietary 30-pin dock connector or (later) Lightning connector.

qas: question: What are all USB On-The-Go devices required to have?
answers: text: one, and only one, USB connector

question: Non-OTG compliant devices are not allowed to use what?
answers: text: the micro-AB receptacle

question: Why are the Non-OTG compliant devices not allowed to use the micro-AB receptacle?
answers: text: power supply shorting hazards on the VBUS line
context: All current USB On-The-Go (OTG) devices are required to have one, and only one, USB connector: a micro-AB receptacle. Non-OTG compliant devices are not allowed to use the micro-AB receptacle, due to power supply shorting hazards on the VBUS line. The micro-AB receptacle is capable of accepting both micro-A and micro-B plugs, attached to any of the legal cables and adapters as defined in revision 1.01 of the micro-USB specification. Prior to the development of micro-USB, USB On-The-Go devices were required to use mini-AB receptacles to perform the equivalent job.

qas: question: The OTG device with the B-plug inserted is called what?
answers: text: B-device

question: What does an OTG device default to with no plug inserted?
answers: text: to acting as a B-device

question: What is the A-device responsible for?
answers: text: powering the USB interface when required
context: The OTG device with the A-plug inserted is called the A-device and is responsible for powering the USB interface when required and by default assumes the role of host. The OTG device with the B-plug inserted is called the B-device and by default assumes the role of peripheral. An OTG device with no plug inserted defaults to acting as a B-device. If an application on the B-device requires the role of host, then the Host Negotiation Protocol (HNP) is used to temporarily transfer the host role to the B-device.

qas: question: What is USB?
answers: text: a serial bus

question: What kind of wires does the USB 2.0 variant use?
answers: text: four shielded wires

question: What are the four shielded wires in the USB 2.0 variant used for?
answers: text: two for power (VBUS and GND), and two for differential data signals
context: USB is a serial bus, using four shielded wires for the USB 2.0 variant: two for power (VBUS and GND), and two for differential data signals (labelled as D+ and D− in pinouts). Non-Return-to-Zero Inverted (NRZI) encoding scheme is used for transferring data, with a sync field to synchronize the host and receiver clocks. D+ and D− signals are transmitted on a twisted pair, providing half-duplex data transfers for USB 2.0. Mini and micro connectors have their GND connections moved from pin #4 to pin #5, while their pin #4 serves as an ID pin for the On-The-Go host/client identification.

qas: question: How long is the maximum cable length the USB 2.0 provides?
answers: text: 5 meters for devices running at Hi Speed

question: What is the maximum acceptable delay per cable?
answers: text: 26 ns

question: What does theUSB 2.0 specification require?
answers: text: cable delay be less than 5.2 ns per meter
context: USB 2.0 provides for a maximum cable length of 5 meters for devices running at Hi Speed (480 Mbit/s). The primary reason for this limit is the maximum allowed round-trip delay of about 1.5 μs. If USB host commands are unanswered by the USB device within the allowed time, the host considers the command lost. When adding USB device response time, delays from the maximum number of hubs added to the delays from connecting cables, the maximum acceptable delay per cable amounts to 26 ns. The USB 2.0 specification requires that cable delay be less than 5.2 ns per meter (192 000 km/s, which is close to the maximum achievable transmission speed for standard copper wire).

qas: question: What is a unit load defined as?
answers: text: 100 mA in USB 1.x and 2.0

question: How much is a unit load in USB 3.0?
answers: text: 150 mA

question: What is the maximum amount of load a USB 1. and 2.0 device may draw?
answers: text: five unit loads

question: What is the maximum amount of load a USB 3.0 device may draw?
answers: text: six unit loads
context: A unit load is defined as 100 mA in USB 1.x and 2.0, and 150 mA in USB 3.0. A device may draw a maximum of five unit loads from a port in USB 1.x and 2.0 (500 mA), or six unit loads in USB 3.0 (900 mA). There are two types of devices: low-power and high-power. A low-power device (such as a USB HID) draws at most one-unit load, with minimum operating voltage of 4.4 V in USB 2.0, and 4 V in USB 3.0. A high-power device draws, at most, the maximum number of unit loads the standard permits. Every device functions initially as low-power (including high-power functions during their low-power enumeration phases), but may request high-power, and get it if available on the providing bus.

