Idealism

qas: question: What do idealist philosophies say is constructed in our minds?
answers: text: reality

question: What types of things are idealist philosophies skeptical about?
answers: text: mind-independent

question: Along with physicalist theories, what theories is idealism in conflict with?
answers: text: dualist

question: In sociology, what sorts of ideas does idealism focus on?
answers: text: beliefs and values

question: What processes do idealists say are constructed by reality?

question: Mind-independent things are taken for granted in what philosophy?

question: What theories does idealism crossover with?

question: What is dualism skeptical about?

question: Which type of human ideas is idealism uninterested in?
context: In philosophy, idealism is the group of philosophies which assert that reality, or reality as we can know it, is fundamentally mental, mentally constructed, or otherwise immaterial. Epistemologically, idealism manifests as a skepticism about the possibility of knowing any mind-independent thing. In a sociological sense, idealism emphasizes how human ideas—especially beliefs and values—shape society. As an ontological doctrine, idealism goes further, asserting that all entities are composed of mind or spirit. Idealism thus rejects physicalist and dualist theories that fail to ascribe priority to the mind.

qas: question: What Indian thinkers were early idealists?
answers: text: Hindu

question: What Greek philosophers had idealistic views?
answers: text: Neoplatonists

question: With what sect of Buddhism was the Yogācāra school affiliated?
answers: text: Mahayana

question: In what century did the Yogācāra school arise?
answers: text: 4th

question: What century did George Berkeley live in?
answers: text: 18th

question: When did Neoplatonists arise?

question: Who started the Yogacara school?

question: When did the Yogacara school end?

question: What type of Buddhism was common in Greece?

question: What practice where Neoplatonists arguing against?
context: The earliest extant arguments that the world of experience is grounded in the mental derive from India and Greece. The Hindu idealists in India and the Greek Neoplatonists gave panentheistic arguments for an all-pervading consciousness as the ground or true nature of reality. In contrast, the Yogācāra school, which arose within Mahayana Buddhism in India in the 4th century CE, based its "mind-only" idealism to a greater extent on phenomenological analyses of personal experience. This turn toward the subjective anticipated empiricists such as George Berkeley, who revived idealism in 18th-century Europe by employing skeptical arguments against materialism.

qas: question: What was the ethnicity of Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling?
answers: text: German

question: In what century did Hegel write?
answers: text: 19th

question: Along with British idealism and existentialism, what philosophy was influenced by the German idealistic tradition?
answers: text: phenomenalism

question: Along with positivism and pragmatism, what philosophy rejected idealism's metaphysical views but what nevertheless influenced by it?
answers: text: Marxism

question: Whose philosophy did Immanuel Kant write against?

question: What schools of thought were contrary to British idealism?

question: What was the name of the first British idealist?

question: Hegel wrote about what philosophy that rejected metaphysical assumptions?

question: When did Marxism dominate philosophy?
context: Beginning with Immanuel Kant, German idealists such as G. W. F. Hegel, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, and Arthur Schopenhauer dominated 19th-century philosophy. This tradition, which emphasized the mental or "ideal" character of all phenomena, gave birth to idealistic and subjectivist schools ranging from British idealism to phenomenalism to existentialism. The historical influence of this branch of idealism remains central even to the schools that rejected its metaphysical assumptions, such as Marxism, pragmatism and positivism.

qas: question: What does ἰδεῖν mean in English?
answers: text: to see

question: By what year was "idealism" a word in English?
answers: text: 1743

question: Whose worldview contrasts with that of idealists in the ordinary sense of the word?
answers: text: pragmatists

question: What language is ἰδεῖν?
answers: text: Greek

question: When did the Greek word idein mean to see?

question: Who was president in 1793?

question: What does the English word idein mean?

question: Idealists see the world the same way as what other philosophers?

question: How do pragmatists view the arts?
context: Idealism is a term with several related meanings. It comes via idea from the Greek idein (ἰδεῖν), meaning "to see". The term entered the English language by 1743. In ordinary use, as when speaking of Woodrow Wilson's political idealism, it generally suggests the priority of ideals, principles, values, and goals over concrete realities. Idealists are understood to represent the world as it might or should be, unlike pragmatists, who focus on the world as it presently is. In the arts, similarly, idealism affirms imagination and attempts to realize a mental conception of beauty, a standard of perfection, juxtaposed to aesthetic naturalism and realism.

qas: question: What is the term used for philosophies that consider the spiritual to be of paramount importance?
answers: text: idealist

question: What branch of idealism believes that reality is fundamentally nonphysical?
answers: text: Metaphysical

question: What branch of idealism sees abstracts as more real than perceived objects?
answers: text: Platonic

question: Along with phenomenalists, what idealists believe the senses are more important than reason?
answers: text: subjective

question: What branch of idealism believes that we can only know the real world via ideas?
answers: text: Epistemological

question: Philosophies that regard the spiritual realm highly cannot be called what?

question: What type of doctrine says reality is corporeal?

question: What aspects of the mental do idealists agree on?

question: Platonic idealism's understanding of abstractions is similar to what view?

question: What view believes ideas are irrelevant to the real world?
context: Any philosophy that assigns crucial importance to the ideal or spiritual realm in its account of human existence may be termed "idealist". Metaphysical idealism is an ontological doctrine that holds that reality itself is incorporeal or experiential at its core. Beyond this, idealists disagree on which aspects of the mental are more basic. Platonic idealism affirms that abstractions are more basic to reality than the things we perceive, while subjective idealists and phenomenalists tend to privilege sensory experience over abstract reasoning. Epistemological idealism is the view that reality can only be known through ideas, that only psychological experience can be apprehended by the mind.

qas: question: Who is a notable subjective idealist?
answers: text: George Berkeley

question: What famous philosopher was a transcendental idealist?
answers: text: Immanuel Kant

question: Who are subjective idealists opposed to?
answers: text: realists

question: Along with Plato, what notable philosopher rejected epistemological idealism?
answers: text: Gottfried Leibniz

question: Who believed the essence of reality to be composed of monads?
answers: text: Leibniz

question: What idealist is George Berkeley most similar to?

question: Berkeley defines idealism by saying we can never be sure of what?

question: What did Kant say reality needed to admit?

question: Who are subjective idealists in agreement with?

question: Who disagreed with Plato's rejection of epistemological idealism?
context: Subjective idealists like George Berkeley are anti-realists in terms of a mind-independent world, whereas transcendental idealists like Immanuel Kant are strong skeptics of such a world, affirming epistemological and not metaphysical idealism. Thus Kant defines idealism as "the assertion that we can never be certain whether all of our putative outer experience is not mere imagining". He claimed that, according to idealism, "the reality of external objects does not admit of strict proof. On the contrary, however, the reality of the object of our internal sense (of myself and state) is clear immediately through consciousness."  However, not all idealists restrict the real or the knowable to our immediate subjective experience. Objective idealists make claims about a transempirical world, but simply deny that this world is essentially divorced from or ontologically prior to the mental. Thus Plato and Gottfried Leibniz affirm an objective and knowable reality transcending our subjective awareness—a rejection of epistemological idealism—but propose that this reality is grounded in ideal entities, a form of metaphysical idealism. Nor do all metaphysical idealists agree on the nature of the ideal; for Plato, the fundamental entities were non-mental abstract forms, while for Leibniz they were proto-mental and concrete monads.

qas: question: In what philosophy was Christian idealism often rooted?
answers: text: Neoplatonism

question: What philosophy influential in the medieval church was opposed to Christian idealism?
answers: text: Aristotelian scholasticism

question: In what century did Christian thought begin to be influenced by the scholasticism of Aristotle?
answers: text: 12th

question: Along with the Unity Church, what contemporary religious movement may be regarded as idealist?
answers: text: New Thought

question: What notable idealist was responsible for a "world ground" theory?
answers: text: Hermann Lotze

question: When did Hermann Lotz offer his theories?

question: Aristotelian scholasticism often formed the basis of what kind of theologian?

question: Who founded New Thought Movement?

question: What form of idealism does the Unity church teach about reality?

question: What theory was rejected by Protestants?
context: Christian theologians have held idealist views, often based on Neoplatonism, despite the influence of Aristotelian scholasticism from the 12th century onward. Later western theistic idealism such as that of Hermann Lotze offers a theory of the "world ground" in which all things find their unity: it has been widely accepted by Protestant theologians. Several modern religious movements, for example the organizations within the New Thought Movement and the Unity Church, may be said to have a particularly idealist orientation. The theology of Christian Science includes a form of idealism: it teaches that all that truly exists is God and God's ideas; that the world as it appears to the senses is a distortion of the underlying spiritual reality, a distortion that may be corrected (both conceptually and in terms of human experience) through a reorientation (spiritualization) of thought.

qas: question: What was another term for forms in Plato's theory of forms?
answers: text: ideas

question: Who regarded Plato as the oldest exponent of metaphysical objective idealism?
answers: text: Simone Klein

question: What sort of dualist is Plato regarded as?
answers: text: metaphysical and epistemological

question: What branch of physics might support a worldview similar to Platonic dualism?
answers: text: quantum

question: What does Plato say are dependent?

question: How does Arne Gron's theory of forms say ideal forms exist?

question: Modern idealism believes in what two kinds of dualism?