qas: question: What is an example of a device that requires more than 500 mA of current?
answers: text: high-speed external disk drives

question: What is an issue that may occur if a high-speed external disk drive is powered from just one USB 2.0 port.
answers: text: may have power issues

question: What does USB compliance specification prohibit?
answers: text: "use of a 'Y' cable (a cable with two A-plugs)
context: Some devices, such as high-speed external disk drives, require more than 500 mA of current and therefore may have power issues if powered from just one USB 2.0 port: erratic function, failure to function, or overloading/damaging the port. Such devices may come with an external power source or a Y-shaped cable that has two USB connectors (one for power and data, the other for power only) to plug into a computer. With such a cable, a device can draw power from two USB ports simultaneously. However, USB compliance specification states that "use of a 'Y' cable (a cable with two A-plugs) is prohibited on any USB peripheral", meaning that "if a USB peripheral requires more power than allowed by the USB specification to which it is designed, then it must be self-powered."

qas: question: What defines a new type of USB port, called the charging port?
answers: text: The USB Battery Charging Specification Revision 1.1

question: When was the USB Battery Charging Specification Revision 1.1 released?
answers: text: in 2007

question: What was the USB Battery Charging Specification Revision 1.1 called?
answers: text: the charging port

question: What does a charging port supply?
answers: text: up to 500 mA at 5 V
context: The USB Battery Charging Specification Revision 1.1 (released in 2007) defines a new type of USB port, called the charging port. Contrary to the standard downstream port, for which current draw by a connected portable device can exceed 100 mA only after digital negotiation with the host or hub, a charging port can supply currents between 500 mA and 1.5 A without the digital negotiation. A charging port supplies up to 500 mA at 5 V, up to the rated current at 3.6 V or more, and drops its output voltage if the portable device attempts to draw more than the rated current. The charger port may shut down if the load is too high.

qas: question: How many types of charging ports exist?
answers: text: Two types

question: What can a portable device recognize?
answers: text: the type of USB port

question: What are the D+ and D- shortened with?
answers: text: a resistance not exceeding 200 ohms
context: Two types of charging port exist: the charging downstream port (CDP), supporting data transfers as well, and the dedicated charging port (DCP), without data support. A portable device can recognize the type of USB port; on a dedicated charging port, the D+ and D− pins are shorted with a resistance not exceeding 200 ohms, while charging downstream ports provide additional detection logic so their presence can be determined by attached devices. (see ref pg. 2, Section 1.4.5, & Table 5-3 "Resistances"—pg. 29).

qas: question: What does the USB Battery Charging Specification Revision 1.2 make clear of?
answers: text: there are safety limits to the rated current at 5 A coming from USB 2.0

question: What does revision 1.2 remove?
answers: text: USB ports type detection via resistive detection mechanisms

question: When was USB Battery Charging Specification Revision 1.2 released?
answers: text: in 2010
context: The USB Battery Charging Specification Revision 1.2 (released in 2010) makes clear that there are safety limits to the rated current at 5 A coming from USB 2.0. On the other hand, several changes are made and limits are increasing including allowing 1.5 A on charging downstream ports for unconfigured devices, allowing high speed communication while having a current up to 1.5 A, and allowing a maximum current of 5 A. Also, revision 1.2 removes support for USB ports type detection via resistive detection mechanisms.