question: What type of physics did Simone Klein study?

question: Quantum physics disagrees with what philosopher?
context: Plato's theory of forms or "ideas" describes ideal forms (for example the platonic solids in geometry or abstracts like Goodness and Justice), as universals existing independently of any particular instance. Arne Grøn calls this doctrine "the classic example of a metaphysical idealism as a transcendent idealism", while Simone Klein calls Plato "the earliest representative of metaphysical objective idealism". Nevertheless, Plato holds that matter is real, though transitory and imperfect, and is perceived by our body and its senses and given existence by the eternal ideas that are perceived directly by our rational soul. Plato was therefore a metaphysical and epistemological dualist, an outlook that modern idealism has striven to avoid: Plato's thought cannot therefore be counted as idealist in the modern sense, although quantum physics' assertion that man's consciousness is an immutable and primary requisite for not merely perceiving but shaping matter, and thus his reality, would give more credence to Plato's dualist position.[citation needed]

qas: question: What sort of philosopher was Plotinus?
answers: text: neoplatonist

question: According to Noiré, who was the first true Western idealist?
answers: text: Plotinus

question: What issue did Schopenhauer discuss that Plotinus did not?
answers: text: whether we know external objects

question: What did the Enneads believe might not have existence outside of the soul?
answers: text: Time

question: What type of philosopher was Nathaniel Alfred Boll?

question: Who was one of the Enneads?

question: What modern philosopher as Plotinus similar to?

question: Who said time existed outside of the soul?

question: Boll taught that the soul made the world by doing what?
context: With the neoplatonist Plotinus, wrote Nathaniel Alfred Boll; "there even appears, probably for the first time in Western philosophy, idealism that had long been current in the East even at that time, for it taught... that the soul has made the world by stepping from eternity into time...". Similarly, in regard to passages from the Enneads, "The only space or place of the world is the soul" and "Time must not be assumed to exist outside the soul", Ludwig Noiré wrote: "For the first time in Western philosophy we find idealism proper in Plotinus, However, Plotinus does not address whether we know external objects, unlike Schopenhauer and other modern philosophers.

qas: question: Along with phenomenalism, what is another term for subjective idealism?
answers: text: immaterialism

question: Of what see was Berkeley bishop?
answers: text: Cloyne

question: What was Berkeley's ethnicity?
answers: text: Anglo-Irish

question: What does esse est percipi mean?
answers: text: to be is to be perceived

question: What did Berkeley consider things like matter to be?
answers: text: abstractions

question: Who coined the term subjective idealism?

question: What philosophies run counter to subjective idealism?

question: What is another word for sense data?

question: What is the Latin phrase meaning subjective idealism?

question: What do not need to be perceived to exist?
context: Subjective Idealism (immaterialism or phenomenalism) describes a relationship between experience and the world in which objects are no more than collections or "bundles" of sense data in the perceiver. Proponents include Berkeley, Bishop of Cloyne, an Anglo-Irish philosopher who advanced a theory he called immaterialism, later referred to as "subjective idealism", contending that individuals can only know sensations and ideas of objects directly, not abstractions such as "matter", and that ideas also depend upon being perceived for their very existence - esse est percipi; "to be is to be perceived".

qas: question: Who was known as the "Cambridge Platonist"?
answers: text: John Norris

question: Who was notably influenced by John Norris?
answers: text: Arthur Collier

question: When was An Essay Towards the Theory of the Ideal or Intelligible World written?
answers: text: 1701

question: What sort of reality did Collier believe was knowable?
answers: text: represented image of an external object

question: What did Collier write?

question: When did Collier publish his ideas?

question: What was Collier's nickname?

question: Who did Collier influence?

question: How many contemporary writers did Collier have?
context: Arthur Collier published similar assertions though there seems to have been no influence between the two contemporary writers. The only knowable reality is the represented image of an external object. Matter as a cause of that image, is unthinkable and therefore nothing to us. An external world as absolute matter unrelated to an observer does not exist as far as we are concerned. The universe cannot exist as it appears if there is no perceiving mind. Collier was influenced by An Essay Towards the Theory of the Ideal or Intelligible World by "Cambridge Platonist" John Norris (1701).

qas: question: Who coined the term "thing-in-itself"?
answers: text: Immanuel Kant

question: Who invented the idea of a "table-of-commonsense"?
answers: text: Sir Arthur Eddington

question: Who came up with the idea of "things-as-interacted-by-us"?
answers: text: Arthur Fine

question: Who spoke of the "warning signs" of idealism?
answers: text: Musgrave

question: What sort of philosopher was Richard Rorty?
answers: text: Postmodernist

question: Who did Richard Rorty criticize?

question: What hyphenated term did Musgrave coin?

question: What did Immanuel Kant call warning signs?

question: Who argued against issues of hermeneutics?

question: What kind of philosopher was Musgrave?
context: and proliferation of hyphenated entities such as "thing-in-itself" (Immanuel Kant), "things-as-interacted-by-us" (Arthur Fine), "table-of-commonsense" and "table-of-physics" (Sir Arthur Eddington) which are "warning signs" for conceptual idealism according to Musgrave because they allegedly do not exist but only highlight the numerous ways in which people come to know the world. This argument does not take into account the issues pertaining to hermeneutics, especially at the backdrop of analytic philosophy. Musgrave criticized Richard Rorty and Postmodernist philosophy in general for confusion of use and mention.

qas: question: What sort of thinkers were Foster and Luce?
answers: text: subjectivists

question: What book was written by A.A. Luce?
answers: text: Sense without Matter

question: What year saw the publication of Sense without Matter?
answers: text: 1954

question: Who wrote A World for Us: The Case for Phenomenalistic Idealism?
answers: text: Foster

question: Whose work is Sense without Matter regarded as updating?
answers: text: Berkeley

question: When was The Case for Idealism published?

question: What did Berkeley write in 1954?

question: What aspect of Berkeley's writing did Foster modernize?

question: What did Foster publish after A World For Us?

question: Whose work does Foster update?
context: A. A. Luce and John Foster are other subjectivists. Luce, in Sense without Matter (1954), attempts to bring Berkeley up to date by modernizing his vocabulary and putting the issues he faced in modern terms, and treats the Biblical account of matter and the psychology of perception and nature. Foster's The Case for Idealism argues that the physical world is the logical creation of natural, non-logical constraints on human sense-experience. Foster's latest defense of his views is in his book A World for Us: The Case for Phenomenalistic Idealism.

qas: question: What school of thought did Berkeley belong to?
answers: text: Subjective Idealism

question: What sort of idealist was Descartes?
answers: text: Sceptical

question: In what section was Descartes criticized?
answers: text: Paralogisms of Pure Reason

question: In what edition was there a Refutation of Idealism?
answers: text: 2nd

question: When was the second edition published?
answers: text: 1787

question: What does Descartes say is impossible?

question: What Latin phrase did Kant coin?

question: When did Locke publish his ideas?

question: The 2nd edition merged its ideas with which two forms of thought?

question: What was Descartes' nationality?
context: The 2nd edition (1787) contained a Refutation of Idealism to distinguish his transcendental idealism from Descartes's Sceptical Idealism and Berkeley's anti-realist strain of Subjective Idealism. The section Paralogisms of Pure Reason is an implicit critique of Descartes' idealism. Kant says that it is not possible to infer the 'I' as an object (Descartes' cogito ergo sum) purely from "the spontaneity of thought". Kant focused on ideas drawn from British philosophers such as Locke, Berkeley and Hume but distinguished his transcendental or critical idealism from previous varieties;

qas: question: Who wrote Parerga and Paralipomena?
answers: text: Schopenhauer

question: According to Schopenhauer, to what can the ideal be attributed?
answers: text: our own minds

question: What did Schopenhauer believe we were restricted to?
answers: text: our own consciousness

question: What did Schopenhauer believe were the only things we could know?
answers: text: representations

question: What type of knowledge did Schopenhauer believe the ideal to be?
answers: text: subjective

question: What essay is in Schopenhauer's second volume?

question: What are we unrestricted by?

question: How are external objects known directly?

question: What constitutes mental pictures?

question: Schopenhauer said the ideal was not what type of knowledge?
context: In the first volume of his Parerga and Paralipomena, Schopenhauer wrote his "Sketch of a History of the Doctrine of the Ideal and the Real". He defined the ideal as being mental pictures that constitute subjective knowledge. The ideal, for him, is what can be attributed to our own minds. The images in our head are what comprise the ideal. Schopenhauer emphasized that we are restricted to our own consciousness. The world that appears is only a representation or mental picture of objects. We directly and immediately know only representations. All objects that are external to the mind are known indirectly through the mediation of our mind. He offered a history of the concept of the "ideal" as "ideational" or "existing in the mind as an image".

qas: question: Who censured Kant for his agnostic tautology?
answers: text: Friedrich Nietzsche

question: Along with Schopenhauer, whose idealism did Nietzsche attack?
answers: text: Descartes

question: Nietzsche's attack on Schopenhauer used an argument similar to Kant's attack on who?
answers: text: Descartes

question: What kind of error did Kant say Nietzsche's argument had?

question: Which two philosophers did Nietzsche agree with?

question: Who argued that Nietzsche's theory of the world was wrong?