qas: question: When did the USB Promoters Group announce the finalization of the USB Power Delivery specification?
answers: text: In July 2012

question: What can devices request?
answers: text: higher currents and supply voltages from compliant hosts

question: In all cases, both host-to-device and device-to-host configurations are what?
answers: text: supported
context: In July 2012, the USB Promoters Group announced the finalization of the USB Power Delivery ("PD") specification, an extension that specifies using certified "PD aware" USB cables with standard USB Type-A and Type-B connectors to deliver increased power (more than 7.5 W) to devices with larger power demand. Devices can request higher currents and supply voltages from compliant hosts –  up to 2 A at 5 V (for a power consumption of up to 10 W), and optionally up to 3 A or 5 A at either 12 V (36 W or 60 W) or 20 V (60 W or 100 W). In all cases, both host-to-device and device-to-host configurations are supported.

qas: question: The USB Power Delivery revision 2.0 specification has been released as part of what?
answers: text: USB 3.1

question: What does the USB Power Delivery revision 2.0 specification cover?
answers: text: Type-C cable and connector with four power/ground pairs and a separate configuration channel

question: Power delivery protocols have been updated to facilitate what?
answers: text: Type-C features
context: The USB Power Delivery revision 2.0 specification has been released as part of the USB 3.1 suite. It covers the Type-C cable and connector with four power/ground pairs and a separate configuration channel, which now hosts a DC coupled low-frequency BMC-coded data channel that reduces the possibilities for RF interference. Power Delivery protocols have been updated to facilitate Type-C features such as cable ID function, Alternate Mode negotiation, increased VBUS currents, and VCONN-powered accessories.

qas: question: What can sleep-and-charge USB ports be used to do?
answers: text: charge electronic devices even when the computer is switched off

question: What is normally powered off whenever the computer is off?
answers: text: USB ports

question: What remain powered even whenever the computer is powered off?
answers: text: Sleep-and-charge USB ports
context: Sleep-and-charge USB ports can be used to charge electronic devices even when the computer is switched off. Normally, when a computer is powered off the USB ports are powered down, preventing phones and other devices from charging. Sleep-and-charge USB ports remain powered even when the computer is off. On laptops, charging devices from the USB port when it is not being powered from AC drains the laptop battery faster; most laptops have a facility to stop charging if their own battery charge level gets too low.

qas: question: On what laptops are the USB ports marked with a USB symbol with an added lightening bolt icon?
answers: text: On Dell and Toshiba laptops

question: What does dell call the feature that lets USB drives to remain powered when the computer is off?
answers: text: PowerShare

question: On what laptops are the sleep-and-charge marked with a non-standard symbol?
answers: text: On Acer Inc. and Packard Bell laptops
context: On Dell and Toshiba laptops, the port is marked with the standard USB symbol with an added lightning bolt icon on the right side. Dell calls this feature PowerShare, while Toshiba calls it USB Sleep-and-Charge. On Acer Inc. and Packard Bell laptops, sleep-and-charge USB ports are marked with a non-standard symbol (the letters USB over a drawing of a battery); the feature is simply called Power-off USB. On some laptops such as Dell and Apple MacBook models, it is possible to plug a device in, close the laptop (putting it into sleep mode) and have the device continue to charge.[citation needed]

qas: question: When did the GSM Association follow suit?
answers: text: 17 February 2009

question: When was this further endorsed by the CTIA?
answers: text: 22 April 2009

question: UCS chargers will also include what?
answers: text: a 4-star or higher efficiency rating
context: The GSM Association (GSMA) followed suit on 17 February 2009, and on 22 April 2009, this was further endorsed by the CTIA – The Wireless Association, with the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) announcing on 22 October 2009 that it had also embraced the Universal Charging Solution as its "energy-efficient one-charger-fits-all new mobile phone solution," and added: "Based on the Micro-USB interface, UCS chargers will also include a 4-star or higher efficiency rating—up to three times more energy-efficient than an unrated charger."

qas: question: When did many of the largest mobile phone manufacturers sign an EC-sponsored MoU?
answers: text: June 2009

question: What did the MoU make the manufacturers agree to do?
answers: text: to make most data-enabled mobile phones marketed in the European Union compatible with a common External Power Supply

question: When did the IEC release its version of the common EPS standard as IEC 62684:2011?
answers: text: January 2011
context: In June 2009, many of the world's largest mobile phone manufacturers signed an EC-sponsored Memorandum of Understanding (MoU), agreeing to make most data-enabled mobile phones marketed in the European Union compatible with a common External Power Supply (EPS). The EU's common EPS specification (EN 62684:2010) references the USB Battery Charging standard and is similar to the GSMA/OMTP and Chinese charging solutions. In January 2011, the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) released its version of the (EU's) common EPS standard as IEC 62684:2011.

qas: question: Some USB devices require what?
answers: text: more power than is permitted by the specifications for a single port.

question: Some devices such as an external hard and optical disk drive can use what?
answers: text: an external power supply

question: What is another alternative for power for an external hard and optical disk drive?
answers: text: a dual-input USB cable

question: What is the purpose of a dual-input USB cable?
answers: text: one input of which is used for power and data transfer, the other solely for power
context: Some USB devices require more power than is permitted by the specifications for a single port. This is common for external hard and optical disc drives, and generally for devices with motors or lamps. Such devices can use an external power supply, which is allowed by the standard, or use a dual-input USB cable, one input of which is used for power and data transfer, the other solely for power, which makes the device a non-standard USB device. Some USB ports and external hubs can, in practice, supply more power to USB devices than required by the specification but a standard-compliant device may not depend on this.

qas: question: What does the USB specification limit?
answers: text: the inrush current

question: When is the inrush current affected by the USB specification?
answers: text: when the device is first connected

question: What are USB devices required to enter?
answers: text: ultra low-power suspend mode when the USB host is suspended

question: Many USB host interfaces do not what?
answers: text: cut off the power supply to USB devices when they are suspended
context: In addition to limiting the total average power used by the device, the USB specification limits the inrush current (i.e., that used to charge decoupling and filter capacitors) when the device is first connected. Otherwise, connecting a device could cause problems with the host's internal power. USB devices are also required to automatically enter ultra low-power suspend mode when the USB host is suspended. Nevertheless, many USB host interfaces do not cut off the power supply to USB devices when they are suspended.

qas: question: What do some non-standard USB devices use?
answers: text: the 5 V power supply without participating in a proper USB network

question: What Negotiates power draw with the host interface?
answers: text: the 5 V power supply

question: What does the USB specification require prior to the Battery Charging Specification?
answers: text: that devices connect in a low-power mode (100 mA maximum) and communicate their current requirements to the host
context: Some non-standard USB devices use the 5 V power supply without participating in a proper USB network, which negotiates power draw with the host interface. These are usually called USB decorations.[citation needed] Examples include USB-powered keyboard lights, fans, mug coolers and heaters, battery chargers, miniature vacuum cleaners, and even miniature lava lamps. In most cases, these items contain no digital circuitry, and thus are not standard compliant USB devices. This may cause problems with some computers, such as drawing too much current and damaging circuitry. Prior to the Battery Charging Specification, the USB specification required that devices connect in a low-power mode (100 mA maximum) and communicate their current requirements to the host, which then permits the device to switch into high-power mode.

qas: question: How is the USB data transmitted?
answers: text: by toggling the data lines between the J state and the opposite K state

question: What does USB use to encode data?
answers: text: the NRZI line coding

question: To ensure a minimum density of signal transitions  remains in the bitsream, what does USB use?
answers: text: bit stuffing
context: USB data is transmitted by toggling the data lines between the J state and the opposite K state. USB encodes data using the NRZI line coding; a 0 bit is transmitted by toggling the data lines from J to K or vice versa, while a 1 bit is transmitted by leaving the data lines as-is. To ensure a minimum density of signal transitions remains in the bitstream, USB uses bit stuffing; an extra 0 bit is inserted into the data stream after any appearance of six consecutive 1 bits. Seven consecutive received 1 bits is always an error. USB 3.0 has introduced additional data transmission encodings.