question: What did Kant ridicule Nietzsche for?

question: Who did Kant agree with?
context: Friedrich Nietzsche argued that Kant commits an agnostic tautology and does not offer a satisfactory answer as to the source of a philosophical right to such-or-other metaphysical claims; he ridicules his pride in tackling "the most difficult thing that could ever be undertaken on behalf of metaphysics." The famous "thing-in-itself" was called a product of philosophical habit, which seeks to introduce a grammatical subject: because wherever there is cognition, there must be a thing that is cognized and allegedly it must be added to ontology as a being (whereas, to Nietzsche, only the world as ever changing appearances can be assumed). Yet he attacks the idealism of Schopenhauer and Descartes with an argument similar to Kant's critique of the latter (see above).

qas: question: According to Hegel, what sort of idealist was Fichte?
answers: text: transcendental

question: Who did Hegel see as a subjective idealist?
answers: text: Berkeley

question: What sort of idealist did Hegel define himself as?
answers: text: Absolute

question: How did Hegel believe historical reality to be knowable to a philosopher?
answers: text: exercise of reason and intellect

question: Which two philosophers held to subjective idealism?

question: Kant and Fichte critiqued what?

question: How did Berkeley comprehend existence?

question: What prevents a philosopher from knowing reality?

question: How did Berkeley label his own idealism?
context: Absolute idealism is G. W. F. Hegel's account of how existence is comprehensible as an all-inclusive whole. Hegel called his philosophy "absolute" idealism in contrast to the "subjective idealism" of Berkeley and the "transcendental idealism" of Kant and Fichte, which were not based on a critique of the finite and a dialectical philosophy of history as Hegel's idealism was. The exercise of reason and intellect enables the philosopher to know ultimate historical reality, the phenomenological constitution of self-determination, the dialectical development of self-awareness and personality in the realm of History.

qas: question: When was Science of Logic written?
answers: text: 1812–1814

question: Who was the author of Science of Logic?
answers: text: Hegel

question: Why did Hegel believe natural things are less real than spiritual things?
answers: text: less self-determining

question: Along with God and morally responsible people, what is an example of a spiritual thing to Hegel?
answers: text: ethical communities

question: What is an example of a school of thought Hegel believed to be wrong?
answers: text: materialism

question: Why did Hegel argue that finite qualities were real?

question: When was Hegel born?

question: When did Hegel die?

question: Which doctrine did Hegel support?

question: What are examples of natural things?
context: In his Science of Logic (1812–1814) Hegel argues that finite qualities are not fully "real" because they depend on other finite qualities to determine them. Qualitative infinity, on the other hand, would be more self-determining and hence more fully real. Similarly finite natural things are less "real"—because they are less self-determining—than spiritual things like morally responsible people, ethical communities and God. So any doctrine, such as materialism, that asserts that finite qualities or natural objects are fully real is mistaken.

qas: question: In Hegel's thought, what inner reality is possessed by both subject and object?
answers: text: Spirit

question: What is another term for Hegel's "subject"?
answers: text: any human observer

question: What does Hegel mean by "object"?
answers: text: any external entity

question: What does Spirit turn into when a person arrives at self-realization?
answers: text: Absolute Spirit

question: Who did Tucker argue that Hegel's philosophy involved the worship of?
answers: text: self

question: Which of Kant's ideas did Hegel reject?

question: What did Kant believe was necessary to know an object?

question: Who believed a metaphysical inner reality was necessary?

question: An Absolute Spirit graduates to what status?

question: What did Tucker try to preserve?
context: Hegel certainly intends to preserve what he takes to be true of German idealism, in particular Kant's insistence that ethical reason can and does go beyond finite inclinations. For Hegel there must be some identity of thought and being for the "subject" (any human observer)) to be able to know any observed "object" (any external entity, possibly even another human) at all. Under Hegel's concept of "subject-object identity," subject and object both have Spirit (Hegel's ersatz, redefined, nonsupernatural "God") as their conceptual (not metaphysical) inner reality—and in that sense are identical. But until Spirit's "self-realization" occurs and Spirit graduates from Spirit to Absolute Spirit status, subject (a human mind) mistakenly thinks every "object" it observes is something "alien," meaning something separate or apart from "subject." In Hegel's words, "The object is revealed to it [to "subject"] by [as] something alien, and it does not recognize itself." Self-realization occurs when Hegel (part of Spirit's nonsupernatural Mind, which is the collective mind of all humans) arrives on the scene and realizes that every "object" is himself, because both subject and object are essentially Spirit. When self-realization occurs and Spirit becomes Absolute Spirit, the "finite" (man, human) becomes the "infinite" ("God," divine), replacing the imaginary or "picture-thinking" supernatural God of theism: man becomes God. Tucker puts it this way: "Hegelianism . . . is a religion of self-worship whose fundamental theme is given in Hegel's image of the man who aspires to be God himself, who demands 'something more, namely infinity.'" The picture Hegel presents is "a picture of a self-glorifying humanity striving compulsively, and at the end successfully, to rise to divinity."

qas: question: Who was a notable critic of Hegel?
answers: text: Kierkegaard

question: For whom did Kierkegaard argue reality cannot be a system?
answers: text: human

question: According to Kierkegaard, why can't reality be a system for human beings?
answers: text: humans are incomplete

question: Even though Kierkegaard does not believe in the possibility of an existential system of reality, what sort of system can exist?
answers: text: logical

question: Whose work did Hegel criticize?

question: What does Kierkegaard blur the lines between?

question: Why did Kierkegaard believe humans could have a system for reality?

question: Kierkegaard said a logical system and what other system was possible?

question: What did Kierkegaard say could explain all of reality?
context: Kierkegaard criticised Hegel's idealist philosophy in several of his works, particularly his claim to a comprehensive system that could explain the whole of reality. Where Hegel argues that an ultimate understanding of the logical structure of the world is an understanding of the logical structure of God's mind, Kierkegaard asserting that for God reality can be a system but it cannot be so for any human individual because both reality and humans are incomplete and all philosophical systems imply completeness. A logical system is possible but an existential system is not. "What is rational is actual; and what is actual is rational". Hegel's absolute idealism blurs the distinction between existence and thought: our mortal nature places limits on our understanding of reality;

qas: question: Who wrote Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences?
answers: text: Hegel

question: When was Phenomenology of Spirit published?
answers: text: 1807

question: What trait did Climacus believe that Hegel suppressed?
answers: text: individuality

question: Whose will did Hegel believe should prevail over that of the individual?
answers: text: State

question: What conception of right and wrong did Climacus believe Hegel endorsed?
answers: text: bourgeois

question: When was Philosophy of Right published?

question: What did Climacus write?

question: What term did Hegel coin?

question: Which of Hegel's ideas did Climacus accept?

question: When was Climacus's criticism of Hegel published?
context: A major concern of Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit (1807) and of the philosophy of Spirit that he lays out in his Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences (1817–1830) is the interrelation between individual humans, which he conceives in terms of "mutual recognition." However, what Climacus means by the aforementioned statement, is that Hegel, in the Philosophy of Right, believed the best solution was to surrender one's individuality to the customs of the State, identifying right and wrong in view of the prevailing bourgeois morality. Individual human will ought, at the State's highest level of development, to properly coincide with the will of the State. Climacus rejects Hegel's suppression of individuality by pointing out it is impossible to create a valid set of rules or system in any society which can adequately describe existence for any one individual. Submitting one's will to the State denies personal freedom, choice, and responsibility.

qas: question: What sort of reality did Hegel perceive God's mind to be?
answers: text: ultimate

question: Along with Hegel, who also argued for human incompleteness?
answers: text: Kierkegaard

question: According to Hegel, what form does thought necessarily take?
answers: text: abstraction

question: Why does Hegel believe we cannot know God?
answers: text: we are finite beings

question: If something transcends time, what does it, according to Hegel, also transcend?
answers: text: human understanding

question: Hegel believes we cannot know what structure?

question: Who argued against Hegel's assertion for human incompleteness?

question: Kierkegaard eliminated the distinction between what two studies?

question: What is always a form of thought?

question: What does not transcend human understanding according to Hegel?
context: In addition, Hegel does believe we can know the structure of God's mind, or ultimate reality. Hegel agrees with Kierkegaard that both reality and humans are incomplete, inasmuch as we are in time, and reality develops through time. But the relation between time and eternity is outside time and this is the "logical structure" that Hegel thinks we can know. Kierkegaard disputes this assertion, because it eliminates the clear distinction between ontology and epistemology. Existence and thought are not identical and one cannot possibly think existence. Thought is always a form of abstraction, and thus not only is pure existence impossible to think, but all forms in existence are unthinkable; thought depends on language, which merely abstracts from experience, thus separating us from lived experience and the living essence of all beings. In addition, because we are finite beings, we cannot possibly know or understand anything that is universal or infinite such as God, so we cannot know God exists, since that which transcends time simultaneously transcends human understanding.

qas: question: Who wrote The Refutation of Idealism?
answers: text: Moore

question: In his rejection of idealism, whose thought did Moore attack?
answers: text: Bradley

question: Who originated the saying 'esse est percipi'?
answers: text: Berkeley

question: What did Bradley write?

question: What did Bradley say Moore did not understand?