qas: question: What is a USB packet's end called?
answers: text: EOP (end-of-packet)

question: What can skew due to hubs add?
answers: text: as much as one bit time before the SE0 of the end of packet

question: What can this extra bit result in?
answers: text: "bit stuff violation
context: A USB packet's end, called EOP (end-of-packet), is indicated by the transmitter driving 2 bit times of SE0 (D+ and D− both below max.) and 1 bit time of J state. After this, the transmitter ceases to drive the D+/D− lines and the aforementioned pull up resistors hold it in the J (idle) state. Sometimes skew due to hubs can add as much as one bit time before the SE0 of the end of packet. This extra bit can also result in a "bit stuff violation" if the six bits before it in the CRC are 1s. This bit should be ignored by receiver.

qas: question: What type of protocol is used for USB 2.0 devices during a reset?
answers: text: a special protocol

question: What is the special protocol during a USB 2.0 device reset called?
answers: text: chirping

question:  A device that is HS capable first connects as a what?
answers: text: an FS device (D+ pulled high)
context: USB 2.0 devices use a special protocol during reset, called chirping, to negotiate the high bandwidth mode with the host/hub. A device that is HS capable first connects as an FS device (D+ pulled high), but upon receiving a USB RESET (both D+ and D− driven LOW by host for 10 to 20 ms) it pulls the D− line high, known as chirp K. This indicates to the host that the device is high bandwidth. If the host/hub is also HS capable, it chirps (returns alternating J and K states on D− and D+ lines) letting the device know that the hub operates at high bandwidth. The device has to receive at least three sets of KJ chirps before it changes to high bandwidth terminations and begins high bandwidth signaling. Because USB 3.0 uses wiring separate and additional to that used by USB 2.0 and USB 1.x, such bandwidth negotiation is not required.

qas: question: Write operations to typical Hi-Speed hard drives can what?
answers: text: sustain rates of 25–30 MB/s,

question:  For USB 3.0, typical write speed is what?
answers: text: 70–90 MB/s

question: What is the read speed for USB 3.0?
answers: text: 90–110 MB/s
context: According to routine testing performed by CNet, write operations to typical Hi-Speed (USB 2.0) hard drives can sustain rates of 25–30 MB/s, while read operations are at 30–42 MB/s; this is 70% of the total available bus bandwidth. For USB 3.0, typical write speed is 70–90 MB/s, while read speed is 90–110 MB/s. Mask Tests, also known as Eye Diagram Tests, are used to determine the quality of a signal in the time domain. They are defined in the referenced document as part of the electrical test description for the high-speed (HS) mode at 480 Mbit/s.

qas: question: After the sync field, all packets are made of how many bit bytes?
answers: text: 8-bit bytes

question: How are the bit bytes transmitted?
answers: text: least-significant bit first

question: The first byte is what?
answers: text: a packet identifier (PID) byte
context: After the sync field, all packets are made of 8-bit bytes, transmitted least-significant bit first. The first byte is a packet identifier (PID) byte. The PID is actually 4 bits; the byte consists of the 4-bit PID followed by its bitwise complement. This redundancy helps detect errors. (Note also that a PID byte contains at most four consecutive 1 bits, and thus never needs bit-stuffing, even when combined with the final 1 bit in the sync byte. However, trailing 1 bits in the PID may require bit-stuffing within the first few bits of the payload.)

qas: question: Handshake packets consist of only a single what?
answers: text: PID byte

question: When are handshake packets generally sent?
answers: text: in response to data packets

question: What is provided by transmitting four bits that represent the packet type twice, in a single PID byte using complemented form?
answers: text: Error detection
context: Handshake packets consist of only a single PID byte, and are generally sent in response to data packets. Error detection is provided by transmitting four bits that represent the packet type twice, in a single PID byte using complemented form. Three basic types are ACK, indicating that data was successfully received, NAK, indicating that the data cannot be received and should be retried, and STALL, indicating that the device has an error condition and cannot transfer data until some corrective action (such as device initialization) occurs.