question: What Latin phrase did Moore coin?

question: What argument did Moore validate?

question: Who did Bradley target?
context: Bradley was the apparent target of G. E. Moore's radical rejection of idealism. Moore claimed that Bradley did not understand the statement that something is real. We know for certain, through common sense and prephilosophical beliefs, that some things are real, whether they are objects of thought or not, according to Moore. The 1903 article The Refutation of Idealism is one of the first demonstrations of Moore's commitment to analysis. He examines each of the three terms in the Berkeleian aphorism esse est percipi, "to be is to be perceived", finding that it must mean that the object and the subject are necessarily connected so that "yellow" and "the sensation of yellow" are identical - "to be yellow" is "to be experienced as yellow". But it also seems there is a difference between "yellow" and "the sensation of yellow" and "that esse is held to be percipi, solely because what is experienced is held to be identical with the experience of it". Though far from a complete refutation, this was the first strong statement by analytic philosophy against its idealist predecessors, or at any rate against the type of idealism represented by Berkeley. This argument did not show that the GEM (in post–Stove vernacular, see below) is logically invalid.

qas: question: Who is a notable exponent of pluralistic idealism?
answers: text: Gottfried Leibniz

question: What is the term for the type of idealism preached by Leibniz?
answers: text: Panpsychism

question: What did Leibniz believe the universe is fundamentally composed of?
answers: text: monads

question: Who was a notable disciple of Leibniz?
answers: text: James Ward

question: What does Ward see as the purpose of interaction between monads?
answers: text: self- betterment

question: What form of thought rejected Leibniz's cosmology?

question: What was Leibniz's nationality?

question: Who did James Ward inspire?

question: What form of idealism did Ward create?

question: Pluralistic idealism assumes the absolute in the same way what other form of idealism does?
context: Pluralistic idealism such as that of Gottfried Leibniz takes the view that there are many individual minds that together underlie the existence of the observed world and make possible the existence of the physical universe. Unlike absolute idealism, pluralistic idealism does not assume the existence of a single ultimate mental reality or "Absolute". Leibniz' form of idealism, known as Panpsychism, views "monads" as the true atoms of the universe and as entities having perception. The monads are "substantial forms of being",elemental, individual, subject to their own laws, non-interacting, each reflecting the entire universe. Monads are centers of force, which is substance while space, matter and motion are phenomenal and their form and existence is dependent on the simple and immaterial monads. There is a pre-established harmony established by God, the central monad, between the world in the minds of the monads and the external world of objects. Leibniz's cosmology embraced traditional Christian Theism. The English psychologist and philosopher James Ward inspired by Leibniz had also defended a form of pluralistic idealism. According to Ward the universe is composed of "psychic monads" of different levels, interacting for mutual self- betterment.

qas: question: Who was an exponent of so-called "Boston Personalism"?
answers: text: Bowne

question: What was the term given to the personal idealism of Howison?
answers: text: California Personalism

question: Who is a notable realistic personal theist?
answers: text: Saint Thomas Aquinas

question: What issue do both Aquinas and Brightman discuss?
answers: text: dependence upon an infinite personal God

question: What sort of freedom did Howison believe was incompatible with materialism?
answers: text: moral

question: California Personalism is the same as what personalism by Bowne?

question: What two idealists took a realistic perspective?

question: What theist did Howison agree with?

question: What did Bowne believe was contrary to moral freedom?

question: Howison said materialism was compatible with moral what? 
context: Howison's personal idealism  was also called "California Personalism" by others to distinguish it from the "Boston Personalism" which was of Bowne. Howison maintained that both impersonal, monistic idealism and materialism run contrary to the experience of moral freedom. To deny freedom to pursue truth, beauty, and "benignant love" is to undermine every profound human venture, including science, morality, and philosophy. Personalistic idealists Borden Parker Bowne and Edgar S. Brightman and realistic personal theist Saint Thomas Aquinas address a core issue, namely that of dependence upon an infinite personal God.

qas: question: With what university is J.M.E. McTaggart affiliated?
answers: text: Cambridge

question: In what year was The Nature of Existence published?
answers: text: 1927

question: According to McTaggart, what are the only things that have real existence?
answers: text: minds

question: How does McTaggart believe minds relate to one another?
answers: text: love

question: What does McTaggart believe space and time to be?
answers: text: unreal

question: When was The Unreality of Time published?

question: In what publication did McTaggart argue space, time, and matter were real?

question: Who said minds can only relate through time?

question: What did McTaggart say metaphysics was relevant for?

question: Who did McTaggart say was best prepared to use their philosophy to decide how to vote?
context: J. M. E. McTaggart of Cambridge University, argued that minds alone exist and only relate to each other through love. Space, time and material objects are unreal. In The Unreality of Time he argued that time is an illusion because it is impossible to produce a coherent account of a sequence of events. The Nature of Existence (1927) contained his arguments that space, time, and matter cannot possibly be real. In his Studies in Hegelian Cosmology (Cambridge, 1901, p196) he declared that metaphysics are not relevant to social and political action. McTaggart "thought that Hegel was wrong in supposing that metaphysics could show that the state is more than a means to the good of the individuals who compose it". For McTaggart "philosophy can give us very little, if any, guidance in action... Why should a Hegelian citizen be surprised that his belief as to the organic nature of the Absolute does not help him in deciding how to vote? Would a Hegelian engineer be reasonable in expecting that his belief that all matter is spirit should help him in planning a bridge?

qas: question: What was the name of the philosophy preached by Thomas Davidson?
answers: text: apeirotheism

question: What type of idealism was Thomas Davidson's philosophy?
answers: text: pluralistic

question: According to Davidson, how many gods are there?
answers: text: infinite

question: By whose philosophy was Davidson influenced?
answers: text: Aristotle

question: What did Davidson believe the God of Aristotle is synonymous with?
answers: text: rational thought

question: What was Aristotle's pluralism based on?

question: How many Souls did Aristotle say there were?

question: Davidson's argument that God cannot exist apart from the world matched whose argument?

question: Apeirotheism was pluralistic idealism without what?

question: What did Davidson say God was antonymous to in Aristotle's works?
context: Thomas Davidson taught a philosophy called "apeirotheism", a "form of pluralistic idealism...coupled with a stern ethical rigorism" which he defined as "a theory of Gods infinite in number." The theory was indebted to Aristotle's pluralism and his concepts of Soul, the rational, living aspect of a living substance which cannot exist apart from the body because it is not a substance but an essence, and nous, rational thought, reflection and understanding. Although a perennial source of controversy, Aristotle arguably views the latter as both eternal and immaterial in nature, as exemplified in his theology of unmoved movers. Identifying Aristotle's God with rational thought, Davidson argued, contrary to Aristotle, that just as the soul cannot exist apart from the body, God cannot exist apart from the world.

qas: question: Among what twentieth century scientists was idealism popular?
answers: text: physicists

question: Along with quantum physics generally, what scientific doctrine caused some physicists to embrace idealism?
answers: text: relativity

question: In what year was the second edition of The Grammar of Science published?
answers: text: 1900

question: What did Pearson claim that science classifies?
answers: text: contents of the mind

question: Who is claimed to have been influenced by The Grammar of Science?
answers: text: Einstein

question: When did idealism fall out of practice?

question: What did the theory of relativity first appear in?

question: When did Einstein publish The Grammar of Science?

question: Who was influenced by Einstein?

question: What did Einstein say science is?
context: Idealist notions took a strong hold among physicists of the early 20th century confronted with the paradoxes of quantum physics and the theory of relativity. In The Grammar of Science, Preface to the 2nd Edition, 1900, Karl Pearson wrote, "There are many signs that a sound idealism is surely replacing, as a basis for natural philosophy, the crude materialism of the older physicists." This book influenced Einstein's regard for the importance of the observer in scientific measurements[citation needed]. In § 5 of that book, Pearson asserted that "...science is in reality a classification and analysis of the contents of the mind...." Also, "...the field of science is much more consciousness than an external world."

qas: question: How do receive information from the physical world?
answers: text: messages transmitted along the nerves to the seat of consciousness

question: What type of consciousness is similar but not identical to consciousness itself?
answers: text: subconsciousness

question: What is the nature of the fundamental character of reality?
answers: text: mental

question: According to the author, who would have particular trouble in accepting that reality is fundamentally mental?
answers: text: physicist

question: What is the main thing that we experience?
answers: text: mind

question: What is more general that mind-stuff of the world?

question: How is mind-stuff spread?

question: What is sharply defined?

question: What does the matter-of-fact physicist easily accept?

question: What is the cyclic scheme transmitted by?
context: "The mind-stuff of the world is, of course, something more general than our individual conscious minds.... The mind-stuff is not spread in space and time; these are part of the cyclic scheme ultimately derived out of it.... It is necessary to keep reminding ourselves that all knowledge of our environment from which the world of physics is constructed, has entered in the form of messages transmitted along the nerves to the seat of consciousness.... Consciousness is not sharply defined, but fades into subconsciousness; and beyond that we must postulate something indefinite but yet continuous with our mental nature.... It is difficult for the matter-of-fact physicist to accept the view that the substratum of everything is of mental character. But no one can deny that mind is the first and most direct thing in our experience, and all else is remote inference."