qas: question: IN and OUT tokens contain what?
answers: text: a seven-bit device number and four-bit function number

question: An IN token expects what?
answers: text: a response from a device

question: An OUT token is followed immediately by a what?
answers: text: DATAx frame
context: IN and OUT tokens contain a seven-bit device number and four-bit function number (for multifunction devices) and command the device to transmit DATAx packets, or receive the following DATAx packets, respectively. An IN token expects a response from a device. The response may be a NAK or STALL response, or a DATAx frame. In the latter case, the host issues an ACK handshake if appropriate. An OUT token is followed immediately by a DATAx frame. The device responds with ACK, NAK, NYET, or STALL, as appropriate.

qas: question:  a larger three-byte SPLIT token with a seven-bit hub number, 12 bits of control flags, and a five-bit CRC were created to do what?
answers: text: to perform split transactions

question:  Rather than tie up the high-bandwidth USB bus sending data to a slower USB device, what happens?
answers: text: the nearest high-bandwidth capable hub receives a SPLIT token followed by one or two USB packets at high bandwidth

question: How many bits of control flags did USB 2.0 add?
answers: text: 12 bits
context: USB 2.0 also added a larger three-byte SPLIT token with a seven-bit hub number, 12 bits of control flags, and a five-bit CRC. This is used to perform split transactions. Rather than tie up the high-bandwidth USB bus sending data to a slower USB device, the nearest high-bandwidth capable hub receives a SPLIT token followed by one or two USB packets at high bandwidth, performs the data transfer at full or low bandwidth, and provides the response at high bandwidth when prompted by a second SPLIT token.

qas: question: There are two basic forms of data packet, what are they?
answers: text: DATA0 and DATA1

question: A data packet must always be preceded by what?
answers: text: an address token

question: What is a data packet usually followed by?
answers: text: a handshake token from the receiver back to the transmitter
context: There are two basic forms of data packet, DATA0 and DATA1. A data packet must always be preceded by an address token, and is usually followed by a handshake token from the receiver back to the transmitter. The two packet types provide the 1-bit sequence number required by Stop-and-wait ARQ. If a USB host does not receive a response (such as an ACK) for data it has transmitted, it does not know if the data was received or not; the data might have been lost in transit, or it might have been received but the handshake response was lost.

qas: question: Low-bandwidth devices are supported with what?
answers: text: a special PID value, PRE

question: All PID bytes include how many 0 bits?
answers: text: four 0 bits

question:  Full-bandwidth devices other than hubs can what?
answers: text: simply ignore the PRE packet and its low-bandwidth contents
context: Low-bandwidth devices are supported with a special PID value, PRE. This marks the beginning of a low-bandwidth packet, and is used by hubs that normally do not send full-bandwidth packets to low-bandwidth devices. Since all PID bytes include four 0 bits, they leave the bus in the full-bandwidth K state, which is the same as the low-bandwidth J state. It is followed by a brief pause, during which hubs enable their low-bandwidth outputs, already idling in the J state. Then a low-bandwidth packet follows, beginning with a sync sequence and PID byte, and ending with a brief period of SE0. Full-bandwidth devices other than hubs can simply ignore the PRE packet and its low-bandwidth contents, until the final SE0 indicates that a new packet follows.

qas: question: These and other differences reflect the differing design goals of what?
answers: text: two buses

question: USB was designed for what?
answers: text: simplicity and low cost

question: FireWire was designed for what?
answers: text: high performance, particularly in time-sensitive applications such as audio and video

question: FireWire 400 is faster than what?
answers: text: USB 2.0 Hi-Bandwidth in real-use
context: These and other differences reflect the differing design goals of the two buses: USB was designed for simplicity and low cost, while FireWire was designed for high performance, particularly in time-sensitive applications such as audio and video. Although similar in theoretical maximum transfer rate, FireWire 400 is faster than USB 2.0 Hi-Bandwidth in real-use, especially in high-bandwidth use such as external hard-drives. The newer FireWire 800 standard is twice as fast as FireWire 400 and faster than USB 2.0 Hi-Bandwidth both theoretically and practically. However, Firewire's speed advantages rely on low-level techniques such as direct memory access (DMA), which in turn have created opportunities for security exploits such as the DMA attack.

qas: question: The IEEE 802.3af Power over Ethernet (PoE) standard specifies a what?
answers: text: more elaborate power negotiation scheme than powered USB

question: Is USB cheaper or more expensive than PoE?
answers: text: cheaper

question: What keeps USB cheaper than PoE?
answers: text: the distance is short, and power demand is low.
context: The IEEE 802.3af Power over Ethernet (PoE) standard specifies a more elaborate power negotiation scheme than powered USB. It operates at 48 V DC and can supply more power (up to 12.95 W, PoE+ 25.5 W) over a cable up to 100 meters compared to USB 2.0, which provides 2.5 W with a maximum cable length of 5 meters. This has made PoE popular for VoIP telephones, security cameras, wireless access points and other networked devices within buildings. However, USB is cheaper than PoE provided that the distance is short, and power demand is low.

qas: question: USB  was designed for peripherals to be what?
answers: text: closely associated with a host computer

question: USB connects what?
answers: text: the peripheral and host grounds

question: Ethernet standards require what?
answers: text: isolation between the networked device (computer, phone, etc.) and the network cable up to 1500 V AC or 2250 V DC for 60 seconds
context: Ethernet standards require electrical isolation between the networked device (computer, phone, etc.) and the network cable up to 1500 V AC or 2250 V DC for 60 seconds. USB has no such requirement as it was designed for peripherals closely associated with a host computer, and in fact it connects the peripheral and host grounds. This gives Ethernet a significant safety advantage over USB with peripherals such as cable and DSL modems connected to external wiring that can assume hazardous voltages under certain fault conditions.

qas: question: eSATA does not supply power to what?
answers: text: external devices

question: Even though USB 3.0's 4.5 W is sometimes insufficient to power external hard drives, technology is what?
answers: text: advancing and external drives gradually need less power

question: On a notebook eSATAp usually supplies how much power?
answers: text: 5 V to power a 2.5-inch HDD/SSD
context: eSATA does not supply power to external devices. This is an increasing disadvantage compared to USB. Even though USB 3.0's 4.5 W is sometimes insufficient to power external hard drives, technology is advancing and external drives gradually need less power, diminishing the eSATA advantage. eSATAp (power over eSATA; aka ESATA/USB) is a connector introduced in 2009 that supplies power to attached devices using a new, backward compatible, connector. On a notebook eSATAp usually supplies only 5 V to power a 2.5-inch HDD/SSD; on a desktop workstation it can additionally supply 12 V to power larger devices including 3.5-inch HDD/SSD and 5.25-inch optical drives.

qas: question: USB 2.0 High-Speed Inter-Chip (HSIC) is a what?
answers: text: chip-to-chip variant of USB 2.0

question: What does USB 2.0 High-Speed Inter-Chip eliminate?
answers: text: the conventional analog transceivers found in normal USB

question: When was the USB 2.0 High-Speed Inter-Chip adopted as the standard by the USB Implementers Forum
answers: text: 2007
context: USB 2.0 High-Speed Inter-Chip (HSIC) is a chip-to-chip variant of USB 2.0 that eliminates the conventional analog transceivers found in normal USB. It was adopted as a standard by the USB Implementers Forum in 2007. The HSIC physical layer uses about 50% less power and 75% less board area compared to traditional USB 2.0. HSIC uses two signals at 1.2 V and has a throughput of 480 Mbit/s. Maximum PCB trace length for HSIC is 10 cm. It does not have low enough latency to support RAM memory sharing between two chips.